CHAPTER VI.  NATURAL HISTORY OF CHINA

The succinct account of the natural history of China given by Sir John Davis in lS^i^, contained nearly all the popular notices of much value then known, and need not be repeated, while summarizing the items derived from other and later sources. Malte-Brun observed long ago, ” That of even the more general, and, according to the usual estimate, the more important features of that vast sovereignty, we owe whatever knowledge we have obtained to some ambassadors who have seen the courts and the great roads—to certain merchants who have inhabited a suburb of a frontier town—and to several missionaries who, generally more credulous than discriminating, have contrived to penetrate in various directions into the interior.”

The volumes upon China in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library contain the best digest of what was known forty years since on this subject. The botanical collections of Robert Fortune in 18-14-1849, and those of Col. Champion at Hongkong, have been studied by Bentham, while the later researches of Hance, Bunge and Maximowitch have brought many new forms tc notice. In geology, Pumpelly, Ivingsinill, Bickmore, and Bai-on Richthofen have greatly enlarged and certiiied our knowledge by their travels and memoirs ; while Pere David, Col. Prejevalsky, Swinhoe, Stimpson, and Sir John Richardson have added hundreds of new species to the scientific fauna of the Empire.

GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 297

Personal investigation is particularly necessary in all that relates to the geology and fossils of a country, and the knowledge possessed on these heads is, it must be conceded, still meagre, though now sufficient to convey a general idea of the formations, deposits, and contents of the mountains and mines, as well as the agencies at work in modifying the surface of this land. The descriptions and observed facts recorded in native books may furnish valuable hints when they can be compared with the places and productions, for at present the difficulty of explaining terms used, and understanding the processes described, render these treatises hard to translate. The empirical character of Chinese science compels a careful sifting of all its facts and speculations by comparisons with nature, while the amount of real information contained in medical, topographical, and itinerant works render them always worth examining. Large regions still await careful examination in every part of the Empire ; and it will be m’ell for the Chinese Government if no tempting metallic deposits are found to test its strength to protect and work them for its own benefit. But in mere science it cannot be doubted that so peculiar a part of the world as the plateau of Central Asia will, when thoroughly examined, solve many problems relating to geology, and disclose many important facts to illustrate the obscure phenomena of other parts of the world.

A few notices of geolooical formations furnished in the waitings of travelers, have already been given in the geographical account of the provinces. The summaiy published by Davis is a well digested survey of the observations collected by the gentlemen attached to the embassies.’

The loess-beds, covering a great portion of Northern China, are among the most peculiar natural phenomena and interesting fields for o;eoloo;ical investigation on the world’s surface. Since attention was first directed to this deposit by Pumpelly, in 18G4, its formation and extent have been more carefully examined by other geologists, whose hypotheses are now pretty generally discarded for that of Baron von Eichthofen. The loess territory begins, at its eastern limit, with the foot hills of the great alluvial plane. From this rises a terrace of from 90 to 250 feet in height, consisting entirely of hjess, and westward of it, in 1 The Chinese, Vol. II., pp. 333-343.

a nearly north and south line, stretches the TaihangShan or dividing range between the alluvial land and the hill (tountrj of Shansi. An almost uninterrupted loess-covered country extends west of this line to the Koko-nor and head-waters of the Yellow River. On the north the formation can he ti’aced from the vicinity of Ivalgan, along the water-shed of the Mongolian steppes, and into the desert beyond the Ala shan. Toward the south its limits are less sharply defined ; though covering all the country of the Wei basin (in Shensi), none is found in Sz’chuen, due south of this valley, but it appears in parts of Ilonan and Eastern Shantung. Excepting occasional spurs and isolated spots—as at Xanking and the Lakes Poyang and Tungting—

loess may be considered as ending everywhere on the north side of the Yangzi valley, and, roughly speaking, to cover the parallelogram between longs. 99° and 115°, and lats.

33° and 41°. The district within China Proper represents a territory half as large again as that of the German Empire, while outside of the Provinces there is reason to believe that loess spreads far toward the east and north. In the WuTaiShan (Shanxi), Richthofen observed this deposit to a height of 7200 feet above the sea, and supposes that it may occur at higher levels.

LOESS-BEDS OF ISTORTIIERX CHINA. 299

The term loess, now generally accepted, has been used to designate a tertiary deposit appearing in the Illiine valley and several isolated sections of Eurt)pe ; its formation has heretofore been ascribed to glaciers, but its enormous extent and thickness in China demand suine other origin. The substance is a brownish colored earth, extremely porous, and when dry easily powdered between the fingers, when it becomes an impalpable (lust that may be rubbed into the pores of the skin. Its particles are somewhat angular in shape, the lumps varying from the size of a peamit to a foot in length, whose appearance warrants the peculiarly appropriate Chinese name meaning ‘ ginger stones.’_{(‘ Journal of the Oeolog. Soc, Loudon, for 1871, p. 379.)} After washing, the stuff is readily disintegrated, and spread far and wide by rivers during their freshets ; Ivingsmill’ states that a nimiber of specimens which crumbled in the moist air of a Shanghai summer, rearranged themselves afterward in the bottom of a drawer in which they had been phiced. Every atom of loess is perforated by small tubes, usually very minute, circulating after the manner of root-fibres, and lined with a thin coating of carbonate of lime. The direction of these little canals being always from above downward, cleavage in the loess mass, in-espective of its size, is invariably vertical, while from the same cause surface water never collects in the form of rain puddles or lakes, but sinks at once to the local water level.

One of the most striking, as well as important phenomena of this formation is the perpendicular splitting of its mass into sudden and multitudinous clefts that cut up the country in every direction, and render observation, as well as travel, often exceedingly difficult. The clifPs, caused by erosion, vary from cracks measured by inches to canons half a mile wide and hundreds of feet deep ; they branch out in every direction, ramifying through the country after the manner of tree-roots in the

soil—from each root a rootlet, and from these other small

fibres—until the system of passages develops into a labyrinth of

far-reaching and intermingling lanes. Were the loess throughout

of the uniform structure seen in single clefts, such a region

would itideed be absolutely imj^assable, the vertical banks

becoming precipices of often more tlian a thousand feet. The

fact, however, that loess exhibits all over a terrace formation,

renders its surface not only habitable, but highly convenient

for agricultural purposes; it has given rise, moreover, to the

theory advanced by Kingsmill and some otliers, of its stratification,

and from this a proof of its origin as a marine deposit.

Richthofen argues that these apparent layers of loess are due

to external conditions, as of rocks and debris sliding from surrounding hillsides upon the loess as it sifted into the basin or

valley, thus interrupting the homogeneity of the gradually rising

deposit. In the sides of gorges near the mountains are seen

layers of coarse debris which, in going toward the valley, become

finer, while the layei’s themselves are thinner and separated

by an increasing vertical distance ; along these rubble

beds are numerous calcareous concretions which stand upright.

These are then the terrace-forming layers which, by their

resistance to tlie action of water, cause the broken chasms and

step-like contour of the loess regions. Each bank does indeed

cleave vertically, sometimes—since the erosion works from below—

leaving an overhanging bank ; but meeting with this

horizontal layer of marl stones, the abrasion is interrupted, and

a ledge is made. Falling clods upon such spaces are gradually

spread over their surfaces by natural action, converting them

into rich fields. AVhen seen from a height in good seasons,

tliese systems of terraces present an endless succession of green

fields and growing crops ; viewed from the deep cut of a road

below, the traveller sees nothing but yellow walls of loam and

dusty tiers of loess ridges. As may be readily imagined, a

country of this nature exhibits many landscapes of unrivalled

picturesqueness, especially when lofty crags, which some variation

in the water- course has left as giant guardsmen in fertile

river valleys, stand out in bold relief against the green background

of neighboring hills and a fruitful alluvial bottom, or

when an opening of some ascending pass allows the eye to range

over leagues of sharp-cut ridges and teaming crops, the work of

the careful cultivator.

UTILITY AND FRUITFULNESS OF THE LOESS. 301

The extreme ease with which loess is cut away tends at times to seriously embarrass traffic. Dnst made by the cart-wheels on a highway is taken up by strong winds during the dry season and blown over the surrounding lands, much after the maimer in which it was originally deposited here. This action continued over centuries, and assisted by occasional deluges of rain, Which find a ready channel in the road-l)od, has hollowed the country routes into depressions of often 50 or 100 feet, where the passenger may ride for miles without obtaining a glimpse of the surrounding scenery. Lieutenant Kreitner, of the Szechenyi exploring expedition, illustrates,’_{(‘ Imfirnen Oxtin, j>. 4()2.)} in a personal experience in Shansf, the difficulty and danger of leaving these deep cuts; after scrambling for miles along the broken loess above the road, he only regained it when a further passage was cut off by a precipice on the one side, while a jump of some 30 feet into the beaten track below awaited him on the other. Difficult as may be such a territory for roads and the purposes of trade, the advantages to a fanner are manifold. Wherever this deposit extends, there the liusbandman has an assured harvest, two and even three times in a year. It is easily worked, exceedingly

fertile, and submits to constant tillage, with no other manure

than a sprinkling of its own loam dug from the nearest bank.

Facade of Dwelling in Loess Cliffs, Ling-shf hien. (Fronn Richthofen.)

But loess performs still another service to its inhabitants. Caves

made at the base of its straight clefts afford homes to millions

of people in the northern provinces. Choosing an escai”pment

where the consistency of the earth is greatest, the natives cut

for themselves rooms and houses, whose partition walls, cement,

bed and furniture are made from the same loess. Whole villages

cluster together in a series of adjoining or superimposed chambers, some of which pierce the soil to a depth of often more than 200 feet. Tii more costly dwellings the terrace or succession of terraces tlms perforated are faced with brick, as well as the arching of rooms within. The advantages of such habitations consist as well in imperviousness to changes of temperature without, as in their durability when constructed in properly selected places, many loess dwellings outlasting six or seven generations. The capabilities of defence in a country such as this, where an invading army must inevitably become lost in the tangle of interlacing ways, and where the defenders may always remain concealed, is very suggestive.

There remains, lastly, a peculiar property of loess which is perhaps more important than all other features M’hen measured by its man-serving efficiency. This is the manner in which it brings forth crops without the aid of manure. From a period more than 2,000 years before Christ, to the present day, the province of Shansi has borne the name of Grainery of the Empire, while its fertile soil, HuangDi, or ‘yellow earth’, is the origin of the imperial color. Spite of this productiveness, which, in the fourteenth century, caused the Friar Odoric to class it as the second country in the world, its present capacity for raising crops seems to be as great as ever. In the nature of this substance lies the reason for this apparently inexhaustible

fecundity. Its renuirkably porous sti-uctui-e must indeed cause

it to absorb the gases necessary to plant life to a much greater

degree than other soils, but the stable productit>n of those mineral

substances needful to the yearly succession of crops is in

the ground itself. The salts contained more or loss in solution

at the water level of the region are freed by the capillary action

of the loess when rain-water sinks thi’ough tlie spongy mass

from above. Surface moisture following the downward direction

of the tiny loess tubes establishes a connection M’ith the

waters compressed below, when, owing to the law of diffusion,

the ingredients, being released, mix with the moisture of the

little canals, and are taken from the lowest to the topmost

levels, permeating the ground and fni-nishing nourishment to

the plant roots at the surface. It is on account of this curious

action of loess that a co])ious i-ain fall is nioi-e necessary in North

richtiiofen’s theory of its origin. 303

China than elseM’lieie, for with a dearth of rain the capillary communication from above, below, and vice versa, is interrupted, and vegetation loses both its niainire and moisture. Drought and famine are consequently synonymous terms here. As to the formation and origin of loess, Richthofen’s theory is substantially as follows :
‘The uniform composition of this material over extended areas, coupled with the absence of stratification and of marine or fresh-water organic remains, renders impossible the hypothesis that it is a water deposit. On the other hand, it contains vast quantities of land-shells and the vestiges of animals (mammalia) at every level, both in remarkably perfect condition. Concluding, also, that from the

conformation of the neighboring mountain chains and their

peculiar weathering, the glacial theory is inadmissible, he advances

the supposition that loess is a sub-aerial deposit, and that

its fields are the drained analogues of the steppe-basins of Central

‘ China : Ergebnisse eigener Reiaen. Baud I. , S. 74. Berlin, 1877.

Asia. They date from a geological era of great dryness, before the existence of the Yellow and other rivers of the northern provinces. As the rocks and hills of the highlands disintegrated, the sand was removed, not by water-courses seaward, but by the high winds ranging over a treeless desert landward, until the dust settled in the grass- covered districts of what is at present China Proper. New vegetation was at once nourished, while its roots were raised by the constantly arriving deposit; the decay of old roots produced the lime-lined canals which impart to this material its peculiar characteristics. Any one who has observed the terrible dust-storms of North China, when the air is filled with an impalpable yellow powder, which leaves its coating upon everything, and often extends, in a foglike cloud, hundreds of miles to sea, will understand the power of this action during many thousand years. This deposition received the shells and bones of innumerable animals, while the dissolved solutions contained in its bulk stayed therein, or saturated the water of small lakes. By the sinking of mountain chains in the south, rain-clouds emptied themselves over this region with much greater frequency, and gradually the system became drained, the erosion working backward from the coast, slowly cutting into one basin after another. AVith the sinking of its salts to lower levels, unexampled richness was added to the wonderful topography of this peculiar formation.’

Pumpelly, while accepting this ingenious theory in place of his own (that of a fresh- water lake deposit), adds that the supply of loess might have been materially increased by the vast mersde-(jlam of High Asia and the Tien Shan, whose streams have for ages transported the products of glacial attrition into Central Asia and Northwest China. Again, he insists that llichthofen has not given importance enough to the parting planes, wrongly considered by his predecessors as planes of stratification.

” These,” he says, ” account for the marginal layers of debris brought down from the mountains. And the continuous and more abundant growth of grasses at one ])lanG would produce a modification of the soil structurally and chemically, which superincumbent accumulations could never efface. It should seem probable that we have herein, also, the explanation of the calcareous concretions which abound along these planes ; for the greater amount of carbonic acid generated by the slow decay of this vegetation would, by forming a bicarbonate, give to the lime the mobility necessary to produce the concretions.”

‘Compare Kingsmill, in the Quar. Journal of the Oeol. Soe. of London, 1868, pp. 119 ff., and in the North China Herald, Vol. IX., 85, 80.

METHODS OF WORKING COAL. 305

The metallic and mineral productions used in the arts comprise nearly everything found in other countries, and the common ones are furnished in such abundance, and at such rates, as conclusively prove them to be plenty and easily worked. The careful digest of observations published by Pumpelly through the Smithsonian Institution, carries out this remark, and indicates the vast field still to be explored. Coal exists in every province in China, and Pumpelly enumerates seventy-four h)calities which have been ascertained. Marco Polo’s well-known notice of its use shows that the people had long employed it: ” It is a fact that all over the country of Cathay there is a kind of black stone existing in beds in the mountains, which they dig out and burn like firewood. It is true that they have plenty of wood also, but they do not burn it, because those stones burn better and cost less.’ This mineral seems to have been unknown in Europe till after the return of the Venetian to his native land, while it was employed before the Christian era in China, and probably in very ancient times, if the accessible deposits in Shensi then cropped out in its eroded gorges, as represented by Richthofen. The few fossil plants hitherto examined indicate that the mass of these deposits are of the Mesozoic age. The mode of working the coal mines is described by Pumpelly,” and was probably no worse two thousand five hundred years ago.

Want of machinery for draining them prevents the miners from going much below the water-level, and a rain-storm will sometimes flood and ruin a shaft. An inclined plane seldom takes the workmen more than a hundred feet below the level of the mouth, and then a horizontal gallery conducts him to the end of the mine. Some water is bailed out by buckets handed from one level up to another at the top, and the coal

is carried out in baskets on the miners’ backs, or dragged in

sleds over smooth, round sticks along passages too low for the

coolies to do better than crawl as they work. Mr. Pumpelly

found the gallery of one mine near Peking so low that he

had to crawl the whole distance (six thousand feet) to see its

construction, and when he emerged into daylight, with his

knees nearly skinned, ascertained that the workmen padded

theirs. The timbering is very expensive, yet, with all drawbacks,

the coal sells, at the pit’s mouth, for $2.00 down to 50 cents a ton. The mines, lying on the slopes of the plateau reaching from near Corea to the Yellow River, supply the plain with cheap and excellent fuel.

» Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 395.^ Across Aineric i and Asia, pp. 291 ff.Vol. I.—20

Blakiston gives an account of the manner in which coal is worked on the Uj^per Yangzi near the town of Siichau: “Having to be got out at a great height up in the cliff, very thick hawsers, made of plaited bamboo, are tightly stretched from the mouth, or near the mouth, of the working gallery, to a space near the water where the coal can be deposited. These ropes are in pairs, and large pannier-shaped baskets are made to traverse on them, a rope passing from one over a large wheel

at the upper landing, and down again to the other, so that the

full basket going down pulls the empty one up, the velocity

being regulated by a kind of brake on the wheel at the top.

At some places the height at which the coal is worked is so

great that two or more of these contrivances are used, one takine:

to a landins; half wav down, and another from thence to the

river. The hawsers are kept taut by a windlass for that purpose

at the bottom.” * This useful mineral appears to be abundant

throughout Sz’chuen Province, and is used here much less

sparingly than in the east. With such inexpensive methods of

getting coal to the water-courses, foreign machinery can hardly

be expected to reduce its price very materially.

The economical use of coal in the household and the arts has

been carried to great perfection. Anthracite is powdered and

mixed with wet clay, earth, sawdust or dung, according to the

exigencies of the case, in the proportion of about seven to one ;

the balls thus made are dried in the sun. The brick-beds

(Jcang) are effective means of warming the house, and the hand

furnaces enable the poor to cook with these balls—aided by a

little charcoal or kindlings—at a trifling expense. This form

of consumption is common north of the Yellow River, and brings

coal within reach of multitudes who otherwise would suffer and

starve. Bituminous, brown, and other varieties of coal occur

in the same abundance and extent as in other great areas, giving

promise of adequate supplies for future ages. The coal

worked on the Peh kiang, in Ivwangtung, contains sulphur,

ftud is employed in the manufacture of copperas.*

Crystallized gypsum is brought fi-om the northwest of the

province to Canton, and is ground to powder in mills ;

plaster

‘ Five Months on the Ynng-Uze, p. 265. Annates de la Foi, Tome IX., p.

457.

2 N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. Journal, New Series, No. III., pp. 94-106, and No.

IV., pp. 243 ff. Notes by Mr. Hollingworth of a Visit to the Coal Mines in the

Neighborhood of Loh-Ping. Blue Book, China, No. 2, 1870, p. 11. Notes

and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. IT., pp. 74-76. North China Herald,

passim. Richthofen’s Letters, and in Ocean Highways, Nov., 1S78. Chinese Repository, Vol. XIX., pp. 385 fE. l4j’Cr /’ 111/

BUILDING STONES AND MINP:RALS. 307

of Paris and other forms of this sulphate are common all over China. It is not used as a manure, but the flour is mixed with wood-oil to form a cement for paying the seam’s of boats after they have been caulked. The powder is employed as a dentifrice, a cosmetic, and a medicine, and sometimes, also, is boiled to make a gruel in fevers, under the idea that it is cooling. The bakers who supplied the English troops at Amoy, in 1843, occasionally put it into the bread to make it heavier, but not, as was erroneously charged upon them, with any design of poisoning their customers, fur they do not think it noxious ; its employment in coloring green tea, and adulterating powdered sugar, is also explainable by other motives than a wish to injure the consumers.

Limestone is abundant at Canton, both common clouded marble and blue limestone ; the last is extensively used in the artificial rockwork of gardens. Even if the Cantonese knew of the existence of lime in limestone, which they generally do not, the expense of fuel for calcining it would prevent their burning it while oyster-shells are so abundant in that region. In other provinces stone-lime is burned, by the aid of coal, in small kilns.

The fine marble quarried near Peking is regarded as fit alone

for imperial uses, and is seen only in such places as the Altar

of Heaven and palace grounds. The marble used for floors is a

fissile crystallized limestone, unsusceptible of polish ; no statues

or ornaments are sculptured from this mineral, but slabs are

sometimes wrought out, and the surfaces curiously stained and

corroded with acids, forming rude representations of animals or

other figures, so as to convey the appearance of natural markings.

Some of these simulated petrifactions are exceedingly

well done. Slabs of aro-illaceous slate are also chosen with

reference to their layers, and treated in the same manner. An

excellent granite is used about Canton and Amoy for building,

and no people exceed the Chinese in cutting it. Large slabs are

split out by wooden wedges, cut for basements and foundations,

and laid in a beautiful manner ; pillars are also hewn from single stones of different shapes, though of no extraordinary dimensions, and their shafts embellished with inscriptions.

Ornamental walls are frequently formed of large slabs set in posts, like panels, the outer faces of which are beautifully carved with figures representing a landscape or procession. lied and gray sandstone, gneiss, mica slate, and other species of rock, are also worked for pavements and walls.

Nitre is cheap and common enough in the northern provinces

to obviate any fear of its being smuggled into the country from

abroad ; it is obtained in Chihli by lixiviating the soil, and

furnishes material for the manufacture of gunpowder. A lye

is obtained from ashes, which partially serves the purposes of

soap ; but the people are still ignorant of the processes necessaiy

for manufacturing it. Fourteen localities of alum are

given in Pumpelly’s list, but the gi-eatest supply for the eastern

provinces comes from deposits of shale, in Ping-yang hien, in

Chehkiang, Avhich produces about six thousand tons annually.

It is used mostly by the dyers, also to |)urify tnrbid water, and

whiten paper. Other earthy salts are known and used, as borax,

sal-ammoniac (which is collected in Mongolia and 111 from

lakes and the vicinity of extinct volcanoes), and blue and white

vitriol, obtained by roasting pyrites. Common salt is procured

along the eastern and southern coasts by evaporating seawater,

rock-salt not having been noticed ; in the western provinces

and Shansf, it is obtained from artesian wells and lakes

as cheaply as from the ocean ; in Tsing-3’en hien, in Central

Sz’chuen, two hundred and thirty-seven wells are worked. At

Chusan the sea-water is so turbid that the inhabitants filter it

through clay, afterward evaporating the Avater.

The minerals heretofore found in China have, for the most part, been such as have attracted the attention of the natives, and collected by them for curiosity or sale. The skillful manner in which their lapidaries cut crystal, agate, and other qnartzose minerals, is well known.’ The corundum used for polishing and finishing these carvings occurs in China, but a good deal of emery in powder is obtained from Borneo. A composition of gramdar corundum and gum-lac is usually employed by workmiMi in order to produce the highest luster of

‘ Compare Remusat, Uistmre de Khotan, pp. 163 ff., where there is an qxtended list of Chinese precious stones drawn from native sources.

JADE STONE, Oil YUH. 300

which the stones arc capable. The three varieties of the silicate of alumina, called jade, nephrite, and jadeite by mineralogists, are all named yuh by the Chinese, a word which is applied to a vast variety of stones—white marble, ruby, and cornelian all coming under it—and therefore not easy to define.

Jade has long been known in Europe as a variety of jasper, its separation from that stone into a species by itself being of comparatively recent origin. Since the third edition of Boetius, in 1647, the two minerals have been regarded as entirely distinct. Its value in the eyes of the Chinese depends chiefly upon its sonorousness and color. The costliest specimens

are brought from Yunnan and Klioten ; a greenish-white

color is the most highly prized, a plain color of any shade

being of less value. A cargo of this mineral was once imported

into Canton from New Holland, but the Chinese would

not purchase it, owing to a fancy taken against its origin and

color. The patient toil of the workers in this hard mineral is

only equalled by the prodigious admiration with which it is

regarded ; both fairly exhibit the singular taste and skill of the

Chinese. Its color is usually a greenish-white, or grayish-green

and dark grass-green ; internally it is scarcely glimmering. Its

fracture is splintery; splinters white; mass semi-transparent

and cloudy ; it scratches glass strongly, and can itself generally

be scratched by flint or quartz, but while not excessively hard

it is remarkable for toughness. The stone when freshly broken

is less hard than after a short exposure. Specific gravity from

2.9 to 3.1.’ Fischer (pp. 31-1-318) gives some one hundred and

fifty names as occurring in various authors—ancient and modern

—for jade or nephrite.” An interesting testimony to the esteem

‘ Murray’s China^ Edinburgh, 1843, Vol. III., p. 276 ; compare also an

article on this stone by M. Blondel, of Paris, published in the Smithsoninn

Report for 1876. Memoires concernant Us Chinois, Tome XIII., p. 889. Remusat

in the Journal des Savcuis, Dec, 1818, pp. 748 fF. J^i’otes and Queries

oil a and J., Vol. II., pp. 173, 174, and 187 ; Vol. III., p. 63 ; Vol. IV., pp.

13 and 33. MacmilUui’H Magazine, October, 1871. Yule, Cathay and the

Way Thither, Vol. II., p. 564.

‘^ Nephrit undjadeit, nach ihren miiieralogischen Eigenschaften soioie nach ihrer

urgeschichtiichea und ethnographischen Bedeutiing. Heinrioh Fischer, Stuttgart,

1880. An exhaustive treatise on every phrase and variety of the mineral in wliicli tills stone was held in China during tlie middle agea

conies from Benedict Goes (1002), who says : “There is no article

of traffic more valuable than lumps of a certain transparent

kind of marble, which we, from poverty of language, usually

call jasper. . . , Out of this marble they fashion a variety of

articles, such as vases, brooches for mantles and girdles, which,

when artistically sculptured in flowers and foliage, certainly

have an effect of no small magniflcence. These marbles (with

which the Empire is now overflowing) are called by the Chinese

lusce. There are two kinds of it ; the first and more valuable

is got out of the river at Cotan, almost in the same way

in which divers fish for gems, and this is usually extracted in

pieces about as big as large flints. The other and inferior

kind is excavated from the mountains.” The ruby, diamond,

amethyst, sapphire, topaz, pink tourmaline, lapis-lazuli,’ turquoises,

beryl, garnet, opal, agate, and other stones, are known

and most of them used in jewelry. A ruby Ijrought from

Peking is noticed by Bell as having been valued in Europe at

$50,000. The seals of the Boards are in man}’ instances cut on

valuable stones, and private persons take great pride in quartz

or jade seals, with their names carved on them ; lignite and

jet are likewise employed for cheaper ornaments, of which all

classes are fond.

All the common metals, except platina, are found in China, and the supply would be sufficient for all the purposes of the inhabitants, if they could avail themselves of the improvements adopted in other countries in blasting, mining, etc. The importations of iron, lead, tin, and quicksilver, are gradually increasing, but they form only a small proportion of the amount used throughout the Empire, especially of the two first named ; iron finds its way in because of its convenient forms more than its cheapness. The careful examination of Chinese topographical works by Pumpelly,” records the leading localities of iron in every province, and where copper, tin, lead, silver, and quick, silver have been observed ; he also mentions fifty-two places pro-

‘ Obtained from Badakslian. Wood, Journey to tlie Oxus, p. 263.

‘ Geological licucarches in China, Chap. X.

METALS AND THEIR PRODUCTION. 31J

diicing gold in various forms, most of them in Sz’cliuen. The rumor of gold-washings occurring not far from Chifn, in Shantung, caused much excitement in 1808, but thej were soon found to he not worth the labor. Gold has never been used as coin in China, but is wrought into jewelry ; most of it is consumed in gilding and exported to India as bullion, in the shape of small bars or coarse leaves.

Silver is mentioned in sixty-three localities by the same author; large amounts are brought from Yunnan, and the mines in that region must be both extensive and easily worked to afford such large quantities as have been exported. The working of both gold and silver mines has been said to be prohibited, but this interdiction is rather a government monopoly of the mines than an injunction upon working those which are known. The importation of gold into China during the two centuries the trade has been opened, does not probably equal the exportation which has taken place since the commencement of the opium trade.

It is altogether improbable that the Chinese are acquainted

with the properties of quicksilver in separating these two

metals from their ores, though its consumption in making vermilion

and looking-glasses calls for over two thousand flasks

yearly at Canton. Cinnabar occurs in Kweichau and Shensi

and furnishes most of the ” water silver,” as the Chinese call

it, by a rude process of burning brushwood in the wells, and

collecting the metal after condensation.

Copper is used for manufacturing coin, bells, bronze articles,

domestic and cooking utensils, cannon, gongs, and brass-foil.

It is found pure in some instances, and the sulphuret, the blue

and green carbonates, pyrities, and other ores are w’orked ; malachite

is ground for a paint. It occurs in every province, and

is specially rich in Shansi and Kweichau. The ores of zinc

and copper in Yunnan and Sz’chuen fnrnish spelter, and the

peculiar alloy known as white copper or argentan, containing in

addition tin, iron, nickel, and lead. So much use indicates

large deposits of the ores. Tin is rather abundant, but lead is

more common ; thirty-nine localities of the first are mentioned,

some of which are probably zinc ores, as the Chinese confound

tin and zinc under one generic name. Lead occurs with silver in many places ; twenty-four mines are mentioned in Pumpelly’s list, and those in Fuhkien are rich ; but the extensive importations prove that its reduction is too expensive to compete with the foreign.

Realgar is quite common, this and orpiment being used as paints; statuettes and other articles are carved from the former, while arsenic is used in agriculture to quicken grain and preserve it from insects. Amber and fossilized copal are collected in several localities ; the first is much employed in the making of court necklaces and hair ornaments. Thefel-tsui or jadeite is the most prized of the semi-precious stones; it is cut into ear-rings, finger-rings, necklaces, etc. Pumpelly mentions pieces of this mineral set in relics obtained from tombs in Mexico, though no locality where it abounds has yet been found in America. Lapis-lazuli is employed in painting upon copper

and porcelain ware ; this mineral is obtained in Chehkiang and

Kansuli ; jadeite, topaz, and other fine stones are most plenty

in Yunnan. A few minerals and fossils have been noticed in

the vicinity and shops at Canton, but China thus far has furnished

very few petrifactions in any strata. Coarse epidote

occurs at Macao, and tungstate of iron has been noticed in the

quartz rocks at Hongkong. Petrified crabs {inacrojpJithalinus)

have been brought to Canton from Hainan, which are prized

by the natives for their supposed medicinal qualities. Scientists have hitherto described a score or more species of Devonian shells, and recognized fragments of the hyena, tapir, rhinoceros, and stegedon, among some other doubtful vertebrate in the ” dragon’s bones ” sold in medicine shops ; but further examinations will doubtless increase the list. Orthoceratites and bivalve shells of various kinds are noticed in Chinese books as being found in rocks, and fossil bones of huge size in caves and river banks.

There are many hot springs and other indications of volcanic

action along the southern acclivities of the table land in the

])rovinces of Shensi and Sz’chuen ; and at Jeh-ho, in Chihli,

there are thermal springs to which invalids resort. The Ilo

tsing, or Fire wells, in Sz’chuen are apertures resembling artesian

springs, sunk in the rock to a depth of one thousand

QUADRUMANOUS ANIMALS OF CHINA. 313

five hundred or one thousand eight hundred feet, whilst theii

breadth does not exceed five or six inches. This is a work

of great difiicultj, and requires in some cases the labor of

two or three jears. The water procured from them contains

a fifth part of salt, which is very acrid, and mixed with nmch

nitre. When a lighted torch is applied to the mouth of

some of those which have no Avator, fire is produced with

great violence and a noise like thunder, bursting out into a

flame twenty or thirty feet high, and which cannot be extinguished

M’ithout great danger and expense. The gas has a

bituminous smell, and burns with a bluish flame and a quantity

of thick, black smoke. It is conducted under boilers in bamboos,

and employed in evaporating the salt-water from the

other springs.’ Besides the gaseous and aqueous springs in

these provinces, there are others possessing different qualities,

some sulphurous and others chalybeate, found in Shansi and

along the banks of the Yellow River. Sulphur occurs, as has

been noted, in great abundance in Formosa, and is purified for

powder manufacturers.

The animal and vegetable productions of the extensive regions

under the sway of the Emperor of China include a great

variety of types of different families. On the south the

islands of Hainan and Formosa, and parts of the adjacent

coasts, slightly partake of a tropical character, exhibiting in the

cocoanuts, plantains, and peppers, the parrots, lenmrs, and

monkeys, decided indications of an equatorial climate. From

the eastern coast across through the country to the northwest

provinces occur mountain ranges of gradually increasing elevation,

interspersed with intervales and alluvial plateaus and bottoms,

lakes and rivers, plains and hills, each presenting its

peculiar productions, both wild and cultivated, in great variety

and abundance. The southern ascent of the high land of Mongolia,

the uncultivated wilds of Manchuria, the barren wastes

of the desert of Gobi, with its salt lakes, glaciers, extinct volcanoes,

and isolated mountain ranges ; and lastly the stupendous

‘ Humboldt, Fragmens Asiatiques, Tome I., p. 196. Annates de la Foi,

Janvr., 182’J, pp. 41G ff.

chains and v^alleys of Tibet, Koko-nor, and Kwanlun all differ

from eacli other in the character of their prodnctions. In one

or the other division, every variety of soil, position, and temperature

occur which are known on tlie globe ; and what has

been ascertained within the past fifteen years by enterprising

naturalists is an earnest of future greater discoveries.

Of the quadrumanous order of animals, there are several

species. The Chinese are skilful in teaching the smaller kinds

of monkeys various tricks, but M. Breton’s picture of their

adroitness and usefulness in picking tea in Shantung from

plants growing on otherwise inaccessible acclivities, is a fair instance

of one of the odd stories furnished by travellers about

China, inasmuch as no tea grows in Shantung, and monkeys

are taught more profitable tricks.’ One of the most remarkable

animals of this tribe is the douc^ or Cochinchinese monkey

{Seinnojnthecus 7iemmus). It is a large species of great rarity,

and remarkable for the variety of colors with which it is

adorned. Its Ijody is about two feet long, and when standing

in an upright position its height is considerably greater. The

face is of an orange color, and flattened in its foi-m. A dark

band runs across the front of the forehead, and the sides of the

countenance are bounded by long spreading yellowish tufts of

liair. The body and upper parts of the forearms are brownish

gray, the lower portions of the arms, from the elbows to the

wrists, being white ; its hands and thighs are black, and the

legs of a bright red color, while the tail and a large triangular

spot above it are pure white. Such a creature matches well,

for its grotesque and variegated appearance, with the mandarin

duck and gold fish, also peculiar to China.

‘ Breton, China, its Costumes, Arts, etc., Vol. II.

THE FI-FI AND IIAI-TUH. 315

Chinese books speak of several species of this family, and small kinds occur in all the provinces. M. David has recently added two novelties to the list from his acquisitions in Eastern Koko-nor, well fitted for that cold region by their abundant hair. The Rhinoplthccus I’oxellancB inhabits the alpine forests, nearly two miles high, where it subsists on the buds of plants and bamboo shoots laid up for winter supply; its face is greenish, the nose remarkably /’cfrousse, and its strong, brawny limbs well fitted for the arboreal life it leads ; the hair is thick and like a mane on the back, shaded with yellow and white tints.

In this respect it is like the Gelada monkey of Abyssinia, and a few others protected in this part of the body from cold. This is no doubt the kind called f’t-fi in native books, and once found in flocks along many portions of western China, as these authors declare. Their notices are rather tantalizing, but, now that we have found the animal, are worth quoting: “The f’l-fi resembles a man ; it is clothed with its hair, runs quick and eats men ; it has a human face, long lips, black, hairy body, and turns its heels. It laughs on seeing a man and covers its eyes with its lips ; it can talk and its voice resembles a bird. It occurs in Sz’chuen, where it is called jhi hiung, or ‘human bear ; ‘ its palms are good eating, and its skin is used; its habit is to turn over stones, seeking for crabs as its food. Its form is like that of the men who live in the Kwaiilun Mountains.”

Another large simia {2Iacactis thlhetanus) comes from the

same region; it lives in bands like the preceding, but lower

down the mountains. A third species of gi-eat size was reported

to occur in the southwestern part of Sz’chuen, and described

as greenish like the Macacus tcheliensis from the hills

northwest of Peking—the most northern species of monkey

known. The former of these two may possibly be the sinysing

of the Chinese books, though its characteristics involve

some confusion of the Macacus and baboon on the part of those

writers. Two other species of ]\Iacacus, and as many of the

gibbons, have been noticed in Hainan, Formosa, and elsewhere

in the south.

The singular proboscis monkey {J^^asalis laivalus\ called hhi-doc in Cochinchina and hai-tuh by the Chinese, exhibits a strange profile, part man and part beast, reminding one of the combinations in Da Yinci’s caricatui-es. It is a large animal, covered with soft yellowish hair tinted with red ; the long nose projects in the form of a sloping spatula. The Chinese account says : ” Its nose is turned upward, and the tail very long and forked at the end, and that whenever it rains, the animal thrusts the forks into its nose. It goes in herds, and lives in friendship ; when one dies, the rest accompany it to buriaL Its activity is so great that it runs its head against the trees; its fur is soft and gray, and the face black.’”‘

‘The Chinese llerhal., from which the preceding extract is taken, describes the bat under various names, such as ‘ heavenly rat,’ ‘faiiy rat,’ ‘flying rat,’ ‘night swallow,’ and ‘belly wings;’Ff-fr and Hai-tuh. (From a Chinese cut.)

it also details the various uses made of the animal in medicine,

and the extraordinary longevity attained by some of the wdiite

species. The bat is in form like a mouse ; its body is of an

ashy black color ; and it has thin fleshy wings, which join the

four legs and tail into one. It appears in the summer, but becomes

torpid in the winter ; on which account, as it eats nothing

during that season, and because it has a habit of swallowing its

breath, it attains a great age. It has the character of a night

‘ Bridgmiui’s Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 4G9.

WILD ANIMALS. 317

rover, not on account of any inability to fly in the day, hnt it dares not o;o abroad at that time because it fears a kind of hawk. It subsists on mosquitoes and gnats. It flies with its head downward, because the brain is heavy,’ This quotation is among the best Chinese descriptions of animals, and shows how little there is to depend upon in them, though not without interest in their notices of habits. Bats are common everywhere, and seem to be regarded with less aversion than in certain other countries. Twenty species belonging to nine genera are given in one list, most of them found in southern China ; the wings of some of these measure two feet across ; a large sort in Sz’chuen is eaten.

The brown bear is known, and its paws are regarded as a

delicacy ; trained animals are frequently brought into cities by

showmen, wdio have taught them tricks. The discovery by

David of a large species {Ailunypus riielanoleurus) allied to the

Himalayan panda {Ailurasfulgens), also found on the Sz’chuen

Mountains, adds another instance of the strange markings common

in Tibetan fauna. This beast feeds on flesh and vegetables

; its body is white, but the ears, eyes, legs, and tip of the

tail are quite black ; the fur is thick and coarse. It is called

peh hlaixj, or white bear, by the hunters, but is no doubt the

animal called j;i in the classics, connnon in early times over

western China, and now rare even in Koko-nor. The Tibetan

black bear occurs in Formosa, Shantung, and Hainan, showing

a wide range. The badger is quite as widespread, and the two

species have the same general appearance as their European

congeners.

Carnivorous animals still exist, even in thickly settled districts.

The lion may once have roamed over the southwestern

Manji kingdom, but the name and drawings both indicate a

foreign origin. It has much connection with Buddhism, and

grotesque sculptures of ranq3ant lions stand in pairs in front of

temples, palaces, and graves, as a mark of honor and symbol

of protection. The last instance of a live lion brought as tribute

was to Hientsung in a.d. 1470, from India or Ceylon.

‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. VII., p. 90.

Many other species of yeZ/5 are known, some of tliein peculiar

to particular regions. The royal tiger has been killed near

Amoy, and in Manchuria the panther, leopard, and tiger-cat

all occur in the northern and southern provinces, making

altogether a list of twelve species ranging from Formosa to

Sagalien. Mr. Swinhoe’s ‘ account of his rencounter with a

tiger near Amoy in 1S58 explains how^ such large animals still

remain in thickly settled regions where food is abundant and

the people are timid and unarmed. In thinly peopled parts

they become a terror to the peasants. M. David enumerates

six kinds, including a lynx, in Monpin alone, one of which

{Felis sc/’fj)ta) is among the most prettily marked of the whole

family. Ilunting-leopards and tigers were used in the days of

Marco Polo by Kublai, but the manly pastime of the chase, on

the magnificent scale then pi-actised, has fallen into disuse with

the present princes. A small and fierce species of wild- cat

{Felis chinensls), two feet long, of a brownish-gray coloi’, and

liandsomely marked with chestnut spots and black streaks, is

still common in the southwestern portions of Fuhkien. (Uvet

cats of two or thi-ee kinds, tree-civets (Ildwtes), and a fine

species of marten {Martes), with yellow neck and purplishbrown

bod}’, from Formosa, are among the smaller cai-nivora in

the southern provinces.

The domestic animals offer few peculiarities. The cat, lia U,

or ‘household fox,’ is a favorite inmate of families, and the

ladies of Peking are fond of a variety of the Angora cat,

having long silky hair and hanging ears. The common species

is variously marked, and in the south often destitute of a tail; when reared for food it is fed on i-ice and vegetables, but is not much eaten. Popular superstition has clustered many omens of good and bad luck about cats ; it is considered, for example, the prognostic of certain misfortune when a cat is stolen from a house—much as, in some countries of the western world, it is unlucky when a black cat crosses one’s pathway.

The dog differs but little from that reared among the Esquimaux,

and is perhaps the original of the species. There is

• Zodl. &c. Proc, 1870, p. G3G.

CATS AND DOGS. 319

little variation in tlieir size, wliicli is about a foot liigli and

two feet in length ; the color is a pale yellow or black, and

always uniform, with coarse bristling hair, and tails curling up

high over the back, and rising so abruptly from the insei-tion

that it has been humoi-ously remarked they almost assist in

lifting the legs from the ground. The hind legs are unusually

straight, which gives them an awkward look, and perhaps pre*

vents them running very rapidly. The black eyes are small

and piercing, and the insides of the lips and months, and the

tongue, are of the same color, or a blue black. The bitch has a

dew-claw on each hind leg, but the dog has none. The ears are

sharp and upright, the head peaked, and the bark a short, thick

snap, very unlike the deep, sonorous baying of our mastiffs. In

Xganhwui a peculiar variety has pendant ears of great length,

and thin, wii-ey tails. One item in the Chinese description of

the dog is that it ‘ can go on three legs ‘—a gait that is often

exhibited b}’ them. They are used to watch houses and flocks; the Mongolian breed is fierce and powerful. The dogs of Peking are very clannish, and each set jealously guards its own street or yard ; they ai-e fed by the butchers in the streets, and serve as scavengers there and in all large towns. They are often mangey, presenting hideous spectacles, and instances of j>//(‘«2)oloni<‘a are not uncommon, l)nt, as among the celebrated street dogs of Ooiistantinople, hydrophobia is almost unheard of among them. Dog markets are seen in every city where this meat is sold ; the animals are reared expressly for the table, but their flesh is expensive.

One writer remarks on their habits, when describing the

worship offered at the tombs : ” Hardly had the hillock been

abandoned by the M’orshippers, when packs of hungry dogs

came running up to devour the part of the offerings left for the

dead, or to lick up the grease on the ground. Those who came

first held up their heads, bristled their hair, and showed a

proud and satisfied demeanor, curling and wagging their tails

with selfish delight ; while the late-comers, tails between their

legs, held their heads and ears down. There was one of them,

however, which, grudging the fare, held his nose to the wind as

if sniffing for better luck ; but one lean, old, and ugly beast. with a flayed back and liaii-less tail, was seen gradually separating himself from the band, though without seeming to hurry himself, making a thousand doublings and windings, all the while looking back to see if he was noticed. But the old sharper knew what he was about, and as soon as he thought himself at a safe distance, away he went like an arrow, the whole pack after him, to some other feast and some other tomb.”

‘Wolves, raccoon-dogs, and foxes are everywhere common, in some places proving to be real pests in the sheepfold and farmyard. In the vicinity of Peking, it is customary to draw large white rings on the plastered walls, in order to terrify the wolves, as these beasts, it is thought, will flee on observing such traps.

The Chinese regard the fox as the animal into which human spirits enter in preference to any other, and are therefore afraid to destroy or displease it. The elevated steppes are the abodes of three or four kinds, which find food without difficulty. The Tibetan wolf (Cams chanco) has a warm, yellowish-white covering, and ranges the wilds of Tsaidam and Koko-nor in packs. The fox {Ganis cossac) spreads over a wide range, and is famed for its sagacity in avoiding enemies.

The breed of cattle and horses is dwarfish, and nothing is done to improve them. The oxen are sometimes not larger than an ass ; some of them have a small hump, showing their affinity to the zebu ; the dewlap is large, and the contour neat and symmetrical. The forehead is round, the horns small and irregularly curved, and the general color dun red. The buffalo(shui niu), or ‘water ox’, is the largest beast used in agriculture. It is very docile and unwieldy, larger than an English ox, and its hairless hide is a light black color; it seeks coolness and refuge from the gnat in muddy pools dug for its convenience, where it wallows with its nose just above the surface. Each horn is nearly semi-circular, and bends downward, while the head is turned back so as almost to bring the nose horizontal.

‘ Borget, La Chine Ouverte, p. 147.

CATTLE, SHEEP, AND DEER. 321

The herd-boys usually ride it, and the metaphor of a lad astride a buffalo’s back, blowing the flute, frequently enters into Chinese descriptions of rural life. The yak of Tibet is employed us a beast of burden, and to furnish food and raiment. It is covered with a mantle of hair reaching nearly to the ground, and the soft pelage is used for making standards among the Persians, and its tail as fly-Haps or chowries in India ; the hair is woven into carpets. The wild yak {PoepluKjas (jrunnienH) has already been described. Great herds of these huge bovines roam over the wastes of Koko-nor, where their dried droppings furnish the only fuel for the nomads crossing those barren wilds.

The domestic sheep is the broad-tailed species, and furnishes excellent mutton. The tail is sometimes ten inches long and three or four thick ; and the size of this fatty member is not affected by the temperature. The sheep are reared in the north by Mohammedans, who prepare the fleeces for garments by careful tanning ; the animal is white, with a black head. Goats are raised in all parts, but not in large numbers. The argali and wild sheep of the Ala shau Mountains {Ovis Burrhel) furnish exciting sport in chasing them over their native cliffs, which they clamber with wonderful agility. Another denizen of those dreary wilds is the Antilope jpicticauda, a small and tiny species, weighing about forty pounds, of a dusky gray color, with a narrow yellow stripe on the flanks. Its range is about the head-waters of the YangZiJiang River ; its swiftness is amazing; it seems absolutely to fly. It scrapes for itself trenches in which to lie secure from the cold.

Many genera of ruminants are represented in China and

the outlying regions ; twenty-seven rare species are enumerated

in Swinhoe’s and David’s lists, of which eleven are antelopes

and deer. The range of some of them is limited to a

narrow region, and most of them are peculiar to the country.

The wealthy often keep deer in their grounds, especially the

spotted deer {Cermis j)seicdaxis), from Formosa, whose coat is

found to vary greatly according to sex and age ; its name, Mntsien

lu/i, or ‘money deer,’ indicates its markings. Mouse-deer

are also reared as pets in the southern provinces.

One common species is the dscren or hwang yan<j {AntiUpe(jiitturosa), which roams over the Mongolian wilds in large herds, and furnishes excellent venison. It is heavy in comparison to the gazelle ; liorns thick, about nine inches long, anmilated to the tips, lyrated, and their points turned inward. The goitre, which gives it its name, is a movable protuberance occasioned by the dilatation of the larnyx ; in the old males it is much enlarged. The animal takes surprising bounds when running.

Great numbers are killed in the autunm, and their flesh,

skins, and liorns ai’e all of service for food, leather, and medicine.

Several kinds of hornless (or nearly hornless) deer, allied to

the musk-deer, exist. One is the river-deer {Ihjdrojyotes)^ common

near the Yangtsz’ Eiver, which resembles the pudu of

Chili ; it is very prolific on the bottoms and in the islands. Another

sort in the northwest {Elaj>hod>iK) is intermediary between

the muntjacs and deer, having long, trenchant, canine

upper teeth, and a deep chocolate-colored fur. Three varieties

of the musk-deer {MoscJiun) have been observed, differing a

little in their colors, all called shie or hkouj cliaiuj by the Chinese,

and all eagerly hunted for their musk. This perfume

was once deemed to be nseful in medicine, and is cited in a

Greek presci-iption of the sixth century ; the abundance of the

animal in the Himalayan regions may be inferred from Tavernier’s

statement that he bought 7GT3 bags or pods at Patna in

one of his journeys over two hundred years ago. This animal

roams over a vast extent of alpine territory, from Tibet and

Shensi to Lake Baikal, and inhabits the loftiest cliffs and defiles,

and makes its way over nigged mountains with great rapidity.

It is not unlike the roe in general appearance, though the projecting

teeth makes the npper lip to look broad. Its color is

grayish-brown and its limbs slight; the hair is coarse and brittle,

almost like spines. The musk is contained in a pouch beneath

the tail on the male, and is most abundant during the

i-utting season. He is taken in nets or shot, and the hunters

are said to allure him to destruction by secreting themselves

and playing the flute, though some would say the animal

showed very little taste in listening to such sounds as Chinese

flutes usually produce. The musk is often adulterated with

clay or mixed with other sul)stanees to moderate its powerful

odor. A singular and interesting member of this familv is

reared in the great park south of Peking—a kind of elk with

HORSES, ARSES, AND ELEPHANTS. 8,’?:}

short horns. This large animal {Elwphwus Damdianus)^ of a

gentle disposition, equals in size tlie largest deer; its native

name, sz’-2>uh slang, indicates that it is neither a horse, a deer,

a camel, nor an ox, but partakes in some respects of the characteristics

of each of them. Its gentle croaking voice seems to be

nnworthj of so huge a body ; the color is a uniform fawn or

light gray.

The horse is not much larger than the Shetland pony ; it is

bony and strong, but kept with little cai-e, and presents the

worst possible appearance in its usual condition of untrinmied

coat and mane, bedraggled fetlocks, and twisted tail. The Chinese

language possesses a great variety of terms to designate

the horse ; the difference of age, sex, color, and disposition, all

being denoted by particular characters. Piebald and mottled,

white and bay horses are common ; but the improvement of

this noble animal is neglected, and he looks sorry enough compared.

with the coursers of India. lie is principally used for

carrying the post, or for military services ; asses and mules

being more employed for draught. lie is hardy, feeds on

coarse food, and admirably serves his owners. The mule is

well-shaped, and those raised for the gentry are among the very

best in the M’orld for endurance and strength; dignitaries are

usually drawn by sumpter mules. Donkeys are also carefully

raised. Chinese books speak of a mule of a cow and horse, as

M’ell as from the ass and horse, though, of course, no such hybrid

as the former ever existed.

The wild ass, or onager (under the several names by which

it is known in different lands, Ji-yaiuj^ djan/j, I’ulan, djiggeta),

ghor-hhar, and ye-la), still roams free and untameable. It is

abundant in Koko-nor, gathering in troops of ten to fifty, each

under the lead of a stallion to defend the mares. The flesh is

highly prized, and the difficult}^ of procuring it adds to the

delicacy of the dish ; the color is light chestnut, with white

belly.

Elephants are kept at Peking for show, and are used to

draw the state chariot when the Emperor goes to worship at

the Altars of Heaven and Earth, but the sixty animals seen in

the days of Kienlung, by Bell, have since dwindled to one or two. Van Braam met six going into Peking, sent thither from Yunnan. The deep forests of that province also harbor the rhinoceros and tapir. The horn of the former is sought after as medicine, and theTjest pieces are carved most beautifully into

ornaments or into drinking cups, which are supposed to sweat

whenever any poisonous liquid is put into them. The tapir is

the white and brown animal found in the IMalacca peninsula,

and strange stories are recorded of its eating stones and copper.

The wild boar grows to weigh over four hundred pounds and

nearly six feet long. In cold weather its frozen carcass is

brought to I’eking, and sold at a high price. A new species of

The Chinese Pig.

hoff has been found in Formosa, about three feet long, twentyone

inches high, and showing a dorsal row of large bristles ; a

tliird variety occurs among the novelties discovered in Sz’chuen

ij^m moujnnensiH)^ having short ears. Wild boars are met M’ith

even in the hills of C’hehkiang, and seriously’ annoy the husbandmen

in the lowlands by their depredations. Deep pits are

dug near the l)ase of the hills, and covered M’ith a bait of fresh

grass, and many are annually captured or droM’iied in them.

They are fond of the bamboo shoots, and persons are stationed

near the groves to fi-igliten them away by striking pieces of

wood together.

The Chinese hollow-backed pig is known for its short legs,

tup: wild boar and domestic hog. 325

round body, crooked back, and almndance of fat; the flesh is

the connnoii meat of tlie people soutli of tlie Yaii<>’ts// liiver.

The black C-hinese breed, as it is called in England, is considered

the best pork raised in that country. The boo-” in the

northern provinces is a gaunt animal, unifoiiuly black, and not

so well cared for as its southern rival. Pieljald pigs are common

in Formosa, resulting from crossing; sometimes animals

of this kind are quite woolly. The Chinese in the south, well

aware of the perverse disposition of the hog, find it much more

expeditious to can-y instead of drive him through their narrow

Mode of Carrying Pigs.

Streets. For this purpose cylindrical baskets, open at both ends,

are made ; and in order to capture the obstinate brute, it is

secured just outside the half-opened gate of the pen. The men

seize him by the tail and pull it lustily ; his rage is roused by

the pain, and he struggles ; they let go their hold, whereupon

he darts out of the gate to escape, and finds himself snugly

caught. He is lifted up and unresistingly carried off.

The camel is employed in the trade carried on across the

desert, and throughout Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern

China near the plateau; without his aid those regions would be ii))pa?sil)le ; the passes across the ranges near Tvoho-nor, sixteen thonsand feet high, ai-e traversed by his help, though amid suffej’ing and danger. In the summer season it sheds all its hair, which is gathered for weaving into ropes and rugs ; at this period, large herds pasture on the plateau to recuperate. The humps at this season hang down the back like empty bags, and the poor animal presents a distressed appearance during the hot weather. In its prime condition it carries about six hundred

pounds weight, but is not used to ride upon as is the Arabian

species. The two kinds serve man in one continuous l-ajilah

from the Sea of Tartary across two continents to Tinibuctoo.

The Chinese have employed the camel in wai’, and trained it to

carry small gingalls so that the riders could fire them while

resting on its head, but this antique kind of cavalry has disappeared

with the introduction of better weapons.

Among the various tribes of smaller animals, the Chinese

Em])ire furnishes many interesting peculiarities, and few families

are unrepresented. Xo marsupials have yet been met, and

the order of edeutata is still restricted to one instance. Several

families in other orders are rare or wanting, as baboons,

spider-monkeys, skunks, and ichneumons. In the weasel tribe,

some new species have been added to the already long list of

valuable fur-bearing animals found in the mountains—the sable

ermine, marten, pole-cat, stoat, etc., whose skins still repay the

hunters. The weasel is common, but not troublesome. The

otter is trained in Sz’chuen to catch fish in the mountain

streams \vith the docility of a spaniel ; another species {Lutia

siolnhosl) occurs along the islands on the southern coast, while

in Hainan Island appears a kind of clawless otter of a rich

brown color above and white beneath ; each of these is about

twenty inches long. The furs of all these, and also the seaotter,

are prepared for garments, especially collars and neckwraps.

A kind of mole exists in Sz’chuen, having a muzzle of extreme

length, while the scent of another variety near Peking is so

nuisky as to suggest its name {Scapfot’hirKi^ moschatus). Muskrats

and shrew-mice are found both north and south ; and one

western species has only a rudimentary tail ; w^hile another, the

SMALLER ANIMALS AISTD RODET^TS, 327

Scaptony.i’, forms an intermediate species l>ctween a mole and a

shrew, having a bhmt muzzle, strong fore feet and a long tail;

and lastly, a sort fitted for aquatic lial)its, with l)road hind feet

and flattened tail. Tiny hedgehogs are common even in the

streets and by-lanes of Peking, where they find food and

refuge in the allnvial earth. Two or three kinds of marmots

and mole-rats are fonnd in the north and west {Sqyhucus Arctami/

s), all specifically unlike their congeners elsewhere. The

Chinese have a curious fancy in respect to one beast, one bird,

and one fish, each of which, they say, requires that two come

together to make one complete animal, viz., the jerboa, the

spoonbill and sole-fish ; the first {D’qius annnlatus) occurs in

the sands of northern China, the second in Formosa, and the

third along the coasts.

Many kinds of rodents have been described. The alpine

hare {Lagomijs ogotona) resembles a marmot in its habits and is

met with throughout the grassy parts of the steppes ; its burrows

riddle the earth wherever the little thing gathers, and endangers

the hunters riding over it. It is about the size of a rat,

and by its w^onderful fecundity furnishes food to a great number

of its enemies—man, beasts, and birds ; it is not dormant, but

gathers dry grass for food and warmth during cold weather

;

this winter store is, however, often consumed by cattle before

it is stored away. Hares and rabbits are well known. Two

species of the former are plenty on the Mongolian grass-lands,

one of which has very long feet ; in winter their frozen bodies

are brought to market. One species is restricted to Hainan

Island, Ten or twelve kinds of squirrels have been described,

red, gray, striped, and buff ; one with fringed ears. Their skins

are prepared for the furriers, and women wear winter robes

lined with them. Two genera of flying-squirrel {Pteromys and

Sciurapterus) have been noticed, the latter in Formosa and the

former mostly in the western provinces, Chinese writers have

been puzzled to class the flying-squirrel ; they place it among

birds, and assure their readers that it is the only kind which

suckles its young when it flies, and that ” the skin held in the

hand during parturition renders delivery easier, because the

animal has a remarkably lively disposition,” The long, dense

328 THE MIDDLK KINGDOM.

fur of the P. alhonifow’i makes beautiful dressep, the white

tips of the hair contrasting prettily with the red ground.

Of the proper rats and mice, more than twenty-five species

have been already described. Some of them are partially

arboreal, others have remarkably long tails, and all but three

are peculiar to the country. A Formosan species, called by

Swinhoe the spinous county rat, had been dedicated to Koxinga,

the conqueror of that island ; while another common

in Sz’chuen bears the name of Mufi Confucianus. The extent

to which tlie Chinese eat rats has been greatly exaggerated

by travellers, for the flesh is too expensive for general

use.

One species of porcupine {TTijsfrir suhcrlxtata) inhabits the

southern provinces, wearing on its head a purplish-black crest

of stout spines one to five inches long ; the bristles are short,

but increase in size and length to eight oi- nine inches toward

the rump ; the entire length is thiity-three inches. The popular

notion that the porcupine darts its quills at its enemies as

an efPectual weapon is common among the Chinese.

Xo animal has puzzled the Chinese more than the scaly anteater

or pangolin {JIa?iis dahnanni), which is logically considered

as a certain and useful remedy bv them, simply because of

its oddity. It is regarded as a fish out of water, and therefore

named Ihuj-l’i., or ‘ hill carp,’ also dragon carp, but the most

common designation is ehuen. s/ian liah, or the ‘ scaly hill borer.’

One author says: ” Its shape resembles a crocodile ; it can go in

dry paths as well as in the water ; it has four legs. In the

daytime it ascends the banks of streams, and lying down opens

its scales wide, putting on the appearance of death, which induces

the ants to enter between them. As soon as they are in,

the animal closes its scales and returns to the water to open

them ; the ants float out dead, and he devours them at leisure.”

A more accurate observer says: “It contimially protrudes its

tongue to entice the ants on which it feeds ; ” and true to

Chinese physiological deductions, similia similihis curantur,

he recommends the scales as a cure for all antish swellings.

lie also I’emarks that the scales are not bony, and consist of

the agglutinated hairs of the body. The adult specimens

PORPOISES AND WHALES. 329

measure tliirty-threo inches. It walks on the sides of the

hind feet and tips of the claws of the fore feet, and can stand

upright for a minute or two. The large scales are held tt

the skin by a liesliy iiipple-like pimple, which adheres to the

base.

Among the cetaceous inhabitants of the Chinese waters, one

of the most noticeable is the great white poi-poise {Delj>/ihi>;s

chinensis), whose uncouth tumbles attract the traveller’s notice

as he sails into the estuary of the Pearl River on his way to

Hongkong, and again as he steams up the Yangtsz’ to Hankow.

The Chinese fishermen are shy of even holding it in their nets,

setting it free at once, and never pui-suing it ; they call it^>M-^i

and deem its presence favorable to their success. A species of

fin-whale {Balmnoptera) has been described by Swinhoe, which

ranges the southern coast from the shores of Formosa to Hainan.

Its pi-esence between Hongkong and Amoy induced some

foreigners to attempt a fishery in those waters, but the yield of

oil and bone was too small for their outlay. The native fishermen

join their efforts in the wintei*, when it resorts to the seas

near Hainan, going out in fleets of small boats from three to

twenty-five tons burden each, fifty l)oats going together. The

line is about three hundred and fifty feet long, made of native

hemp, and fastened to the mast, the end leading over the bow.

The harpoon has one barb, and is attached to a wooden handle

;

through an eye near the socket, the line is so fastened along the

handle, that when the whale begins to strain upon it, the handle

draws out upon the line, leaving only the barlj buried iji the

skin. The boat is sailed directly upon the fish, and the harpooner

strikes from the bow just behind the blow-hole. As

soon as the fish is struck the sail is lowered, the rudder unshipped,

and the boat allowed to drag stern foremost until the

prey is exhausted. Other boats come up to assist, and half a

dozen harpoons soon dispatch it. The species most common

there yield about fifty bai-rels each ; the oil, fiesh, and bone are

all used f(jr food or in manufactures. Tiie fish resort to the

shallow waters in those seas for food, and to roll and rub on the

banks and reefs, thus ridding themselves of the barnacles and

insects which torment them ; they are often seen leaping en330

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

tire)y out of water, and falling back perpend icnlarly against the

hard bottom.’

The Yellow Sea affords a species of cow-lish, or round headed

cachalot {Globicejjhalus Itissii), wdiich the Japanese capture.*

Seals have been observed on the coast of Liautung, but nothing

is known of their species or habits ; the skins are common and

cheap in the Peking market. Xative books speak of a marine

animal in Koko-nor, from wliich a rare medicine is obtained,

that probably belongs to this famOy.

This imperfect account of the mammalia known to exist

in China has been drawn from the lists and descriptions inserted

in the zoological periodicals of Europe, and may serve to

indicate the extent and richness of the field yet to be investigated.

The lists of Swinhoe and David alone contain nearly

two hundred species, and within the past ten years scores more

have been added, but have not exhausted the new and unexplored

zoological regions. The emperors of the Mongol dynasty

were very fond of the chase, and famous for their love of the

noble amusement of falconry ; Marco Polo says that Kublai employed

no less than seventy thousand attendants in his hawking

excursions. Falcons, kites, and other birds were taught to

pursue their quarry, and the Venetian speaks of eagles trained

to stoop at wolves, and of such size and strength that none

could escape their talons.’ Hanking has collected * a number

of notices of the mode and sumptuousness of the field sports of

the Mongols in China and India, but they convey little more

information to the naturalist, than that the game Avas abundant

and comprised a vast variety. ]\rany s])ecies of accipitrine

birds are described in Chinese books, but they are spoken of so

vaguely that nothing definite can be learned from the notices.

Few of them are now trained for sport by the Chinese, except

a kind of sparrow-hawk to amuse dilettanti hunters in

showing their skill in catching small birds. The fondness for

sport in the wilds of Manchuria which the old emperoi-s

‘ CMnese Repository, Vol. XII., p. 608.

Mbid., Vol. VI., p. 411.

•Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. ‘m^.

* Wars and Sports of the Mongols and Romans.

BIRDS OF PREY. 331

encouraged two centuries ago has all died out among their

descendants.

Within the last fifteen years a greater advance has been

made in the knowledge of the birds of China than in any other

branch of its natural history, perhaps owing somewhat to their

presenting themselves for capture to the careful observer. The

list of described species already munljers over seven hundred, of

which the careful paper of the lamented Swinhoe, in the ProceedingH

of the Zoological SocJeti/ for May, 1871, gives the

names of six hundred and seventy-five species, and M. David’s

list, in i\\(i Nouvelles Archives for 1871, gives four hundred and

seventy as the number observed north of the Itiver Yangtsz’.

The present sketcli must confine itself to selecting a few of the

characteristic birds of the country, for this part of its fauna is

as interesting and peculiar as the mammalia.

Among birds of prey are vultures, eagles, and ernes, all of

them M’idespread and well known. One of the fishing-eagles

(Ilalicctus macei) lives along the banks of the bend of the Yellow

River in the Ortous country. The golden eagle is still

trained for the chase by Mongols ; Atkinson accompanied a

party on a hunt. ” We had not gone far,” he says, ” when

several large deer rushed past, bounding over the plain about

three hundred yards from ns. In an instant the barkut wai

unhooded and his shackles removed, when he sprung from hi^

perch and soared on high. lie rose to a considerable height,

and seemed to poise fof^ minute, gave two or three flaps with his

wings, and swooped off in a straight line for the pi’ey. I could

not see his wings move, but he went at a fearful rate, and all of

us after the deer ; when we were about two hundred yards off,

the bii-d struck the deer, and it gave one bound and fell. The

barkut had struck one talon in his neck, the other into his back,

and was tearing out his liver. The Kirghis sprung from his

horse, slipped the hood over the eagle’s head and the shackles

on his legs, and easily took him off, remounting and getting

ready for another flight.” ‘ Other smaller species are trained

to capture or worry hares, foxes, and lesser game.

‘ Oriental and Western Siberia, p. 41 G.

332 TIIK MIDDLK KINGDOM.

The falcons which inhabit the gate-towers and trees in Pe

kinw form a peculiar feature of the place, from their impudence

in foraging in tlie streets and markets, snatching things out of

the liands of people, and startling one by their responsive

screams. Much quarrelling goes on between them and the

crows and magpies for the possession of old nests as the spring

comes on. Their services as scavengers insures them a quiet

residence in their eyries on the gate-towers. Six sorts of harriers

(Circles), with various species of falcons, bustards, gledes,

and spaiTOw^-hawks, are enumerated. The family of owls is

well represented, and live ones are often exposed for sale in

the markets ; its native name of ‘ cat-headed hawk ‘ {inao-rhtao

ying) suggests the likeness of the two. Out of the fifty-six

species of accipitrine birds, the hawks are much the most

numerous.

The great order of Passerinae has its full share of beautiful

and peculiar representatives, and over four hundred species

have been catalogued. The night-hawks have only three

members, but the swallows count up to fifteen species. Around

Peking they gather in vast numbers, year after year, in the

gate-towers, and that whole region was early known by the

name of Yen Kwoli, or ‘ Land of Swallows.’ The innnunity

granted by the natives to this twittering, bustling inmate of

their houses has made it a synonym for domestic life ; the

phrase yin yen. {lit. to ‘ drink swallows ‘) means to give a feast.

The famil}’ of king-fishers contains several most exquisitely

colored birds, and multitudes of the handsome ones, like the

turquoise king-fisher {Halcyon fi/nyrnensis), are killed by the

(Chinese for the sake of the plumage. Beautiful feather-work

ornaments are made from this at Canton. The hoopoe, beeeater,

and cuckoo are not uncommon ; the first goes by the

name of the s/ia/i. ho-.shan’j, or ‘ country priest,* f i-om its color.

Six species of the last have been recognized, and its peculiar

habits of driving other birds from their nests has made it well

kuuwn to the people, who call it ha-l’a for the same reason as

do the English. On the upper Yangtsz’ the short-tailed species

makes its noisy agitated Hight in order to draw off attention from

its nest. The C’hinesc say it wcepi blood as it bewails its mate

SWALLOWS, THRUSHES, LARKS, El’C. 333

all night long. The Cacutas strlatus varies so greatly in different

provinces that it has much perplexed naturalists ; all of

them are only summer visitants.

The habit of the shi-ike of impaling its prey on thorns and

elsewhere before devouring it has been noticed by native

writers ; no less than eleven species have been observed to cross

the country in their migrations from Siberia to the Archipelago.

Of the nuthatches, tree and wall creepers, wrens, and chats,

there is a large variety, fJid one species of willow-wren {Sylvia

horealls) has been detected over the entire eastei’u hemisphere ;

six sorts of redstarts {Rat’tGilla) are spread over the provinces.

Among the common song birds reared for the liousehold, the

thrush and lark take precedence ; their fondness for birds and

flowers is one of the pleasant features of Chinese national character.

A kind of grayish-yellow thrush {Garrula,c j)<”i’-y)i<-il’^-

tus)j called hwa-mi, or ‘painted ej’ebrows,’ is common about

Canton, where a well-trained bird is worth several dollars.

This genus furnishes six species, but they are not all equally

nnisical ; another kind {Suthorla wehhiana) is kept for its fighting

qualities, as it will die before it yields. These and other

allied birds furnish the people with much amusement, by teaching

them to catch seeds thrown into the air, jump from perches

held in the hand, and })erform tricks of various kinds. A party

of gentlemen will often be seen on the outskii-ts of a town in

mild weather, each one holding his pet bird, and all busily engaged

in catching grasshoppei’s to feed them. The spectacle

thrush {Leuc()d’wj.>trn,tii) has its eyes surrounded by a black

circle bearing a fancied resemblance to a pair of spectacles ; it

is not a very sweet songster, but a graceful, lively fellow. The

species of wagtail and lark known amount to about a score altogether,

but not all of them are equally good singers. The

southern (^hinese prefer the lark which comes from Chihli, and

large numbei-s ai-e annually carried south. The shrill notes of

the field lark {Alauda adkiox and arvensis) are heard in the

shops and streets in enmlous concert with other kinds—these

larks becoming at times well-nigh frantic with excitement in

their struggles for victory. The Chinese name of peh-ling, or

‘hundred spirits,’ given to the Mongolian lark, indicates the

334 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

reputation it has earned as an active songster ; and twenty-five

dollars is not an unconnnon pi-ice for a good one.’

The tits [Parus) and recdlings {Emhe/’ha), together with kindred

genera, are among the most common .small birds, fifteen or

twenty species of each having been noticed. In the proper season

the latter are killed for market in such numbei-s as to excite

surprise that they do not become extinct. In taking many of

the warblers, orioles, and jays, for rearing or sale as fancy birds,

the Chinese are veiy^ expert in the use of birdlime. In all parts

of the land, the pie family are deemed so useful as scavengers

that they are never molested, and in consequence become very

connnon. The magpie is a favorite bird, as its name, /il tsloh,

or ‘ joyous bird,’ indicates, and occurs all over the land. Ravens,

choughs, crows, and blackbirds keep doM-n the insects and vermin

and consume offal. The palace grounds and inclosures of

the nobility in Peking are common I’esorts for these crows,

where they are safe from harm in the great trees. Every

morning myriads of them leave town with the dawn, returning

at evenino; with increased ca\\ino; and clamor, at times actuallv

darkening the sky with their flocks. A pretty sight is occasionally

seen M’hen two or three thousand young ci’ows assemble

just at sunset in mid-air to chase and play with each other.

The crow is i-egarded as somewhat of a sacred bird, either from

a service said to have been rendered by one of his race to an

ancestor of the present dynasty, or because he is an emblem of

filial duty, from a notion that the young assist their parents

when disabled. The owl, on the other hand, has an odious

name because it is stiy-matized as the bii’d which eats its dam.

One member of the pie family deserving mention is the longtailed

l)lue jay of Formosa (^.TO^’^Vm), remarkable for its brilliant

plumage. Another, akin to the sun birds {^Ethoj^njija

(lahryi)^ comes from Sz’chuen, a recent discovery. The body is

red, the head, throat, and each side of the neck a brilliant

violet, belly yellow, wings black with the primaries tinted green

along the edge, and the feathers long, tapering, of a black or

steel blue.

‘ Journal of the North China Branch of the Eoyal Asiatic Society, May, 1S59.

p. 289.

MAGPIES AND PIGEONS. 335

Tlie Mahiah, or Indian niino [Acndotheus)^ known by its

yellow carbuncles, which extend like ears from behind the eye,

is reared, as are also three species of Mu7iia, at Canton. Sparrows

abound in every province around houses, driving away

otiier birds, and entertaining the observer by their quarrels and

activity, llobins, ouzels, and tailor-birds are not abundant.

Xone of the humming-birds or birds of paradise occur, and

only one species has hitherto been seen of the parrot group.

Woodpeckers {Picus) are of a dozen species, and the wryneck

occasionally attracts the eye of a sportsman. Tlie canary is

reared in great numbers, being known under the names of

‘white swallow’ and ‘time spari-ow ;

‘ the chattering Java

sparrow and tiny avedavat are also taught little tricks by their

fanciers, in compensation for their lack of song. The two or

three proper parrots are natives of Formosa.

The family of pigeons {Coluvibidie) is abundantly represented

in fourteen species, and doves form a common household

bird ; their eggs are regarded as proper food to prevent smallpox,

and sold in the markets, being also cooked in birdnest and

other kinds of soups. The Chinese regard the dove as eminently

stupid and lascivious, but gi^ant it the qualities of faithfulness,

impartiality, and filial duty. The cock is said to send

away its mate on the approach of rain, and let her return to the

nest with fine weather. They have an idea that it undergoes

periodic metamoi-phoses, but disagree as to the form it takes,

though the sparrow-hawk has the preference.’ The bird is

most famed, howevei-, for its filial duty, arising very probably

from impei’fect observations of the custom of feeding its young

with the macerated contents of its crop ; the wood pigeon is

said to feed her seven young ones in one order in the morning,

and reversing it in the evening. Its note tells the husbandman

when to begin his labors, and the decorum observed in the nests

and cotes of all the species teach men how to govern a family

and a state. The visitor to Peking is soon attracted by the

aeolian notes proceeding from doves which circle around their

homes for a short time (forty or fifty or less in a flock), and

‘ Journal N. O. Br. R A. Soc, Vol. IV., 1867, Art. XI., by T. Walters.

336 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

then settle. These birds are cdWed j)aN -tie n l-ido-j’in^ or ‘ mid

cky houris,’ and their weird music is caused by ingenious wooden

whistles tied on the rumps of two or three of the Hock, which

lead the others and delight themselves. Carrier pigeons are

used to some extent, and training them is a special mystery.

One of the prettiest sort is the rose pigeon, and half a dozen

kinds of turtles enliven the village groves with their gentle

notes and peculiar plumage.

No tribe of birds in China, however, equals the Gallinaceous

for its beauty, size, and novelty, furnishing some t)f the most

elegant and graceful birds in the world, and yet none of them

have become domesticated for food. As a connecting link between

this tribe and the last is the sand-grouse of the desert

{Syrrhaptis paradoxus), whose singular combination attracted

Marco Polo’s eye. “This bird, the harg^erlae, on which the

falcons feed,” says lie, ” is as big as a partridge, has feet like

a parrot’s, tail like a swallow’s, and is strong in tUght.” ‘ Abbo

Hue speaks of the immense flocks which scour the plateau.

The gold and silver pheasants are reared without ti-ouble in

all the provinces, and have so long been identified witli tlic

ornithology of China as to bo regarded as typical of its grotesque

and brilliant fauna. Among other pheasants may be

mentioned the Impeyan, Heeves, Argus, JVIedallion, Andierst,

riluys, and Pallas, each one vicing with the other for some

peculiarly graceful featui’e of color and sha])e, so that it is liaid

to decide which is the lincst. The Amherst pheasant has tlic

bearin<r, the ele«i;ance, and the details of form like the goM

pheasant, but the neck, shoulders, back and M’ing covers are of

a sparkling metallic green, and each feather ends in a belt of velvet

black. A little red crest allies it to the gold ])heasant, and a

pretty silvery ruff M’ith a black band, a white breast and belly, and

a tail barred with bi-own, green, Avhite, and red bands, complete

the picturesque dress. Jlidden away in these Tibetan wilds are

other pheasants that dispute the })alm for beauty, among which

four species of the eared pheasant {( ‘fossoptUon) attract notice.

One is of a pure white, with a black tail curled up and spread

‘ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. T., p. 2:57.

vai:ii:tiks of piika.sants. 337

out like a plume, uud is mcII called the suow pheasant. Another

is the better knctwn Pallas pheasant, nearly as large as a

turkey, distinguished hy eai’-like appendages or Avattles hehind

the head, and a red neck above a white body, whence its native

name of /lo-li, or ‘ fire hen.’ Another genus {^Lojp1ioj)horus) contains

some elegant kinds, of Avhich the I’lluys pheasant is new,

and noted for a coppery-green tail bespangled with white. The

longer known Reeves pheasant is sought for by the natives for

the sake of its white and yellow-l)arred tail feathers, which are

used l)y play actoi’S to complete a wan-ior’s dress ; Col. Yule

proves a reference to it in Marco Polo from this part of its

plumage, Mhicli the Venetian states to be ten palms in length

—

not far beyond the truth, as they have been seen seven feet

long.’ It is a long time for a bird of so iiiuch beauty to have

been unknown, from 1350 to ISOS, Avhen Mr. Thomas Beale

procured a specimen in Canton, and sent others to England in

1832 ; Mr. Reeves took it thither, and science has recorded it

in her annals. As Xew Guinea is the home of the birds of

paradise, so do the Himalayas contain most of these superb

pheasants and francolins, each tribe serving as a foil and comparison

with the Creator’s handiwork in the other.

The island of Formosa has furnished a second species, Swinhoe’s

pheasant, of the same genus as the silver pheasant {Eujploeamus),

and another smaller kind {Phasianusfcmnosanus) ; the

list is also increased by fresh acquisitions from Yimnan and

Cochinchina through Dr. Anderson. This is not, liowever, the

place where Me may indulge in details respecting all of these

gorgeous birds ; we conclude, then, with the Medallion, or

horned pheasant. It has a ” l)eautiful membrane of resplendent

colors on the neck, which is displayed or conti’acted according

as the cock is more or less roused. The hues are chiefly

purple, with bright red and green spots, which vary in intensity

according to the degree of excitement.’”

The peacock, though not a native, is reared in all parts ; it

bears the name of I’ung Utah, sometimes rendei-ed ‘ Confucius’

‘ Yiile’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 246—where there is an admirable wood-cut of one from Wood.

Lird,” though it is more probable that the name means the great

or magniticeiit bird. The use of the tail feathers to designate

official rank, which probably causes a large consumption of

them, does not date previous to the present dynasty. Poultry

is reared in immense quantities, but the assortment in China

does not equal in beauty, excellence, and variety the products

of Japanese culture. The silken cock, the vane of whose plume

is so minutely divided as to resemble curly hair, is probably the

same sort with that described by some w^riters as having wool

like sheep. The Mongols succeed very well in rearing the tall,

Shanghai breed, and their unifoi-m cold winter enables them to

preserve frozen flesh without much difficulty. The smaller

gallinaceous birds already described, grouse, quails, francolins,

partridges, sand-snipe, etc., amount to a score or more species,

ranging all over the Empire. The red partridge is sometimes

tamed to keep as a house bird with the fowls. The Chinese

quail {Cotarnic) has a brown back, sprinkled with black spots

and white lines, blackish throat and chestnut breast. It is reared

for lighting in south China, and, like its bigger Gallic rival, is

soon eaten if it allows itself to be beaten.

The widespread family of waders sends a few of its representatives

from Europe to China, but most of the members are

Oriental. The marshes and salt lakes of Mongolia attract

enormous numbers of migratory birds in summer to rear their

young in safety, in the midst of abundant food. Col. Prejevaleky

watched the arrival of vast flocks early in February, and

thus describes their appearance : ” For days together they

sped onward, always fi-oni the W.S.AV., going further east in

search of open water, and at last settling down among the open

pools ; their favorite haunts were the flat nnid banks overgrown

with low saline bushes. Here every day vast flocks would congregate

toward evening, crowding among the ice ; the noise they

made on rising was like a hurricane, and at a distance they resembled a thick cloud. Flocks of one, two, three, and even five thousand, followed one another in quick succession, hardly a minute apart. Tens and hundreds of thousands, even millions

of birds appeared at Lob-nor during the fortnight ending the

2l6t of February, when the flight was at its height. What

FAMILY OF WADERS I]?f CHINA. 339

prodigious quantities of food must be necessary for such numbers

! ” ‘ Wading and web-footed birds all harmlessly mix in

these countless hosts, but hawks, eagles, and animals gather too,

to prey on them.

Among the noticeable wadei-s of China, the white Manchurian

or Montigny crane is one of the finest and largest ; it is

the official insigna of the highest rank of civilians. Five

species of crane {Grus) arc recognized, and seven of plovers,

together with as many more allied genera, including an avocet,

bustard, and ov8ter-catclier. Curlews abound along the flat

shores of the Gulf of Pechele, and are so tame that they race

up and down with the naked children at low tide, hunting for

shell-fish ; as the boy runs his arm into the ooze the curlew

pokes his long bill up to the eyes in the same hole, each of

them grasping a crab. Godwits and sandpipers enliven the

coasts with their cries, and seven species of gambets {Totanus)

give them them the largest variety of their family group, next

to the snipes {Tr’tnga)^ of wdiich nine are recorded. Herons,

egrets, ibis, and night-herons occur, and none of them are discarded

for food. At Canton, a pure Nvliite egret is often exposed

for sale in the market, standing on a shelf the livelong

day, with its eyelids sewed together—a pitiable sight. Its

slender, elegant shape is imitated by artists in making bronze

candlesticks. The singular spoonbill {Platalea) is found in

Formosa, and the jacana in southwestern China. The latter

is described by Gould as ” distinguished not less by the grace

of its form than its adaptation to the localities which nature

has allotted it. Formed for traversing the morass and lotuscovered

surface of the water, it supports itself upon the floating

weeds and leaves by the extraordinary span of the toes,

aided by the unusual lightness of the body.” ‘ Gallinules,

crakes, and rails add to this list, but the flamingo has not been

recorded.

In the last order, sixty-five species of web-footed birds are

enumerated by naturalists as occui-ring in China. The fenny

‘ From Kulja to Lob-nor, p. 116.

‘John Gould, Century of Birda, London, 1831-32.

margins of lakes and rivera, and tlie seacoast niaislies, afford

food and shelter to Hocks of water-fowl. Ten sepaiate species

of duck are known, of which four or live ai”e peculiar. The

whole coast fi’oin Hainan to jVIanchuiia swarms with gulls,

terns, and grebes, while geese, swans, and mallards resort to the

inland waters and pools to rear their young. Ducks are sometimes

caught by persons who first cover their heads with a

gourd pierced with holes, and then wade into the water where

the birds are feeding ; these, previously accustomed to emptycalabashes

floating about on the water, allow the fowler to approach,

and ai”e pulled under without difficulty. The wild

goose is a favorite bird with native poets. The reputation for

conjugal fidelity has made its name and that of the mandarin

duck emblems of that virtue, and a pair of one or the other

usually forms part of wedding processions. The epithet mandarin

is applied to this beautiful fowl, and also to a species of

orange, simply because of their excellence over other varieties

of the same genus, and not, as some writers have inferred, l)ecause

they are appropriated to officers of government.

The yuen-ydng, as the Chinese call this duck, is a native of

the central provinces. It is one of the most variegated birds

known, vieing with the humming-birds and parrots in the

diversified tints of its plumage, if it does not equal them for

brilliancy. The drake is the object of admiration, his partner

being remarkably plain, but during the sunnner season he also

loses much of his gay vesture. INFr. P>ennet tells a pleasant

story in proof of the conjugal fidelity of these birds, the incidents

of which occurred in Mr. Beale’s aviary at Macao. A

drake was stolen one night, and the duck displayed the strongest

marks of despair at her loss, retiring into a corner and refusing

all nourishment, as if determined to starve lierself to death

from grief. Another drake undertook to comfort the disconsolate

widow, but she declined his attentions, and was fast becoming

a martyr to her attachment, when her mate was recovered

and restored to her. Their nnmioii was celebrated by

the noisiest demonstrations of joy, and the duck soon infoi-med

her lord of the gallant ])i-o]iosals made to her during his absence

; in high dudgeon, he instantly attacked the luckless bird

BEale’s aviary. 341

which would have snp})hintc(l him, and so maltreated liim as to

cause his death.

The aviary here mentioned was for many j’ears, up to 1838,

one of the principal attractions of Macao. Its owner, Mr

Thomas Beale, had erected a wire cage on one side of his house,

having two apartments, each of them about fifty feet high, and

containing several large trees ; small cages and roosts were

placed on the side of the liouso under shelter, and in one corner

a pool afforded bathing conveniences to the water-fowl. The

genial climate obviated the necessity of any covering, and only

those species which would agree to live quietly together were

allowed the free range of the two apartments. The great attraction

of the collection was a living bird of paradise, which, at

the period of the owner’s death, in 1840, had been in his possession

eighteen years, and enjoyed good health at that time.

The collection during one season contained nearly thirty specimens

of pheasants, and besides these splendid birds, there were

upward of one hundred and fifty others, of different sorts, some

in cages, some on perches, and others going loose in the aviary.

In one corner a large cat had a hole, where she reared her

young ; her business was to guard the whole from the depredations

of rats. A magnificent peacock from Damaun, a large

assortment of macaw^s and cockatoos, a pair of magpies, another

of the superb crowned pigeons {Goura coronata), one of Mdioni

moaned itself to death on the decease of its mate, and several

Nicobar ground pigeons, were also among the attractions of this

curious and valuable collection.

Four or five kinds of grebe and loon frequent the coast, of

which the Podlcejys cristatus, called shui nu, or ^ water

slave,’ is connnon around Macao. The same region affords

sustenance to the pelican, which is seen standing motionless for

hours on the rocks, or sailing on easy wing over the shallows

in search of food. Its plumage is nearly a pure wliite, except

the black tips of the wings ; its height is about four feet, and

the expanse of the wings more than eight feet. The bill is

flexible like whalel)one, and the pouch susceptible of great

dilatation. Gulls abound on the northeast coasts, and no one

who has seen it can forget the beautiful sight on the marshes at the entrance of the Pei ho, where myriads of white gulls assemble to feed, to ‘preen, and to quarrel or scream—the bright sun rendering their plumage like snow. The albatross, black tern, petrel, and noddy increase the list of denizens in Chinese waters, but offer nothing of particular interest.’

There are foui* fabulous animals which are so often referred

.y to by the Chinese as

to demand a notice.

The ki-lin is one of

these, and is placed

‘^’i at the head of all

hairy animals; as

the funfj-Jiwang is

pre-eminent among

feathered races ; the

dragon and tortoise

among the scaly and

shelly tribes ; and

man among naked

animals! The naked,

hairy, feathered,

shelly, a n d scaly

tribes constitute the

quinary system of

ancient Chinese naturalists.

The Tci-lin

is pictured as resembling

a stag in its

\)^’>k\\ and a horse in its hoofs, but possessing the tail of an ox

and a parti-colored or scaly skin. A single horn having a

Heshy tip proceeds out of the forehead. Besides these external

marks to identify it, the ¥i-lin exhibits great benevolence of

The Kf-lin, or Unicorn,

‘ On the birds of China, see in general T^es Oiteaux de la Chine, par M.

I’Abbo Armand David, avec un Atlas de 124 Planches dessin.’es et lith. par M.

Arnonl. Taris, 1877. R. Rwinhoe, in the Procredmfjs of th<‘. ScknUfic Meetinf/

s of the Zoological Sac. of London, and in 77ie Ihis, a Max/azine of General

Ornitholodn, passim. Journ. N. C. Br. R. A. Soc, Nos. II., p. 225, and

III., p. 287.

THE KI-LIN AND FUNU-IIWANO. 343

disposition toward other living animals, and appears only when

w’ise and just kings, like Yau and Shun, or sages like Confucius,

are born, to govern and teach mankind. The Chinese description

presents many resemblances to the popular notices of the

unicorn, and the independent origin of their account adds something

to the probability that a single-horned equine or cervine

animal has once existed.’

Cuvier expresses the opinion that Pliny’s description of the

The Fung-hwang, or Phcenix.

Arabian phcenix was derived from the golden pheasant, though

othei-s think the Egyptian plover is the original type. From his

likening it to an eagle for size, having a yellow neck with purple,

a blue tail varied with red feathers, and a richly feathered tufted

head, it is more probable that the Impeyan pheasant was Pliny’s

‘ Chine.se Rejiository, Vol. VII., p. 213. Compare Yule’s note, Marco Polo,

Vol. I., p. 233. Hue, Travels in Tartary, etc.. Vol. II., p. 246. Bell,

Journey from St. Petersburgh in Russia to Ispahan in Persia., Vol. I., p. 216.

Also Heeren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 98, where there is a resume of

Ctesias’ acco\int of the unicorn.

tvpe. The Chinesefung-kivang, or phoenix, is probably based

on the Argns pheasant. It is described as adorned with every

color, and combines in its form and motions whatever is elegant

and graceful, while it possesses such a benevolent disposition

that it will not peck or injure living insects, nor tread on

o-rowino- herbs. Like the ki-lin, it has not been seen since the

halcyon days of Confucius, and, from the accomit given of it,

seems to have been entii-ely fabulous. The etymology of the

characters implies that it is the emperor of all birds. One Chinese author describes it ” as resembling a wild swan before and a unicorn behind ; it has the throat of a swallow, the bill of a cock, the neck of a snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead of a crane, the crown of a mandarin drake, the stripes of a dragon, and the vanlted back of a tortoise. The feathers have five colors, which are named after the five cardinal virtues, and it i;^ five cubits in height ; the tail is graduated like Pandean pipes, and its song resembles the music of that instrument, having five modulations.” A beautiful ornament for a lady’s headdress is sometimes made in the shape of i\\e fung-Jnrang, and somewhat resembles a similar ornament, imitating the vulture, worn by the ladies of ancient Egypt.

The lung, or dragon, is a familiar object on articles from

China. It furnishes a comparison among them for e\ierything

terrible, imposing, and powerful ; and being taken as the imperial

coat of arms, consequently imparts these ideas to his

person and state. The type of the dragon is probably the boaconstrictor

or sea-serpent, or otiier similar monster, though the

researches of geology have brought to light such a near counterpart

of the lung in the iguanadon as to tempt one to

believe that this has been the prototype. There are three

dragons, the lung in the sky, the U in the sea, and the hlao in

the marshes. The first is the only authentic species, according

to the Chinese ; it has the head of a camel, the horns of a deer,

eyes of a rabbit, ears of a cow, neck of a snake, belly of a frog,

scales of a carp, claws of a hawk, and palm of a tigei-. On

each side of the mouth are whiskers, and its beard contains a

bi’ight pearl ; the breath is sometimes changed into water and

sometunes into fire, and its voice is like the jingling of copper

THE LUNG, OR DRAGON. 345

pans. The dragon of the sea occasionally ascends to heaven in

Avater-sponts, and is the rnler of all oceanic phenomena.’ The

dragon is worshipped and feared by Chinese fishermen, and

their liing-wang, or ‘ drag(jn king,’ answei-s to Keptnne in western

mythology ; perhaps the ideas of all classes toward it is a

modified relic of the widespread serpent worship of ancient

times. The Chinese suppose that elfs, demons, and other

supernatural beings often transform themselves into snakes ;

and M. Julien has translated a fairy story of this sort, called

Blanche et Bleue. The J,-wet, or tortoise, has so few fabulous

qualities attributed to it that it hardly comes into the list ; it

was, according to the story, an attendant on Pwanku when he

chiselled out the world. A semi-classical work^ the SJian-hal

Kmg, or ‘ Memoirs upon the Mountains and Seas,’ contains

pictures and descriptions of these and kindred monsters, from

which the people now derive strange notions respecting them,

the l)Ook having served to embody and fix for the whole nation

what the writer anciently found floating about in the popular

legends of particular localities.

A species of alligator {A. sinensis) has been described by

Dr. A. Fauvel in the iT. O. Br. B.A. So,-. Journal, Xo. XIII.,

1879, in which he gives man}’ historical and other notices of its

existence. Crocodiles are recorded as having been seen in the

rivers of Ivwangtnng and Ivwangsi, but none of this family

attain a large size.

Marco Polo’s account of the huge serpent of Yunnan,” having

two forelegs near the head, and one claw like that of a lion or

hawk on each, and a mouth big enough to swallow a man whole,

referring no doubt to the crocodile, is a good instance of the

way in which truth and fable were mingled in the accounts of

those times. The flesh is still eaten by the Anamese, as he

says it was in his day. A gigantic salamander, analogous to

the one found in Japan (the Sieholdia), has suggested it as the

‘ CJdnese Refiository, Vol. VII., p. 250. For a careful analysis of this relic

of ancient lore, see the Nowoeau Journal Asiatiq^ie, Tome XII., pp. 232-243,

1833 ; also Tome VIII., 3d Series, pp. 337-382, 1839, for M. Bazin’s estimata of its value.

•^ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 46.

type of the dragon which ligures on the Chinese national flag.

Small lizards abound in the southern parts, and the variety

and numbers of serpents, both land and water, found in the

maritime provinces, are hardly exceeded in any country in the

world ; they are seldom poisonous. A species of naja is the

only venomous sruike yet observed at Chusan, and the hooded

cobra is one of the few yet found around Canton. Another

species frequents the banks, and is driven out of the di’ains and

creeks l)v high water into the houses. A case is mentioned by

Bennet of a Chinese who was bitten, and to whose wound the

mashed head of the reptile had been applied as a poultice, a

mode of treatment which probably accelerated his death by

mixing more of the poison diluted in the animars blood with

the man’s own blood. It is, however, rare to hear of casualties

from this source. This snake is called ‘black and M’hite,’

from beino; marked in alternate bands of those two colors. A

species of acrochordon, remarkable for its abrupt, short tail,

has been noticed near Macao.

It is considered felicitous by the Buddhist priests to harbor

snakes around their temples ; and though the natives do not

play with poisonous serpents like the Hindoos, they often

handle or teach them simple tricks. The common frog is taken

in great numbers for food. Tortoises and tui-tles from fresh

and salt water are plenty along the coast, while both the emys

and trionyx are kept in tubs in the streets, where they grow

to a large size. An enormous carnivorous tortoise inhabits the

M’aters of Chehkiansr near the ocean. The natives have strange

ideas concerning the hairy turtle of Sz’chuen, and regard it as

excellent medicine ; it is now known that the supposed hair

consists of confervre, whose spores, lodged on the shell, have

grown far beyond the animal’s body.

The ichthyology of China is one of the richest in the world,

though it may be so more from the greater proportion of food

fui-nished by the waters than from any real supei’abundance of

the finny tribes. The offal thi-own from boats near cities attracts

some kinds to those jdaces, and gives food and employment

to multitudes. Several large collections of fishes have

CHTHYOLOGY OF CHINA. 347

been made in Canton, and IMr. Reeves deposited one of the richest in the British Museum, together with a series of drawings made Ijy native artists from living specimens ; they have been described by Sir John liicliardson in the Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, for 1845. In this paper he enumerates one hundred and ninety genera and six hundred and seventy-one species, nearly all of which are marine

or come out to sea at certain times. Since it was prepared

great accessions to this branch have been made from the inland

waters, so that probably a thousand sorts in all have been observed.

The salmon and cod families are comparatively scarce,

but the mackerel, goby, and herring families are very abundant.

The variety of fish is so great in Macao, that if one is

willino; to eat all that are brought to market, as the Chinese do

(including the sharks, torpedoes, gudgeons, etc.), one can have

a different species every day in the year. It may with truth

be said that the Chinese eat nearly every living thing found in

the water, some of the hideous fishing frogs or gurnards alone

excepted.

The cartilaginous fishes, sharks, rays, and saw-fish, are abundant

on the sea-coast. The sturgeon is not common at the south,

but in the winter it is brouo;ht fi-om the Sonsfari and other

rivers to Peking for the imperial table, being highly prized by

Chinese epicures. There is found in the Yangtsz”‘ a singular

species of sturgeon, the i/iuyil, which lies under the banks in still

water and sucks its prey into a sac-like mouth projecting like

a cusp under the long snout ; it has no scales, and is four feet

long. Common sturgeon, weighing a thousand pounds, are

caught in this river. The hammer-headed and zebra shark

{Cestracion zehra) are seen in the markets at Macao; also huge

skates, some of them measuring five feet across ; the young of

all these species are regarded as particularly good eating. A

kind of torpedo {J^arcine lingula) is not uncommon on the

southern coast, but the natives do not seem to l)e aware of any

electrical properties. It is said that the fishermen sometimes

destroy the shark by boiling a melon and throwing it out as a

bait ; when swallowed, the heat kills the fish. The true cod

has not been observed on the Chinese coast, but several species

of serrani (as Plectrojiotna susuki, Serranus shihjjan, Megachh\etc.), generally called s/n’/i-jxtn by the natives, and garoupa bj foreigners, are common oft” C^anton, and considered to be most

delicate fare. Anothei” fine fish is the Poh/nennis fetradactylus^

or bjnni-carp, often called salmon by foreigners ; isinglass is

prepared from its skin. The pomfret, or tsang yii {Stromateus

argenteus), is a good pan-fish, bnt hardly so delicate as the sole,

many fine species of which aboimd along the whole coast. Besides

these, two or three species of mackerel, the Soiodna lucicla^

an ophicephalns, the mullet, and the ‘ white rice fish ‘ occur.

The shad is abundant oft’ the Yangtsz’, and is superior to the

American species; Chinese epicures will sometimes pay fifty

dollars for the first one of the season.

The cai’p family {C’i/2>i’hiidie) is very abundant in the rivers

and lalces of China, and some species are reared in fish-pools and

tubs to a monstrous size ; fifty-two species are mentioned in

Ricliardson’s list. The gold-fish is the most celebrated, and

has been introduced into Europe, M’here it M-as first seen towai’d

tlie end of the seventeenth century. The Chinese say that its

Jiative place is Lake Tsau, in the province of l^ganhwui. The

effects of domestication in changing the natm-al form of this

fish are great ; specimens are often seen without any doi-sal fin,

and the tail and other fins tufted and lol)ed to such a degree as

to resemble artificial appendages or wings rather than natui-al

organs. The eyes are developed till the globe projects beyond

the socket like goggles, presenting an extraordinary appearance.

Some of them are so fantastic, indeed, that tlioy would be regarded

as Insns nature M^ere they not so connnon. The usual

color is a I’uddy golden hue, but both sexes exhibit a silvery or

blackish tint at certain stages of their growth ; and one variety,

called the silver-fish, retains this shade all its life. The Chinese

keep it in their garden ponds, or in earthern jai-s, in which

are placed rocks covered with moss, and overgi-own w\x\\ tufts

of ferns, to afford them a retreat fi-om the light. Vriien the

females spawn, the eggs must be removed to a shallow vessel,

lest the males devour them, where the heat of the sun hatches

them ; the young are nearly black, but gradually become whitish

or i-eddish, and at last assume a golden or silvery hue.

Specimens upward of two feet long have been uoticed, and

METHODS OF REARIN^G FISH. 349

those wlio rear tlieni emulate each other in producing new

varieties.

The rearing of lisli is an important pursuit, the spawn being

collected with the greatest care and placed in favorable positions

for hatching. The Bulletin Universel for 1829 asserts

that in some part of China the spawn so taken is carefullv

placed in an empty egg-shell and the hole closed ; the cirg is

then replaced in the nest, and, after the hen has sat a few davs

upon it, reopened, and the spawn placed in vessels of water

warmed bj the sun, wdiei-e it soon hatclies.

The innnense fleets of fishing boats on the Yangtsz’ and its

tributaries indicate the finny supplies its waters afford. A species

of pipe-fish [Fistula/’ia iminaculata\ of a red color, and

the gar-pike, with green bones, are found about Canton ; as are

also numerous beautiful parrot-fish and sun-fish {Chwtodon).

An ingenious mode of taking its prey is practised by a sort of

chsetodon, or chelmon ; it darts a drop of water at the flies or

other insects lighting on the bank near the edge, in such a

manner as to knock them off, when they are devoured. All

the species of ophieephalus, or mruj yi’i., so I’emarkable for their

tenacity of life, are reared in tanks and pools, and are hawked

alive through the streets.

Eels, mullets, alewives or file-fish, breams, gudgeons, and

many other kinds, are seen in the nuirkets. Few things eateix

by the Chinese look more repulsive than the gobies as they lie

wriggliTig in the slime which keeps them alive; one species

{Try])auchen vcujina)^ called chu 2>’Ji yu, or ‘vermilion pencilfish,’

is a cylindrical fish, six or eight inches long, of a dark red

color ; its eyes protrude so that it can see behind, like a girafle.

Some kinds of gobies construct little liillocks in the ooze, with

a depression on the top, in which their spawn is hatched by tlu;

sun ; at low tide they skip about on the banks like young frogs,

and are easily captured with the hand. A delicious species oi

Saurus {Leiicosoma Chinensis), called pihfan yil, or ‘ white rice

fish,’ and yin yil, or silver-fish, ranges from Hakodate to Canton.

It is six or eight inches long, the body scaleless and transparent,

so that the muscles, intestines, and spinal column can

be seen without dissection ; the bones of the head are thin, flexible, and diaphanoiis. Many species of file-fish, sole-fish, an^ cliovy, and eels, are captured on the coast. Vast quantities of

dried fish, like the stock fish in Sweden, are sent inland to sell

in resrions where fish are rare. The most common sorts are the

perch, sun fish, gurnard, and hair-tail {Trlchlnrus).

Shell-fish and mollusks, both fresh and salt, are abundant in

the market. Oysters of a good quality are common along the

coast, and a species of mactra, or sand-clam, is fished up near

Macao. The Pearl River affords two or three kinds of freshwater

shell-fish {Mytilus), and snails ( Voluta) are plenty in all

pools. The crangons, prawns, shrimps, crabs, and other kinds

of Crustacea met with, are not less abundant than palatable;

one species of craw-fish, as large as (but not taking the place of)

the lobster, called Ian// hat, or ‘ dragon crab,’ together with

cuttle-fish of three or four kinds, and the king-crab {Poly])]ietnus),

are all eaten. The inland w^aters produce many species

of shells, and the new genus theliderma, allied to the unio,

was formed by Mr. Benson, of Calcutta, from specimens obtained

of a shopkeeper at Canton. The land shells are abundant,

especiall}’ various kinds of snails {IIcll,i; Liftiiiwa, etc.) ;

twenty two species of helix alone were contained in a small

collection sent from Peking, in which region all this kind of

food is well known. A catalogue of nearly sixty shells obtained

in Canton is given in Murray’s China,’ but it. is doubtful

whether even half of them are found in the country, as the

shops there are supplied in a great degree from the Archipelago.

Dr. Cantor”” mentions eighty-eight genera of shells occurring

between Canton and Chusan. Pearls are found in China, and

Marco Polo speaks of a salt lake, supposed now to be in Yunnan,

which produced them in such quantity that the fishery in

his day was farmed out and restricted lest they should become

too cheap and common. In Chehkiang the natives take a largo

kind of clam {Alasmodonta) and gently attach leaden images

‘ Vol. TIL, p. 445.

” Conspectus of collections made by Dr. Cantor, CMnefte Ttepository, Vol. X.,

p. 434. General features of Cliusan, with remarks on the Fh)ra and Fauna of that Island, by T. E. Cantor, Aimal. Nai. Hist., Vol. IX. (1H42), pp. 205, 3()1

and 481. Juuriial Ah. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. XXIV., 1855.

SHELL-FISII AND INSECTS OF CHINA. 351

of Buddha under tlie flsli, after wliieli it is thrown back into

the water. Xacre is deposited over the lead, and after a few

months the shells are retaken, cleaned, and then sent abroad to

sell as proofs of the power and presence of Buddha. The

Quarterly lieview speaks of a mode })ractised by the Chinese

of making pearls by dropping a string of small mother-of-pearl

beads into the shell, which in a year ai’e covered wdth the

pearly crust. Leeches are much used by native physicians;

the hammer-headed leech has been noticed at Chusan.

The insects of China are almost unknown to the naturalist.

In Dr. Cantor’s collection, from Chusan, there are fifty-nine

genera mentioned, among which tropical forms prevail ; there

are also six genera of arachnida^, and the list of spiders could

easily be nudtipliod to hundreds ; among them are many showing

most splendid coloring. One large and strong species is

affirmed to capture small birds on the trees. Locusts sometimes

commit extensive ravages, and no part of the land is free

from their presence, though their depredations do not usually

reach over a great extent of country, or often for two successive

years. They are, however, sufficiently troiildesome to attract

the notice of the government, as the edict against them, inserted

in another chapter, proves. Centipedes, scorpions, and some other species in the same order are known, the former being most abundant in the central and western regions, where scorpions are rare.

The most valuable insect is the silkworm, which i.; reared in

nearly every province, and the silk from otlier wild M’orms

found on the oak and ailantus in Shantung, Sz’chuen, and elsewhere

also gathered ; the proper silkworm itself has been met

with to some extent in northern Shansi and Mongolia. Many

other insects of the same order {Lepidoj)ter(e) exist, but those

sent abroad have been mostly from the province of Kwangtung.

Eastward of the city of Canton, on a range of hills

called Lofau shan, large butterflies and night moths of immense

size and brilliant coloring are captured. One of these

mQGcis, {Bornhyx atlas) \\\e2i&\\ve& about nine inches across ; the

ground color is a rich and varied orange brown, and in the centre

of each wing there is a triangular transparent spot, resembling a piece of mica. Sphinxes of great beauty and size are common, and in their splendid coloring, rapid noiseless flight from flower to flower, at the close of the day, remind one of the lunnming-bird. Sonje families are more abundant than others ; the coleopterous exceed the lepidopterous, and the range of particular tribes in each of these is often very limited. The humid regions of Sz’chuen furnished a great harvest of beautiful butterflies to M, David, while the lamellicorn beetles and cerambycidae are the most common in the north and central parts.

Many tribes of coleopterous insects are abundant, but the

number of species yet identified is trifling. Several water

beetles, and others included under the same general designation,

have been found in collections sold at Canton, but owing to the

careless manner in wliich those boxes are filled, very few specimens

are perfect, the antenna3 or tarsi being broken. The molecricket

occurs everywhere. The common cricket is caught and

sold in the markets for gambling ; persons of all ranks amuse

themselves by irritating two of these insects in a bowl, and betting

upon the prowess of their favorites. The cicada, or broad

locust, is abundant, and its stridulous sound is heard from trees

and groves with deafening loudness. Boys tie a straw around

the abdomen of the male, so as to irritate the sounding apparatus,

and carry it through the streets in this predicament, to

the great annoyance of every one. This insect was well known

to the Greeks ; the ancient distich

—

” Happy the cicadas’ lives,

For they all have voiceless wives,”

hints at their knowledge of this sexual difference, as well as intimates

their opinion of domestic quiet. Again it forms the

subject of Meleager’s invocation :

•’ shrill-voiced insect ! that with dew-drops meet,

Inehriate, dost in desert woodlands sing ;

Perch’d on the spray top with indented feet,

Thy dusky body’s echoings harp-like ring.”

COLEOPTEM^ AND THE WAX \VOK>t. 358

The lantern-fly {Fulgm’o) is less common than the cicada. It is easily recognized by its long cylindrical snout, arched in an upward direction, its greenish reticulated elytra, and orange-yellow wings with black extremities ; but its appearance in the evening is far from being as luminous as are the fire-Hy and glow-worm of South America. The Peh lah ahu, or ‘ white wax tree’ {Fraxinus chinensis), affords nourishment to an insect of this order

called Coccus pela. The larvae alone furnish the wax, the secretion

being the result of disease. Sir Geo. L. Staunton first

described the tly from specimens seen in Annam in 1795, where

the natives collected a white powder from the bark of the

tree on which it occurs. Daniel Ilanbury figured the insect

and tree with the deposit of crude wax on the limbs, all obtained

in Chekhiang province.’ Baron Richthofen speaks of

this industry in Sz’chuen as one furnishing employment to

great multitudes. The department of Kia-ting furnishes the

best wax, as its climate is warmer than Chingtu. The eggs of

the insect are gathered in Kien-chang and King-yuen, where

the tree flourishes on which it deposits them, and its culture is

carefully attended to. The insect lives and breeds on this evergreen,

and in April the eggs are collected and carried up to

Kia-ting by porters. This journey is mostly performed by

night so as to avoid the risk of hatching their loads ; 300 eggs

weigh one tael. They are instantly placed on the same kind of

tree, six or seven balls of eggs done up in palm-leaf bags and

hung on the twigs. In a few days the larvae begin to spread

over the branches, but do not touch the leaves ; the bark soon

becomes incrusted with a white powder, and is not disturbed

till August. The loaded branches are then cut off and boiled,

when the wax collects on the surface of the water, is skimmed

off, and melted again to be poured into pans for sale. A tael’s

weight of eggs will produce two or three catties of the translucent,

highly crystalline wax ; it sells thei-e for five mace a tael and

upward. The annual income is reckoned at Tls. 2,000,000.’

The purposes to which this singular product are applied include

all those of beeswax. Pills are ingeniously enclosed in small

‘ Hanbury’s notes on Chinese Materia Medica, 1862 ; Pharmaceutical

Journal, Feb., 1802.

^ Baron Ricbthofen’s Letters, No. VII. , to Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, May, 187e, p. r)2.

globes of it, and onndles of every size made. “Wax is also gatli

ered from wild and domestic bees, but honey is not miicli used ;

a casing of wax, colored with vermilion, is nsed to inclose the

tallow of great painted candles set before the idols and tablets.

The Chinese Ilerhal contains a singular notion, prevalent

also in India, concerning the generation of the sphex, or solitary

wasp. When the female lays her eggs in the clayey nidus

she makes in houses, she encloses the dead body of a caterpillar

in it for the subsistence of the worms when they hatch. Those

who observed her entombing the caterpillar did not look for

the eggs, and immediately concluded that the sphex took the

wo)-m for her progeny, and say that as she plastered up the

liole of the nest, she hinnmed a constant song over it, saying,

^^ Class ‘ii’ith nnc ! (Jhixs tiufji, me ! ‘”—and the transformation

gradually took place, and was perfected in its silent grave by

the next spring, when a winged wasp emerged to continue its

posterity in the same mystei’ious way.’

White ants are troublesome in the warmer parts, and annoy

the people there by eating up tlie coffins in the graves. They

form passages under ground, and penetrate upward into the

woodwork of houses, and the w’hole building may become infested

M’ith them almost before their existence is suspected.

They will even eat their way into fruit trees, cabbages, and

other plants, destroying them while in full vigor. Many of the

internal arrangements of the nests of bees and ants, and their

peculiar instincts, have been described by Chinese writers with

considerable accuracy. The composition of the characters for

the bee, ant, and mosquito, respectively, denote the atcl insect,

the 7’l(jhteous insect, and the lettered insect ; referring thereby

to the sting of the first, the orderly working and subordination

of the second, and the letter-like markings on the wings of

the latter. Mosquitoes are plenty, and gauze curtains are considered

to be a more necessary part of bed furniture than a

mattress.

The botany of China is rather better known than its zoology,

‘ Darwin, NaturalisVs Voyage, p. 35, notices a similar habit of the spliex in

tlie vicinity of Rio Janeiro. The insect partially kills the spider or caterpillar

by stinging, when they are stored in a rotting state with her eggs.

RESEARCHES IN THE BOTANY OF CHINA. 355

though vast and unexplored fields, like that reaching from Canton

to Silhet and Assam, still invite the diligent collector to

gather, examine, and make known their treasures. One of the

earliest authors in this branch was Pere Loureiro, a Portuguese

for thirty-six years missionary in Cochinchina, and professor of

mathematics and physic in the royal palace. He gathered a

large herbarium there and in southern Kwangtung, and published

his Flora Coehinehinensis in 1790, in which he described

one hundred and eighty-four genera and more than three hundred

new species. The only other work specially devoted to

Chinese botany is Bentham’s Flora JTongJcongensis, published

in 18G1. The materials for it were collected by Drs. Hinds,

Ilance and Ilarland, Col. Champion, and others, during the

previous twenty years, and amounted in all to upward of five

thousand specimens, gathered exclusively on the island. Since

its publication, Dr. Hance has added to our accurate knowledge

of the Chinese flora many new specimens growing in other

parts of the Empire, whose descriptions are scattered through

various publications. Pere David, during his extensive travels

in northern China, gathered thousands of specimens which have

yet to be carefully described. The Pussian naturalists Maximowitch,

Bunge, Tatarinov, Bretschneider, Prejevalsky, and

others liave largely increased our knowledge of the plants of

Mongolia, the Amur basin, and the region about Pekhig. The

first named has issued a separate work on the Amur flora, but

most of the papers of these scientists are to be found in periodicals.

In very early days, China was celebrated for the camphor,

varnish, tallow, oil, tea, cassia, dyes, etc., obtained from

its plants ; and the later monographs of professed botanists,

issued since Linneus looked over the two hundred and sixtyfour

species brought by his pupil Osbeck in 1750, down to the

present day, have altogether given immense assistance to a

thorough understanding of their nature and value.

Mr. Bentham’s observations on the range of the plants collected

in the island of Hongkong represent its flora, in general

character, as most like that of tropical Asia, of which it offers,

in numerous instances, the northern limit. The damp, M’ooded

ravines on the north and west furnish plants closely allied to those of Assam and Sikkiiii ; while other species, in considerable numbers, have a much more tropical character, extending with little variation over the x\rchipelago, Malaysia, Ceylon, and even to tropical Africa, but not into India. Within two degrees north of the island these tropical features (so far as is

known) almost entireW cease, and out of the one thousand and

fifty-six species described in the Flora Ifongl’ongensis, only

about eighty have been found in Japan ; thus indicating that

very few of the plants known to range across from the Himalaya

to Japan grow south of Amoy. On the twenty-nine

square miles foi-ming the area of Hongkong there exists, Mr.

]3entham says, a greater number of monotypic genera than in

any other flora from an equal area in the world ; he gives a

comparative table of the floras of Hongkong, Aden and Ischia

islands, about equal in extent, showing one thousand and three

species growing on the first, ninety-five on the second, and

seven hundred and ninety-two on the third. Tlie proportion

of woody to herbaceous species in Hongkong is nearly one-half,

while in Ischia it is one to eleven ; yet Hongkong has actually

fewer trees than Ischia. Out of tlie one thousand and three

species of wild plants there, three hundred and ninety-eight

also occur in the tropical Asiatic flora, while one hundred and

eighty-seven others have been found as well on the mainland; one hundred and fifty-nine are peculiar to the island.

Many species of coniferae are floated down to Canton, taken

from the Mei ling, or brought from Kwangsi ; the timber is

used for fuel, but more for rafters and pillars in buildings.

The wood of the pride of India is employed for cabinet work ;

there are also many kinds of fancy wood, some of which are

imported, and more are indigenous. The nan muh, or southern

wood, a magnificent species of laurus common in Sz’chuen,

which resists time and insects, is peculiarly valuable, and reserved

for imperial use. The cc«salpinia, rose wood, aigle

wood, and the camphor, elm, willow, and aspen, are also

serviceable in carpentry.

The people collect seaweed to a great extent, using it in the

arts and also for food ; among these the Gi<jartina tenax affords

an excellent material for glues and varnishes. It is boiled, and

CONIFERyE AND GRASSES. 357

the transparent glne obtained is brushed upon very coarse silk or

mulberry paper, filling up their substance, and making a transparent

covering for lanterns ; it is also used as a size for stiffening

silks and gauze. This and other kinds of fuel are boiled to a

jelly and used for food ; it is known in commerce under the name

of agar-agar. The thick fronds of the laminaria are gathered on

the northern coasts and imported from Japan. Among other

cryptogams, the Tartarian lamb {Aspldiian haromefz), so

graphically described by Darwin in his Botania Garden, has

long been celebrated ; it is partly an artificial production of the

ingenuity of Chinese gardeners taking advantage of the natural

habits of the plant to form it into a shape resembling a sheep or

other object.

Among i-emarkable grasses the zak or saxaul {Ilaloxylon) and

the sulhJr {Agr’tojdnjllu.m), which grow in the sandy parts of

the desert of Gobi, should he mentioned. The first is found

across the whole length of this arid region, growing on the bare

sand, furnishing to the traveller a dry and ready fuel in its brittle

twigs, while his camels greedily browse on its leafless but

juicy and prickly branches. The Mongols pitch their tents bebeath

its shelter, seeking for some covert from the wintry

winds, and encouraged to dig at its roots for water which has

been detained by their succulent nature, a wonderful provision

furnished by God in the bleakest desert. The sulh’ir is even

more important, and is the ” gift of the desert.” It grows on

bare sand, is about two feet high, a prickly saline plant, producing

many seeds in September, of a nutritious, agreeable

nature, food for man and beast.

The list of gramineous plants cultivated for food is large; the common sorts include rice, wheat, barley, oats, maize, sugarcane,

panic, sorghum, spiked and panicled millet, of each kind

several varieties. The grass {Phragmites) raised along the

river banks is carefully cut and dried, to be woven into floormatting

; a coarser sort, called ataj), is made of bamboo splints

for roofs of huts, awnings, and sheds. In the milder climes of

the southern coasts, cheap houses are constructed of these

materials. The coarse grass and shrubbery on the hills is cut

in the autumn for fuel by the poor ; and when the hills are well slieared of their grassy covering, the stubble is set on lire, in order to supply ashes for manuring the next crop—an operation which tends to keep the hills ])are of all shrubbery and trees.

Few persons mIio have not seen the bainlxio growing in its

native climes get a full idea from pictures of its grace and

beauty. A clump of this magnificent grass will gradually develop

by new shoots into a grove, if care be taken to cut down

the older stems as they reach full maturity, and not let them

flower and go to seed ; for as soon as they have perfected the

seed, they die down to the root, like other grasses. The stalks

usually attain the height of fifty feet, and in the Indian islands

often reach seventy feet and upward, with a diameter of ten or

twelve inches at the bottom. A road lined with them, with

their feathery sprays meeting overhead, presents one of the most

beautiful avenues possible to a warm climate.

In China the industry and skill of the people have multiplied

and pei-petuated a number of varieties (one author contents

himself with describing sixty of them), among M’liich are the

yellow, the black, the green, the slender sort for pipes, and a

slenderer one for writing-pencils, the big-leaved, etc. Its uses

are so various that it is not easy to enumerate them all. The

shoots come out of the ground nearly full-sized, four to six

inches in diameter, and are cut like asparagus to eat as a pickle

or a comfit, or by boiling or stewing. Sedentary Buddhist

priests raise this lenten fare for themselves or to sell, and extract

the tabasheer from the joints of the old culms, to sell as a

precious medicine for almost anything which ails you. The

roots are carved into fantastic and ingenious images and stands,

or divided into egg-shaped divining-blocks to ascertain the will

of the gods, or trinnned into lantern handles, canes, and umbrella-

sticks.

The tapering culms are used for all pui’poses that poles can

be applied to in carrying, propelling, suj)])orting, and measuring,

for which thcii- light, elastic, tubular sti-uctni-e, guarded by

a coating of silicious skin, and strengthened by a thick septum

at each joint, most admii-ably fits them. The pillars and props

of houses, the framework of awnings, the ribs of mat-sails, and

THE BAMBOO—ITS BEAUTY AND USEFULNESS. 359

tlie shafts of rakes are each fnrnislied bj these cuhns. So,

also, are fences and all kinds of frames, coops, and cages, the

wattles of abatis, and the ribs of uuibi-eHas and fans. The

leaves are sewed into rain-cloaks for farmers and sailors, and

thatches for covering their huts and boats, pinned into linings

for tea-boxes, plaited into immense um])rellas to screen the

huckster and his stall from the sun and rain, or into coverings

for theatres and sheds. Even the whole lot where a two-storj

house is building is usually covered in by a framework of bamboo-

poles and (?/%;—as this leaf covering is called, from its

Malay name—all tied together by rattan, and protecting the

workmen and theii” work from sun and rain.

The wood, cut into splints of proper sizes and forms, is woven

into baskets of every shape and fancy, sewed into window-curtains

and door-screens, plaited into awnings and coverings for

tea-chests or sugar-cones, and twisted into cables. The shavings

and curled threads aid softer things in. stuffing pillows ; while

other parts supply the bed for sleeping, the chopsticks for eating,

the pipe for smoking, and the broom for sweeping. The

mattress to lie upon, the chair to sit upon, the table to eat on,

the food to eat, and the fuel, to cook it with, are also derivable

from bamboo. The master makes his ferule from it, the carpenter

his foot-measure, the farmer his water-pipes, irrigating

wheels, and straw-rakes, the grocer his gill and phit cups, and

the mandarin his dreaded instrument of punishment. This last

use is so common that the name of the plant itself has come in

our language to denote this application, and the poor wretch

who is hamhooed for his crimes is thus taught that laws cannot

be violated with impunity.

The paper to write on, the book to study fi’om, the pencil to

write with, the cup to hold the pencils, and the covering of the

lattice-window instead of glass are all indebted to this grass in

their manufacture. The shaft of the soldier’s spear, and oftentimes

the spear altogether, the plectrum for playing the lute,

the reed in the native organ, the skewer to fasten the hair, the

undershirt to protect the body, the hat to screen the head, the

bucket to draw the water, and the easy-chair to lounge on,

besides cages for birds, fish, bees, grasshoppers, shrimps, and

360 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

cockroaches, crab-nets, fishing-poles, sumpitans oi* sliooting

tubes, fintes, fifes, fire-holders, etc., etc., are among the thingti

furnished from this plant, whose beauty when growing is commensurate

to its usefulness when cut down. A score or two of

bamboo- poles for joists and rafters, fifty fathoms of rattan ropes,

with plenty of palm-leaves and bamboo-matting for roof and

sides, supply material for a common dwelling in the south of

China. Its cost is about five dollars. Those houses built over

creeks, or along the low banks of rivers and sea-beaches, are

elevated a few feet, and their floors are neatly made of split

bamboos, which allow the water to be seen through. The

decks, masts, yards, and framework of the mat-sails of the small

boats of the islanders in the Archipelago are all more or les.’i

made of this useful plant. Throughout the south of Asia it

enters into the daily life of the people in their domestic economy

more than anything else, or than any other one thing does in

any part of the world. The Japanese supply us with fans

neatly formed, ribs and liandle, from a single branch of bamboo,

and covered with paper made from mulberry bark, while their

skill is shown also in the exquisite covering of fine bamboo

threads woven around cups and saijcers.’

In ancient times the date palm was cultivated in China, but

is now unknown. The cocoanut flourishes in Hainan and the

adjacent coasts, where its fruit, leaves, and timber are much

used. A great variety of utensils are carved from the nut-case,

and ropes spun from the coir, while the cultivators drink the

toddy made from the juice. The fan palm {Ch(Hiucroj)s) is the

comlnon palm of the country, two species being cultivated for

the wiry fibres in the leaf-sheaths, and fur their broad leaves.

This fibre is far more useful than that from cocoanut husks, as

it is longer and smoother, and is woven into ropes, mats, cloaks,

and brushes. The tree is spread over the greater part of the

provinces, one of their most ornamental and useful trees. Another

sort {Canjotd) also furnishes a fibre employed in the same

way, but its timber is more valuable ; sedan thills are made of

its wood. Still another is the tali}>ot \rA\\\\ (ItoraxKits), from.

‘ Compare Yule’s Marm Polo, Vol. I., p. 271 •, A. 11. Wallace. 2’he Malay

Archipelago, pp. 87-91, American Ed.

PALMS, YAMS, PLANTAINS, ETC. 861

whose leaves a material fur writing books upon was once produced,

as is the case now in Siam.’

Several species of Aroideae are cultivated, among which the

Caladluiii cuculaturn, Arum esculentuvi, and Indicurii are

common. The tuberous farinaceous roots of the Sagittaria

srueihslfi are esteemed ; the roots of these plants, and of the

water-chestnut, are manufactured into a powdoi- resemblingarrow-

root. The sweet Hag {Calanitm) is used in medicine for

its spic\’ warmth. The stems of a species of Juncus are collected

and the pith carefully taken out and dried for the wicks

of water lamps, and the inner layers of the pith hats so generally

worn in southern China.

The extensive group of lillies contains many splendid ornaments

of the conservatory and garden, natives of China ; some

are articles of food. The Agcqxinthus, or blue African lily, four

species of IlemerocaUis, or day lily, and the fragrant tuberose,

are all common about Canton ; the latter is widely cultivated

for its blossoms to scent fancy teas. Eight or ten species of

Lilium (among which the speckled tiger lily and the unsullied

white are conspicuous) also add their gay beauties to the gardens

; while the modest Commelina, with its delicate blue blossoms,

ornaments the hedges and walks. Many alliaceous plants,

the onion, cives, garlic, etc., belong to this group ; and the Chinese

relish them for the table as nmcli as they admire the

flowers of their beauteous and fi-agrant congeners for bouquets.

The singular red-leaved iron-wood {Draccena) forms a common

ornament of gardens.

The yam, or t((-s/tu (i.e., ‘great tuber’), is not much raised,

though its wholesome qualities as an article of food are well

understood. The same group {3Iusalei^) to which tlie yam

belongs furnishes the custard-apple, one of the few fruits which

have been introduced from abroad. The Amaryllidse are represented

by many pretty species of Crinum, Xerine, and Amaryllis.

Their unprotitable beauty is compensated by the plain but

useful plantain, said to stand before the potato and sago pahn

as producing the greatest amount of wholesome food, in propor-

‘See also in Nates and Queries on 0. and J., Vol. IIL, pp. 115, 139, 13^

147, 150, 170.

362 tup: middle kixgdom.

tion to its size, of any cultivated plant.’ There are many varieties

of this fruit, some of them so acid as to require cooking

hefore eating.

That pleasant stomachic, ginger, is cultivated through all the

country, and exposed for sale as a ereen vegetable, to spice

dishes, and largely made into a preserve. The Alpinia and

Canna, or Indian shot, are common garden flowers. The large

group of OrchideiB has nineteen genera known to be natives of

China, among which the air plants ( Vanda and jErides) are great

favorites. They are suspended in baskets under the trees, and

continue to unfold their blossoms in gradual succession for manv

weeks, all the care necessary being to sprinkle them daily. The

true species of brides are among the most beautiful productions

of the vegetable world, their flowers being arrayed in long racemes

of delicate colors and delicious fragrance. The beautiful Bletia,

Arundina, Spathoglottis, and Cymbidium are common in damp

and elevated places about the islands near Macao and Hongkong.

Many species of the pine, cypress, and yew, forming the

three subdivisions of cone-bearing plant?, furnish a 1 a I’ge proportion

of the timber and fuel. The larch is not rare, and the

Pinus tndssoniana and Cunninghamia furnish most of the

common pine timber. The finest member of this order in

China is the white pine {Pinus htDujtami), peculiar to Chihli

;

its trunk is a clear white, and as it annually sheds the bark it

always looks as if whitewashed. Some specimens near Peking

are said to be a thousand years old. Two members of the

genus Sequoia, of a moderate size, occur near Tibet. The juniper

and thuja are often selected by gardeners to try their skill

in forcing them to grow into rude representations of birds and

animals, the price of these curiosities being proportioned to

their grotesqueness and difiiculty. The nuts of the maiden-hair

tree {Saliffhu/’ia adiatdifolia) are eaten, and the leaves are

sometimes put into books as a preservative against insects.

The willow is a favorite plant and grows to a great size,

Staunton mentioning some which were fifteen feet in girth ;

‘ From calculations of Humboldt It was estimated that the productiveness

of this plant as compared with wheat is as 133 to 1, and as against potatoes, 44

to 1.

FOKEST TREES, HEMP, ETC. 363

they shade the roads near the capital, and one of them is the

true Babylonian ^\ illow ; the trees are grown for timber and for

burning into charcoal. Their leaves, shape, and habits afford

many metaphors to poets and Avriters, much more use being

made of the tree in tliis way. it miglit almost be said, than any

other. The oak is less patronized by fine writers, but the value

of its wood and bark is well understood ; the country affords

several species, one of which, the chestnut oak, is cultivated for

tlie cupules, to be used in dyeing. The galls are used for dyeing

and in medicine, and the acorns of some kinds are ground in

mills, and the iiour soaked in water and made into a farinaceous

paste. Some of the missionaries speak of oaks a hundred feet

high, but such giants in this family are rare. ” One of the

lai’gest and most interesting of these trees, which,’”‘ writes Abel,

” I have called Quercus derhsifolia, resembled a laurel in its

sliming green foliage. It bore branches and leaves in a thick

head, crowning a naked and straight stem ; its fi-uit grew along upright

spikes terminating the branches. Another species, growing

to the height of fifty feet, bore them in long, pendulous spikes.”

The chestnut, walnut, and hazelnut together furnish a large

supply of food. The queer-shaped ovens fashioned in imitation

of a raging lion, in which chestnuts are roasted in tlie streets of

Peking, attract the eye of the visitoi”. The Jack-fruit {Artocarj>

us) is not uidvnown in Canton, but it is not much used. Thei’e

are many species of the banian, but none of them produce fruit

worth plucking ; the Portuguese have introduced the connnon

fig, but it does not flourish. The bastard banian is a magnificent

shade tree, its branches sometimes overspreading an area a

hundred or more feet across. The walls of cities and dwellings

are soon covered with the Ficus rej>en.s, and if left unmolested

its roots gradually demolish them. The paper mulberry

{Broussonetia) is largely cultivated in the northern provinces,

and serves the poor with their chief material for windows.

The leaf of the common nmlberry is the pi-incipal object of its

culture, but the fruit is eaten and the wood burned for lampblack

to make India-ink.

Hemp {Cannahis) is cultivated for its fibres, and the seeds

furnish an oil used for household purposes and medicinal prep364

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

arations ; the intoxicating substance called hang, made in India,

is unknown in China. The family Proteaceae’ contains the

Eleococca cvrdata, or wu-ttnuj, a favorite tree of the Chinese for

its beauty, the hard wood it furnishes, and the oil extracted

from its seeds. The Stillingia belongs to the same family ; this

symmetrical tree is a native of all the eastern provinces, where

it is raised for its tallow ; it resembles the aspen in the form

and color of the leaf and in its general contour. The castor-oil

is cultivated as a hedge plant, and the seeds are used both in

the kitchen and apothecai’ies’ ^\\o\>.

The order Ilippuriuie furnishes the water caltrops {Trwpa),

the seeds of which are vended in the streets as a fruit after

boiling; one native name is ‘buffalo-head fruit,’ Mhicli the unopened

nuts strikingly resemble. Black pepper is imported,

not so much as a spice as for its infusion, to be administered in

fevers. The betel pepper is cultivated for its leaves, which are

chewed with the betel-nut. The pitcher plant (N’ejpenthes),

called pig-basket plant, is not unfrequent near Canton ; the

leaves, or ascidia, bear no small resemblance to the open baskets

employed for carrying hogs.

Many species of the tribe JRumicince are cultivated as esculent

vegetables, among which maybe enumerated spinach, green

basil, beet, amaranthus, cockscomb, broom-weed {Kochia), buckwheat,

etc. Two species of Polygonum are laised for the blue

dye furnished by the leaves, which is extracted, like indigo, by

maceration. Buckwheat is prepared for food by boiling it like

millet; one native name means ‘triangular wheat.’ The tlour

is also employed in pastry. The cockscomb is much adniire<l

by the Chinese, whose gardens furnish several splendid varieties.

The rhubarb is a member of this useful tribe, and large quantities

are l)rought from Kansuh and Koko-nor, where its habits

have lately been observed by Prejevalsky. The root is dug by

Chinese and Tanguts during September and October, dried in

the shade, and ti-ansported by the Yellow River to the coast

towns, where Europeans pay from six to ten times its rate

among the mountain markets.’ The Chinese consider the rest

‘ Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. T., p. 197.

RHUBARB, LEGUMINOS^, ETC. 365

of tiie world dependent on them for tea and rhubarb, whose

inhabitants are therefore forced to resort thither to procure

means to relieve themselves of an otherwise irremediable costiveness.

This argument was made use of by Commissioner

Lin in 1840, when recommending certain restrictive regulations

to be imposed upon foreign trade, because he supposed merchants

from abroad would be compelled to purchase them at

any price.

The order lliclna^ or holly, furnishes several genera of

lihamneai, whose fruits are often seen on tables. The Zizyphus

furnishes the so called Chinese dates’ in immense quantities

throughout the northern provinces. The fleshy peduncles

of the llovenia are eaten ; they are connnon in the southeastern

provinces. The leaves of the Rltaninus tlieezans are among

the many plants collected by the poor as a make-shift for the

true tea. The fruit called the Chinese olive, obtained from the

Pimela, is totally diiferent from and is a poor substitute for the

rich olive of the Mediterranean countries.”

The Leguminos^e hold an important place in Chinese botany,

affording many esculent vegetables and valuable products.

Peas and beans are probably eaten more in China than any

other country, and soy is prepared chiefly from the ISoja or

Dolichos. One of the modes of making this condiment is to

skin the beans and gi’ind them to flour, which is mixed with

water and powdered gypsum, or turmeric. It is eaten as a

jelly or curd, or in cakes, and a meal is seldom spread without

it in some form. One genus of this tribe affords indigo, and

from the buds and leaves of a species of Coluteaakind of green

dye is said to be obtained. Liquorice is esteemed in medicine ;

and the red seeds of the Ahna j^recrt/o^’/^^.s” are gathered for

ornaments. The Poinciana and Bauhinia are cultivated for

their flowers, and the Erythrina and Cassia are among the

most magnificent flowering trees in the south.

‘ Tlie application of this name to the jujube plum by foreigners, because

the kind cured in honey resembled Arabian dates in color, size, and taste

when brought on the table, is a good instance of the nuinner in which errors

arise and are perpetuated from mere carelessness.

‘^ Compare Dr. H. F. Hance, in Journal of Bot<iny, Vol. IX., p. 38.

366 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

The fruits are, on the whole, inferior in flavor and size to

those of the same names at the west. Several varieties of

pears, plums, peaches, and apricots are known ; it is probable

that China is the native country of each of these fruits, and

some of the varieties equal those found anywhere. Erman

‘

mentions an apple or haw which grows in ” long bunches and

is round, about the size of a cherry, of a red color, and very

sweet taste,” found in abundance near Kiahhta. There are

numerous species of Amygdalus cultivated for their flowers

;

and at new year the budding stems of the flowering almond,

narcissus, plum, peach, and bell-flower (Enlianthus retlculatuH)

are forced into blossom for exhibition, as indicating good luck

the coming year. The apples and cpiinces are generally destitute

of that flavor looked for in them elsewhere, but the lu-l’uh,

or loquat^ is a pleasant acid spring fruit. The pomegranate is

chiefly cultivated for its beauty as a flowering plant ; but the

guava and Eugenia, or rose-apple, are sold in the market or

made into jellies. The rose is a favorite among the Chinese and

extensively cultivated ; twenty species are mentioned, together

with many varieties, as natives of the country ; the Banks rose

is developed and trained with great skill. The Spira?a or privet,

myrtle, Quisqualis, Lawsonia or henna, white, purple, and red

varieties of crape-myrtle or Lagerstrcemia, Hydrangea, the passion-

flower, and the house-leek are also among the ornamental

plants found in gardens. Few trees in any countiy present a

more elegant appearance, when in full flowei”, than the Lagerstra’inias.

The Pride of India and Chinese tamarix are also

beautiful flowering trees. Specimens of the Cactus and Cereus,

containing fifty or more splendid flowers in full bloom, are not

unusual at Macao in August.

The watermelon, cucumber, squash, tomato, brinjal or eggplant,

and other garden vegetables are abundant ; the tallowgourd

(Bcnincctsacerifcm) is remarkable for having its surface

covered with a waxy exudation which sniells like rosin. The

dried bottle-gourd {Cucnirbita lagenaria) is tied to the backs of

children on the boats to assist them in floating if they should

^Travels in Siberia, Vol. II., p. 151.

FRUIT TREES AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 367

Tinluckily fall overboard. Tlie fniit and leaves of the papaw,

or inuh k^va, ‘ tree melon,’ are eaten after being cooked ; tlie

Chinese are aware of the inteneratino; property of the exhalations

from the leaves of this tree, and make use of them sometimes

to soften the flesh of ancient hens and cocks, by hanging

the newly killed birds in the tree or by feeding them upon the

fruit beforehand. The carambola {Averr/ioa) or tree gooseberry

is nnich eaten by the Chinese, but is not relished by

foreigners ; the tree itself is also an ornament to any pleasure

grounds.

Ginseng is found wild in the forests of Manchuria, where it

is collected by detachments of soldiers detailed for this purpose ;

these regions are regarded as imperial preserves, and the medicine

is held as a governmental monopoly. The importation of

the American root does not interfere to a very serious degree

with the imperial sales, as the Chinese are fully convinced that

their o’svn plant is far superior. Among numerous plants of

the malvaceous and pink tribes (Dianthacece) remarkable for

their beauty or use, the Lychnis cownata, five sorts of pink,

the Althcea Chinensis, eight species of Hibiscus, and other

malvaceous flowers may be mentioned ; the cotton tree {Salmalia)

is common at Canton ; the fleshy petals are sometimes

j^repared as food, and the silky stamens dried to stuff cushions.

The (Tossyjnmn hevljaceniti and Pachyrrhizus affoi-d the matCv

rials for cotton and gra«scloth ; both of them are cultivated in

most parts of China. The latter is a twining, leguminous

plant, cultivated fi-om remote antiquity, and still grown for its

fibres, which are woven into linen. The petals of the Ilihiscvs

rosa-sinensis furnish a black liquid to dye the eyebrows, and at

Batavia they are employed to polish shoes. The fruits of the

Hibiscus ocJira^ or okers, are prepared for the table in a vai’iety

of ways.

The Camellia Ja^wnica is allied to the same great tribe as

the Hibiscus, and its elegant flowers are as much admired by

the people of its native country as by florists abroad ; thirty or

forty varieties are enumerated, many of them unknown out of

China, while Chinese gardeners are likewise ignorant of a large

proportion of those found in our conservatories. This flower is

368 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

cultivated solely for its beauty, but other species of Camellia

are raised for their seeds, the oil expressed from them being

serviceable for many household and mechanical purposes. From

the fibres of a species of Waltheria, a j)lant of the same tribe, a

fine cloth is made ; and the Pentapctes Pluxnicia^ or ‘ noon

fiower,’ is a common ornament of gardens.

The widely diffused tribe Ranunculiacese has many representatives,

some of them profitable for their timber, others sought

after for their fruit or admired for their beauty, and a few

prized for their healing properties. There are eight species of

Magnolia, all of them splendid flowering plants ; the bark of

the Magnol’ui yulan is employed as a febrifuge. The seed vessels

of the IllclunL anisatum, or star-aniseed, are gathered on

account of their spicy warmth and fragrance. The Artabotrys

odoratixslinuH and Unona odorata are cultivated for tlieir perfume.

Another favorite is the iiiowtan^ or tree paiony, reared

for its large and variegated flowers ; its name of hwa uiang, or

‘ king of flowers,’ indicates the estimation in which it is held.

The skill of nativ-e gardeners has made many varieties, and

their patience is rewarded b}’ the high prices which fine specimens

command. Good imitations of full-grown plants in flower

are sometimes made of pith paper. Tlie Clematis, the foxglove,

the Berheris Chinensh^ and the magnificent lotus, all

belong to this tribe ; the latter, one of the most celebrated

plants in Asia, is more esteemed by the CMiinese for its edible

roots than reverenced for its religious associations. The Adtm

aKpci’d is sometimes collected, as is the scouring i-ush, for cleaning

pewter vessels, for which its hispid leaves are well fitted.

The groups which include the poppy, nnistai-d, cabbage, cress,

and many ornamental species, form an important ])ortion of

native agriculture. The poppy has become a connuon crop in

all the province^, driving out the useful cereals by its greater

value and profit. The leaves of many crucifei-ous plants are

eaten, whether cultivated or wild ; and one kind {Lsates^ yields

a fine blue dye in the eastern provinces ; the variety and amount

of such food consumed by the Chinese proi)ably exceeds that

of any other people. Another tribe, Tlutaceie, contains the

oranges and shaddocks, and some very fragrant shrubs, as the

ORTSTAMKNTAL PLANTS, ETC. 369

Mnvraya ci’otk’a and jHiniculata, and tlie Aglaia odoratd ;

while the bhiddei’-tree {Koelt’euteria) is a great attraction when

its whole surface is brilliant with golden tlowers. The whamj^e,

^.^?,, yellow skin {Cvo/iJ((, j}a/uiat(f), is a common and superior

fruit. The seeds of the Gleditschia, besides their value in cleansing,

are worn as beads, ” because,” say the Buddhists, ” all

demons are afraid of the wood ;” one name means ‘ preventive

of evil.’ Two native fruits, the lic/u and liinrjan, are allied to

the Sapindus in their affinities ; while the f’f’/i/j sku, or Liquidambar,

and many sorts of maple, with the P’tttosj[)orum tohira^

an ornamental shrub, may be mentioned among plants used for

food or sought after for timber.

Tiiese brief notices of Chinese plants may be concluded by

mentioning some of the most ornamental not before spoken of

;

but all the beautiful soi-ts are soon introduced into western

conservatories by enterprising florists. In the extensiv^e tribe

of Rubiacinae are several species of honeysuckle, and a fragrant

Yiburnum resembling the snowball. The Serissa is cultivated

around beds like the box ; the Ixora eocGinea, and other species

of that genus, are among common garden shrubs. The seeds of

two or three species of Artemisia are collected, dried, and reduced

to a down, to be bui-ned as an actual cautery. The dried

twigs are frequently woven into a rope to slowly consume ^s

a means of driving away mosquitoes. From the Carthamxis

tlnctoirus a fine red dye is prepared. The succory, lettuce, dandelion,

and other cichoraceous plants, either wild or cultivated,

furnish food ; while innumerable varieties of Chrysanthemums

and Asters are reared for their beauty.

The Labiatae afford many genera, some of them cultivated ;

and the Solanaceae, or nightshades, contain the tomato, potato,

tobacco, stramony, and several spetnes of Capsicum, or red pepper.

It has been disputed whether tobacco is native or foreign,

but the philological argument and historical notices prove that

both this plant and maize were introduced -within half a century

after the discovery of America, or about the year 1530. The

Chinese dry the leaves and cut them into shreds for smoking ;

the snuff is coarser and less pungent than the Scotch ; it is said

that powdered cinnabar is sometimes mixed with it.

Vol. I.— -4

Among the Convolvnlaceai are many beautiful species of Ipomea,

especially the cypress vine, or quaniodU, ti-ained about the

houses even of the poorest. The Ijxnnea marithiia occurs, trail

ing over the sandy beaches along the coast from Hainan to

Chusan and Lewchew. The Convolvulus rej)tans is planted

around the edges of pools on the confines of villages and fields,

for the sake of its succulent leaves. The narcotic family of

Apocynese contains the oleander and Plumeria, prized for their

fragrance ; while the yellow milkweed {Asdejykis curamamca)

and the Vlnea rosea, or red periwinkle, are less conspicuous,

but not unattractive, members of the same group. The jasmine

is a deserved favorite, its clusters of flowers being often wound

by women in their hair, and planted in pots in their houses.

The Ol<iafragrans, or hwei hum, is cultivated for scenting tea.

In the eastern provinces the hills are adorned with yellow and

red azaleas of gorgeous hue, especially around Ningbo and in

Chusan. ” Few,” says Mr. Fortune, ” can form any idea of the

gorgeous beauty of these azalea-clad hills, where, on every side,

the eye rests on masses of flowers of dazzling brightness and

surpassing beauty. IS^or is it the azalea alone which claims our

admiration ; clematises, wild roses, honeysuckles, and a hundred

others, mingle their flowers with them, and make us confess

that China is indeed the ‘ central flowery land.’ “

A few notices of the advance made by the Chinese themselves

in the study of natural history, taken from their great work on

materia medica, the Pun tsao, or ‘ Herbal,’ will form an appropriate

conclusion to this chapter. This work is usually bound

in forty octavo volumes, divided into fifty-two chapters, and

contains many observations of value mixed up with a deal of

incorrect and useless matter ; and as those who read the book

have not sufiicient knowledge to discriminate between what is

true and what is partly or wholly wrong, its reputation tends

.greatly to perpetuate the errors. The compiler of the Pun fsao,

Li Shi-chin, spent thirty years in collecting all the information

on these subjects extant in his time, arranged it in a methodical

manner for popular use, adding his own observations, and pub-

‘ Wanderings in China.

THE PUN TSAO, OR CHINESE HERBAL. 371

lished it about 1590. lie consulted some eight hundred preceding

autliors, from whom he selected one thousand five hundred

and eighteen prescriptions, and added three hundred and

seventy-four new ones, arranging his materials in fifty-two books

in a methodical and (for his day) scientific manner. But how

far behind the writings of Pliny and Dioscorides ! The nucleus

of Li’s production is a small work which tradition ascribes to

Shinnung, the God of Agriculture, and is doubtless anterior to

the Ilan dynasty. His composition was well received, and attracted

the notice of the Emperor, who ordered several succeeding

editions to be published at the expense of the state. It

was, in fact, so great an advance on all previous books, that it

checked future writers in that branch, and Li is likely now to

be the first and last purely native critical writer on natural science

in his mother tongue.

The first two volumes contain a collection of prefaces and

indices, together with many notices of the theory of anatomy

and medicine, and three books of pictorial illustrations of the

rudest sort. Chapters I. and II. consist of introductory observations

upon the practice of medicine, and an index of the

recipes contained in the work, called the Sure Guide to a

Myriad of Recipes ^ the whole filling the first seven volumes.

Chapters III. and IV. contain lists of medicines for the cui-e of

all diseases, occupying three volumes and a half, and comprising

the therapeutical portion of the work, except a treatise on the

pulse in the last volume.

In the subsequent chapters the author carefully goes over

the entire range of nature, first giving the correct name and

its explanation ; then comes descriptive remarks, solutions of

doubts and corrections of errors being interspersed, closing with

notes on the savor, taste, and application of the recipes in

which it is used. Chapters V. and YI. treat of inorganic

substances under water and fire, and mine)-als under Chapters

VII. to XL, as earth, metals, gems, and stones. Water is

divided into aerial and terrestrial, /.c, from the clouds, and

from springs, the ocean, etc. Fire is considered under eleven

species, among which ai-e the flames of coal, bamboo, moxa,

etc. The chapter on earth comprises the secretions from various animals, as well as soot, ink, etc. ; that on metals includes

metallic substances and their common oxides ; and gems

are spoken of in the next division. The eleventh chapter, in

true Chinese stvle, groups together what could not be placed

in the preceding sections, including salts, minerals, etc. In

looking at this arrangement one detects the similarity between

it and the classification of characters in the language itself,

showing the influence this has had upon it ; thus /«>, shui, tu,

Hn, yuh, shih, and la^ or fire, water, earth, metals, gems,

stones, and salts, are the seven radicals under which the names

of inorganic substances are classified in the iuiperial dictionary.

A like similarity runs through other parts of the Ilcrhal.

Chapters XII. to XXXATLL, inclusive, treat of the vegetable

kingdom, under fivej*??^, or ‘divisions,’ viz. : herbs, gi-ains, vegetables,

fruits, and trees; which are again subdivided into lui^ or

‘families,’ though the members of these families have no more

relationship to each other than the heterogeneous family of an

Egyptian slave dealer. The lowest term in the Chinese scientific

scale is chung, which sometimes in<;ludes a gemis, but

quite as often corresponds to a species or even a variety, as

Linneus understood those terms.

The first division of hei’bs contains nine families, viz. : hill

plants, odoriferous, marshy, noxious, scandent or climbing,

aquatic, ston}^, and mossy plants, and a ninth of one hundred

and sixty-two miscellaneous plants not used in medicine, making

six hundred and seventy-eight species in all. In this classification

the habitat is the most influential principle of arrangement

for the families, while the term tsao, or ‘herb,’ denotes

M-hatcver is not eaten or used in the arts, or which does not attain

to the magnitude of a tree.

The second division of grains contains four families, viz. : 1,

that of hemp, sesamuiii, buckwheat, wheat, rice, etc.; 2, the

family of millet, maize, opium, etc. ; 3, leguminous plants,

pulse, peas, vetches, etc. ; and 4, fermentable things, as bean

curd, boiled rice, wine, yeast, congee, bread, etc., which, as they

are used in medicine, and pi’oduced from vegetables, seem most

naturally to come in this place. The first three families em

bi-ace thirty-nine species, and the last tweny-nine articles.

BOTANY OF THE HERBAL. 373

The tliird division of kitclicn herbs contains five families: 1,

offensive pungent plants, as leeks, nnistard, ginger ; 2, soft and

mucilaginous plants, as dandelions, lilies, bamboo sprouts; 3,

vegetables producing fruit on the ground, as tomatoes, eggplants,

melons ; 4, aquatic vegetables ; and 5, mushrooms and

fungi. The number of species is one hundred and thirty-three,

and some part of each of them is eaten.

The fourth division of fruits contains seven families : 1, the

five fruits, the plum, peach, apricot, chestnut, and date (Rhamnus)

; 2, liill fruits, as the orange, pear, citron, persinniion ; 3,

foreign fruits, as the cocoanut, lichi, cararnbola ; 4, aromatic

fruits, as pepper, cubebs, tea ; 5, trailing fruits, as melons,

grape, sugar-cane ; G, aquatic fruits, as water caltrops, water

lily, water chestnuts, etc. ; and 7, fruits not used in medicine,

as whampe. In all, one hundred and forty-seven species.

The fifth division of trees has six families: 1, odoriferous

trees, as pine, cassia, aloes, camphor ; 2, stately trees, as the

willow, tamarix, elm, soapl)erry, palm, j^oplar, julibrissin or silk

tree ; 3, luxuriant growing trees, as mulberry, cotton, Cercis,

Gardenia, Bonibax, Hibiscus ; 4, parasites or things attached to

trees, as the mistletoe, pachyma, and amber ; 5, flexible plants,

as bamboo ; this family has only four species ; 6, includes what

the other five exclude, though it might have been thought that

the second and tliird families were sufficiently comprehensive

to contain almost all miscellaneous plants. The mnnber of

species is one hundred and ninety-eight. All botanical subjects

are classified in this manner under five divisions, thirtyone

families, and one thousand one hundred and ninety-five

species, excluding all fermentable things.

The arrangement of the botanical characters in the language

does not correspond so well to this as does that of inorganic

substances. The largest group in the language system is tsao^

which comprises in general such herbaceous plants as are not

used for food The second, muh, includes all trees or shrubs ;

and the bamboo, on account of its great usefulness, stands by itself,

though the characters mostly denote names of articles made

of bamboo IS’o less than four radicals, viz., rice, wdieat, millet,

and grain, serve as the heads under which the esculent grasses

374 tup: middle kingdom.

are arranged ; tliere are consequently many synonymes and

superfluous distinctions. One family includes beans, and another

legumes ; one comprises cucurbitaceous plants, another

the alliaceous, and a fourth the hempen ; the importance of

these plants as articles of food or manufacture no doubt suggested

their adoption. Thus all vegetable substances are distributed

in the language under eleven different heads.

The zoological grouping in the Pun tsao is as rude and unscientific

as that of plants. There are five jpu^ or divisions,

namely : insect, scaly, shelly, feathered, and hairy animals. The

first division contains four families : 1 and 2, insects born

from eggs, as bees and silkworms, butterflies and spiders; 3,

insects produced by metamorphosis, as glow-worms, molecrickets,

bugs ; and 4, water insects, as toads, centipedes, etc.

The second division has four families: 1, the dragons, including

the manis, ” the only fish that has legs ; ” 2, snakes ; 3,

fishes having scales ; and 4, scaleless fishes, as the eel, cuttlefish,

prawn. The third division is classified under the two

heads of toi”toises or turtles and mollusks, including the starfish,

echinus, hermit-crab, etc. The fourth division contains

birds arranged under four families : 1, water-fowl, as herons,

king-fishers, etc. ; 2, heath-fowl, sparrows, and pheasants ; 3,

forest birds, as magpies, crows; and 4, wild birds, as eagles

and hawks. Beasts form the fifth division, which likewise

contains four families : 1, the nine domesticated animals and

their products ; 2, wild animals, as lions, deers, otters ; 3,

rodentia, as the squirrel, hedgehog, rat ; and 4, monkeys and

fairies. The number of species in these five divisions is three

hundred and ninety-one, but there are only three hundred and

twenty different objects described, as the roe, fat, hair, e.xuvite,

etc., of animals are separately noticed.

The sixteen zoological characters in the language are not

quite so far astray fi-om being types of classes as the eleven

botanical ones. Nine of thorn are mannniferous, viz. : the tiger,

dog, and leopard, which stand for the carnivora ; the rat for

lodentia ; the ox, sheep, and deer for ruminants ; and the

horse and hog for pachydermatous. Birds are chiefly comprised

under one radical niao, but there is a sub-family of

ITS ZOOLOGY AND OI?SKKV ATFOXS OX TTTE IIOKSP:. 37.7

short-tailed gallinaceous fowls, though much confusion exists in

the division. Fishes form one group, and improperly inchide

crabs, lizards, whales, and snakes, though most of the latter are

placed along with insects, or else under the dragons. The tortoise,

toad, and dragon are the types of three small collections,

and insects are comprised in the sixteenth and last. These

groups, although they contain many anomalies, as might be

expected, are still sufficiently natural to teach those who write

the language something of the world around them. Thus,

when one sees that a new character contains the radical dorj in

composition, he will be sure that it is neither fowl, fish, nor bug,

nor any animal of the pachydermatous, cervine, or ruminant

tribes, although he may have never seen the animal nor heard

its name. This peculiarity runs through the whole language, indeed,

but in other groups, as for instance those under the radicals

man, woman, and child, or heart, hand, leg, etc., the characters

include mental and passionate emotions, as well as actions and

names, so that the type is not sufficiently indicative to convey a

definite idea of the words included under it ; the names of

natural objects being most easily arranged in this manner.

Between the account of plants and animals the Jlerhal has

one chapter on garments and domestic utensils, for such things

” are used in medicine and are made out of plants.” The remaining

chapters, XXXIX.-LII., treat of animals, as noticed

above. The properties of the objects spoken of are discussed

in a very methodical manner, so that a student can immediately

turn to a plant or mineral and ascertain its virtue. For instance,

the information relative to the history and uses of the

horse is contained in twenty-four sections. The first explains

the character, ma, which was oi-iginally intended to represent

the outline of the animal. The second describes the varieties

of horses, the best kinds for medical use, and gives brief descriptions

of them, for the guidance of the practitioner. ” The

pure white are the best for medicine. Those found in the south

and east are small and Aveak. The age is known by the teeth.

The eye reflects the full image of a man. If he eats rice his

feet will become heavy ; if rat’s dung, his belly will grow long; if his teeth be rubbed with dead silkworms, or black plums, he will not eat, nor if the skin of a rat or wolf be li\uii^- in his

manger, lie should not he allowed to eat from a hog’s trough,

lest he contract disease; and if a monkey is kept in the stable

he M’ill not fall sick.”

The third section goes on to speak of the flesh, which is an

article of food ; that of a pure white stallion is the most wholesome.

One author recommends ” eating almonds, and taking a

rush broth, if the person feel uncomfoi-table after a meal of

horse-flesh. It should he roasted and eaten with ginger

and pork ; and to eat the flesh of a black horse, and not

drink wine -with it, will surely produce deatli.” The fourth

describes the crown of the horse, the ” fat of which is sweet,

and good to make the hair grow and the face to shine.” The

fifth and succeeding sections to the twenty-fourth treat of the

sanative properties and mode of exhibiting the milk, heart,

lungs, liver, kidneys, placenta, teeth, bones, skin, mane, tail,

brains, blood, perspiration, and excrements.

Some of the directions are dietetic, and others are prescriptive.

” When eating horse-flesh do not eat the liver,” is one of

the former, given because of the absence of a gall-bladder in

the liver, wdiich imports its poisonous qualities. ” The heart of

a white horse, or that of a hog, cow, or hen, when dried and

rasped into spirit and so taken, cures forgetfulness; if the patient

hears one thing he knows ten.” ” Above the knees the

horse has night-eyes (warts), M’hich enable him to go in the

night ; they are useful in the toothache ;” tliese sections partake

both of the descriptive and pi-escriptive. Another medical one

is : ” If a man be restless and hysterical when he wishes to

sleep, and it is requisite to put him to rest, let the ashes of a

skull be mingled with water and given him, and let him have a

skull for a pillow, and it will cure him.” The same preservative

virtues appear to be ascribed to a horse’s hoof hung in a

house as are supposed, by some who should know better, to

belong to a horseshoe Avhen nailed upon the door.’ The whole

of this extensive work is liberally sprinkled with such whimsies,

but the practice of medicine among the Chinese is vastly

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 393.

NATURAL SCIENCES IN CHINA. 377

better than their tlieories ; for as llenmsat justly oTjserves, ” To

see well and reason falsely are not wholly incompatible, and the

naturalists of China, as well as the chemists and physicians of

our ancient schools, have sometimes tried to reconcile them.”

Another work on botany besides the Jlefbal, issued in 1848,

deserves notice for its research and the excellence of its drawings.

It is the Ch’th Wuh Mlng-shih Ta-kao, or Researches

into the Names and Virtues of Plants, with plates, in sixty volumes.

There are one thousand seven hundred and fifteen

drawings of plants, with descriptions of each, arranged in

eleven books, followed by medical and agricultural observations

on the most important in four books. One of its valuable

points to the foreigner is the terminology furnished by

the two authors for describing the parts and uses of plants.

Renmsat read a paper in 1828, ‘ On the State of the Natural

Sciences among the Orientals,’ in which he indicates the position

attained by Chinese in their researches into the nature

and uses of objects around them. After speaking of the adaptation

the language possesses, from its construction, to impart

some general notions of animated and vegetable nature,

he goes on to remark upon the theorizing propensities of their

writers, instead of contenting themselves with examining and

recording facts. “In place of studying the organization of

bodies, they undertake to determine by reasoning how it should

be, an aim which has not seldom led them far from the end

they proposed. One of the strangest errors among them relates

to the transformation of beings into each other, which has

arisen from popular stories or badly conducted observations on

the metamorphoses of insects. Learned absurdities have been

added to puerile prejudices ; that which the vulgar have believed

the philosophers have attempted to explain, and nothing

can be easier, according to the oriental systems of cosmogony, in

which a simple matter, infinitely diversified, shows itself in all

beings. Changes affect only the apparent propei’ties of bodies, or

rather the bodies themselves have only appearances ; according

to these principles, they are not astonished at seeing the electric

fiuid or even the stars converted into stones, as happens when

aerolites fall. That animated beings become inanimate is proven by fossils and petrifactions. Ice enclosed in the earth for a millenninm becomes rock crystal ; and it is only necessary that lead, \\\e father of all metals (as Satnrn, its alchemistic type, was of gods), pass thi-oiigh four periods of two centuries each to become successively cinnabar, tin, and silver. In spring the rat changes into a quail, and quails into rats again during the eighth month.

” The style in which these marvels is related is now and then a little equivocal ; but if they believe part of them proved, they can see nothing really impossible in the others. One naturalist, less credulous than his fellows, rather smiles at another author who reported the metamorphosis of an oriole into a mole, and of rice into a carp ;

‘ it is a ridiculous story,’ says he ;

‘ there is proof only of the change of rats into quails, which is reported in the almanac, and which I have often seen myself, for there is an imvaried progression, as well of transformations as of generations.’

Animals, according to the Chinese, are viviparous as quadrupeds, or oviparous as birds ; they grow by transformations, as insects, or by the effect of humidity, as snails, slugs, and centipedes The success of such systems is almost always sure, not in China alone either, because it is easier to put words in place of things, to stop at nothing, and to have formulas ready for solving all questions. It is thus that they have formed a scientific jargon, which one might almost think had been borrowed from our dark ages, and which has powerfully contributed to retain knowledge in China in the swaddling clothes we now find it. Experience teaches that when the human mind is once drawn into a false way, the lapse of ages and the help of a man of genius are necessary to draw it out.

Ages have not been wanting in China, but the man whose superior enlightenment might dissipate these deceitful glimmerings, would find it very difficult to exercise this happy influence as long as their political institutions attract all their inquiring minds or vigorous intellects far away from scientific researches into the literary examinations, or put before them the honors and employments which the functions and details of magisterial appointments bring with them.” ‘* Melanges Orientules, Posthumes, p. 315.

CONSKKVATISM OF NATIVE liESEARCH. 379

This last observcation indicates the reason, to a great degree, for the fixedness of the Chinese in all departments of learned inquiry ; hard labor employs the energy and time of the ignorant mass, and emulation in the strife to reach official dignities consumes and perverts the talents of the learned. Then their language itself disheartens the most enthusiastic students in this branch of study, on account of its vagueness and want of established terms. When the vivifying and strengthening truths of revelation shall be taught to the Chinese, and its principles acted upon among them, we may expect more vigor in their minds and more profit in their investigations into the wonders of nature.

CHAPTER VII. LAWS OP CHINA, AND PLAN OP ITS GOVERNMENT

The consideration of the theory and practice of the Chinese government reconmiends itself to the attention of the intelligent student of man by several peculiar reasons, among which are its acknowledged antiquity, the multitudes of people it rules, and the comparative quiet enjoyed by its subjects. The government of a heathen nation is so greatly modified by the personal character of the executive, and the people are so liable to confound institutions with men, either from imperfect acquaintance with the nature of those institutions, or from being, through necessity or habit, easily guided and swayed by designing and powerful men, that the long continuance of the Chinese polity is a proof both of its adaptation to the habits and condition of the people, and of its general good management. The antiquity and excellence of such a government, and its orderly administration, might, however, be far greater than it is in China, without being invested with the interest which at present attaches to it in that Empire in consequence of the immense population, whose lives and property, food and well-being, depend to so great a degree upon it. What was at first rather a feeling of curiosity, gradually becomes one of awe, when the evil results of misgovernment, or the beneficent effects of equitable rule, are seen to be so momentous.

THEORY OF THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT. 381

The theory of the Chinese government is undoubtedly the patriarchal; the Emperor is the sire, his officers are the responsible elders of its provinces, departments, and districts, as every father of a household is of its inmates. This may, perhaps, be the theory of other governments, but nowhere has it been systematized so thoroughly, and acted upon so consistently and for so long a period, as in China, ^wo causes, mutually acting upon each other, have, more than anything else, combined to give efficiency to this theory. The ancient rule of Van and Shun ‘ was strictly, so far as the details are known, a patriarchal chieftainship, conferred upon them on account of their excellent character ; and their successors under Yu of the Xia dynasty were considered as deriving their power from heaven, to whom they M’ere amenable for its good use. When Chingtang, founder of the Shang dynasty, b.c. ITOG, and Wu Wang, of the Zhou, B.C. 1122, took up arms against the Emperors, the excuse given was that they had not fulfilled the decrees of heaven, and had thereby forfeited their claim to the throne.

Confucius, in teaching his principles of political ethics, referred to the conduct of those ancient kings both for proof of the correctness of his instructions and for arguments to enforce them.

The large number of those who followed him during his lifetime furnishes some evidence that his countrymen assented to

the propriety of his teachings. This may account for their reception,

illustrated as they were by the high character the sage

boi-e ; but it was not till the lapse of tM’o or three centuries

that the rulers of China perceived the great security the adoption

and diffusion of these doctrines would give their sway.

They therefore turned their attention toward the embodiment of

these precepts into laws, and towai’d basing the institutions of

government upon them ; through all the convulsions and wars

which have disturl)ed the country and changed the reigning

families, these writings have done more than any one thing

else to uphold the institutions of the Chinese and give them

their character and permanence. Education being founded on

them, those who as students had been taught to receive and

reverence tliem as the oracles of political wisdom, would, when

they entered upon the duties of office, endeavor to carry out, in

some degree at least, their principles. Thus the precept and

the practice have mutually modified, supported, and enforced

each other./

• 2357 and 2255 before Christ.

But this civilization i;^ Asiatic and not European, pagan and not Christian. ^The institutions of China are despotic and defective, and founded on wrong principles. They may have the element of stability, but not of improvement.^ The patriarchal theory does not make uien honorable, truthful, or kind; it does not place woman in her right position, nor teach all classes their obligations to their Maker; the wonder is, to those who know the strength of evil passions in the human breast, that this huge mass of mankind is no worse. We must, indeed, look into its structure in order to discover the causes of this stability, inasmuch as here we have neither a standing army to enforce nor the machinery of a state religion to compel obedience toward a sovereign. A short inspection will show that(the great leading principles by which the present administration preserves its power over the people, consist in a system of strict surveillance and viatual 7’esj)onsihiHtij among all classes.

These are aided in their efficiency by the geographical isolation of the country, a remarkable spirit of loyal pride in their own history, and a general system of political education and official examinations!)

These two principles are enforced by such a minute gradation of rank and subordination of othces as to give the government more of a military character than at first appears, and the whole system is such as to make it one of the most unmixed oligarchies now existing. (It is like a network extending over the whole face of society, each individual being isolated in his own mesh but responsibly connected with all around him’) The man who knows that it is almost impossible, except by entire seclusion, to escape from the company of secret or acknowledged emissaries of government, will be cautions of offending the laws of the country, knowing, as he must, that though he should himself escape, yet his family, his kindred, or his neighbors will suffer for his offence; that if unable to recompense the sufferers, it will probably be dangerous for him to return home ; or if he does, it will be most likely to find his property in the possession of neighbors or officials, who feel conscious of security in plundering one whose offences have forever placed him under a ban.

RESPONSIBILITY, FEAR, AXD ISOLATION. 383

^The effect of these two causes upon the mass of the people is to imbue them with a i^ceat fear of the government, both of its officers and its operations; each man considers that safety is best to be found in keeping aloof from both. This mutual surveillance and responsibility, though only partially extended throughout the multitude, necessarily undermines confidence and infuses universal distrust ; while this object of complete isolation, though at the expense of justice, truth, honesty, and natural affection, is what the government strives to accomplish and actually does to a wonderful degree.) The idea of government in the minds of the uneducated people is that of some everpresent terror, like a sword of Damocles; and so far has this undetined fear of some untoward result when connected with it counteracted the real vigor of the Chinese, that to it may be referred much of their indifference to improvement, contentment with what is already known and possessed, and submission to petty injustice and spoliation.^

Men are deterred, too, as much by distrust of each other as by fear of the police, from combining in an intelligent manner to resist governmental exactions because opposed to principles of equity, or joining with their rulers to uphold good order; no such men, and no such instances, as John Hampden going to prison for refusing to subscribe to a forced loan, or Thomas Williams and his companions throwing the tea overboard in Boston harbor, ever occurred in China or any other Asiatic country. They dread illegal societies quite as much from the cruelties this same distrust induces the leaders to exercise over recreant or suspected members, as from apprehension of arrest and punishment by the regular authorities. (Thus, with a state of society at times on the verge of insurrection, this mass of people is kept in check by the threefold cord of responsibility, fear, and isolation, each of them strengthening the other, and all depending upon the character of the people for much of their efficiency. Since all the officers of government received their intellectual training when connnoners under these influences, it is easy to understand why the supreme powers are so averse to improvement and to foreign intercourse—from both of which causes, in truth, the monarch has the greatest reason to dread lest the cliarin of his power be weakened and his sceptre pass away. I (There is, however, a further explanation for the general peace which prevails to be found back of this. It is owing partly to the diffusion of a political education among the people ^teaching them the principles on which all government is founded, and the reasons for those principles flowing from the patriarchal theory—and partly to their plodding, industrious character. A brief exposition of the construction and divisions of the central and provincial governments and their mutual relations, and the various duties devolving upon the departments and officers, will exhibit more of the operation of these principles.

Although the Emperor is regarded as the head of this great

organization, as the fly-wheel w^hich sets other wheels of the

machine in motion, he is still considered as bound to rule according

to the code of the land ; and when there is a w^ellknown

law, though the source of law, he is expected to follow

it in his decrees. The statutes of China form an edifice, the

foundations of which were laid by Li Ivwei twenty centuries

ago. Successive dynasties have been building thereon ever

since, adding, altering, pulling down, and putting together as

circumstances seemed to require. The people liave a high regard

for the code, ” and all they seem to desire is its just and

impartial execution, independent of caprice and uninfluenced

by corruption. That the laws of China are, on the contrary,

very frequently violated l)y those who are their administrators

and constitutional guardians, there can, unfortunately, be no

question ; but to what extent, comparatively with the laws of

other countries, must at present be very much a matter of conjecture

: at the same time it nuiy be observed, as something in

favor of the Chinese system, that there are substantial grounds

for believing that neither flagrant nor repeated acts of injustice

do, in point of fact, often, in any rank or station, ultimately

escape with impunity.” ‘ Sir George Staunton is well qualified

to speak on this point, and his opinion has been corroborated

‘ Penal Code, Introduction, p. xxviii.

THE PENAL CODE OF CHINA. 385

by most of those who have had siinihir opportunities of judging; while his translation of the Code has given all persons interested in the (piestion the means of ascertaining the principles on which the government ostensibly acts.

This body of laws is called Ta Tsing Liuh Li, i.e., ‘ Statutes and Eescripts of the Great Pure Dynasty,’ and contains all the laws of the Empire. They are arranged under seven leading heads, viz.: General, Civil, Fiscal, Ritual, Military, and Criminal laws, and those relating to Public Works ; and subdivided into four hundred and thirty-six sections, called Hah, or ‘ statutes,’ to which the li, or modern clauses, to limit, explain or alter them, are added ; these are now much more numerous than the original statutes. A new edition is published by authority every five years; in the reprint of 1830 the Emperor ordered that the Supreme Court should make but few alterations, lest wily litigants might take advantage of the discrepancies between the new and old law to suit their own purposes. This edition is in twenty-eight volumes, and is one of the most frequently seen books in the shops of any city. The clauses are attached to each statute, and have the same force. ]^o authorized reports of cases and decisions, either of the provincial or supreme courts, are published for general use, though their record is kept in the court where they are decided ; the publication of such adjudged cases, as a guide to officers, is not unknown. An extensive collection of notes, comments, and cases, illustrating the practice and theory of the laws, was appended to the edition of 1799.

A short extract from the original preface of the Code, published in 101:7, only three years after the Manchu Emperors took the throne, will explain the principles on which it was drawn up. After remarking upon the inconveniences arising from the necessity of aggravating or mitigating the sentences of the magistrates, who, previous to the re-establishment of an authentic code of penal la\vs, were not in possession of any fixed rules upon which they could build a just decision, the Emperor Shunchi goes on to describe the manner of revising the code:

” A numerous body of magistrates was assembled at the

capital, at our command, for the purpose of revising the penal

code formerly in force under the late dynasty of Ming, and of dio-esting the same into a new code, by the exchision of such parts as were exceptionable and the introduction of others which were likely to contribute to the attainment of justice and the t>-eneral perfection of the work. The result of their labors having been submitted to our examination, we maturely weighed and considered the various matters it contained, and then instructed a select number of our great officers of state carefully to revise the whole, for the purpose of making such alterations and emendations as might still be found requisite. “Wherefore, it being now published, let it be your great care, officers and magistrates of the interior and exterior departments of our Empire, diligently to observe the same, and to forbear in future to give any decision, or to pass any sentence, according to your private sentiments, or upon your unsupported authority. Thus shall the magistrates and people look up with awe and submission to the justice of these institutions, as they find themselves respectively concerned in them ; the transgressor will not fail to suffer a strict expiation of his crimes, and will be the instrument of deterring others from similar misconduct ; and finally both officers and people will l)e equally secured for endless generations in the enjoyment of the happy effects of the great and noble virtues of our illustrious progenitors.”

Under the head of Genei-al Laws are forty-seven sections,

comprising principles and definitions applicable to the whole,

and containing some singular notions on equity and criminality.

The description of the five ordinary punishments, definition of

the ten treasonable offences, regulations for the eight privileged

classes, and general directions regarding the conduct of officers

of government, are the matters treated of under this head.

The title of Section XLIY. is ” On the decision of cases not provided for by law ; ” and the rule is that ” such cases may then be determined by an accurate comparison with others which are already provided for, and which approach most nearly to those under investigation, in order to ascertain afterward to what extent an asirravation or mitiij-ation of the i)nnislinment would be equitable. A provisional sentcMice confonnablc thereto shall be laid before the superior magistrates, an<l, after receiving their approbation, be submitted to the Enqieror’s final decision. Anv

GENEIIAL, CIVIL, AXD FISCAL LAWS. 387

*

erroneous judgment which may be pronounced, in consequence

of adopting a more summary mode of proceeding in cases of a

doubtful nature, shall be punished as wilful deviation from justice.”

This, of course, gives great latitude to the magistrate, and

as he is thus allowed to decide and act before the new law can

be confirmed or aimulled, the chief restraints to his injustice in

such cases (which, however, are not nuinerous) lie in the fear

of an appeal and its consequences, or of summary reprisals

from the suffering parties.

The six remaining divisions pertain to the six administrative

boards of the government. The second contains Civil Laws,

under twenty-eight sections, divided into two books, one of

them referring to the system of government, and the otlier to

the conduct of magistrates, etc. The hereditary succession of

rank and titles is regulated, and punishments laid down for

those who illegally assume these honors. HlMost of the nobility

of China are Manchus, and none of the hereditary dignities existing

previous to the conquest were recognized, except those

attached to the family of Confucius*’ Improperly recommending

unfit persons as deserving liigh honors, appointing and

removing officers witliout the Emperor’s sanction, and leaving

stations without due permission, are the principal subjects

regulated in the first book. The second book contains rules

regarding the interference of superior magistrates with the proceedings

of the lower courts, and prohibitions against cabals and

treasonable combinations among oflScers, which are of course

capital crimes ; all persons in the employ of the state are required

to make themselves acquainted with the laws, and even

private individuals ” who are found capable of explaining the

nature and comprehending the objects of the laws, shall receive

pardon in all offences resulting purely from accident, or imputable

to them oidy from the guilt of others, j^rovided it be the

first offence.”

The third division, of Fiscal Laws, under eighty-two sections,

contains rules for enrolling the people, and of succession and

inheritance ; also laws for regulating marriages between various

classes of society, for guarding granaries and treasuries, for

preventing and punishing smuggling, for restraining usury, and for overseeing shops. Section LXXYI. orders that persons and families truly represent their profession in life, and restrains them from indulging in a change of occupation ; ” generation

after generation they must not vary or alter it.” This i-ule is,

however, constantly violated. Section XC. exempts the huildinffs

of literarv and relio;ious institutions from taxation. The

general aim of the laws relating to holding real estate is to

secure the cultivation of all the land taken up, and the regular

payment of the tax. The proprietor, in some cases, can be deprived

of his lands because he does not till them, and though in

fact owner in fee simple, he is restricted in the disposition of

them by will in many w^ays, and forfeits them if the taxes are

not paid.

The fourth division, of Ritual Laws, under twenty-six sections,

contains the regulations fur state sacritices and ceremonies,

those appertaining to the worship of ancestors, and whatever

belongs to heterodox and magical sects or teachers. The heavy

penalties threatened in some of these sections against all illegal

combinations under the guise of a new form of worship presents

an interesting likeness to the restrictions issued by the

English, French, and German princes during and after the

Heformation. The Chinese authorities had the same dread

lest the people should meet and consult how to resist them.

Even processions in honor of the gods may be forbidden for

good reason, and are not allow^ed at all at Peking ; while, still

more, the rites observed by the Emperor cannot be imitated by

any unauthorized person ; women are not allowed to congregate

in the temples, nor magicians to perform any strange incantations.

Few of these laws ai’e really necessary, and those

against illegal sects are in fact levelled against political associations,

which usually take on a religious guise.

The fifth division, of Military Laws, in seventy-one sections,

provides for the protection of the palace and government of

the army, for guarding frontier passes, management of the

imperial cattle, and forwarding despatches by couriers. Some

of these ordinances lay down rules for the protection of the

Emperor’s person, and the disposition of his body-guard and

troops in the palace, the capital, and over the Empire. The

RITUAL, MILITARY, AND CRIMmAL LAWS!. 380

sections r(‘latiii<2; to the goveniinoiit of tlie army include tlic

rules for tli(> police of cities ; and those designed to secure the

protection of the frontier conipi-ise all the enactments against

foreign intei’course, some of which have already been refei-red tn

in passing. The supply of horses and cattle for the army is a

matter of some importance, and is minutely regulated ; one law

orders all persons who possess vicious and dangerous animals to

restrain them, and if through neglect any person is killed or

wounded, the owner of the animal shall be obliged to redeem

himself from the punishment of manslaughter by pa-ying a fine.

This provision to compel the owners of unruly beasts to exercise

proper restraint over them is like that laid down by Moses

in Exodus XXT., 20, 30. There is as yet no general postoffice

establishn’ent, hut governmental couriers often take

private letters ; local mails are safely carried by express companies.

The required rate of travel for the official post is one hundred miles a day, but it does not ordinarily go more than half that distance. Officers of government are allowed ninety days to make the journey from Peking to Canton, a distance of twelve hundred miles, but conriers frequently travel it in twelve days.

The sixth division, on Criminal Laws, is arranged in eleven books, containing in all one hundred and seventy sections, ‘and is the most important of the whole. The clauses under some of the sections are numerous, and show that it is not for want of proper laws or insufficient threatenings that crimes go unpunished.

The books of this division relate to robbery, in which is included high treason and renunciation of allegiance ; to homicide and murder; quarrelling and fighting; abusive language; indictments, disobedience to parents, and false accusations ; bribery and corruption ; forging and frauds ; incest and adultery ; arrests and escapes of criminals, their imprisonment and execution ; and, lastly, miscellaneous offences.

Under Section CCCXXIX. it is ordered that any one who is guilty of addressing abusive language to his or her father or mother, or father’s parents, or a wife who rails at her husband’s

parents or grandparents, shall be strangled ; provided always

that the persons so abused themselves complain to the magistrate, and had personally heard the language addressed to them.

This law is the same in regard to children as that contained

in Leviticus XX. , H, and the power here given the parent does

not seem to be productive of evil. Section CCCLXXXI. has

reference to ” privately hushing np public crimes,” but its

penalties are for the most part a dead letter, and a full account

of the various modes adopted in the courts of withdrawing cases

from the cognizance of superiors, would form a singular chapter

in Chinese jurisprudence. Conseq\icntly those who refuse every

offer to suppress cases are highly lauded by the people. Another

section (CCCLXXXYI.) ordains that whoever is guilty of improper

conduct, contrary to the spirit of the laws, but not a

breach of any specific article, shall be punished at least with forty blows, and with eighty when of a serious nature. Some of the provisions of this part of the code are praiseworthy, but no part of Chinese legislation is so cruel and irregular as criminal jurisprudence. The permission accorded to the judge to torture the criminal opens the door for much inhumanity.

The seventh division contains thirteen sections relating to Public Works and Ways, such as the weaving of interdicted patterns of silk, repairing dikes, and constructing edifices for government. All public residences, granaries, treasuries and manufactories, embankments and dikes of rivers and canals, forts, walls, and mausolea, must be frequently examined, and kept in repair. Poverty or peculation render numy of these laws void, and many subterfuges are often practised by the superintending officer to pocket as much of the funds riS he can.

One officer, M’hen ordered to repair a wall, made the workmen go over it and chip off the faces of the stones etill remaining, then plastering up the holes.

CRITICISM OF THE CODE. 301

Besides these laws and their numerous clauses, every high provincial officer has the right to issue edicts upon such public matters as require regulation, some of thei^,; even affecting life and death, either reviving some old law or ^.v^ving it an application to the case before him, with such iuodifications as seem to be necessary. lie must report these ac-t* to the proper board at Peking. Xo such order, which for Uf*. time has the force of law, is formally repealed, but gradually f;(,lls into ohlWion, until circumstances again require its reiteration. This mode of publishing statutes gives rise to a sort of common and unwritten law in villages, to which a council of elders sometimes compels individuals to submit ; long usage is also another ground for enforcing them.

Still, with all the tortures and punishments allowed by the law, and all the cruelties superadded upon the criminals by irritated officers or rapacious underlings and jailors, a broad survey of Chinese legislation, judged by its results and the general appearance of society, gives the impression of an administration far superior to other Asiatic countries. A favorable comparison has been made in the Jidinlmrgh Review:’ ” By far the most remarkable thing in this code is its great reasonableness, clearness, and consistency, the business-like brevity and directness of the various provisions, and the plainness and moderation in which they are expressed. There is nothing here of the monstrous verhiage of most other Asiatic productions, none of the superstitious deliration, the miserable incoherence, the tremendous non-sequiturs and eternal repetitions of those oi”acnlar performances—nothing even of the turgid adulation, accumulated epithets, and fatiguing self-praise of other Eastern despotisms—but a calm, concise, and distinct series of enactments, savoring throughout of practical judgment and European good sense, and if not always conformable to onr improved notions of expediency, in general approaching to them more nearly than the codes of most other nations. When we pass, indeed, from the ravings of the Zendavesta or the Puranas to the tone of sense and business in this Chinese collection, we seem to be passing from darkness to light, from the drivellings of dotage to the exercise of an improved understanding ; and redundant and absurdly minute as these laws are in many particulars, we scarcely know any European code that is at once so copious and so consistent, or that is so nearly free from intricacy, bigotry, and fiction. / In everything relating to political freedom or individual independence it is indeed wofuUy defective!; but for the repression of disorder and the gentle coer-cion o£ a vast population, it appears to be equally mild and efficacious. The state of society for which it was formed appears incidentally to be a low and wretched o!ie ; but how could its framers have devised a wiser means of maintaining it in peace and tranquillity ?”

This encomium is to a certain extent just, but the practice of legislation in China has probably not been materially improved by the mere possession of a reasonable code of laws, though some melioration in jurisprudence has been effected.’ ^The infliction of barbarous punishments, such as blinding, cutting off noses, ears, or other parts of the body, still not uncommon in Persia and Turkey, is not allowed or practised in China ; and the government, in minor ci’imes, contents itself with but little more than opprobrious exposure in the pilloij, or castigation, which cari-y with them no degradation.

uhe defects in this remarkable body of laws arise from several

sources. The degree of liberty that can safely be awarded

to the subject is not defined in it, and his i-ights are unknown

in law. The government is despotic, but having no etficient

military power in their hands, the lawgivers resort to a minuteness

of legislation upon the pi-actice of social and relative virtues

and duties which interferes with their observance ; though it

must be remembered that no pulpit or Sabbath-school exists

there to expound and enforce them from a higher code, and

the laws must be the chief guide in most cases. The code also

exhibits a minute attention to trifles, and an effort to legislate

for every possible contingency, which nmst perplex the judge

when dealing with the infinite shades of difference occuning in

human actions. There are now many vague and obsolete statutes,

I’eady to serve as a handle to prosecute offenders for the

gratification of private pique ; and although usage and precedent

both combine to prove their disuse, malice and bribery

can easily effect their reviviscence and application to the case.

Sheer cruelty, except in cases of treason against the Emperor,

cannot be chai’ged against this code as a whole, though

many of the laws seem designed to operate chiefly in terrorem^

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 24-29.

INFLUEXCE OF THE LAWS UPON SOCIETY. 39o

and the penalty is placed higher than the punishment really

intended to be inflicted, to the end that the Emperor may have

scope for mercy, or, as he says, ” for leniency beyond the bounds

of the law.” The principle on which this is done is evident, and

the commonness of the practice proves that such an exercise of

mercy has its effect. The laws of China are not altogether unmeaning

words, though the degi-ee of ethciency in their execu

tion is subject to endless variations ; some officers are clement,

others severe ; the people in certain provinces are industrious

and peaceable, in others turbulent and averse to quiet occupations,

so that one is likely to form a juster idea of their adnunistration

by looking at the i-esults as seen in the general aspect

of society, and judging of the tree by its fruits, than by drawing

inferences applicable to the whole machine of state from particular

instances of oppression and insubordination, as has been. so often the case with travellers and writers.

The general examination of the Chinese government here proposed may be conveniently considered under the iieads of the Emperor and his court, classes of society, the different branches of the supreme administration, the provincial authorities, and the execution of the laws.

The Emperor is at the head of the whole ; and if the possession

of great power, and being the object of almost unbounded

reverence, can impai-t happiness, he may safely be considered

as the happiest mortal living; though to his power there are

many checks, and the reverence paid him is proportioned somewhat

to the fidelity with which he administers the decrees of

heaven. ” The Emperor is the sole head of the Chinese constitution

and government ; he is regarded as the vice-gerent of

lieaven, especially chosen to govern all nations ; and is supreme

In everything, holding at once the highest legislative and executive

powers, without limit or control.” Both he and the Pope

claim to be the vice-gerent of heaven and interpreter of its decrees

to the whole world, and these two rulers have emulated

each other in their assumption of arrogant titles. The most

common appellation employed to denote the Emperor in state

papers and among the people is hirangt’i, or ‘ august sovereign ;

‘it is defined as ” the appellation of one possessing complete virtues, and able to act on heavenly principles.” ‘ This title is further defined as meaning heaven : ” Heaven speaks not, yet the four seasons follow in regular succession, and all things spring forth. So the three august ones (Fulihi, Shinnung, and Hwangti) descended in state, and without even uttering a word the people bowed to their sway ; their virtue was inscrutal)le and boundless like august heaven, and therefore were they called august ones.”

Among the numerous titles given the monarch may be mentioned

hiimng shang, the ‘ august lofty one ; ‘ tien Mvang, ‘ celestial

august one;’ shing hivang, the ‘wise and august,’-/.^.,

infinite in knowledge and complete in virtue ; tien ti, ‘ celestial

sovereign ;’ and shing t’l, ‘ sacred sovereign,’ because he is able

to act on heavenly principles. He is also called tien tsz\ ‘ son

of heaven,’ becanse heaven is his father and earth is his mother,

and shing tien tsz\ ‘wise son of heaven,’ as being born of heaven

and having infinite knowledge ; terms which are given him as

the ruler of the world l)y the gift of heaven. He is even addressed,

and sometimes refers to himself, under designations which pertain exclusively to heaven. Wan sui ye, ‘ sire of ten thousand years,’ is a term used when speaking of him or approaching him, like the words, O h’ng, live forever! addressed to the ancient kings of Persia. Pi Ida, ‘ beneath the footstool,’ is a sycophantic compellation used by his courtiers, as if they were only worthy of being at the edge of his footstool.

‘ Chinese Repositori/, Vol. IV., p. 12 ; Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 558.

ATTRIBUTES OF THE CHINESE EMPEROR. 395

The Emperor usually designates himself by the terms ehvn^ ‘ourself; ‘ hwa jin, the ‘ solitary man,’ or the one man ; and hwa Jciun, the ‘ solitary prince.’ He has been loaded with many ridiculous titles by foreign writers, as Brother of the Sun and Moon, Grandson of the Stars, King of Kings, etc., but no such epithets are known among his subjects. His palace has various appellations, such as hall of audience, golden palace, the ninth entrance, vermilion avenue, vermilion hall, rosy hall, forbidden pavilion, the crimson and forbidden palace, gemmeous steps, golden steps, meridian portal, gemmeous avenue, celestial steps,

celestial court, great interior, the maple pavilion, royal house,

etc. To see him is to see the dragon’s face ; the throne is called

the ” di-agon’s throne,” and also the ” divine utensil,” i.e., the

tliinir oiven him bv heaven to sit in Avhen executin<!; his divine

mission ; his person is styled the dragon’s body, and a fiveclawed

dragon is emblazoned, like a coat of arms, on his robes,

which no one can use or imitate. Thus the Old Dragon, it

might be almost said, has coiled himself around the Emperor

of China, one of the greatest upholders of his power in this

world, and contrived to get himself worshipped, through him,

by one third of mankind.

The Emperor is the fountain of power, rank, honor, and privilege to all within his dominions, which are termed tieti hia, meaning all under heaven, and were till recently, even by his highest officers, ignorantly supposed to comprise all mankind.

As there can be but one sun in the heavens, so there can be

but one hwangti on earth, the source and dispenser of benefits

to the whole world.” /The same absolute executive power held

by him is placed in the hands of his deputies and governorgenerals,

to be by them exercised within the limits of their

jui-isdiction. He is the head of religion and the only onef

qualified to adore heaven ; he is the source of law and dispen-j

ser of mercy ; no right can be held in opposition to his pleasure,

no claim maintained against him, no privilege protect from his

wrath. All the forces and revenues of the Empire are his, and

lie has a riffht to claim the services of all males between sixteen j and sixty. In short, the whole Empire is his property, and they only cliecks upon his despotism are 2)ubli(‘ opinion, the want of j an efficient standing army, po^’erty and the venality of the agents of his power.

When the Manchus found themselves in possession of Peking,

they regarded this position as fully entitling them to assume all

imperial rights. Their sovereign thus announced his elevation

in November, 16-14 : ” I, the Son of Heaven, of the Ta-tsing

^ The attributes ascribed to a chakrnwartti in the Buddhist mythology have

many points of resemblance to the hintngti, and Hardy’s Manual of Buddhism

(p. 126) furnishes an instructive comparison between the two characters, one fanciful and the other real.

dynasty, liuniljly as a subject dare to announce to Imperial

Heaven and Sovereign Earth. Tliougli tlie world is vast,

Sliangti looks on all without partiality. My Imperial Grandfather

received the gracious decree of Heaven and founded a

kingdom in the East, which became firmly established. My

Imperial Father succeeding to the kingdom, extended it ; and I,

Heaven’s servant, in my poor person became the ii heritor of

the dominion they transmitted. AVlien the ]\Iing dynasty was

coming to its end, traitors and men of violence appeared in

crowds, involving the people in misery. China was without a

ruler. It fell to me reverentially to accept the responsibility

of continuing the meritorious work of my ancestors. I saved

the people, destroyed their ojopressors ; and now, in accordance

with the desires of all, I iix the urns of Empire at Yen-king.

… I, receiving Heaven’s favor, and in accordance with their

wishes, announce to Heaven that I have ascended the throne of

the Empire, that the name I have chosen for it is the Great

Pure, and that the style of my reign is Shun-chl (‘ Obedient

Rule ‘). I beg reverentially Heaven and Earth to protect and

assist the Empire, so that calamity and disturbance may soon

come to an end, and the land enjoy universal peace. For this

I humbly pray, and for the acceptance of this sacrifice.”

The present Emperor is the ninth of the Tsing dynasty M’ho

has reigned in China. Tk/ikj means Pure, and was taken by

the Manchus as a distinctive tei’m for their new dynasty,

alluding to the ])uj’ity of justice they intended to maintain in

their sway. Some of the founders of the ancient dynasties derived

their dynastic name from their patrimonial estates, as

/SifUfj, ITaii, C//af/, etc., but the later ones have adopted names

like T’uen, or ‘ Original,’ Min<j, or ‘ Illustrious,’ etc., which indicate

their vanity.

The present monarch is still a minor, and the affairs of government are nominally under the direction of the Empressdowager, who held the same office during the minority of his predecessor, Tungchf. -The surname of the reigning family is (j’ioi’o, or ‘ Golden,’ derived from their ancestral chief, Aisin Gioro, whom they feign to have been the son of a divine virgin.

PERSONAL NAME AXD TITLES OF THE EMPEROR. 397

They are the lineal descendants of the Kin, a rude race u-liieh drove out the Chinese rulers and occupied the northern provinces about 1130, making Peking their capital for many years. On the approach of the Mongols they were chased away to the east, and retained oidy a nominal independence ; changing their name from Niichih to Manjurs, they gradually increased in numbers, but did not assume any real importance until they became masters of China. The acknowledged founder of the reigning house was the chief IIien-tsu(1583-lC15), whose actual descendants are collectively designated Tsutuj-sJi’/h, or ‘Imperial Clan.’ The second Emperor further limited the Clan by giving to each of his twenty-four sons a personal name of two characters, the first of which, Ynn, was the same for all of

them. For the succeeding generations lie ordered a series of

characters to be nsed l)y all the membei-s of each, so that

through all their ramifications the first name would show tlieir

position. Ivanghi’s own name was Iliuen^ then followed Yun^

Hung, Yung, JIt’en, Y!h, and T^v?/, tlie last and present sovereigns

being both named T^cr/. All who bear this name are

direct descendants of Kanghi. Since the application of these

seven generation names, eight more have been selected for

future nse by imperial scions.

Tn order still further to distinguish those most nearly allied

in blood, as sons, nephews, etc., it is required that the second

names of each family always consist of characters under the

same radical. Thus Kiaking and his brothers wrote their first

names Yang, ‘Am\ under the radical ^?r>i for the second ; Taukwang

and his brothers and cousins Mien, and under the radical

heart. For some unexplained reason the radicals sill: and gaJ(l,

chosen for the second names of the next two generations, were

altered to u-ords and irater. This peculiarity is easily represented

in the Chinese characters ; a comparison can be made

in English with the supposed names of a family of sons, as

Louis Edward, Louis Edwin, Louis Edwy, Louis Edgar, etc.,

the word Louis answering to Mien, and the syllable Ed to the radical heart.

The present Emperor’s personal name is Tsai-tien, and, like those of his predecessors, is deemed to be too sacred to be spoken, or the characters to be written in the common form.

The same reverence is observed for the names after death, sg that twelve characters have been altered since the Manchu monarchs began to reign ; Hinen-wa, which was the personal name of Kanghi, has become permanently altered in its formation.

The present sovereign was born August 15, 1871, and on January

12, 1875, succeeded his cousin Tsaishun, who died without

issue—the first instance in the Gioro family for nearly three

centuries. At this time there was some delay as to which of

his cousins should succeed to the dragon throne, when the united

council of the princes was led by the mother of the deceased

Emperor to adopt her nephew, the son of Prince Chun. The

little fellow was sent for at night to be immediately saluted

as hwangti, and ere long brought in before them, cross and

sleepy as he was, to begin his reign under the style of Kwangsii,

or ‘ Illustrious Succession.’

This title is called a kwoh hao^ or national designation, and

answers more nearly to the name that a new Pope takes with

the tiara than to anything else in western lands. It is the expression

of the idea which the monarch wishes to associate with

his reign, and is the name by which he is known to his subjects

during his life. It has been called a j>^^”^od by some

writers, but while it is not strictly his name, yet period is not

so correct as reign. Usage has made it equivalent in foreign

books to the personal name, and it is plainer to say the Emperor

Taukwang than the period Taukwang or the reign Taukwang,

or still more than to write, as Wade has done, ” the Emperor

Mien-Ning, the style of whose reign Mas Tau Kwang ;”or than Legge has done, to Bay, *’ the Emperor Pattern, of the period Yungciiing.” In such cases it is not worth the trouble to attempt strict accuracy in a matter so entirely unlike western usages.

The use of the kwoh hao began with Wan-ti, of the Han dynasty,’ b.c. 179, and has continued ever since. Some of ‘ The remark of Heeren {Asiatic Nations, Vol. I. , p. 57), that the names by which the early Persian monarchs, Darius, Xerxes, and others, were called, were really titles or surnames, and not their own personal names, suggests the further comparison whether those renowned names were not like the kiroh hao of the Chinese emperors, whose adoption of the custom was after the ex

THE KWOII HAO AND MIAO HAO. 399

the early inouarclis elianged their hwoli hao many times during

their reigns ; Kao-tsung (a.d. 650-684), for example, had thirteen

in a regime of thirty four years, which induced historians

to employ the laiao Jiao, or ancestral name, as more suitable

and less liable to confusion. The reason for thus investinir the

sovereign with a title different from his real name is not fully

apparent, but arose probably out of the vanity of the monai-ch,

who wished thus to glorify himself by a high-sounding title,

and make his own name somewhat ineffable at the same time.

The custom was adopted in Japan about a.d. 645, and is practised

in Corea and Annam.

When a monarch ascends the throne, or as it is expressed in Chinese, ” when he receives from Heaven and revolving nature the government of the world,” he issues an inaugural proclamation. There is not much change in the wording of these papers, and an extract from the one issued in 1821 will exhibit the practice on such occasions: “Our Da Qing dynasty has received the most substantial indication of Heaven’s kind care. Our ancestors, Taitsu and Taitsung. began to lay the vast foundation [of our Empire] : and Shitsu became the sole monarch of China. Our sacred ancestor Kanghi, the Emperor Yungching, the glory of his age, and Kienlung, the eminent in honor, all abounded in virtue, were divine in martial prowess, consolidated the glory of the Empire, and moulded the whole to peaceful harmony.

” His late Majesty, who has now gone the great journey, governed all under Heaven’s canopy twenty-live years, exercising the utmost caution and industry. Xor evening nor morning was he ever idle. He assiduously aimed at the best possible rule, and hence his government was excellent and illustrious; the court and the country felt the deepest reverence and the stillness of profound awe. A benevolent heart and a benevolent tinction of the Persian monarchy. Herodotus (Book VI., 98) seems to have been familiar with these names, not so much as being arbitrary and meaningless terms as epithets whose significations were associated with the kings. The new names given to the last two sons of Josiah, who became kings of Judah by their conquerors (3 Kings, 23; 34, and 24 : 17), indicate even an earlier adoption of this custom.

administration were universally dift’used : in China Proper, as well as beyond it, order and tranquillity pi-evailed, and the tens of thousands of common people were all happy. But in the midst of a hope that this glorious reign would be long protracted, and the help of Heaven would be received many days, unexpectedly, on descending to bless, by his Majesty’s presence, Lwanyang, the dragon charioteer (the holy Emperor) became a guest on high.

” My sacred and indulgent Father had, in the yeai” that ho

bejiran to rule alone, silent! v settled that the divine utensil

should devolve on my contemptible person. I, knowing the

feebleness of my virtue, at first felt much afraid I should not be

competent to the office ; but on reflecting that the sages, my

ancestors, have left to posterity their plans ; that his late

Majesty has laid the duty on me—and Heaven’s throne should

not be long vacant—I have done violence to my feelings and

foi’ced myself to intermit awhile my heartfelt grief, that I may

with reverence obey the unalterable decree ; and on the 2Tth of

the Sth moon (October 3d) 1 purpose devoutly to announce the

ev^ent to Heaven, to earth, to my ancestors, and to the gods of

the land and of the grain, and shall then sit down on the imperial throne. Tx’t the next year be the first of Taukwang.

” I look upward and hope to be able to continue former excellences. I lay my hand on my heart with feelings of respect and cautious awe.—When a new monarch addresses himself to the Empire, he ought to c(»iifer benefits on his klndi-ed, and extensively bestow gracious favors : what is proper to be done on this occasion is stated below.”

(Here follow twenty-two paragraphs, detailing the gifts to be

conferred and promotions made of noblemen and officers ; ordering

the restoration of suspended dignitaries to their full pay

and honoi’s, and sacrifices to Confucius and the Emperors of

former dynasties ; pardons to be extended to ciiminals, and

banished convicts recalled ; governmental debts and arrearages

to be forgiven, and donations to be bestowed upon the aged.)

“Lo! now, on succeeding to the throne, T shall exei-cise myself

to give repose to the millions of my ]>eople. iVssist me to

sustain the burden laid on mv shoulders ! With veneration I

COr.OXATIOX T’ROrr.AMATIOX OF TArKU’AXO. 4(‘]

receive charge of Heaven’s great concerns.—Ye kings and statesmen, great and small, civil and military, let every one be faithful and devoted, and aid in supporting the vast afPairs, that our family dominion may be preserved hundreds and tens of thousands of years in never-ending tranquillity and glory ! Promulgate this to all under Heaven — cause every one to hear it!”

The programme of ceremonies to be observed when the Emperor” ascends the summit,” and seats himself on the dragon’s throne, was published for the Emperor Taukwangby the Board of Kites a few days after. It details a long series of prostrations and bowings, leading out and marshalling the various officers of the court and members of the imperial family. After they are all arranged in proper precedence before the throne,” at the appointed hour the president of the Board of Bites shall go and entreat his Majesty to put on his mourning, and

come forth by the gate of the eastern palace, and enter at the

left door of the middle palace, where his Majesty, before the

altar of his deceased imperial father, will respectfully announce

that he receives the decree—kneel thrice and bow nine times.”

lie then retires, and soon after a large deputation of palace

officers ” go and solicit his Majesty to put on his impei-ial robes

and proceed to the palace of his mother, the Empress-dowager,

to pay his respects. The Empress-dowager will put on her court

robes and ascend her throne, before which his Majesty shall

kneel thrice and bow nine times.” After this filial ceremony

is over the golden chariot is made ready, the officer of the

Astronomical Board—whose business is to ohscrve times—

h

stationed at the palace gate, and when he announces the arrival

of the chosen and felicitous moment, his Majesty comes forth

and mounts the golden chariot, and the procession advances to

the Palace of Protection and Peace. Here the great officers of

the Empire are marshalled according to their rank, and when

the Emperor sits down in the palace they all kneel and bow

nine times.

” This ceremony over, the President of the Board of Rites, stepping forward, shall kneel down and beseech his Majesty, saying, ‘ Ascend the imperial throne.’ The Emperor shall then rise from his seat, and the procession moving on in the same order to the Palace of Peace, his Majesty shall ascend the seat of gems and sit down on the imperial throne, with his face to the south.” All present come forward and again make the nine prostrations, after which the proclamation of coronation, as it would be called in Europe, is formally sealed, and then announced to the Empire with similar ceremonies. There are many other lesser rites observed on these occasions, some of them appropriate to such an occasion, and others, according to our notions, bordering on the ludicrous ; the whole presenting a strange mixture of religion, splendor, and farce, though as a whole calculated to impress all with a sentiment of awe toward one who gives to heaven, and receives from man, such homage and worship.’

Nothing is omitted which can add to the dignity and sacredness

of the Emperor’s person or character. Almost everything

used by him, or in his personal service, is tabued to the connuon

people, and distinguished by some peculiar mark or color, so as

to keep up the impression of awe with which he is regarded,

and which is so powerful an auxiliary to his throne. The outer

gate of the palace must always be passed on foot, and the paved

entrance walk leading up to it can only be used by him. The vacant throne, or even a screen of yellow silk thrown over a chair, is worshipped equally with his actual presence, and an imperial dispatch is received in the provinces with incense and prostrations ; the A-essels on the canal bearing articles for his special use always have the rig:ht of way. His birthday is eel ebrated by his officers, and the account of the opening ceremony, as witnessed by Lord Macartney, shows how skilfully every act tends to maintain his assumed character as the son of heaven.

‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. X., pp. 87-98. Indo-Chinese Gleaner, February, isai.

HOMAGE KENDERP:D TO THE EMPEROR. 403

” The first day was consecrated to the purpose of rendering a solemn, sacred, and devout homage to the supreme majesty of the Emperor. The ceremony was no longer performed in a tent, nor did it partake of the nature of a banquet. The princes, tributai-ies, ambassadors, and great officers of state were assembled in a vast hall ; and upon particular notice were introduced into au inner building, bearing at least the semblance of a temple.

It was chietiy furnished with great instruments of music,

among which were sets of cylindrical bells suspended in a line

from ornamental frames of wood, and gradually diminishing in

size from one extremity to the other, and also triangular pieces

of metal, arranged in the same order as the bells. To the

sound of these instruments a slow and solemn hymn was sung

by eunuchs, who had such a command over their voices as to

resemble the effect of musical glasses at a distance. The performers

were directed, in tlie gliding from one tone to the other,

by the striking of a shrill and sonorous cymbal ; and the judges

of music among the gentlemen of the embassy were much

pleased with their execution. The whole had, indeed, a grand

effect. During the performance, and at particular signals, nine

times repeated, all present prostrated themselves nine times,

except the ambassador and his suite, who made a profound

obeisance. But he whom it was meant to honor continued, as

if in imitation of the Deity, invisible the whole time. The

awful impression intended to iTe made upon the minds of men

by this apparent worship of a fellow-mortal was not to be

effaced by any immediate scenes of sport or gaiety, which were

postponed to the following day. ” ‘ The mass of the people are

not aduutted to particij^ate in these ceremonies ; they are kept

at a distance, and care, in fact, very little about them. In every

provincial capital there is a hall, called Wan-shao l:u?ig, dedicated

solely to the honor of the Emperor, and where, three days

before and after his birthday, all the civil and military officers

and the most distinguished citizens assemble to do him tlie

same homage as if he were present. The walls and furniture

are yellow.

The right of succession is hereditary in the male line, but it

is always in the power of the sovereign to nominate his successor

from among his own children. The heir-apparent is not

commonly known during the lifetime of the incumbent, though

Staunton’s Embassy, 8vo edition, London, 1797, Vol. III., p. 63.

there is a titular office of guardian of the heir-apparent. During

tlie Tsing dynasty the succession has varied, l)ut tiie hloody

scenes enacted in Turkey, Egypt, and India to remove competitors

are not known at Peking, and the people have no fear that they will be enacted. Of the eight preceding sovereigns, Shunchi was the ninth son, Tvanghi the third, Vnngehing the fourth, Kienlung the fourth, Kiaking the iifteenth, Taukwang

the second, Hienfung the fourth, and Tungchi the only son.

When Kwangsii was chosen this regular line failed, and thus

was terminated an nnbi-oken succession during two Inmdred

and fifty-nine years (1616 to 1875), when ten rulers (including

two in Manchuria) occupied the throne. It can be paralleled

onlv in eTudah, where the line of David down to Jehoiachin

(b.c. 1055 to 599) continued regularly in the same manner—

•

twenty kings in four hundred and fifty six years.

In the reign of Kieidung, one of the censors memorialized

him upon the desirableness of announcing his sncsessor, in order

to quiet men’s minds and repress intrigue, but the suggestion

cost the man his place. The Emperor said that the name of

his successor, in case of his own sudden death, would be found

in a designated place, and that it was highly inexpedient to

mention him, lest intriguing men buzzed about him, forming

factions and trying to elevate themselves. The soundness of

this policy cannot l)e doubted, and it is not nnlikely that Kienlung

knew the evils of an opposite course from an acquaintance

with the history of some of the princes of Central Asia or

India. One good result of not indicating the heir-apparent is

that not oidy are no intrigues formed by the crown-prince, but

when he begins to reign he is seldom compelled, from fear of

his own safety, to kill or imprison his brothers or uncles; for,

as they possess no power or party to render them formidable,

their ambition finds full scope for its exercise in peaceful ways.

In 1861, when the heir was a child of five years, a palace intrigue

was started to remove his custody out of the hands of his mother

into those of a cabal wlio had held sway for some years, but the

promoters were all executed.

THE IMPKIilAL HOUSE AXD NOBILITY. 405

The management of the imperial clan appertains entirely to the Emperor, and has been conducted with considerable sagacI’ty. All its members arc under the control of the Tsuny-jln fu, a sort ot” clansmen’s court, consisting of a presiding controller, two assistant directors, and two deputies of the family.

Their duties are to regulate whatever belongs to the government of the Emperor’s kindred, which is divided into two branches, the direct and collateral, or the Uiukj-hMIi and Gioro.

The TmurKj-sJiiJi, or ‘Imperial House,’ coni})rise only the lineal

descendants of Tienming’s father, named llien-tsu, or ‘ Illustrious

Sire,” who first assumed the title of Emperor a.d. 1610.

The collateral branches, including the children of his uncles and

brothers, are collectively c;illed Gioro. Their united number is

unknown, l)ut a genealogical record is kept in the national archives

at Peking and Mukden. The Tsunfj-ahlh are distinguished

by a yellow girdle, and the Gioro by a red one; when

degraded, the former take a red, the latter a carnation girdle.

There are altogether twelve degrees of rank in the Tsung-shih^

and consequently some of the distant kindred are reduced to

straitened circumstances. They are shut out from useful careers,

and generally exhibit the evils ensuent upon the system of education

and surveillance adopted toward them, in their low,

vicious pursuits, and cringing imbecility of character. Tlie sum

of $133 is allowed when they marry, and $150 to defray funeral

expenses, vvhich induces some of them to maltreat their wives

to death, in order to receive the allowance and dowry as often

as possible.

The titular nobility of the Empire, as a whole, is a body

whose members are without power, land, wealth, office, or influence,

in virtue of their honors ; some of them are more or less

hereditary, but the whole system has been so devised, and the

designations so conferred, as to tickle the vanity of those who

receive them, without granting them any real power. The titles

are not derived from landed estates, but the rank is siinply

designated in addition to the name, and it has been a question

of some difficulty how to translate them. For instance, the

title Kung tsin-vKing literally means the ‘ Reverent Kindred

Prince,’ and should be translated Prince Kung, not Prince of

Kung, which conveys the im})ression to a foreign reader that

Kung is an appanage instead of an epithet The twelve orders of nobility are conferred solely on the members of the imperial house and clan : 1. Tsin icamj, ‘ kindred prince,’ i.e., prince of the blood, conferred usnallj on his

Majesty’s brothers or sons. 2. K’nm. irang, or ‘ prince of a

princedom ;

‘ the eldest sons of the princes of these two degrees

take a definite rank during their father’s lifetime, but the collateral

branches descend in precedence as the generations are

more and more remote from the direct imperial line, until at

last the person is simply a member of the imperial clan. These

two ranks were termed regulus by the Jesuit writers, and each

son of an Emperor enters one or other as he becomes of

age. The highest princes receive a stipend of about ^13,300,

some rations, and a retinue of three hundred and sixty servants,

altogether making an annual tax on the state of $75,000 to

$90,000. The second receive half that sum, and inferior grades

in a decreasing ratio, down to the simple members, who each

get four dollars a month and rations. 3 and -i. BeUe and

Beitse, or princes of and in collateral branches. The Sth to

8th are dukes, called Guard i;m and Sustaining, with two subordinate

grades not entitled to enter the court on state occasions.

The 9th to 12th ranks are nobles, or rather generals, in line of

descent. The number of persons in the lower ranks is very

great. Few of these men hold offices at the capital, and still

more rarely are they placed in responsible situations in the

provinces, but the government of Manchuria is chiefly in their

hands.

Besides these are the five ancient orders of nobility, Ining,

liao,2_^(‘li,Uz’, and nan, usually rendered duke, count, viscount,

baron, and baronet, which are conferred without distinction on

Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, both civil and military, and as

such are highly prized by their recipients as marks of honor.

The three first take precedence of the highest untitled civilians,

but an appointment to most of the high offices in the country

carries with it an honorary title. The direct descendant of

Confucius is called Yoi-f^/ilng humj, ‘ the Ever-sacred duke,’

and of Koxinga Ilai-ching hmg, or ‘ Sea-quelling duke ;’ these

two arc the only perpetual titles among the Chinese, but among

the Manchus, the chiefs of eight families which aided in settling the crown in the Gioro line were made hereditary princes,

LIFE IN THE PALACE. 407

who are collectively called princes of the iron crown. Besides

the above-mentioned, there are others, which are deemed even

more honorable, either from their rarity or peculiar privileges,

and answer to membership of the various orders of the Garter,

Golden Fleece, Bath, etc , in Europe.

The internal arrangements of the court are modelled somewhat

after those of the Boards, the general supervision being

under the direction of the Nid-wufa, composed of a president

and six assessors, under whom are seven subordinate departments.

It is the duty of these officers to attend upon the Emperor

and Empress at sacrifices, and conduct the ladies of the

harem to and from the palace ; they oversee the households of

the sons of the Emperor, and direct, under his Majestj’, everything

belonging to the palace and whatever appertains to its

supplies and the care of the imperial guard. The seven departments

are arranged so as to bear no little resemblance to a

miniature state : one supplies food and raiment ; a second is

for defence, to regulate the body-guard when the Emperor

travels; the third attends to the etiquette the members of this

great family must observe toward each other, and brings forward

the inmates of the harem when the Emperor, seated in

the inner hall of audience, receives their homage, led by the

Empress herself ; a fourth department selects ladies to fill the

harem, and collects the revenue from crown lands ; a fifth

superintends all repairs necessary in the palace, and sees that

the streets of the city be cleared whenever the Emperor, Erapress,

or any of the women or children in the palace wish to go

out ; a sixth department has in charge the herds and fiocks of

the Emperor ; and tlie last is a court for punishing the crimes

of soldiers, eunuchs, and ethers attached to the palace.

The Emperor ought to have three thousand eunuchs, but the

actual number is rather less than two thousand, who perform

the work of the household. His sons and grandsons are alloM^ed

from thirty down to four, while the iron-crown princes and imperial

sons-in-law have twenty or thirty ; all these nobles are

constrained to employ some eunuchs in their establishments, if

not able to maintain the full quota, for show. Most of this

class are compelled to submit to mutilation by tlieir parents

before the age of eight (and not always from povei-ty), as it

usually insures a livelihood. Some take to this condition from

motives of laziness and the high duties falling to their share if

they behave themselves. From very ancient times certain

criminals have been punished by castration. There is a separate

control for the due efficiency of these servants of the court,

who are divided into forty-eight classes ; durhig the present

dynasty they have never caused trouble. The highest pay any

of them receive is twelve taels a month.

The number of females attached to the harem is not accurately

known ; all of them are under the nominal direction

of the Empress. Every third year his Majesty reviews the

daughters of the IVIanchu officers over twelve years of age, and

chooses such as he pleases for concubines ; there are oidy seven

legal concubines, but an unlimited mnuber of illegal. The latter

are restored to li])erty when they reach the age of twentyfive,

unless they have borne cliildren to his Majest}-. It is generally

considered an advantage to a family to have a daughter

in the harem, especially by the Manchus, who endeavor to rise

by this backstairs influence.’ To the poor Avomen themselves

it is a monotonous, weary life of intriguing unrest. As soon as

one enters the palace she bids final adieu to all her male relatives,

and rarely sees her female friends ; the eunnchs \vlio

take care of her are her chief channels of communication with

the outer world. It may be added, however, that the comforts

and influence of her condition are vastly superior to those of

Hindu females.

In the forty-eighth volume of the Hiral Tioi, from whicii

work most of the details in this chapter are obtained, is an account

of the snpplies furnished his Majesty and the court.

There should daily be placed befoi-o the Emperor thirty pounds

of meat in a basin and seven pounds boiled into soup ; hog’s

fat and butter, of each one and one-third pound ; two sheep,

two fowls, and two ducks, the milk of eighty cows, and seventy-

‘ Chinese licpositorp, Vol. XIV., !>. 521; N. C. Br. It. As. Soc. Jovriuil,

x\o. XI.

positio:n” of the empress and ladies. 409

five parcels of tea. Her Majesty receives twenty-one pounds

of meat in platters and thirteen pounds boiled with vegetables

;

one fowl, one duck, twelve pitchers of watei’, the milk of

twenty-iive cows, and ten parcels of tea. Her maids and the

3oncubines receive their rations according to a regular fare.

The Empress-dowager is the most important subject within

the palace, and his Majesty does homage at frequent intervals,

!)y making the highest ceremony of nine prostrations before

her. When the widow of Iviaking reached the age of sixty in

1S3<), many honors were conferred l)y the Emperor. An extract

from the ordinance issued on this festival will exhibit the

regard paid her by the sovereign

:

” Our extensive dominions have enjoyed the utmost prosperity

under the shelter of a glorious and enduring state of felicity.

Our exalted race has become most illustrious under the protection

of that honored relative to whom the whole court looks up.

To her happiness, already unalloyed, the highest degree of

felicity has been superadded, causing joy and gladness to every

inmate of the Six Palaces. The grand ceremonies of the occasion

shall exceed in splendor the utmost recpiirements of the

ancients in regard to the human relations, calling ft)rth the gratulation

of the whole Em})ire. It is indispensable that the observances

of the occasion sliould be of an exceedingly unusual

nature, in older that our reverence for our august parent and

care of her may both be equally and gloriously displayed. . . .

… In the first month of the present winter occurs the sixtieth

anniversary of her Majesty’s sacred natal day. At the opening

of the happy period, the sun and moon shed their united genial

influences on it. When commencing anew the revolution of

the sexagenary cycle, the honor thereof adds increase to her

felicity. Looking upward and Ijeholding her glory, Ave repeat

our gratulations, and announce the event to Heaven, to Earth, to

our ancestors, and to the patron gods of the Empire. On the

nineteenth day of the tenth moon in the fifteenth year of Taukwang,

we will conduct the princes, the nobles, and all the high

officers, both rivil and military, into the presence of the great

Empress, benign and dignified, universally placid, thoi-oughly

virtuous, tran(piil and self-collected, in favors unbounded ; and

we will then present our congratulations on the glad occasion,

the anniversary of her natal day. The occasion yields a happiness

equal to what is enjoyed by goddesses in heaven ; and

while announcing it to the gods and to our people, we will

tender to her blessings unbounded.”

Besides the usual tokens of favor, such as rations to soldiers, pardons, promotions, advances in official rank, etc., it was ordered in the eleventh article, ” That every perfectly filial son or obedient grandson, every upright husband or chaste wife, upon proofs being brought forward, shall have a monument erected, with an inscription in his or her honor.”” Soldiers who had reached the age of ninety or one hundred received money to erect an honorary portal, and tombs, temples, bridges, and roads were ordered to be repaired ; but how many of these ” exceedingly great and special favors ” were actually carried into effect cannot be stated.’

For the defence and escort of the Emperor and his palaces

there are select bodies of troops, which are stationed within the

Hwang-ching and the capital and at the various cantonments

near the city. The Bannermen form three separate corps, each

containing the hereditaiy troops of Manchu, Mongol, and enrolled

Chinese, organized at the beginning of the dynasty under

eight standards. Their flags are ti’iangular, a plain yellow,

white, red, and blue for troops in the left wing, and the same

bordered with a narrow stripe of another color for troops in the

rio-ht wino;. All the families of these soldiers remain in the

corps into which they were born.

Two special forces are selected, one named the Vanguard

Division, the other the Flank Division, from the Manchu and

Mongol Bannermen ; these guard the Forbidden City, form his

Majesty’s escort when he goes out, and number respectively

about one thousand five hundred and fifteen thousand men.

For the preservation of the peace of the capital a force of upward

of twenty thousand, called the Infantry Division, or Gendarmerie,

is stationed in and around the walls, in addition to

the palace forces. Besides these a cadet corps of five hundred

Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 576.

EMPEllOR’S GUARD AND DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 411

young men nrnied with l)Ows and spears, two battalions with firearms, and four larger battalions of eight hundred and seventy-five men each, di’iiled in rifle-practice, are relied on to aid the Gendarmerie and Vanguard in case of danger. Whenever the One Man goes out of the palace gate to cross the city, the streets through which he passes aie screened with matting, to keep off the crowds as well as diminish the risks of his person.

The result has been that few of the citizens have ever seen their sovereign’s face during the last two hundred years. The young Emperor Tungchi obtained great favor among them on one occasion of his return from the Temple of Heaven by ordering the screen of mats to be removed so that he and his people could see each other.

Lender the Emperor is the whole body of the people, a great

family bound implicitly to obey his will as being that of heaven,

and possessing no right or property jper se ; in fact, having

nothing but what has been derived from or may at any time be

reclaimed by him. The greatness of this family, and the absence

of an entailed aristocracy to hold its members or their

lands in serfdom, have been partial safeguards against excess

of oppression. Liberty is unknown among the people ; there is

not even a word for it in the language. No acknowledgment

on the part of the sovereign of certain well-understood rights

belonging to the people has ever been required, and is not

likely to be demanded or given by either party until the Gospel

shall teach them their respective rights and duties. Emigration abroad, and even removal from one part of the Empire to another, are prohibited or restrained by old laws, but at present no real obstacle exists to changing one’s place of residence or occupation. Notwithstanding the fact that Chinese society is so homogeneous when considered as distinct from the sovereign, inequalities of many kinds are constantly met with, some growing out of birth or property, others out of occupation or merit, but most of them derived from official rank. There is no caste as in India, though the attempt to introduce the miserable system was vainly made by Wan-ti about a.d. 590. The ancient distinctions of the Chinese into scholars, agriculturists, artisans, and traders is far superior to that of Zoroaster into priests, warriors, agriculturists, and artisans ; a significant index of the different polities of eastern and western x\siatic nations is contained in this early quaternary division, and the superiority of the Chinese in its democratic element is also noticeable. There are local prejudices against associating with some portions of the community, thougly the people thus shut out are not remnants of old castes.

\The tan/da, or boat-people, at Canton form a class in some respects beneath the other portions of the community, and have many customs peculiar to themselves.

At Mngpo there is a degraded set called to viin, amounting to nearly three thousand persons, with whom the people will not associate. The men are not allowed to enter the examinations or follow an honorable calling, but are play-actors, musicians, or sedan-bearers ; the women are match-makers or female barbers and are obliged to wear a peculiar dress, and usually go abroad carrying a bundle wrapped in a checkered handkerchief.

The tanhia at Canton also wear a similar handkerchief on their head, and do not cramp their fee^ The to iidn are supposed to be descendants of the Kin, who held northern China in a.d.1100, or of native traitors who aided the Japanese, in 1555-1563, in their descent upon Chehkiang. The tanh’ui came from some of the Miaotsz’ tribes so early that their origin is unknown.’

The modern classifications of the people, recognized, however, more by law than custom, are various and comprehensive. First, natives and aliens ; the latter include the unsubdued mountaineers and aboriginal tribes living in various parts, races of boat-people on the coasts, and all foreigners residing within the Empire, each of whom are subject to particular laws. Second, conquerors and conquered ; having reference almost entirely to a prohibition of intermarriages between Manchus arid Chinese. Third, freemen and slaves; every native is allowed to pm-chase slaves and retain their children in servitude, and free persons sometimes forfeit their freedom on account of their crimes, or mortgage themselves into bondage. Fourth, the

‘ Missionary Chronicle, Vol. XIV., p. 324; Hardy, Manual of BttddJdsm, pC9 ; Heereii, Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 240.

SLAVES AXD PRIVILEGED CLASSES. 413

iioiioi’able and the mean, m’Iio cannot intermarry without the former forfeiting their privileges; the latter comprise, besides aliens and slaves, criminals, executioners, police-runners, actors, jugglers, beggars, and all other vagrant or vile persons, who are in general required to pursue for three generations some honorable and useful employment before they are eligible to enter the literary examinations. These four divisions extend over the whole body of the people, but really affect only a small minority.

It is worthy of note how few have been the slaves in China, and how easy has been their condition in comparison with what it was in Greece and Rome. / Owing chiefly to the prevalence of education in the liberal principles of the Four Books, China has been saved from this disintegrating element. The proportion of slaves to freemen cannot be stated, but the former have never attracted notice by their numbers nor excited dread by their restiveness^ Girls are more readily sold than boys ; at Peking a healthy girl under twelve years brings from thirty to fifty taels, rising to two hundred and fifty or three hundred for one of seventeen to eighteen years old. In times of famine orphans or needy children are exposed for sale at the price of a few cash.’

There are also eight privileged classes, of which the privileges of imperial blood and connections and that of nobility are the only ones really available ; this privilege affects merely’ the punishment of offenders belonging to either of the eight classes. The privilege of imperial blood is extended to all the blood relations of the Emperor, all those of the Empress-mother and grandmother within four degrees, of the Empress within three, and of the consort of the crown prince within two. Privileged noblemen comprise all officers of the first rank, all of the second holding office, and all of the third whose office confers a command.

These ranks are distinct from titles of nobility, and are much thought of by officers as honorary distinctions. There are nine, each distinguished by a different colored ball placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry of a bird for civilians and a beast for military officers on the breast, and a different clasp to the girdle.

‘ M. Ed. Biot furnished a good account to the Journal Asiatique (3d series, Vol. III.) of the legal condition of slaves in China ; see also Chinese RepoHVtory^ Vol. XVIII., pp. 347-003, and passim; Archdeacon Gray’s China.

Civilians of the first rank wear a precious ruby or transparent red stone; a Manchurian crane is embroidered on the back and breast of the robe, while the girdle clasp is jade set in rubies; military men have a unicorn, their buttons and clasps being the same as civilians.

Civilians of the second rank wear a red coral button, a robe

embroidered with a golden pheasant, and a girdle clasp of gold

set in rubies ; the lion of India is emblazoned on the military.

Civilians of the third rank carry a sapphire and one-eyed

peacock’s feather, a robe with a peacock worked on the breast,

and a clasp of worked gold ; military officers have a leopard.

Different Styles of Official Caps.

Civilians of the fourth rank are distinguished by a blue opaque stone, a wild goose on the breast, and a clasp of worked gold with a silver button ; military officers carry a tiger in place of the embroidered wild goose.

Civilians of the fifth rank are denoted by a crystal button, a silver pheasant on the breast, and a clasp of plain gold with a silver button ; the bear is the escutcheon of military men.

Civilians of the sixth rank wear an opaque white shell button, a blue plume, an egret worked on the breast, and a mother of pearl clasp; military men wear a tiger-cat.

Civilians of the seventh rank have a plain gold button, a mandarin duck on the breast, and a clasp of silver; a mottled bear designates the military, as it also does in the last rank.

EIGHT HONOUAUY RANKS. 415

The eighth rank wear a worked gokl button, a quail on the breast, and a clasp of clear horn : military men have a seal. The ninth rank are distinguished by a worked silver button, a long-tailed jay on the breast, and a clasp of buffalo’s horn ; military men are marked by a rhinoceros embroidered on the robe. All under the ninth can embroider the oriole on their breasts, and unofficial Ilanlin take the egret.

The mass of people show their democratic tendencies in many ways, some of them conservative and others disorganizing. They form themselves into clans, guilds, societies, professions, and communities, all of which assist them in maintaining their rights, and give a power to public opinion it would not otherwise possess. Legally, every subject is allowed access to the magistrates, secured protection from oppression, and can appeal to the higher courts, but these privileges are of little avail if he is poor or unknown. ( He is too deeply imbued with fear and too ignorant of his rights to think of organized resistance ; his mental independence has been destroyed, his search after truth paralyzed, his enterprise checked, and his whole efforts directed into two channels, viz., labor for bread and study for office.

The people of a village, for instance, will not be quietly robbed of the fruits of their industry ; but every individual in it niay suffer multiplied insults, oppressions, and cruelties, without thinking of combining with his fellows to resist. Property is held by a tolerably secure tenure, but almost every other right and privilege is shamefully trampled oiA

Although there is nominally no deliberative or advisatory body in the Chinese government, and nothing really analogous to a congress, parliament, or tiersetat, still necessity and law compel the Emperor to consult and advise with the heads of tribunals. There are two imperial councils, which are the organs of communication between the head and the body politic ; these are the Cabinet, or Imperial Chancery, and the Council of State ; both of them partake of a deliberative character, but the first has the least power. Subordinate to these two councils are the administrative parts of the supreme government, consisting of the six Boards, the Colonial Office, Censorate, Courts of Representation and Appeal, and the Imperial Academy; making in all thirteen principal departments, each of which will require a short description. It need hardly be added that there is nothing like an elective body in any part of the system ; such a feature would be almost as incongruous to a Chinese as the election of a father by his family.

1. The Nui Kon, or Cabinet, sometimes called the Grand Secretariat,

consists of iowv ta]ik)Ji-sz\ or principal, and two hiehpa/i

ta Jdoh-sz\ or ‘joint assistant chancellors,’ half of them Manchus

and half Chinese. Their duties, according to the Imperial

Statutes, are to ” deliberate on the government of the Empire,

proclaim abroad the imperial pleasure, regulate the canons

of state, together with the whole administration of the great

balance of power, thus aiding the Emperor in directing the

affairs of state.” Subordinate to these six chancellors are six

grades of officers, amounting in all to upward of two hundred

persons, of whom more than half are Manchus. Under the six

chancellors are ten assistants, called hloh-sz\ ‘ learned scholars ;’

some of the sixteen are constantly absent in the provinces or

colonies, when their places are supplied by substitutes. What in other countries is performed by one person as prime minister, is in China performed by the four chancellors, of whom the first in the list is usually considered to be the premier, though perhaps the must influential man and the real leader of government holds another station.

The most prominent daily business of the Cabinet is to receive imperial edicts and rescripts, present memorials, lay before his Majesty the affairs of the Empire, procure his instructions thereon, and forward them to the appropriate office to be copied and promulgated. In order to expedite business in court, it is the custom, after the ministers have read and formed an opinion upon each document, to fasten a slip of paper at the foot—or more than one if elective answers are to be given—and thus present the document to his Majesty, in the presence chamber, who, with a stroke of his pencil on the answer he chooses, decides its fate. The papers, having been examined and arranged, are submitted to the sovereign at daylight on the following morning ; one of the six Manchu ///o/z-.s*.?’ first reads each document and hands it over to one of the four Chinese ]uoh-sz\ who inscribes the answer dictated by the sovereign, or hands it to him to perform that duty with the vermilion pencil.

THE NTTI KOII, OR CABIXET. 417

By this arrangement a large amount of business can be summarily despatched; but it is also evident that much depends upon the manner in which the answer written upon the slip is drawn up, as to the reception or rejection of the paper, though care has been taken in this particular by requiring that codicils be prepared showing the reasons for each answer. The appointment, removal, and degradation of all officers throughout his vast aominions, orders respecting the apportionment or remittal of the revenue and taxes, disposition of the army, regulation of the nomadic tribes—in short, all concerns, from the highest appointments and changes down to petty police cases of crime, are in this way brought to the notice and action of the Emperor.

Besides these daily duties there are additional functions devolving

upon the members of the Cabinet, who are likewise all

attached to other bureaus, such as presiding on all state occasions

and sacrifices, coronations, reception of embassies, etc. ;

these duties are fulfilled by the ten assistant hk>h-sz\ who are

all vice-presidents of the Board of Rites. They are the keepers

of the twenty-five seals of government, each of which is of a

different form and used for different and special purposes,

according to the custom of orientals, who place so much de-

Tj)endence upon the seal for vouching for* the authenticity of a

document.’ Attached to the Cabinet are ten subordinate offices,

one of which is for translating documents into the various

Vmguages found in the Empire. The higher members of the

Cabinet are familiarly called h>h lao, i.e., elders of the councilroom,

from which the word colao, often met with in old books

upon China, is derived.”

‘ Chinese Chrestmnnthy. Chap. XVII., Sec. 4, p. 570.

^ A still more common designation for officers of every rank in the employ of the Chinese government has not so good a parentage ; this is the word iiKtiidarin, derived from the Portuguese maiidar, to command, and indiscriminately applied by foreigners to every grade, from a premier to a tide-waiter; it is not needed in English as a general term for officers, and ought to be disiised, moreover, from its tendency to convey the impression that they are in some way unlike similar officials in other lands. Compare Notes and Queries on Chihd (uid Jdjmn, Vol. III., p. 12.

2. The KiCN-Ki Chu, Council of State or General _Coimci], was organized about 1730, butjias now become the most influential body in the governmentj and^ though quite unlike in its construction, corresponds to the 7mnidry of western nations more than does any other branch of the Chinese system. It can be composed of any grandees, as princes of the blood, chancellors, presidents and vice-presidents of the Six Boards, and chief officers of all the other metropolitan courts. They are ^selected at the Emperor’s pleasure^ and unitedly called J^great ministers directing the machinery of the army “—the army being here taken to signify the nation. Its duties are ” to write imperial edicts and decisions, and determine such things as are of importance to the army and nation, in order to aid the sovereign in regulating the machinery of affairs.” The number of members of the General Council probably varies according to his Majesty’s pleasure, for no list of them is given in the Bed Bool’ • but latterly their munber has been four, two of each nationality, and Prince Kung as the president. This body is one of the mainsprings of the government, and its composition shows the tendency of the national councils and polity.

The members of the General Council assemble daily in the

Forbidden Palace, between five and six in the morning ; when

summoned by his Majesty into the council-chamber they sit

upon mats or low cushions, no person being permitted to sit on

chairs in the real or supposed presence of the Emperor. His

Majesty’s commands being written down by them, are, if public,

transmitted to the Iimer Council to be promulgated ; but

on any matter requiring secrecy or expedition, a despatch is

forthwith made up and sent under cover to the Board of War,

to be forwarded. In all important consultations or trials this

Council, either alone or in connectipji^with the appropriate

court, is called in ; and in time of war it is formed intg^a committee

of ways and means. Lists of ofiicers entitled to promotion

are kept by it, and the names of proper persons to supply

vacancies furnished the Emperor, Many of the residents in

the colonies ai-e members of the Council, and communicate

directly with his Majesty through it, and receive allowances

and gifts with great formality from the throne—a device of

THE KIUN-Ki, OR GENERAL COUNCIL. 419

statecraft designed to maintain an awe of the imperial character and name as much as possible among the mixed races under them.

The General Council fills an important station in the system, and tends greatly to consolidate the various branches of government, facilitating their harmonious action as well as supplying the deficiencies of an imbecile, or restraining the acts of a tyrannical monarch. The statutes speak of various record books, both public and secret, kept by the members for noting down the opinions of his Majesty, and add that there are no fixed times for audiences, one or more sessions being held daily, according to the exigencies of the state. Besides these functions, its members are further charged with certain literary matters, and three subordinate offices are attached to the Council for their preparation. One is for drawing up narratives of important transactions—a few of those relating to the wars and negotiations with foreigners since 1839 would be of much interest now ; a second is for translating documents ; and the third, entitled ” an office for observing that imperial edicts are carried into effect,” must be at times rather an arduous task, though probably its responsibility ends when the despatch goes forward.

An office with this title shows that the Chinese government, with all its business-like arrangements, is still an Asiatic one.* The duties of these supreme councils are general, comprising matters relating to all departments of the government, and serving to connect the head of the state with the subordinate bodies, not only at the capital, but throughout the provinces, so that he can, and probably does to a very great degree, thereby maintain a general acquaintance with what is clone in all parts, and sooner rectify disorders and malpractices. The rivalry between their members, and the dislike entertained by the Chinese and Manchus composing them, cause, no doubt, some trouble to the Emperor ; but this has some effect in thwarting conspiracies and intrigues. It must not be supposed, however, that every high officer in the Chinese government is wholly unprincipled, venal, and intriguing; most of them desire to serve and maintain their country. The personal character and knowledge of the monarch has much to do with the efficiency of his government, and the guidance of its affairs demands constant oversight.

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 138. Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 573.

If he allows his ministers to conduct their trusts without restraint, they soon engross and misuse this power for selfish ends. In natural sequence every branch feels the fatal laxity, while its functionaries lose no time in imitating their superiors.

This was the case during the reign of Ilienfung, but matters have much improved under the regency since 18C1. In ordinary times, the daily hiterconrse between the Emperor of China and his ministers presents very similar features of confidence, courtesy, and esteem between them as those seen in western lands.

The King Pac, i.e.^

‘ Metmpol’diui Itejjoiier^ usually called the PcJdng Gazette, is compiled from the papers presented before the General Council, and constitutes the principal source of information available to the people for ascertaining what is going on in the Empire. Every morning ample extracts from the papers decided upon or examined by the Emperor, including his own orders and rescrij^ts, are placarded upon boards in a court of the palace, and form the materials for the aimals of government and the history of the Empire. Couriers are despatched to all parts of the land, carrying copies of these papers to the high provincial officers; certain persons are also permitted to print these documents, but always without note or change, and circulate them at their own charges to their customers.

This is the Peking Gazette, and such the mode of its compilation. It is simply a record of official acts, promotions, decrees, and sentences, without any editorial comments or explanations; and as such of great value in understanding the policy of government.

It is very generally read and discussed by educated people in cities, and tends to keep them more acquainted with the character and proceedings of their rulers than ever the Itomans were of their sovereigns and Senate. In the provinces thousands of persons find employment by copying and abridging the Gazette for readers who cannot afford to purchase the complete edition.’

‘ Fraser’s Magazine. February, 1873. China Review, Vol. III., p. 13.

Note on the Condition and Government of the Chinese Empire in 1849. By T F. Wade. Hongkong, 1850. Translations of several years of the Oazette have appeared since 1S72, reprinted from the columns of the North China Herald.

THE PEKING GAZETTE AND SIX BOARDS. 421

The principal executive Ixxlies uiulor these two Councils are the Lali Pa, or ‘ Six Boards/ which were modelled on much the same plan during the ancient dynasties. At the head of each Board are two presidents, called sJi<iti(j->ifi.i(, and foiTr vicepresidentsT called HhUaug^ alternately a Manchu and a Chinese; and over three of them—those of lievenue, War, and Punishment—are placed superintendents, who are frequently members of the Cabinet ; sometimes the president of one Board is superintendent of another. There a.re three subordinate grades of officers in each Board, who may be called directors, undersecretaries, and controllers, with a great number of minor clerks, and their appropriate departments for conducting the details of the general and peculiar business coming under the cognizance of the Board, the whole being arranged and subordinated in the most business-like style. The detail of all the departments in the general and provincial governments is regulated in the same manner. For instance, each Board” has a different style of envelope for its despatches, and the papers in the offices are filed away in them.

3. The LiBu, or Board of Civil Office, ” has the government and direction of all the various officers in the civil service of the Empire, and thereby it assists the Emperor to rule all people ; ” these duties are further defined as hicluding ” whatever appertains to the plans of selecting rank and gradation, to the rules of determining degradation and promotion, to the ordinances of granting investitures and rewards, and the laws for fixing schedules and furloughs, that the civil service may be supplied.” Civilians arc presented to the Emperor, and all civil and literary officers throughout the Empire distributed by this Board. The great power apparently thus entrusted is shared by the two preceding, whose members are made advisory overseers of the highest appointments, while the provincial authorities put men in vacant posts as fast as they are needed. The danger arising from the arrangement is noticed by Biot’ as having early attracted criticism.

‘ Esaai mr P Instruction en Chine, jip. 540-589.

This Board is subdivided into four bureaus. The first at tends to the distinctions, precedence, promotion, exchanging, etc., of officers. The second investigates their merits and worthiness to be recorded and advanced, or contrariwise ; ascertains the character each officer bears and the manner in which he fulfils his duties, and prescribes his fnrlonghs. The third jegnlates retirement from office on account of mourning or filial duties, and supervises the registration of official names; it is through this bureau that Hwang Xgan-tung, the Governor of Ivwangtung, was degraded in 1846 for not resigning his office on the death of his mother. The fourth regulates the distribution of titles, patents, and posthumous honors. The Chinese is the only government that ennobles ancestors for the merits of their descendants; the custom arose out of the worship paid them, in which the rites arc proportionate to the rank of the deceased, not of the survivor ; and if the deceased parent or grandparent were connnoners, they receive proper titles in consequence of the elevation of their son or grandson. This custom is not a trick of state to get money, for commoners cannot buy these posthumous titles ; they can only buy nominal titles for themselves. The usage, however, offers an unexpected illustration of the remark of Job, ” His sons come to honor, and he knoweth it not.”

4. The Hu Bu, or Board of Revenue, ” directs the territorial government of the Empire, and keeps the lists of population in order to aid the Emperor in nourishing all people ; whatever appertains to the regulations for levying and collecting duties and taxes, to the plans for distributing salaries and allowances, to the rates for receipts and disbursements at the gi*anaries and treasuries, and to the rights for transporting by land and water are reported to this Board, that sufficient supplies for the country may be provided.” Besides these duties, it obtains the admeasurement of all lands in the Empire, and proportions taxes and conscriptions, according to the divisions, population, etc., regulates the expenditure, and ascertains the latitude and longitude of places. One minor office prepares lists of all the Manchu girls fit to be introduced into the palace for selection as inmates of the harem, a duty wdiich is enjoined on it because the allowances, outfits, and positions of these womou

BOARDS OF REVENUE AND KITES. 423

come within its control. The injudicious mode of collecting revenue common under the Persian and Syrian kings, by which the sums obtained from single cities and provinces were apportioned among the royal family and favorites, and carried directly to them, has never been practised by the Chinese, there are fourteen subordinate departments to attend to the receipt of the revenue from each of the provinces, each of which corresponds with the treasury department in its respective province. The revenue being paid in sundry ways and articles, as money, grain, manufactures, etc., the receipt and distribution of the various articles require a large force of assistants.

This Board is moreover a court of appeal on disputes respecting propertyj^and superintends the mint in each province; one bureau is called the ” great ministers of the Three Treasuries,” viz., of metals, silks and dye-stuffs, and stationery.

5. The Li Bu, or Board of Rites, ” examines and directs concerning the performance of the five kinds of ritual observances, and makes proclamation thereof to the whole Empire, thus aiding the Emperor in guiding all people. Whatever appertains to the ordinances for regulating precedence and literary distinctions, to the canons for maintaining; religious honor and fidelity, to the orders respecting intercourse and tribute, and to the forms of giving banquets and granting bounties, are reported to this Poard in order to promote national education.”

The five classes of rites are defined to be those of a propitious and those of a felicitous nature, military and hospitable rites, and tliosj of an infelicitous nature. Among the subordinate departments is that of ceremonial forms, which ” has the regulation of the etiquette to be observed at court on all occasions, on congratulatory attendances, in the performance of official duties, etc. ; also the regulation of dresses, caps, etc. ; as to the figure, size, color, and nature of their fabrics and ornaments, of carriages and riding accoutrements, their form, etc., with the number of followers and insignia of rank. It has also the direction of the entire ceremonial of personal intercourse between the various ranks or peers, minutely defining the number of bows and degree of attention which each is to pay to the other when meeting in official capacities, according as they are on terms of equality or otherwise. It has also to direct the forms of their written official intercourse, including those to be observed in addresses to and from foreign states. The regulation of the literary examinations, the imnjber of the graduates the distinction of their classes, the fornisj)f their jelection, and the privileges of successful candidates, with the establishment of governmental schools and academies, are all under this department.”

Another office superintends the rites to be observed in worshipping deities and spirits of departed monarchs, sages, and worthies, and in ” saving the sun and moon ” when eclipsed.

The third, called ” iiost and guest office,” looks after tribute and tribute-bearers, ar^d takes the whole management of foreign embassies, supplying not only provisions, but translators, and ordering the mode of intercourse between China and other states. The fourth oversees the supplial of food for banquets and sacrifices. The details of all the multifarious ritual duties of this Board occupy fourteen volumes of the Statutes. ” Truly nothing is without its ceremonies,” as Confucius taught, and no nation has paid so much attention to them in the ordering of its government as the Chinese. The Book of Rites is the foundation of ceremonies and the infallible standard as to their meaning; the importance attached to them has elevated etiquette and I’itualism into a kind of crystallizing force which has molded Chinese character in many ways.

Connected with the Board of Rites is a Board of Music, containing an indefinite number of officers whose duties ” are to study the principles of harmony and melody, to compose musical pieces’ and form instruments proper to play them, and then suit both to the various occasions on which they are required.” Kor are the gi*aces of posture-making neglected by these ceremony-mongers ; but it may with tinith be said, that if no other nation ever had a Board of Music, and required so much official music as the Chinese, certaiidy none ever had less real melody.

THE BING BU, OR BOARD OF WAR. 425

6. The Bing Bu, or Board of War, “has the duty of aiding the sovereign to protect the people by the direction of all military affairs in the metropolis and the province Sj^ and to regulate the hinge of the state upon the reports received from the various departments regarding deprivation of, or appointment to, office ; succession to, or creation of, hereditary military rank ; postal or courier arrangements ; examination and selection of the deserving, and accuracy of returns.”* The navy is also under the control of this Board. The management of the post is confided to a special department, and the transmission of official despatches is performed with great efficiency and regularity. A minor bureau of the courier office is called ” the office for the announcement of victories,” which, from a recital of its duties, appears to he rather a grande vlfes-se, whose couriers should hasten as if they announced a victory.

To enable this Board of War to discharge its duties, they are apportioned under four s~\ or bureaus, severally attending to promotion for various reasons : to the regulation of the distribution of rewards and punishments, inspection of troops and issue of general orders, answering to an adjutant-general’s department; to the supply and distribution of horses for the cavalry; and, lastly, to the examination of candidates, preparation of estimates and rosters, with all the details connected with equipments and ammunition. The conception of all government with the Manchus being military and not civil, they have developed this board more than was the case during the last dynasty, the possessions in Central Asia having drawn greatly on their resources and prowess.

The Household troops and city Gendarmerie have already been noticed ; their control is vested in the JVui-zric F’u, and the oversight of all the Bannermen in the Empire vests in the metropolitan office of the Tu-tun/j, or Captains-general, of whom there are twenty-four, one to every banner of each race. The Board of War has no control directly over this large portion of the Chinese army, and as the direction of the land and sea forces in each province is entrusted in a great degree to the local authorities, its duties are really more circumscribed than one would at first imagine. The singular subordination of military to civil power, which has ever distinguished the Chinese polity, makes the study of the army, as at present constituted, a very interesting feature of the national history ; fur while it has often proved inefficient to repress insurrection and defend the people against brigandage, it has never been used to destroy their institutions. In times of internal commotion the national soldiers have usually been loyal to their flag, though it must be confessed that discipline within the ranks is not so perfect as to prevent the soldiers from occasionally harassing and robbing those whom they are set to protect.’

7. The Xing Bu, or Board of Punishments, ” has the government

and direction of punishments throughout the Empire, for

the purpose of aiding the sovereign in cori-ecting all people.

Whatever appertains to measures of applying the laws with

leniency or severity, to the task of hearing evidence and giving

decisions, to the rights of granting pardons, reprieves, or otherwise,

and to the rate of fines and interest, are all reported to

this Board, to aid in giving dignity to national manners.” The

Hing Pu partakes of the nature of both a criminal and civil

court ; its officers usually meet with those of the Censorate and

Tali Sz’, the three forming the San Fall 8z\ or ‘ Three Law

Chambers,’ which decide on capital cases brought before them.

In the autumn these three unite with members from six other

courts, forming collectively a Court of Errors, to revise the decisions

of the provincial judges before reporting them to his

Majesty. These precautions are taken to prevent injustice

when life is involved, and the system shows an endeavor to secure

a full and impartial consideration for all capital cases,

which, although it may signally fail of its full effect, does the

rulers high credit, when the small value set upon life generally

by Asiatic governments is considered. These bodies are expected

to conform their decisions to the law, nor are they permitted

to cite the Emperor’s own decisions as precedents, without

the law on these decisions has been expressly entered as a

supplementaiy clause in the code.

It also belongs to sub-officers in the Board of Punishments to

record all his Majesty’s decisions upon appeals from the provinces

at the autumnal assizes, when the entire list is presented

‘ Chineae Refiository, Vol. lY., pp. 188, 276-287; Vol. V., pp. 165-178;Vol. XX., pp. 250, 800, and 863.- Memoires concernant Us Chinois^par k» Mmionuiren a Pekin, Tomes VII. and VIII., passim.

BOARDS OF PUNISHMENTS AND WORKS. 427

for Lis examination and ultimate decision, and see that these

sentences are transmitted to the provincial judges. Another

office snpei’intends the publication of the code, with all the

changes and additions ; a third oversees jails and jailers ; a

fourth i-eceives the fines levied by commutation of punishments,

and a fifth registei’s the receipts and expenditures. If the administi-

ation of the law in China at all corresponded with the

equitj’ of most of its enactments, or the caution taken to prevent

collusion, malversation, and haste on the part of the judges, it would be incomparably the best governed country out of Christendom; but the painful contrast between good laws and wicked rulers is such as to show the utter impossibility of securing the due administration of justice without higher moral principles than heathenism can teach.

The yamiui of the Hlny Pa in the capital is the most active of all the Boards, but little is known of what goes on within its walls. Its prisoners are mostly brought from the provinces, officers of high rank arrested for malfeasance or failure, and criminals convicted or condemned there who have appealed to the highest tribunals. Few of those who enter its gates ever return through them, and their sufferings seldom end as long as they have any property left. The narrative of the horrible treatment endured by Loch and his comrades in ISCO, while confined within this yaiiiun^ gives a vivid picture of their sufferings, but native prisoners are not usually kept bound and pinioned.

In the rear wall of the establishment is an iron door, through which dead bodies are thrust to be carried away to burial.

8. The Gong Bu, or Board of Works, ” has the government and direction of the public works throughout the Empire, together with the current expenses of the same, for the purpose of aiding the Emperor to keep all people in a state of repose. Whatever appertains to plans for buildings of wood or earth, to the forms of useful instruments, to the laws for stopping up or opening channels, and to the ordinances for constructing the mausolea and temples, are reported to this Board in order to perfect national works.” Its duties are of a miscellaneous nature, and are performed in other countries b}^ no one department, though the plan adopted by the Chinese is not without its advantages

One bureau takes cognizance of the condition of all city walls,

palaces, temples, altars, and other public structures ; sits as a

prize-office, and furnishes tents for his Majesty’s journeys ; supplies

timber for ships, and potterj’ and glassware for the court.

A second attends to the manufacture of mihtary stores and

utensils employed in the army ; sorts the pearls from the fisheries

according to their value ; regulates weights and measures,

furnishes ” death-warrants ” to governors and generals ; and,

lastly, takes charge of arsenals, stores, camp-equipage, and other

things appertaining to the army. A third dcpailnient has

charge of all water-ways and dikes; it also repairs and digs

canals, erects bridges, oversees the banks of rivers by means of

deputies stationed at posts along their course, builds vessels of

Avar, collects tolls, mends roads, digs the sewers in Peking and

cleans out its gutters, preserves ice, makes book-cases for public

records, and, lastly, looks after the silks sent as taxes. Tlie

fourth of these offices confines its attention chiefly to the condition

of the imperial mausolea, the erection of the sepulchres

and tablets of meritorious officers buried at public expense, and

the adormnent of temples and palaces, as well as superintending

ah workmen employed by the Board.

The mint is under the direction of two vice-presidents, and

the manufacture of gunpowder is specially intrusted to two

great ministers. One would think, from this recital, that the

functions of the Boai’d of AYorks Mere so diverse that it would

be one of the most efficient parts of government ; but if the

condition of forts, ports, dikes, etc., in other parts of the country

corresponds to those along the coast, there is, as the Emperor

once said of tlie army, ” the appearance of going to war,

but not the reality “—most of the works being on record, and

suffered to remain there, except when danger threatens, or his

Majesty specially orders a public work, and, what is more important,

furnishes the money.

THE LI FAN YUAN, OR COLONIAL OFFICE. 429

9. The Li Fan Yuan, or Court for the Government of Foreigners, commonly called the Colonial Office, ” has the government and direction of the external foreigners, orders their emoluments and honors, appoints their visits to court, and regulates their punishments, in order to display the majesty and goodness of the state.” This is an important branch of the government, and has the superintendence of all the wandering and settled tribes in Mongolia, Cobdo, Ili, and Koko-nor. All these are called wai fan, or ‘ external foreigners,’ in distinction from the tributary tribes in Sz’chuen and Formosa, who are termed ivuifan, or ‘ internal foreigners.’ There are also nui i

and loai i, or ‘ internal and external barbarians,’ the former

comprising the unsubdued mountaineers of Kweichau, and the

latter the inhabitants of all foreign countries who do not choose

to range themselves under the renovating influences of the Celestial

Empire. The Colonial Othce regulates the government of the nomads and restricts their wanderings, lest they trespass on each other’s pasture-grounds. Its officers are all Manchus and Mongols, having over them one president and two vice-presidents, Manchus, and one Mongolian vice-president appointed for life.

Besides the usual secretaries for conducting its general business,

there are six departments, whose combined powers include

every branch necessary for the management of these

clans. The first two have jurisdiction over the numerous tribes

and corps of the Inner Mongols, who are under more complete

subjection than the others, and part have been placed under

the control of officers in Chihli and Shansi. The appointment

of local officers, collecting taxes, allotting land to Chinese settlers,

opening roads, paying salaries, arranging the marriages,

retinues, visits to courts, and presents made by the princes and

the review of the troops, all appertain to these two departments.

The third and fourth have a similar, but less effectual control

over the princes, lamas, and tribes of Outer Mongolia. At

TTrga reside two high ministers, organs of communication with

Russia, and general overseers of the frontier. The oversight of

the lama hierarchy in Mongolia is now completely under the

control of this office ; and in Tibet their power has been considerably

abridged. The fifth department directs the actions,

restrains the powers, levies the taxes, and orders the tributary

visits of the Mohannnedan begs in the Tien shan Xan Lu, who

are quiet pretty nuich as they are paid by presents and flattered

by honors. The sixth department regnlatesthe penal discipline

of the tributary tribes. The salai’ies paid the Mongolian princes

are distributed according to an economical scale. A tsin wmuj

annually receives $2,000 and twenty-hve pieces of silk ; a kiun

wang receives about $1,066 and iifteen pieces of silk ; and so on

through the ranks of Eeile, JBeitse, Duke, etc., the last of whom

gets a stipend of only $133 and four pieces of silk. The internal

organization of these tribes is probably the same now as it

was at first among the Scythians and Huns, and partakes of the

features of the feudal and tribal system, modified by the nomadic

lives they are obliged to lead. The Chinese government

is endeavoring to reduce the influence and retinues of the khans

and begs and elevate the people to positions of independent

owners and cultivators of the soil.

10. The DuCHA Yuan, or Censorate, i.e., ‘ All-examining Court,’ is entrusted with the ” care of manners and customs, the investigation of all public offices within, and without the capital, the discrimination between the good and bad performance of their business, and between the depravity and uprightness of the officers employed in them ; taking the lead of other censors, and uttering each his sentiments and reproofs, in order to cause officers to be diligent in attention to their daily duties, and to render the government of the Empire stable.” The Censorate, when joined with the Board of Punishments and Court of Appeal, forms a high court for the revision of criminal cases and hearing appeals from the pntvinces; and, in connection with the Six Boards and the Court of Representation and Appeal, makes one of the Iviu King, or ‘ Nine Courts,’ which deliberate on important affairs of government.

The officers are two censors and four deputy censors, besides whom the governors, lieutenant-governors, and the governors of rivers and inland navigation are ex-offwlo deputy censors.

A class of censors is placed over each of the Six Boards, whose

duties are to supervise all their acts, to receive all public documents

from the C^abinet, and after classifying them transmit

them to the several courts to which they belong, and to make a

semi-monthly examination of the papers entered on the archives

uf each court. All ciiminal cases in the provinces come under

THE DU-CHA YUAN, OR CENSORATE. 431

the oversight of the censors at tlie capital, and the department

which superintends the affairs of the nieti-opolis revises its

municipal acts, settles the quarrels, and represses the crimes of

its inhabitants. Tliese are the duties of the Censorate, tlian

which no part of the Chinese government has attracted more

attention. The privilege of reproof given by the law to the

office of censor has sometimes been exercised with remarkable

candor and plainness, and many cases are recoi-ded in histoiy

of these officers suffering for tlieir fidelity, but such instances

must be few indeed in proportion to the failures.

The celebrated Sung, who was appointed commissioner to accompany

Loi’d Macartney, once remonstrated with the Emperor

Kiaking upon his attachment to play-actors and strong drink,

which degraded him in the eyes of his people and incapacitated

him from performing his duties. The Emperor, highly ii-ritated,

called him to his presence, and on his confessing to the authorship

of the memorial, asked him vidiat punishment he deserved.

He answered, ” Quartering.” lie was told to select some

other; “Let me be beheaded ;” and on a third command, he

chose to be strangled. He was then ordered to retire, and the

next “day the Emperor appointed him governor in llf, thus

acknowledging his rectitude, though unable to bear his censure.

History records the reply of another censor in the reign of an

Emperor of the Tang dynasty, who, when his Majesty once desired

to inspect the archives of the historiographer’s office, in

order to learn what had been recorded concei’ning himself,

under the excuse that he nuist know his faults before he could

well correct them, was answered : ” It is true your Majesty has

committed a number of errors, and it has been the painful duty

of our employment to take notice of them ; a duty which further

obliges us to inform posterity of the conversation which

your Majesty has this day, very improperly, held with us.”

The censors usually attend on all state occasions by the side

of his Majesty, and are frequently allowed to express tlieir

opinions openly, but in a despotic government this is little else

than a fiction of state, for the fear of offendhig the imperial ear,

and consequent disgrace, will usually prove stronger than the

consciousness of right or the desires of a public fame and martyrdom for the sake of principle. The usual mode of advising is to send in a remonstrance against a proposed act, as when one of the body in 1832 remonstrated against the Emperor paying attention to anonymous accusations ; or to suggest a different procedure, as the memorials of Chu Tsun against legalizing opium. The number of these papers inserted in the Peking Gazette for the information of the Empire, in many of which the acts of officers are severely reprehended, shows that the censors are not altogether idle. In 1833 a censor named Slii requested the Emperor to interdict official persons at court from writing private letters concerning public persons and affairs in the provinces. lie stated that when candidates left the capital for their provincial stations, private letters were sent by them from their friends to the provincial authorities, ” sounding

the voice of influence and interest,” by which means justice

M-as perverted. The Emperor ordered the Cabinet to examine

the censor and get his facts in proof of these statements, but on

inquiry he either would not or could not bring forward any

cases, and he himself consequently received a reprimand.

‘^’ These censors are allowed,” says the Emperor, ” to tell me

the reports they hear, to inform me concerning courtiers” and

governors who pervert the laws, and to speak plainly about any

defect or impropriety which they may oljserve in the monaich

himself; but they are not permitted to employ their pencils in

writing memorials which are filled M’i^^h vague surmises and

mei’e probabilities or suppositions. This would only fill my

mind with doubts and uncertainty, and T wo;dd not know what

men to employ; were this spirit indulged, the detrinie?)t of

government would be most serious. Let 8ii ))0 subjected to a

court of inquiry.”

‘J’lie suspension or disgrace of censors for their freedom of

speech is a common occurrence, and among the forty or fifty

persons who have this privilege a few are to be found who do

not hesitate to lift up their voice against what they deem to be

wrong; and there is reason for supposing that only a small portion

of their remonstrances appeai-s in the Gazette. With regard

to this depai’tment of government, it is to be observed

that although it may tend only in a partial degree to check

COURTS OF TUANSMISSION AND JUPTCATURE. 433

Oppression and reform ahusos, and wliilc a close examination of

its real operations and intlnenee and the character of its members

may excite more contempt than respect, still the existence of

such a body, and the pnblication of its memorials, can hardly

fail to rectif}’ misconduct to some degree, and check maladministration

before it results in widespread evil. The (Jensorate is,

however, only one of a number of checks upon the conduct of

officers, and perhaps by no means the strongest.’

11. The TuNG-cniNG Sz’, which may be called a Court of

Transmission, consists of a small body of six officers, whose

duty is to receive memorials from the provincial authorities and

appeals from their judgment by the people and present them to

the Cabinet. Attached to this Court is an office for attending

at the palace-gate to await the beating of a drum, which, in conformity

with an ancient custom, is placed there that applicants

may by striking it obtain a hearing. It is also the channel

through which the people can directly appeal to his Majesty,

and cases occur of individuals, even women and girls, travelling

to the capital from remote places to present their petitions for

redress before the throne. The feeling of blood revenge prevails

among the Chinese, and impels many of these weak and

unprotected persons to undergo great hardships to obtain legal

redress, when the lives of their parents have been unjustly

taken by powerful and rich enemies.

12. The Ta-li Sz’, or Court of Judicature and Eevision, has

the duty of adjusting all the criminal courts in the Empire, and

forms the nearest approach to a Supreme Court in the government,

though the cases brought before it are mostly criminal.

“When the crimes involve life, this and the preceding unite

with the Censorate to form one coui’t, and if the judges are

]i()t unanimous in their decisions they must report their reasons

to the Emperor, who M’ill pass judgment upon them. In a despotic

government no one can expect that the executive officers

of courts will exercise their functions with that caution and

‘ Compare an article by E. C Taintor, in Notes and Queries on China and Japan. Chinese Repository, Vols. IV., pp. 148, 164, and 177, and XII., pp.62 and 67.

equity required in Christian countries, but considerable care has

been taken to obtain as great a degree of justice as possible.

IJr. The Hanlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy, is entrusted

” with the duty of drawing up governmental documents, histories,

and other works ; its chief officers take tlie lead of the

various classes, and excite their exertions to advance in learning

in order to prepare them for employments and fit them for attending

upon the sovereign.” This body has, it is highly probable,

some similarity to the collection of learned men to whom

the King of Babylon entrusted the education of promising

young men, for although the members of the Ilanlin Yuen do

not, to any great degree, educate persons, they are constantly

referred to as the Chaldeans were by Belshazzai-. Sir John

Davis likens it to the Sorbonne, inasmuch as it expounds the

sacred books of the Chinese. Its chief officers are two presidents

or senior members, called chuiang yuen hioh-sz\ m*1io are

usually appointed for life ; they attend upon the Emperor,

superintend the studies of graduates, and furnish semi-annual

lists of persons to be ” speakers” at the ” classical feasts,” where

the literary essays of his Majesty are translated from and into

Manchu and read before him.

Subordinate to the two senior members are four grades of

officers, five in each grade, together with an imlimited number

of senior graduates, each forming a sort of college, whose duties

are to prepare all works published under governmental sanction

; these persons are subject from time to time to fresh examination,

and are liable to lose their degrees or be altogether

dismissed from office if found faulty or deficient. Subordinate

to the Hanlin Yuen is an office consisting of twenty-two selected

members, who in rotation attend on the Emperor and make a

record of his words and actions. There is also an additional

office for the preparation of national histories.

The situation of a member of the Ilanlin is one of considerable

honor and literary ease, and scholars look forward to a station

in it as one which confers dignity in a government where

all officers are appointed according to their literary merit, l)ut

much more from its being the body from which the Emperor

selects his most responsible offi-ers. A graduate of this rank is

THE IIANLIN AND MINOR COURTS. 435

most likely to be nominated to a vacant office, though the possession

uf the title does not of itself warrant a place.’

Before proceeding to consider the provincial governments,

notices of some of the other de})artments not connected with

the general machinery of the state are here in place. The

municipality of Peking has already been mentioned when describing

the capital ; it is intimately connected with the general

government and forms an integral part of the machine.

Among the courts not connected with tlie nnmicipal rule of the

metropolis, nor forming one of the great departments of state,

is Tal-chang Sz\ or ‘ Sacrificial Court,’ whose officers ” direct

the sacrificial observances and distinguish the various instruments

and the quality of the sacrifices.” Their duties are of importance iti connection with the state religion, and they rank high among the court dignitaries of the Empire, but as members of this, possess no power. The Tal-jyuTi Sz\ or Superintendent of II. I. ]\I.’s Stud, is an office for “rearing horses, taking account of their increase, and regulating their training;” large tracts of land beyond the Great “Wall are appropriated to this purpose, and the clerks of this office, under the direction of the Board of War, oversee the herdsmen and grooms.

The JCwanrjluh Ss\ or ‘Banqueting House,’ has the charge

of ” feasting the meritorious and banqueting the deserving ;

“

it is somewhat subordinate to the Board of Rites, and provides

whatever is necessary for banquets given to literary graduates,

foreign ambassadors, etc. The Jlunz/hc >&’, or ‘ Ceremonial

Court,’ regulates the forms to be observed at these banquets,

which consist in little else than marshalling the guests according

to their proper ranks and directing them when to make the

Ivtow, called also scui Jewel hlu Jcao, ” three kneelings and nine

knockings.” The Guozi’ Jian, or ‘ National College,’ is a different institution from the Hanlin Yuen, and intended for teaching graduates of the lower degrees; the departments of study are the Chinese language, the classics and mathematics, each branch having its appropriate teachers, with some higher officers, both Chinese and Manchu.

‘ Dr. W. A. P. Martin, Th& Chinese.

The Qin Tian Jian, or ‘ Imperial Astronomical College,’ as might be expected, is much more astrological than astronomical; its duties are defined to 1)0 ” to direct the ascertainment of times and the movements of the heaveidy bodies, in order to attain conformity with the celestial periods and to regulate the notati(Mi of time among inen ; all things relating to divination and the selection of days are under its charge.” The preparation of the almanac, in which, among other things, lucky and unlucky days are marked for the performance of all the important acts of life, and astrological and chiromantic absurdities inserted for the amusement of fortune-tellers and others, the instruction of a few pupils, and care of the observatory, occupy most of the time of its officers. It is now of no practical use, and as the Tang-icdn Kuxtii develops into a learned and efficient college, including astronomy and medicine and their kindred branches, these native Boards will gradually pass away.

The other local courts of the capital seem to have been subdivided and multiplied to a great degree for the purpose of affording employment to a larger number of persons, especially Manchus and graduates, so that the Emperor can attach them to himself and be surer of their support in case of any insurrection on the part of the people, and also that he may have them more under his control. The nundjer of clerks and minor offices in all the general departments of state is doubtless more numerous than it would be in a European government. In the nnitual relations of the great departments of the Chinese government the principles of responsibility and surveillance among the officers are plainly exhibited, while regard has been paid to such a division and apportionment of labor as would secure great efficiency and care, if every member of the machine faithfully did his duty. Two presidents are stationed over each Board to assist and watch each other, while the two presidents oversee the four vice-presidents ; the president of one Board is sometimes the vice-president of another ; and by means of the Censorate and the General Council every portion is brought under the cognizance of several independent officers, whose mutual jealousy and regard for individual advancement, or a

RELATION OF THE KMPEUOIl WITH HIS OFFICIALS. 437

partial desire for tlie well-being of tlie state, affords the Emperor

some guarantee of fidelit}-. Tlie seclusion in which he

lives makes it difficult for any conspirator to approach his person,

but his own fears regarding the management of such an

immense Empire compel him to inform himself respecting the’

actions of ministers, generals, and proconsular governors. The

conduct and devotion of hundreds of officers, both civil and

military, during the wars with Great Britain and the suppression

of rebellions within the last thirty years, afford proof

enough that he has attached his subordinates to his service by

some other principle than fear. The total number of civilians

holding office is estimated at about fourteen thousand persons,

but those dependent on the government are many times this

amount.

The rulers of China have contrived the system of provincial governments in an admirable manner, considering the character of the people and the materials they had to work with; no better proof of their sagacity in this respect can be required than the general degree of good order which has been maintained for nearly two centuries, and the great progress the people have made in wealth, numbers, and power. By a well-arranged plan of checks and changes in the provincial authorities, the chances of their abusing position and power and combining to overthrow the supreme government have been reduced almost to an impossibility; the influence of mutual responsibility among them does something to prevent outrageous oppression of the people, by leading one to accuse another of high crimes in order to exonerate himself or obtain his place. The sons and relatives of the Emperor being excluded from civil office inthe provinces, the high-spirited and talented native Chinese do

not feel inclined to cabal against the government because every

avenue to emolument aiid power is filled and closed against them

by creatures and connections of the sovereign ; nor when in office

are they disposed to attempt the overthrow of the reigning

family, lest they lose what has cost them many years of toilsome

study and the wealth and influence of friends to attain.

The examination of these pashaliks is furthermore entitled to notice from the degree of power delegated to their highest officers, and the shrewd manner in which its exercise has been circumscribed and rendered amenable to its imperial source.

The highest officers in the provinces are afsu/iyfuh, lit. ‘general director,’ or governor-general, and the fatal or fuyuen, ‘ soother ‘ or governor. The former is often called a viceroy, but that term seems to be quite inapplicable M-hen used to denote an officer within the limits of the state ; governor-general, or proconsul, is more analogous to his duties. A translation of these and many other Chinese titles does not convey their exact functions, but in some cases an equivalent is more intelligible than a translation.’ The tsungtuh has rule over two provinces, or else fills two high offices in one province, while the fntd’i is placed over one province, either independent of or in subordination to a tsungtuh^ as enumerated in the table on page 61.

An examination of the Tied Booh for 1852 showed that out

of a total of 20,327 names in it, 10,-174 were Chinese, 3,29.5

were Manclius and Mongols, and 558 enrolled Chinese ; in the

copy for 1844, out of 12,758 names, 10,403 were Chinese, 1,708

Manchus, and 527 enrolled Cliinese ; these figui-es include only

civilians and the employees in Peking. The Eighteen Provinces

ha\e altogether less than two thousand persons in office al)ove

the raidc of assistant district magistrate, viz. : 8 governor-generals,

15 governors, 19 treasurers, 18 judges, 17 chancellors, 15

commanders of the forces, including 2 admirals and 1,740 prefects

and magistrates. All those filling tlie high grades in this

series report themselves to the Enq)eror twice every month, by

sending him a salutatory card upon yellow paper, enclosed in a

silken envelope ; stating, for instance, that ‘ Lin Tseh-sii, governor-

general of Liang Ivwang, humbly presents his duty to the

throne, wishing his Majesty repose.’ The Emperor replies M’ith

the vei’niilion ])encil, Cli’ni ngan, ij\, ‘ Ourself is well.’

The duties of the governor-general consist in the collective

control of all affairs, civil and military, in the regioii under hia

jurisdiction ; he occupies, in his sphere, under correction, the

same authority that the Emperor does over the whole Empire.

‘ Mayers’ Manual of Chinese Titles furnishes tlio best compend for learning their duties and names.

IIIGIIP:ii PROVINCIAL ALTIlOliniKS. 439

The futai has a similar control, but in an inferior degree when there is a tstungtuh, in the more special supervision of the administrative part of the civil government, as distinguished from the revenue, gabel, or literary branches.

The departments of the civil government are five, viz. : administrative,

literary, gabel, commissariat, and excise ; the first

being also divided into the teri-itorial and financial and the

judicial branches. At the head of the first branch is the j»j>t^-

ihing sz^ {i.e., ]-egulating-government commissioner), who is

usually called the treasurer ; the ngan-chah sz\ or ‘ criminal

judge,’ presides over the second. These two ofiicers often unite

their deliberations in the direction of any territoi’ial or financial

business, or the trial of important cases. The literary department

is placed under the direction of an ofiicer selected from

among the members of the Hani in Academy, called a hioh-ching,

director of learning, or literary chancellor ; there are seventeen

of them altogether. The gabel and connnissariat are usually

supervised l)y certain intermediate ofiicers called tao, or taotai,

sometimes termed intendants of circuit, who have other functions

in addition. The excise, or conmiercial department, is under /ivV;*^?^^, or superintendents, but the details of these three branches vary considerably in different provinces. The officers of the excise, either in the interior or on the coast, are made amenable

to their supei-iors in the province, but their functions are exercised

in an irregular manner ; for the collection of the revenue is

a difficult affair, and mostly entrusted to the local magistrates.

The military govemment of a province includes both the land

and sea forces. It is under a tHuh, or commander-in-chief, of

which rank there are in all sixteen, twelve of them commanding

one arm alone, and four controlling both land and sea forces.

In five provinces the futai is commander-in-chief, and in

Ivansuh there are two. Above the tttuJ}, in point of rank but

not of power, are placed garrisons of Manchu Bannermen under

a tsicmg-Jciun, or general, whose ofiice is conferred, and his

actions directly controlled, by the captains-general in Peking;

he has jurisdiction, usually, only in the city itself, the principal

object of the appointment, api)areTitly, being to check any treasonable designs of the civil authorities.

The duties and relations of these various grades with one another require some further explanation, however, to be understood.

The three officers, tsunytuh, fatal, and tslaiujMun (if there be one), form a supreme council, and unite in deliberating upon a measure, calling in the subordinate officer to whose department it particularly belongs, and to whom its execution is io be committed, the whole forming a deliberative board, though “the responsibility of the act rests with the two highest officers.

By this means the various members of the provincial government

become better acquainted with each other’s character and

plans, though their intercourse is nuich restricted by precedence

and rivalry. In the provincial courts civilians always take precedence

of military officers ; the governor-general and Banner

commander, governor and major-general, the literary chancellor

and collector of customs, rank with each other ; then follow the

treasurer, the judge, and other civilians. The authority of the

governor-general extends to life and death, to the temporary

appointment to all vacant offices in the province, to ordering

the troops to any part of it, issuing such laws and taking such

measures as are necessary for the security and peace of the

region committed to his care, or any other steps he sees necessary.

The futal also has the power of life and death, and

attends to appeals of criminal cases ; he oversees, moreover, the

conduct of the lower civilians.

IS^ext in rank to i\\e j)u-ching sz^ and ngan-chah sz\ who always reside in the provincial capital, are the intendants of circuit, who are located in the circuits consisting of two or three prefectures united for this purpose. They are deputies of the two highest functionaries, and their delegated power often includes military as well as civil authority, the chief object of their appointment being to relieve and assist those high functionaries in the discharge of their extensive duties. Some of the intendants are appointed to supervise the proceedings of the prefects and district magistrates; others are stationed at important posts to protect them, and those connected with foreign trade at the open ports have no territorial jurisdiction.

SUBORDINATE PROVINCIAL AUTHORITIES. 441

Subordinate to the governors, through the intendants of circuits, are the prefects or head magistrates of departments, called Zhifu/Zhizhou, and ting tungchi, i.e., ‘knowers’ of them, according as they are placed over fu, zhou, or ting departments.

It is the duty of these persons to make themselves acquainted with everything that takes place within their jurisdiction, and they are held responsible for the full execution of whatever orders are transmitted to them, all presenting their reports and receiving their orders through the intendants.

The practical efficiency of the Chinese government in promoting the welfare of the people and preserving the peace depends chiefly upon these officers. The people themselves are prone to quarrel and oppress each other ; beggars, robbers, tramps, and shysters stir up disorders in various ways, and need wise and vigorous hands to repress and punish them ; while all classes avoid and resist the tax-gatherer as much as is safe. The proverb, ” A Zhifu can exterminate a family, a chihien can confiscate a patrimony,” indicates the popular fear of their power.

The subdivisional pai’ts of departments, called ting, chau, and

hien, have each their separate officers, who report to the chifu

and cliicliau above them ; these are called tungcM, clacJiau, and

ch’tJiien, and may all be denominated district magistrates. The

parts of districts called sz’ are placed under the control of siuii-

I’ien, circuit-restrainers, or hundreders, who form the last in the

regular series of descending; rank—the last of the ” connnissioned

officers,” as they might not improperly be called. The

prefects sometimes have deputies directly under them, as the

governor has his intendants, when their jurisdiction is very

large or important, who are called hiunininfu and tungchi, i.e.,

‘ joint-knowers.’ The deputies of district magistrates are termed

chautung and chmiptran for the chlchan, and hienching and

chufu for the cJdhien^ the last also have others called tso-tang

And yu-tang, i.e., left-tenants and right-tenants.

Resides these assistants there are others, both in the departments and districts, having the oversight of the police, collection of the taxes and management of the revenue, care of waterways, and many other subdivisions of legislative duties, which it is unnecessary to particularize. They are appointed whenever and wherever the territory is so large and the duties so onerous that one man cannot attend to all, or it is not safe to entrust him with them. They have nearly as much power as their superiors in the department entrusted to them, but none of them have judicial or legislative functions, and the routine of their othces affords them less scope for oppression. ±\oy is it worth while to notice the great number of clerks, registrars, and secretaries found in connection with the various ranks of dignitaries here mentioned, or the multitude of petty subordinates found in the provinces and placed over particular places or duties as necessity may require. Their number is very large, and the responsibility of their proceedings devolves upon the higher officers who receive their reports and direct their actions.

The common people suffer more from these ” rats under the altar,” as a Chinese proverb calls them, than from their superiors, because, unlike them, they are usually natives of the place and better acquainted with the condition of the inhabitants, and are not so often removed. The fear of getting into their clutches restrains from evil doings perhaps more than all punishments, though the people soon complain of high-handed acts in a way not to be disregarded. (3ne saying, ” Underlings see money as a fly sees blood,” indicates their penchant, as another, ” Cash drops into an underling’s paw as a sheep falls into a tiger’s jaw,” does the popular notion how to please them.

Each intendant, prefect, and district magistrate has special

secretaries in his ofhce for riling papers, writing and transmitting-

despatches, investigating cases, recording evidence, keeping

accounts, and performing other functions. All above the chihien

are allowed to keep private secretaries, called sz’ ye, who

are usually personal friends, and accompany the officers wliereever

they go for the purpose of advising them and preparing

their official documents. The ngan-chah s£ have jailers under

their control, as have also the more important prefects.

The appointment of officers being theoretically founded on

literary merit, those to whom is committed the supervision of

students and conferment of degrees would naturally be of a

high grade. The Jiioh-ehlti’/, or literary chancellor, of the province,

therefore ranks next to the governor, more, however, because

he is specially ai)pointed by his Majesty and oversees thia

LITEKAKY, (lABEL, AND REVENUE DEPARTMENTS. 443

hrancli of the goveniinent, than from the power coinniitted to

liis liaiids. Under him aie head-teachers of different degrees

of autliority, residing in the cliief towns of departments and

districts, tlie ^vhole forming a simihir series of functionaries to

M’hat exists in tlie civil department. These subordinates have

merely a greater or less degree of supervision over the studies of

students, and the colleges established for the promotion of learning

in the chief towns of departments. The business of conferring

the lower degrees appertains exclusively to the chancellor,

who makes an annual circnit through the province for that purpose,

and holds examinations in the chief town of each department,

to which all students residing within its limits can come.

The gabel, or salt department, is under the control of a special

officer, called a ” commissioner for the transport of salt,”

and forming in the five maritime provinces one of thesau s.z\ or

three commissioners, of which the j>u-e/ung sz’ and ngan-chah ss’

are the other two. There are, above these commissioners, eight

directors of the salt monopoly, stationed at the depots in Chihli

and Shantung, M’ho, however, also fill other offices, and have

rather a nominal responsibility over the lower commissioners.

The number and rank of the ofilcers comiected with the salt

monopoly show its importance, and is proof of how large a revenue

is derived fi-om an article which will bear such an expensive establishment. At present its administration costs about as much as its receipts.

The commissariat and revenne department is nnusually large

in China compared with other countries, for the plan of collecting

any part of the revenue in kind necessarily requires nnmerous

vehicles for transporting and buildings for storing it, which

still further multiplies the number of clerks and hands employed.

The transportation of grain along the Yangtsz’ River is under

the control of a tsungtuh, who. also oversees the disposal and

directs the collectors of it in eight of the provinces adjacent to

this river. The office of liang-chu tao, or commissioner to collect

grain, is found in twelve provinces, the pu-ehing.sz’ attending

to this duty in six ; the supervision of the subordinate agents of this department in the several districts is in the hands of the prefects and district magistrates.- That feature of the Chinese system which makes officers mutually responsible, seems to lead the superior powers to confer such various duties upon

one functionary, in order that he may thus have a general

knowledge of what is going on about and under him, and ref)ort

what he deems amiss. It is not, indeed, likely that such was the

original arrangement, for the Chinese government has come to

its present composition by slow degrees ; but such is, so far as

can be seen, the effect of it, and it serves in no little degree to

accomplish the designs of the rulers to bind the main and lesser

wheels of the huge machine to themselves and to one another.

The customs and excise are under the management of different

grades of officers according to the importance of their posts.

The transit duties levied at the excise stations placed in every

town are collected by officers acting under the local authorities,

and have nothing to do with the collection of maritime duties.

This tax, called li-kin, or ‘a cash a catty,’ has lately been

greatly increased, and the natural result has been to destroy the

trade it preyed on, or divert it to other channels. The foreign

merchants and officers have, too, protested against its imposition,

seeing that their trade was checked.

Kecapitulating in tabular form, we may say that outside of

the Cabinet, Council, Boards, and Courts at the capital, the

government (in the Eighteen Provinces) is in the hands of: 8 Governors-General (6 governing two provinces each).

15 Governors. 11) Commissioners of Finance (2 for Kiangsu).

18 Commissioners of Justice.

4 Directors of the Salt Gabel.

9 Collectors (independent of these).

13 Commissioners of Grain, or Commissaries.

G4 Intendants of Circuit.

182 Prefects.

G8 Prefects of Inferior Departments.

18 Independent Subprefects.

180 Dependent Subprefects.

139 Deputy Subprefects.

141 District Magistrates of the Fifth

Class.

1,232 District Magistrates of the Seventh

Class.

The military section of the provincial governments is under

the control of a tituh, or major-general, who resides at a central

post, and, in conjunction with the governor-general and

governor, directs the movements of the forces, while these last

have also an independent control over a certain body of troops

belonging to them officially. The various grades of officers in

the native army, and the portion of troops under each of them,

MILITARY AND NAVAL DEPARTMENTS. 445

stationed in the garrisons and forts in different parts of the

provinces, are all arranged in a methodical manner, which will

bear examination and comparison with the army of any country

in the world. The native force in each province is distinct

from the Manchu troops, and is divided somewhat according to

the Roman plan of legion, cohort, maniple, and century, over

each of which are officers, from colonel down to sergeant.

Nothing is wanting to the Chinese army to make it fully adequate to the defence of the country but discipline and confidence in itself ; for lack of practice and systematic drilling have made it an army of paper warriors against a resolute enemy. Nevertheless, the recent campaigns against the rebels in the extreme western colonies indicate the fact that its regeneration is already of some weight. On the other hand, it has no doubt been for the good of the Chinese people and government—the advance of the first in wealth, numbers, and security, and the consolidation and efficiency of the latter—that they have cultivated letters rather than arms, peace more than war.

All the general officers in the army have fixed places of residence,

at which the larger portion of their respective brigades

remain, while detachments are stationed at various points within

their command. The governor, major-general, and Banner

commandant have commands independent of each other, but

the tituh,OY major-general, exei-cises the principal military sway.

The navai officers have the same names as those in the army,

and the two are interchanged and promoted from one service to

the other. Admirals and vice-admirals usually reside on shore,

and despatch their subordinates in squadrons or single vessels

wherever occasion requires. This system must, ere long, give

place to a better division of the two arms with the building of

steam vessels and management of arsenals, when junks are

superseded.

The system of mutually checking the provincial officers is

also exhibited in their location. For example, in the city of

Canton the governor-general is stationed in the Xew city near

the collector of customs, while the lieutenant-governor and

Manchu general are so located in the Old city that should circumstances require they can act against the two first. The governor has the general command of all the provincial troops,

estimated to be one hundred thousand men, but the particukir

command of only five thousand, and they are stationed fifty

miles off, at Sliauking fu. The ts’uoiy A-ii/.n has five thousand

men under him in the Old city, which, in an extreme case,

would make him master of tlie capital, while his own allegiance

is secured by the antipathy between the Manchus and Chinese

preventing liim from combining with the latter. Again, the

governor-general has the power of condenming certain criminals

to death, but the vxincj-iiiuKj^ or death-warrant, is lodged

with tlie fatal, and the order for execution must be countersigned

by him ; his despatches to court must be also countersigned

b}’ his coadjutor. The general absence of resistance to

the imperial sway on the part of these high officers during the

two centuries of Manchu rule, when compared with the multiplied

intrigues and rebellions of the pashas in the Turkish

Empire, proves how well the system is concocted.

In order to enable the superior officers to exercise greater

vigilance over their inferiors, they have the privilege of sending

special messengers, invested with full power, to every part

of their jurisdiction. The Emperor himself never visits the

provinces judicially, nor has an Emperor been south of the

capital during the present century ; he therefore constantly

sends connnissioners or legates, called llncJuii, to all parts of the

Empire, ostensibly entrusted M’ith the management of a particular

business, but required also to take a general surveillance of

what is going on. The ancient Persians had a similar system

of commissioners, who M-ere called the eyes and ears of the

prince, and made the circuit of the empire to oversee all that

was done. There are numy points of resemblance between the

structure of these two ancient monarchies, the body of councillors

who assisted the prince in his deliberations, the presidents

over the provinces, the satraps, etc. ; but tlie Persians had not

the elements of perpetuity which the system of connnon schools

and official examinations <rive to the Chinese iiovernment.”

‘ RoUin’s Aricient Ilktory, Chap. IV. Manners of the Assyrians. Heeren’aAsiatic Researches, Vol. I., Chap. II.

TRAVELLINCJ DEPUTIES AND COMMISSIONKRS. 447

Governors in like manner send their deputies and agents, called weiyuen, over the province ; and even the prefects and intendants despatch their messengers. All these functionaries, during the time of their mission, take rank with the highest officers according to the quality of their employers; but the imperial connnissioners, who for one object or another are constantly passing and repassing through the Empire in every direction, exercise great influence in the government, and are powerful agents in the hands of the Emperor for keeping his proconsuls at their duty.

CHAPTER VIII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAWS

The preceding chapter contains a general view of the plan upon which the central and provincial governments of the Empire are constircted ; and if an examination of the conduct of oiRcers in every department shows their extortion, cruelty, and venalitv, it will not, in the opinion of the liberal-minded reader, detract from the general excellence of the theory of the government, and the sagacity exhibited in the system of checks designed to restrain the various parts from interfering with the well-being of the whole. In addition to the division of power and the restrictions upon Chinese officers already mentioned, there are other means adopted in their location and alternation 10 prevent combination and resistance against the head of the state. One of them is the law forbidding a man to hold any civil office in his native province, which, besides stopping all intrigue where it would best succeed, has the further effect of congregating aspirants for office at Peking, where they come in hope of obtaining some post, or of succeeding in the examination for the highest literary degrees. The central government could not contrive a better plan for bringing all the ambitious and talented men in the country under its observation before appointing them to clerkships in the capital, or scattering them in the provinces.

Moreover, no officer is allowed to marry in the jurisdiction under his control, nor own land in it, nor have a son, brother, or near relative holding office under him ; and he is seldom continued in the same station or province for more than three or four years, QVfanchus and (liinese are mingled together in high stations, and obligations are imposed on certain grandees

CHECKS PLACED UPON OFFICIMIDLDEKS. 449

to inform the Emperor of each other’s acts. Members of the imperial clan are required to attend the meetings of the Boards at the capita], and observe and report what they deem amiss or Qf interest to the Emperor and his council; while in all the upper departments of the general and provincial governments, a system of espionage is can-ied out, detrimental to all principles of honorable fidelity, such as we look for in officiajA, but not without some good effects in a weak despotism like China.

OThere is, besides this constant surveillance, a triennial catalogue made out of the merits and demerits of all officers in the Empire, which is submitted to imperial inspection by the Board of Civil Office. In order to collect the details for this catalogue, it is incumbent upon every provincial officer to report upon the character and cpialiiications of those under him, and the list, when made out, is forwarded by the govei-nor to the capital./

The points of character are arranged under six different heads, viz.: those wh(i are not diligent, the inefficient, the superficial, the untalented, superannuated, and diseased. ( According to the opinion given in this report, officers are elevated or degraded so many steps in the scale of merit, like school-boys in a class, and whenever they issue an edict are required to state how many steps they have been advanced or degraded, and how many times recorded. Officers are required to accuse themselves, when guilty of crime, either in their own conduct or that of their subordinates, and request punishment^ The results of this peculiar and patriarchal mode of teaching officers their duty will be best exhibited by quoting from a rescript of Taukwang’s, issued in February, 1837, after one of the catalogues had been submitted to his Majesty.

“The cabinet minister Cliangling lias strenuously exerted himself during a long lapse of years ; he has reached the eightieth year of his age, yet his energies are still in full force. His colleagues Pwan Shi-ngan and Muchangah, as well as the assistant cabinet minister Wang Ting, have invariably displayed diligence and attention, and have not failed in yielding us assistance. Tang Kin-chau, president of the Board of Office, has knowledge and attainments of a respectable and sterling character, and has shown himself public-spirited and intelligent in the performance of special duties assigned to him. Shi Chi-yen, president of the Board of Punishments, retains his usual strength and energies, and in the performance of his judicial duties has displayed perspicacity and circumspection. The assistant cabinet minister and governor of Chihli province, Kislien, transacts the affairs of his government with faithfulness, and the military force under his control is well disciplined. Husunge, the governor of Sliensi and Kausuh provinces, is cautious and prudent, and perrorms his duties with careful exa,ctness. iKpu, governor of Yunnan and Kweichau, is well versed in the affairs of his frontier government, and has fully succeeded in pre erving it free from disturbance. Linking, who is entrusted with the general charge of the rivers in Kiangnan, has not failed in his care of the embankments, and has preserved the surrounding districts from all disquietude. To show our favor unto all these, let the Board of Office determine on appropriate marks of distinction for them.

“Kweisan, subordinate minister of the Cabinet, is hasty and deficient, both in precision and capacity ; he is incapable of moving and acting for himself; let him take an inferior station, and receive an appointment in the second class of the guards. Yihtsih, vice-president of the Board of Works for Mukden, possesses but ordinary talents, and is incompetent to the duties of his present office; let him also take an inferior station, and be appointed to a place in the first class of guards. Narkinge, the governor-general of Hukwang, though having under him the whole civil and military bodies of two provinces, has yet been unable, these many days, to seize a few beggarly impish vagabonds : a’”ter having in the first instance failed in prevention, he has followed up that failure by idleness and remissness, and has fully proved himself inefficient. Let him take the lower station of governor in Hunan, and within one year let him, by the apprehension of Lan Ching-tsun, show that he is aroused to greater exertion.

s.

“Let all our other servants retain their present appointments. Among them Tau Shu, the governor of Kiangnan and Kiangsi, is bold and determined in the transaction of affairs, but has not yet attained enlarged views in regard to the salt department; Chung Tsiang, the governor of Fuhkien and Chehkiang, finds his energies failing; TSng Ting-ching, the governor of Kwangtung and Kwangsi, possesses barely an adequate degree of talent and knowledge ; and Shin Ki-hien, though faithful and earnest in the performance of his duties, has, in common with these others, been not very long in office.

*’ That all ministers will act with purity and devotedness of purpose, with public spirit and diligence, is our most fervent hope. A special edict.” ‘

‘ Chinese licposilor;/, Vol. VI. , p. 48.

niAKACTER OF CHINESE OFFICIALS. 451

I The effet’t of such confessions and examination of cliafacter iV to restrain the commission of outra<;eons acts of oppression; it is still further enforced by the privilege, common alike to censors and private subjects, of complaining to the Emperor of misdeeds done to them by persons in authority. Fear for their own security has suggested this multiplicity of checks, but the Emperor and his ministry have no doubt thereby impeded the efficiency of their subordinates, and compelled them to attend so much to their own standing that they care far less than they otherwise would foi* the prosperity of the people.*)

The position of an officer in the Chinese government can hardly be ascertained from the enumeration of his duties, nor can we easily appreciate, from a general account of the system, his temptations to oppress inferiors and deceive superiors.

His duties, as indicated in the code, are so minute, and often so contradictory, as to make it impossible to fulfil them strictly; it is found, accordingly, that few or none have ascended the slippery heights of promotion without frequent relapses. ^Degradation, when to a step or two and temporary, carries with it of course no moral taint in a country where the award for bribery is graduated to the amount received, without any reference to moral violation^, where the bamboo is the standard of punishment as well for error in judgment or remissness as for crime —only commuted to a fine in honor of official rank ; whereas a distinction in favor of the imperial race, the bamboo is softened to the whip and banishment mitigated to the pillory.’

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV. , p. 59.

The highest officers have of course the greatest opportunity to oppress, but their extortions are limited by the venality and mendacity of the agents they are compelled to employ. Inferiors also can carry on a system of exactions if they keep on the right side of those above them. (.The whole class forma body of men mutually jealous of each other’s advance, where every incumbent endeavors to supplant his associate ; they all agree in regarding the people as the source of their profits, the sponge which all must squeeze, but differ in the degree to which they should carry on the same plan with each other. Although sprung from the mass of the people, the welfare of the community has little place in their thoughts. Their life is spent in ambitious efforts to rise upon the fall of others, though they do not lose all sense of character or become reckless of the means of advance, for this would destroy their chance of success] The game they play with each other and their imperial master is, however, a harmless one compared with what was done ill old Rome or in Europe four or five centuries ago, or even lately among the pashas and viziers of the sultans and shahs in Western Asia. To the honor of the Chinese, life is seldom sacrificed for political crime or envious emulation; no officer dreads a bowstring or a poisoned cup from his lord paramount, nor is he on the watch against the dagger of an assassin hired by a vindictive competitor. Whatever heights of favor or depths of umbrage he may experience, the servant of the Emperor of Chhia need not, in unproved cases of delinquency, fear for his life; but he not unfrequently takes it himself from conscious guilt and dread of just punishment.

The names and staiuiing of all officers are published quarterly by permission of government in the Red Book (which by an usual coincidence is bound in red), called the ” Complete Record of the Girdle Wearers” {Tshi jSkin Tslae/h Shif), comprised in four volumes, 12nio, to which are added two others of the Army and Bannermen. This publication was first issued at the command of Wanlih, of the Ming dynasty, about 15S0, and mentions the native province of each person, whether Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, or enrolled Chinese, describes the title of the office, its salary, and gives much general information. The publishers of the book expect that officers will inform them of the changes that take place in their standing, and sometimes omit to mention those who do not thus report themselves.

CAREER OF DUKE HO. 463

A memoir of the public life of a high officer in China would present a singular picture of ups and downs, but, on account of their notorious disregard of truth, Chinese documents are unsafe to trust entirely in drawing such a sketch. One of the most conspicuous men in late times was Duke IIo, the premier in the time of Macartney’s embassy, who for many years exercised a greater control over the counsels of a Chinese sovereign than is recorded of any other man during the present dynasty. This man was originally a private person, who attracted the notice of the Emperor by his comeliness, and secured it by his zeal in discharging the offices entrusted to him. With but few interruptions he gradually’ mounted the ladder of promotion, and for some years before Tvienlung’s death, when the hitter’s energies had begun to fail from age, was virtual master of the country. Staunton describes him as possessing eminent abilities ; ” the manners of Ilokwan were not less pleasing than his understanding was penetrating and acute, lie seemed indeed to possess the qualities of a perfect statesman.”‘ The favorite had gradually tilled the highest posts with his friends, and his well-wishers were so numerous in the general and provincial governments that some began to apprehend a rising in his favor when the Emperor died. Kiaking, on coming to the throne, began to take those cautious measures for his removal which showed the great influence he possessed ; one of these proceedings was to appoint him superintendent of the rites of mourning, in order, probably, that his official duties might bring him often to the palace.

After four years the Emperor drew up sixteen articles of impeachment, most of them frivolous and vexatious, though of more consequence in the eyes of a Chinese prince than they would have been at other courts. One article alleged that he had ridden on horseback up to the palace gate; another, that he had appropriated to his own household the females educated for the imperial harem; a third, that he had detained the reports of officers in time of war from coming to the Emperor’s eye, and had appointed his own retainers to office, when they were notoriously incompetent; a fourth, that he had built many apartments of nan-muh, a kind of laurel-wood exclusively appropriated to j-oyalty, and imitated regal style in his grounds and establishment; a fifth, that ” on the day previous to our

Itoyal Father’s announcement of our election as his successor,

Ilokwan waited upon us and presented the insignia of the newly

conferred rank—thereby betraying an important secret of state,

in hopes of obtaining our favor.” lie was also accused of having

pearls and jewels of larger size than those even in the Emperor’s

regalia. But so far as can be inferred from what was

published, this Cardinal AVolsey of China was, comparatively

speaking, not cruel in the exercise of his power, and the real

cause of his fall was evidenth’ his riches. In the schedule of his

confiscated property it was mentioned that besides houses, lands,

and other innnovable property to an amazing extent, not less

‘ Embassy to China, Vol. III., p. 26.

than one hundred and five millions of dollars in bullion and

geuls were found in his treasury, A special tribunal was instituted

for his trial, and he was allowed to become his own executioner,

while his constant associate was beheaded. These were

the only deaths, the remainder of his relatives and dependents

being simply removed and degraded. His power was no doubt

too great for the safety of his master if he had proved faithless

;

but his wealth was too vast for bis own security, even had he

been innocent. The Emperor, in the edict which contains the

sentence, cites as a precedent for his own acts similar condemnation

of premiers by three of bis ancestors in the present dynasty,

but nothing definite is known of their crimes or trials.’

Taukwang was more clement, or more fortunate than his father, and upon coming to the throne continued Tohtsin in power; this statesman bad held the premiership from 1815 to 1832, with but few interruptions, when he was allowed to retire at the age of seventy-five. He had served under three emperors, having risen step by step from the situation of clerk in one of the offices. His successor, Changling, experienced a far more checkered course, but remained in favor at last, and retired from the j)remiership in 1836, aged about seventy-nine. He became very popular with his master from his ability in quelling the insurrection of Jeliangir in Turkestan in 1 827. Even a few such instances of the honor in which an upright, energetic, and wise minister is regarded by prince and people have great influence in encouraging young men to act in the same way.

‘ Phiriese Repository^ Vol. III., p. 241.

LIFE AND CIIARACTEU OF MINISTEIl SUNT,, 453

Few Chinese statesmen have been oftener brought into the notice of western foreigners than Sung, one of the commissioners attached to Lord Macartney’s embassy, and a favorite of all its members. His lordship speaks of him then as a young man of high quality, possessing an elevated mind; and adds that ” during the whole time of our connection with him he has on all occasions conducted himself toward us in the most friendly and gentleman-like manner.” This was in 1703. In 1817 he is mentioned as one of the Cabinet ; but not long after, for some unknown reason, he was degraded by Kiaking to the sixth rank, and appointed adjiitaiit-general aiuoiig tlic Tsakliar Mongols ; from thence he memorialized his master respecting the ill conduct of some lamas, who had been robbing and murdering. Sung and his friends opposed the Emperor’s going to Manchuria, and were involved in some trouble on this account, the reasons of which it is difficult to understand. He was promoted, however, to be captain-general of Manchuria, but again fell under censure, and on his visit to his paternal estate at Mukden the Emperor took him back to the capital and appointed him to some important office. lie soon got into new trouble with the Emperor, who in a proclamation remarks that ” Sung is inadequate to the duties of minister of the imperial presence ; because, although he formerly officiated as such, he is now upward of seventy years of age, and rides badly on horseback ; ” he is therefore sent to Manchuria to fill his old office of captain-general. The next year the ex-minister and his adherents were involved in a long trial about the loss of a seal, and he was deprived of his command and directed to retire to his own Banner ; the real reasons of this disgrace were probably connected with the change of parties ensuent upon the accession of Taukwang.

Soon afterward Sung was restored to favor and made adjutant at Jell ho, after having been president of the Censorate for a month. He was allowed to remain there longer than usual, and employed his spare time in writing a book upon the newly acquired territory in Turkestan. In 1824 he was reinstated as president of the Censorate, with admonitions not to confuse and puzzle himself with a multiplicity of extraneous matters. In 1826 he was sent on a special commission to Shansi, and when he returned was honored with a dinner at court on new year’s day. He then appears as travelling tutor to the crown-prince, but where his royal highness went for his education does not appear; from this post we find him made president of the Board of Rites, and appointed to inspect the victims for a state sacrifice. He is then ordered to Jeh ho, from whence, in a fit of penitence, or perhaps from fear of a dun, he memorialized the Emperor about a debt of $52,000 he had incurred nearly thirty years before, which he proposed to liquidate by foregoing his salary of $1,000 until the arrears were paid up ; the Emperor was in good humor with the old man, and forgave him the whole amount, being as Bured, he says, of Sung’s pure official character. In this memorial, when recounting his services, the aged officer says that he has been twice commander-in-chief and governor of III, governor- general at Xanking, Canton, etc., but had never saved much.

NOTICE OF COMMISSIONER LIN, 457

Shortly after this he is recalled from Jeh ho and made ti-iuh of Peking, then president of the Board of War ; and in a few months he is ordered to proceed across the desert to Cobdo to investigate some affair of importance—a long and toilsome journey of fifteen hundred miles for a man over seventy-five years old. He returned the next year and resumed his post as president of the Board of war, in which capacity he acted as examiner of the students in the Russian College. In 1831 he was made president of the Colonial Office, and later received an appointment as superintendent of the’ Three Treasuries, but was obliged to resign from ill health. A month’s relaxation seems to have wonderfully restored him, for the Emperor, in reply to his petition for employment, expresses surprise that he should so Boon be fit for official duties, and plainly intimates his opinion that the disease was all sham, though he accedes to his request so far as to nominate him commander of one of the eight Banners. In 1832 Sung again became involved in intrigues, and was reduced to the third degree of rank; the resignation of Tohtsin and the struggle for the vacant premiership was probably the real reason of this new reverse, though a frivolous accusation of two years’ standing “was trumped up against him. He was restored again, after a few months’ disgrace, at the petition of a beg of a city in Turkestan, which illustrates, by the way, the influence which those princes exert. Old age now began to come upon the courtier in good earnest, and in 1833 he was ordered to retire with the rank and pay of adjutant, which he lived to enjoy only two years. Much of the success of Suui; was said to be owinu to his havin<r had a daughter in the harem, but his personal character and kindness were evidently the main sources of his enduring influence among all ranks of people and officers; one account says the IManchus almost worshipped him, and beggars clung to his chair in the streets to ask alms. It is wortriy of notice that in all his re-A-erses there is no mention made of any severer punishment than degradation or banishment, and in this particular the political life of Sung is probably a fair criterion of the usual fortune of high Chinese statesmen. The leading events in the life of Changling, the successor of Tohtsin, together with a few notices of the governor of Canton in 1833, Li llung-pin, are given in the Rej)ositorij.^ Commissioners Lin and Kivins; became more famous amontr foreigners than their compeers in the capital, from the parts they acted in the war with England in IS-iO, but only a few notices of their lives are accessible. Lin Tseh-sii was born in 1785, in Fuhchau, and passed through the literary examinations, becoming a graduate of the second rank at the age of nineteen, and of the third when twenty-six. After filling an

office or two in the Imperial Academy, he was sent as assistant

literary examiner to Iviangsi in 1816, and during three subsequent

years acted as examiner and censor in various places. In

1819 he filled the office of intendant of circuit, in Chehkiano^:

and after absence on account of health, he was, in 1823, appointed

to the post of treasurer of Iviangsu, in the absence of the incuml)ent. In 1820 he was made overseer of the Yellow River, but hearing of his mother’s death, resigned his office to mourn for her. After the period of mourning was finished he went to Peking and received the office of judge in Shensi; but before he had been in it a month he was made treasurer of Kiangsu, and before he could enter upon this new office he

heard of his father’s death, and was obliged to resign once

more. In 1832 he was nominated treasurer in Ilupeh, and

five months later transferred to the same office in Honan, and

six months after that sent to Iviangsu again. Three months after this third transfer he was reinstated overseer of the Yellow River, and within a short time elevated to be governor of Iviangsi, which he retained three years, and acted as governor-general of Liang Iviang two years more. In 1838 he was made governor-general of II u Kwang; and shortly after this ordered to come to Peking to be admitted to an imperial audience, and by special favor permitted to ride on horseback within the palace.

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 61-66.

He was at this audience appointed imperial commissioner to put down the opium trade and manage the affairs of the maritime frontier of Ivwantung, receiving at the time such plenipotentiary powers to act for the Emperor as had only once before been committed to a subject since 1644-, viz., when Changling was sent to Turkestan to (piell the insurrection. Lin’s ill success in dealing with the opium trade and its upholders in the British government reflect no discredit on his own ability, for the task was beyond the powers of the Empire ; but his fame even now stands high amono; the Cantonese. One incident showing his kindness to the crew of the Sunda, an English vessel lost on Hainan Island, on their arrival in Canton in October, 1839, while he was ligliting their consular officers,

gave a good insight into the candor of the man. In December,

1839, he was appointed governor-general of Liang Kiang ; but

succeeded to that of Liang Ivwang in February, 1840, In

October of the same year the seals of office were taken away,

and he was ordered to return to Peking. He remained, however,

till May of the next year to advise with Ivishen in his

difficult negotiations with the English. Lin left Canton in

May,’ 1841, leading two thousand troops to defend Ningpo, but

this role M^as not his foi’te. In July, 1842, he was banished to

111, but the sentence was suspended for a season hy giving him

a third time the oversight of the Yellow River. However, in

1844 we find him in lli, holding an inferior appointment and

trying to bring waste lands near the Mohammedan cities nnder

cultivation ; his zeal was rewarded the next year by a pardon,

and the year after that by the Jiigh post of governor-general of

Shensi and Kansuh, in wliich region he set himself to work to

reform the civil service and increase the revenue. In 1847 the

cares of office wore “upon him, so that he asked for a furlough

and went back to Fulichau, aged sixty-two. His ambition was

not yet satisfied, for he was made governor-general in Yunnan

in 1848, but his strength was not equal to its duties, and

he again retired in 1849. The young Emperor Hienfung,

CAREER OF COMMISSIONER KIYING. 459

startled at the rapid rise of the Tai-ping rebels, applied to the aged statesman to help him as he had his father, Lin responded to the call of his sovereign, but death came upon him before he reached Kwangsi, on the 22d of November, 1850, at the aiie of sixty-seven. More endurino; than some of his official acts was the preparation and publication of the History of Maritime Nations, with maps, in fifty books, in which he gave his countrymen all the details he could gather of other nations.’

Much less is known of the official life of Iviying than of Lin, but the Manchu proved himself superior to the Chinese in trinunino; his course to meet the inevitable and avoid the rocks his predecessor struck. In 1835 his name is mentioned as president of the Board of Revenue and controller of the Tsung-jin fu. lie was detained at the capital as commander-in chief of the forces there until 1842, when his Majesty sent him to Canton to take the place of Yihshan. He was ordered to stop at Ilangchau, however, on his way, and make a report of the condition of affairs; his memorials seem to have had great influence, for he was appointed joint commissioner with llipu in April of that year. At the negotiations of Xanking Iviying acted as chief commissioner, and was mainly instrumental in bringing the war to a conclusion. He proceeded to Canton in May, 18-43, to succeed llipu, and there acted as sole commissioner in negotiating the supplementary treaty and the commercial regulations with the British, returning to the capital in December, 1843. His prudence and vigor had great effect in calming the irritation of the people of Canton. On the arrival of the American plenipotentiary lie was vested with full powers to treat with Mr. Cushing, and soon after with the French and Swedish envoys, with all of whom he signed treaties. During the progress of these negotiations Ki Kung died and Iviying succeeded him.

‘ Compare Dr. Bowring in N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. Journal, Part III., Art VII. (Dec, 1852).

His administration as governor-general continued till January, 1848, when he returned to Peking to receive higher honors from the Emperor. In 1849 he went to Kiangsu to inquire into the salt department, and then to Northern Shansi to settle differences with the Mongols. From this period he held various posts in the cabinet and capital, busy in all court intrigues, and rather losing his good name, till he fell into disgrace.

In 1856, when the envoys of the four western Powers were at Tientsin, he entered into some underhand dealings against the policy of Kweiliang and Ilwashana, and was sent there as joint commissioner, he had hardly entered upon his functions by the presentation of his commission, when he suddenly returned to Peking against the Emperor’s will, and was ordered to take poison in the presence of the head of the Clan to avoid the ignominy of a public execution,’ Few Chinese statesmen in modern times have borne a higher character for prudence, dignity, and intelligence than Iviying, and the confidence reposed in him is creditable to his imperial master. In his demeanor, says Sir Thomas Wade, ” there was a combination of dignity and courtesy which more than balanced the deficiencies of a by no means attractive exterior.” The portrait of him has been engraved from a native painting made at Canton, and is a good one. It was kindly furnished for this work by J. P. Peters, Jr.

‘ Chinese Repository, passim. Oliphant, Lord Elgin’s Mission to China and Jiqmu, Cluii). XVIT. Minister Reed, in U. >S’. Dip. Correspondence, 1857-58.

AGED STATESMEN RETAINED IN OFFICE. 461

The facts of this man’s career are not all known, but his connection by birth with the Clan brought him into an entirely different set of influences from Lin, while his training removed him from the contact with the people which made the other so popular and influential. Both of them were good instances of Chinese statesmen, and their checkered lives as here briefly noticed resemble that of their compeers in the highest grades of official dignity. The sifting which the personnel of the Emperor’s employees in all their various grades receive generally brings the cleverest and most trustworthy to the top ; no one can come in contact with thein in state affairs without an increase of respect for their shrewdness, loyalty, and skill. One observable feature of the Chinese political world is the great age of the high officers, and It is not easy to account for their

being kept in their posts, when almost worn out, bj a monarch

who wished to have efficient men around liim, until we learn

how little real power he can arbitrarily exert over the details of

the branches of his government. It is somewhat explainable

on the ground that, as long as the old incumbents are alive, the

Emperor, being more habituated to their company and advice,

prefers to retain those whose competency has been proven by

their service. The patriarch, kept near the Emperor, is moreover

a kind of hostage for the loyalty of his following ; and the

latter, scattered throughout the provinces, can be managed and

moved about through him with less opposition : he is, still

further, a convenient medium thrcjugh which to receive the

exactions of the younger members of the service, and convey

such intimations as are thought necessary. Tlie system of

clientelage which existed among the Gauls and Franks is also

found in China with some modifications, and has a tendency to

link officers to one another in parties of different degrees of

power. The Emperor published an order in 1S33 against this

system of patronage, and it is evident that he would find it seriously interfering with his power were it not constantly broken up by changing the relations of the parties and sending them away in different directions. Peking is almost the only place where the ” teacher and pupils,’^ as the patron and client call each other, could combine to much purpose ; and the principal safeguard the throne seems to have against intrigues and parties around it lies in the conflicting interests arising among themselves, though a long-established oi- unscrujiulous favorite, as in the cases of Duke IIo and Suhshun in 1S55-C1, can sometimes manage to engross the whole power of the crown.

Notwithstanding the heavy charges of oppression, cruelty, bribery, and mendacity which are often brought against officers Math more or less justice, it must not be inferred that no good qualities exist among them. Thousands of them desire to rule equitably, to clear the innocent and punish the guilty, and exert all the knowledge and power they possess to discharge their functions to the acceptance of their master and their own good name among the inhabitants. Such officers, too, generally rise, while the cruelties of others are visited with degradation, The pasquinades which the people stick up in the streets indicate their sentiments, and receive much more attention than would such vulgar expressions in other countries, because it is almost the only way in which their opinions can be safely uttered. The popularity which upright officers receive acts as an incentive to others to follow in the same steps, as well as a reward to the person himself. The governor of Ivwangtung in 1833, Chu, was a very popular officer, and when he obtained leave to resign his station on account of age, the people vied with each other in showing their hearty regret at losing him.

The old custom was observed of retaining his boots and presenting him with a new pair at every city he passed through, and many other testimonials of their regard were adopted.

On leaving the city of Canton he circulated a few Aerses, ” to console the people and excite them to virtue,” for he heard that some of them w^ept on learning of his departure.

From ancient days, my fathers trod the path
Of literary fame, and placed their names
Among the wise ; two generations past,
Attendant on their patrons, they have come
To this provincial city. ‘ Here this day
‘Tis mine to be imperial envoy ;
Thus has the memory of ancestral fame
Ceased not to stimulate this feeble frame.
My father held an office at Lungchau.”

And deep imprinted his memorial there ;
He was the sure and generous friend
Of learning unencouraged and obscure.
When now I turn my head and travel back
In thought to that domestic hall, it seems
As yesterday, those early happy scenes—
How was he pained if forced to be severe 1

‘ The Chinese have a great affection for the place of their nativity, and coneider a residence in any other province like being in a foreign settlement.

They always wish to return thither in life, or have their remains carried and interred there after death.

VALEDICTORY VERSES OF GOVERNOR CHU. 463

‘^ A district in the province of Kwangsi.
From times remote Kwangtung has been renowned
For wise and mighty men ; but none can stand
Among them, or compare with Kiuh Kiang :’
Three idle and inglorious years are past,
And I have raised no monument of fame,
By shedding round the rays of light and truth,
To give the people knowledge. In this heart
I feel the shame, and cannot bear the thought.
But now, in flowered pavilions, in street
Illuminations, gaudy shows, to praise
The gods and please themselves, from year to year

The modern people vie, and boast themselves,
And spend their hard-earned wealth—and all in vain;
For what shall be the end? Henceforth let all
Maintain an active and a useful life,
The sober husband and the frugal wife.
The gracious statesman, “politic and wise,
Is my preceptor and my long-tried friend ,

Called now to separate, spare our farewell

The heartrending words affection so well loves.

That he may still continue to exhort

The people, and instruct them to be wise,

To practice virtue and to keep the laws

Of ancient sages, is my constant hope.

When I look backward o’er the field of fame

Where I have travelled a long fifty years,

The struggle for ambition and the sweat

For gain seem altogether vanity.

Who knoweth not that heaven’s toils are close,
Infinitely close V Few can escape.
Ah! how few great men reach a full old age f
How few unshorn of honors end their days I
Inveterate disease has twined itself
Around me, and binds me in slavery.
The kindness of his Majesty is high ‘
And liberal, admitting no return

‘ Kiuh Kiang was an ancient minister of state during the Tang dynasty. Hia imperial master would not listen to his advice and lie therefore retired. Rebellion and calamities arose. The Emperor thought of his faithful servant and sent for him ; but he was already dead.

• Governor Loo.

* In permitting Chu to retire from public life.
Unless a grateful heart ; still, still my eyes
Will see the miseries of the people—
Unlimited distresses, mournful, sad,
To the mere passer-by awaking grief.
Untalented, unworthy, I withdraw,
Bidding farewell to this windy, dusty world;
Upward I look to the supremely good—
The Emperor—to choose a virtuous man
To follow me. Henceforth it will oe well—
The measures and the merits passing mine;
But I shall silent stand and see his grace
Diffusing blessings like the genial spring.

Ilipn, Ki Kiing, the late governor-general of Ivwangtnng, and Shn, the prefect of Ningbo in 1842, are other officers who have been popular in late years. When Lin passed through Macao in 1839, the Chinese had in several places erected honorary portals adorned with festoons of silk and laudatory scrolls ; and when he passed the doors of their houses and shops they set out tables decorated with ^’ases of flowers, ” in order to manifest their profound gratitude for his coming to save them from a deadly vice, and for removing from them a dire cahnnity by the destruction and severe intei’diction of opium.” Alas, that his efforts and intentions should have been so fruitless! The Pehing Gazette frequently contains petitions from old officers describing their ailments, their fear lest they shall not be able to perform their duties, the length of their official service, and requesting leave of absence or permission to retire.

OFFICIAL PETITIONS AND CONFESSIONS. 465

It is impossible to regard all the expressions of loyalty in these papers, coming as they do from every class of officers, as heartless and made out according to a prescribed form; but we are too ready to measure them by our own standard and fashion, forgetting that it is not the defects of a system which give the best standard of its value and efficiency. Let us rather, as an honest expression of feeling, quote a few lines from a memorial of Shi, a censor in 1824: “Reflecting within myself that, notwithstanding the decay of my strength, it has still pleased the imperial goodness to employ me in a high office instead of rejecting and discarding me at once, I have been most anxious to eft’ect a cure, in order that, a weak old horse as I am, it might be still in my power, by the exertion of my whole strength, to recompense a ten-thousandth part of the benevolence which restored me to life/”

Connected with the triennial schedule of official merits and

demerits is the necessity the high officers of state are under of

confessing their faults of government ; and the two form a

peculiar and somewhat stringent check upon their intrigues and

malversation, making them, as Le Comte observes, “exceeding

circumspect and careful, and sometimes even virtuous against

their own inclinations.” The confessions reported in i\\Q Peking

Gazette are, however, by no means satisfactory as to the real extent

or nature of these acts ; most of the confessors are censors,

and perhaps it is in virtue of their office that they thus sit in

judgment upon themselves. Examples of the crimes mentioned

are not wanting. The governor-general of Chihli requested severe

punishment in 1S32 for not having discovered a plotting

demagogue who had collected several thousand adherents in his

and the next provinces ; his request was granted. An admiral

in the same province demands punishment for not having properly

educated his son, as thereby he went mad and wounded several people. Another calls for judgment upon himself because the Empress-dowager had been kept waiting at the palace gate by the porters when she paid her Majesty a visit. One officer accused himself for not being able to control the Yellow River; and his Majesty’s cook in 1830 requested punishment for being too late in presenting his bill of fare, but M^as graciously forgiven. The rarity of these confessions, compared with the actual sins, shows either that they are, like a partridge’s doublings, made to draw off attention from the real nest of malversation, or that few officers are willing to undergo the mortification.

The Emperor, in his character of vicegerent of heaven, occasionally imposes the duty of self confession upon himself.

‘ Chinese Repositunj , Vol. IV., p. 71.

Kiaking issued several public confessions during his reign, but the Gazette has not contained many such papers within the last thirty years. These confessions are drawn from him more by natural calamities, such as drought, freshets, epidemics, etc., than by political causes, though insurrections, tii-es, ominoug portents, etc., sometimes induce them. The personal character of the monarch has much to do with their frequency and phraseology. On occasion of a drought in 1817 the Emperor Kiaking said : ” The remissness and sloth of the officers of government constitute an evil which has long been accumulating.

It is not the evil of a day ; for several years I have given the most pressing admonitions on the subject, and have punished many cases which have been discovered, so that recently there appears a little improvement, and for several seasons the weather has been favorable. The drought this season is not perhaps entirely on their (the officers’) account. I have meditated upon it, and am persuaded that the reason why the aznro Heavens above manifest disapprobation by withholding rain for a few hundred miles only around the capital, is that the fifty and more rebels who escaped are secreted somewhere near Peking.

Hence it is that fertile vapors are fast bound, and the felicitous harmony of the seasons interrupted.” On the 14th of May, 1818, between five and six o’clock in the evening, a sudden darkness enveloped the capital, attended by a violent “wind from the southeast and much rain. During its action two intervals occurred when the sky became a lurid red and the air offensive, terrible claps of thunder startling the people and frightening the monarch. His astroloo;ers could not relieve his forebodings of evil, and he issued a manifesto to explain the matter to his subjects and discharge his own conscience. One sentence is w^orth quoting : ” Calumnious accusations cause the ruin and death of a multitude of innocent people; they alone are capable of provoking a sign as terrible as this one just seen. The wind coming from the southeast is proof enough that some great crime has been committed in that region, which the officials, by neglecting their duties, have ignored, and thereby excited the ire of Heaven,” ‘

^Anncdes de la Foi, No. 6, 1823, pp. 21-24.

PRAYER FOR RAIN OF TAUKWANG. 467

One of the most remarkable specimens of these papers is a prayer for rain issued by Taukwang, July 24, 1832, on occasion of a severe drought at the capital. Before publishing this paper he had endeavored to mollify the anger and heat of heaven by ordering all suspected and accused persons in the prisons of the metropolis to be tried, and their guilt or innocence established, in order that the course of justice might not be delayed, and witnesses be released from confinement. But these vicarious corrections did not avail, and the drought continuing, he was obliged, as high-priest of the Empire, to show the people that he was mindful of their sufferings, and would relieve them, if possible, by presenting the following memorial:

*’ Kneeling, a memorial is hereby presented, to cause affairs to be beard.

” Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, were not the world afflicted by extraordinary changes, I would not dare to present extraordinary services. But this year the drought is most unusual. Summer is past, and no rain has fallen. Not only do agriculture and human beings feel the dire calamity, but also beasts and insects, herbs and trees, almost cease to live. I, the minister of Heaven, am placed over mankind, and am responsible for keeping the world in order and tranquillizing the people. Although it is now impossible for me to sleep or eat with composure, although I am scorched with grief and tremble with anxiety, still, after all, no genial and copious showers have been obtained.

“Some days ago I fasted, and offered rich sacrifices on the altars of the gods of the land and the grain, and had to be thankful for gathering clouds and slight showers; but not enough to cause gladness. Looking up, I consider that Heaven’s heart is benevolence and love. The sole cause is the daily deeper atrocity of my sins; but little sincerity and little devotion. Hence I have been unable to move Heaven’s heart, and bring down abundant blessings.

” Having searched the records, I find that in the twenty-fourth year of Kienlung my exalted Ancestor, the Emperor Pure, reverently performed a ‘great snow service’. I feel impelled, by ten thousand considerations, to look up and imitate the usage, and with trembling anxiety rashly assail Heaven, examine myself, and consider my errors; looking up and hoping that I may obtain pardon. I ask myself whether in sacrificial services I have been disrespectful? Whether or not pride and prodigality have had a place in my heart, springing forth there unobserved? Whether, from length of time, I have become remiss in attending to the affairs of government, and have been unable to attend to them with that serious diligence and strenuous effort which I ought ‘i Whether I have uttered irreverent words, and have deserved reprehension? Whether perfect equity has been attained in conferring rewards or inflicting punishments ? Whether in raising mausolea and laying out gardens I have distressed the people and wasted property ? Whether in the appointment of officers I have failed to obtain fit persons, and thereby the acts of government have been petty and vexatious to the people V Whether punishments have been unjustly inflicted or not V Whether the oppressed have found no meaus of appeal ? Whether in pc^rsecuting lieterodox sects the innocent have not been involved ? Whether or not the magistrates have insulted the people and refused to listen to their affairs ‘i Whctln’r, in the successive military operations on the western frontiers, then’ may imt liavu been the horrors of human slaughter for the sake of imperial rewards V Whether the largesses bestowed on the afflicted southern provinces were properly applied, or the people were left to die in the ditches ‘i Whether the efforts to exterminate or pacify the rebellious mountaineers of Hunan and Kwangtung were properly conducted ; or whether they led to the inhabitants being trampled on as mire and ashes ? To all these topics to which my anxieties have been directed I ought to lay the plumb-line, and strenuously endeavor to correct what is wrong ; still recollecting that there may be faults which have not occurred to me in my meditations.

” Prostrate I beg imperial Heaven (Jlmmcj Tieu) to pardon my ignoiance and stupidity, and to grant me self-renovation ; for myriads of innocent people are involved by me, the One man. My sins are so numerous it is difficult to escape from them. Summer is past and autumn arrived ; to wait longer will really be impossible. Knocking head, I pray imperial Heaven to hasten and confer gracious deliverance—a speedy and divinely beneficial rain, to save the people’s lives and in some degree redeem my iniquities. Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, observe these things. Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, be gracious to them. I am inexpressibly grieved, alarmed, and frightened. Reverently this memorial is presented.” ‘

This paper apparently intimates some acknowledgment of a

ruling power above, and before a despot like the Emperor of

China would place himself in such an equivocal posture before

his people, he would assure himself very thoroughly of their

sentiments ; for its effects as a state paper would be worse than

null if the least ridicule was likely to be thrown upon it. In this

case heavy showers followed the same evening, and appropriate

thanksgivings were ordered and oblations presented before the

six altars of heaven, earth, land, and grain, and the gods of

heaven, earth, and the revolving year.

‘ Chinese Bepository, Vol. I., p. 236.

METHODS OF PUHLISITINO EDICTS. 469

The orders of the court are usually transmitted in manuscript, except when some grand event or state cei’cmony requires a general i)i”oclanuition, in which cases the document is printed on yellow paper and published in both the Chinese and ]\[anchu languages, encin;led with a border of dragons. The governors and their suboi’dinatos, imperial commissioners, and collectoi’s of customs are the principal officers in the provinces who publish their orders to the people, consisting of admonitions, exhortations, regulations, laws, special ordinances, threatenings, and municipal j-e<|uirements. Standing laws and local regulations are often superbly carved on tablets of black marble, and placed in the streets to be ” held in everlasting remembrance,” so that no one can plead ignorance ; a custom which recalls the mode of publishing the Twelve Tables at Rome. Several of these

monuments, beautifully ornamented, are to be seen at Canton

and Macao. The usual mode of publishing the commands of

government is to print the document in large characters, and

, post copies at the door of the offices and in the streets in public

places, with the seal of the officer attached to authenticate them.

The sheets on -which they are printed being connnon bamboo

paper, and having no protection from the weather, are, however,

soon destroyed ; the people read them as they are thus

exposed, and copy them if they wish, but it is not unconnnon,

too, for the magistrates to print important edicts in pamphlet

form for circulation. These placards are written in an official

style, differing from common Meriting as much as that does

in English, but not involved or obscure. A single specimen of

an edict issued at Canton will suffice to illustrate the form of

such papers, and moreover show npon what subjects a Chinese

ruler sometimes legislates, and the care he is expected to take

of the people.

” Sii and Hwang, by special appointment magistrates of the districts of Nanliai and Pwanyn, raised ten steps and recorded ten times, hereby distinctly publish important rules for the capture of grasshoppers, that it may be known how to guard against them in order to ward off injury and calamity. On the 7th day of the Sth month in the 18th year of Taukwang [September 20, 1838], we received a communication from the prefect of the [department of Kwangchau], transmitting a despatch from their excellencies the governor-general and governor, as follows:
” ‘ During the fifth month of the present year flights of grasshoppers appeared in the limits of Kwangsi, in [the departments of] Liu, Tsin, Kwei, and Wu, and their vicinage, which have already, according to report, been clean destroyed and driven off. We have heard that in the department of Kauchau and its neighborhood, conterminous to Kwangsi, grasshoppers have appeared which multiply with extreme rapidity. At this time the second crop is in the blade (which if destroyed will endamage the people), and it is proper, therefore, immediately, wherever they are found, to capture and drive them off, marshalling the troops to advance and wholly exterminate them. But Kwang tung heretofore has never experienced this calamity, and we apprehend the officers and people do not understand the mode of capture; wherefore we now exhibit in order the most important rules for catching grasshoppers. Let the governor’s combined forces be immediately instructed to capture them secundum artem; at the same time let orders be issued for the villagers and farmers at once to assemble and take them, and for the magistrate to establish storehouses for their reception and purchase, thus without fail sweeping them clean away.

If you do not exert yourselves to catch the grasshoppers, your guilt will be very great ; let it be done carefully, not clandestinely delaying, thus causing this misfortune to come upon yourselves, transgressing the laws, and causing US again, according to the exigencies of the case, to promulgate general orders and make thorough examination, etc., etc. Appended hereto are copies of the rules for catching grasshoppers, which from the lieutenant-governor must he sent to the treasurer, who will enjoin it upon the magistrates of the depart-, meats, and he again upon the district magistrates.’

“Having received the preceding, besides respectfully transmitting it to the colonel of the department to be straightway forwarded to all the troops under his authority, and also to all the distri(-t justices, that they all with united purpose bend their energies to observe, at the j^roper time, that whenever the grasshoppers become numerous they join their forces and extirpate them, thus removing calamity from the people ; we also enjoin upon whomsoever receives this that the grasshoppers be caught according to these several directions, which are therefore here arranged in order as follows:

“‘1. When the grasshoppers first issue forth they are to be seen on the borders of large morasses, from whence they quickly multiiily and fill large tracts of land; they produce their young in little hillocks of black earth, using the tail to bore into the ground, not quite an inch in depth, which still remain as open holes, the whole somewhat resembling a bee’s nest. One grasshopper drops ten or more pellets, in form like a pea, each one containing a hundred or more young. For the young grasshoppers fly and eat in swarms, and this laying of their young is done all at once and in the same spot; the place resembles a hive of bees, and therefore it is very easily sought and found.

” ‘2. When the grasshoppers are in the fields of wheat and tender rice and

the thick grass, every day at early dawn they all alight on the leaves of the

grass, and their bodies being covered with dew are heavy and they cannot fly

or liop ; at noon they begin to assemble for flight, and at evening they collect

in one spot. Thiis each day there are three periods when tliey can be caught,

and the p(!ople and gentry will also have a short respite. The mode of catching

them is to dig a trench before them, the broader and longer tlio better, on

each side placing boards, doors, screens, and such like things, oiu> stretched

on after another, and spreading open each side. The whole multitude must

then cry aloud, and, holding boards in their hands, drive them all into the

trench; meanwhile those on the opposite side, provided with brooms and

rakes, on seeing any leaping or crawling out, must sweep them back; then

covering them with dry grass, burn them all up. Let the fire be first kindled

in the trench, and then drive; tlunn into it ; for if they are only buried upi

then many of them will crawl out of the openings and so escape.

EDICT FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF GRASSHOPPERS. 471

” ‘3. When the swarms of grasshoppers see a row of trees, or a close line of

flags and streamers, they nsnally hover over and settle ; and the farmers frequently

suspend red and white clothes and petticoats on long poles, or make

red and green paper flags, but they do not always settle with great rapidity.

Moreover, tliey dread the noise of gongs, matchlocks, and guns, hearing which

they fly away. If they come so as to obscure the heavens, you must let off

the guns and clang the gongs, or fire the crackers ; it will strike the front

ranks with dread, and flying away, the rest will follow them and depart.

” ‘4. When the wings and legs of the grasshoppers are taken off, and [their

bodies] dried in the sun, the taste is like dried prawns, and moreover, they

can be kept a long time without spoiling. Ducks can also be reared upon the

dried grasshoppers, and soon become large and fat. Moreover, the hill people

catch them to feed pigs ; tliese pigs, weighing at first only twenty catties

or so, in ten days’ time grow to weigh more than fifty catties ; and in rearing

all domestic animals they are of use. Let all farmers e.xert themselves and

catch them alive, giving rice or money according to the number taken. In

order to remove this calamity from your grain, what fear is there that you will

not perform this V Let all these rules for catching the grasshoppers hb diligently

carried into full effect.’

“Wherefore these commands are transcribed that all you soldiers and people

may be fully acquainted with them. Do you all then immediately in

obedience to them, when you see the proper time has come, sound the gong ;

and when you see the grasshoppers and their young increasing, straightway

get ready, on the one hand seizing them, and on the other announcing to the

oflicers that they collect the troops, that with united strength you may at once

catch them, without fail making an iitter extermination of them ; thus calamity

will be removed from tlie people. We will also then confer rewards upon

those of the farmers and people who first announce to the magistrates their

approach. Let every one implicitly obey. A special command.

” Promulgated Taukwang, 18th year, 8th month, and 15th day.’”

The concluding part of an edict affords some room for displaying

tlie character of the promulgator. Among other endings

are sucli as these : ” Hasten ! hasten ! a special edict.”

‘• Tremble liereat intenselj.” ” Lay not up for yourselves future

repentance by disobedience.” ” I will by no means eat my

words.” ” Earnestly observe these things.” In their state

papers Chinese officers are constantly referring to ultimate

tmiths and axioms, and deducing arguments therefrom in a

peculiarly national grandiloquent manner, though some of their

‘ Easy Lessons in Chinese, pp. 223-227. The effect of these instructions relating to grasshoppers does not appear to have equaled the zeal of the officers composing them ; swarms of locusts, however, are in general neither numerous nor devastating in China.

conclusions are preposterous iion-sequitvirs. Commissioner Lin addressed a letter to the Queen of England regarding the interdiction of opium, which began with the following preamble:” Whereas, the ways of Heaven are without partiality, and no sanction is allowed to injure others in order to benefit one’s self, and that men’s natural feelings are not very diverse (for where is he who does not abhor death and love life ?)—therefore your honorable nation, though beyond the wide ocean at

a distance of twenty thousand /?, also acknowledges the same

ways of Heaven, the same human nature, and has the like perceptions

of the distinctions between life and death, benefit and

injury. Our heavenly court has for its family all that is within

the four seas ; and as to the great Emperor’s heaven-like benevolence—

there is none whom it does not overshadow ; even

regions remote, desert, and disconnected have a part in his

general care of life and well-being.”

The edicts furnish almost the only exponents of the intentions

of government. They present several characteristic features

of the ignorant conceit and ridiculous assumptions of the

Chinese, while they betray the real weakness of the authorities

in the mixture of argument and command, coaxing and threatening,

pervading every paragraph. According to their phraseology,

there can possibly be no failure in the execution of every

order ; if they are once made known, the obedience erf the people

follows almost as a nuitter of course; while at the same

time both the writer and the people know that most of them are

not only perfunctory but nearly useless. The resj^onsibility of

the writer in a measure ceases witli the promulgation of his

orders, and when they reach the last in the series their efficiency

has well nigh departed. Expediency is the usual guide

for obedience ; deceiving superiors and oppressing the people

the rule of action on the part of many officials ; and their orders

do not more strikingly exhibit their weakness and igno-

I’ance than their mendacity and conceit. A large proportion of

well-meanino; officers are sensible too that all their efforts will

be neutralized by the half-paid, imscrupnlous retainers and

clerks in the ymnuns ; and this checks their energy.

It is not easy, without citing many examples accompanied

CHAKACTEK AND PHRASEOLOGY OF THE EDICTS. 478

with particular explanations, to give a just idea of the actual

execution of the laws, and show how far the people are secured

in life and pi’opcrty hy their i-ulei”s ; and perhaps nothing has

been the source of such differing views regarding the Chinese

as the predominance writers give either to the theory or the

practice of legislation. Old Magaillans has hit this point pretty

well when he says : ” It seems as if the legislators had omitted

nothing, and that they had foreseen all inconveniences that were

to be feared ; so that I am persuaded no kingdom in the world

could be better governed or more happy, if the conduct and

probity of the officers were but answerable to the institution of

the government. But in regard they have no knowledge of the

true God, nor of the eternal rewards and punishments of the

other woi-ld, they are subject to no remorses of conscience, they

place all their happiness in pleasure, in dignity and riches ; and

therefore, to obtain these fading advantages, they violate all

the laws of God and man, trampling under foot religion, reason,

justice, honesty, and all the rights of consanguinity and

friendship. rThe inferior officers mind nothing but how to defraud

their superiors, they the supreme tribunals, and all together

how to cheat the king ; which the}’ know how to do

with so much cunning and address, making use in their memorials

of words and expressions sb soft, so honest, so respectful,

so humble and full of adulation, and of reasons so plausible,

that the deluded prince frecpiently takes the greatest falsehoods

for solemn truths. So that the people, finding themselves continually

oppressed and overwhelmed without any reason, murmur

and raise seditions and revolts, which have caused so much

ruin and so many changes in the Empirp^ Nevertheless, there

is no reason that the excellency and perfection of the laws of

China should suffer for the depravity and wickedness of the

magistrates.”

‘

Magaillans resided in China nearly forty years, and his opinion

may be considered on the whole as a fair judgment of the

real condition of the people and the policy of their rulers.

* A new nistory of China, containing a description of tJie most considerable

particulars of that Empire, written by Gabriel Magaillans, of the Society oj

Jesus, Missionary Apostolick. Done out of French. Loudou, 1G88, p. 249.

474 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

“When one is living in the country itself, to hear the complaints

of individuals against the extortion and cruelty of their rulers,

and to read the reports of judicial murder, torture, and crime

in the Pekimj Gazette^ are enough to cause one to wonder how

such atrocities and oppressions are endured from year to year,

and why the sufferers do not rise and throw aside the tyrannous

power M’hich thus abuses them. But the people are generally

conscious that their rulers are no better than themselves,

and that they would really gain nothing by such a procedure,

and their desire to maintahi as great a degree of peace as possil)

le leads them to submit to many evils, which in western

countries would soon be remedied or cause a revolution. In

order to restrain the officers in their misrule. Section CCX. of the

code ordains that ” If any officer of government, whose situation

gives him power and control over the people, not only does

not conciliate them by proper indulgence, but exercises his

authority in a manner so inconsistent with the established laws

and approved usages of the Empire, that the sentiments of the

once loyal subjects being changed by his oppressive conduct,

they assemble tunniltuously and openly rebel, and drive him at

length from the capital city and seat of his government ; such

jeer shall suffer death.”

Ry the laws of China, every officer of the nine lanks must

be previously qualified for duty by a degree; in the ninth are

included village magistrates, deputy treasurers, jailers, etc., but

the police, local interpreters, clerks, and other attendants on the

courts are not considered as having any rank, and most of them

are natives of the place where they are employed. The oidy

degradation they can feel is to turn them out of their stations,

but this is hardly a palliative of the evils the people suffer from

thein ; the new leech is more thirsty than the old. The cause

of many of the extortions the people suffer from their rulers is

found in the system of purchasing office, at all times practised

in one shape or other, but occasionally resorted to by the government.

As the counterpart of this system, that of receiving

bribes must be expected therefore to prevail, and l)eing in fact

l)ractised by all grades of dignitaries, and sometimes even uplield

by them as a ” necessary evil,” it adds still more to the

EXTORTIONS PRACTISED BY MAGISTRATES. 475

bad consequences lesulting fi-oni tliis mode of obtaining oflBce.

Indeed, so far is tlie practice of “covering the eyes” carried in

China, that the people seldom approach their rulers without a

gift to mahe way for them.

One mode taken hy the highest ranks to obtain money is to

notify inferiors that there are certain days on M’hich presents

are expected, and custom soon increases these as nnich as the

case will admit. Subscriptions for objects of public charity or

disbursements, such as an inundation, a bad harvest, bursting

of dikes, and other similar things which the government must

look after, are not uufrequently made a source of revenue to

the incumbents by requiring nnich more than is needed ; those

who subscribe are rewarded by an enqDty title, a peacock’s

feather, or employment in some insignificant formality. The

sale of titular rank is a source of revenue, but the government

never attempts to subvert or interfere with the well-known

channel of attaming office by literary merit, and it seldom confers

much real power for money when unconnected with some

degree of fitness. The security of its own position is not to be

risked for the sake of an easy means of filling its exchequer,

yet it is impossible to say how far the sale of office and title is

carried. The censors inveigh against it, and the Emperor

almost apologizes for resorting to it, but it is nevertheless constantly

practised. The government stocks of this description

were opened during the late rebellions and foreign wars, as the

necessities of the case were a sufficient excuse for the disreputable

practice. In 1SS5 the sons of two of the leading hongmerchants

wei’e promoted, in consequence of their donations of

$25,000 each to repair the ravages of an inundation ; subscribers

to the amount of §;10,000 and upward were rewarded by an

honorary title, whose only privilege is that it saves its possessor

from a bambooing, it being the law that no one holding any

office can be personally chastised.’/

Besides the lower officers, the clerks in their employ and the

police, who are often taken from the garrison soldiery, are the

agents in the hands of the upper ranks to squeeze the people.

‘ Compare tlie Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII., p. 207.

476 TIIK .AIIDDLK KINGDOM.

There are many clerks of vaiious duties and grades about all

the offices who receive small salaries, and every application and

petition to their sujDeriors, going through their hands, is attended

by a bribe to pass them up. The military police and

servants connected with the offices are not paid any regular

salary, and their number is great. In the large districts, like

those of Nanhai and Pwanyu, which compose the city of Canton

and suburbs, it is said there are about a thousand unpaid

police ; in the middle-sized ones l)etween tln*ee and four hundred,

and in the smallest from one to two hundred. This

number is increased by the domestics attending high officers as

part of their suite, and by their old acquaintances, who make

themselves known when there is any likelihood of being employed.

Among other abuses mentioned by the censors is that

of magistrates appointing their own creatures to fill vacancies

until those nominated by his Majesty arrive ; like a poor man

oppressing the poor, such officers are a sweeping rain. A

similar abuse arises when country magistrates leave their posts

to go to the provincial capital to dance attendance npon their

superiors, and get nominated to a higher place or taken into

their service as secretaries, because they will work for nothing

the duties of their vacated offices are meantime nsually left undone,

and underlings take advantage of their absence to make

new exactions. The governor fills vacant offices with his own

friends, and recommends them to his Majesty to be confirmed

;

but this has little effect in consolidating a system of oppression

from the constant changes going on. In fact, it is hard to say

which feature of the Chinese polity is the least disastrous to

good government, these constant changes which neutralize all

sympathy with the people on the part of rulers, or on the

other hand make it useless for seditious men to try to foment

rebellion.

The retinues of high provincial officers contain many dependents

and expectant supermnneraries, all subservient to

them ; among them arc the descendants of poor officers ; the

sons of bankrupt merchants who once possessed influence

;

dissipated, well bred, uiiscru]iulous men, who lend themselves

to everything flagitious ; and lastly, fortune-seekei’s without

AGENTS AND MODES OF OFFICIAL EXACTION. 477

money, T)ut posscssinp; talents of good order to he used bv any

one who will hire them. Such persons are not })ecnliar to

China^ and their employment is guarded against in the code,

but no law is more of a dead letter. (Officers of government,

too, conscious of their delinquencies, and afraid their posts will

soon be taken from them, of course endeavor to make the most

of their opportunities, and by means of such persons, who are

iisually well acquainted with the leading inhabitants of the

district, harass and thi’eaten such as are likely to pay well for

being left in quiet. It does them little or no good, however,

for if they are not removed they must fee their superioi-s, and

if they are punished for their misdeeds they are still more certain

of losing their wicked exactions. /

In the misappropriation of pul)lic funds, and peculation of all

kinds in materials, government stores, rations, wages, and salaries,

the Chinese officials are skilled experts, and are never surprised

at any disclosures.

Another common mode of plundering the people is for officers

to collude with bands of thieves, and allow them to escape for a

composition when arrested, or substitute other persons for the

guilty party in case the real offenders are likely to be condemned.

Sometimes these banditti are too strong even for an

upright magistrate, and he is obliged to overlook what he cannot

I’emedy ; for, however much he may wish to ari-est and

bring them to justice, his policemen are too much afraid of

their vengeance to venture nipon attacking them. An instance

of this occurred near Canton in 1S39, when a boat, containing a

clerk of the court and three or four police, came into the fleet

of European opium-ships to hunt for some desperate opium

smugglers Avho had taken refuge there. The fellows, hearing

of the arrival of the boat, came in the night, and surrounding

it took out the crew, bound their pursuers, and burned them

alive with the boat in sight of the whole fleet, to whom the

desperadoes looked for protection against their justly incensed

countrymen.

A censor in 1819, complaining of flagrant neglect in the administration of justice in Cliihli, says : ” Among the magistrates are many who, without fear or shame, connive at robbery and deceit. Formerly, horse-stealers were wont to conceal themselves in some secret place, but now they openly bring their plunder to market for sale. “When they perceive a person to be weak, they arc in the habit of stealing his property and returning it to him for money, while the officers, on hearing it, treat it as a trivial matter, and blame the sufferer for not being more cautious. Thieves are apprehended with warrants on them, showing that when they were sent out to arrest

thieves they availed of the opportunity to steal for themselves.

And at a village near the imperial residence are very many

plunderers concealed, M’ho go out by night in companies of

twenty or thirt}- persons, carrying weapons with them ; they

frequently call up the inhabitants, break open the doors, and

having satisfied themselves with what food and wine they can

obtain, they threaten and extort money, Avhich if they cannot

procure they seize their clothes, ornaments, or cattle, and depart.

They also frequently go to shops, and having broken

open the shutters impudently demand money, which if they do

not get they set fire to the shop with the torches in their

hands. If the master of the house lay hold on a few of them

and sends them to the magistrate, he merely imprisons and

beats them, and ‘ before half a month allows them to run

away.” ‘

The impaid retainers about the ycnmins a^e very numerous,

and are more di-eaded than the police ; one censor says they are

looked upon by the people as tigers and wolves ; he effected

the discharge of nearly twenty-four thousand of them in the

province of Cliihli alone. They are usually continued in their

places by the head magistrate, who, wheii he arrives, being

ignorant of the characters of those he must employ, re-engages

such as are likely to serve. In cases of serious accusation the

clei-ks frequently subpoena all who are likel}^ to be implicated,

and demand a fee for liberating them when their innocence is

shown. These myrmidons still fear the anger of their superiors

and a recoil of the people so far as to endeavor to save

appeai-ances by hushing up the matter, and liberating those

‘ Chinese licposituryy Vol. IV., p. 218.

VENALITY OF THE POLICE AND CLERKS. 479

unjustly cappreliended, with great protestations of conipassion.

It may be added that, as life is not lightly taken, thieves are

careful not to murder or maltreat their victims dangerously,

nor do the magistrates venture to take life outright by torture,

though their cruelties frequently result in death by neglect or

starvation. Money and goods are what both policemen and

officials want, not blood and rcA^enge. Parties at strife with

each other frequently resort to legal inq^lication to gratify their

ill-will, and take a pitiful revenge by egging on the police to

pillage and vex their enemy, though they themselves profit nowise

thereby.

The evils resulting from a half-paid and venal magistracy are

dreadful, and the prospects of their removal very slight. The

governor of Chihli, in 1829, memorialized the Emperor upon

the state of the police, and pointed out a remedy for many

abuses, one of which was to pay them fair salaries out^ of the

public treasury ; but it is plain that this remedy must begin

with the monarch, for until an officer is released from sopping

his superior he will not cease exacting from his inferiors. Experience has shown the authorities liow f^r it can safely be carried; while many officers, seeing how useless it is to irritate the people, so far as ultimately enriching themselves is concerned, endeavor to restrain their policemen. One governor issued an edict, stating that none of his domestics were allowed to browbeat shopmen, and thus get goods or eatables below the market price, and permitted the seller to collar and bring them to him

for punishment when they did so. When an officer of high

rank, as a governor, treasurer, etc., takes the seals of his post, he

ofttimes issues a proclamation, exhorting the subordinate ranks

to do as he means to do—” to look up and embody the kindness

of the high Emperor,” and attend to the faithful discharge of

their duties. The lower officers, in their turn, join in the cry,

and a series of proclamations, by turns hortative and mandatory,

are echoed from mastiff, spaniel, and poodle, until the cry ends

upon the police. Thus the prefect of Canton says : ” There are

hard-hearted soldiers and gnawing lictors who post themselves

at ferries or markets, or rove about the streets, to extort money

under various pretexts ; or, being intoxicated, they disturb and annoy the people in a hundred ways. Since I came into office iicre I have repeatedly commanded the inferior magistrates to act faithfully and seize such persons, but the depraved spirit still continues.”

A censor, speaking of the police, says : ” They no sooner get a warrant to bring up witnesses than they assail both plaintiff and defendant for money to pay their expenses, from the amount of ten taels to several scoi’es. Then the clei’ks must have double what the runners get; if their demands be not satisfied they contrive every species of annoyance. Then, again, if there are people of property in the neighborhood, they will implicate them. They plot also with pettifogging lawyers to get np accusations against people, and threaten and frighten them out of their money.” ‘

One natural consequence of such a state of society and such

a perve/sion of justice is to render the people afraid of all contact

with the officers of government and exceedingly selfish in

all their intercourse, though the latter trait needs no particular

training to develop it in any heathen comitry. It also tends to

an inhuman disregard of the life of others, and chills every emotion

of kindness which might otherwise arise ; for by making a

man responsible for the acts of his neighbors, or by involving a whole village in the crimes of an individual, all sense of justice is violated. The terror of being iinplieatcd in any evil that takes place sometimes prevents the people from cpienching fires until the superior authorities be first informed, and from relieving the distressed until it is often too late. Hence, too, it not unfrequently happens that a man who has had the ill fortune to be stabbed to death in the street, or who falls down from disease and dies, remains on the spot till the putrescence obliges the neighbors, for their own safety, to remove the corpse. A dead body floating down the river and washing ashore is likely to remain

on the banks until it again drifts away or the authorities

get it buried, for no unofficial person would voluntarily run the

risk of being seen interring it. One censor reports that when

he asked the people why they did not remove the loathsome ob-

‘ Compare Doolittle, Socidl Life of the CJit’nene, Vol. I., p. 330.

EFFECT OF IMUTUAL llESPONSIBILITY. 481

ject, tliej said: “Wo always let the bodies be either buried in

the bellies of fishes or devoured by the dogs ; for if we inform

the magistrates they are sure to make the owner of the ground

buy a coffin, and the clerks and assistants distress us in a hundred

ways/’ The usual end of these memorials and remonstrances is that the police are ordered to behave better, the clerks commanded to abstain from implicating innocent people and retarding the course of justice, and their masters, the magistrates, threatened with the Emperor’s displeasure in ease the grievance is not remedied : after which all goes on as before, and will go on as long as both rulers and ruled are what they are.

(The working out of the principle of responsibility accounts for many things in Chinese society and jurisprudence that otherwise appear completely at variance with even common humanity.

It makes an officer careless of his duties if he can shift the responsibility of failure upon his inferiors, who, at the same time,

he knows can never execute his orders; it renders the people

dead to the impulses of relationship, lest they become involved

in what they cannot possibly control and hardly know at the

time of its commission. Mr. Lindsay states that when he was

at Tsungming in 18r>2 the officers were very urgent that he

should go out of the river, and in order to show him the effect

of his non-compliance upon others a degraded subaltern was

paraded in his sight. ” His cap with its gold button was borne

before him, and he nuirched about blindfolded in procession between

two executioners, with a small flag on a bamboo pierced

through each ear. Uefore him was a placard with the inscription,

‘ By orders of the general of Su and Sung : for a breach

of militaiy discipline, his ears are pierced as a warning to the

multitude.’ Ilis offence was having allowed our boat to pass

the fort without reporting it.’^

During the first war with England, fear of punishment induced many of the subordinates to commit suicide when unable to execute their orders, and the same motive impelled their superiors to avoid the wrath of the Emperor in like fashion.

The Hong-merchants and linguists at Canton, during the old regime, were constantly liable, from the operation of this principle, to exactions and punishments for the acts of their foreign customers. One of them, Sunsliing, was put in prison and ruined because Lord Napier came to Canton from Whampoa in the boat of a ship which the unhappy merchant had ” secured” several weeks before, and the hnguist and pilot were banished for allowing what they could not possibly have hindered even if they had known it.

Having examined in this general manner the various grades

of official rank, we come to the people ; and a close view will

show that this great mass of human l)eings exhibits many equally

objectionable traits, while oppression, want, clannish rivalry,

and brigandage combine to keep it in a constant state of turmoil.

The subdivisions into tithings and hundreds are better

observed in rural districts than in cities, and the headmen of

those communities, in their individual and collective character,

possess great influence, from the fact that they represent the

popular feeling. In all parts of the country this popular organization

is found in some shape or other, though, as if everything

was somehow perverted, it not unfrequently is an instrument of

greater oppression than defence. The division of the people

into clans is far more marked in the southern provinces than in

those lying north of the Yangtsz’, and has had a depressing

effect upon their good government. It resembles in general the

arrangement of the Scottish clans, as do the evils arising from

their dissensions and feuds those which histoiy records as excited

among the Highlanders by the i-ivalry between Campbells

and Macgregors.

‘ H«eren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. II., p. 259. Raffles, Java, Vol. II. App.Biot, Vlmtructioii publique, pp. 59, 200.

VILLAGE ELDERS. 483

The eldership of villages has no necessary connection with the clans, for the latter are unacknowledged by the government, but the clan having the majority in a village generally selects the elders from among their number. This system is of very ancient date; its elementary details are given in the Chau-l’i, one of the oldest works extant in China ; Ileeren furnishes the same details for India and Kaffles for Java, reaching back in their duration to remote antiquity.’ In the vicinity of Canton the elder

is elected by a sort of town meeting, and holds his office during

good behavior, receives such a salary as his fellow villagers give

him, and may be removed to make way for another whenever

the principal persons in the village are displeased with his conduct.

His duties are limited to the supervision of the police

and general oversight of what is done in the village, and to be a

sort of agent or spokesman between the villagers and higher authorities; the duties, the power, and the rank of these officers

vary almost indeiinitel}’. The preponderance of one clan prevents

much strife in the selection of the elder, but the degree of

power reposed in his hand is so small that there is probably little

competition to obtain the dignity. A village police is maintained

by the inhabitants, under the authority of the elder ; the village

of Whampoa, for instance, containing about eight thousand inhabitants, pays the elder $300 salary, and employs fourteen

watchmen. His duties further consist in deciding upon the

petty questions arising between the villagers and visiting the

delinquents with chastisement, enforcing such regulations as are

deemed necessary regarding festivals, markets, tanks, streets,

collection of taxes, etc. The system of surveillance is, howevei-,

kept up by the superior officers, who appoint excise officers, grain

agents, tide-waiters, or some other subordinate, as the case may

require, to exercise a general oversight of the headmen.

The district magistrate, with the s’mnkien and their deputies

over the hundred, are the officers to whom appeals are carried

from the headmen ; they also receive the reports of the elders

respecting suspicious characters within their limits, or other

matters which they deem worthy of reference or remonstrance.

A similarity of interests leads the headmen of many villages

to meet together at times in a public hall for secret consultation

upon important matters, and their united resolutions are

generally acted upon by themselves or by the magistrates, as

the case may be. This system of eldership, and the influential

position the headmen occupy, is an important safeguard the

people possess against the extremity of oppressive extortion; while, too, it upholds the government in strengthening the loyalty

of those who feel that the only security they possess against

theft, and loss of all things from their seditious countrymen, is to uphold the institutions of the land, and that to suffer the evils of a bad magistracy is less dreadful than the horrors of a lawless brigandage.

The customs and laws of clanship perpetuate a sad state of

society, and render districts and villages, otherwise peaceful, the

scenes of unceasing tm-moil and trouble. There are only about

four hundred clans in the whole of China, but inasmuch as all

of the same surname do not live in the same place, the separation

of a clan answers the same purpose as multiplying it. Clannish

feelings and feuds are very much stronger in Kwangtung

and Fuhkien than in other provinces. As an instance which

may be mentioned, the Gazette contains the petition of a man

from Chauchau fu, in Kwangtung, relating to a quarrel, stating

that “four years before, his kindred having refused to assist

two other clans in their feuds, had during that period suffered

most shocking cruelties. Ten jiersons had been killed, and

twenty men and women, taken captives, had had their eyes dug

out, their ears cut off, their feet maimed, and so rendered useless

for life. Thirty houses Avere laid in ruins and three hundred

acres of land seized, ten thousand taels plundered, ancestral

temples thrown down, graves dug up, dikes destroyed, and water

cut off from the fields. The governor had oifered a reward of

a thousand taels to any one who would apprehend these persons,

but for the ten murders no one had been executed, for the

police dare not seize the offenders, whose nmnbers have largely

increased, and M’ho set the laws at defiance.” This region is

notorious for the turbulence of its inhal)itants ; it adjoins the

province of Fuhkien, and the people, known at Canton as Ilolio,

emigrate in large immbers to the Indian Archipelago or to other

provinces. The later Gazettes contain still more dreadful accounts

of the contests of the clans, and the great loss of life and

property resulting from their forays, no less than one hundred

and twenty villages having been attacked, and thousands of

people killed. These battles are constantly occurring, and the

authorities, feeling themselves too weak to put them down, are

()l)]iged to comiive at them and let the clans fight it out.

Ill will is kept up between the clans, and private revenges

gratified, by every personal annoyance that malice can suggest

SOCIAL EVILS OF CLANSHIP. 485

or opportniiity tempt. If an unfortunate individual of one clan

is met alone by his enemy, he is sure to be robbed or beaten, or

botli ; the boats or the houses of each party are plimdered or

burned, and legal redress is almost impossible. Graves are defaced

and tombstones injured, and on the annual visit to the

family sepulchre perhaps a putrid corpse is met, placed there

by the hostile clan ; this insult arouses all their ire, and they

vow deadly revenge. The villagers sally out with such arms as

they possess, and death and wounds are almost sure to result

before they separate. In Shunteh (a district between Canton

and Macao) upward of a thousand men engaged with spears

and iirearms on one of these occasions, and thirty-six lives were

lost ; the military were called in to quell the riot. In Tungkwan

district, southeast of Canton, thirty-six ringleaders w^ere

apprehended, and in 1S31 it was reported that four hundred

persons had been killed in these raids ; only twenty-seven of

their kindred appealed to government for redress.

When complaint is made to the prefect or governor, and investigation becomes inevitable, the villagers have a provision to meet the exigencies of the case, which puts the burden of the charges as equally as possible upon the whole clan. A band of ”devoted men ” are found —persons who volunteer to assume such crimes and run their chance for life—whose names are kept on a list, and they come forward and surrender themselves to government as the guilty persons. On the trial their friends employ witnesses to prove it a justifiable homicide, and magnify the provocation, and if tliei-e are several brought on the stand

at once they try to get some of them clear by proving an alibi.

It not unfrequently happens that the accused are acquitted—

seldom that they are executed ; transportation or a fine is the

usual result. The inducement for persons to run this risk of

their lives is security from the clan of a maintenance for their

families in case of death, and a reward, sometimes as high as

$300, in land or money when they return. This sum is raised

by taxing the clan or village, and the imposition falls heavily

on the poorer portion of it, who can neither avoid nor easily

pay it. This sj-stem of substitution pervades all parts of society,

and for all misdemeanors. A person was strangled in Macau in 183S for having been engaged in the opium trade, who had

been hired bj the real criminal to answer to liis name. Another

mode of escape, sometimes tried in sucli cases when the

person has been condemned, is to bribe the jailers to report him

dead and carry out his body in a cotiin ; but this device probably

does not often answer the end, as the turnkeys require a

larger bribe than can be raised. There can be little doubt of the

prevalence of the j)ractice, and for crimes of even minor penalty.

To increase the social CN^ils of clanship and systematized

thieving, local tyrants occasionally spring up, persons who rob

and maltreat the villagers by means of their armed, retainers,

who are in most cases, doubtless, members of the same clan.

One of these tyrants, named Yc/i, or Leaf, became quite notorious

in the district of Tungkwan in 1833, setting at defiance

all the power of the local authorities, and sending out his men

to plunder and ravage whoever resisted his demands, destroying

their graves and grain, and particularly molesting those who

would not deliver np their wives or daughters to gratify him.

lie was arrested through craft by the district magistrate at

Canton leaving his office and inducing him, for old acquaintance

sake, to return with him to the provincial city ; he was there

tried and executed by the governor, although it was at the time

reported that the Board of Punishments endeavored to save his

life because he had been in office at the capital. In order that

no attempt should be made to rescue him, he was left in ignorance

of his sentence until he was put into the sedan to be carried

to execution.

Clannish banditti often supply themselves with firearms, and prowling the countiy to revenge themselves on their enemies, soon proceed to pillage every one; in disarming them the government is sometimes obliged to resort to contemptible subterfuges, which conspicuously show its weakness and encourage a repetition of the evil. Parties of tramps, called /lakka, or ‘guests,’

roam over Ivwangtung provinc^e, s(juatting on vacant places

along the shores, away from the villages, and forming small

clannish communities ; as soon as they increase, occupying more

and more of the land, they l)egin to commit petty depredations

upon the crops of the inhabitants, and demand money for the

BANDITTI AND TRAMPS, 487

privilege of burying upon the unoccupied ground around tliem.

The government is generally unwilling to drive them ofP bv

force, because there is the alternative of making them robbers

thereby, and they are invited to settle in other waste lands,

which they can have free of taxation, and leave those they have

cultivated if strictly private property. This practice shows the

populousness of the country in a conspicuous manner. To these

evils nnist be also added the large bodies of floating l)anditti or

dakoits, who rove up and down all the watercourses ” like

sneaking rats ” and pounce upon defenceless boats. Hardly a

river or estuary in the land is free from these miscreants, and

lives and property are annually destroyed by them to a very

great amount, especially on the Yangtsz’, the Pearl Iviver, and

other great thoroughfares.

The popular associations in cities and towns are chiefly based

upon a community of interests, resulting either from a similarity

of occupation, wdien the leading persons of the same calling

form themselves into guilds, or from the municipal regulations

requiring the householders living in the same street to unite to

maintain a police and keep the peace of their division. Each

guild has an assembly-hall, where its members meet to hold the

festival of their patron saint, to collect and appropriate the subscriptions of the members and settle the rent or storage on the

rooms and goods in the hall, to discuss all public matters as well

as the good cheer they get on such occasions, and to confer with

other guilds. The members often go to a great expense in

emulating each other in their processions, and some rivalry

exists regarding their rights, over which the government keeps

a watchful eye, for all popular assemblies are its horror. The

shopkeepers and householders in the same street are required to

have a headman to superintend the police, watchmen, and beggars

within his limits. The rulers are sometimes thwarted in

their designs by both these forms of popular assemblies, and they

no doubt tend in many ways to keep up a degree of independence

and of nmtual acquaintance, which compels the respect of

the government. The governor of Canton in 1838 endeavored

to search all the shops in a particular street, to ascertain if there

Was opium in them ; but the shopmen came in a body at the iiead of the street, and told the policemen that they would on no account permit their shops to be searched. The governor deemed it best to retire. Those who will not join or agree to what the majority orders in these bodies occasionally experience petty tyranny, but in a city this must be comparatively trilling.

Several of the leading men in the city are known to hold meetings

for consultation in still more popular assemblies for different

reasons of a public and pressing nature. There is a building

at Canton called the Mhuj-lun Tang^ or ” Free Discussion

Hall,” where political matters are discussed under the knowledge

of government, which rather tries to mould than put them

down, for the assistance of such bodies, rightly managed, in

carrying out their intentions, is considerable, while discontent

would be roused if they were forcibly suppressed. In October,

1842, meetings were held in this hall, at one of which a public

manifesto was issued, here quoted entire as a specimen of the

public appeals of Chinese politicians and orators: “We have been reverently consulting upon the Empire— a vast and undivided whole ! How can Yfi^ permit it to be severed in order to give it to others ‘? Yet we, the rustic people, can learn to practice a rude loyalty; we too know to destroy the banditti, and thus requite his Majesty. Our Great Pure dynasty has cared for this country for more than two hundred years, during which a succession of distinguished monarchs, sage succeeding sage, has reigned ; and we who eat the herb of the field, and tread the soil, have for ages drank in the dew of imperial goodness, and been imbued with its benevolence. The people in wilds far remote beyond our influence have also felt this goodness, comparable to the heavens for height, and been upheld by this bounty, like the earth for thickness. Wherefore peace being now settled in the country, ships of all lands come, distant though they be from this for many a myriad of miles ; and of all the foreigners on the south and west there is not one but what enjoys the highest peace and contentment, and entertains the profoundest respect and submission.

” But there is that English nation, whose ruler is now a woman and then a man, its people at one time like birds and then like beasts, with dispositions more fierce and furious than the tiger or wolf, and hearts more greedy than the snake or hog—this people has ever stealthily devoured all the southern barbarians, and like the demon of the night llicy now suddenly exalt themselves.

MANIFESTO ISSUI^-O AGAINST THE ENGLISH. 489

During the reigns of Kienlung and Kiaking these English barbarians humlily besought entrance and permission to make a present ; they also presumptuously reijuested to have Chusan, but those divine personages, clearly perceiving their traitorous designs, gave them a peremptory refusal. From that time* linking themselves in with traitorous traders, they have privilj dwelt at Macao, trading largely in opium and poisoning our brave people.

They have ruined lives— how many millions none can tell ; and wasted property—how many thousands of millions who can guess! They have dared again and again to murder Chinese, and have secreted the murderers, whom they have refused to deliver up, at which the hearts of all men grieved and their heads ached. Thus it has been that for many years past the English, by their privily watching for opportunities in the country, have gradually brought things to the present crisis.

“In 1888, our great Emperor having fully learned all the crimes of the

English and the poisonous effects of opium, (quickly wished to restore the

good condition of the country and compassionate the people. In consequence

of the memorial of Hwang Tsioh-sz’, and in accordance to his request, he

specially deputed the public-minded, upright, and clear-headed minister, Lin

Tseh-sii, to act as his imperial commissioner with pleniijotentiary powers, and

go to Canton to examine and regulate. He came and took all the storedup

opium and stopped the trade, in order to cleanse the stream and cut

off the fountain ; kindness was mixed with his severity, and virtue was

evident in his laws, yet still the English repented not of their errors, and

as the climax of their contumacy called troops to their aid. The censor

Hwang, by advising peace, threw down the barriers, and bands of audacious

robbers willingly did all kinds of disreputable and villainous deeds. During

the past three years these rebels, depending upon their stout ships and effective

cannon, from Canton went to Fuhkien, thence to Chehkiang and on

to Kiangsu, seizing our territory, destroying our civil and military authorities,

ravishing our women, capturing our property, and bringing upon the inhabitants

of these four provinces intolerable miseries. His Imperial Majesty was

troubled and afflicted, and this added to his grief and anxiety. If you wish

to purify their crimes, all the fuel in the Empire will not suffice, nor would

the vast ocean be enough to wash out our resentment. Gods and men are

alike filled with indignation, and Heaven and Earth cannot permit them to remain.

“Recently, those who have had the management of affairs in Kiangnan have been imitating those who were in Canton, and at the gates of the city they have willingly made an agreement, peeling oH the fat of the people to the tune of .hundreds of myriads, and all to save the precious lives of one or two useless officers ; in doing which they have exactly verified what Chancellor Kin Ying-lin had before memorialized. Now these English rebels are barbarians dwelling in a petty island beyond our domains ; yet their coming throws myriads of miles of country into turmoil, while their numbers do not exceed a few myriads. What can be easier than for our celestial dynasty to exert its fulness of power and exterminate these contemptible sea-going imps, just as the blast bends the pliant bamboo? But our highest officers and ministers cherish their precious lives, and civil and military men both dread a dog as they would a tiger ; regardless of the enemies of their country or the griefs of the people, they have actually sundered the Empire and granted its wealth ; acts more flagitious these than those of the traitors in the days of the Southern Sung dynasty, and the reasons for which are wholly beyond out comprehension. These English barbarians are at bottom without ability, and yet we have all along seen in the memorials that officers exalt and dilate upon their prowess and obstinacy ; our people are courageous and enthusiastic, but the officers on the contrary say that they are dispirited and scattered : this is for no other reason than to coerce our prince to make peace, and then they will luckily avoid the penalty due for ‘ deceiving the prince and betraying the country.’ Do you doubt ? Then look at the memorial of Chancellor Kin Ying-lin, which says : ‘ They take the occasion of war to seek for self-aggrandizement ;’ every word of which directly points at such conduct as this.

“We have recently read in his Majesty’s lucid mandate that ‘There is no other way, and what is requested must be granted ; ‘ and that ‘ We have cou’ferred extraordinary powers upon the ministers, and they have done nothing but deceive us.’ Looking up we perceive his Majesty’s clear discrimination and divine perception, and that he was fully aware of the imbecility of his ministers ; he remembers too the loyal anger of his people. He has accordingly now temporarily settled all the present difficulties, but it is that, having matured his plans, he may hereafter manifest his indignation, and show to the Empire that it had not fathomed the divine awe-inspiring counsels.

” The dispositions of these rebellious English are like that of Hlie dog or sheep, whose desires can never be satisfied ; and therefore we need not inquire whether the peace now made be real or pretended. Remember that when they last year made disturbance at Canton they seized the Square fort, and thereupon exhibited their audacity, everywhere plundering and ravishing.

MANIFESTO ISSUED AGAINST THE ENGLISH. 491

If it had not been that the patriotic inhabitants dwelling in Hwaitsing and other hamlets, and those in Shingping, had not killed their leader and destroyed their devilish soldiers, they would have scrupled at nothing, taking and pillaging the city, and then firing it in order to gratify their vengeance and greediness : can we imagine that for the paltry sum of six millions of dollars they would, as they did, have raised the siege and retired ‘i How to be regretted ! That when the fish was in the frying-pan, the Kwangchau fu should come and pull away the firewood, let loose the tiger to return to the mountains, and disarm the people’s indignation. Letting the enemy thus escape on one occasion has successively brought misery upon many provinces: whenever we speak of it, it wounds the heart and causes the tears to fiow.

” Last year, when the treaty of peace was made, it was agreed that the English should withdraw from lieyond Lankeet, that they should give back the forts near there and dwell temporarily at Hongkong, and that thenceforth all military operations were forever to cease. Who would have supposed that before the time stipulated had passed away they would have turned their backs upon this agreement, taken violent possession of the forts at the Bogue with their ‘ wooden dragons ‘ [i.e. , ships of war]—and when they came upon the gates of the City of Rams with their powerful forces, who was there to oppose them ? During these three years we have not been able to restore things as at first, and their deceptive craftiness, then confined to these regions, has rapidly extended itself to Kiangnan. But our high and mighty Emperor, preeminently intelligent and discerning [lit. grasping the golden mirror and holding the gemmeous balances], consents to demean himself to adopt soothing counsels of peace, and therefore submissively accords with the decrees of Heaven. Having a suspicion that these outlandish people intended to encroach upon us, he has secretly arranged all things. We have respectfully read through all his Majesty’s mandates, and they are as clear-sighted as the sun and moon ; but those who now manage affairs are like one who, supposing the raging fire to be under, puts himself as much at ease as swallows in a court, but who, if the calamity suddenly reappears, would be as defenceless as a grampus in a fish-market. The law adjudges the penalty of death for betraying the country, but how can even death atone for their crimes V Those persons who have been handed down to succeeding ages with honor, and those whose memories have been execrated, are but little apart on the page of righteous history ; let our rulers but remember this, and we think they also must exert themselves to recover their characters. We people have had our day in times of great peace, and this age is one of abundant prosperity ; scholars are devising how to recompense the kindness of the government, nor can husbandmen think of forgetting his Majesty’s exertions for them. Our indignation svas early excited to join battle with the enemy, and we then all urged one another to the firmest loyalty.

“We have heard the English intend to come into Pearl River and make a

settlement ; this will not, however, stop at Chinese and foreigners merely

dwelling together, for men and beasts cannot endure each other ; it will be

like opening the door and bowing in the thief, or setting the gate ajar and

letting the wolf in. While they were kept outside there were many traitors

within ; how much more, when they encroach even to our bedsides, will our

troubles be augmented ? We cannot help fearing it will eventuate in something

strange, which words will be insi;flicient to express. If the rulers of

other states wish to imitate the English, with what can their demands be

waived V Consequently, the unreasonable demands of the English are going

to bring great calamity upon the people and deep sorrow to the country. If

we do not permit them to dwell with us under the same heaven, our spirits

will feel no shame ; but if we willingly consent to live with them, we may in truth be deemed insensate.

” We have reverently read in the imperial mandate, ‘There must indeed be some persons among the people of extraordinary wisdom or bravery, who can stir them up to loyalty and patriotism or unite them in self-defence ; some who can assist the government and army to recover the cities, or else defend passes of importance against the robbers ; some who can attack and burn their vessels, or seize and bring the heads of their doltish leaders ; or else some with divine presence and wisdom, who can disclose all their silly counsels and get to themselves a name of surpassing merit and ability and receive the highest rewards. We can confer,’ etc., etc. We, the people, having received the imperial words, have united ourselves together as troops, and practise the plan of joining hamlets and villages till we have upward of a million of troops, whom we have provisioned according to the scale of estimating the produce of respective farms; and now we are fully ready and quite at ease as to the result. If nothing calls us, then each one will return to his own occupation ; but if the summons come, juiuiug our strength iu force we will incite each other to e.7ort ; our brave sons and brothers are all animated to deeds of arms, and even our wives and daughters, finical and delicate as jewels, have learned to discourse of arms. At first, alas, those who guarded the passes were at ease and careless, and the robbers came unbidden and undesired; but now [if they come], we have only zealously to appoint each other to stations, and suppress the rising of the waves to the stillest calm [i.e., to exterminate them]. When the golden pool is fully restored to peace, and his Majesty’s anxiety for the south relieved; when the leviathan has been driven away, then will our anger, comparable to the broad ocean and high heavens, be pacified.

” Ah ! We here bind ourselves to vengeance, and express these our sincere intentions in order to exhibit great principles ; and also to manifest Heaven’s retribution and rejoice men’s hearts, we now issue this patriotic declaration. The high gods clearly behold : do not lose your first resolution.” ‘

This spirited paper was subsequently answered Ly the party desirous of peace, but the anti-English feeling prevailed, and the committee appointed by the meeting set the English consulate on fire a few days after, to prevent it being occupied.

There were many reasons at the time for this dislike; its further exhibition, however, ended with this attack, and has now pretty much died out with the rising of a new generation. The many secret as.^ociations existing among the people are mostly of a political character, but have creeds like religious sects, and differ slightly in their tenets and objects of worship.

‘ ChineHe Ilejwsitory, Vol. XI., p. 0:50.

POPULAR SECRET ASSOCIATIONS. 493

They are traceable to the system of clans, which giving the people at once the habit and spirit for associations, are easily made use of by clever men for their own purposes of opposition to government. Similar grievances, as local oppression, hatred of the Manchus, or hope of advantage, add to their mimbersand strength, and were they founded on a full acquaintance with the grounds of a just resistance to despotism, they would soon overturn the government ; but as out of an adder’s egg only a cockatrice can be hatched, so until the people are enlightened with regard to their just rights, no ]”)cnnanent melioration can be expected. It is against that leading feature in the ]\[anchu policy, isolation^ that these societies sin, which further prompts to systematic efforts to suppress them. The only objection the supreme government seems to have against the religion of the people is that it brings them together ; they may be Buddhists, nationalists, Jews, J\rohammedans, or Christians, apparently, if they will worship in secret and apart. On the other hand, the people naturally connect some religious rites with their opposition and cabals in order to more securely bind their members together.

The name of the most powerful of these associations is mentioned in Section CLXII. of the code for the purpose of interdicting it ; since then it has apparently changed its designation from the Pih-Uen l-kio, or ‘AVater-lily sect,’ to the Tien-ti hioui or Siui-hoh /itnii, i.e., ^ Triad society,’ though both names still exist, the former in the northern, the latter in the maritime provinces and Indian Archipelago; their ramifications take also other appellations. The object of these combinations is to overturn the reigning dynasty, and in putting this prominently forward they engage many to join them. About the beginning of the century a wide-spread rebellion broke out in the northwestern and middle provinces, which was put down after eight years’ war, attended with desolation and bloodshed ; since that time the AYater-lily sect has not been so often spoken of. The Triad society has extended itself along the coasts, but it is not popular, owing more than anything else to its illegality, and the intimidation and oppression employed toward those who will not join it. The members have secret regulations and signs, and uphold and assist each other both i)i good and bad acts, but, as might be inferred from their character, screening evil doers from just punishment oftener than relieving distressed members. The original designs of the association may have been good, but what was allowable in them soon degenerated into a systematic plan for plunder and aim at power.

The government of Hongkong enacted in 1845 that any Chinese living in that colony who was ascertained to belong to the Triad society should be declared guilty of felony, be imprisoned for three 3’ears, and after branding expelled the colony. These associations, if they cause the government much trouble by interfering with its operations, in no little degree, through the overbearing conduct of the leaders, uphold it by showing the people what may be expected if they should ever get the upper hand.’

The evils of lual-adiniiiistratiou are to be learned chiefly

from the memorials of censors, and although they may color

their statements a little, very gross inaccuracies would be used

to their own disadvantage, and contradicted by so many competitors,

that most of their statements may be regarded as having

some foundation. An unknown person in Kwangtung memorialized

the Emperor in 1838 concerning the condition of that

province, and drew a picture of the extortions of the lower

agents of government that needs no illustrations to deepen its

darkness or add force to its complaints. An extract from each

of the six heads into which the memorial is divided will indicate

the principal sources of popular insurrection in China,

besides the exhibition they give of the tyranny of the officers.

In his preface, after the usual laudation of the beneficence

and popularity of the monarch, the memorialist proceeds to express

his regret that the imperial desires for the welfare of his

subjects should be so grievously thwarted by the villany of his

officers. After mentioning the calamities which had visited the

province in the shape of freshets, insurrections, and conflagrations,

he says that affairs generall}’ had become so bad as to

compel his Majesty to send connnissioners to Canton repeatedly

in order to regulate them. ” If such as this be indeed the state

of things,” he inquires, ” what wonder is it if habits of plunder

characterize the people, or the clerks and under officers of the

public courts, as well as village pettifoggers, lay themselves out

on all occasions to stir up quarrels and instigate false accusations

against the good?” He reconnnends reform in six departments,

under each of which he thus specities the evils to beremedied: “‘

Compare Dr. Milne, in Transnctions R. A. S. of Gr. Brit, and Irel., Vol.I., p. 240 (182.”)). Journal of the R. A. R, Vol. I., p. 9;}, and Vol. VI., p.120. Chinese Repository, Vol. .XVIII., pp. 280-295. A. Wylie, in the Shttncjhiti Almtinacfor ISrA. Notes and Queries on C and ,/., Vol. III., p. M. T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and their Rebellions, London, 1850. Gustave Schlegel, Thian Ti Ilitui, the JIunfj-Jjeague or JTeaven-Earth-League. A Secrel Society with the Chinese in China and India, Hatavia, lS(i().

MEMORIAL UPON OFFICIAL OPPRESSION. 495

First.—(In the department of police there is great negligence

and delay in the decision of judicial cases. Cases of plunder

are very common, most of which are committed hy banditti

under the designations of Triad societies, Heaven and Earth

brotherhoods, etc. These men carry off persons to extort a

ransom, falsely assume the character of policemen, and in sinuilated

revenue cutters pass up and down the rivers, plundei’iiig

the boats of travellers and forcibly carrying off the women.

Husbandmen are obliged to pay these robbers an ” indemnity,”

or else as soon as the crops are ripe they come and carry off

the M’hole harvest. In the precincts of the metropolis, where

their contiguity to the tribunals prevents their committing depredations

in open day, they set tire to houses during the night,

and under the pretence of saving and defending the persons and

property carry off both of them; hence, of late years, calamitous

fires have increased in frequency, and the bands of robbers

multiplied greatly. In cases of altercations among the villagers,

who can only use their local patois, it rests entirely with the

clerks to interpret the evidence ; and when the magistrate is lax

or pressed with business, they have the evidence pre-arranged

and join with bullies and strife-makers to subvert right and

wrong, fattening themselves upon bribes extorted under the

names of ” memoranda of complaints,” ” purchases of replies,”

etc., and retarding indefinitely the decision of cases. They also

instigate thieves to bring false accusations against the good, who

are thereby ruined by legal expenses. While the officers of the

government and the people are thus separated, how can it be

otherwise than that appeals to the higher tribunals should be

increased aiid litigation and strife prevail ?

Second.—Magistrates overrate the taxes with a view to a deduction for their own benefit, and excise officers connive at non-payment. The revenue of Kwangtung is paid entirely in money, and the magistrates, instead of taking the commutation at a regular price of about five dollars for one hundred and fifty pounds of rice, have compelled the people to pay nine dollars and over, because the inundation and bad harvests had raised the price of grain.j In order to avoid this extortion the police go to the villagers and demand a douceur, when they will get them off from all payment. But the imperial coffers are not filled b;^ this means, and the people are by and hy forced to pay up their arrearages, even to the loss of most of their possessions.

Third.—There is great mismanagement of the granaries, and instead of being any assistance to the people in time of scarcity, they are only a soiu’ce of peculation for those who are charged with their oversight.

Fourth —The condition of the army and navy is a disgrace;

illicit traffic is not prevented, nor can insurrections be put down.

The only care of the officers is to obtain good appointments,

and reduce the actual nmnber of soldiers below the register in

order that they may appropriate the stores. The cruisers aim

only to get fees to allow the prosecution of the contraband traffic,

nor will the naval officers bestir themselves to recover the

pi-operty of plundered boats, but rather become the protectors

of the lawless and partakers of their booty. Robberies are so

common on the rivers that the traders from the island of Hainan,

and Chauchau near Fuhkien, prefer to come by sea, but

the revenue cutters overhaul them under pretence of searching

for contraband articles, and practise many extortions/*

Fifth.—The monopoly of salt needs to be guarded more

strictly, and the private manufacture of salt stopped, for thereby

the revenue from this source is materially diminished.

S’uih.—^\\Q inei-case of smuggling is so great, and the evils

flowing from it so multiplied, that strong measures nmst be

taken to repress it. Traitorous Chinese combine with depraved

foreigners to set the laws at defiance, and dispose of their opium

and other commodities for the pure silvci-. In this manner the

country is impoverished and every evil arises, the revenues of

the customs are diminished by the unnecessary number of persons

employed and by the fees they receive for connivance, i If

all these abuses can be remedied, ” it will be seen that when

there are men to rule well, nothing can be found beyond the

reach of their government.”

FREQUENCY OF KOBBEllY AXI) DAKOITY. 497

The chief efforts of officials are directed to put down banditti, and maintain such a degree of peace as will enable them to collect the revenue and secure the people in the quiet possession of their property ; but the people are too ready to resist them rulers, and this brings into operation a constant struggle of opposing desires. ( )nc side gets into the habit of resisting even the proper re(piisitions of the officers, who, on their part, endeavor in every way to reimburse their outlay in bribes to their superiors ; and the combined action of the two proves an insurmountable impediment to the attainment of even that degree of security a Chinese officer wishes.”i The general commission of robbery and dakoity, and the prevalence of bands of thieves, therefore proves the weakness of the government, not the insurrectionary disposition of the people. In one district of Ilupeh the governor reported in 1828 that “very few of the iuliabitants have any regular occupation, and their dispositions are exceedingly ferocious; they fight and kill each other on every provocation. In their villages they harbor thieves who flee from other districts, and sally forth again to plunder.” In the northern parts of Ivwangtung the people have erected high and strongly built houses to which they flee for safety from the attacks of robbers. These bands sometimes fall upon each other, and the feudal animosities of clanship adding fuel and

rage to the rivalry of partisan warfare, the destruction of life

and property is great. Occasionally the people zealously assist

their rulers to apprehend them, though their exertions depend

altogether upon the energy of the incumbent ; an officer in

Fuhkien is recommended for promotion because he had apprehended

one hundred and seventy-three persons, part of a band

of robbers which had infested the department for years, and

tried and convicted one thousand one hundred and sixty criminals,

most or all of whom were probably executed.

In 1821 there were four hundred robbers taken on the borders

of Fuhkien ; in 1827 two hundred were seized in the

south of the province, and forty-one more brought to Canton

from the eastward. The governor offered $1,000 reward for

the capture of one leader, and ,^3,000 for another. The judge

of the province put forth a proclamation upon the subject in

the same year, in w’hieh he says there were four hundred and

thirty undecided cases of robbery by brigands then on the calendar

; and in 1816 there were upward of two thousand waiting

his decision, for each of which there were perhaps five or six persons in prison or under constraint until the ease was settled.

These bands prowl in the large cities and commit great

cruelties. In 1830 a party of live hundred openly plundered a

rich man’s house in the western suburbs of Canton ; and in

Shunteh, south of the city, $600 were paid for the ransom of

two persons carried off by them. The ex-governor, in 1831,

was attacked by them near the Mei ling pass on his departure

from Canton, and plundered of about ten thousand dollars.

The magistrates of ITiangshan district, south of Canton, M-ere

ordered by their superiors the same year to apprehend five

hundred of the robbers. Priests sometimes harbor gangs in

their temples and divide the spoils with them, and occasionally

go out themselves on predatory excursions. Xo mercy is

shown these miscreaTits when they are taken, but the multiplication

of executions has no effect in deterring them from crime.

Cruelty to individual prisoners does not produce so nuich disturbance

to the general peace of the community as the forcible

attempts of officers to collect taxes. / The people have the impression

that their rulers exact more than is legal, and consequently

consider opposition to the demands of the tax-gatherer

as somewhat justifiable, which compels, of course, more stringent

measures on the part of the authorities, whose station depends

not a little on their punctuality in remitting the taxes. Bad

harvests, floods, or other public calamities _i-ender the people

still more disinclined to pay the assessments./ (In 184:5 a serious

disturbance arose near jS^ingpo on this accoimt, which with unimportant differences could probably be paralleled in every prefecture in the land. The people of Funghwa liien having refused to pay an onerous tax, the prefect of Ningpo seized three literary men of the place, who had been deputed to collect it, and put them in prison ; this procedure so irritated the gentry that the candidates at the literary examination which occurred at Funghwa soon afterward, on being assembled at the public hall before the cJuhicn, rose upon him and beat him severely.

DIFFICULTY IN COLLECTING TAXES. 499

They were still further incensed against him from having recently detected him in deceitful conduct regarding a ]>etition they had made at court to have their taxes lightened; he had kept the answer and pocketed the difference, he was consequently superseded by another magistrate, and a deputy of the intendant of circuit was sent with the new incumbent to restore order. But the deputy, full of his importance, carried himself so haughtily that the excited populace treated him in the same manner, and he barely escaped with his life to Xingpo.

The intendant and prefect, finding matters rising to such a pitch, sent a detachment of twelve hundred troops to keep the peace, but part of these were decoyed within the walls and attacked with such vigor that many of them were made prisoners, a colonel and a dozen privates killed, and two or three hundred wounded or beaten, and all deprived of their arms. In this plight they returned to Ningbo, and, as the distance is not great, apprehensions were entertained lest the insurgents should follow up their advantage by organizing themselves and ii>arching upon the city to seize the prefect. The officers sent immediately to Ilangchau for assistance, from whence the governor sent a strong force of ten thousand men to restore order, and soon after arrived himself. He demanded three persons to be given up who had been active in fomenting the resistance, threatening in case of non-compliance that he would destroy the town ; the prefect and his deputy from the intendant’s office were suspended and removed to another post.^ These measures restored quiet to a considerable extent.’

The existence of such evils in Chinese society would rapidly

disorganize it were it not for the conservative influence upon

society of early education and training in industry. The government

takes care to avail itself of this better element in public

opinion, knd grounds thereon a basis of action for the establishment

of good order. But this, and ten thousand similar

instances, only exhibit more strongly how great a work there is

to be done before high and low, people and rulers, will understand

their respective duties and rights ; before they will, on

the one hand, pay that regard to the authority of their rulers

which is necessary for the maintenance of good order, and, on

the other, resist official tyranny in preserving their own liberties.

If the character of the officers, therefore, be such as has been

^Mmionary Chronicle, Vol. XTV., p. 140. Smith’s China, p. 250.

briellv shown—open to hi-ibeiy, colluding with criminals, sycO’

phantic toward suporions, and cruel to the people ; and the constituents of society present so many repulsive features—opposing clans engaged in deadly feuds, bandits sccjuring the country to rob, policemen joining to oppress, truth universally disregarded, selfishness the main principle of action, and almost every disorganizing element but imperfectly restrained from violent outbreaks and convulsions, it will not be expected that the regular proceedings of the courts and the execution of the laws will prove on examination to be any better than the materials of which they arc composed. As civil and criminal cases are all judged by one officer, one court tries nearly all the questions which arise. A single exception is provided for in the code, wherein it is ordered that ” in cases of adultery, r()l)bery, fraud, assaults, breach of laws concerning marriage, landed property or pecuniaiy contracts, or any other like offences committed by or against individuals in the military class—if any of the people are implicated or concerned, the military commanding officer and the civil magistrate shall have a concurrent jurisdiction.” ‘

‘ For cases of this sort in Cambodia, R’musat makes mention of a variety of ordeals which curioush’ resemble tiiose resorted to on the continent of Europe lUuing the Middle Ages. Nouveaux Milanyes, Tome I., p. 126.

CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 501

At the bottom of the judicial scale are the village elders. This incipient element of the democratic principle has also existed in India in much the same form ; but while its power ended in the local eldership there, in China it is only the lowest step of the scale. The elders give character to the village, and are expected to manage its public affairs, settle disputes among its inhabitants, arrange matters with other villages, and answer to the magistrates on its behalf. The code provides that all persons having complaints and informations address themselves in the first instance to the lowest tribunal of justice in the district, from which the cognizance of the affair may be transferred to the superior tribunals. The statement of the case is made in writing, and the officer is required to act upon it immediately; if the parties are dissatisfied with the award, the judgment of the lower courts is carried np to the superior ones. No case can be carried directly to the Emperor ; it must go through the

Board of Punishments ; old men and womeu, however, sometimes

present petitions to him on his journeys, but such appeals

seldom occur, owing to the ditficulty of access. The captains in

charge of the gates of Peking, in 1831, presented a memorial

upon the subject, in which they attribute the number of appeals

to the obstinacy of many persons in pressing their cases and

the remissness of local officers, so that even women and girls of

ten years of age take long journeys to Peking to state their

cases. The memorialists reconnnend that an order be issued requiriug

the two high provincial officers to adjudicate all cases,

either themselves or by a court of errors, and not send the complainants

back to the district magistrates. These official porters

must have been much troubled with young ladies coming to see

his Majesty, or perhaps were advised to present such a paper to

afford a text for the Emperor to preach from ; to confer such

power upon the governor and his associates would almost make

them the irresponsible sovereigns of the provinces. A2:)peals

frequently arise out of delay in obtaining justice, owing to the

amount of business in the courts ; for the calendar may be

expected to increase when the magistrate leaves his post to

curry favor with his superiors. The almost utter impossibility

of learning the truth of the case brought before tliern, either

from the principal parties or the witnesses, must be borne in

mind when deciding upon the oppressive proceedings of the

magistrates to elicit the truth. Mention is made of one officer

promoted for deciding three hundred cases in a year ; again of

a district magistrate who tried upward of a thousand within

the same period ; while a third revised and decided more than

six hundred in which the parties had appealed. What becomes

of the appeals in such cases, or whose decision stands, does not

appear ; but if such proceedings are common, it accounts for the

constant practice of sending appeals back to be revised, probably

after a change in the incumbent.

Eew or no civil cases are reported in the Gazette as being carried up to higher courts, and probably only a small proportion of them are brought before the authorities, the rest being settled by reference. Appeals to court receive attention, and it may be inferred, too, that many of them are mentioned in the Gazette in order that the carefnhiess of the supreme government in revising the unjust decrees against the people should be known through the country, and this additional check to malversation on the part of the lower courts be of some use. Many cases are reported of widows and daughters, sons and nephews, of murdered persons, to -whom the revenge of kindred rightly belongs, appealing against the unjust decrees of the local magistrates, and then sent back to the place they came from ; this, of course, was tantamount to a nolle 2^i’osequL At other times the wicked judges have been degraded and banished. One case is reported of a man who found his way to the capital from Fuhkien to complain against the magistracy and police, who protected a clan by whom his only son had been shot, in consideration of a ])i-ibe of $2,000. His case could not be understood at Peknig in consequence of his local pronunciation, which indicates that all cases are not reported in writing. One appeal is reported against the governor of a province fur not carrying into execution the sentence of death passed on two convicted murderers ; and ant»tlicr appellant requests that two persons, who were bribed to undergo the sentence of the law instead of the real murderers, might not be substituted—he, perhaps, fearing their subsequent vengeance.

All officers of government are supposed to be accessible at

any time, and the door of justice to be open to all who claim a

hearing ; and in fact, courts are held at all hours of night and

day, though the regular time is from sunrise to noonday. The

style of address varies according to the rank ; t((jin, or magnate,

for the highest, ta laoye, or gi-eat Sii-, and hioi/e, Sir, for the

lower grade, are the most common. A drum is said to be

placed at the inferior tribunals, as well as before the Court of

Representation in Peking, which the plaintiff strikes in order to

make his presence known, though from the mimberof hangerson

a!)Out the doors of official residences, the necessity of employing

this mode of attracting notice is rare. At the gate of the

governor-general’s palace are placed six tablets, having appropriate

inscriptions for those who have been wronged by wicked

officers ; for those who have suffered from thieves ; for persons

STYLE OF OFFICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 508

falsely accused ; for those who have been swindled ; for such as

have been grieved by other parties ; and lastly, for those who

have secret information to impart. The people, however, are

aware how useless it would be to inscribe their appeals upon

these tablets ; they write them out and carry them up to his

excellency, or to the proper official—seldom forgetting the indispensable present.

Magistrates are not allowed to go abroad in ordinary dress

and without their official retinue, which varies for the different

grades of rank. The usual attendants of the district magistrates

are lictors M’ith whips and chains—significant of the

punishments they inflict; they are preceded by two gong-

Mode of Carrying High Officers in Sedan.

bearers, who every few moments strike a certain number of

raps to intimate their master’s rank, and by two avant-couriers,

who howl out an order for all to make room for the great man.

A servant bearing aloft a lo^ or state uml)]-ella (of which a

drawing is given on the title-page), also goes before him, further

to increase his display and indicate his rank.’ A subaltern

usually runs by the side of his sedan, and his secretary and messengers,

seated in moi*e ordinary chairs or following on foot,

make up the cortege. The highest officers are carried by eight

bearers, others by four, and the lowest by two. Lanterns are

used at night and red tablets in the daytime, to indicate his

rank. Officers of higher ranks are attended by a few soldiers

Hee.’en informs us that a similar insignia was used in Persia in early days.

in addition, and in the capital are required to liave mounted

attendants if tliej ride in carts ; those who bear the sedan are

usually in a uniform of their masters devising. The parade

and noise seen in the provinces are all hushed in Peking, where

the presence of majesty subdues the glory of the officers which

it has created. When in court the officer sits behind a desk upon

which are placed writing materials ; his secretaries, clerks, and interpreters

being in waiting, and the lictors with their instruments

of punishment and torture standing around. Persons who are

brought before him kneel in front of the tribunal. His official

seal, and cups containing tallies which are thrown down to indicate

the number of blows to be given the culprits, stand upon

the table, and behind his seat a I’l-luu or unicorn, is depicted

on the wall. There are inscriptions hanging around the room,

one of which exhorts him to be merciful. There is little pomp

or show, either in the office or attendants, compared with our

notions of what is usual in such matters among Asiatics. The

former is a dirty, unswept, tawdry room, and the latter are beggarly’

and impertinent.

No counsel is allowed to plead, but the written accusations,

pleas, or statements required nmst be prepared by licensed

notaries, Avho may also read them in court, and who, no doubt,

take opportunity to explain circumstances in favor of their

client. These notaries buy their situations, and repay themselves

by a fee upon the documents ; they are the only persons

who are analogous to the lawyers in western countries, and

most of them have the reputation of extorting largely for their

services. Of course there is no such thing as a jury, or a chief

justice stating the case to associate judges to learn their

opinion ; nor is anything like an oath required of the witnesses.

The presiding officer can call in others to assist him in the

trial to any extent he pleases. In one Canton court circular it

is stated that no less than sixteen officers assisted the governorgeneral

and governor in the trial of one criminal. Tlie report of

the trial is as summary as the recital of tlic bench of judges is

minute: “II. E. Gov. Tang arrived to join the futai in examining

a criminal ; and at 8 a.m., under a salute of guns, the

doors of the great hall of audience were thrown open, and their

VKISONEK lON-‘JEMNEn TO TUE CANGUE, IN COURT.

(Bis son praying to take his place.)

MODE OF PROCEDURE IN LAW COURTS. 605

excellencies took their seats, supported by all the other func

tioiiaries assembled for the occasion. The police officers of the

judge were then directed to bring forward the prisoner, Yeli

A-sliun, a native of Tsingyuen hien ; he was forthwith brought

in, tried, and led out. The futai then requested the imperial

death-warrant, and sent a deputation of officers to conduct the

criminal to the market-place and there decapitate him. Soon after the officers returned, restored the death-warrant to its place, and reported that they had executed the criminal.”’ The prisoner, or his friends for him, are allowed to appear in every step of the inquiry prior to laying the case before the Emperor, and punishment is threatened to all the magistrates through whose hands it passes if they neglect the appeal ; but this extract shows the usage of the courts.

The general policy of officers is to quash cases and repress appeals, and probably they do so to a great degree by bringing extorted confessions of the accused party and the witnesses in proof of the verdict. Governor Li of Canton issued a prohibition in 1834: against the practice of old men and women presenting petitions—complaining of the nuisance of having his chair stopped in order that a petition might be forced into it, and threatening to seize and punish the presumptuous intruders if they persisted in this custom. lie instructs the district magistrates to examine such persons, to ascertain who pushed them forward, and to punish the instigators, observing, ” if the people are impressed with a due dread of punishment, they will return to respectful habits.” It seems to be the constant effort on the part of the officers to evade the importunities of the injured and shove by justice, and were it not owing to the perseverance of the people^ a system of irremediable oppression would soon be induced. But the poor have little chance of being heard against the rich, and if they do appeal they are in most cases remanded to the second judgment of the very officer against Mdiom they complain ; and of course as this is equivalent to a refusal from the high grades to right them at all, commotions gradually grow out of it, which are managed according to the exigencies of the case by those who are likely to be involved in their responsibility. The want of an irresistible police to compel obedience luis a restraining effect on the rulers^ who know that Lyncli law niav perhaps be retaliated upon them if they cxaspei’ate the people too far. A prefect was killed in Chauchan fu some years ago for his cruelty, and the people excused their act by saying that, it was done because the officer had failed to carry out the Emperor’s good rule, and they would not endure it longer. Amid such enormities it is no wonder if the peaceably disposed part of the community prefer to submit in silence to petty extortions and robberies, rather than risk the loss of all by unavailing complaints.

The code contains many sections regulating the proceedings

of courts, and provides heavy punishments for such officers as

are guilty of illegalities or cruelty in their decisions, but the recorded

cases prove that most of these laws are dead letters.

Section CCCCXYI. ordains that ” after a prisoner has been tried

and convicted of any offence punishable with temporary or perpetual

banishment or death, he shall, in the last place, be

brought before the magistrate, together with his nearest relations

and family, and informed of the offence M’hereof he

stands convicted, and of the sentence intended to be pronounced

upon him in consequence ; their acknowledgment of its justice

or protest against its injustice, as the case maybe, shall theii be

taken down in writing: and in every case of their refusing to

admit the justice of the sentence, their protest shall be made

the ground of another and more particular investigation.” All

capital cases must be reviewed by the highest authorities at the

metropolis and in the provinces, and a final report of the case

and decision submitted to the Emperor’s notice. Section

CCCCXY. requires that the law be quoted M’hen deciding. The

numerous wise and merciful provisions in tlie code for the due

administration of justice only place the conduct of its authorized

executives in a less excusable light, and prove how impossible it

is to procure an equitable magistracy by mere legal requirements

and penalties.

MODES AND EXTF>:T OF TORTUllIXG CULPRITS. 507

The confusion of the civil and criminal laws in the code, and the union of both functions in the same person, together with the torture and imprisonment employed to elicit a confession, serve as an indication of the state of legislation and jurisprudence. The common sense of a truthful people would revolt against the inliietioii of torture to get out the true deposition of a witness, and their sense of honor would resist the disgraceful exposure of the cangue for not paying debts. As the want of truth among a people indicates a want of honor, the necessity of more stringent modes of procedure suggests the practice of torture ; its application is allowed and restricted by several sections of the code, but in China, as elsewhere, it has always been abused. Torture is practised upon both criminals and witnesses, in court and in prison ; and the universal dread among the people of coming before courts, and having anything to do with their magistrates, is owing in great measure to the illegal sufferings they too often must endure. It has also a powerful deterrent effect in preventing crime and disorder. IN^either imprisonment nor torture are ranked among the five punishments, but they cause more deaths, probably, among arrested persons than all other means.

Among the modes of torture employed in court, and reported in the Gazette^ are some revolting to humanity, but which of them are legal does not appear. The clauses under Section I. in the code describe the legal instruments of torture ; they consist of three boards with proper grooves for compressing the ankles, and five round sticks for squeezing the fingers, to which may be added the bamboo; besides these no instruments of torture are legally allowed, though other ways of putting the question are so common fis to give the impression that some of them at least are sanctioned. Pulling or twisting the ears with roughened fingers, and keeping them in a bent position while making the prisoner kneel on chains, or making him kneel for

a long time, are among the illegal modes. Striking the lips

with sticks until they are nearly jellied, putting the hands in

stocks before or behind the back, wrapping the fingers in oiled

cloth to burn them, suspending the body by the thumbs and

fingers, tying tlie hands to a bar under the knees, so as to bend

the body double, and chaining by the neck close to a stone, are

resorted to when the prisoner is contumacious. One magistrate

is accused of having fastened up two criminals to boards by

nails driven through their palms ; one of them tore his hands loose and was nailed np again, which caused his death ; using beds of iron, boiling water, red hot spikes, and cutting the tendon Achilles are also charged against him, but the Emperor exonerated him on account of the atrocious character of the criminals. Compelling them to kneel upon pounded glass, sand, and salt mixed together, until the knees become excoriated, or simply kneeling upon chains is a lighter mode of the same infliction.

Mr. Milne mentions seeing a wretch undergoing this torture, his hands tied behind his back to a stake held in its position by two policemen; if he swerved to relieve the agony of his position, a blow on his head compelled him to resume it. The agonies of the poor creature were evident from his quivering lips, his pallid and senseless countenance, and his tremulous voice imploring relief, which was refused with a cold, mocking command, ” Suffer or confess.” ‘

Flogging is one of the five authorized punishments, but it is used more than any other means to elicit confession; the bamboo, rattan, cudgel, and whip are all employed. When death ensues the magistrate reports that the criminal died of sickness, or hushes it up by bribing his friends, few of whom are ever allowed access within the walls of the prison to see and comfort the sufferers. From the manner in which such a result is spoken of it may be inferred that immediate death does not often take place from torture. A magistrate in Sz’chuen being abused by a man in court, who also struck the attendants, ordered him to be put into a coffin which happened to be near, when suffocation ensued ; he was in consequence dismissed the service, punished one hundred blows, and transported three years. One check on outrageous torture is the fear that the report of their cruelty will come to the ears of their superiors, who are usually ready to avail of any mal-administration to get an officer removed, in order to fill the post. In this case, as in other parts of Chinese government, the dread of one evil prevents the commission of another.

‘ W. C. Milne, Life in China, Loudon, 1857, p. 99.

THE FIVE LEGAL PUNISHMENTS. 509

The five kinds of punishment mentioned in the code are from ten to fifty bloM’s with the lesser bamboo, from fifty to one hundred with the greater, transportation, perpetual banishishment, and death, each of them modified in various ways. The small bamboo weighs about two pounds, the larger two and two-thirds pounds. Public exposure in the Ida, or cangue, is considered rather as a kind of censure or reprimand than a punishment, and carries no disgrace with it, nor comparatively much bodily suffering if the person be fed and screened from the sun. The frame weighs between twenty and thirty pounds, and is so made as to rest upon the shoulders without chafing the neck, but so broad as to prevent the person feeding himself.

The name, residence, and offence of the delinquent are written upon it for the information of every passerby’, and a policeman is stationed over him to prevent escape. Branding is applied to deserters and banished persons.

Imprisonment and fines are not regarded as legal punishments, but rather correctives ; and flogging, as Le Comte says, ” is never wanting, there being no condemnation in China without this previous disposition, so that it is unnecessary to mention it in their condemnation ; this being always understood to be their first dish.” When a man is arrested he is effectually prevented from breaking loose by putting a chain around his neck and tying his hands.

Mode of Exposure in the Cangue.

Most punishments are redeemable by the payment of money if the criminal is under fifteen or over seventy years of age, and a table is given in the code for the guidance of the magistrate in such cases. An act of ofrace enables a criminal condemned even to capital punishment to redeem himself, if the oifenee be not one of wilful malignity ; but better legislation would have shown the good effects of not making the punishments so severe. It is also ordered in Section XA^IIL, that ” any offender under sentence of death for a crime not excluded from the contingent benefit of an act of grace, who shall have infirm parents or grandparents alive over seventy years of age, and no other male child over sixteen to support them, shall be recommended to the mercy of his Majesty ; and if only condemned to banishment, shall receive one hundred blows and

redeem himself by a fine/’ Many atrocions laws may be forgiven

for one such exhibition of regard for the care of decrepid

parents. Few governments exhibit such opposing principles of

actions as the Chinese : a strange blending of cruelty to prisoners

with a maudlin consideration of their condition, and a constant

effort to coax the peoj^le to obedience while exercising

great severity npon individuals, are everywhere manifest. One

M’ho has lived in the country long, however, knows well that

they are not to be held in check by rope-yarn laws or whimpering

justices, and unless the rulers are a terror to evil-doers, the

latter w\\\ soon get the upper hand. Dr. Field Avell considers

this point in his interesting notes describing his visit to a

yaniwi at Canton.’ The general prosperity of the Empire

proves in some measure the ecjuity of its administration.

Banishment and slavery are punishments for minor official

delinquencies, and few officers who live long in the Emperor’s

employ do not take an involuntary journey to Mongolia, Turkestan,

or elsewhere, in the course of their lives. The fates

and conduct of banished criminals are widely unlike; some

doggedly serve out their time, others try to ingratiate themselves

with their nuisters in order to alleviate or shorten the

time of service, while hundreds contrive to escape and return

to their homes, though this subjects them to increased punishment.

‘ Dr. H. M. Field, From Effypt fo Japan, Chap. XXIV., passim. New York,1877. CMtN’sp Rrpox’/fori/, Vol. TV., pp. 214, 2fiO.

CORRECTION OF MINOR OFFENCES. 511

Publicly Whipping a Thief through the Streets.

Persons banished for treason are severely dealt with if they return without leave, and those convicted of crime in their place of banishment are increasingly punished ; one man was sentenced to be outlawed for an offence at his place of banishment, but seeing that his aged mother had no other support than his labor, the Emperor ordered that a small sum should be paid for her living out of the public treasury. “Whipping a man through the streets as a public example to others is frequenty practised upon persons detected in robbery, assault, or some other minor offences. The man is manacled, and one policeman goes before him carrying a tablet, on which are written his name, crime, and punishment, accompanied by another holding a gong. In some cases little sticks bearing flags

are thrust through his ears, and the lictor appointed to oversee

the fulfilment of the sentence follows the executioner, who

strikes the criminal with his whip or rattan as the rap on the

gong denotes that the appointed number is not yet complete.

Decapitation and strangling are the legal modes of executing

criminals, though Ki Kung having taken several incendiaries at

Canton, in 1843, who were convicted of fii-ing the city for purposes

of plunder, starved them to death in the public squares of the city. The least disgraceful mode of execution is strangulation, which is performed by tying a man to a post and tightening the cord which goes round his neck by a winch ; the infliction is very speedy, and apparently less painful than hanging. The least crime for which death is awarded appears to be a third and aggravated theft, and defacing the branding inflicted for former offences. Decollation is considered more disgraceful than strangling, owing to the dislike the Chinese have of dissevering the bodies which their parents gave them entire. There are two modes of decapitation, that of simple decollation being considered, again, as less disgraceful than being ” cut into ten thousand pieces,” as the phrase Uikj cluli has been rendered. The military officer who superintends the execution is attended by a

guard, to keep the populace from crowding upon the limits and

prevent resistance on the part of the prisoners. The bodies are

given up to the friends, except when the head is exposed as a

warnini>; in a cao-e where the crime was committed. If no one

is present to claim the corpse it is buried in tlie public pit. The

criminals are generally so far exhausted that they make no resistance,

and submit to their fate without a groan—nmch more,

without a dying speech to the spectators. In ordinary cases

the executions are postponed until the autumnal assize, when

the Emperor revises and confirms the sentences of the provincial

governors; criminals guilty of extraordinary offences, as robbery

attended with murder, arson, rape, breaking into fortifications,

liiglivvay robbery, and piracy, may be immediately beheaded

M’ithout reference to court, and as the expense of maintenance

and want of prison room are both to be considered, it is the

fact that criminals condennied for one or other of these crimes

comprise the greater part of the um-eferred executions in the

provinces.

It is impossible to ascertain the number of persons executed

in China, for the life of a condennied criminal is thought little

of ; in the court circular it is merely reported that ” the execution

of the criminals was completed,” without mentioning their

crimes, residences, or names. At the autunmal revises at Peking

the number sentenced is given in the Gazette; 935 were

sentenced in 1S17, of which 133 were from the province of

MANNER OK PUHLIC EXECUTIONS. 613

Kwangtnng ; in 1820 tlicro wci’c r)Sl ; in 182S the number

was 789, and in the next year 579 names were marked off, none of

whose crimes, it is inferrible, are inchided in tlie list of offences

mentioned above. The condenniations are sent from the capital

by express, and tlie executions take place innnediately. Most

of the persons condemned in a province are executed in its capital,

and to hear of the death of a score or more of felons on a

single day is no uncommon thing. The trials are more speedy

than comports with our notions of justice, and the executions are

performed in the most summary manner. It is reported on one

occasion that the governor-general of Canton ascended his judgment-

seat, examined three prisoners brought before him, and

having found then\ guilty, condemned them, asked himself for

the death-warrant (for he temporarily filled the office of governor),

and, having received it, had the three men carried away

in about two hours after they were first brought before him. A

few days after he granted the warrant to execute a hundred

bandits in prison. During the terrible rebellion in Ivwangtung,

in 1854-55, the prisoners taken by the Imperialists were usually

transported to Canton for execution. In a space cf fourteen

months, up to January, 1856, about eighty-three thousand malefactors

suffered death in that city alone, besides those who died

in confinement ; these men were arrested and delivered to execution

by their countrymen, who had suffered untold miseries

through their sedition and rapine.

“When taken to execution the prisoners are clothed in clean

clothes.* A military officer is present, and the criminals are

brought on the ground in hod-like baskets hanging from a pole

borne of two, or in cages, and are obliged to kneel toward the

Emperor’s residence, or toward the death-warrant, which indicates

his presence, as if thanking their sovereign for his care.

The list is read aloud and compared with the tickets on the

prisoners ; as they kneel, a lictor seizes their pinioned hands

and jerks them i.pward so that the head is pushed down horizontally,

and a single down stroke with the heavy hanger severs

‘ Persons who commit suicide also dress themselves in their best, the common notion being that in the next world they will wear the same garments in which they died.Vol. I.—33

it from tlie neck. In the slow and ignominious execution, or

ling chih, the criminal is tied to a cross and hacked to pieces ; the

executioner is nevertheless often hired to give the coup-de-grace

at the first blow. It is not uncommon for him to cut out the

gall-bladder of notorious robbers and sell it, to be eaten as a

specific for courage. There is an official executioner besides the

real one, the latter being sometimes a criminal taken out of the

prisons.

Probably the number of persons who suffer by the sword of

the executioner is not one-half of those who die from the effects

of torture and privations in prisons. Not much is known of

the internal arrangement of the hells, as prisons are called ; they

seem to be managed with a degree of kindness and attention to

the comfort of the prisoners, so far as the intentions of government

are concerned, but the cruelties of the turnkeys and older

prisoners to exact money from the new comers are terrible. In

Canton there are jails in the city under the control of four different

officers, the largest covering about an acre, and capable

of holding upward of five hundred prisoners. Since it is the

practice of distant magistrates to send their worst prisoners up

to the capita], these jails are not large enough, and jail distempers

arise from over-crowding ; two hundred deaths were

reported in 1826 from this and other causes, and one hundred

and seventeen cases in 1831. Private jails were hired to accommodate

the number, and one governor reports having found

twenty-two such places in Canton where every kind of cruelty

was practised. The witnesses and accusers concerned in appellate

causes had, he says, also been brought up to the city and

imprisoned along with the guilty party, where they were kept

months Avithout any just reason. In one case, M’here a defendant

and plaintiff were imprisoned together, the accuser fell upon

the other and murdered him. Sometimes the officer is unable

from press of business to attend to a case, and confines all the

principals and witnesses concerned until he can examine them,

but the government takes no means to provide for them during

the interval, and many of the poorer ones die. No security’ or

bail is obtainable on the word of a witness or his friends, so

that if unable to fee the jailers he is in nearly as bad a case as the

ATROCIOUS MAXAGEMENT OF PRISONS. 515

criminal. Extending bail to an accused criminal is nearly unknown,

but female prisoners are put in charge of their husbands

or parents, who are held responsible for their appearance. Tliie

constant succession of criminals in the provincial head prison

renders the posts of jailers and turnkeys very lucrative. The

letters of the Roman Catholic missionaries from China during

the last century, found in the Lettres Edijiantes and Annales de

la Foi, contain many sad pictures of the miseries of prison life

there.

The prisons are arranged somewhat on the plan of a large

stable, having an open central court occupying nearly one-fourth

of the area, and small cribs or stalls covered by a roof extending

nearly around it, so contrived that each company of prisoners

shall be separated from its neighbors on either side night and

day, though more by night than by day. The prisoners cook for

themselves in the court, and are secured by manacles and gyves,

and a chain joining the hands to the neck ; one hand is liberated

in the daytime in order to allow them to take care of themselves.

Heinous criminals are more heavily ironed, and those in the

prisons attached to the judge’s office are Avorse treated than the

others. Each criminal should receive a daily ration of two

pounds of rice, and about two cents \vith which to buy fuel, but

the jailer starves them on half this allowance if they are unable

to fee him ; clothing is also scantily provided, but those who

have money can pi’ocure almost every convenience. Each crib

full of criminals is under the control of a turnkey, who with a

few old offenders spends much time torturing newly arrived

persons to force money from them, by which many lose their

lives, and all suffer far more in this manner than they do from

the officers of government. Well may the people call their

prisons hells, and say, when a man falls into the clutches of the

jailers or police, “the flesh is under the cleaver.”

There are many processes for the recovery of debts and fulfilment of contracts, some legal and others customary, the latter depending upon many circumstances irrelevant to the merits of the case. The law allows that debtors be punished by bambooing according to the amount of the debt. A creditor often resorts to illegal means to recover his claim, which give rise to tnanj excesses ; sometimes he quarters himself upon the debtor’s family or premises, at others seizes him or some of his family and keeps them prisoners, and, in extreme cases, sells them.

Unscrupulous debtors are equally skilful and violent in eluding, cheating, and resisting their incensed creditors, according as they have the power. They are liable, when three months have expired after the stipulated time of payment, to be bambooed, and their property attached. In most cases, however, disputes of this sort are settled without I’ecourse to government, and if the debtor is really without property, he is not imprisoned till he can procure it. The effects of absconding debtors are seized and divided by those who can get them. Long experience, moreover, of each other’s characters has taught them, in contracting debts, to have some security at the outset, and therefore in settling up there is not so much loss as might be supposed considering the difficulty of collecting debts. Accusations for libel, slander, breach of marriage contract, and other civil or less criminal offences are not all brought before the authorities, but are settled by force or arbitration among the people themselves and their elders.

The nominal salaries of Chinese officers have already been

stated (p. 294). It is a common opinion among the people that

on an average they receive about ten times their salaries ; in

some cases they pay thirty, forty and more thousand dollars

beforehand for the situation. One encouragement to the

harassing vexations of the official secretaries and police is the

dislike of the people to carry their cases before officers who

they know are almost compelled to fleece and peel them ; they

think it cheaper and safer to bear a small exaction from an

underling than run the risk of a greater from his master.

If the preventives against popular violence which the supreme

government has placed around itself could be strengthened

by an efficient military force, its power would be well

secured indeed ; but then, as in Kussia, it would probably become,

by degrees, an intolerable tyranny. The troops are, in

fact, everywhere present, ostensibly to support the laws, protect

the innocent, and punish the guilty ; such of them as are employed

by the authorities as guards and policemen are, on the

whole, efficient and coni-tcous, though iniseralily paid, while the regiments in garrison are contemptible to both friend and foe.

LATENT INFLUENCE OF PUI5LIC OPINION. 517

The efficacy of the system of che<*ks upon the high courts and provincial officers is ijicreased by their intrigues and contlicting ambition, and long expeiuence has shown that the Emperor’s power has little to fear from proconsular rebellion. The inefficiency of the army is a serious evil to the people in one respect, for more power in that arm would repress banditti and pirates; while the sober part of the community would cooperate in a hearty effort to quell them. The greatest difficulty the Emperor finds in upholding his authority lies in the general want of integrity in the officers he employs ; good laws may be made, but he has few upright agents to execute them. This has been abundantly manifested in the laws against opium and gambling ; no one could be found to carry them into execution, though everybody assented to their propriety^

The chief security on the side of the people against an unmitigated oppression such as now exists in Turkey, besides those already pointed out, lies as much as anywhere in their general intelligence of the true principles on which the government is founded and should be executed. With public opinion on its side the government is a strong one, but none is less able to execute its designs when it runs counter to that opinion, although those designs may be excellent and well intended.

Elements of discord are found in the social system which would

soon effect its ruin were they not counteracted by other influences,

and the body politic goes on like a heavy, shackly, lumbering

van, which every moment threatens a crashing, crumbling

fall, yet goes on still tottering, owing to the original goodness

of its construction. From the enormous population of this

ancient van, it is evident that any attempt to remodel it mut^t

seriousl}^ affect one or the other of its parts, and that when

once upset it may be impossible to reconstruct it in its original

form. There is encouragement to hope that the general intelligence

and shrewdness of the government and people of China,

their language, institutions, industry, and love of peace, will ail

act as powerful conservative influences in working out the

changes which cannot now be long delayed ; and that she will luaintaiii her unitv and industry while going through a thorough reform of her political, social, and religious systems.

It is very difficult to convey to the reader a fair view of the administration of the laws in China. Notwithstanding the cruelty of officers to the criminals before them, they are not all to be considered as tyrants ; because insurrections arise, attended

with great loss of life, it must not be supposed that

society is everywhere disorganized ; the Chinese are so prone

to falsify that it is difficult to ascertain the truth, yet it must

not be inferred that every sentence is a lie ; selfishness is a

prime motive for their actions, yet charity, kindness, filial

affection, and the unbought courtesies of life still exist among

them. Although there is an appalling amount of evil and crime

in every shape, it is mixed with some redeeming traits ; and in

China, as elsewhere, good and bad are intermingled, [^ome of

the evils in the social system arise from the operation of the

principles of mutual responsibility, while this very feature produces

sundry good effects in restraining people who have no

higher motive than the fear of injuring the innocent;^ TTeliear

so much of the shocking cruelties of courts and prisons that

the vast number of cases before the bench are all supposed to

exhibit the same fatiguing reiteration of suffering, injustice,

bribery, and cruelty. One must live in the country to see how

the antagonistic j^rinciples found in Chinese society act and react

upon each other, and are affected by the wicked passions of the heart. Officers and people are bad almost beyond belief to one conversant only with the courtesy, justice, purity, and sincerity of Christian governments and society; and yet we think they are not as bad as the old Greeks and Romans, and have no more injustice or torture in their courts, nor impurity or mendacity in their lives. As in our own land we are apt to forget that the recitals of crimes and outrages which the daily papers bring before our eyes furnish no index of the general condition of society, so in China, where that condition is immeasurably worse, we must be mindful that this is likewise true.

CHAPTER IX.EDUCATION AND LITERARY EXAMINATIONS

Among the points relating to the Chinese people which have attracted the attention of students in the history of intellectual development, their long duration and literary institutions have probably taken precedenceJ To estimate the causes of the first requires much knowledge of the second, and from them one is gradually led onward to an examination of the government, religion, and social life of this people in the succeeding epochs of their existence. The inquiry will reveal much that is instructive, and show us that, if they have not equaled many other nations in the arts and adornments of life, they have attained a high degree of comfort and developed much that is creditable in education, the science of rule, and security of life and property.

Although the powers of mind exhibited by the greatest

writers in China are confessedly inferior to those of Greece

and Rome for genius and original conceptions, the good influence

exerted by them over their countrymen is far greater, even

at this day, than was ever obtained by western sages, as Plato,

Aristotle, or Seneca. The thoroughness of Chinese education,

the purity and effectiveness of the examinations, or the accuracv

and excellency of the literature must not be compared with

those of modern Christian countries, for there is really no common

measure between the two ; they must be taken with other

parts of Chinese character, and comparisons drawn, if necessary,

with nations possessing similar opportunities. (The importance

of generally instructing the people was acknowledged even before

the time of Confucius, and practised to a good degree at an age

when other nations in the world had no such system; and although in his day feudal institutions prevailed, and offices and rank were not attainable in the same manner as at present, on the other hand magistrates and noblemen deemed it necessary to be well acquainted with their ancient writings’. It is said in the Booh of RitcH (b.c. 1200), ” that for the purposes of education among the ancients, villages had their schools, districts their academies, departments their colleges, and principalities their universities.” This, so far as we know, was altogether superior to what obtained among the Jews, Persians, and Svrians of the same period.’

TTlie great stimulus to literary pursuits is the hope thereby of

] obtaining office and honor, and the only course of education

followed is the classical and historical one prescribed by law.

Owing to this undue attention to the classics, the minds of the

scliolars are not symmetrically trained, and they disparage other

branches of literature which do not directly advance this great

1 end, /’^very department of letters, except jurisprudence, his-

* t^ tory, and official statistics, is disesteemed in comparison ; and

the literary graduate of fourscore will be found deficient in

most branches of general learning, ignorant of hundreds of

common things and events in his national history, which the

merest schoolljoy in the western world would be ashamed not

to know in Lis. This course of instruction does not form wellbalanced

minds, but it imbues the future rulers of the land

with a full understanding of the principles on which they are

to govern, and the policy of the supreme power in using those

principles to consolidate its own authoi-ityj

(C’entralization and conservatism were the leading features of

the teachings of Confucius which first recommended them to

the rulers, and have decided the course of public examinations

in selecting officers who would readily uphold these principles.

The effect has been that the literary class in China holds the

functions of both nobles and priests, a perpetual association,

genu edema in qua nemo nascitiir, holding^ in its liands public

opinion and legal power to maintain it.- The geographical

isolation of the people, the nature of the language, and the

absence of a landed aristocracy, combine to add efficiency to

this system ; and when the peculiarities of Chinese character,

and the nature of the class-books which do so much to mould that character, are considered, it is impossible to devise a better plan for insuring the perpetuity of the government, or the contentment of the people under that government./

STIMULUS TO LITERARY PURSUITS. 621

Lit was about a.d. 600, that Taitsung, of the Tang dynasty,

instituted the present plan of preparing and selecting civilians

by means of study and degrees, founding his system on the

facts that education had always been esteemed, and that the ‘

ancient writings were accepted by all as the best instructors o£J

the manners and tastes of the peopji^. ‘ According to native

historians, the rulers of ancient times made ample provision for

the cultivation of literature and promotion of education in all

its branches. They supply sojne details to enable us to understand

the mode and the materials of this instruction, and glorify

it as they do everything ancient, but probably from the want

of authentic accounts in their own hands, they do not clearly

describe it. fThe essays of M. I^douard Biot on the History of

Public Instruction in China,{contains well-nigh all the information

extant on this interesting subject, digested in a very lucid

manner. Education is probably as good now as it ever was,

and its ability to maintain and develop the character of the

people as great as at any time ; it is remarkable how much it

really has done to form, elevate, and consolidate their national

institutions. The Manchu monarchs were not at first favorably

disposed to the system of examinations, and frowned upon the

literary hierarchy who claimed all honors as their right ; but

the next generation saw the advantages and necessity of the

concours, in preserving its own power.

^oys commence their studies at the age of seven with a

teacher/; for, even if the father be a literary man he seldom instructs

his sons, and very few mothers are able to teach their

offspring to read. Maternal training is supposed to consist in

giving a right direction to the morals, and enforcing the obedience

of the child ; but as there are few mothers who do more

than compel obedience by commands, or by the rod, so there are

none who can teach the infantile mind to look up to its God in

prayer and praise.

Among the many treatises for the guidance of teachers, the Siao Hioh, or ‘ Juvenile Instructor,’ is regarded as most author*itative. When establishing the elements of education, this book advises fathers to “choose from among their concubines those who are fit for nurses, seeking such as are mild, indulgent, affectionate, benevolent, cheerful, kind, dignified, respectful, and reserved and careful in their conversation, whom they will make

governesses over their children. “When able to talk, lads must

be instructed to answer in a quick, bold tone, and girls in a slow

and gentle one. ^t the age of seven, they should be taught to

count and name the cardinal points ; but at this age the sexes

should not be allowed to sit on the same mat nor eat from the

same table. At eight, they must be taught to wait for their superiors,

and prefer others to themselves. At ten, the boys

must be sent abroad to private tutors, and there remain day and

night, studying writing and arithmetic, wearing plain apparel,

learning to demean themselves in a manner becoming their age,

and acting with sincerity of purpose. At thirteen, they must

attend to music and poetry ; at fifteen, they must practise archery

and charioteering. At the age of twenty, they are in due

form to be admitted to the rank of manhood, and learn additional

rules of propriety, be fathful in the performance of filial

and fraternal duties, and though they possess extensive knowledge,

must not affect to teach others. At thirty, they may

marry and commence the management of business. At forty,

they may enter the service of the state ; and if their prince

maintains the reign of reason, they must serve him, but otherwise

not. At fifty, they may be promoted to the rank of ministers

; and at seventy, they must retire from public life.”

Another injunction is, t^Let children always be tanght to

speak the simple truth ; to stand erect and in their proper places,

and listen with respectful attention.” The way to become a

student, ” is, with gentleness and self-abasement, to receive implicitly

every word the master utters. The pupil, when he sees

virtuous people, nuist follow them, when he hears good maxims,

conform to them. He must cherish no wicked designs, but always

act uprightly ; whether at home or abroad, he nmst have

a fixed residence, and associate with the benevolent, carefully

regulating his personal deportment, and controlling the feelings

METHODS AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION IN CHINA. 623

of his heart. lie must keep his clothes in order. Every morning

he must learn something new, and rehearse the same every

evenuig.” The great end of education, therefore, among the

ancient Chinese, was not so much to fill the head M’ith knowledge,

as to discipline the heart and purify the affections^ One

of their writers says, ” Those who respect the virtuous and put

away unlawful pleasures, serve their parents and prince to the

utmost of their ability, and are faithful to their word ; these,

though they should be considered unlearned, we must pronounce

to be educated men.” Although such terms as purity, filial

affection, learning, and truth, have higher meanings in a Christian

education than are given them by Chinese masters, the inculcation

of them in any degree and so decided a manner does

great credit to the people, and will never need to be superseded

—only raised to a higher grade.’

In intercourse with their relatives, children are taught to attend

to the minutest points of good breeding ; and are instructed in

everything relating to their personal appearance, making their

toilet, saluting their parents, eating, visiting, and other acts of

life. Many of these directions are trivial even to puerility, but

they are none too minute in the ideas of the Chinese, and still

form the basis of good manners, as much as they did a score of

centuries ago ; and it can hardly be supposed that Confucius

would have risked his influence upon the grave publication of

trifles, if he had not been well acquainted with the character of

his countrymen. Yet nothing is trifling which conduces to the

growth of good manners among a people, though it may not

have done all that was wished.^

\lules are laid down for students to observe in the prosecution

of their studies, which reflect credit on those who set so

high a standard for themselves.’ Dr. Morrison has given a

synopsis of a treatise of this sort, called the ‘ Complete Collection

of Family Jewels,’ and containing a minute specification of

‘ Compare Du Halde, Description de VEmpire fie la Chine, Tome IT., pp. 365-384 ; A. Wylie, Notes, p. 68 ; Chinese Repository, Vols. V., p. 81, and VI., pp.185, 393, and 563; China Review, Vol. VI., pp. 120, 195, 253, 328, etc. ; New Enghmder, May, 1878.

”Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 83-87, 306-316.

duties to be performed by all who would be thorough students.

The author directs the tyro to form a hxed resolution to press

forward in his studies, setting his mark as high as possible, and

thoroughly understanding everything as he goes along. “I

have always seen that a man who covets much and devotes

liimself to universal knowledge, when he reads he presumes on

the quickness and celerity of his genius and perceptions, and

chapters and volumes pass before his eyes, and issue from his

mouth as fluently as water rolls away ; but when does he ever

apply his mind to rub and educe the essence of a subject? In

this manner, although much be read, what is the use of it ?

Better little and fine, than much and coarse.” lie also advises

persons to have two or three good volumes lying on their tables,

which they can take up at odd moments, and to keep commonplace

books in which they can jot down such things as occur to

them. They should get rid of distracting thoughts if they

wish to advance in their studies ; as ” if a man’s stomach has

been filled by eating greens and other vegetables, although the

most precious dainties with exquisite tastes should be given

him, he cannot swallow them, he must first get rid of a few

portions of the gi-eens ; so in reading, the same is true of the

mixed thoughts which distract the mind, which are about the

dusty affairs of a vulgar world.” The rules given by these

writers correspond to those laid down among ourselves, in such

books as Todd’s Manual for Students, and reveal the steps

which have given the Chinese their intellectual position.’

iFor all grades of scholars, there is but one mode of study ;

the imitative nature of the Chinese mind is strikingly exhibited

; in the few attempts on the part of teachers to improve upon

the stereotyped practice of their predecessors, although persons

of as original minds a,aL_tlic country affords are constantly en-

^_gage_d in education.^When the lad connnences his studies, an

impressive ceremony takes place—or did formerl}-, for it seems

to have fallen into desuetude : the father leads his son to the

teacher, who kneels down before the name of some one or other

of the ancient sages, and supplicates their blessing upon his

‘ Morrison’s (JlUiU’se Dictionary, Vol. T., Tiirt T., ])p. TlD-ToH.

ARRANGEMENT AND REGIME OF BOYS’ SCHOOLS. 525

pupil ; after which, seating himself, he receives tlie homage

and petition of the lad to guide him in his lessons.’ As is the

case in Moslem countries, a present is expected to accompany

this initiation into literary pursuits. In all cases this event is

further marked by giving the lad his shu oning or ‘ book name,’

by which he is culled during his future life. The furniture of

the school merely consists of a desk and a stool for each pupil,

and an elevated seat for the master, for maps, globes, blackboards,

diagrams, etc., are yet to come in among its articles of

furniture. In one corner is placed a tablet or an inscription on

the wall, dedicated to Confucius and the god of Letters ; the

sage is styled the ‘ Teacher and Pattern for All Ages,’ and incense

is constantly burned in honor of them both.

^The location of school-rooms is usually such as would be considered

bad elsewhere, but by comparison with other things in

China, is not so. A mat shed which barely protects from the

weather, a low, hot upper attic of a shop, a back room in a

temple, or rarely a house specially built for the purpose, such

are the school-houses in China. The chamber is hired by the

master, who regulates his expenses and furnishes liis apartment

according to the number and condition of his pupils ; their

average nundjer is abont twenty, ranging between ten and forty

in day schools, and in private schools seldom exceeding ten.

The most th<n-ough course of education is probably pursued in

the latter, where a well-qualified teacher is hired by four or five

persons living in the same street, or nnituully related by birth

or marriage, to teach their children at a stipulated salary. In

such cases the lads are placed in bright, well-aired apartments,

superior to the common school-room. ^Tlie majority of teachers

have been unsuccessful candidates for literary degrees, who

having spent the prime of their days in fruitless attempts to

attain office, are unfit for manual lal)or, and unable to enter on

mercantile life.J In Canton, a teacher of twenty boj’s receives

from half a dollar to a dollar per month from each pupil ; in

country villages, three, four or five dollars a year are given,

with the addition, in most cases, of a small present of eatables

1

‘ This custom obtains also in Bokhara.

from each scholar three or four times a year. Private tutors

receive from $150 to $350 or more per annum, according to

particular engagement. There are no boarding-schools, nor

anything answering to infant schools ; nor are public or charity

schools established by government, or by private benevolence

for the education of the poor. ‘

The first hours of study are from sunrise till ten a.m., when

the boys go to breakfast ; they reassemble in an hour or more,

and continue at their books till about five p.m., when they disperse

for the day. In summer, they have no lessons after dinner,

but an evening session is often held in the winter, and evening

schools are occasionally opened for mechanics and others

who are occupied during the day. When a boy comes into

school in the morning, he bows reverentially before the tablet

of Confucius, salutes his teacher, and then takes his seat. The

vacations during the year are few ; the longest is before new

year, at which time the engagement is completed, and the school

closes, to be reopened after the teacher and parents have made a

new arrangement. The common festivals, of which there are a

dozen or more, are regarded as holydays, and form very necessary

relaxations in a country destitute of the rest of the Sabbath.

(The requisite qualifications of a teacher are gravity, severity,

and patience, and acquaintance w^ith the classics ; he has

only to teach the same series of books in the same fashion in

which he learned them himself and keep a good watch over his

charge,)

When the lads come together at the opening of the school,

their attainments are ascertained ; the teacher endeavors to

have his pupils nearly equal in this respect, but inasmuch as

they are all put to precisely the same tasks, a difference is not

material. If the boys are beginners, they are brought up in a

line before the desk, holding the San-tsz’ King, or ‘ Trimetrical

Classic,’ in their hands, and taught to read off the first lines

after the teacher until they can repeat them without help. He

calls off the first four lines as follows:

Jin chi tsu, smgpun sTien /

SiTig sirnig hm, slh sian^ yuen /

ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 527

when his pupils siniultaiieoiisly cry out:

, Jin ehi tsii, Hinypan slien ^

Sing siang kin, sih siang yuen.

‘Mispronunciations are corrected until each can read the lesson

accurately ; they are then sent to their seats to commit the

sounds to memory. As the sounds are all entire words (not

letters, nor syllables, of which they have no idea), the boys are

not perplexed, as ours are, with symbols M’hich have no meaning.

All the children study aloud, and when one is able to recite

the task, he is required to hach it—come up to the mastei-‘s

desk, and stand with his back toward him while rehearsing it.)

‘ The San-tsz’ King was compiled by Wang Pih-hao of the

Sung dynasty (a. d. 1050) for his private school. It contains

ten hundred and sixty-eight words, and half that number of different

characters, arranged in one hundred and seventy-eight

double lines. It has been commented upon by several persons,

one of whom calls it ” a ford which the youthful inquirer may

readily pass, and thereby reach the fountain-head of the higher

courses of learning, or a passport into tlie regions of classical and

historical literature.”) This hornbook begins with the nature of

man, and the necessity and modes of education, and it is noticeable

that the first sentence, the one quoted above, which a Chinese

learns at school, contains one of the most disputed doctrines in

the ancient heathen world :

** Men at their birth, are by nature radically good ;
Though alike in this, in practice they widely diverge.
If not educated, the natural character grows worse ;
A course of education is made valuable by close attention.
Of old, Mencius’ mother selected a residence,
And when her son did not learn, cut out the [half-wove] web.
To nurture and not educate is a father’s error;
To educate without rigor shows a teacher’s indolence.
That boys should not learn is an unjust thing ;
For if they do not learn in youth, what will they do when old ?
As gems unwrought serve no useful end, ,
So men untaught will never know what right conduct is.”

The importance of filial and fraternal duties are then inculcated by precept and example, to which succeeds a synopsis of the various branches of learning in an ascending series, under several heads of numbers ; the three great powers, the four seasons and four cardinal points, the five elements and live constant virtues, the six kinds of grain and six domestic animals, the seven passions, the eight materials for music, nine degrees of kindred, and ten social duties. A few extracts will exhibit the mode in which these subjects are treated.

“There are three powers,—heaven, earth, and man.
There are tliree lights,—the sun, moon, and stars.
There are three bonds,—between prince and niinister, justice ;
Between father and son, affection ; between man and wife, concord.
Humanity, justice, propriety, wisdom, and truth,—
These five cardinal virtues are not to be confused.
Rice, millet, pulse, wheat, sorghum, millet grass,
Are six kinds of grain on which men subsist.
Mutual affection of father and son, concord of man and wife;
The older brother’s kindness, the younger one’s respect;
Order between seniors and juniors, friendship among associates;
On the prince’s part regard, on the minister’s true loyalty ;—
These ten moral duties are ever binding among men.”

To this technical summary succeed rules for a course of

academical studies, M’ith a list of the books to be learned, and

the order of their use, followed by a synopsis of the general history

of China, in an enumeration of the successive dynasties.

The work concludes with incidents and motives to learnino;

drawn from the conduct of ancient sages and statesmen, and

from considerations of interest and gh)iy. The exam})les cited

are curious instances of pui-suit of knowledge under difficulties,

and form an inviting part of the treatise.

” Formerly Confucius had young Iliang Toh for his teacher;

Even the sages of antiquity studied with diligence.

Chau, a minister of state, read tlu^ Confucian Dialogues,

And he too, though high in office, studied assiduously.

One copied lessons on rec’ds, another on slii)s of l)amb()o ;

These, though without books, eagerly sought knowledge.

[To vanquish sleep] one tied his head [by tlu! hair] to a beam, and auothel pierced his thigh with an awl;
Though destitute of instructors, these were laborious in study.
One read by the glowwoi’ui’s light, another by rellection from snow;

TIIK TRIM ETHICAL CLASSIC. 629

These, tliougli tlieir families were poor, did not omit to study.

One carried faggots, and another tied his books to a cow’s horD«

And while thus engaged in labor, studied with intensity.

Su Lau-tsiuen, when lie was twenty-seven years old

Commenced close study, and applied his mind to books;
This man, when old, grieved that he commenced so late ;
You who are young must early think of these things.
Behold Liang Hau, at the ripe age of eighty-two,
In the imperial hall, amongst many scholars, gains the first rani:’f

This he accomplished, and all regarded liim a prodigy ;

You, mj’ young readers, shoukl now resolve to be diligent.

Yung, when only eiglit years old, could recite the Odes ;

And Pi, at the age of seven, understood the game of chess;
These displayed ability, and all deemed them to be rare men ;

And you, my hopeful scholars, ought to imitate them.

Tsai Wan-ki could play upon stringed instruments ;

Sie Tau-wfin, likewise, could sing and chant;
These two, though girls, were bright and well informed ;

You, then, my lads, should surely rouse to diligence.

Liu Ngan of Tang, when only seven years old,

Proving himself a noble lad, was able to correct writing:

He, though very young, was thus highly promoted.

You, young learners, strive to follow his example, .

For he who does so, will acquire like honors.

” Dogs watch by night ; the cock announces the morning J

If any refuse to learn, how can they be esteemed men ?

The silkworm spins silk, the bee gathers honey ;

If men neglect to learn, they are below the brutes.

He who learns in youth, to act wisely in mature age.

Extends his influence to the prince, benefits the people.

Makes his name renowned, renders his parents honorable ;

Reflects glory on his ancestors, and enriches his posterity.

Some for their Ouspring, leave coffers filled with gold ;

While I to teach children, leave this one little book.

Diligence has merit ; play yields no profit;
Be ever on your guard ! Rouse all your energies !”

These quotations illustrate the character of the T7imetri’

cal Classic, and show its imperfections as a book for voung

minds. It is a syllahns of studies rather than a book to be

learned, and ill snited to entice the boy on in his tasks by giving

him mental food in an attractive form. Yet its influence has

been perhaps as great as the classics during the last four dynasties,

from its general use in primary schools, where myriads of

lads have ” backed ” it who have had no leisure to study much

more, and when they had crossed this ford could travel no

farther, (The boy commences his education by learning these

maxims ; and by the time he has got his degree—and long before,

too—the higiiest truths and examples known in the land

are more deeply impressed on his mind than are ever Biblical

truths and examples on graduates of Yale, Oxford, Heidelberg

or the Sorbonne.’ Well was it for them that they had learned

nothing in it which they had better forget, for its deficiencies,

pointed out by Bridgman in his translation, should not lead us

to overlook its suggestive synopsis of principles and examples.

The commentary explains them very fully, and it is often

learned as thoroughly as the text. Many thousands of tracts

containing Christian truths written in the same style and with

the same title, have been taught with good effect in the mission

schools in China.”

( The next hornbook put into the boy’s hands is the P\h Kla,

S’mg, or ‘ Century of Surnames.’ It is a list of the family or clan

names commonly in use. Its acquisition also gives him familiarity

with four hundred and fifty-four common words employed

as names, a knowledge, too, of great importance lest mistakes

be made in choosing a wrong character among the scores of

horaophonous characters in the language) For instance, out of

eighty-three common words pronounced hi, six only are clan

names, and it is necessary to have these very familiar in the

daily intercourse of life. The nature of the work forbids its being

studied, but the usefulness of its contents probably explains

its position in this series.’^

The third in the list is the Tsien Tsz^ Wan, or ‘Millenary

Classic,’ unique among all books in the Chinese language, and

whose like could not be produced in any other, in that it consists

‘ Compare Dr. Morrison in the Horm Sinic/v, pp. 122-146 ; B. Jenkins, The

Three-Glmnicter CluxHic, romanized acrording to the Khaufihai di(dect, Shanghai,

1800. The Classic has also been translated into Latin, French, German, Russian,

and Portuguese. For the Trimetrical Classic of the Tai-ping regime see

a version in the North China Herald, No. 147, May 21, 185;}, by Dr. Medhurst •

also a translation by Rev. S. C. Malan, of Balliol College, Oxford. London,

1856.

” E. C. Bridgman in the Chinese Eepository, Vol. IV., p. 152. Livre de Cent

famiUes, Perny, Diet., App., No. XIV., pp. 156 fE.

THE THOUSAND-CHARACTER CLASSIC. 531

of just a thousand characters, no two of which are alike in form or

meaning. The author, Chau lling-tsz’, flourished ahout a.d. 550,

and according to an account given in the history of the Liang

dynasty, wrote it at tlie Empei-or’s request, who had ordered his

minister Wang Hi-chi to write out a thousand characters, and

give them to him, to see if he could make a connected ode with

them.’ This he did, and presented his performance to liis majesty,

who rewarded him with rich presents in token of his approval.

Some accounts (in order that so singular a work might

not M’ant for corresponding wonders) add that he did the task in

a single night, under the fear of condign punishment if he

failed, and the mental exertion was so great as to turn his hair

white. It consists of two hundred and fifty lines, in which

rhyme and rhythm are both carefully observed, though there

is no more poetry in it than in a multiplication table. The

contents of the book are similar but more discursive than those

of the Trimetrical Classic. Up to the one hundred and second

line, the productions of nature and virtues of the early monarchs,

the power and capacities of man, his social duties and

mode of conduct, with instructions as to the manner of living,

are summarily treated.’ Thence to the one hundred and sixtysecond

line, the splendor of the palace, and its high dignitaries,

with other illustrious persons and places, are referred to. The

last part of the w’ork treats of private and literary life, the pursuits

of agriculture, household government, and education, interspersed

with some exhortations, and a few illustrations. A few

disconnected extracts from Dr. Bridgman’s translation’ will show

the mode in which these subjects are handled. The opening

lines are,

*’ The heavens are sombre ; the earth is yellow

;

The whole universe [at the creation] was one wide waste ;

“

after which it takes a survey of the world and its products, and

Chinese history, in a very sententious manner, down to the

thirty-seventh line, which opens a new subject.

‘ Chinese Bepository, Vol. IV., p. 229.

” Now this our human body is endowed
With four great powers and five cardinal virtues:
Preserve with reverence what your paieuts nourished,—
How dare you destroy or injure it V
Let females guard their chastity and purity,
And let men imitate the talented and virtuous.
When you know your own errors then reform;
And when you have made acquisitions do not lose them.

Forbear to complain of the defects of other people,

And cease to brag of your own superiority.

Let your truth be such as may be verified,

Your capacities, as to be measured with difficulty.

” Observe and imitate the conduct of the virtuous,

And command your thoughts that you may be wise.

Your virtue once fixed, your reputation will be established

;

Your habits once rectified, your example will be correct.

Sounds are reverberated in the deep valleys.

And the vacant hall reechoes all it hears

;

So misery is the penalty of accumulated vice.

And happiness the reward of illustrious virtue.

” A cubit of iade stone is not to be valued,

But an inch of time you ought to contend for.

” Mencius esteemed plainness and simplicity;

And Yu the historian held firmly to rectitude.

These nearly approached the golden medium,

Being laborious, humble, diligent, and moderate.

Listen to what is said, and investigate the principles explained

:

Watch men’s demeanor, that you may distinguish their characters.

Leave behind you none but purposes of good ;

And strive to act in such a manner as to command respect.

When satirized and admonished examine 3’ourself,

And do this more thoroughly when favors increase.

” Years fly away like arrows, one pushing on the other;

The sun shines brightly through his whole course.

The planetarium keeps on revolving where it hangs ;

And the bright moon repeats her revolutions.

To support fire, add fuel ; so cultivate the root of happiness,

And you will obtain eternal peace and endless felicity.”

Tlie conimentaiy 011 the TJiousand Character Classic contains

many just observations and curious anecdotes to explain

this hook, whose text is so familiar to the people at large that its

lines or characters are used as lal)ols instead of figures, as thev

take up less room. If Western scholars were as familiar with

the acts and sayings of King Wan, of Su Tsin, or of Kwan

(hung, as they are with those of Sesostris, Pericles, or Horace,

THE ODES FOR CIirLDREN. 583

these incidents and places would naturally enough he deemed

more interesting than they now are. But where the power of

genius, or the vivid pictures of a brilliant imagination, are

wanting to illustrate or beautify a subject, there is comparatively

little to interest Europeans in the authors and statesmen of such

a distant country and remote period/

(The fourth in this series, called V-iu ITioh Shl-tlch^ or ‘ Odes

for Children,’ is written in rhymed pentameters, and contains

only thirty-four stanzas of four lines.’ A single extract will

show its character, which is, in general, a brief description and

praise of literary life, and allusion to the changes of the season,

and the beauties of nature.

It is of the utmost importance to educate children ;

Do not say that your families are poor,

For those who can handle well the pencil,

Go where they will, need never ask for favors.

One at the age of seven, showed himself a divinely endowed youth,

‘Heaven,’ said he, ‘gave me my intelligence :

Men of talent appear in the courts of the holy monarch,

Nor need they wait in attendance on lords and nobles.

‘ In the morning I was an humble cottager,

In the evening I entered the court of the Son of Heaven:
Civil and military offices are not hereditary.
Men must, therefore, rely on their own efforts.
‘ A passage for the sea has been cut through mountains,

And stones have been melted to repair the heavens ;

In all the world there is nothing that is impossible ;

It is the heart of man alone that is wanting resolution.

• Once I myself was a poor indigent scholar.

Now I ride mounted in my four-horse chariot.

And all my fellow-villagers exclaim with surprise.’

Let those who have children thoroughly educate them.

The examples of intelligent youth rising to the highest offices

of state are numerous in all the works designed for beginners,

* Compare Das Tsidn clsii wen, oder Buch von Tamend MDrtern, aus dem

Schinesisclien, niit Bei’dckschtit/unf/ der Koraisclien und Jwpaninchen Uebersetzumj,

ins DeuUche ubertragen, Ph. Fr. de ^iehoXdi, Nippon, Abh. IV., pp. 105-

191 ; B. Jenkins, The Thou’sand-ChanieUr Cittssic, romanized, etc. Shanghai,

1860; Ths/en-2’ffeu-Weii, Le Livre des MiUe Mots, etc., par Stanislas Julien

(with Chinese text), Paris, 18G4 ; China Review, Vol. II., pp. 1S3 ff.

and stories illustrative of their precocity are sometimes given

in toy-books and novels. One of the most common instances ia

here quoted, that of Confucius and Iliang Toh, which is as well

known to every Chinese as is the story of George Washington

barking the cherry-tree with his hatchet to American youth..

” The name of Confucius was Yu, and his style Chungni ; he established himself as an instructor in the western part of the kingdom of Lu. One day, followed by all his disciples, riding in a carriage, he went out to ramble, and on the road, came across several children at their sports ; among them was one who did not join in them. Confucius, stopping his carriage, asked him, saying, ‘ Why is it that you alone do not play V ‘ The lad replied, ‘ All play is without any profit ; one’s clothes get torn, and they are not easily mended ; above me, I disgrace my father and mother ; below me, even to the lowest, there is fighting and altercation ; so much toil and no reward, how can it be a good business ? It is for these reasons that I do not play.’ Then dropping his head, he began making a city out of pieces of tile.

“Confucius, reproving him, said, ‘ Why do you not turn out for the carriage V ‘ The boy replied, ‘ From ancient times till now it has always been considered proper for a carriage to turn out for a city, and not for a city to turn out for a carriage. ‘ Confucius then stopped his vehicle in order to discourse of reason. He got out of the carriage, and asked him, ‘ You are still young in years, how is it that you are so quick V ‘ The boy replied, saying, ‘ ^human being, at the age of three years, discriminates between his father and his mother ; a hare, three days after it is born, runs over the ground and furrows of the fields ; fish, three days after their birth, wander in rivers and lakes ; what heaven thus produces naturally, how can it be called brisk ?’

“Confucius added, ‘In what village and neighborhood do you reside, what is your surname and name, and what your style? ‘ The boy answered, * I live in a mean village and in an insignificant land ; my surname is Hiang, my name is Toh, and I have yet no style.’

” Confucius rejoined, ‘ I wish to have you come and ramble with me ; what do you think of it V ‘ The youth replied, ‘ A stern father is at home, whom I am bound to serve ; an affectionate mother is there, whom it is my duty to cherish ; a worthy elder brother is at home, whom it is proper for me to obey, with a tender younger brother whom I must teach ; and an intelligent teacher is there from whom I am required to learn. How have I leisure to go a rambling with you V’

“Confucius said, ‘I have in my carriage thirty-two chessmen; what do you say to having a game together V ‘ The lad answered, ‘ If the Emperor love gaming, the Empire will not be governed ; if the nobles love play, the government will b<5 impeded ; if scholars love it, learning and investigation will be lost and thrown by ; if the lower classes are fond of gambling, they will utterly lose the support of their families ; if servants and slaves love to game, they will gel a cudgelling ; if farmers love it, they miss the time for ploughing and sowing; for these reasons I shall mit play with you.’

THE STORY OF CONFUCIUS AND IIIANG TOIL 585

“Confucius rejoined, ‘I wish to have you go with me, and fully equalize the Empire; what do you think of this? ‘ The Lad replied, ‘ The Empire cannot be equalized; here are high hills, there are lakes and rivers; either there are princes and nobles, or there are slaves and servants. If the high hills be levelled, the birds and beasts will have no resort ; if the rivers and lakes be filled up, the fishes and the turtles will have nowhere to go ; do away with kings and nobles, and the common people will have much dispute about right and wrong ; obliterate slaves and servants, and who will there be to serve the prince ! If the Empire be so vast and unsettled, how can it be equalized ?’

” Confucius again asked, ‘ Can you tell, under the whole sky, what fire has no smoke, what water no fish ; what hill has no stones, what tree no branches ; what man has no wife, what woman no husband ; what cow has no calf, what mare no colt ; what cock has no hen, what hen no cock ; what constitutes an excellent man, and what an inferior man ; what is that which has not enough, and what which has an overplus ; what city is without a market, and who is the man without a style ?’

” The boy replied, ‘A glowworm’s fire has no smoke, and well-water no fish ; a mound of earth has no stones, and a rotten tree no branches ; genii have no wives, and fairies no husbands ; earthen cows have no calves, nor wooden mares any colts ; lonely cocks have no hens, and widowed hens no cocks ; he who is worthy is an excellent man, and a fool is an inferior man ; a winter’s day is not long enough, and a summer’s day is too long ; the imperial city has no market, and little folks have no style.’

” Confucius inquiring said, ‘ Do you know what are the connecting bonds between heaven and earth, and what is the beginning and ending of the dual powers ? What is left, and what is right ; what is out, and what is in ; who is father, and who is mother ; who is husband, and who is wife. [Do you know]where the wind comes from, and from whence the rain V From whence the clouds issue, and the dew arises V And for how many tens of thousands of miles the sky and earth go parallel ?’

“The youth answering said, ‘Nine multiplied nine times make eighty-one, which is the controlling bond of heaven and earth ; eight multiplied by nine makes seventy-two, the beginning and end of the dual powers. Heaven is father, and earth is mother ; the sun is husband, and the moon is wife ; east is left, and west is right ; without is out, and inside is in ; the winds come from Tsang-wu, and the rains proceed from wastes and wilds ; the clouds issue from the hills, and the dew rises from the ground. Sky and earth go parallel for ten thousand times ten thousand miles, and the four points of the compass have each their station.’

“Confucius asking, said, ‘ Which do you say is the nearest relation, father and mother, or husband and wife ? ‘ The boy responded, ‘ One’s parents are near ; husband and wife are not [so] near.’

“Confucius rejoined, ‘While husband and wife are alive, they sleep under the same coverlet ; when they are dead they lie in the same grave ; how then can you say that they are not near V ‘ The boy replied, ‘ A man without a wife is like a carriage without a wheel ; if there be no wheel, another one is made, for he can doubtless get a new one ; so, if one’s wife die, he seeks again, for he also can obtain a new one. The daughter of a worthy family must certainly marry an honorable husband ; a house having ten rooms always has a plate and a ridgepole ; three windows and six lattices do not give the ligh\ of a single door ; the whole host of stars with all their sparkling brilliancy do not equal the splendor of the solitary moon : the affection of a father and mother—alas, if it be once lost !’

“Confucius sighing, said, ‘How clever! how worthy!’ The boy asking the sage said, ‘ You have just been giving me questions, which I have answered one by one ; I now wish to seek information ; will the teacher in one sentence afford me some plain instruction V I shall be much gratified if my request be not rejected.’ He then said, ‘ Why is it that mallards and ducks are able to swim; how is it that wild geese and cranes sing ; and why are firs and pines green through the winter ‘?

‘ Confucius replied, ‘ Mallards and ducks can swim because their feet are broad ; wild geese and cranes can sing because they have long necks ; firs and pines remain green throughout the winter because they have strong hearts.’ The youth rejoined, ‘ Not so ; fishes and turtle’; can swim, is it because they all have broad feet ? Frogs and toads can sing, is it because their necks are long V The green bamboo keeps fresh in winter, is it on account of its strong heart *’

“Again interrogating, he said, ‘ How many stars are there altogether in the sky V ‘ Confucius replied, ‘ At this time inquire about the earth; how can we converse about the sky with certainty?’ The boy said, ‘Then how many houses in all are there on the earth ? ‘ The sage answered, ‘ Come now, speak about something that’s before our eyes ; why mu.st you converse about heaven and earth ? ‘ The lad resumed, ‘ Well, speak about what’s before our eyes—how many hairs are there in your eyebrows ‘?’

“Confucius smiled, but did not answer, and turning round to his disciples called them and said, ‘ This boy is to be feared ; for it is easy to see that the subsequent man will not be like the child. ‘ He then got into his carriage and rode off.”‘

6Xext in course to this rather trifling primer conies the Hlao

King, or ‘ Canons of Filial Duty,’ a short tractate of only 1,903

characters, which purports to be the record of a conversation

held between Confucius and his disciple Tsitng Tsan on the

principles of filial piet}*! Its authenticity has been disputed by

critics, but their doubts are not shared by their countrymen,

who commit it to memory as the words of the sage. The legend

is that a copy was discovered in the wall of his dwelling, and

compared with another secreted by Yen Chi at the burning of

the books ; from the two Liu Iliang chose eighteen of tlie

chapters contained in it as alone genuine, and in this shape it

has since remained. The sixth section of the Imperial Catalogue

is entirely devoted to writers on the Iliao Kmg, one of whom was

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 614.

THE HIAO KING, OR CANONS OF FILIAL DUTY. 537

Vnentsuiig, an emperor of the Tang dynasty (a.d. T33). Another

comment was publislied in 32 vohimes in Kanghi’s reign, discussing

the whole sul)ject in one liundred cliapters. Though it

does not share in critical eyes the conlidence accorded to the

nine classics, the brevity and subject matter of this work have

commended it to teachers as one of the best books in the

language to be placed in the hands of their scholars ; thus its

influence has been great and enduring. It has been translated

by Bridgman, who regards the first six sections as the words of

Confucius, while the other twelve contain his ideas. Two quotations

are all that need be here given to show its character.

Section I.

—

On the origin and nature ofjUial duty.—Filial duty is the root

of virtue, and the stem from which instruction in the moral principle springs.

Sit down, and I will explain this to you. The first thing which filial duty requires

of us is, that we carefully preserve from all injviry, and in a perfect

state, the bodies which we have received from our parents. And when we

acquire for ourselves a station in the world, we should regulate our conduct

by correct principles, so as to transmit our names to future generations, and

reflect glory on our parents. This is the ultimate aim of filial duty. Thus it

commences in attention to parents, is continued through a course of services

rendered to the prince, and is completed by the elevation of ourselves. It

is said in the Book of Odes,

Ever think of your ancestors

;

Reproducing then- virtue.

Section V.

—

0>i the attention of scholars to flial duty.—With the same love

that they serve their fathers, they should serve their mothers ; and with the

same respect that they serve their fathers, they should serve their prince ; unmixed

love, then, will be the offering they make to their mothers ; unfeigned

respect the tribute they bring to their prince ; while toward their fathers both

tliese will be combined. Therefore they serve their prince with filial duty and

are faithful to him ; they serve their superiors with respect and are obedient to

them. By constant obedience and faithfulness toward those who are above

them, they are enabled to preserve their stations and emoluments, and to offer

the sacrifices which are due to their deceased ancestors and parents. Such is

the influence of filial piety when performed by scholars. It is said in the

Book of Odes,

When the dawn is breaking, and I cannot sleep,

The thoughts in my breast are of our parents.

‘

‘ Compare Pere Cibot in Memoires.concernant les Chinois, Tome IV., pp. 1 ff.

;

Dr. Legge, ±he Sacred Books of China, Part I. The ShU-kinr/, Reliyious Portions of the Shih-kinff, the Hsido-kimj, Oxford, 1879 ; Asiatic Journal, Vol XXIX., pp. 302 if., 1839.

(The highest place in the list of virtues and obligations is accorded

to filial duty, not only in this, but in other writings of

Confucius and those of his school. ” There are,” to quote from

another section, ” three thousand crimes to which one or the

other of the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty ;

and of these no one is greater than disobedience to parents.

When ministers exercise control over the monarch, then there

is no supremacy ; when the njaxims of the sages are set aside,

then the law is abrogated ; and so those who disregard filial

duty are as though they had no parents. These three evils prepai*

e the way for universal rebellion.’^

This social virtue has been highly lauded by all Chinese

wn-Iters, and its observance inculcated upon youth and children

by precept and example. Stories are written to show the good

effects of obedience, and the bad results of its contrary sin,

which are put into their hands, and form also subjects for pictorial

illustration, stanzas for poetry, and materials for conversation.

The following examples are taken from a toy-book of

this sort, called the Twenty-four F’diah^ one of the most popular

collections on the subject.

” During the Chau dynasty there lived a lad named Tsang Tsan (also Tsz’-yu),

who served his mother very dutifully. Tsang was in the habit of going to the.

hills to collect fagots ; and once, while he was thus absent, many guests came

to his house, toward whom his mother was at a loss how to act. She, while

expecting her son, who delayed his return, began to gnaw her fingers. Tsang

suddenly felt a pain in his heart, and took up his bundle of fagots in order to

return home ; and when he saw his mother, he kneeled and begged to know

what was the cause of her anxiety. She replied, ‘ there have been some guests

here, who came from a great distance, and I bit my finger in order to arouse you to return to me.’

” In the Chau dynasty lived Chung Yu, named also Tsz’-lu, who, because his

family was poor, usually ate herbs and coarse pulse ; and he also went more

than a hundred I’l to procure rice for his parents. Afterward, when they were

dead, he went south to the country of Tsu, where he was made commander of

a hundred companies of chariots; there he became rich, storing up grain in

myriads of measures, reclining upon cushions, and eating food served to him

in numerous dishes; but sighing, ho said, * Although I should now desire to

eat coarse herbs and bring rice for my parents, it cannot be !

‘

” In the Chau dynasty there flourished the venerable Lai, who was very obedient

and reverential toward his parents, manifesting his dutifulness by exerting

liimself to provide them with every delicacy. Although upward of

EXTRACTS FROM THE TWENTY-FOUR FILIALS. 539

seventy years of age, he declared that he was not yet old ; and usually

dressed liimself in parti-colored embroidered garments, and like a child

would playfully stand by the side of his parents. He would also take up

buckets of water, and try to carry them into the house ; but feigning to slip,

would fall to the ground, wailing and crying like a child: and all these things

he did in order to divert his parents.

” During the Han dynasty lived Tung Yung, whose family was so very poor

that when his father died he was obliged to sell himself in order to procure

money to bury his remains. After this he went to another place to gain the

means of redeeming liimself ; and on his way he met a lady who desired to become

his wife, and go with him to his master’s residence. She went with him,

and wove three hundred pieces of silk, which being completed in two months,

they returned home ; on the way, having reached the shade of the cassia tree

where they before met, the lady bowed and ascending, vanished from his sight.

” During the Han dynasty lived Ting Lan, whose parents both died when

he was young, before he could obey and support them ; and he reflected that

for all the trouble and anxiety he had caused them, no recompense had yet

been given. He then carved wooden images of his parents, and served them

as if they had been alive. For a long time his wife would not reverence them ;

but one day, taking a bodkin, she in derision pricked their fingers. Blood immediately

flowed from the wound ; and seeing Ting coming, the images wept.

He examined into the circumstances, and forthwith divorced his wife.

“In the days of the Han dynasty lived Koh Kii, who was very poor. He

had one child three years old ; and such was his poverty that his mother usually

divided her portion of food with this little one. Koh says to his wife,

‘ We are so poor that our mother cannot be supported, for the cliild divides

with her the portion of food that belongs to her. Why not bury this child V

Another child may be born to us, but a mother once gone will never return.’

His wife did not venture to object to the proposal ; and Koh immediately dug

a hole of about three cubits deep, when suddenly he lighted upon a pot of gold,

and on the metal read the following inscription :

‘ Heaven bestows this treasure

upon Koh Kii, the dutiful son ; the magistrate may not seize it, nor shall

the neighbors take it from him.’

“Mang Tsung, who lived in the Tsin dynasty, when young lost his father.

His mother was very sick ; and one winter’s day she longed to taste a soup

made of bamboo sprouts, but Mang could not procure any. At last he went

into the grove of bamboos, clasped the trees with his hands, and wept bitterly.

His filial affection moved nature, and the ground slowly opened, sending forth

several shoots, which he gathered and carried home. He made a soup with

them, of which his mother ate and immediately recovered from her malady

” WuMang, a lad eight years of age, who lived under the Tsin dynasty, was

very dutiful to his parents. They were so poor that they could not afford to

furnish their bed with mosquito-curtains ; and every summer’s night, myriads

of mosquitos attacked them unrestrainedly, feasting upon their flesh and

blood. Although there were so many, yet Wu would not drive them away,

lest they should go to his parents, and annoy them. Such was his affection.”

‘

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 131.

The last book learned before entering on the classics has had

almost as great an influence as any of them, and none of the works

of later scholars are so well calculated to sliow the ideas of the

Chinese in all ages upon the principles of education, intercourse

of life, and rules of conduct as this ; precepts are illustrated by

examples, and the examples referred back to precepts for their

moving cause. (This is the Siao Hloh, or ” Juvenile Instructor,”

and was intended by Chu Hi, its author, as a counterpart of the

Ta Hlao, on which he had written a connnentary, “^ It has had

more than fifty commentators, one of whom says, ” We confide

in the Siao Hioli as we do in the gods, and revere it as we do

our parents.” It is divided into two books, the ” fountain of

learning,” and ” the stream flowing from it,” arranged in 20

chapters and 385 short sections. The first book has four parts

and treats of the first principles of education ; of the duties we

owe our kindred, rulers, and fellow-men, of those we owe

ourselves in regard to study, demeanor, food, and dress ; and

lastly gives numerous examples from ancient history, beginning

with very early times down to the end of the Chau dynasty,

B.C. 249, confirmatory of the maxims inculcated, and the good

effects resulting from their observance. The second book contains,

in its first part, a collection of wise sayings of eminent,

men who flourished after e.g. 200, succeeded by a series of examples

of distinguished persons calculated to show the effects of

good principles ; both designed to establish the truth of the

teachings of the first book. One or two quotations, themselves

extracted from other works, will sulfice to show something of

its contents.

” Confucius said, ‘ Friends must sharply and frankly admonish each other, and brothers must be gentle toward one another.’ “

“Tsz’-kung, asking about friendship, Confucius said, ‘ Faithfully to inform and kindly to instruct another is the duty of a friend ; if he is not tractable, desist ; do not disgrace yourself.’ “

“Whoever enters with his guests, yields precedence to them at every door ;

when they reach the innermost one, he begs leave to go in and arrange the

seats, and then returns to receive the guests ; and after they have repeatedly

declined he bows to them and enters. He passes through the right door, they

through the left. He ascc^nds the eastern, they the western steps. If a guest

be of a lower grade, he must api)roach the steps of the host, while; the latter

THE SIAO IIIOH, OR JUVENILE INSTRUCTOR. 541

must reppatedly dc^cline this attention ; then the guest m.\v return to the western

steps, he ascending, both liost and guest must mutually yield precedence:

then the host must ascend first, and tlie guests follow. From step to step they

must bring their feet together, gradually ascending—those on the east moving

the right foot lirst, those on the west the left.”

The great influence wliicli these six school-books have had is

owing to their formative power on youthful minds, a large proportion

of whom never go beyond them (either from want of

time, means, or desire), but are really here fui-nished with the

kernel of their best literature.

(The tedium of memorizing these unmeaning sounds is relieved

by writing the characters on thin paper placed over copy slips.

The writing and the reading lessons are the same, and both are

continued for a year or two until the forms and sounds of a few

thousand characters are made familiar, but no particular effort

is taken to teach their meanings. It is after this that the teacher

goes over the same ground, and with the help of the commentary,

explains the meaning of the words and phrases one by one, until they are all understoodJ It is not usual for the beginner to attend much to the meaning of what he is learning to read and write, and where the labor of committing arbitrary characters is so great and irksome, experience has probably shown that it is not wise to attempt too many things at once.

^The boy has been familiarizing himself with their shapes as

he sees them all the time around him, and he learns what they

mean in a measure before he comes to school. The association

of form with ideas, as he cons his lesson and writes their words,

gradually strengthens, and results in that singular interdependence

of the eye and ear so observable among the scholars of the

far East. They trust to what is read to help in understanding what

is heard much more than is the case in phonetic languages. (_Xo

effort is made to facilitate the acquisition of the characters by the

boys in school by arranging them according to their component

parts ; they are learned one by one, as boys are taught the names

and appearance of minerals in a cabine^<_^The effects of a course of

study like this, in which the powers of the tender mind are not

developed by proper nourishment of truthful knowledge, can

hardly be otherwise than to stunt the genius, and drill the faculties of the mind into a slavish adherence to venerated usage and dictation, making the intellects of Chinese students like the trees which their gardeners so toilsomely dwarf into pots and jars—plants, whose unnaturalness is congruous to the insipidity of their fruit.)

The number of years spent at school depends upon the means

of the parents. Tradesmen, mechanics, and country gentlemen

endeavor to give their sons a competent knowledge of the

usual series of books, so that they can creditably manage the

common affairs of life. (No other branches of study are pursued

than the classics and histories, and what will illustrate

them, ineanwhile giving much care and practice to composi-

,_jtioiiivNo arithmetic or any department of mathematics, nothing

of the geography of their own or other countries, of natural

philosophy, natural history, or scientific arts, nor the study of

other languages, are attended to.) Persons in these classes of

society put their sons into shops or counting-houses to learn the

routine of business with a knowledge of figures and the style

of letter-writing ; they are not kept at school more tlian three

or four years, unless they mean to compete at the examinations.

Working men, desirous of giving their sons a smattering,

try to keep them at their books a year or two, but millions

nnist of course grow up in utter ignorance. It is, however,

an excellent policy for a state to keep up this universal honor

paid to education where the labor is so great and the return

so doubtful, for it is really the homage paid to the principles

taught.

r^ Besides the common schools, there are grammar or high

I schools and colleges, but they are far less effective. In Canton,

I there are fourteen grammar schools and thirty colleges, sqinej:)f

/ wluch are quite ancient, but most of them are neglected,/ Three

of the largest contaimeach about two hundred students and two

or three professors. (The chief object of these institutions is to

instruct advanced scholars in composition and elegant writing ;

the tutors do a little to turn attention to general literature, but

have neither the genius nor the means to make many advances.”)

In I’ural districts students are encouraged to meet at stated times

in the town-house, where the lieadman, or deputy of the sz” or

HABITS OF STUDY—SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 543

township, examines them on themes previously proposed by him.’

In large towns, the local officers, assisted by the gentry and

graduates, hold annual examinations of students, at which pre

miums are given to the best essayists. At such an examination

in Amoy in March, 1845, there were about a thousand

candidates, forty of whom received sums varying from sixty to

sixteen cents

^One of the most notable, as well as the most ancient of collegiate

institutions, is the Jvwoh-Uz’ Kien, or ‘ School for the Sons

of the State,’ whose extensive buildings in Peking, now empty

and dilapidated, show how much easier it is to found and plan

a good thing than to maintain its efficiency^ , This state school

orighiated as early as the Chau dynasty, andTtlie course of study

as given in the Tt’itual of Chau was much the same three thousand

years ago as at present. Its officers consisted of a rector,

usually a high minister of state, aided by five councillors, two

directors, two proctors, two secretaries, a librarian, two professors

in each of the six halls, and latterly five others for each of the

colleges for Bannermen. These halls are named Hall of the

Pursuit of “Wisdom, the Sincere of Heart, of True Virtue, of

Koble Aspiration, of Broad Acquirements, and the Guidance of

Xature. ^he curriculum was not intended to go beyond the classics

and the six libei-ai arts of music, charioteering, archery, etiquette,

writing, and mathematics’; but as if to encourage the

professors to ” seek out by wisdom concerning all things that are

done under heaven,” as Solomon advises, they were told to take

their students to the original sources of strategy, astronomy, engineering,

music, law, and the like, and points out the defects and

merits of each author. The Kiooh-tsz’ Kien possesses now only

the husk of its ancient goodness ; and if its professors were not

honored, and made eligible to be distinct magistrates after three

years’ term, the buildings would soon be left altogether empty.

Instead of reviving and rearranging it, the Chinese Government

. i^ Chinese Repository, VoL IV., p. 414. See also Vol. VI., pp. 229-241;Vol. IV., pp. 1-10; Vol. XL, pp. 545-557 ; and Vol. XIII. , pp. 626-641, for further notices of the modes and objects of education ; Biot, Essai stir VHistoiie de I’Instruction PiMiqiie en Chine, and liis translation of the C1uw-li, VoL H.,p. 27, Paris, 1851. Chinese Recorder, September, 1871.

Las wisely supplanted it by a new college with its new professors

and new course of studies—the Tang-iodn Kwan mentioned on p.

436. Kative free schools, established by benevolent })ersons in

city or country, are not uncommon, and serve to maintain the literary

spirit ; some may not be very long-lived, but others take

their place. In Peking, each of the Banners has its school, and so

lias the Imperial Clan ; retired officials contribute to schools

opened for boys connected with their nativ^e districts living in

the capital. Such efforts to promote education are expected

from those who have obtained its high prizes.

ow great a proportion of the people in China can read, is a

difficult question to answer, for foreigners have had no means of

learning the facts in the case, and the natives never go into such

inquiries. More of the men in cities can read than in the country,

and inore in some provinces than in othfirSj,’ In the district

anhai, which forms part of the city of Canton, an imperfect

examination led to the belief that neaily all the men are

able to read, except fishermen, agriculturists, coolies, boat-people,

and fuelers, and that two or three in ten devote their lives

to literary pursuits. In less thickly settled districts, not more

than four- or five-tenths, and even less, can read. /Tn Macao,

perhaps half of the men can read. From an examination of the

hospital patients at Kingpo, one of the missionaries estimated

the readers to form not more than five per cent, of the men ;

while another missionary at the same place, w^ho made inquiry in

a higher grade of society, reckoned them at twenty per cent.

The villagers about Amoy are deplorably ignorant ; one lady

who had lived there over twenty years, writes that she had never

found a woman who could ycad, but these were doubtless from

among the poorer classes. It appears that as one goes north, the

extent and thoroughness of education diminishes. ^Throughout

the Enipiretho ability to understand books is not commensurate

with the ability to read the characters, and both ha\e been somewhat

exaggerated. Owiner to the manner in which education is

commenced^learning the forms and sounds of characters before

their meanings are understood—it comes to pass tliat many persons

can call over the names of the characters while they^do not

comprehend in the least the sense of what they readJ/ They can

rROPOllTIOX OF THOSE WHO CAN READ IX CHINA. 545

pick oat ;i word here and there, it may be a phrase or a sentence,

but they derive no clearer meaning from the text before them

than a lad, who has just learned to scan, and has proceeded half

through the Latin Header, does from reading Virgil ; while in

both cases an intelligent audience, unacquainted with the facts,

might justly infer that the reader understood what he was readino-

as well as his hearers did. Moreover, in the Chinese language,

different subjects demand different characters ; and although a

man may be well versed in the classics or in fiction, he may be

easily posed by being asked to explain a simple treatise in medicine

or in mathematics, in consequence of the many new or unfamiliar

words on every page. This is a serious obsta^e in the way

of obtaining a general acquaintance with boolvS^The mind be-‘

comes weary with the labor of study where its toil is neither rewarded

b}^ knowledge nor beguiled by wit ; consequently, few

Chinese are well read in their natural literature. The study o£

books being regarded solely as the means wherewith to attain ai

‘

definite end, it follovs naturally that when a cultivated man haa

reached his goal he should feel little disposed to turn to these;

inmlements of his profession for either instruction or pleasure^

(Wealthy or official parents, who wish their sons to compete

for literarv honors, o-ive them the advantages of a full course in

reading and rhetoric under the best masters. Composition is

the most difficult part of the training of a Chinese student, and

requires unwearied application and a retentive memory. lie

who can most readily quote the classics, and approach the nearest

to their terse, comprehensive, energetic diction and style, is,

cmierls iKtrihus^ most likely to succeed ; while the man who can

most quickly throw off well rhythmed verses takes the palm

from all competitor^. In novels, the ability to compose elegant

verses as fast as the pencil can fly is usually ascribed to the hero

of the plot. How many of those who intend to compete for

degrees attend at the district colleges or high schools is not

known, but they are resorted to by students about the time of

the examinations in order to make the acquaintance of those

who are to conq^ete with them. Xo public examinations take

place in either daj’ or private schools, nor do parents often visit

them, but rewards for remarkable proficiency are occasionally conferred. (There is little gradation of studies, nor are any diplomas conferred on students to show that they have gone Q . through a certain course. Punishments are severe, and the rattan or bamboo hangs conspicuously near the master, and its liberal use is considered necessary : ” To educate without rigor, shows the teachers indolence,” is the doctrine, and by scolding,

starving, castigation, and detention, the master tries to instil

habits of obedience and compel his scholars to learn their

task. )

Notwithstanding the high opinion in which education is held,

the general diffusion of knowledge, and the respect paid to

learning in comparison with mere title and wealth, the defects of

the tuition here brieHy described, in extent, means, purposes, and

results, are very great. Such, too, must necessarily be the case

until new principles and new information are infused into it.

Considered in its best point of view, this system has effected all

that it can in enlarging the understanding, purifying the heart,

and strengthening the minds of the people ; but in none of these,

nor in any of the essential points at which a sound education

aims (as we understand the matter), has it accomplished half that

is needed. The stream never rises even as high as its source,

and the teachings of Confucius and Mencius have done all that

is possible to make their countrymen thinking, useful, and intelligent

men.

Turn we now from this brief sketch of primary education

among the Chinese, to a description of the mode of examining

students and conferring the degrees which have been made the

passport to office, and learn what are the real merits of the systeuL^-‘

tPersons from almost every class of society may become

(—’^naidates for degrees under the certificates of securities, but

none are eligible for the second diploma who have not already

received the first. It therefore happens that the republican

license apparently’ allowed to well-nigh every subject, in reality

reserves the prizes for the few most talented or wealtiiy persons

in thficonamunity.) |V majority of the clever, learned, ambitious,

and intelligent spirits in the laTid look forward to these examinations

as the only field woithy of their efforts, and where they are

most likely to find their equals and friends. How much better

MODE OF EXAMINATION AND CONFERRING DEGREES. 547

for the good of society, too, is this arena than the camp or

the feudal court, the tournament or the monastery !

There are four regular literary degrees, with some intermediate

steps of a titular sort. The first is called slu-tsal, meaning

‘ flowering talent,’ because of the promise held out of the future

success of the scholar ; it has often been rendered ‘ bachelor of

arts ‘ as its nearest equivalent. The examinations to obtain it

are held under the supervision of the chihien in a public

building belonging to the district situated near his yamun ; and

the chief literary officer, called Moh-ching^ ‘ corrector of learning,’

or Mao-yu, ‘ teacher of the commands,’ has the immediate

control. (When assembled at the hall of examination, the district

magistrate, the deputy chancellor, and prefect, having prepared

the lists of the undergraduates and selected the themes,

allow only one day for writing the essays. The number of candidates

depends upon the population and literary spirit of the district

} in the districts of Xanhai and Pwanyu, upward of two

thousand persons competed for the prize in 1832, while in

Hiangshan not half so many came together. The rule for apportioning

them was at first according to the annual revenue.

“When the essays are handed in, they are looked over by the

board of examiners, and the names of the successful students

entered on a roll, and pasted upon the walls of the magistrate’s

hall ; this hoaor is called Men ming, i.e., ‘ having a name in

the village.’ Out of the four thousand candidates referred to

above, only thirteen in one district, and fourteen in the other,

obtained a name in the village ; the entire population of these

two districts is not much under a million and a half. Many of

the competitors at this primary tripos are unable to finish their

essays in the day, others make errors in writing, and others

show gross ignorance, all of which so greatly diminish their

numbers, that only those who stand near the head of the list of

Men mhuj do really or usually enter on the next trial before

the prefect. ^ But all have had an equal chance, and few complain

that their performances were disregarded, for they can try as often as they please.

(Those who pass the first examination are entered as candidates for the second, which takes place in the chief town of the department before the literary chancellor and the prefect, as. sisted bj a literary magistrate called Mao-shao, ‘ giver of instructions; ‘ it is more rigorous than that held before the chihlcn^ though similar to it in nature. The prefect arranges the candidates from each district by themselves according to their standing on their several lists, and it is this vantage ground which makes the first trial in one’s native place so important to the

ambitious scholar. The themes on which they have tested their

scholarship are published for the information of friends and the

other examiners. If the proportion given above of successful

candidates at the district examinations hold for each district,

there would not be more than two hundred students assembled

at the prefect’s hall, but the number is somewhat increased by

persons who have purchased the privilege ; still the second trial

is made among a small number in projjortion to the first, and

yet more trifling when compared with the amount of population.

The names of the successful students at the second trial are exposed

on the walls of the office, which is called y^* mlng^ i.e.,

‘ having a name in the department,’ and these only are eligible

as candidates for the third trial} (In addition to their knowledge

of the classics, the candidates at this trial are often required to

write off the text of the Siting Yu, or ‘ Sacred Edict,’ from memory,

as this work consists of maxims for the guidance of officer§li

The literary chancellor exercises a superintendence over the

previous examinations, and makes the circuit of the province to

attend them in each department, twice in three years. There

are various ranks among these educational officials, corresponding

to the civilians in the province ; transfers are occasionally

made from one service to the other, and the oversight of the

latter is always given at; the examinations wherever they ai’C

held. Most of the literary officers, however, remain in their

own line, as it is highly honorable and more permanent. (At the

third trial in the provincial capital, he confers the first degree of

siio-tmi upon those who are chosen out of the whole list as the

best scholars.^

EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF SIU TSAI. 649

There are several classes of bachelors, depending; somewhat on the manner in which they obtained their dciirree ; those who get it in the maimer here described take the precedence. yiAiQ possession of this degree protects the person from corporeal punishment, raises him above the common people, renders him a consj)icuons man in his native place, and eligible to enter the triennial examination for the second degree. (Those who have more money than learning, purchase this degree for sums varying from $200 up to $1000, and even higher; in later years, according to the necessities of the government, diplomas have been sold as low as $25 to $50, but such men seldom risel They are called kien-sd/Kj, and, as might be supposed, are looked upon

somewhat contemptuously by those who have passed through the

regular examinations, and ” won the battle with their own

lance.” A degree called Imng-sdng is purchased by or bestowed

upon the slu-tsal, but is so generally recognized that it has almost

become a fifth degree, which does not entitle them to the

full honors of a ku-jin. What proportion of scholars are rewarded

by degrees is not known, but it is a small number compared

with the candidates. A graduate of considerable intelligence

at Ningbo estimated the number of sia-tsal in that city at four hundred, and in the department at nearly a thousand. ( In

Canton City, the number of shin-hin, or gentry, who are allowed

to wear the sash of honor, and have obtained literary degrees, is

not over three hundred ; but in the wdiole province there are

about twelve thousand bachelors in a population of nineteen

millions.) Those who have not become siu-tsal are still regarded

as under the oversight of the hiao-yu and others of his class,

who still receive their essays ; but the body of provincial

siu-tsai are obliged to report themselves and attend the prefectural

tripos before the chancellor, under penalty of losing all the

privileges and rank obtained. (This law brings them before

those who may take cognizance of misdeeds, for these men are

often very oppressive and troublesome to their countrymen^

The graduates in each district are placed under the control of a chief, whose power is almost equal to the deputy chancellors; from them are taken the two securities required by each applicant to enter the tripos.

The candidates for siu-tsai are narrowly examined when they enter the hall, their pockets, shoes, wadded robes, and ink-stones, all being searched, lest precomposed essays or other aids to com position be smuggled in. When they are all seated in the hall in their proper places, the wickets, doors, windows, and other entrances are all guarded, and pasted over with strips of paper.

The room is filled with anxious competitors arranged in long seats, pencil in hand, and ready to begin. The theme is given out, and every one immediately writes off his essay, carefully

noting how many characters he erases in composing it, and hands

it up to the board of examiners ; the whole day is allotted to the

task, and a signal-gun announces the hour when the doors are

thrown open, and the students can disperse. (A man is liable to

lose his acquired honor of sla-tsai if at a subsequent inspection

he is found to have discarded his studies, and he is therefore impelled

to pursue them in order to maintain his influence, even if

he does not reach the next degree. ‘\

^ince the first degree is sometimes procured by influence and

money, it is the examination for the second, called hiljin, or

‘ promoted men,’ held triennially in the provincial capitals before

two imperial commissioners, that separates the candidates

into students and ofiacers, though all the students who receive a

diploma by no means become officers./ This examination is held

at the same time in all the eighteen provincial capitals, viz., on

the 9th, 12th, and 15tli days of the eighth moon, or about the

middle of September ; while it is going on, the city appears exceedingly

animated, in consequence of the great number of relatives

and friends assembled with the students. The persons

who preside at the examination, besides the imperial commissioners,

are ten provincial officers, with the futai at their head,

who jointly form a board of examiners, and decide upon the

merits of the essays. (The number of candidates who entered

the lists at Canton in the years 1828 and 1831 was 4,800 ; in

1832 there were 6,000, which is nearer the usual number. In

the largest provinces it reaches as many as 7,000, 8,000, and upward.]

^Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 349; Vol. XVI., pp. 67-72. Doolittle, Social Life of f/te Chineisc, Vol. I., pp. 376-443. Dr. Martin, The Chinese.

EXAMINATION Foil THE SECOND DEGREE. 551

Previous to entering the Kunrj T’aen, each candidate has given in all the necessary proofs and particulars, which entitle him to a cell, and receives the ticket which designates the one he is to occupy. He enters the night before, and is searched to see that no manuscript essay, “skinning paper,” or miniature edition of the classics, is secreted on his person. If anything of the sort is discovered, he is punished with the cangue, degraded from his first degree, and forbidden again to compete at the examination; his father and tutor are likewise punished. ( Some of the pieces written for this purpose are marvels of penmanship, and the most finished compositions ; one set contained an essay on every sentence in the Four Books, each of the sheets covered with hundreds of characters, and the paper so thin that they could be easily read through it. The practice is, however, quite common, notwithstanding the penalties, and one censor requested a law to be passed forbidding small editions to be

printed, and booksellers’ shops to be searched for tlieni^

The general arrangement of the examination halls in all the

provincial capitals is alike. A description of that at Canton,

given on page 166, is typical of them all.

The Hall at Peking, situated on the eastern side, not far from

the observatory, contains ten thousand cells, and these do not

always suffice for the host which assembles. The Hall at Fuhchau

is equally large ; each cell is a little higher than a man’s

head, and is open on but one side—letting in more rain and wind

during inclement days than is comfortable. Confinement in

these cramped cells is so irksome as to frequently cause the death

of aged students, who are unable to sustain the fatigue, but who

still enter the arena in hopes of at last succeeding. Cases have

occurred where father, son, and grandson, appeared at the same

time to compete for the same prize. (Dr. Martin’ found that out

of a list of ninety-nine successful competitors for the second

degree, sixteen were over forty years of age, one sixty-two, and

one eighty-three. The average age of the whole number was over

thirty—while in comparison with like statistics foi* the third degree,

a proportionate increase might be looked for.) The unpleasantness

of the strait cell is nnich increased by the smoke arising

• The Chinese, p. 50.

from the cooking, and by the heat of the weather. All servants are provided by government, but each candidate takes in the rice and fuel which he needs, together with cakes, tea, candles, bedding, etc., as he can afford ; no one can g(> in with him. The enclosure presents a bustling scene during the examination, and its interest intensifies until the names of the successful scholars

are published. Should a student die in his cell, the body is pulled

through a hole made in the wall of the enclosure, and left there for

his friends to carry away. Whenever a candidate breaks any of

the prescribed regulations of the contest, his name and offence are

reported, and his name is ” pasted out ” by placarding it on the

outer door of the hall, after which he is not allowed to enter until

another examination comes around. More than a hundred

persons are thus ” pasted out ” each season, but no heavy disgrace

seems to attach to them in consequence.

(On the first day after the doors have been sealed up, four themes are selected by the examiners from the Four Books, one of which subjects must be discussed in a poetical essay. The minimum length of the compositions is a hundred characters, and they must be written plainly and elegantly, and sent in without any names attached^ In 1828, the acumen of four thousand

eight hundred candidates was exercised during the first day on

these themes : ” Tsang-tsz’ said, ‘ To possess ability, and yet ask

of those who do not ; to know much, and yet inquire of those

who know little ; to possess, and yet appear not to possess ; to

be full, and yet appear empty.’ “—” lie took hold of things by

the two extremes, and in his treatment of the people maintained

the golden medium.” “A man from his youth studies eight

principles, and when he arrives at manhood, he wishes to reduce

them to practice.”—The fourth essay, to be written in

pentameters, had for its subject, “The sound of the oar, and the

green of the hills and water.” Among the themes given out

in 1843, were these: “lie who is sincere will be intelligent,

and the intelligent man will be faithful.”—”In carrying out

benevolence, there are no rules.” In 1835, one was, ” lie acts

as he ought, both to the common people and official men, receives

his revenue from Heaven, and by it is protected and highly

esteemed.” Among other more practical texts are the following: ” Fire-arms began with the use of rockets in the Chau dynasty ; in what book do we first meet with the word for cannon? Is the defence of Kaifung fii its first recorded use ?

METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE EXAMINATION. 553

Kublai klian, it is said, obtained cannon of a new kind ; from whom did he obtain them ? When the Ming Emperors, in the reign of Yungloh, invaded Cochincliina, they obtained a kind of cannon called the weapons of the gods; can you give an account of their origin ‘( “

The three or five themes (for the number seems to be optional)

selected from the Five Classics are similar to these, but as those

works are regarded as more recondite than the Four Books, so

nmst the essayists try to take a higher style/ An officer goes

around to gather in the pa] )ers, which are first handed to a body

of scholars in waiting, who look them over to see if the prescribed

rules have all been observed, and reject those which infringe

them, /The rest are then copied in red ink, to prevent

recognition of the handwriting, and the original manuscripts

given to the governor. The cojjies are submitted to another

class of old scholars for their criticism, each of whom marks the

essays he deems best with a red circle, and these only are placed

in the hands of the chancellors sent from Peking for their decision.

The examining board are aided by twelve scholars of

repute, to each of whom forty or fifty essays are given to read.

The students are dismissed during the niglit of the ninth day,

and reassemble before sunrise of the eleventh ; all M’hose essays

were rejected on the first review are refused enti-ance to their

cells. At the second tripos, five themes are given out from the

Five Classics, and everything pi-oceeds as before in respect

to the disposal of the manuscripts. The students are liberated

early on the thirteenth as before by companies, under a salute

and music as they leave the great door; their number has been

much reduced by this time. On the next morning the roll is

called, and those who answer to their names for the last struggle

are furnished with five themes for essays, one for poetry, taken

from the classics or histories, upon doubtful matters of government,

or such problems as might arise in law and finance.

These questions take even a more extended range, including topics relating to the laws, history, geography, and customs of the Empire in former times, doubtful points touching the classical works, and the interpretation of obscure passages, and biograpli«ical notices of statesnieiil Ut is forbidden, however, to discusa any points relating to the poHcy of the present family, or the character and learning of living statesmen); but the conduct of their rulers is now and then alluded to by the candidates. (Manuals of questions on such subjects as candidates are examined in, are commonly exposed for sale in shops about the time of these examinations.’ By noon of the sixteenth day of the eighth moon, all the candidates throughout the Empire have left their halls, and the examination is over.’

The manner in which subjects are handled may be readily illustrated

by introducing an essay upon this theme : ” When persons

in high stations are sincere in the performance of relative

and domestic duties, the people generally will be stimulated to

the practice of virtue.” It is a fair specimen of the jejune style

of Chinese essayists, and the mode of reasoning in a circle M’hick

pervades their writings.

“When the upper classes are really virtuous, the common people will inevitably become so. For, though the sincere performance of relative duties by superiors does not originate in a wish to stimulate the people, yet the people do become virtuous, which is a proof of the effect of sincerity. As benevolence is the radical principle of all good government in the world, so also benevolence is the radical principle of relative duties amongst the people. Traced back to its source, benevolent feeling refers to a first progenitor ; traced forward, it branches out to a hundred generations yet to come. The source of personal existence is one’s parents, the relations which originate from Heaven are most intimate; and that in which natural feeling blends is felt most deeply. That which is given by Heaven and by natural feeling to all, is done without any distinction between noble or ignoble. One feeling pervades all. My thoughts now refer to him who is placed in a station of eminence, and who may be called a good man. The good man who is placed in an eminent station, ought to lead forward the practice of virtue; but the way to do so is to begin with his own relations, and perform his duties to them.

” In the middle ages of antiquity, the minds of the people were not yet dissipated—how came it that they were not humble and observant of relative duties, when they were taught the principles of the five social relations V This having been the case, makes it evident that the enlightening of the people must depend entirely on the cordial performance of immediate relative duties. The person in an eminent station who may be called a good man, is he who appears at the head of all others in illustrating by his practice the relative duties.

‘ Blot, Essai sur VInstruction en Chine, p. 603.

EXAMPLE OF AN ESSAY. 555

To ages nearer to our own, the manners of the people were not far removed from the dutiful; how came it that any were disobedient to parents, and without

brotherly att’ectioii, and that it was yet necessary to restrain men by intiictiug

the eight forms of punishment ‘! This having been the case, shows tliat in the

various modes of obtaining promotion in the state, there is nothing regarded of

more importance than filial and fraternal duties. The person in an eminent

station who may be called a good man, is he who stands forth as an example of

the performance of relative duties.

” The difference between a person filling a high station and one of the common

people, consists in the dej^artment assigned them, not in their relation to

Heaven ; it consists in a difference of rank, not in a difference of natural feeling; but the common people constantly observe the sincere performance of relative duties in people of high stations. In being at the head of a family and preserving order amongst the persons of which it is composed, there should be sincere attention to politeness and decorum. A good man placed in a high station says, ‘ Who of all these are not related to me, and shall I receive them with mere external forms ‘?

‘ The elegant entertainment, the neatly arranged

tables, and the exhilarating song, some men esteem mere forms, but the good

man esteems that which dictates them as a divinely instilled feeling, and at

tends to it with a truly benevolent heart. And who of the common peoj^le

does not feel a share of the delight arising from fathers, and brothers, and

kindred ? Is this joy resigned entirely to princes and kings ?

” In favors conferred to display the benignity of a sovereign, there should

be sincerity in the kindness done. The good man says, ‘ Are not all these

persons whom I love, and shall I merely enrich them by largesses ? ‘ He gives

a branch as the sceptre of aiithority to a delicate 3’ounger brother, and to another

he gives a kingdom witli his best instructions. Some men deem this as

merely extraordinary good fortune, but the good man esteems it the exercise

of a virtue of the first order, and the effort of inexpressible benevolence.

But have the common people no regard for the spring whence the water flows,

nor for the root which gives life to the tree and its branches ? Have they no

regard for their kindred ? It is necessary both to reprehend and to urge them

to exercise these feelings. The good man in a high station is sincere in the

performance of relative duties, because to do so is virtuous, and not on account

of the common people. I3ut the people, without knowing whence the impulse

comes, witli joy and delight are influenced to act with zeal in this career of

virtue ; the moral distillation proceeds with rapidity, and a vast change is effected.

” The rank of men is exceedingly different ; some fill the imperial throne, but every one equally wishes to do his utmost to accomplish his duty ; and success depends on every individual himself. The upper classes begin and pour the wine into the rich goblet ; the poor man sows his grain to maintain his parents ; the men in high stations grasp the silver bowl, the poor present a pigeon ; they arouse each other to unwearied cheerful efforts, and the principles implanted by Heaven are moved to action. Some things are difficult to be done, except by those who possess the glory of national rule ; but the kind feeling is what I myself possess, and may increase to an unlimited degree.

The prince may write verses appropriate to his vine bower ; the poor man can think of his gourd shelter ; the prince may sing his classic odes on fraternal regards ; the poor man can muse on his more simple allusions to the same subject, and asleep or awake indulge his recollections ; for the feeling is instilled into his nature. When the people are aroused to relative virtues, they will be sincere ; for where are there any of the common people that do not desire to perform relative duties ? But without the upper classes performing relative duties, this virtuous desire would have no point from which to originate, and

therefore it is said, ‘Good men in high stations, as a general at the head of liis

armies, will lead forward the world to the practice of social virtues.’”

_\ The discipline of mind and memory wliicli these examinations

di’aw ont fm-nishes a grade of intellect which only needs the

friction and experience of public life to make statesmen out of

scholars, and goes far to account for the influence of Chinese in

Asia. The books studied in preparation for such trials must be

remembered with extraordinary accuracy,)though we may wish

they contained more truth and better science. The following

are among the questions proposed in 1853, and must be taken

as an average : ” In the Ilan dynasty, there were three commentators

on the J7A King^ whose explanations, and divisions

into chapters and sentences were all different : can you give an

account of them ?

“—” Sz’ma Tsien took the classics and ancient

records in arranging his history according to their facts ; some

have accused him of undulv exaltino; the Taoists and thinking

too highly of wealth and power. Pan Ku is clear and compreliensive,

but on Astronomy and the Five Elements, he has written

more than enough. Give examples and proof of these two

statements.”—” Chin Shao had admirable abilities for historical

writings. In his San Kiooh Chi he has depreciated Chu-koh

Liang, and made very light of t and I, two other celebrated

characters. What does he say of them ? ” This kind of

question involves a wide range of reading within the native literature,

though it of course contracts tlie mind to look upon that

literature as containing all that is worth anything in the world/J

( Twenty-five days are allowed for the examining board to de

cide on the essays ; and few tasks can be instanced moi-e irksome

to a board of honest examiners than the perusal of between flfty

and seventy-flve thousand papers on a dozen subjects, through

which the most monotonous uniformity nuist necessarily run,

ARDUOUS LABORS OF THE EXAMIXERS. 551

and out of wliich tliey have to choose the seventy or eighty best

—for the number of successful candidates cannot vary far from

this, according to the size of the province. The examiners, as

lias ah’eady been described, are aided by literary men in sifting

this mass of papers, which relieves them of most of the laboi”,

and secures a better decision. If the number of students be

five tliousand, and each writes thirteen essays,- there will be

sixty-five thousand papers, whicli allots two hundred and sixty

essays for each of the tenexamineivs. With the help of the assistants

who are intrusted with their examination, most of the essays obtain a reading, no doubt, by some qualified scholar.

There is, therefore, no little sifting and selection, so that when at the last the commissioners choose three rolls of essays and poems from each of the sessions belonging to the same scholar, to pass their final judgment, the company of candidates lilcely to succeed has been reduced as. small in proportion as those in Gideon’s host who lapped water. (One of the examining committee, in 183:2, who sought to invigorate his nerves or clear his intellect for the task by a pipe of opium, fell asleep in consequence, and on awaking, found that many of the essays had caught fire and been consumed. It is generally supposed that hundreds of them are unread, but the excitement of the occasion, and the dread on the part of the examining board to irritate the body of students, act as checks against gross omissions. Very trivial errors are enough to condemn an essay, especially if the examiners have not been gained to look upon it kindly. Section LIT. of the code

regulates the conduct of the examiners, but the punishments are

slight. One candidate, whose essay had been condenmed without

being read, printed it, which led to the punishment of the

examiner, degradation of the graduate, and promulgation of a

law forbidding this mode of appealing to the public. Another

essay was rejected because the writer had abbreviated a single characterj

When the names of the successful wranglers are known, they are published by a crier at midnight, on or before the tenth of the ninth moon ; at Canton, he mounts the highest tower, and, after a salute, announces them to the expectant city ; the next morning, lists of the lucky scholars are hawked about the streets, and rapidly sent to all parts of the province. The proclamat) m which contains their names is pasted upon the governor’s office under a salute of three guns ; his excellency comes out and bows three times towards the names of iha I’i’omoted men^ and retires under another salute. The disappointed multitude must then rejoice in the success of the few, and solace themselves with the hope of better luck next time ; while the successful ones are honored and feasted in a very distinguished manner, and are the objects of flattering attention from the whole city. On an appointed day, the governors, commissioners, and high provincial officers banquet them all at the futai’s palace; inferior officers attend as servants, and two lads, fantastically dressed, and holding fragrant branches of the olive(pleafragrans) in their hands

grace the scene with this symbol of literary attainments. The

number of A.M., licentiates, or kil-jtn, who triennially receive

their degrees in the Empire, is upwards of thirteen hundred :

the expense of the examinations to the government in various

ways, including the presents conferred on the graduates, can

hardly be less than a third of a million of taels. (Besides the

triennial examinations, special ones are held every ten years,

and on extraordinary occasions, as a victory, a new reign, or an

imperial marriage. One was granted in 1835 because the Empress-

dowager had reached her sixtieth year)

The third degree of tsln-sz\ ‘entered scholars,’ or doctors, is

conferred triennially at Peking upon the successful licentiates

who compete for it, and only those among the h’d-j’m., who have

not alread}’ taken office, are eligible as candidates. On application

at the provincial treasury, they are entitled to a part of their

travelling expenses to court, but it doubtless requires some interest

to get the mileage granted, for many poor scholars are detained

from the metropolitan examination, or nnist beg or bor

row in order to reach it. The procedure on this trial is the

same as in the provinces, but the examiners are of higher rank ;

the themes are taken from the same works, and the essays ai’e

but little else than repetitions of the same ti-ain of thought and

argument. After the degrees are conferred upon all who are

deeined worthy, which varies from one hundi-ed and fifty to four

hundred each time, the doctors are introduced to the Emperor,

EXAMINATIONS FOR TIIIKD AND FOUKTII DEGREES. 559

and do him reverence, the three highest receiving rewards from

him) At this examination, candidates, instead of being promoted,

are occasionally degraded from their acquired standing

for incompetency, and forbidden to appear at them again. VThe

graduates are all inscribed upon the list of candidates for promotion,

by the Board of Civil Office, to be appointed on the lirst

vacancy ; most of them do in fact enter on official life in some

way or other by attaching themselves to high dignitaries, or getting

employment in some of the departments at the capital-/

(One instance is recorded of a student taking all the degrees

within nine months ; and some become Tianlin before entering

office. Others try again and again, till gi’ay hairs compel them

to retire.) I’here are many subordinate offices in the Academy,

the Censorate, or the Boards, which seem almost to have been

instituted for the employment of graduates, whose success has

given them a partial claim upon the country. The Emperor

sometimes selects clever graduates to prepare works for the use

of government, or nominates them upon special literary commissions’”

‘ It can easily be understood that no small address in

managing and appeasing such a crowd of disciplined active

minds is required on the part of the bureaucracy, and only the

long experience of many generations of the graduates could suffice

to keep the system so vigorous as it is.

The fourth and highest degree of Jianlln is rather an office

than a degree, for those who attain it are enrolled as members

of the Imperial Academy, and receive salaries. The triennial

exatnination for this distinction is held in the Emperor’s palace,

and is conducted on much the same plan as all preceding ones,

though being in the presence of the highest personages in the

Empire, it exceeds them in honor.’ *^ Manchus and Mongols

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 541 ; Vol. III., p. 118.

2 See Morrison’s Chinese Dictionary, Vol. I., Part I., pp. 759-779, for the laws

and usages of the several trials. Also Doolittle’s Sucidl Life, Vol. I. , Chaps.

XV., XVI., and XVII. ; Biot, Essai snr VHistoirc de VInstruction PubUque en

Chine ; W. A. P. Martin, T/iC Chiiu’se, pp. 39 ff. ; Journal Asiatique, Tomes

III., pp. 257 and 331, IV., p. 3, and VII. (3d Series, 1839), pp. 32-81;

Journal Asiatic Soc. Benr/al, Vol. XXVIII., No. 1, 1859; Journal N. C. Br.

R. As. Soc, New Series, Vol. VI., pp. 129 ff. ; China Review, Vol. II., p

309.

compete at these trials with the Chinese, but many facts show

tliat the former are generally favored at the expense of the latter’;

the large proportion of men belonging to these races filling

high oflSces indicates who are the rulers of the landT] The candidates

are all examined at Peking ; one instance is recorded

of a Chinese who passed himself oif for a Mancliu, but afterward

confessed the dissimulation ; the head of the division was

tried in consequence of his oversight. It is the professed policy

of the govermnent to discourage literary pursuits among them,

in order to maintain tho ancient energy of the race ; but Avhero

the real power is lodged in the hands of civilian^^, it is impossible

to prevent so powerful a component of the population

from competing with the others for its possession.

The present dynasty introduced examinations and gradations

among the troops on the same principles as obtain in the civil

service ; nothing more strikingly proves the power of literary

pursuits in China, than this vain attempt to harmonize the profession

of arms in all its branches with them. Their enemies

were, however, no better disciplined and equipped than they

themselves were. Candidates for the first degree present

themselves before the district magistrate, with proper testimonials

and securities. On certain days they are collected on

the parade-grounds, and exhibit their skill in archery (on foot

and in the saddle), in wielding swords and lifting weights,

graduated to test their muscle. The successful men are assembled

afterward before the prefect ; and again at a third trial

before the literary chancellor, who at the last tripos tests them

on their literary attainments, before giving them their degrees

of siu-tsai. The number of successful military slu-tsal is tho

same as the literary. They are triennially called together by

tho governor at the provincial capital to undergo further examination

for Mi-jin in four successive trials of the same nature.

These occasions are usually great gala days, and three or four

scores of young warriors who carry off pi’izes at these tournaments

receive honors and degrees in much the same style as

their literary compeers. The trials for the highest degree are

lield at Peking ; and the long-continued efforts in this service

generally obtain for the young men posts in the body-guard of

COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS OF THE MILHARV. 561

the governors or staff uppointrneiits. The forty- nine successful

candidates out of several thousands at tlie trieiniial examination

for l-il-jln. in Canton, November, 1882, all hit the target on

foot six times successively, and on horseback six times ; once

with the arrow they hit a ball lying on the ground as they

passed it at a gallop ; and all were of the first class in wielding

the iron-handled battle-axe, and lifting the stone-loaded beam,

tl’he candidates are all persons of property, who find their own

horses, dresses, arms, etc., and are handsomely dressed, the

horses, trimmings, and accoutrements in good order—the arrows

being without barbs, to prevent accidents. One observer

says, ” the marks at wliich they fired, covered with white

paper, were about the height of a man and somewhat wider,

placed at intervals of fifty yards ; the object was to strike the>ie

marks successively with their three ari’ows, the horses be^.’g

kept at full speed. Although the bulTs-eye was not always

hit, the target was never missed : the distance did not exceed

fifteen or twenty feet.’y

(Since military honors depend so entirely on personal skill, it

may partly account f(jr the inferior rank the graduates hold in

comparison with civilians. I\^o knowledge of tactics, gunnery,

engineering, fortifications, or even, letters in general, seems to

be required of them; and this explains the inefficiency of the

army, and the low estimation its officers are held in. Sir J.

Davis mentions one military officer of enoi’mous size and

strength, Avhom. he saw on the Pei ho, who had lately been

promoted for his personal prowess ; and speaks of another attached

to the guard on one of the boats, who was such a foolish

fellow that none of the civilians would associate with him.”

All the classes eligible to civil promotion can enter the ^.sts for

military honors ; the Emperor is present at the examination for

the highest, and awards prizes, such as a cap decorated with a

peacock’s feather ; but no system of prizes or examinations can

supply the want of knowledge and courage. Military distinctions

not being much sought by the people, and conferring but

•Ellis, Embassy to China, p. 87; Chinese Repository, No\. XVI., p. 63;

Vol. IV., p. 125.

^ Davis, Sketches, Vol. I., pp. 99, 101.

little emolument or power, do not stand as high in public estimation as the present government wishes. The selection oi officers for the naval service is made from the land force, and a man is considered (piite as fit for that branch after his feats of archery, as if the trials had been in yacht-sailing or manning the yards. I

Such is the outline of the system of examinations through

which the civil and military services of the Chinese government

are supplied) and the only part of their system not to be

paralleled in one or other of the great monarchies of past or

present times ; though the counterpart of this may have also

existed in ancient Egypt. ” It is the only one of their inventions,”

as has been remarked, “which is perhaps worth preserving,

and has not been adopted by other countries, and carried

to greater perfection than they were equal to.” CBut such a

system w^ould be unnecessary in an enlightened Cliristian

country, where the people, pursuing study for its own sake, are

able and willing to become as learned as their rulers desire

without any such inducement. Nor M’ould they submit to the

trammels and trickery attendant on competition for office ; the

ablest politicians are by no means found among the most

learned scholars. The honor and power of official position

liave proved to be ample stimnlus and reward for years of

patient study, (^ot one in a score of graduates ever obtains an

office, not one in a hundred of competitors ever gets a degree ;

but they all belong to the literary class, and share in its influence,

dignity, and privileges. Moreover, these books render

not only those who get the prizes well acquainted with the true

principles on which power should be exercised, but the whole

nation—gentry and commoners—know them also. These unemployed

literati form a powerful middle class, whose members

advise the work-people, who have no time to study, and aid

ri their rulers in the management of local affairs. Their intelligence

fits them to control most of the property, while few

acquire such wealth as gives them the power to oppress. They

make the public opinion of the country, now controlling it,

then cramping it; alternately adopting or resisting new influences,

and sometimes successfully thwarting the acts of officials,

OBSERVATIONS UPON THE SYSTEM. 503

when the rights of the people are in danger of encroachment

;

or at other times combining with tlie authorities to repress anarchy

or relieve suffering.’

(This class has no badge of I’ank, and is open to every man’s

highest talent and efforts, but its complete neutralization of

hereditary rights, which would have sooner or later made a

privileged uligari^iij anil-aJiUJdeifiiLfeiKhLLMi§tQcracy, proves

its vitalizing, democratic influence.) It has saved the Chinese’

people from a second disintegration into numerous kingdoms,

by the sheer force of instruction in the political rights and

duties taught in the classics and their conmientaries. f While

this system put all on equality, human nature, as we know, has

no such equality. .Vt its inception it probably met general

support from all classes, because of its fitness for the times, and

soon the resistance of multitudes of hopeful students against

its abrogation and their consequent disappointment in their lifework

aided its continuance.^ As it is now, talent, wealth, learning,

influence, paternal raidc, and intrigue, each and all have

full scope for their greatest efforts in securing the prizes. If

these prizes had been held by a tenure as slippery as they

are at present in the American Republic, or obtainable only

by canvassing popular votes, the system would surely have

failed, for ” the game would not have been worth the candle.”

But in China the throne gives a character of pernumency to

the government, which opposes all disorganizing tendencies,

and makes it for the interest of every one in ofiice to strengthen

the power which gave it to him. This loyalty was remarkably

shown in the recent rebellion, in which, during the eighteen

years of that terrible carnage and ruin, not one imperial official

voluntarily joined the Tai-pings, while hundreds died resisting

them.

There is no space here for further extracts from the classics

which will adequately show their character. They would prove

that Chinese youth, as well as those in Christian lands, are

taught a higher standard of conduct than they follow. The

former are, however^ drilled in the very best moral books the

language affords ; if the Proverbs of Solomon and the New Testament were studied as thoroughly in our schools as the Four Books are in China, our young- ineu would be better fitted to act their part as good and useful citizens.

fin this way literary pursuits have taken precedence of warlike,

and no unscrupulous (“sesar or ]^apoleon has heen able to

use the army for his own aggrandizement. The army of

Cliina is contemptible, certainly, if compared with those of

Western nations, and its use is rather like a police, whose powers

of protection or oppression are exhibited according to the

tempers of those Avho employ them. But in China the army

has not been employed, as it was by those great captains, to

destroy the institutions oti ^vhich it rests ; though its weakness

and want of discipline often make it a greater evil than good to

the people.) But had the military waxed strong and efficient,

it would certainly have l)ecome a terror in the hands of ambitious

monarchs, a drain on the resources of the land, pci-haps

a menace to other nations, or finally a destroyer of its own.

(The officials were taught, when young, what to honor in their

rulers ; and, now that they liold those stations, they learn that

discreet, upright magistrates do receive reward and promotion,

and experience has shown them that peace and thrift are the

ends and evidence of good government, and the best tests of

their own fitness for office.?

Another observable result of this republican method of getting

the best-educated men into office is the absence of any

class of slaves or serfs among the population. Slavery exists in

a modified form of corporeal mortgage for debt, and thousands

remain in this serfdom for life through one reason or another.

But the destruction of a feudal baronage involved the extinction

of its correlative, a villein class, and the oppression of

poor debtors, as Avns the case in Rome under the consuls. Only

freemen are eligil>le to enter the concoKfs^ but the percentage

of slaves is too snuill to influence the total. To this cause, too,

may, perhaps, to a large degree, be ascribed the absence of

anything like caste, which has had such bad effects in India.

<‘^The system could not be transplanted ; it is fitted for the

‘genius of the Chinese, and they have become well satisfied

with its workings, jits purification would do great good, doubtless,

if the mass or^the people are to be left in their present

VARIOUS KKSl’LTS TO THE LAND AND PKOI’LIO. 565

state of ignoi’ance, but their elevation in knowledge would, ere

long, revolutionize the whole. There can be no doubt as to

tlie important and beneficial i-esnlts it has accomplished, with / .

all its defects, in perpetuating and strengthening the system of

government, and securing to the people a more equitable and

vigorous body of magistrates than they could get in any other

way. It offers an honorable career to the most ambitious, taleiited,

or turbulent spirits in the country, which demands all

their powers ; and by the time they enter upon office, those

aspirations and powers have been drilled and molded into use-

1

ful service, and are ever after devoted to the maintenance of \

the system they might otherwise have wrecke^.f Most of the

real benefits of Chinese education and this sj’sfem of examinations

are reached before the conferment of the degree of Ixujin.

These consist in diffusing a general respect and taste for

letters among the people ; in calling out the true talent of the

country to the notice of the rulers in an honorable path of effort

; in making all persons so thoroughly acquainted -with the

best moral books in the language that they cannot fail to exercise

some salutary i-estraint ; in elevating the genei-al standard

of education so much that every man is almost compelled to

give his son a little learning in order that he may get along in

life ; and finally, through all these influences, powerfully contributing

to uphold the existing institutions of the Empire.

From the intimate knowledge thus obtained of the writings

of their best minds, Chinese youth learn the principles of democratic

nde as opposed to personal authority ; and from this instruction

it has resulted that no monarch has evei* been able to

use a standing army to enslave the people, or seize the proceeds

of their industry for his own selfish ends^’ Nothing in Chinese

politics is more worthy of notice than the unbounded reverence

for the Emperor, while each man resists unjust taxation, and

joins in killing or driving away oppressive officials. [Educated

men form the only aristocracy in the land ; and the attainment

of the first degree, by introducing its owner into the class of

gentnj, is considered ample compensation for all the expense

and study spent in getting it. On the whole, it may safely be

asserted that these examinations have done more to maintain the stability, and explain the continuance, of the Chinese government than any other single canse.)

Ijhe principal defects and malversations in the system can

soon be shown. Some are inherent, but others rather prove

the badness of the material than of the system and its harmonious

workings. One great difRcnlty in the way of the graduated

students attaining office according to their merits is the

favor shown to those who can buy nominal and real honors.

“”Two_censm:g^,-ill–1822, laid a document before his Majesty, in

M’hich the evils attendant on selling office are shown ; viz., elevating

priests, highwaymen, merchants, and other unworthy or

uneducated men, to responsible stations, and placing insurmountable

difficulties in the way of hard-working, worthy students

reaching the reward of their toi^ They state that the

plan of selling offices connnenced during the II an dynasty, but

speak of the greater disgrace attendant upon the plan at the

present time, because the avails all go into the privy purse instead

of being applied to the public service ; they recommend,

therefore, a reduction in the disbursements of the imperial estal)

iishment. LVniong the items mentioned by these oriental

Joseph Humes, which they consider extravagant, are a lac of

taels (100,000) for tlowers and rouge in the seraglio, and 120,-

000 in salaries to waiting-boys ; two lacs were expended on the

gardens of Yuenming, and almost half a million of taels upon

the parks at Jeh ho, while the salaries to officers and presents

to women at Yuenming were over four lacs. ” If these few

items of expense were abolished,” they add, “there would be a

saving of moi’e than a million of taels of useless expenditure

;

talent might be brought forward to the service of the country,

and the people’s wealth be secured.”

i^n consequence of the extensive sale of offices, they state

that more than five thousand ^.s/;? -,<?.;’ doctors, and more than

twenty-seven thousand l-il-j’ui licentiates, arc waiting for employment

; and those first on the list obtained their degrees

thirty years ago, so that the pi-obability is that when at last

employed, they will be too old for service, and be declared

superannuated in the first examination of official merits and demerits.

The rules to be observed at the regular examinations

ITS rilACTICAL DEFECTS AND CORRUPTION. 067

are strict, but no questions are asked the buyers of office ; and

they enter, too, on their duties as soon as the money is paid.

The censors quote tliree sales, ^vhose united proceeds amounted

to a quarter of a million of taels, and state that the whole income

from this source for twenty years was only a few lacs.

Examples of the flagitious conduct of these purse-proud magistrates

are quoted in proof of the bad results of the plan.

” Thus the priest Siang Yang, prohibited from holding office,

bought his way to one ; the intcndant at Xingpo, from being a

mounted highwayman, bought his M’ay to office ; besides others

of the vilest parentage. But the covetousness and cruelty of

these men are denominated purity and intelligence ; they inflict

severe punishments, which make the people terrified, and

their superiors point them out as possessing decision : these are

our able officers !

“/^

After animadverting on the general practice “of all officers,

from governor-generals down to village magistrates, combining

to gain their jMU-poses l)y hiding the truth from the sovereign,”

and specifying the malversations of Tohtsin, the premier, in

particular, they close their paper with a protestation of their

integrity. “If your Majesty deems what we have now stated

to be right, and will act thereon in the government, you will

realize the designs of the souls of your sacred ancestors; and

the army, the nation, and the poor people, M’ill have cause for

gladness of heart. Should we be subjected to the operation of

the hatchet, or suffer death in the boiling caldron, we will not

decline it,”

These censors place the proceeds of “button scrip “far too

low, for/in 1826, the sale produced about six millions of taels,

and was continued at intervals during the three following

years. In 1831, one of the sons of HoAvqua was created a

ku-jin by patent for having subscribed nearly fifty thousand

dollars to repair the dikes near Canton ; and upon another was

conferred the rank and title of ” director of the salt monopoly”

for a lac of taels toward the war in Turkestan, Neither of

these persons ever held any office of power, nor probably did

they expect it ; and such may be the case with many of those

who are satisfied with the titles and buttons, feathers and robes, which their money procures./ The sale of office is rather accepted

as a State necessity which does not necessarily bring

tyrants npon the bench ; but when, as was the case in 1863.

Peiching, head of the Examining Board at Peking, fraudulently

issued two or three diplomas, his execution vindicated

the law, and deterred similar tampering with the life-springs of

the system, ^i^uring the present dynasty, military men have

l)een frequently appointed to magistracies, and the detail of

their offices intrusted to needy scholars, which has tended, still

further, to disgii^ and dishearten the latter from resorting to

the literary arena.)

The language itself of the Chinese, which has for centuries

aided in preserving their institutions and strengthening national

homogeneity amid so many local varieties of speech, is now

rather in the way of their progress, and may be pointed to as

another unfortunate feature which infects this system of education

and examination ; for it is impossible for a native to write

a treatise on grammar about another language in his own

tongue, through which another Chinese can, unaided, learn to

speak that language. This people have, therefore, no ready

means of learning the best thoughts of foreign minds. Such

being the case, the ignorance of their first scholars as regards

other races, ages, and lands has been their misfortune far more

than their fault, and thej’ have suffered the evils of their isolation.

One has been an utter ignorance of what would have

conferred lasting benefit resulting from the study of outside

conceptions of morals, science, and politics, (inasmuch as

neither geography, natural history, mathematics, nor the history

or languages of other lands forms part of the curriculum,

these men, trained alone in the classics, have naturally grown

up with distorted views of their own country. The officials

are imbued with conceit, ignorance, and arrogance as to its

power, resources, and comparative influence, and are helpless

when met by greater skill or strength. However, these disadvantages,

great as they are and have been, have mostly resulted

naturally fi-om their secluded position, and are rapidly yielding

to the new influences which are acting upon government and

people.^ To one contemplating this startling metamorphosis,

SALE OF DEGREES a:ND FORGED DIPLOMAS. D6j)

the foremost wish, indeed, must he that these causes do not

disinte^’-rate their ancient economies too fast for the recuperation

and preservation of wliatever is good therein.

|\nother evil is ^h^ bribery practised to attain the degrees.

By certain signs placed on the essays, the examiner can easily

pick out those he is to approve; §8,000 was said to be the

price of a bachelor’s degree in Canton, but this sum is within

the reach of few out of the six thousand candidates. The poor

SL’liolars sell their services to tlie rich, and for a certain price

will enter the hall of examination, and personate their employer,

running the risk and penalties of a disgraceful exposure if

detected ; for a less sum they will drill them before examination,

or write the essays entirely, which the rich booby must commit

to memory.) ^The purchase of forged diplomas is another mode

of obtaining a graduate’s honors, which, from some discoveries

made at Peking, is so extensively practised, that when this and

other corruptions are considered, it is surprising that any person

can be so eager in his studies, or confident of his abilities,

as ever to think he can get into office by them alone. In 1830,

the Gazette contained some documents showing that an inferior

officer, aided by some of the clerks in the Board of Hevenue,

during the successive superintendence of twenty presidents of

the Board had sold twenty thousand four hundred and nineteen

foi-ged diplomas ; and in the ])rovince of Xganhwui, the

writers in the office attached to the Board of Ileveuue had

carried on the same practice for four years, and forty-six persons

in that province were convicted of possessing them. All

the principal criminals convicted at this time were sentenced to

decapitation, butCjhese cases are enough to show that the real

talent of the country does not often find its way into the magistrate’s

seat without the aid of money ; nor is it likely that the

tales of such delinquencies often appear in the Gazette. Literary

chancellors also sell bachelors’ degrees to the exclusion of

deserving poor scholars ; the office of the // ‘lohchhuj of Kiangsi

was searched in 1828 by a special commission, and four lacs of

taels found in it ; he hung himself to avoid further punishment,

as did also the same dignitary in (^anton in 1833, as was supposed,

for a similar cause. It is in this way, no doubt, that the ill-fjotten o;ains of most officers return to the o-enenil cirdilation.’

Notwithstanding these startling corruptions, which seem to

involve the principle on which the harmony and efficiency of

the whole machinery of state stand, it cannot be denied, judging

from tlie results, that the highest officei’s of the Chinese

government do possess a very respectable rank of talent and

knowledge, and carry on the unwieldy machine with a degree

(»f integrity, pati’iotism, industry, and good order which shows

that the leading minds in it are well chosen. The person who

has originally obtained his rank by a forged diploma, or by

direct purchase, cannot hope to rise or to maintain even his first

standing, without some knowledge and parts. One of the tlu’ce

commissioners whom Kiying associated with himself in his

negotiations with the American minister in lS4-i, was a supernumerary

cluhloi of forbidding appearance, who could hardly

Avrite a common document, but it was easy to see the low estimation

the ignoranms was hold in. It may therefore be fairly

inferred that enough large prizes are drawn to incite successive

generations of scholars to compete for them, and thus to maintain

the literary spirit of the people. At these examinations

the superior minds of the country are brought together in large

bodies, and thus they learn each others views, and are able to

check official oppressions with something like a public ojunion.

In Peking the concourse of several thousands, from the remotest

provinces, to compete at or assist in the triennial examinations,

exerts a great and healthy influence upon their rulers

and themselves. jSTothing like it ever has been seen in any

other metropolis.

^The enjoyment of no small degree of power and influence in

their native village, is also to be considered in estinuiting the

rewards of studious toil, whether the student get a diploma or

not ; and this local consideration is the most common i-eward

attending the life of a scholar. ^ In those villages where no

governmental officer is specially appointed, such men are almost

sure to become the headmen and most influential persons in the

very spot)where a Chinese loves to be distinguished, (rraduates

are likewise allowed to erect flag-staffs, or put up a red sign

INFLUENCE AND IlESPECT OBTAINED BY BACHELORS. 57]

over the door of tlieir lionses si lowing tlie degree tliev have obtained,

wliich is both a hariuloss and gratifying reward of

stud}’/; like the additions of Cant((h. or Odvu.^ D.D. or LL.D.,

to their owner’s names in other lands.

(The fortune attending the unsuccessful candidates is various/

Thousands of them get employment as school-teachers, pettifogging notaries, and clerks in the public offices, and others who are rich return to their families. Some are reduced by degrees to beggary, and resort to medicine, fortune-telling, letter-writing, and other such shifts to eke out a living. Many turn their attention to learning the modes of drawing up deeds and forms used in dealings regarding property ; others look to aiding military men in their duties, and a few turn authors, and thus in one way or another contrive to turn their learning to account.

During the period of the examinations, when the students are assembled in the capital, the officers of government are careful not to irritate them by punishment, or offend their €ii]^>i-it ile corj)s^ but rather, by admonitions and warnings, induce them to set a good example. The personal reputation of the officer himself has much to do with the influence he exerts over the students, and whether they will heed his cdveats. One of the examiners in Zhejiang, irritated by the impei’tinence of a bachelor, who presumed upon his immunity from corporeal chastisement, twisted his ears to teach him better manners; soon after, the student and two others of equal degree were accused before the same magistrate for a libel, and one of them beaten forty strokes upon his palms. At the ensuing examination, ten of the xiucai indignant at this unauthorized treatment, refused to appear, and all the candidates, when they saw who was to preside, dispersed immediately. In his memorial upon the matter, the governor-general recommends both this officer, and another one who talked much al)Out the affair and produced a great effect upon the public mind, to be degraded, and the bachelors to be stripped of their honors. A magistrate of Honan, having punished a student with twenty blows, the assembled body of students rose and threw their caps on the ground, and walked ofp, leaving him alone. The prefect of Canton, in 1842, having become obnoxious to the citizens from the part lie took in ransoming the city M’lien surrounded by the British forces, the students refused to receive him as their examiuer, and when he appeai’ed in tlie liall to take his seat,

drove him out of the room by throwing their ink-stones at him ;

he soon after resigned his statio’N. Perhaps the siu-tsai are

more impatient than the hu-jin from being better acquainted

with eacli other, and being examined by local officers, while the

I’il-jin are overaw’ed by the rank of the commissioners, and,

coming from distant parts of a large province, have little

}mitual sympathy or acquaintance. The examining boards,

however, take pains to avoid displeasing any gathering of graduates.

We have seen, then, in what has been of necessity a somewhat

cursory resmue, the management and extent of an institution

which has opened the avenues of rank to all, by

teaching candidates how to maintain the principles of liberty

and equality they had learned from their oft-quoted ‘ancients.’

All that these institutions need, to secure and promote the highest welfare of the people—as they themselves, indeed, aver—is their faithful execution in every department of government; as we find them, no higher evidence of their remarkable wisdom can be adduced, than the general order and peace of the land. When one sees the injustice and oppressions in law courts, the feuds and deadly fights among clans, the prevalence of lying, ignorance, and pollution among commoners, and the unscrupulous struggle for a living going on in every rank of life, he wonders that Tuiiversal anarchy does not destroy the whole machine. But ‘ the powers that be are ordained of God.”

The Chinese seem to have attained the great ends of human government to as high a degree as it is possible for man to go without the knowledge of divine revelation. That, in its great truths, its rewards, its hopes, and its stimulus to good acts has yet to be received among them. The course and results of the struggle between the new and the old in the land of Sinim will fomi a remarkable chapter in the history of man.

FKMA^ EDUCATION IX CHINA. 573

With regard to female education, it is a singular anomaly among Chinese writers, that while they lay great stress upon maternal instruction in f(u-ining the infant mind, and leading i* on to exoelleiK’O, no more of them should have turned their attention to the preparation ©f hooks for girls, and the establishment of female schools. There are some reasons for the absence of the latter to be found in the state of society, notable among which must stand, of course, the low position of woman in every oriental community, and a general contempt for the capacity of the female mind. It is, moreover, impossible to procure many qualified schoolmistresses, and to this we must add the hazard of sending girls out into the streets alone, where they would run some risk of being stolen. (^~~The principal stimulus

for boys to study—the hope aiid:”~pi”ospect of office—is

taken away from girls, and Chinese literature offei’s little to re-|

pay them for the labor of learning it in addition to all the

domestic duties which devolve upon them// Nevertheless, education

is not entirely confined to the sti-onger sex ; seminaries

for young women are not at all unconnnon in South China, and

it is not unusual to find private tutors giving instruction to

young ladies at their houses.* Though this must be regarded

as a comparative statement, and holding much more for the

southern than for the northern provinces, on the other hand, it

may be asserted that literary attainments are considered creditable

to a wonuin, more than is the case in India or Siam ; the

names of authoresses mentioned in Chinese annals would make

a long list. Yuen Yuen, tlie governor general of Canton, in

1S20, while in office, published a volume of his deceased’s

daughter’s poetical effusions ; and literary men ai-e usually desirous

of having their daughters accomplished in music and

poetry, as well as in composition and classical lore. Such an

education is considered befitting their station, and reflecting

credit on the family.

One of the most celebrated female writers in China is Pan

Ilwui-pan, also known as Pan Chao, a sister of the historian

Pan Ivu, who wrote the histoiy of the former Ilan dynasty.

She M’as appointed historiographer after his death, and completed

his unfinished annals ; she died at the age of seventy,

and was honored by the Emperor Ho with a public burial, and

‘ Arcluleacon Gray, China, Vol. I., p. 167.

the title of the (ireat Lady Tsao. About a.d. So, slie was made

pi”eeeptress of tlie Empress, and wrote the Urst woi-k in any

language on female education ; it was called Nil Kiai or Fe-

‘inale Precej’ts^ and has formed the basis of many succeeding

books on female education. The aim of her writings was to

elevate female character, and make it virtuous. She says, ” The

virtue of a female does not consist altogether in extraordinary

abilities or intelligence, but in being modestly grave and inviolably

chaste, observing the requirements of virtuous widowhood,

and in being tidy in her person and evei-ything about

her ; in whatever she does to be unassmning, and M’henever she

moves or sits to be decorous. This is female virtue.” Instruction

in morals and the various branches of domestic economy

are more insisted upon in the Mi-itings of this and other authoresses,

than a knowledge of the classics or histories of the country.

One of the most distinguished Chinese essayists of modern

times, Luhchau, published a Avork for the benefit of the sex,

called the Female Instructor j an extract from liis preface will

show what ideas are generally entertained on female education

by Chinese moralists.

” The basis of the government of the Empire lies in the habits of the people, and the surety that their usages will be correct is in the orderly management of families, which last depends chiefly upon the females. In the good old times of Cliau, the virtuous women set such an excellent example that it influenced the customs of the Empire—an influence that descended even to the times of the Ching and Wei states. If the curtain of the inner apartment gets thin, or is hung awry [i.e., if the sexes are not kept apart], disorder will enter the family, and viltimately pervade the Empire. Females are doubtless the sources of good manners ; from ancient times to the present this has been the case. The inclination to virtue and vice in women differs exceedingly; their dispositions incline contrary ways, and if it is wished to form them alike, there is nothing like education. In ancient times, youth of both sexes were

in.structed. According to the A’rtwa^ 0/ 67</<m, ‘the imperial wives regulated the law for educating females, in order to instruct the ladies of the palace in morals, conversation, manners, and work ; and each led out her respective

(dasses, at proper times, and arranged them for examination in the imperial

presence.’ But these treatises have not reached us, and it cannot be distinctljr

ascertained what was their plan of arrangement

“The t^lncation of a woman and that of a man arc* very <lissimilar. Tlius,

a man can study during his whole life ; whether he is abroad or at home, lit

THE “female IISrSTRUCTOR” ON WOMEN”. 575

can always look into the classics and history, and liecome thorouglily ac-nainted

wilh the wlioUi range of authors, lint a woman does not study mori; than ten

years, when she takes upon her the management of a family, whave a multiplicity

of cares distract her attention, and having no leisure lor undisturbed

study, she cannot easily understand learned authors ; not having obtained a

thorough acquaintance with letters, she does not fully comprehend their principles

; and like water that has flowed from its fountain, she cannot regulate

lier conduct by their guidance. How can it be said that a standard work on

female education is not wanted 1 Every profession and trade has its appropriate

master ; and ought not those also who possess sucli an influence over manners

[as females] to be tanght their duties and tluir proper limits ? It is a

matter of regret, that in these books no extracts liave been made from the

works of Confucius in order to make them introductory to the writings on polite

literature ; and it is also to be regretted that selections have not been made

from the commentaries of Clung, Chu, and other scholars, who have explained

his writings clearly, as also from the whole range of writers, gathering from

them all that which was appropriate, and omitting the rest. These are circulated

among mankind, together with such books as the Juvenile InstrucU/i’

;

yet if they are put into the hands of females, they cause them to become like a

blind man without a guide, wandering hither and thither without knowing

where he is going. There has been this great deficiency from very remote times until now.

“Woman’s influence is according to her moral character, there Tore that point

is largely explained. First, concerning her obedience to her husband and to

liis parents ; then in regard to her complaisance to his brothers and sisters,

and kindness to her sisters-in-law. If unmarried, she has duties toward her

parents, and to the wives of her elder brothers ; if a principal wiie, a woman

must have no jealous feelings ; if in straitened circumstances, she must be

contented with her lot ; if rich and honorable, she must avoid extravagance

and haughtiness. Then teach her, in times of trouble and in days of ease,

how to maintain her purity, how to give importance to right principles, how

to observe widowhood, and how to avenge the murder of a relative. Is she

a mother, let her teach lier children ; is she a step-mother, let her love

and cherish her husband’s children ; is her rank in life high, let her be

condescending to her inferiors ; let her wholly discard all sorcerers, superstitious

nuns, and witches ; in a word let her adhere to propriety and avoid

vice.

“In conversation, a female should not be freward and garrulous, but observe

strictly what is correct, whether in suggesting advice to her husband, in

remonstrating with him, or teaching her children, in maintaining etiquette,

humbly imparting her experience, or in averting misfortune. The deportment

of females should be strictly grave and sober, and yet adapted to the occasion

; whether in waiting on her parents, receiving or reverencing her husband,

rising up or sitting down, when pregnant, in times ol’ mourning, or when

fleeing in war, she should be perfectly decorous. Rearing the silkworm and

working cloth are the most important of the employments of a female ; pre’

paring and serving up the food for the household, and setting lu order th* sacrificee, follow next, each of which must be attended to ; after them, studj

and learning can fill up the time.” ‘

The work thus prefaced, is similar to Sprague’s Letters to a

Daughter, rather than to a text-book, or a inaiiual intended to

be read and obeyed rather than recited by young ladies. Happy

would it be for the country, however, if the instructions given

by this moralist were followed ; it is a credit to a pagan, to write

such sentiments as the followinor : ” Durino; infancv, a child ardently

loves its mother, who knows all its traits of goodness: while the father, perhaps, cannot know about it, there is nothing

which the mother does not see. Wherefore the mother teaches

more effectually, and only by her unwise fondness does her son

become more and more proud (as musk by age becomes sourer

and stronger), and is thereby nearly ruined.”—*’ Heavenly order

is to bless the good and curse the vile ; he who sins against it

will certainly receive his punishment sooner or later : from lucid

instruction springs the happiness of the world. If females are

unlearned, they will be like one looking at a wall, they will know

nothing : if they are taught, they will know, and knowing they

will imitate their examples.”

It is vain to expect, however, that any change in the standing

of females, or extent of their education, will take place until influences

from abroad are brought to bear upon them—until the

same work that is elswhere elevating them to their proper place

in society by teaching them the principles on which that elevation

is founded, and how they can themselves maintain it, is

begun. The Chinese do not, by any means, make slaves of their

females, and if a comparison be made between their condition in

China and other modern unevangelized countries, or even with

ancient kingdoms or Moslem races, it will in many points acquit

them of much of the obloquy they have received on this behalf.

There are some things which tend to show that more of the

sex read and write sufficiently for the ordinary purposes of life,

than a slight examination would at first indicate. Among these

may be mentioned the letter-writers compiled for their use, in

which instructions are given for every variety of note and epis-

‘ Chinese lieposltorij, Vol. IX., p. 543.

EXTRACT FROM A GIHLs’ PRIMER. 577

tie, except, perhaps, love letters. The works just inentioiied, intended

for their improvement, form an additional fact. A

Mancliu official of rank, named Sin-kwau, who rose to be governor

of Kiangsi in Kiaking’s reign, wrote a primer in 1838, for

girls, called the Nu-rh Yu, or ‘ Words/or Women and Girls.”

It is in lines of four characters, and consists of aphorisms and

short pi-ecepts on household management, behavior, care of

children, neatness, etc., so written as to be easily memorized.

It shows one of the ways in which literary men interest themselves, in educating youth, and further that there is a demand for such books. A few lines from this primer will exhibit its tenor
Vile looks should never meet your eye,
Nor filthy words defile your ear ;
Ne’er look on men of utterance gross,
Nor tread the ground which they pollute.
Keep back the heart from thoughts impure,
Nor let your hands grow fond of sloth ;
Then no o’ersight or call deferred
Will, when you’re pressed, demand your time
In all your care of tender babes,
Mind lest they’re fed or warmed too much;
The childish liberty first granted
Must soon he checked by rule and rein;
Guard them from water, fire, and fools ;
Mind lest they’re hurt or maimed by falls.
All flesh and fruits when ill with colds
Are noxious drugs to tender bairus—
Who need a careful oversight,
Yet want some license in their play.
Be strict in all you bid them do.
For this will guard from ill and woe.

The pride taken by girls in showing their knowledge of letters is evidence that it is not common, while the general respect in which literary ladies ai-e held proves them not to be so very rare ; though for all practical good, it may be said that half of the Chinese people know nothing of books. The fact that female education is so favorably regarded is encouraging to those philanthropic persons and ladies who are endeavoring to establish female schools at the mission stations, since they have not preiudice to contend with in addition to ignorance.

The Middle Kingdom: A SURVEY OP THE GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT. LITERATURE, SOCIAL LIFE, ARTS, AND HISTORY of THE CHINESE EMPIRE ITS INHABITANTS
S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D.， Professor of the Chinese language and literature at tale college; author or TONIC AND STLLABIO DICTIONARIES OF THE CHINESE LANOUAOE
1913

PREFACE
During the thirty-five years which have elapsed since the first edition of this work was issued, a greater advance has probably been made in the political and intellectual development of China than within any previous century of her history. While neither the social habits nor principles of government have so far altered as to necessitate a complete rewriting of these pages, it will be found, nevertheless, that the present volumes treat of a reformed and in many respects modern nation. Under the new regime the central administration has radically increased its authority among the provincial rulers, and more than ever in former years has managed to maintain control over their pretentions. The Empire has, moreover, established its foreign relations on a well-understood basis by accredited envoys; this will soon affect the mass of the people by the greater facilities of trade, the presence of travelers, diffusion of education, and other agencies which are awaking the people from their lethargy. Already the influences which will gradually transform the face of society are mightily operating.
The changes which have been made in the book comprise such alterations and additions as were necessary to describe the country under its new aspects. In the constant desire to preserve a convenient size, every doubtful or superfluous sentence has been erased, while the new matter incorporated has increased the bulk of the present edition about one-third. The arrangement of chapters is the same. The first four, treating of the geography, combine as many and accurate details of recent explorers or residents as the proportions of this section will permit. The extra-provincial regions are described from the researches of Russian, English, and Indian travelers of the last twenty years. It is a waste, mountainous territory for the most part and can never support a large population. Great pains have been taken by the cartographer, Jacob Wells, to consult the most authentic charts in the construction of the map of the Empire. By collating and reducing to scale the surveys and route charts of reliable travelers throughout the colonies, he has produced in all respects as accurate a map of Central Asia as is at this date possible. The Eighteen Provinces are in the main the same as in my former map.
The chapter on the census remains for the most part without alteration, for until there has been a methodical inspection of the Empire, important questions concerning its population must be held in abeyance. It is worth noticing how generally the estimates in this chapter—or much larger figures—have since its first publication been accepted for the population of China. Foreign students of natural history in China have. by their researches in every department, furnished material for more extensive and precise descriptions under this subject than could possibly have been gathered twoscore years ago. The sixth chapter has, therefore, been almost wholly rewritten, and embraces as complete a summary of this wide field as space would allow or the general reader tolerate. The specialist will, however, speedily recognize the fact that this rapid glance serves rather to indicate how immense and imperfectly explored is this subject than to describe whatever is known.

That portion of the first volume treating of the laws and their administration does not admit of more than a few minor changes. However good their theory of jurisprudence, the people have many things to bear from the injustice of their rulers, but more from their own vices. The Peking Gazette is now regularly translated in the Shanghai papers, and gives a coup devil of the administration of the highest value.

The chapters on the languages and literature are considerably improved. The translations and text-books which the diligence of foreign scholars has recently furnished could be only partially enumerated, though here, as elsewhere in the work, references in the foot-notes are intended to direct the more interested student to the bibliography of the subject, and present him with the materials for an exhaustive study. The native literature is extensive, and all branches have contributed somewhat to form the resume which is contained in this section, giving a preponderance to the Confucian classics. The four succeeding chapters contain notices of the arts, industries, domestic life, and science of the Chinese—a necessarily rapid survey, since these features of Chinese life are already well understood by foreigners. Nothing, however, that is either original or peculiar has been omitted in the endeavor to portray their social and economic characteristics. The emigration of many thousands of the people of Kwangtung within the last thirty years has made that province a representative among foreign nations of the others; it may be added that its inhabitants are well fitted, by their enterprise, thrift, and maritime habits, to become types of the whole.

The history and chronology are made fuller by the addition of several facts and tables_{(An alphabetical arrangement of all the tables scattered throughout the work may be found, under this word in the Index.)} ; but the field of research in this direction has as yet scarcely been defined, and few certain dates have been determined prior to the Confucian era. The entire continent of Asia must be thoroughly investigated in its geography, antiquities, and literature in order to throw light on the eastern portion. The history of China offers an interesting topic for a scholar who would devote his life to its elucidation from the mass of native literature.
The two chapters on the religions, and what has been done within the past half century to promote Christian missions, are somewhat enlarged and brought down to the present time. The study of modern scholars in the examination of Chinese religious beliefs has enabled them to make comparisons with other systems of Asiatics, as well as discuss the native creeds with more certainty.
The chapter on the commerce of China has an importance commensurate with its growing amount. Within the past ten years the opium trade has been attacked in its moral and commercial bearings between China, India, and England. There are grounds for hope that the British Government will free itself from any connection with it, which will be a triumph of justice and Christianity. The remainder of Volume II. Describes events in the intercourse of China with the outer world, including a brief account of the Tai-ping Rebellion, which proximately grew out of foreign ideas. No connected or satisfactory narrative of the events which have forced one of the greatest nations of the world into her proper position, so far as I am aware, has as yet been prepared. A succinct recital of one of the most extraordinary developments of modern times should nut be without interest to all.
The work of condensing the vast increase of reliable information upon China into these two volumes has been attended with considerable labor. Future writers will, I am convinced, after the manner of Richthofen, Yule, Legge, and others, confine themselves to single or cognate subjects rather than attempt such a comprehensive synopsis as is here presented. The number of illustrations in this edition is nearly doubled, the added ones being selected with particular reference to the subject-matter. I have availed myself of whatever sources of information I could command, due acknowledgment of which is made in the foot-notes, and ample references in the Index.
The revision of this book has been the slow though constant occupation of several years. When at last I had completed the revised copy and made arrangements as to its publication, in March, 1882, my health failed, and under a partial paralysis I was rendered incapable of further labor. My son, Frederick Wells Williams, who had already looked over the copy, now assumed entire charge of the publication. I had the more confidence that he would perform the duties of editor, for he had already a general acquaintance with China and the books which are the best authority. The work has been well done, the last three chapters particularly having been improved under his careful revision and especial study of the recent political history of China. The Index is his work, and throughout the book I am indebted to his careful supervision, especially on the chapters treating of geography and literature. By the opening of this year I had so far recovered as to be able to superintend the printing and look over the proofs of the second volume.
My experiences in the forty-three years of my life in China were coeval with the changes which gradually culminated in the opening of the country. Among the most important of these may be mentioned the cessation of the East India Company in 1834, the war with England in 1841-42, the removal of the monopoly of the hong merchants_{（特许商行）}, the opening of five ports to trade, the untoward attack on the city of Canton which grew out of the lorcha Arrow, the operations in the vicinity of Peking, the establishment of foreign legations in that city, and finally, in 1873, the peaceful settlement of the kotow, which rendered possible the approach of foreign ministers to the Emperor’s presence. Those who trace the hand of God in history will gather from such rapid and great changes in this Empire the foreshadowing of the fulfilment of his purposes ; for while these political events were in progress the Bible was circulating, and the preaching and educational labors of missionaries were silently and with little opposition accomplishing their leavening work among the people.

On my arrival at Canton in 1833 I was officially reported, with two other Americans, to the hong merchant Kingqua as fan-kwai, or ‘foreign devils,’ who had come to live under his tutelage. In 1874, as Secretary of the American Embassy at Peking, I accompanied the Hon. B. P. Avery to the presence of the Emperor Tungchi, when the Minister of the United States presented his letters of credence on a footing of perfect equality with the ‘Son of Heaven.’ With two such experiences in a lifetime, and mindful of the immense intellectual and moral development which is needed to bring an independent government from the position of forcing one of them to that of yielding the other, it is not strange that I am assured of a great future for the sons of Han; but the progress of pure Christianity will be the only adequate means to save the conflicting elements involved in such a growth from destroying each other. Whatever is in store for them, it is certain that the country has passed its period of passivity. There is no more for China the repose of indolence and seclusion—when she looked down on the nations in her overweening pride like the stars with which she could have no concern.

In this revision the same object has been kept in view that is stated in the Preface to the first edition—to divest the Chinese people and civilization of that peculiar and indefinable impression of ridicule which has been so generally given them by foreign authors. I have endeavored to show the better traits of their national character, and that they have had up to this time no opportunity of learning man}’ things with which they are now rapidly becoming acquainted. The time is speedily passing away when the people of the Flowery Land can fairly be classed among uncivilized nations. The stimulus which in this labor of my earlier and later years has been ever present to my mind is the hope that the cause of missions may be promoted. In the success of this cause lies the salvation of China as a people, both in its moral and political aspects. This success bids fair to keep pace with the needs of the people. They will become fitted for taking up the work themselves and joining in the multiform operations of foreign civilizations. Soon railroads, telegraphs, and manufactures will be introduced, and these must be followed by whatsoever may conduce to enlightening the millions of the people of China in every department of religious, political, and domestic life.
The descent of the Holy Spirit is promised in the latter times, and the preparatory work for that descent has been accomplishing in a vastly greater ratio than ever before, and with increased facilities toward its final completion. The promise of that Spirit will fulfil the prophecy of Isaiah, delivered before the era of Confucius, and God’s people will come from the land of Sinim and join in the anthem of praise with every tribe under the sun.
S. w. w. New Haven, July, 1883.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I & VOLUME II

CHAPTER I. General Divisions and Features of the Empire
Unusual interest involved in the study of China ; The name China probably a corruption of Tsin; Other Asiatic names for the country; Ancient and modern native designations; Dimensions of the Empire; Its three Grand Divisions :The Eighteen Provinces, Manchuria, and Colonies; China Proper, its names and limits; Four large mountain chains; The Tien shan. ibid.: The Kwanlun; The Hing-an and Himalaya systems; Pumpelly’s ” Sinian System” of mountains; The Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh; Its character and various names; Rivers of China : The Yellow River; The Yangtsz’ River; The Chu or Pearl River；Lakes of China; Boundaries of China Proper; Character of its coast; The Great Plain; The Great Wall of China, its course; Its construction and aspect; The Grand Canal,; Its history and present condition; Minor canals; Public roads, De Guignes’ description, ibid.; General aspects of a landscape; Physical characteristics of the Chinese; The women; Aborigines: Miaotsz’, Lolos, Limus, and others; Manchus and Mongols; Attainments and limits of Chinese civilization
CHAPTER II. Geographical Description of the Eastern Provinces
Limited knowledge of foreign countries; Topographies of China numerous and minute; Climate of the Eighteen Provinces; Of Peking and the Great Plain; Of the southern coast towns; Contrast in rain-fall between Chinese and American coasts; Tyfoons; Topographical divisions into Fu, Ting, Chan, and Hien; Position and boundary of Chihli Province; Table of the Eighteen Provinces, their subdivisions and government; Situation, size, and history of Peking; Its walls and divisions; The prohibited city (Tsz’ Kin Ching) and imperial residence; The imperial city (Huang Ching) and its public buildings; The so-called “Tartar City”; The Temples of Heaven and of Agriculture; Environs of Peking; Tientsin and the Pei ho; Dolon-nor or Lama-miao; Water-courses and productions of the province; The Province of Shantung; Tai shan, the ‘Great Mount’; Cities, productions, and people of Shantung; Shansi, its natural features and resources; Taiyuen, the capital; Roads and mountain passes of Shansi; Position and aspect of Honan Province, ibid.; Kaifung, its capital; Kiangsu Province, ibid.; Its fertility and abundant water-ways; Nanking, or Kiangning, the capital; Porcelain Tower of Nanking; Suchau, “the Paris of China”; Chinkiang and Golden Island; Shanghai; The Province of Nganhwui; Nganking, Wuhu, and Hwuichau; Kiangsi Province; Nanchang, its capital, and the River Kan; Porcelain vvorks at Kingteh in Jauchau; Chehkiang Province, its rivers; Hangchau, the capital; Ningpo; Chinhai ano the Chusan Archipelago; Chapu, Canfu, and the “Gates of China,”; Fuhkien Province, ibid. : The River Min, Fuhchau; Amoy and its environs; Chinchau (Tsiuenchau), the ancient Zayton; Position, inhabitants, and productions of Formosa; The Pescadore Islands
CHAPTER III. Geographical Description of the Western Provinces
The Province of Hupeh; The three towns, Wuchang, Hanyang, and Hankow; Scenery on the Yangtsz’ kiang; Hunan Province, its rivers and capital city; Shensi Province; The city of Si-ngan; Topography and climate of Kansuli Province; Sz’chuen Province and its four streams; Chingtu fu and the Min Valley; The Province of Kwangtung; Position of Canton, or Kwangchau; Its population, walls, general appearance; Its streets and two pagodas; Temple of Longevity and Honam Josshouse; Other shrines and the Examination Hall; The foreign factories, or ‘Thirteen Hongs’; Sights in the suburbs of Canton; Whanipoa and Macao; The colony of Hongkong; Places of interest in Kwangtiing; The Island of Hainan; Kwangsi Province; Kweichau Province; The Miaotsz’; The Province of Yunnan; Its topography and native tribes; Its mineral wealth
CHAPTER IV. Geographical Description of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, and Tibet
Foreign and Chinese notions of the land of Tartary; Table of the Colonies, their subdivisions and governments; Extent of Manchuria; Its mountain ranges; The Amur and its affluents, the Ingoda, Argun, Usuri, and Songari; Natural resources of Manchuria; The Province of Shingking, ibid.; Its capital, Mukden, and other towns; Climate of Manchuria; The Province of Kirin; The Province of Tsi-tsi-har; Administration of government in Manchuria; Extent of Mongolia; Its climate and divisions; Inner Mongolia; Outer Mongolia; Urga, its capital, ibid. ; Civilization and trade of the Mongols; Kiakhta and Maimai chin; The Province of Cobdo; The Province of Koko-nor, or Tsing hai; Its topography and productions; Towns between Great Wall and Ili; Position and topography of ill; Tien-shan Peh Lu, or Northern Circuit; Kuldja, its capital; Tien-shan Nan Lu, or Southern Circuit; The Tarim Basin, ibid. ; Cities of the Southern Circuit; Kashgar, town and government; Yarkand; The District of Khoten; Administration of government in Ili; History and conquest of the country; Tibet, its boundaries and names; Topography of the province; Its climate and productions; The yak and wild animals, ibid. ; Divisions: Anterior and Ulterior Tibet; Il’lassa, the capital city; Manning’s visit to the Dalai-lama; Shigatsi’, capital of Ulterior Tibet; Om mani padmi hum; Manners and customs in Tibet; Language; History; Government
CHAPTER V. Population and Statistics
Interest and difficulties of this subject; Ma Twan-lin’s study of the censuses; Tables of various censuses; These estimates considered in detail; Four of these are reliable; Evidence in their favor; Comparative population-density of Europe and China; Proportion of arable and unproductive land; Sources and kinds of food in China; Tendencies toward increase of population; Obstacles to emigration; Government care of the people; Density of population near Canton, ibid; Mode of taking the census under Kublai khan; Present method; Reasons for admitting the Chinese census; Two objections to its acceptance; Unsatisfactory statistics of revenue in China; Revenue of Kwangtung Province; Estimates of Medhurst, De Guignes, and others; Principal items of expenditure; Pay of military and civil officers; The land tax
CHAPTER VI. Natural History of China
Foreign scientists and explorers in China; Interesting geological features; Loess formation of Northern China, ibid. : Its wonderful usefulness and fertility; Baron Richthofen’s theory as to its origin; Minerals of China Proper : Coal; Building stones, salts, jade, etc.; The precious metals and their production; Animals of the Empire; Monkeys; Various carnivorous animals; Cattle, sheep, deer, etc.; Horses, pigs, camels, etc.; Smaller animals and rodents; Cetacea in Chinese waters; Birds of prey; Passerinse, song-birds, pies, etc.; Pigeons and grouse; Varieties of pheasants; Peacocks and ducks; An aviary in Canton; Four fabulous animals : The ki-Un; The fung-huang, or phoenix; The lung, or dragon, and kuei, or tortoise; Alligators and serpents; Ichthyology of China; Gold-fish and methods of rearing them; Shell-fish of the Southern coast; Insects : Silk-worms and beetles; Wax-worm : Native notions of insects; Students of botany in China; Flora of Hongkong, coniferae, grasses; The bamboo; Varieties of palms, lilies, tubers, etc.; Forest and timber growth; Rhubarb, the Chinese ‘ date ‘ and ‘ olive’; Fruit-trees; Flowering and ornamental plants; The Pun tsito, or Chinese herbal; Its medicine and botany; Its zoology; Its observations on the horse; State of the natural sciences in China
CHAPTER VII. Laws of China, and Plan of its Government
Theory of the Chinese Government patriarchal; The principles of surveillance and mutual responsibility; The Penal Code of China; Preface by the Emperor Shunchi; Its General, Civil, and Fiscal Divisions; Ritual, Military, and Criminal Laws; The Code compares favorably with other Asiatic Laws; Defects in the Chinese Code; General survey of the Chinese Government; 1, The Emperor, his position and titles, ibid. ; Proclamation of Hungwu, first Manchu Emperor; Peculiarities in the names of Emperors; The Kicoh Imo, or National, and Miiio hao, or Ancestral Names; Style of an Imperial Inaugural Proclamation; Programme of Coronation Ceremonies; Dignity and Sacredness of the Emperor’s Person; Control of the Right of Succession; The Imperial Clan and Titular Nobles; 2, The Court, its internal arrangements; The Imperial Harem; Position of the Empress-dowager; Guard and Escort of the Palace; 3, Classes of society in China; Eight privileged classes; The nine honorary “Buttons,” or Rank; 4, The central administration; The Nui Koh, or Cabinet; The Kinn-ki Chu, or General Council; The King Pao, or Peking Gazette; The Six Boards(a), of Civil Office—Li Pu; (b), of Revenue—Hu PU; (c), of Rites— Li Pu; {d), of War—Ping Pu; {e), of Punishments—Hing Pu; (f), of War—Ping Pu; The Colonial Office; The Censorate; Frankness and honesty of certain censors; Courts of Transmission and Judicature; The Hanlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy; Minor courts and colleges of the capital; 5, Provincial Governments; Governors-general (tsungtuh) and Governors (futai); Subordinate provincial authorities; Literary, Revenue, and Salt Departments; Tabular Resume of Provincial Magistrates; Military and Naval control; Special messengers, or commissioners
CHAPTER VIII. Administration of the Laws
6, Execution of laws, checks upon ambitious officers; Triennial Catalogue and its uses; Character and position of Chinese officials; The lied Book, or status of office-holders; Types of Chinese high officers : Duke Ho; Career of Commissioner Sung; Public lives of Commissioners Lin and Kiying; Popularity of upright officers. Governor Chu’s valedictory; Official confessions and petitions for punishment; Imperial responsibility for public disasters; A prayer for rain of the Emperor Taukwang; Imperial edicts, their publication and phraseology; Contrast between the theory and practice of Chinese legislation; Extortions practised by officials of all ranks; Evils of an ill-paid police; Fear and selfishness of the people; Extent of clan systems among them; Village elders and clan rivalries; Dakoits and thieves throughout the country; Popular associations—character of their manifestoes; Secret societies. The Triad, or Water-Lily Sect; A Memorial upon the Evils of Mal-Administration; Efforts of the authorities against brigandage; Difficulties in collecting the taxes; Character of proceedings in the Law Courts; Establishments of high magistrates; Conduct of a criminal trial; Torture employed to elicit confessions; The five kinds of punishments; Modes of executing criminals; Public prisons, their miserable condition; The influence of public opinion in checking oppression
CHAPTER IX. Education and Literary Examinations
Stimulus of literary pursuits in China; Foundation of the present system of competition; Precepts controlling early education; Arrangements and curriculum of boys’ schools; Six text-books employed : 1, The ‘Trimetrical Classic’; 2, The ‘Century of Surnames,’ and 3, ‘ Thousand-Character Classic’; 4, The ‘ Odes for Children’; 5, The Hiao King, or ‘ Canons of Filial Duty,’; 6, The Siao Hioh, or ‘Juvenile Instructor,’; High schools and colleges; Proportion of readers throughout China; Private schools and higher education; System of examinations for degrees and public offices; Preliminary trials; Examination for the First Degree, Siu-tsai,; For the Second Degree, Kil-jin,; Example of a competing essay,; Final honors conferred at Peking; A like system applied to the military; Workings and results of the system of examinations,; Its abuses and corruption; Social distinction and influence enjoyed by graduates; Female education in China; Authors and school-books employed
CHAPTER X Structure of the Chinese Language
Influence of the Chinese language upon its literature; Native accounts of the origin of their characters; Growth and development of the language; Characters arranged into six classes; Development from hieroglyphics; Phonetic and descriptive properties of a character; Arrangement of the characters in lexicons; Classification according to radicals; Mass of characters in the language; Six styles of written characters; Their elementary strokes; Ink, paper, and printing; Manufacture and price of books; Native and foreign movable types; Phonetic character of the Chinese language; Manner of distinguishing words of like sound; The Shing, or tones of the language; Number of sounds or words in Chinese; The local dialects and patois; Court or Mandarin dialect; Other dialects and variations in pronunciation; Grammar of the language; Its defects and omissions; Hints for its study; Pigeon English
CHAPTER XI. Classical Literature of the Chinese
The Imperial Catalogue as an index to Chinese literature; The Five Classics : I. The Yih King, or ‘Book of Changes’; II. The Shu King, or ‘ Book of Records’; III. The Shi King, or ‘ Book of Odes’; IV. The Li Ki, or ‘ Book of Rites,’ and other Rituals; V. The Chun Tsui, or ‘ Spring and Autumn Record’; The Four Books : 1, The ‘Great Learning’ 2, The ‘Just Medium’; 3, The Lun Yu, or ‘ Analects ‘ of Confucius; Life of Confucius; Character of the Confucian System of Ethics; 4, The Works of Mencius; His Life, and personal character of his Teachings; Dictionary of the Emperor Kanghi
CHAPTER XII. Polite Literature of the Chinese
Character of Chinese Ornamental Literature; Works on Chinese History; Historical Novels; The ‘ Antiquarian Researches ‘ of Ma Twan-lin; Philosophical Works : Chu Hi on the Primum Mobile; Military, Legal, and Agricultural Writings; The Shing Yu, or ‘Sacred Commands’ of Kanghi; Works on Art, Science, and Encyclopedias; Character and Examples of Chinese Fiction; Poetry: The Story of Li Tai-peh; Modern Songs and Extempore Verses; Dramatic Literature, burlettas; ‘The Mender of Cracked Chinaware ‘—a Farce; Deficiencies and limits of Chinese literature; Collection of Chinese Proverbs
CHAPTER XIII. Architecture, Dress, and Diet of the Chinese
Notions entertained by foreigners upon Chinese customs; Architecture of the Chinese; Building materials and private houses; Their public and ornamental structures; Arrangement of country houses and gardens; Chinese cities: shops and streets; Temples, club-houses, and taverns; Street scenes in Canton and Peking; Pagodas, their origin and construction; Modes of travelling; Various kinds of boats; Living on the water in China; Chop-boats and junks; Bridges, ornamental and practical; Honorary Portals, or Pai-lan; Construction of forts and batteries; Permanence of fashion in Chinese dress; Arrangement of hair, the Queue; Imperial and official costumes; Dress of Chinese women; Compressed feet : origin and results of the fashion; Toilet practices of men and women; Food of the Chinese, mostly vegetable; Kinds and preparation of their meats; Method of hatching and rearing ducks’ eggs; Enormous consumption of fish; The art of cooking in China
CHAPTER XIV. Social Life among the Chinese
Features and professions in Chinese society; Social relations between the sexes; Customs of betrothment and marriage; Laws regulating marriages; General condition of females in China; Personal names of the Chinese; Familiar and ceremonial intercourse : The Kotow; Forms and etiquette of visiting; A Chinese banquet; Temperance of the Chinese; Festivals ; Absence of a-Sabbath in China; Customs and ceremonies attending New-Year’s Day; The dragon-boat festival and feast of lanterns; Brilliance and popularity of processions in China; Play-houses and theatrical shows; Amusements and sports : Gambling, chess; Contrarieties in Chinese and Western usage Strength and weakness of Chinese character; Their mendacity and deceit
CHAPTER XV.  INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF THE CHINESE
Tenure of land in China; Agricultural utensils; Horse-shoeing; Cultivation of rice; Terraces and methods of irrigation; Manner of using manure; Hemp, the mulberry sugar, and the tallow-tree; Efforts in arboriculture; Celebration of the annual ploughing ceremony; Modes of catching and rearing fish; Mechanical arts, metallurgy; Glass and precious stones; Ingredients and manufacture of porcelain; Its decoration; Chinese snuff-bottles discovered in Egyptian tombs; The preparation of lacquered-ware; Silk culture and manufacture in China; Chinese skill in embroidery; Growth and manufacture of cotton; Leather, felt, etc.; Tea culture, 39 ; Method of curing and preparing, 42 ; Green and black teas, 44 ; Historical notice; Constituents and effects of tea; Preparation of cassia (cinnamomum) and camphor; Ingenious methods of Chinese craftsmen; The blacksmith and dish-mender; Carving in wood and ivory, 59 ; Manufacture of cloisonne, matting, etc.• General aspect of Chinese industrial society.
CHAPTER XVI.  Science Among the Chinese
Attainments of the Chinese in the exact sciences : Arithmetic; Astronomy, 68 ; Arrangement of the calendar, 69 ; Divisions of the zodiac, 71 ; Chinese observations of comets and eclipses; Their notions concerning the “Action and Reaction of the Elements,”; Astronomical myths: Story of the herdsman and weaver-girl; Divisions of the day : arrangement of the almanac, 79 ; Geographical knowledge, 80 ; Measures of length, money, and weight, 81 ; System of banks and use of paper money, 85 ; Pawnshops, 8G ; Popular associations, or huni; The theory and practice of war, arms in use, 89 ; Introduction and employment of gunpowder, 90 ; Chinese policy in warfare; Their regard for music, 94; Examples of Chinese tunes; Musical instruments, 99 ; Dancing and posture-making; Drawing and painting, 105 ; Samples of Chinese illustrative art, 107 ; Their symbolism. 111 ; Paintings on pith-paper and leaves, 113; Sculpture and architecture, 115; Notions on the internal structure of the human body, 119; Functions of the viscera and their connection with the yin and yang; Surgical operations, 123 ; A Chinese doctor, 125 ; Drugs and medicines employed, 127 ; The common diseases of China, 129 ; Native treatises on medicine.
CHAPTER XVII.  History and Chronology of China
General doubts and ignorance concerning the subject, 136 ; The mythological period, 137 ; Chinese notions of cosmogony, 138 ; The god Pwanku; Chu Hi’s cosmogony; The legendary period, Fuh-hi, 143 ; The eight monarchs, 145 ; Hwangti and the sexagenary cycle, 146 ; The deluge of Yao, 147 ; The historical period : The Hia dynasty, 148 ; Yu the Great, his inscription on the rocks of Kau-lan shan; Records of the Hia, 152 ; The Shang dynasty; Chau-sin; Rise of the house of Chau, 157 ; Credibility of these early annals, 159 ; The Tsin dynasties, Tsin Chi Hwangti; The dynasty of Han; From the Han to the Sui, 165 ; The great Tang dynasty; Taitsung and the Empress Wu, 169 ; The Five Dynasties, 172; Tlie Sung dynasty; The Mongol conquest, Kublai Khan, 175; The Mings, 177; The Manchus, or Tsing dynasty, 179; Kanghi, 180; Yungching and Kienlung, 181; Kiaking and Taukwang, 183; Tables of the monarchs and dynasties.
CHAPTER XVIII. REHGION OF THE CHINESE
Causes of the perpetuity of Chinese institutions, 188 ; Isolation of the people, 189; The slight influence upon them of foreign thought and customs, 191 ; Their religious belief’s, two negative features; Three sects: the State religion, called Confucianism; Objects and methods of State worship, The Emperor as High Priest, 198 ; The Ju kino, or Sect of Literati, 15)9 ; Religious functions of government officers, 202 ; Purity and coldness of this religious system, 205 ; Rationalism (Tao kia), Lau-tsz’ its founder, 207 ; His classic, the Tao-the King, 208 ; Visit of Confucius to the philosopher Lau-tsz’, 212; Rites and mythology of the Taoists, 214; Their degeneracy into fetich worshippers, 215 ; Their organization, 217 ; The Sect of Fuh, or Buddhism, 218 ; Life of Buddha, 219 ; Influence of the creed among the people, 221 ; Checks to its power; Its tenets and liturgy, 224 ; Opposition to this sect by the literati, 227 ; Perpetuated in monasteries and nunneries; Similarity between the, Buddhist and Roman Catholic rites; Shamanism, its form in Tibet and Mongolia, 233 ; Buddhist temples, 235 ; Ancestral worship, its ancient origin; Its influence upon the family and society, 237 ; Infanticide in China, its prevalence, 239 ; Comparison with Greece and Rome; Customs and ceremonies attending a decease, 243 ; Funerals and burial-places, 245 ; Funtj-slnit, 240 ; Interment and mourning; Family worship of ancestors, 250 ; Character of the rites, 253 ; Popular superstitions, 255 ; Dread of wandering ghosts, 257 ; Methods of divination, 200 ; Worship at graves and shrines, 262 ; Chinese benevolent institutions and the practice of charity, 263 ; General condition of religion among them; Secret societies, 267 ; Mohammedanism in China; Jews in Kaifung, 271 ; Their miserable condition.
CHAPTER XIX. RISTIAN Missions Among the Chinese
Arrival of the Nestorians in China; The tablet of Si-ngan; Prester John and traces of Nestorian labors, 286 ; First epoch of Roman Catholic missions in Eastern Asia; John of Montecorvino, ibid.; Other priests of the fourteenth century; Second period : Xavier’s attempt, 289 ; Landing of Ricci; His life and character, 292 ; The Jesuits in Peking; Faber, 295 ; Adam Schaal; Verbiest; Discussion concerning the rites, 299 ; The Pope and the Emperor Kanghi; Quarrels between the missionaries, 302; Third period: The edict of Yungching expels the Catholics; Statistics of their numbers, 307 ; Their methods : the baptism of dying infants; Collisions between converts and magistrates; Pagan and Christian superstitions: casting out devils; Character of Catholic missionary work, 317; Protestantism in China : The arrival of Morrison in Canton, 318 ; His missionary and literary work, 320 ; Comparison with that of Ricci; Protestant missions among the Chinese of the Archipelago Early efforts, tract distribution, 328 ; Gutzlaff’s voyages along the coast; Foundation of the Medical Missionary Society; Success of hospital work among the natives; Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China; The Morrison Education Society, 341 ; Protestant mission work at Canton; At Amoy and Fuhchan, 348 ; In Chehkiang province; At Shanghai, 352 ; Toleration of Christianity in China obtained through Kiying; Policy of the government toward missionaries, 359 ; Articles of toleration in the treaties of 1858; Bible translation and the Term Question among missionaries; Female missionaries, 364 ; Statistics of Protestant missions in China, 366 ; Notices of deceased missionaries; Facilities and difficulties attending the work.
CHAPTER XX. Commerce of the Chinese
Ancient notices of foreign trade; The principal import, opium; Peculiarities of its cultivation in India, ibid.; Its preparation and sale in Calcutta, 376 ; Early efforts at introduction into China; Rise of the smuggling trade, 378 ; Manipulation of the drug in smoking, 380 ; The pipe and its use, 382 ; Effects of the practice, 383 ; Quantity and value of the import, 3S7 ; Coasting and inland navigation in China, 389 ; Detail of the principal exports from China, 391 ; Of the imports, 396 ; An example of pigeon-English, 402 ; Present management of the maritime customs; Trade tables.
CHAPTER XXI. Foreign Intercourse with China
Limited conception of the Chinese as to embassies; Earliest mention of China or Cathay, 408 ; Acquaintance between Rome and Seres, or Sinae; Knowledge of China under the Greek Empire; Narratives of Buddhist pilgrims, 413 ; Notices of Arab travellers, 414 ; Piano Carpini’s mission from the Pope to Kuyuk Klian, 415; Rubruquin sent by Louis XL to Mangu Khan, 418 • Travels of Marco Polo and King Ilayton of Armenia ; Of the Moor, Ibn Batuta; Of Friar Odoric, 422 ; Of Benedict Goes, 424 ; Of Ibn Waliab, 425 ; The Manchus confine foreign trade to Canton, 42G ; Character of early Portuguese traders; Their settlement at Macao and embassies to Peking; Relations of Spain with China, 431 ; The Dutch come to China, 438 ; They occupy Formosa, 434 ; Koxinga expels them from the island, 437 ; Van Hoorn’s embassy to Peking; Van Braam’s mission to Kienlung, 439 ; France and China; Russian embassies to the court at Peking, 441 ; Intercourse of the English with China, 443 ; Attempts of the East India Company to establish trade, 445 ; The Co-hong; Treatment of Mr. Flint; Anomalous position of foreigners in China during the eighteenth century, 450 ; Chinese action in sundry cases of homicide among foreigners, 451 ; Lord Macartney’s embassy to Peking, 454 ; Attitude of the Chinese regarding Macao; Regarding English and American “squabbles,”; Embassy of Lord Amherst, 458 ; Close of the East India Company monopoly; American trade with China; Chinese terms for foreigners.
CHAPTER XXII.  Origin Of THE First War with England
Features of the war with England; Lord Napier appointed superintendent of British trade, 404 •, He goes to Canton; His contest with the governor, 468 ; Chinese notions of supremacy; Lord Napier retires from Canton, his sudden death; Petition of the British merchants to the king, 47() ; Trade continued as before, 478 ; Sir B. G. Robinson the superintendent at Lintin; Is succeeded by Captain Elliot; Hu Nai-tsi proposes to legalize the opium trade, 482 ; Counter-memorials to the Emperor, 483 ; Discussion of the matter among foreigners, 487 ; Canton officers enforce the prohibitory laws; Elliot ordered to drive the opium ships from Lintin; Arrival of Admiral Sir F. Maitland; Smuggling increases; A mob before the factories, 495 ; Captain Elliot’s papers and actions regarding the opium traffic, 496 ; Commissioner Lin sent to Canton, 497; He demands a surrender of opium held by foreigners, 499 ; Imprisons them in the factories; The opium given up and destroyed, 502 ; Homicide of Lin Wei-hi at Hongkong, 505 ; Motives and position of Governor Lin; The war an opium war; Debate in Parliament upon the question.
CHAPTER XXIII. Progress and Results of the First War between England AND China
Arrival of the British fleet and commencement of hostilities; Fall of Tinghai, 515; Lin recalled to Peking, 510; Kishen sent to Canton, negotiates’ a treaty with Captain Elliot at the Bogue, 517 ; The negotiations fail, 519 ; Capture of the Canton River defences; The city ransomed; Amoy and Tinghai taken; Fall of Chinhai and Ningpo, 527 ; The Emperor determines to resist, 529 ; Attempt to recapture Ningpo; The British reduce the neighboring towns, 533 ; The fleet enters the Yangtsz’, capture of Wusung; Shanghai taken; Proclamations issued by both parties respecting the war; Storming of Chinkiang, 540 ; Terrible carnage among its Manchu inhabitants, 542 ; Singular contrast at Iching; Kiying communicates with Sir H. Pottinger; The envoy and commissioners meet, 547 ; A treaty drawn up, 549 ; Conversation on the opium question, 550 ; The Treaty of Nanking signed; Massacre of shipwrecked crews on Formosa; Losses and rewards on both sides alter the war, 556 ; Settlement of a tariff and commercial relations, 557 ; Deaths of Howqua and John R. Morrison; A supplementary treaty signed; Renewal of opium vexations, 562 ; Treaties arranged with other foreign powers, 565 ; The ambassador and letter from the United States to China, 566 ; Caleb Cushing negotiates a treaty with Kiying, 567 ; Homicide by an American at Canton, and subsequent correspondence, 568 ; A French treaty concluded by M. de Lagreno at Whampoa; Position of England and China after the war.
CHAPTER XXIV.  THE Tai-ping Rebellion
Attitude of the ruling classes in China toward foreigners; Governor Sir J. Davis and Commissioner Kiying; Killing of six Englishmen at Canton; Chinese notions of treaties ibid; Causes of the Tai-ping Rebellion; Life of Hung Siutsuen, its leader; This wonderful vision; He interprets it by Christian ideas, 585 ; Early phases of the movement; Commencement of the insurrection, 590 ; Political and religious tenets of the rebels, 592 ; Rapid advance to the Yangtsz’ and occupation of Nanking, 596 ; The expedition against Peking; Its failure; Dissensions among the rebel wangs, or leaders; Rebel sortie from Nanking; Assistance of foreigners sought by imperialists; Achievements of the Chung Wang; Colonel Gordon assumes control of the “Ever-Victorious force,”; His successful campaigns; Environment of Suchan; The city surrenders; Execution of its wangs by Governor Li; Gordon’s responsibility in the matter, GIG ; Further operations against the insurgents, 617 ; The Ever-Victorious force disbanded, 618 ; Fall of Nanking and dispersion of the rebels; Subsequent efforts of the Shi and Kau wangs; Disastrous character of the rebellion.
CHAPTER XXV. The Second War between Great Britain and China Relations between the Cantonese and foreigners after the first war; Collecting of customs duties at Shanghai entrusted to foreigners; Common measures of defence against the rebels there; The insurrection in Kwangtung; Frightful destruction of life, 632 ; Governor Yeh’s policy of seclusion; Smuggling lorchas at Hongkong and Macao; The lorcha Arrow affair; The initial acts of the war; Collision with Americans at the Barrier forts, 639 ; View of the war in England, 641 ; Arrival of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros in China; Bombardment and capture of Canton, ibid.; Problem of governing the city; The allies repair to the Pei ho; Capture of the Taku forts, 651 ; Negotiations with Kweiliang and Hwashana at Tientsin; Unexpected appearance of Kiying; Difficulties of Lord Elgin’s position at Tientsin; The treaties signed and ratified, 656 ; Revision of the tariff undertaken at Shanghai; Effect of treaty stipulations and foreign trade on the people of China; Lord Egin visits the Tai-ping rebels at Hankow, 659 ; Sentiment of officials and people in China regarding foreigners, 660 ; Coolie trade outrages, 663 ; The foreign ministers repair to Taku, 664 ; Repulse at the Taku forts, 66G ; The American minister conducted to Peking; Discussion concerning the formalities of an audience, 669 ; He retires and ratifies the treaty at Pehtang; Lord Elgin and Baron Gros sent back to China, 671 ; War resumed, the allies at Pehtang; Capture of villages about Taku, 674 ; Fall of the Taku forts, 676 ; Lord Elgin declines to remain at Tientsin; Interpreters Wade and Parkes sent to Tungchau, 678 ; Capture of Parkes and Loch, 680 ; Skirmish of Pa-li-kiau, 682 ; Pillage of Yuen-ming Yuen, G83 ; Its destruction upon the return of the prisoners, 684 ; Entry into Peking and signing of the treaties, 686 ; Permanent settlement of foreign embassies at the capital.
CHAPTER XXVI. Narrative of Recent Events in China
Palace conspiracy upon the death of Hienfung; The regency established at Peking, 691 ; The Lay-Osborne flotilla, 693 ; Collapse of the scheme and dismissal of Lay, 695 ; The Burlingame mission to foreign countries, 696 ; Its treaty with the United States, 698 ; Outbreak at Tientsin, 700 ; Investigation into the riot, 703 ; Bitter feeling among foreigners, 705 ; Memorandum from the Tsung-ii Yamun on the missionary question; Conclusion of the Kansuh insurrection; Marriage of the Emperor Tungchi; The foreign ministers demand an audience; Reception of the ambassadors by Tungchi; Stopping of the coolie trade, 715 ; Japanese descent upon Formosa; English expedition to Yunnan, 719 ; Second mission, murder of Margary; The Grosvenor mission of inquiry; The Chifu Convention between Li Hung-chang and Sir T. Wade, 725 ; Death of Tungchi and accession of Kwangsii; The rebellion of Yakub Beg in Turkestan; He overthrows the Dungani Confederation, 730 ; His forces conquered by Tso Tsung-tang, 731 ; Negotiations as to the cession of Kuldja, 732 ; The great famine of 1878, 734 ; Efforts of foreigners for its relief, 736 ; Chinese boys sent to America for education, 739 ; Grounds of hope for the future of China.

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS IN VOLUME I & VOLUME II
Worship of the Emperor at the Temple of Heaven, Title-page, representing an honorary portal, or PAI-LAU. (The two characters, Shing chi, upon the top, indicate that the structure has been erected by imperial command. In the panel upon the lintel the four characters, Chung Kwoh Tsung-Um, ‘ A General Account of the Middle Kingdom,’ express in Chinese the title of this work. On the right the inscription reads, Jin che ngai jin yu tsin kih so, ‘ He who is benevolent loves those near, and then those who are remote ; ‘ the other side contains an expression attributed to Confucius, ‘ Si fang chi jin yu shing che ye,” ‘The people of the West have their sages.’)—Compare p. 757. A Road-Cut IN the Loess,  An-ting Gate, Wall of Peking,  Plan op Peking, Portal op Confucian Temple, Peking,  Monument, or Tope, op a Lama, Hwang sz’, Peking,  View over the Loess-clefts in Shansi, Temple of the Goddess Ma Tsu-pu, Ningpo,  Lukan Gorge, Yangtsz’ River. (From Blakiston.), View of a Street in Canton,  Miaotsz’ Types,  Domesticated Yak,  FACADE OF Dwellings in Loess Cliffs, Ling-shi hien,  Coal Gorge on the Yangtsz’. (From Blakiston.),  Fl-Fl Ami HAI-TUJI. (From a Chinese cut.),  The Chinese Pig,  Mode of Carrying Pigs,  The Kl-LIJV, or Unicorn,  The FUNG-HWANG, or Phoenix,  Different Styles op Official Caps,  Mode of Carrying High Officers in Sedan,  Prisoner Condemned to the Cangue in Court,  Mode of Exposure in the Cangue,  Publicly Whipping a Thief through the Streets,  Interior of KUNO YUEN, or ‘Examination Hall,’ Peking,  Chinese Hieroglyphics and their Modern Equivalents,  Six Styles op Chinese Characters,  Worship of Confucius and his Disciples,  Diagram of Chinese Roof Construction,  The PIH-TUNO KUNO, or ‘Classic Hall,’ Peking, Wheelbarrow used for Travelling,  Bridge in Wan-shao Shan Gardens, near Peking,  Bridge, showing the Mode of Mortising the Arch,  Barber’s Establishment,  Tricks Played with the Queue,  Procession op Ladies to an Ancestral Temple,  Appearance of the Bones op a Foot when Compressed,  Feet of Chinese Ladies,  Shape of a Lady’s Shoe,  Boys Gambling with Crickets,  Chinese Chess-board
Signing of the Treaty of Peking, Manner of Shoeing Horses, Pedler’s Barrow, Group and Residence of Fishermen near Canton, The Fishing Cormorant, The Cobbler and his Movable Workshop, Mode op Firing Tea, Travelling Blacksmith and Equipment, Itinerant Dish-mender， Fancy Carved Work, Fable of the Herdsman and Weaver-girl. (From a bowl.), Representation of a Man Dreaming, The Vengeance op Heaven upon the False Grave, A would-be Assassin Followed by Spirits, Symbols of Happiness and Old Age. (From a plaque.), Caricature of an English Foraging Party, Chinese Notions of the Internal Structure of the Human Body, Pwanku Chiselling Out the Universe, Gateway of the Yuen Dynasty, Ku-yung Kwan, Great Wall, Ancestral Hall and Mode of Worshipping the Tablets, Buddhist Priests, Consulting a Fortune-teller, Head of Nestorian Tablet at Si-ngan, Roman Catholic Altar near Shanghai, Manner of Smoking Opium, Wall of Canton City. (From Fisher.), Plan of Canton and Vicinity, Portrait of Commissioner KiYing, Plan of the Pei ho and Forts. (From Fisher.), Portrait of Prince Kung, Portrait of Wanslang

NOTE RESPECTING THE SYSTEM OF PRONUNCL ATION ADOPTED IN THIS WORK
In this the values of the vowels are as follows :
1. a as the italicized letters in father, far (never like a in hat) ;e.g., chang, hang—sounded almost as if written chahng, hahng, not flat as in the English words sang, hang, man, etc.
2. a like the short u in hut, or as any of the italicized vowels in American, summer, mother ; the German o approaches this sound, while Wade writes it e ; e.g., pan, tang, to be pronounced as pun, tongue.
3. e as in men, dead, saw! ; as teh, shen, yen.
4. e, the French e, as in they, neigh, pray ; as che, ye, pronouneed chaij, yay.
5. i as in pm, f/ntsh ; as dug, lin, Chihl’i.
6. ‘t as in machine, believe, feel, me ; as I’l, Ktshen, Kanghi.
7. o as in long. Yawn ; never like no, cro^u ; as to, soh, j)o.
8. u as in rule, too, fool ; as 7\i7-k, Belur, ku, sung ; pronounced Toork, Beloor, koo, soong. This sound is heard less full in fuh, fsun, and a few other words ; this and the next may be considered as equivalent to the two ii-sounds found in German.
9. u nearly as in I’une (French), or wnion, rheum ; as hii, tsil.
10. ai as in aisle, high, or longer than i in pine ; as Shanghai, Hainan. The combination ei is more slender than ai, though the difference is slight ; e.g., Kivei chau.
11. au and ao as in round, our, hoio ; as Fuhchau, Macao, Taukwang.
12. eu as in the colloquial phrase say ’em ; e.g., cheung. This diphthong is heard in the Canton dialect.
13. ia as in yard ; e.g., Ma, Hang ; not to be sounded as if written Jdgh-a, kigh-ang, but like hed, keiing.
14. iau is made b}” joining Nos. 5 and 11 ; hiau, Liautung.
15. ie as in sierra (SjDanisli), Ki’enzi; e.g., Men, kien.
16. iu as in peu;, pure, lengthened to a dij)hthong ; km, siun.
17. iue is made by adding a short e to the preceding ; kiuen, Muen,
18. ui as in Louisiana, suicide ; e.g., sui, cMii.

SYSTEM OF PRONUNCIATION
The consonants are sounded generally as they are in the English alphabet. Ch as in church ; hw as in when. ; j soft, as s in pleasure; kw as in awkward ; ng, as an initial, as in singing, leaving off the first two letters ; sz’ and tsz’ are to be sounded full with one breathing, but none of the English vowels are heard in it ; the sound stops at the z ; Dr. Morrison wrote these sounds tsze and sze, while Sir Thomas Wade, whose system bids fair to become the most widely employed, turns them into ssu and fzii. The hs of the latter, made by omitting the first vowel of hissing, is written simply as h by the author. Urh, or’rh, is pronounced as the three last letters of purr.
All these, except No. 12, are heard in the court dialect, which has now become the most common mode of writing the names of places and persons in China. Though foreign authors have employed different letters, they have all intended to write the same sound ; thus chan, shan, and xan, are only different ways of writing閂; and tsse, tsze, tsz’, zh, tzu`, and tzu, of 字. Such is not the case, however, with such names as Macao, Hongkong, Amoy, Whampoa, and others along the coast, which are sounded according to the local patois, and not the court pronunciation-Ma-ngau, Hiangkiang, Hiamun, Hwangpu, etc. Many of the discrepancies seen in the works of travellers and writers are owing to the fact that each is prone to follow his own fancy in transliterating foreign names ; uniformity is almost unattainable in this matter. Even, too, in what is called the court dialect there is a great diversity among educated Chinese, owing to the traditional way all learn the sounds of the characters. In this work, and on the map, the sounds are written uniformly according to the pronunciation given in Morrison’s Dictionary, but not according to his orthography. Almost every writer upon the Chinese language seems disposed to propose a new system, and the result is a great confusion in writing the same name ; for example, eull, olr, id, ulli, Ih, urh, ‘rh, ‘i, e, lur, nge, ngi, je, ji, are different ways of writing the sounds given to a single character. Amid these discrepancies, both among the Chinese themselves and those who endeavor to catch their pronunciation, it is almost impossible to settle upon one mode of writing the names of places. That which seems to offer the easiest pronunciation has been adopted in this work. It may, perhaps, be regarded as an unimportant matter, so long as the place is known, but to one living abroad, and unacquainted with the language, the discrepancy is a source of great confusion. He is unable to decide, for instance, whether Tang-ngan, Tangon hien, Tang-oune, and Tangao, refer to the same place or not.
In writing Chinese proper names, authors differ greatly as to the style of placing them ; thus, Fuhchaufu, Fiih-chau fu, Fuh Chau Fu, Fuh-Chau fu, etc., are all seen. Analogy affords little guide here, for New York, Philadelphia, and Cambridge are severally unlike in the principle of writing them : the first, being really formed of an adjective and a noun, is not in this case united to the latter, as it is in Newport, Newtown, etc. ; the second is like the generality of Chinese towns, and while it is now written as one word, it would be written as two if the name were translated-as ‘Brotherly Love ;’ but the third, Cambridge, despite its derivation, is never written in two words, and many Chinese names are like this in origin. Thus applying these rules, properly enough, to Chinese places, they have been written here as single words, Suchau, Peking, Hongkong ; a hyphen has been inserted in some places only to avoid mispronunciation, as Hiau-‘i, St-ngan, etc. It is hardly supposed that this system will alter such names as are commonly written otherwise, nor, indeed, that it will be adhered to with absolute consistency in the following pages ; but the principle of the arrangement is perhaps the simplest possible. The additions fu, chau, ting, and hien, being classifying terms, should form a separate word. Li conclusion, it may be stated that this system could only be carried out approximately as regards the proper names in the colonies and outside of the Empire.

CHAPTER I GENERAL DIVISIONS AND FEATURES OF THE EMPIRE

The possessions of the ruling dynasty of China,—that portion of the Asiatic continent which is usually called by geographers the Chinese Empire,—form one of the most extensive dominions ever swayed by a single power in any age, or any part of the world. Comprising within its limits every variety of soil and climate, and watered by large rivers, which serve not only to irrigate and drain it, but, by means of their size and the course of their tributaries, affording unusual facilities for intercommunication, it produces within its own borders everything necessary for the comfort, support, and delight of its occupants, who have depended very slightly upon the assistance of other climes and nations for satisfying their own wants. Its civilization has been developed under its own institutions; its government has been modelled without knowledge or reference to that of any other kingdom ; its literature has borrowed nothing from the genius or research of the scholars of other lands ; its language is unique in its symbols, its structure, and its antiquity ; its inhabitants are remarkable for their industry, peacefulness, numbers, and peculiar habits. The examination of such a people, and so extensive a country, can hardly fail of being both instructive and entertaining, and if rightly pursued, lead to a stronger conviction of the need of the precepts and sanctions of the Bible to the highest development of every nation in its personal, social, and political relations in this world, as well as to individual happiness in another. It is to be hoped, too, that at this date in the world’s history, there are many more than formerly, who desire to learn the condition and wants of others, not entirely for their own amusement and congratulation at their superior knowledge and advantages, but also to promote the well-being of their fellow-men, and impart liberally of the gifts they themselves enjoy. Those who desire to do this, will find that few families of mankind are more worthy of their greatest efforts than those comprised within the limits of the Chinese Empire ; while none stand in more need of the purifying, ennobling, and invigorating principles of our holy religion to develop and enforce their own theories of social improvement.

ORIGIN OF THE NAME CHINA

The origin of the name China has not yet been fully settled. The people themselves have now no such name for their country, nor is there good evidence that they ever did apply it to the whole land. The occurrence in the Laws of Manu and in the Mahaharata of the name China, applied to a land or people with whom the Hindus had intercourse in the twelfth century B.C., and who were probably the Chinese, throws the origin far back into the remotest times, where probability must take the place of evidence. The most credible account ascribes its origin to the family of Tsin, whose chief first obtained complete sway, about b.c. 250, over all the other feudal principalities in the land, and whose exploits rendered him famous in India, Persia, and other Asiatic states. His sept had, however, long been renowned in Chinese history, and previous to this conquest had made itself widely known, not only in China, but in other countries. The kingdom lay in the northwestern parts of the empire, near the Yellow River, and according to Visdelon, who has examined the subject, the family was illustrious by its nobility and power. ” Its founder was Taye, son of the emperor Chuen-hu. It existed in great splendor for more than a thousand years, and was only inferior to the royal dignity. Feitsz’, a prince of this family, had the superintendence of the stud of the emperor Hiao, b.c. 909, and as a mark of favor his majesty conferred on him the sovereignty of the city of Tsinchau in mesne tenure with the title of sub-tributary king. One hundred and twenty-two years afterwards, b.c. 770, Siangkwan, jh’t’it vol of Tsinchau (having by his bravery revenged the insults offered to the emperor Ping by the Tartars, who slew his father Yu), was created king in full tenure, and without limitation or exception. The same monarch, abandoning Si-ngan (then called Hao-king, the capital of his empire) to transport his seat to Lohyang, Siangkwan was able to make himself master of the large province of Sliensi, which had composed the proper kingdom of the emperor. The king of Tsin thus became very powerful, but though his fortune changed, he did not alter his title, retaining always that of the city of Tsinchau, which had been the foundation of his elevation. The kingdom of Tsin soon became celebrated, and being the place of the first arrival by land of people from western countries, it seems probable that those who saw no more of China than the realm of Tsin, extended this name to all the rest, and called the whole empire Tsin or Chin.”(D’Herbelot, Bibliotheqne Orientale, quarto edition, 1779, Tome IV., p. 8.Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., pp. xxxiv., Ixviii. Edkiius, Chinese Buddhism, p. 93.)

This extract refers to periods long before the dethronement of the house of Chan by princes of Tsin ; the position of this latter principality, contiguous to the desert, and holding the passes leading from the valley of the Tarim across the desert eastward to China, renders the supposition of the learned Jesuit highly probable. The possession of the old imperial capital would strengthen this idea in the minds of the traders resorting to China from the West ; and when the same family did obtain paramount sway over the whole empire, and its head render himself celebrated by his conquests, and by building the Great Wall, the name Tsin was still more widely diffused, and regarded as the name of the country. The Malays and Arabians, whose vessels were early found between Aden and Canton, knew it as China, and probably introduced the name into Europe before 1500. The Hindus contracted it into Machin, from Maha-china, i.e., ‘Great China;’ and the first of these was sometiuies confounded with Manj’i^ a term used for the tribes in Yunnan. Tlius it appears that these and other nations of Asia have known the country or its people by no other terms than Jin., Chin, Sin, Since, or Tziniske. The Persian name Cathay, and its Russian form of Kitai, is of modern orio-in ; it is altered from Ki-tah, the race Avhieh ruled northern China in the tenth century, and is quite unknown to the people it designates. The Latin word Seres is derived from the Chinese word sz’ (silk), and doubtless first came into use to denote the people during the Ilan dynasty.

VARIOUS DESIGNATIONS

The Chinese have many names to designate themselves and the land they inhabit. One of the most ancient is Tien Ilia, meaning ‘ Beneath the Skj^,’ and denoting the AVorld ; another, almost as ancient, is /&’ Ilai, i.e., ‘ [all within] the Four Seas,’ while a third is (Vtunr/ Kivoh, oy ‘Middle Kingdom.’ This dates from the establishment of the Chan dynasty, about b.c.1150, when the imperial family so called its own special state in Honan because it was surrounded by all the others. The name was retained as the empire grew, and thus has strengthened the popular belief that it is really situated in the centre of the earth; Chn,)i<j Kioohjln, or ‘men of the Middle Kingdom,’ denotes the Chinese. All these names indicate the vanity and ignorance of the people respecting their geographical position and their rank among the nations ; they have not been alone in this foible, for the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans all had terms for their possessions which intimated their own ideas of their superiority ; while, too, the area of none of those monarchies, in their widest extent, ecpialled that of China Proper. The family of Tsin also established the custom, since continued, of calling the country by the luimc of the dynasty then reigning; but, wliilc the brief duration of that house of forty-four years was not long enough to give it much currency among the people, snccueeding dynasties, by their talents and prowess, imparted their own as permanent appellations to the people and country. The terms Ilan-jhi and JLoi-tsz’ {i.e., men of Ilan or sons of llan) are now in use by the people to denote themselves : the last also means a ”brave man.” Tangjin, or ‘Men of Tang,’ is quite as frequently heard iu the southern provinces, where the phrase Tang Shan, or ‘ Hills of Tang,’ denotes the whole country. The Buddhists of India called the land Chin-tan, or the ‘ Dawn,’ and this appellation has been used in Chinese writings of that sect.

The present dynasty calls the empire Ta Tsing Kivoh, or * Great Pure Kingdom;’ but the people themselves have refused the corresponding term of Tsing-jin, or ‘ Men of Tsing.’ The empire is also sometimes termed Tsing Chau, i.e., ‘ [land of the] Pure Dynasty,’ by metonymy for the family that rules it. The term now frequently heard in western countries—the Celestial Empire^is derived from Tien Chan, i.e., ‘ Heavenly Dynasty,’ meaning the kingdom which the dynasty appointed by heaven rules over ; but the term Celestials, for the people of that kingdom, is entirely of foreign manufacture, and their language could with difficulty be made to express such a patronymic.

The phrase Li Jlin, or ‘ Black-haired Pace,’ is a common appellation ; the expressions Ilira Yen, the ‘ Flowery Language,’ and Chung lima Kiooh, the ‘ Middle Flowery Kingdom,’ are also frequently used for the written language of the country, because the Chinese consider themselves to be among the most polished and civilized of all nations—which is the sense of hwa in these phrases. The phrase I^ui T”i, or ‘ Inner Land,’ is often employed to distinguish it from countries beyond their borders, regarded as the desolate and barbarous regions of the earth. lima Ilia (the Glorious Hia) is an ancient term for China, the Hia dynasty being the first of the series; Tung Tu, or ” Land of the East,” is a name used in Mohammedan writings alone.

The present ruling dynasty has extended the limits of the empire far beyond what they were under the Ming princes, and nearly to their extent in the reign of Kublai, a.d. 1290. In 1840, its borders were well defined, reaching fi*om Sagalien I. on the north-east, in lat. 48° 10′ jS”. and long. 144° 50′ E., to Hainan I. in the China Sea, on the south, in lat. 18° 10′ X., and westward to the Belur-tag, in long. T4° E., inclosing a continuous area, estimated, after the most careful valuation by McCullcjch, at 5,300,000 square miles. The longest line which could be drawn in this vast region, from the south-western part of tli, bordering on Kokand, north-easterly to the sea of Okhotsk, is 3350 miles ; its greatest breadth is 2,100 miles, from the Outer Hing-an or Stanovoi Mountains to the peninsula of Luichau in Kwangtung :—the first measuring 71 degrees of longitude, and the last over 34 of latitude.

Since that year the process of disintegration has been going on, and the cession of Hongkong to the British has been followed by greater partitions to Russia, which have altogether reduced it more than half a million of square miles on the north-east and west. Its limits on the western frontiers are still somewhat undefined. The greatest breadth is from Albazin on the Amur, nearly south to Hainan, 2150 miles ; and the longest line which can be drawn in it runs from Sartokh in Tibet, north-east to the junction of the Usuri River with the Amur.

GENERAL DIVISIONS

The form of the empire approaches a rectangle. It is

bounded on the east and south-east by various arms and portions

of the Pacific Ocean, beginning at the frontier of Corea,

and called on European maps the gulfs of Liautung and Pechele,

the Yellow Sea, channel of Formosa, China Sea, and Gulf

of Tonquin. Cochinchina and Burmali border on the provinces

of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan, in the south-west;

but most of the region near that frontier is inhabited by halfindependent tribes of Laos, Ivakyens, Singphos, and others.

The southern ranges of the Himalaya separate Assam, Butan,

Sikkim, Nipal and states in India from Tibet, whose western

border is bounded by the nominally dependent country of

Ladak, or if that be excluded, by the Kara-kormn Mountains.

The kingdoms or states of Cashmere, Badakshan, Kokand, and

the Kirghls steppe, lie upon the western frontiers of Little

Tibet, Ladak, and 111′, as far north as the Russian border ; the

high range of the Belur-tag or Tsung-ling separates the former

countries from the Cliiiiese territory in this quarter. Russia is

conterminous with China from the Kirghis steppe along the

Altai chain and Kenteh range to the junction of the Argun

and the Amur, from whence the latter river and its tributary,

the Usuri, form the dividing line to the border of Corea, a

total stretch of 5,300 miles. The circuit of tiie whole empire

is 14,000 miles, or considerably over half the circumference of

the globe. These measurements, it must be remembered, are

of the roughest character. The coast line froiri the mouth of

the river Yaluh in Corea to that of the Annam in Cochinchina

is not far from 4,400 miles. This immense country comprises

about one-third of the continent, and nearly one-tenth of the

habitable part of the globe ; and, next to Russia, is the largest

empire which has existed on the earth.

It will, perhaps, contribute to a better comprehension of the

area of the Chinese Empire to compare it with some other countries.

Russia is nearly 6,500 miles in its greatest length, about 1,500 in its average breadth, and measures 8,369,144(Or 21,759,974 sq. km.—Gotha Almanack.) square miles, or one-seventh of the land on the globe. The United States of America extends about 3,000 miles from Monterey on the Pacific in a north-easterly direction to Maine, and

about 1700 from Lake of the Woods to Florida. The area of

this territory is now estimated at 2,936,166 square miles, with

a coast line of 5,120 miles. The area of the British Empire

is not far from 7,647,000 square miles, but the boundaries of

some of the colonies in Hindostan and South Africa are not

definitely laid down ; the superficies of the two colonies of

Australia and Kew Zealand is nearly equal to that of all the

other possessions of the British crown.

The Chinese themselves divide the empire into three principal

parts, rather by the different form of government in each,

than by any geographical arrangement.

I. The Eighteen Provinces^ including, with trivial additions, the country conquered by the Manchus in 1664.
II. 3fmichuria, or the native country of the Manchus, lying north of the Gulf of Liautung as far as the Amur and west of the Usuri River.
III. Colonial Possessions, including Mongolia, 111 (comprising Sungaria and Eastern Turkestan), Koko-uor, and Tibet.

The first of these divisions alone is that to which other nations have given the name of China, and is the only part which is entirely settled by the Chinese. It lies on the eastern slope of the high table-land of Central Asia, in the south-east ern angle of the continent ; and for beauty of scenery, fertility of- soil, salubrity of climate, magnificent and navigable rivers, and variety and abundance of its productions, M’ill compare with any portion of the globe. The native name for this portion, as distinguished from the rest, is Shih-jxih Sang or the ‘ Eighteen Provinces,’ but the people themselves usually mean this part

alone by the term Chung Juvoh. The area of the Eighteen

Provinces is estimated by ‘McCulloch at 1,348,870 square miles,

but if the full area of the provinces of Kansuh and Chihli be

included, this figure is not large enough ; the usual computation

is 1,297,999 square miles ; Mahe Brun reckons it at

1,482,091 square miles ; but the entire dimensions of the Eighteen

Provinces, as the Chinese define them, cannot be much

under 2,000,000 square miles, the excess lying in the extension

of the two provinces mentioned above. This part, consequently,

is rather more than two-fifths of the area of tlie whole empire.

MOUNTAIN CHAINS

The old limits are, however, more natural, and being better known may still be retained. They give nearly a square form to the provinces, the length from north to south being 1,474

miles, and the breadth 1,355 miles ; but the diagonal line from

the north-east corner to Yunnan is 1,009 miles, and tliat from

Amoy to the north-western part of Kansuh is 1,557 miles.

China Proper, therefore, measures about seven times the size of

France, and fifteen times that of the United Kingdom ; it is

nearly half as large as all Europe, which is 3,050,000 square

miles. Its area is, however, nearer that of all the States of the

American Union lying east of the Mississippi Piver, with Texas,

Arkansas, Missouri and Iowa added ; these all cover 1,355,309

square miles. The position of the two countries facing the

western borders of great oceans is another point of likeness,

which involves considerable similarity in climate ; there is

moreover a further reseml)lance between tlie size of the provinces

in China and those of the newer States.

Before proceeding to define the three great basins into which

China may be divided, it will give a better idea of the whole

subject to speak of the mountain ranges which lie within and

near or along the limits of the country. The latter in them

selves form almost an entire wall inclosing and defining the old

empire ; the principal exceptions being the western boundaries

of Yunnan, the border between Hi and the Kirghis steppe, and

the trans-Anmr region.

Commencing at the north-eastern corner of the basin of the

Amur above its mouth, near lat. 56° N., are the first sunmiits

of the Altai range, which during its long course of 2,000 miles

takes several names ; this range forms the northern limit of the

table-land of Central Asia. At its eastern part, the range is

called Stanovoi by the Russians, and Wai Jling-an by the Chinese

; the first name is applied as far west as the confluence of

the Songari with the Amur, beyond which, north-west as far

as lake Baikal, the Russians call it the Daourian Mountains.

The distance from the lake to the ocean is about 600 miles, and

all within Russian limits. Beyond lake Baikal, westward, the

chain is called the Altai, i.e.^ Golden Mountains, and sometimes

Kinshan, having a similar meaning. Near the head-waters of

the river Selenga this range separates into two nearly parallel

systems running east and west. The southern one, which lies

mostly in Mongolia, is called the Tangnu, and rises to a much

liigher elevation than the northern spur. The Tangnu Mountains

continue under that name on the Chinese maps in a southwesterly

direction, but this chain properly joins the Tien shan,

or Celestial Mountains, in the province of Cobdo, and continues

until it again unites with the Altai further west, near the

junction of the Kirghis steppe with China and Russia. The

length of the whole chain is not far from 2,500 miles, and

except near the Tshulyshman River, does not, so far as is

known, rise to the snow line, save in detached peaks. The

average elevation is supposed to be in the neighborhood of

7,000 feet ; most of it lies between latitudes 47° and 52° X.,

largely covered with forests and susceptible of cultivation.

The next chain is the Belur-tag, Tartash ling, in Chinese

Tsungling, Onion Mountains, or better. Blue Mountains, so called from their distant hue. (Klaproth (MemoireH sur VAsie, Tome II., p. 295) observes that the name is derived from the abundance of onions found upon tliese mountains. M. Abel-Remusat prefers to attribute it to the “bluish tint of onions.”) This range lies in the south-west of Songaria, separating that territory from Badakshan ; it commences about lat. 50° N., nearly at right angles with the Tien shan, and extends south, rising to a great height, though little is known of it. It may be considered as the connecting link between the Tien shan and the Kwanlun ; or rather, both this and the latter

may be considered as proceeding from a mountain knot, detached

from the llindu-kush, in the south-western part of Turkestan

called Pushtikhur, the Belur-tag coming from its northern

side, while the Kwanlun issues from its eastern side, and extends

across the middle of the table-land to Koko-nor, there diverging

into two branches. This mountain knot lies between latitudes

36° and 37° Is., and longitudes 70° and 74° E. The Himalaya

range proceeds from it south-easterly, along the southern frontier

of Tibet, till it bi-eaks up near the head-waters of the

Yangtsz’, Salween, and other rivers between Tibet, Burmali,

and Yunnan, thus nearlj’ completing the inland fi’ontier of the

empire. A small spur from the Yun ling, in the west of Yunnan,

in the country of the Singphos and borders of Assam,

may also be regarded as forming part of the boundary line.

The C/ian(/-j)eh shan lies between the head-waters of the Yaluh

and Toumen rivers, along the Corean frontier, forming a

spur of the lower range of the Siliota or SUi-hlh-teh Mountains,

east of the Usuri.

Within the confines of the empire are four large chains,

some of the peaks in their course rising to stupendous elevations,

but the ridges generally falling below the snow line.

The first is the Tien shan or Celestial Mountains, called Tengkiri

b}’ the Mong(jls, and sometimes erroneously Alak Mountains.

This chain begins at the northern extremity of the

Belur-tag in lat. 40° N., or more properly comes in from the

west, and extends from west to east between longitudes 76° and

90° E., and generally along the 22° of north latitude, dividing

Ili into the Northern and Southern Circuits. Its western portion

is called Muz-tag ; the Muz-daban, about long. 79° E., between

Kuldja and Aksu, is where the road from north to south

runs across, leadino; over a hi”;h glacier above the snow line.

East of this occurs a mass of peaks anK)ng the highest in Central

Asia, called Bogdoula; and at the eastern end, near Ur

THE TIEN SHAN AND KWANLUX RANGES. 11

Qiiitsi, as it declines to the desert, are traces of volcanic action

seen in solfataras and spaces covered with ashes, but no active

volcanoes ai’C now known. The doubtful volcano of Pi shan,

between the glacier and the Bogdo-ula, is the only one reported

in continental China. The Tien shan end abruptly at their

eastern point, w-here the ridge meets the desert, not far from

the meridian of Barknl in Kansuh, though Humboldt considers

the hills in l^Iongolia a continuation of the range eastward,

as far as the Kui Iling-an. The space between the

Altai and Tien shan is very nuich broken up by mountainous

spurs, which may be considered as connecting links of them

both, though no regular chain exists. The western prolongation

of the Tien shan, under the name of tlie Muz-tag, extends

from the high pass only as far as the junction of the Belurtag,

beyond which, and out of the Chinese Empire, it continues

nearly west, south of the river Sihon toward Kodjend, under

the names of Ak-tag and Asferah-tag ; this part is covered with

perpetual snow.

Nearly parallel with the Tien shan in part of its course is

the Kan shan, Ivwanlun or Koulkun range of mountains, also

called Tien Chu or ‘ Celestial Pillar ‘ by Chinese geographers.

The Ivwanlun starts from the Pushtikhur knot in lat. 3G° X.,

and runs along easterly in nearly that parallel through the

whole breadth of the tabledand, dividing Tibet from the desert

of Gobi in part of its course. About the middle of its extent,

not far from long. 00° E., it divides into several ranges,

wliich decline to the south-east through Ivoko-nor and Sz’cliuen,

under the names of the Bayan-kara, the Burklian-buddha,

the Shuga and the Tanghi Mountains,—each more or less

parallel in their general south-east course till they merge

with the Yun ling {i.e., Cloudy Mountains), about lat. 33° !N.

Another group bends northerly, beyond the sources of the Yellow

Piver, and under the names of Altyn-tag, Xan shan, In

shan, and Ala shan, passes through Ivansuh and Shensi to join

the Xui IIino;-an, not far fi-om the o-reat bend of the Yellow

River. Some portion of the country between the extremities

of these two ranges is less elevated, but no plains occur, though

the parts north of Kansuh, where the Great Wall runs, are rugged and unfertile. The large tract between the basins of the Tarini River and that of the Yaru-tsano . i, including the Kwanlun range, is mostly occupied by the desert of Gobi, and is now one of the least known parts of the globe. The mineral treasures of the Kwanlun are probably great, judging from the many precious stones ascribed to it ; this desolate region is the favorite arena for the monsters, fairies, genii, and other beings of Chinese legendary lore, and is the Olympus where the Buddhist and Taoist divinities hold their mystic

sway, strange voices are lieard, and marvels accomplished.*

From near the head-waters of the Yellow Iliver, the four ridges

run south-easterly, and converge hard by the confines of Burmth

and Yunnan, within an area about one hundred miles in breadth.

The Yun ling range constitutes the western frontier of Sz’chuen,

and going south-east into Yunnan, thence turns eastward, under

the names of Kan ling, Mei ling, “Wu-i shan, and other local

terms, passing through Kweichau, Hunan, and dividing Kwangtunoj

and Fuhkien from Iviano-si and Chehkiano;, bends northeast

till it reaches the sea opposite Chusan. One or two spurs

branch off north from this range through Hunan and Iviangsi,

as far as the Yangtsz’, but they are all of moderate elevation,

covered with forests, and susceptible of cultivation. The descent

from the Siueh ling or Bayan-kara Mountains, and the

western part of the Yun ling, to the Pacific, is ^’ery gradual.

The Chinese give a list of fifty peaks lying in the provinces

w^hich are covered with snow for the whole ur part of the

year, and describe glaciers on several of them.

Another less extensive ridge branches off nearly due east

from the Bayan-kara Mountains in Koko-nor, and forms a moderately

high range of mountains between the Yellow Iliver and

Yangtsz’ kiang as far as long. 112° E., on the western borders

of Kganhwui ; this range is called Ivo-tsing shan, and Peh

ling {i.e., Xorthern Mountains), on European maps. These two

chains, viz., the Yun ling—with its continuation of the Mei

ling—and the Peh ling, with their numerous offsets, render the

whole of the western })art of C’hina very imeven.

‘ Compare Reimisiit, Ilistaire de la VUle de KJiotan, p. (ir), ff.

HING-AN AND HIMALAYA KANGES. IB

On the east of Mongolia, and cominencini!; near the hend of

the Yellow Ilivei”, or i-ather forming a contiiniation of the

range in Shansi, is the Nui lling-an ling or Sialkoi, called also

kSoyorti range, which runs north-east on the west side of the

basin of the Amur, till it reaches the Wai lling-an, in lat.

56° N. The sides of the ridge toward the desert are nearly

naked, but the eastern acclivities are AV’ell wooded and fertile.

On the confines of Corea a spur strikes off westward through

Shingking, called Kolmin-shanguin alin bj the Manchus, and

Chang-pell shan {i.e., Long White Mountains) by the Chinese.

Between the Sialkoi and Siliota are two smaller ridges defining

the basin of the Nonni River on the east and west. Little is

known of the elevation of these chains except that they are

low in comparison with the great \vestern ranges, and under the

snow line.

The fourth system of mountains is the Himalaya, which

bounds Tibet on the south, while the Kwanlun and Burkhan

Buddha range defines it on the north. A small range runs

through it from west to east, connected with the Himalaya by

a high table-land, which surrounds the lakes Manasa-rowa and

Ravan-hrad, and near or in which are the sources of the Indus,

Ganges, and Yaru-tsangbu. This range is called Gang-dis-ri

and Zang, and also Kailasa in Dr. Buchanan’s map, and its

eastern end is separated from the Y^un ling b}’ the narrow valley

of the Y’angtsz’, which here flows from north to south. The

countr}’ north of the Gang-dis-ri is divided into two portions by a

spur which extends in a north-west direction as far as the Kwanhm,’

called the Kara-korum Mountains. On the western side

of this range lies Ladak, di-ained by one of the largest branches

of the Indus, and although included in the imperial domains

on Chinese maps, has long been separated from imperial cognizance.

The Kara-korum Mountains may therefore be taken

as composing part of the boundary of the empire ; Chinese

geographers regard them as forming a continuation of the Tsung ling.

‘ One among many native names given to tlie Kwanlun, or Koulkun Mountains, is Tien chv. ^ .^^ ‘Heaven’s Pillar,’ wliieli corresponds precise!)’ with the Atlas of China.

This hasty sketch of the mountain chains in and around China needs to be further illustrated by Punipelly’s outlines of their general course and elevation in what he suitably terms the Sinian System^ applied ” to that extensive northeast-southwest system of upheaval which is traceable through nearly all Eastern Asia, and to which this portion of the continent owes its most salient features.” lie has developed this system in the liesearches in China, Moncfolla and Ja^Kin, issued by the Smithsonian Institution in 186G. The mountains of China correspond in many respects to the Appalachian system in America, and its revolution probably terminated soon after the deposition of

the Chinese coal measures. Mr. Pumpelly describes the principal

anticlinal axes of elevation in China Proper, beginning with the Barrier Range, extending through the northern part of Cliihli and Shansi, where it trends AV.S.W., prolonging across the Yellow River at Pao-teh, and hence S.W. through Shansi and Kansuh, coinciding with the watershed between the bend of that river, which traverses it through an immense gorge.

The next axis east begins at the Tushih Gate, and goes S.W. to the Xankau Pass, both of them in the Great Wall, and thence across Shansi to the elbow of the Yellow River, and onward to Western Sz’chuen, forming the watershed within the bend of the Yangtsz’. In the regions between these two axes are found coal deposits. A central axis succeeds this in Shansi, crossing the Yangtsz’ near Ichang, and passing on S.W. through Kweichau to the Kan ling ; going X.E., it )-uns through IIonaTi and subsides as it gets over the Yellow River, till in Shantung and the Regent’s Sword it rises higher and higher as it stretches on to the Chang-peh shan in Manchuria, and the ridge between the Songai-i and Usuri rivers. Between the last

two ranges lie the great coal, iron, and salt deposits in the

provinces, and each side of the central axis huge troughs and

basins occur, such as the valley of the Yangtsz’ in Yunnan, the

Great Plain in Nganhwui and Chihli, the Gulf of Pechele, and

the basins of the Liao and Songari rivers.

The coast axis of elevation is indicated by ranges of granitic mountains between Kiangsi and Kiangsu on the north, and Chehkiang and Fuhkien on the south, extending S.W. through pumpelly’s sinian system.

15 Kwangtung into the Yuii ling, and N.E. into the Chusan Arcliipelago, thence across to Corea and the Sihota Mountains east of the Usuri River. An outlying granitic range, reaching from Hongkong north-easterly to Wanchau, and IS.W. to Hainan Island, marks a fifth axis of elevation.

Crossing these anticlinal axes are three ranges, coming into China Proper from the west in such a manner as to prove highly beneficial to its structure. The northern is apparently a continuation of the Bayan-kara Mountains in a S.E. direction into Kansuh, and south of the river Wei into Honan, inider the name of the Hiung slian or ‘ Bear Mountains.’ The centre is an offset from this, going across the north of Hupeh. The southern appears to be a prolongation of the IHmalaya into Yunnan and Kwangsi, making the watershed between the Yangtsz’ and Pearl river basins.

Between the Tien slian and the Kwanlun range on the southwest,

and reaching to the Sialkoi on the north-east, in an oblique

direction, lies the great desert of Gobi or Sha-moh, both words

signifying a ivaterless j)laln^ or sandy floats.’ The entire length

of this waste is more than 1,800 miles, but if its limits are

extended to the Belnr-tag and the Sialkoi, at its western and

eastern extremity, it will reach 2,200 miles ; the avei-age breadth

is between 350 and 400 miles, subject, however, to great variations.

The area within the mountain ranges which define it is

over a million square miles, and few of the streams occurring

in it find their way to the ocean. The whole of this tract is not

a barren desert, though no part of it can lay claim to more than

comparative fertility ; and the great altitude of most portions

seems to be as much the cause of its stei-ility as the nature of

the soil. Some portions have relapsed into a waste because of

the destruction of the inhabitants.

The M^estern portion of Gobi, lying east of the Tsung ling

and north of the Kwanlun, between long. 76° and 94° E., and

in lat. 36° and 41° N., is about 1,000 miles in length, and

between 300 and 400 wide. Along the southern side of the

‘ Another interpretation makes Gobi (Kopi) to apply to the stony, while Sha-moh denotes the sandy tracks of this desert, in which case the name would more correctly read, ” Great Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh.”

Tien shan extends a strip of arable land from 50 to SO miles in width, producing grain, pastni’age, cotton, and other things, and in which lie nearly all the Mohammedan cities and forts of the JVcui Lu. The Tarim and its branches flow eastward into Lob-nor, through the best part of this ti-act, from 76° to 89° E. : and along; the banks of the Khoten River a road runs from Yarkand to that city, and thence to Il’lassa. Here the desert is comparatively narrow. This part is called Ilan ha I, or ‘ Mirao;e Sea,’ by the Chinese, and is sometimes known as the desert of Lob nor. The remainder of this region is an almost unnntigated waste, and north of Koko-nor assumes its most terrific appearance, being covered with dazzling stones, and rendered insufferably hot by the reflection of the sun’s rays from these and numerous movable mountains of sand. Kor in winter is the climate milder or more endurable. ” The icy winds of Siberia, the almost constantly unclouded sky, the bare saline soil, and its great altitude above the sea, combine to make the Gobi, or desert of Mongolia, one of the coldest countries in the whole of Asia.” *

The sandhills —kmi/^jchi, as the Mongols call them—appear north of the Ala Shan and along the Yellow River, and when the wind sets them in motion they, gradually travel before it, and form a great danger to travelers who try to cross them.

One Chinese author says, ” There is neither watei-, herb, man,

nor smoke ;—if there is no smoke, there is absolutely nothing.”

The limits of the actual desert are not easily defined, for near

the base of the mountain ranges, streams and vegetation are

usually found.

Near the meridian of Hami, long. 9-1° E., the desert is narrowed to about 150 miles. The road from Kiayii kwan to Hami runs across this narrow part, and travellers find water at various places in their route. It divides Gobi into two parts—the desert of Lob-nor and the Great Gobi—the former being about 4,500 feet elevation, and the latter or eastern not higher than 4,000 feet. The borders of Kansuh now extend across this tract to the foot of the Tien shan. ‘Col. Prejevalskj, Travelis in Mongolia, i’U-. Vul. II., p. 22. London, 187(5.

THE DESERT OF GOBI. 17

The eastern part, or Great Gobi, stretches from the eastern declivity of the Tien shan, in long. 94° to 120° E., and about lat. 40° iS^., as far as the Inner Iling-aii. Its width between the Altai and the In shan range varies from 500 to 700 miles. Through the middle of this tract extends the depressed valley properly called Sha-moh, from 150 to 200 miles across, and whose lowest depression is from 2,000 to 2,000 feet above the sea. Sand almost covers the surface of this valley, generally level, but sometimes rising into low hills. The road from Urga to Kalgan, crossing this tract, is watered during certain seasons of the year, and clothed with grass. It is 660 miles, and forty-seven posts are placed along the route. The crow, lai-k, and sand-«:;rouse are abundant on this road, the first beins a real pest, from its pilfering habits. Such vegetation as occurs is scanty and stunted, affording indiiferent pasture, and the M-ater in the small streams and lakes is brackish and unpotable. North and south of the Sha-moh the surface is gravelly and sometimes rocky, the vegetation more vigorous, and in many places affords good pasturages for the herds of the Kalkas tribes. In those portions bordering on or included in Chihli province, among the Tsakhars, agricultural labors are repaid, and millet, oats,

and barley are produced, though not to a great extent. Trees

are met with on the water-courses, but not to form forests.

This region is called tsaii-ti, or Grassland, and maintains large

herds of sheep and cattle. It extends more or less northward

towards Siberia. The Etsina is the largest inland stream in

this division of Gobi, but on its north-eastern borders are some

large tributaries of the Annir. On the south of the Sialkoi

range the desert-lands reach nearly to the Chang-peh shan,

about five degrees beyond those mountains. The general features

of this portion of the earth’s surface are less forbidding

than Sahara, but more so than the steppes of Siberia or the

pampas of Buenos Ayres. The whole of Gobi is regarded by

Pumpelly as having formed a portion of a great ocean, which,

in comparatively recent geological times, extended south to the

Caspian and Black Seas, and between the Ural and Inner Hing an

Mountains, and was drained off by an upheaval whose traces

and effects can be detected in many parts. ” It appears to me,”

Vol. I.—2

he adds, ” that the ancient physical geography of this region,

and the effects of its elevation, present one of the most important

fields of exploration.” It will no doubt soon be more fully

explored. Baron Richthofen describes Central Asia as properly

a shallow trough, 1,800 miles long and about 400 miles wude,

whose bottom is about 1,800 feet above the ocean ; its ancient

shore-line extended between the Kwanlun and Tien slian ranges

on the west, from 5,000 to 10,000 feet high, and gradually falling

to 3,600 feet in its eastern shore. This is the Ilan-ha’i •

eastward is Sha-nioh.^ and outside of both these wildernesses

are the peripheral regions, where the waters flow to the ocean,

carrying their silt, the erosions from the mountains. Inside of

the shore-line nothing reaches the oceans, and these results of

degradation are washed or blown into the valleys, and the

country is buried in its own dust.’

The rivers of China are her glory, and no country can

compare with her for natural facilities of inland navigation.

The people themselves consider that portion of geography relating

to their rivers as the most interesting, and give it the

greatest attention. The four largest rivers in the empire are the

Yellow River, the Yangtsz’, the Amur, and the Tarim ; the

Yaru-tsangbu also runs more than a thousand miles within its

borders.

The Hwang ho, or ‘ Yellow River,’ rises in the plain of Odontala,

called in Chinese Shuj-suh Juil, or ‘ Starry Sea,’ from the

numerous springs or lakelets found there between the Shuga

and Bayan-kara Mountains, in lat. 35^°, and about long. 96° E.,

and Tiot a hundred miles from the Yangtsz’. The Chinese popularly

believe that the Yellow River runs underground from

Lob-nor to Sing-suh liai. In this region are two lakes—the

Dzaring and Oling, which are its fountains ; and its course is

very crooked after it leaves them. It turns first south 30 miles,

then east 160, then nearly west about 120, winding through

gorges of the Kwanlun; the river then flows north-east and

east to Lanchau in Ivansuh, having gone about 700 miles in its

devious line. From Lanchau it turns northward along the

‘ Von Richthofen, China. Ergebnisse eigener Heisen, Band I. Berlin, ISTt,

THE YELLOW RIVEE. 19

Great Wall for 430 miles, till deflected eastward by the fn shan,

on the edge of the plateau, and incloses the country of the

Ortous Mongols within this great bend. A spur of the Peh

ling forces it south, about long. 110° E., between Shansi and

Shensi, for some 500 miles, till it enters the Great Plain,

having run 1,130 miles from Lanchau. Through this loess region

it becomes tinged with the soil which imparts both color

and name to it. At the northern bend it separates in several

small lakes and branches, and during this part of its course,

for more than 500 miles, receives not a single stream of any

size, while it is still so rapid, in descending from the plateau,

as to demand much care when crossing it by boats. At the

south-western corner of Shansi this river meets its largest

tributary, the Wei, which comes in from the westward after

a course of 400 miles, and is more available as a navigable

stream than any other of the aflHuents. The area of the whole

basin is less than that of the Yangtsz’, and may be estimated

at about 475,000 square miles ; though the source of this

stream is only 1,290 miles in a direct line from its mouth,

its numerous windings prolong its course to nearly double that

distance.

The great differences of level in winter and summer have

always made this river nearly useless, except as a drain ; while

the effect of the long-continued deposit of silt along its lower

level course has finally choked the mouth altogether. This

remarkable result has been hastened, no doubt, by the dikes

built along the banks to the east of Kaifung, which thus forced

the floods to fill up the channel, and pushed the waters back

over 500 miles to Honan-fu. Here the land is low, and the

refluent waters gradually worked their way through marshes

and creeks into the river Wei on the north bank, and thus

found a north-east ‘ channel into the Canal and the Ta-tsing

River, till they reached the Gulf of Pechele. A small part of

these floods have perhaps gone south into the head waters of

the river Hwai, and thence into Hung-tsih Lake ; but that lake

has shrivelled, like its great feeder, and all its waters flow into

the Yangtsz’. The history of the Yellow River furnishes a conclusive

argument against diking a river’s banks to restrain its floods. It lias now reverted to the channel it occupied about fourteen centuries ago.’

Far more tranquil and useful is its rival, the Yangtsz’ kiang,

called also simply Kiaivj or Ta kiang, the ‘ River,’ or ‘ Great

River.’ It is often erroneously named on western maps, Kyang

Ku, which merely means ‘ mouth of the river.’ The sources

of the Kiang ai’e in the Tangla Mountains and the Kwanlun

range, and are placed on native maps in three streams flowing

from the southern side of the Bayan-kara, This has been

partly confirmed by Col. Prejevalsky. In January, 1873, he

reached the Murui-ussu (Tortuous River) in lat. 35°, long. 94°,

at its junction with the Ts^apchitai, the northern of the three

branches, and found it 750 feet wide at that season. In spring,

the river’s bed there is filled up a mile wide. Its course thence

is south-east, receiving three other streams, all of which may be

considered as its head-waters. All their channels are over ten

thousand feet above the sea, but the ranges near them are under

the snow-line. There is no authentic account of its course from

this union till it joins the Yalung kiang in Sz’chuen, a distance

of nearly 1,300 miles ; but Chinese maps indicate a southeasterly

direction through the gorges of the Yun ling, till it

bursts out from the mountains in lat. 20° IST., where it turns

north-east. During nmcli of this distance it bears the name of

the Po-lai-tsz’. The Yalung River rises very near the Yellow

River, and runs parallel with the Kiang in a valley further east,

flowing upwards of 600 miles before they join. Great rafts

of timber are floated down both these streams, for sale at

the towns furtlier east, but no large boats are seen on them

before they leave the mountains. The town of Batang, in

Sz’chuen, on the road from Il’lassa, is the first large place on

the river. The main trunk is called Kin sha kiang {I.e., Goldensand

River), until it receives the Yalung in the southern part

of Sz’chuen, which the Chinese there regard as the principal

stream of the two. Beyond the junction, the united river is

called Ta kiang as far as Wuchang, in Ilupeh, beyond which

‘ Report by Dr. W. A. P. Martin in Journal of N. C. Branch of R A.

Society, Vol. III., pp. 33-38 ; 1860. Same journal, Vol. IV., pp. 80-86 ; 1867,-

Notes by Ney Elias. Pumpelly’s Researches, 1866, chap, v., pp. 41-51

THE YANGTSZ’ KIANG. 21

the people know it also as the Cliang kiang, or ‘Long Tliver.’

They do not often call it Yangtsz’, which is properly applied

only to the reach from Xanking ont to sea, which lay within

the old region of Yangchan. This name has been erroneously

written in Chinese, and thence translated ‘ Son of the Ocean,’

The French often call it the Fleuve Bleu, but the Chinese have

no such name. Its general course from AYuchang is easterly,

receiving various tributaries on both shores, until it discharges

its waters at Tsungming Island, by two mouths, in hit, 32° N,,

more than 1,850 miles from its mouth in a direct line, but flowing

nearly 3,000 miles in all its windings.’

One of the largest and most useful of its tributaries in its

lower course is the Ivan kiang in Kiangsi, which empties

through the Poyang lake, and continues the transverse communication

from north to south, connecting with the Grand

Canal. The Tungting lake receives the Siang and Yuen, which

drain the northern sides of the Xan ling in Ilunan ; and west

of them is the Kungtan or Wu, which comes in with its

surplus waters from Kweichau. These are on the south ; the

Ilan in Ilupeh, and the Kialing, Min, and Loh in Sz’chuen, are

the main aifluents on the north, contributing the drainage

south of the Peli ling. The Grand Canal comes in opposite

Chinkiang, and from thence the deep channel, able to carry the

largest men-of-war on its bosom, finds its way to the Pacific.

No two rivers can be more unlike in their general features than

these two mighty streams. While the Yellow Piver is unsteady,

the Yangtsz’ is uniform and deep in its lower course,

and available for rafts from Batang in the western confines of

Sz’chuen, and for boats from beyond Tungchuen in Yunnan,

more than 1,700 miles from its mouth. Its great body and

depth afford ample I’oom for ocean steam-ships 200 miles, as far

as Xanking, where in some places no bottom could be found at

twenty fathoms, while the banks are not so low^ as to be often

injured by the freshets, even when the flood is over thirty feet.

‘ See the account of Pere Laribe’s voyage on this river in 1843, Annates de

la Propagation de la Foi, Tome XVII., pp. 207, 286, ff. Five Months on the

Tang-tsze, by Capt. Thos.W. Blakiston ; London, 1862. Pumpelly’s Researches^chap. ii. , pp. 4-10. Capt. Gill, The River of Golden Sand.

At Pingslian above Siicliau in Sz’chnen, 1,550 miles from its month, Blakiston reckons the river to be 1,500 feet above tidewater, which gives an average fall of 13 inches to a geographical mile ; the inclination is increased to 19 inches in some portions, and it is this force which carries the silt of this stream ont to sea, bnt which is wanting in the Yellow River. The fall of the Yangtsz’ is nearly donble that of the Nile and Amazon, and half that of the Mississippi. The amount of water discharged is estimated at 500,000 cubic feet a second at Ichang, about 700 miles up, and it may reasonably be concluded that at Tsungming it discharges in times of flood a million cubic feet per second. Barrow calculated the discharge of the Yellow River in 1798 to be 11,610 cubic feet per second, when the current ran seven miles an hour. Xo river in the world exceeds the Yangtsz’ for arrangement of subsidiary streams, which render the whole basin accessible as far as the Yalung. “When a ship-canal has been dug around the gorges and rapids between Ichang and Kwei, steam-vessels can ascend nearly two thousand miles. The area of its basin is estimated at 548,000 square miles ; and from its central course, and the number of provinces through which it 2:)asses, it has been termed the Girdle of China ; while for its size, perennial and ample supply of water, and accessibility for navigation, it ranks with the great rivers of the world.’

Besides these two notable rivers, numerous others empty

into the ocean along the coast from Hainan to the Amur, three

of which drain large tracts of country, and afford access to

many populous cities and districts. The third basin is that

south of the I^an ling to the ocean ; it is drained chiefly by the

Chu kiang, and its form is much less regular than those of the

Yellow River and Yangtsz’. The Chu kiang or Pearl River,

like most of the rivers in China, has many names during its

course, and is formed by three principal branches, respectively

called East, North, and West rivers, according to the quarter

from whence they come. The last is by far the largest, and all

‘ Staunton’s Emhnssy, Vol. III., p. 233. Blakiston’s Yang-tsze, p. 294, etc

Chinese Repodtoru^ Vol. II., p. 316,

LAKES OF CHINA. 2^\

of them are navigal)le most of their length. They disembogue

togetlier at Canton, and drain a region of not nuich less than

130,000 S(jiiare miles, being all the conntr}- east of the Ynn ling

and south of the Nan ling ranges. The rivers in Yunnan, for

the most part, empty into the Salween, Saigon, Meikon, and

other streams in Coehinehina. The Min, which flows by Fnhchau,

the Tsili, upon which Xingpo lies, the Tsientang, leading

up to Hangchau, and the Pei ho, or White River, emptying into

the Gulf of Pechele, are the most considerable among these

lesser outlets in the provinces ; while the Liau ho and Yaliluh

kiang, discharging into the Gulf of Liautung, are the only two

that deserve mention in Southern Manchuria. The difference

between the number of river-mouths cutting the Chinese coast

and that of the United States is very striking, resulting from

the diiferent direction of the mountain chains in the interior.

The lah’s of China are comparatively few and small ; all

those in the provinces of any size lie within the Plain, and are

connected with the two.great rivers. The largest is tlie Tungting

in Ilunan, about 220 miles in circumference, tlirough

Avliich the waters of the Siang and Yuen rivers flow, and fill

its channels and beds according to the season ; it is now the silted-

up bed of a former inland sea in Ilupeh, lying on both sides

of the Yangtsz’, and through which countless lakes, creeks, and

canals form a navigable network between that river and the

Han. The lake receives the silt as the tributaries flow on

through it, and discharge themselves along the deep outlet

near Yohchau ; this depression altogether is about 200 miles

long and 80 broad. About 320 miles eastward lies the Poyang

Lake in Kiangsi, which also discharges the surplus waters of

the Kan into the Yangtsz’. It is nearly 90 miles long, and

about 20 in breadth, inclosing within its bosom many beautiful

and populous islets. The scenery around this lake is highly

picturesque, and its trade and flsheries are inore important

than those of the Tungting. The Yangtsz’ receives the waters

of several other lakes as it approaches the ocean, the largest

of which are the Ta liu or ‘ Great Lake ‘ near Suchau, and the Tsau hu, lying on the northern bank, between Nganking and Nanking ; both these lakes join the river by navigable streams and the former is connected with the ocean by more than one channel.

The only considerahle lake connected with the Yellow River

is the llungtsih in Iviangsu, situated near the junction of that

river and the Grand Canal, into which it discharges the drainings

of the Ilwai River ; it is more remarkable for the fleets of

boats upon it than for scenery in the vicinity. The larger part

of the country between the mouths of the two rivers is so

marshy and full of lakes, as to suggest the idea that the

whole was once an enormous estuary where their waters joined,

or else that their deposits have filled up a huge lake which

once occupied this tract, leaving only a number of lesser sheets.

Besides these, there are small lakes in Chihli and Shantung; also the Tien, the /Sien, and the Tali, of moderate extent, in Yunnan ; all of them support an aquatic population upon the fish taken from their waters.

The largest lake in Manchuria is the Hinkai-nor in Kirin,

near the source of the Usuri ; the two.lakes Hurun and Puyur,

or Pir, in the basin of the Nonni River, give their name to

Hurun-pir, the western district of Tsitsihar ; but of the extent

and productions of these sheets of water little is known.

Tl”3 regions lying north and south of Gobi contain many

salt lakes, none of them individually comparing with the Aral

Sea, but collectively covering a much larger extent, and most

of them receiving the waters of the streams which drain their

own isolated basins. The peculiarities of these little known

parts, especially the depression on each side of the Tien shan,

are such as to render them among the most interesting fields

for geographical and geological research in the world. The

largest one in Turkestan is Lob-nor, stated to be a great marsh

overgrown with tall reeds and having a length of 75 miles and

width of 15 miles(Prejevalsky, Froni Kulja Across the Tien shnii to Lob-nor, p. 99.). Bostang-nor, said to connect with this

lake, is placed on Chinese maps some 30 miles north of it.

Korth of the Tien shan the lakes are larger and more numerous

; the Dzaisang, Kisil-bash and Issik-kul are the most important.

All these lakes are salt.

BOUNDARIES OF THE PROVINCES. 25

The M’liole region of Koko-nor is a country of lakes. The

Oling and Dzaring are among tlie sources of the Yellow Rivei”; and the Tsing Ixti^ or Azure Sea, better known as Koko-nor,

gives its name to the province. The Tengkiri-nor in Tibet lies

to the north of H’lassa, and is the largest sheet of water within

the frontiers of the empire. In its neighborhood are numerous

small lakes extending northward into Koko-nor. The

Palti or Yamorouk is shaped like a ring, an island in its centre

occupying nearly the whole surface. Ulterior Tibet possesses

many lakes on both sides of the Gang-dis-ri range ; the Yik

and Paha, near Gobi, are the largest, being only two of a long

row of them south of the Kwanlun range.

The Eighteen Provinces are bounded on the north-east by the

colony of Shingking, from which they are separated by the

line of a former palisade marking the boundary from the town

of Shan-hai kwan to the Hwang ho. Following this stream to

its sources in the In shan, the boundary then crosses these

mountains and pursues a west and south-west course, through

the territories of roving Mongol tribes, until it finds the Yellow

River at the settlement of Hokiuli in Shensi. West of this

the Great “Wall divides the provinces of Shensi and Ivansuh

from the Mongolian deserts as far as the Kiayli Pass, beyond

which lies the desert of Gobi, called Pch ha I (Xorth Sea) and Hah

fiai (Black Sea). On the east are the Gulf of Pechele and the

Yellow Sea or Hwang hai, also called Tang hai (Eastern Sea)

as far south as the Channel of Formosa. This channel and

the China Sea lie on the south-east and south, as far as the Gulf

of Tongking and the confines of Annam. Kwangsi and Yunnan border on Annam and Siam on their south sides, while Burmali marks the western frontier, but nearly the whole southwest and western frontiers beyond Yunnan and Sz’chuen are possessed by small tribes of uncivilized people, over whom neither the Chinese nor Burmese have much real control.

Koko-nor bounds Sz’chuen and Kansuh on their western and southwestern sides.

The coast of China, from Hainan to the mouth of the Yangtsz’, is bordered with multitudes of islands and rocky islets; from that point northward to Liautung, the shores are low, and, except in Sliantuiiii’, the coast is rendered dangerous by shoals.

South of the Pei ho, along to the end of Shantung Promontory, the coast is bolder, increasing in height after passing the Miautau Islands, though neither side of the promontory presents any point of remarkable elevation ; Cape Macartney, at the eastern end, is a conspicuous bluff when approaching it from sea. From this cape to the mouth of the Tsientang River, near Chapu, a distance of about 400 miles, the coast is

low, especially between the mouths of the Yangtsz’ and Yellow

rivers, and has but few good harbors. Quicksands in the

regions near these rivers and the Bay of Ilangchau render the

navigation dangerous to native junks. From Kitto Point, near

Ningpo, down to Hongkong, the shores assume a bolder aspect,

and numerous small bays and coves occur among the islands,

affording safe refuge for vessels. The aspect along this part is

uninviting in the extreme, consisting principally of a succession

of yellowish cliffs and naked headlands, giving little promise

of the highly cultivated country beyond them. This bleak appearance

is caused by the rains washing the decomposed soil

off the surface ; the rock being granite in a state of partial

and progressive disintegration, the loose soil is easily carried

down into the intervals. Another reason for its treeless sin–

face is owing to the practice of annually cutting the coarse

grass for fuel, and after the crop is gathered setting the stubble

on fire, in order to manure the ground for the coming year; the fire and thinness of the soil together effectually prevent any large growth of trees or shrubbery upon the hills.

The estuary of the Pearl Iliver from the Bocca Tigris down to the Grand Ladrones, a distance of TO miles, and from Hongkong westerly to the Island of Tungku, about 100 miles, is interspersed with islands. The strait which separates Hainan from the Peninsula of Luichau has been supposed to be the place called by Arabian travelers in the ninth century the Gates of China, but that channel was probably near the Chusan Archi})elago. That group of fertile islands is regarded as the l)rokeii termination of the continental range of mountains running throui^h Chehkiang.

CHARACTER OF THE COAST.

The Island of Formosa, or Taiwan, cmmects tlie islands of Japan and Lewchew with Lu9onia. Between Formosa and the coast lie the Pescadores or Panghu Islands, a group much less in extent and number than the Chusan Islands. The Chinese have itineraries of all the places, headlands, islands, etc., along the entire coast, but they do not afford much information respecting the names of positions.(CJiinese Repository, Vol. V., p. 337; Vol. X., pp. 351, 371. Williams’ Chinese Commerced Guide, fifth edition, second part, 1863.)

The first objects that invite attention in the general aspect of China Proper are the Great Plain in the north-east, and the three longitudinal basins into which the country is divided by mountain chains running east and west(Remusat (Nouvennx Melanges, Tome I., p. 9) adds a fourth basin, that of the Sagalien. The latter, however, scarcely deserves the name, having so many interrupting cross-chains.). The three great rivers which drain these basins How through them very irregularly, but by means of their main trunks and the tributaries, water communication is easily kept up, not only from west to east along the great courses, but also across the country. These natural facilities for inland navigation have been greatly” improved by the people, but they still, in most cases, await the introduction of steam to assist them in stemming the rapid currents of some of their rivers, and bringing distant places into more frequent communication.

The whole surface of China may be conveniently divided into the mountainous and hilly country and the Great Plain. The mountainous country comprehends more than luilf of the whole, lying west of the meridian of 112^ or 114° (nearly that of Canton), quite to the borders of Tibet. The hilly portion is that south of the Yangtsz’ kiang and east of this meridian, comprising the provinces of Fuhkien, Kiangsi, Kwangtung, and sections of Hunan and Ilupeh. The Great Plain lies in the northeast, and forms the richest part of the empire.

This Plain extends in length 700 miles from the Great Wall and Barrier Range north of Peking to the confluence of Poyang Lake with the Yangtsz’ in Kiangsi, lat. 30° X. The latter river is considered as its southern boundary as far down as Nganking in Ngankwui, wlience to the sea it is formed by a line drawn nearly east throng] i llangchau. The western boundary may be marked by a line drawn from Kingchau in Ilupeh(lat. 30° 36′), nearly north to llwaiking, on the Yellow River, and thence due north to the Great Wall, 50 miles north-west of

Peking. The breadth varies. North of lat. 35°, where it

partly extends to the Yellow Sea, and partly borders on the

western side of Shantung, thence across to tlie ]jear Mountains

and Shansi, its measure is between 150 and 250 miles ; stating

the average at 200 miles, this portion has an area of 70,000

square miles. Between 3-i° and 35° the Plain enlarges, and in

the parallel of the Yellow Piver has a breadth of some 300

miles from east to west ; while further south, along the course

of the Yangtsz’, it reaches nearly 400 miles inland. Estimating

the mean breadth of this portion at 400 miles, there are

140,000 square miles, which, watli the northern part, make an

area of about 210,000 square miles—a surface seven times as

large as that of Lombardy, and about the same area as the

plain of Bengal drained by the Ganges. The northern portion

in Chihli up to the edge of the Plateau is mostly a deposit

of the yellow loess and alluvial on the river bottoms;

that lying near the coast in Kiangsu is low and swampy, covered

by lakes and intersected by water-courses. This portion

is extremely fertile, and furnishes large quantities of silk, tea,

cotton, grain, and tobacco. The most interesting feature of this

Plain is tlie enormous population it supports, which is, according

to the census of 1812, not less than 177 millions of human

beings, if the whole number of inhabitants contained in the six

provinces lying wholly or partly in it be included ; making it

by far the most densely settled of any part of the world of the

same size, and amounting to nearly two-thirds of the whole

population of Europe.(Penny Cydojwidia, Vol. VII., p. 74. McCulloch’s Oeographicul Dictionary, Vol. I., p. 596.)

THE GREAT WALL 29

The public works of China are probably unequalled in any land or by any people, for the amount of human labor bestowed upon them; the natural aspect of the country has been materially changed by them, and it has been remarked that the Great Wall is the only artificial structure which would arrest attention in a hasty survey of the surface of the globe. But their usefulness, or the science exhibited in their construction, is far inferior to their extent. The Great Wall, called Wan-li Chang Cheng (i.e., Myriad-mile Wall), was built by Qin Shi-huangdi, in order to protect his dominions from

the incursions of the northern tribes. Some portions of it

were already in existence, and he formed the plan of joining

and extending them along the whole northern frontier to

guard it. It was finished b.c. 204, having been ten years in

building, seven of which were done after the Emperor’s death.

This gigantic work was probably a popular one in the main,

and still remains as its own chief evidence of the energy,

industry, and perseverance of its builders, as well as their

unwisdom and waste. Its construction probably cost less than

the usual sums spent by Eui-opean States for their standing

armies. It commences at Shanhai wei or Shanhai kwan (lat.

40°, long. 119° 50′), a coast town of some importance as on

the boundary between Child i and Shingking, and a place of

considerable trade. Lord Jocelyu describes the wall, when

observed from the ships, as ” scaling the precipices and topping

the craggy hills of the country, which have along this

coast a most desolate appearance.”

It runs along the shore for several miles, and terminates on

the beach near a long reef. Its course from this point is

west, a little northerly, along the old frontiers of the province

of Chihli, and then in Shansi, till it strikes the Yellow River,

in lat. 394° and long. 111^°. This is the best built part, and

contains the most important gates, where garrisons and trading

marts are established. Within the province of Chihli there

are two walls, inclosing a good part of the basin of the Sangkan

ho west of Peking ; the inner one was built by an emperor of the Ming dynasty. From the point where it strikes the Yellow River, near Pau-teh, it forms the northern boundary of Shensf, till it tonches that stream again in lat. 37°, inclosing the country of the Ortous Mongols. Its direction from this point is north-west along the northern frontier of Kansnh to its termination near Kiavii kwan, through which the road passes leading to llami.

From Tiear the eastern extremity of tlio AVall in the province of Ciiihh’, extending in a north-easterly direction, there was once a wooden stockade or palisade, forming the boundary between Liautung and Ivirin, which has been often taken from its representation on maps as a continuation of the Great Wall. It was erected by the Manchus, but has long since become decayed and disused.

The entire length of the Great Wall between its extremities is 22^ degrees of latitude, or 1,255 miles in a straight line; but its turnings and doublings increase it to fully 1,500 miles.

It would stretch from Philadelphia to Topeka, or from Portugal to Naples, on nearly the same latitude. The construction of this gigantic work is somewhat adapted to the nature of the country it traverses, and the material was taken or made on the spot where it was used. In the western part of its course, it is in some places merely a mud or gravel wall, and in others earth cased with brick.

The eastern part is generally composed of earth and pebbles faced with large bricks, weighing from 10 to GO lbs, each, supported on a coping of stone. The whole is about 25 feet thick at the base, and 15 feet at the top, and varying from 15 to 30 feet high; the top is protected with bricks, and defended by a slight parapet, the thinness of which has been taken as proof that cannon were unknown at the time it was erected.

There are brick towers at different intei’vals, some of them more than 40 feet high, but not built upon the Wall. These are independent structures, usually about 40 feet square at the base, diminishing to 30 at the top; at particular spots the towers are of two stories.

The impression left upon the mind of a foreigner, on seeing this monument of human toil and unremunerative outlay, is respect for a people that could in any manner build it. Standing on the jK-ak at Kn-jxh Knu (Old North (late), one sees the cloud-<-a[)ped towers extending away over the declivities in single tiles both east and west, until dwarfed by miles and miles of sk}’-w:ird jiei-sj)e(‘ti\(> as they dwindle inf(» niiiinte piles, yet stand

THE GRAND CANAL. 31

with solemn stillness where they were stationed twenty centuries ago, as though condemned to wait the march of time till their builders returned. The crumbling dike at their feet may be followed, winding, leaping across gorges, defiles, and steeps, now buried in sonie chasm, now scaling the cliffs and slopes, in very exuberance of power and M’antonness, as it vanishes in a thin, shadowy line, at the horizon. Once seen, the Great Wall of China can never be forgotten.

At present this remarkable structure is simply a geographical boundary, and except at the Gates nothing is done to keep it in repair. Beyond the Yellow River to its western extremity, the Great Wall, according to Gerbillon, is mostly a mound of earth or gravel, about fifteen feet in height, with only occasional towers of brick, or gateways made of stone.

At Kalgan portions of it are made of porphyry and other stones piled up in a pyramidal form between the brick towers, difficult to cross but easy enough to pull down. The appearance of this rampart at Ivu-peh kau is more imposing; the entire extent of the main and cross walls in sight from one of the towers there is over twenty miles. In one place it runs over a peak 5,225 feet high, where it is so steep as to make one wonder as much at the labor of erecting it on such a cliff as on the folly of supposing it could be of any use there as a defence. The wall is most visited at Xan-kau (South Gate), in the Ku-yung Pass, a remarkable Thermopyla fifteen miles in length, which leads from the Plain at Peking up to the first terrace above it, and at one time was guarded by five additional walls and gates, now all in ruins. From this spot, the wall reaches across Shansi, and was built at a later period.

The other great public work is the Grand Canal, or Chah ho (i.e., river of Flood-gates), called also Yim ho or ‘ Transit River,’ an enterprise which reflects far more credit upon the monarchs who devised and executed it, than does the Great Wall, and if the time in which it was dug, and the character of the princes who planned it, be considered, few works can be mentioned in the history of any country more admirable and useful. When it was in order, before the inflow of the Yellow River failed, by means of its connection with its feeders, an uninterrupted water communication across the country from Peking to Canton existed, and goods and passengers passed from the capital to nearly every hirge town in the basins of the two great rivers. The canal was designed by Kublai to reach from his own capital as far as HangZhou, the former capital of the Sung dynasty, and cannot be better described than in Marco Polo’s language : ” You must understand that the Emperor has caused a water communication to be made from this city [Kwa-chau] to Cambaluc, in the shape of a wide and deep channel dug between stream and stream, between lake and lake, forming as it were a great river on which large vessels can ply.” ‘ The northern end is a channel fourteen miles long, from Tung-chau up to Peking, which, passing under the city walls, finishes its course of some 600 miles at the palace wall, close by the British Legation ; here it is called Jl^ Ao, or ‘ Imperial River,’ but all boats now unlade at the eastern gate. An abridged account of Davis’s observations ” will afford a good idea of its construction and appearance.

“Early on the 23d September, we entered the canal through

two stone piers and between very high banks. The mounds

of earth in the immediate vicinity were evidently for the purpose

of effecting repairs, which, to judge from the vestiges of

inundation on either side, could not be infrequent. The canal

joins the Yu ho, which we had just quitted, on its eastern

bank, as that river flows towards the Pei ho. One of the

most striking features of the canal is the comparative clearness

of its waters, when contrasted with that of the two rivers

on which we had hitherto travelled ; a circumstance reasonably

attributable to the depositions occasioned by the greater stillness

of its contents. The course of the canal at this point

was evidently in the bed of a natural river, as might be perceived

from its winding course, and the irregularity and inartificial

appearance of its banks. The stone abutments and

flood-gates are for the purpose of regulating its waters, which

at present were in excess and flowing out of it. As we proceeded

on the canal, the stone flood-gates or sluices occurred at the rate of three or four a day, sometimes oftener, according as the inequalities in the surface of the country rendered them necessary

• Yuk-‘s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. KJG. ” Sketches of China, Vol. I., p. 245

THE GRAND CANAL. 33

” As we advanced, the canal in some parts became narrower,

and the banks had rather more of an artificial appearance than

where we first entered it, being occasionally pretty high ; but

still the winding course led to the inference, that as yet the

canal was for the most part only a natural river, modified and

regulated by sluices and embankments. The distance between

the stone piers in some of the flood-gates was apparently so

narrow as only just to admit the passage of our largest boats.

The contrivance for arresting the course of the water through

them was extremely simple ; stout boards, with ropes fastened

to each end, were let down edgewise over each other through

grooves in the stone piers. A number of soldiers and workmen

alwaj’s attended at the sluices, and the danger to the boats

was diminished by coils of rope being hung down at the sides

to break tha force of l)lows. The slowness of our progress,

which for the last week averaged only twenty miles a day,

gave us abundant leisure to observe the country

” “We now began to make better progress on the canal than

we had hitherto done. The stream, though against us, was

not strong, except near the sluices, where it was confined. In

the afternoon we stopped at Kai-ho chin (i.e., River-opening mart), so called, perhaps, because the canal was commenced near here. On the 28th we arrived at the influx of the Yun ho, where the stream turned in our favor, and flowed to the southward, being the highest point of the canal, and a place of some note. The Yun ho flows into the canal on its eastern side nearly at right angles, and a part of its waters flow north and part south, while a strong facing of stone on the western bank sustains the force of the influx. At this point is the temple of the Dragon King, or genius of the watery element, who is supposed to have the canal in his special keeping. This enterprise of leading in this river seems to have been the work of Sung Li, who lived under Hungwu, the first emperor of the Ming dynasty, about 1375. In his time, a part of the canal in Shantung became so impassable that the coasting passage by sea began to be most used. Tins was the very thing the canal had been intended to prevent ; Sung accordingly adopted the plan of an old man named Piying, to concentrate the waters of the Yun ho and neighboring streams, and bring them down upon the canal as they are at present. History states that Sung employed 300,000 men to carry the plan into operation, and that the work was completed in seven months.

On both sides of ns, nearly level with the canal, were extensive swamps with a shallow covering of water, planted with the Keluml)ium ; they were occasionally separated by narrow banks, along which the trackers walked, and the width of the canal sometimes did not exceed twenty-five yards. On reaching the part which skirts the Tu-shan Lake, the left bank was entirely submertred, and the canal confounded with the lake. All within sight was swamp, coldness, and desolation—in fact, a vast iidand sea, as many of the large boats at a distance were hull down. The swamps on the following day were kept out of sight by some decent villages on the high banks, which from perpetual accunnilation assumed in some places the aspect of hills.

” A part of our journey on the first of October lay along a portion of the canal where the banks, particularly to the right, were elaborately and thoroughly faced with stone ; a precaution which seemed to imply a greater than ordinary danger from inundations. In fact, the lakes, or rather floods, seemed to extend at present nearly to the feet of the mountains which lay at a distance on our left. We were now approaching that part of China which is exposed to the disastrous overflowings of the Yellow River, a perpetual source of wasteful expenditure to the government, and of peril and calamity to the people ; it well deserves the name of China’s Sorrow. We observed the repairs of the banks diligently proceeding under the superintendence of the proper officer. For this purpose they use the natural soil in combination with the thick stalks of the gigantic millet.”

THE GRAND CANAL. 35

The canal reaches the Yellow River about TO miles from its mouth ; but before leaving the lakes in the southern part of Shantung, it used to run nearly parallel with that stream for more than a hundred miles, and between it and the New Salt River during a good part of this distance. It is hard to understand how, by natural causes, so powerful a river, as it is described to be by the historians of both the British enil^assies less than one hundred years ago, should have become so completely choked up. The difference of level near Kaifung is found to be so very little that the siltage there has been enough to turn the current into the river “Wei and elsewhere. When Amherst’s

embassy passed, the boats struck right across the stream,

and gained the opposite bank, about three-fourths of a mile

distant, in less than an hour. They drifted about two miles

down, and then slowly brought up against the current to the

spot Avhere the canal entered. This opening was a sluice nearly

a hundred yards across, and through it the waters rushed into

the river like a mill-race ; the banks were constructed of earth,

strengthened with sorghum stalks, and strongly bound with cordage.

Sir John Davis remarks, with the instinct of a tradesman,

as he commends the perseverance and industry which had

overcome these obstacles, that if the science of a Brunei could

be allowed to operate on the Yellow River and Grand Canal,” a

benefit mio-ht be conferred on the Chinese that M^ould more

than compensate for all the evil that M-e have inflicted with our

opium and our guns.” The boats were dragged through and

up the sluice close to the bank by ropes communicating with

large windlasses worked on the bank, wdiich safely, though

slowly, brought them into still water.

The distance between the Yellow and Yangtsz’ rivers is about

ninety miles, and the canal here is carried largely upon a raised

w^ork of earth, kept together by retaining walls of stone, and

not less that twenty feet above the surrounding country in

some parts. This sheet of water is about two hundred feet wide,

and its current nearly three miles an hour. South of the II%vang

ho several large towns stand near the levees, below their level,

whose safety wholly depends upon the care taken of the baidvs

of the canal. Ilwai-ngan and Pauying lie thus under and near

them, in such a position as to cause an involuntary shudder at

the thought of the destruction which would take place if they

should give way. The level descends from these towns to the Yangtsz’, and at ‘i’angeliau the canal is much below the houses on its sides. It also connects with every stream or lake whose waters can be led into it. There are two or three inlets into the Yangtsz’ where the canal reaches the northern bank, but Chinkiang, on the southern shore, is regarded as the principal defence and post of its crossing. The canal leaves the river east of that city, proceeds south-east to

Sucliau, and thence southerly on the eastern side of lake Tai,

with which it communicates, to Ilangchau in Chehkiang. This

portion is by far the most interesting and picturesque of the

whole line, owing to its rich and populous cities, the fertility

and high cultivation of the banks, and the lively aspect imparted

by the multitude of boats. Though Kublai has had the credit

of this useful work, it existed in parts of its com-se long before his day. The reach between the two great rivers was opened in the 11 an dynasty, and repaired by the wise founder of the SuiChao dynasty (a.d. (500). The princes of the TangChao dynasty kept it (tpen, and when the Sung emperors lived at Ilangchau they made the extension up to Chinkiang the great highway which it is to this day. The work from Peking to the Yellow River Mas opened by the Mongols about 1289, in which they merely joined the rivers and lakes to each other as they now exist. The Ming and Tsing emperors have done all they could to keep it open throughout, and lately an attempt has been made to reopen the passage from Ilungtsih Lake north into the old bed, so that boats can reach Tientsin from Kwachau. Its entire length is about 650 miles, or not quite twice that of the Erie Canal, but it varies in its breadth and depth more than any important canal either of America or Europe.

As a work of art, compared with canals now existing in western countries, the Transit river does not rank high ; but even at this day there is no work of the kind in Asia which can compare with it, and there was none in the world equal to it when first put in full operation. It passes through alluvial soil in every part of its course, and the chief labor was expended in constructing embankments, and not in digging a deep channel.

CANALS. 37

The junction of the Yun ho, about lat. 3(5° N., was probably taken as the summit level. From this point northward the trench was dug through to Liiitsing to join the Yu ho, and embankments thrown up from the same place southward to the Yellow River, the whole being a line of two hundred miles. In some places the bed is cut down thirty, forty, and even seventy feet, but it encountered no material obstacle. The sluices which keep the necessary level are of rude construction, and thick planks, sliding in grooves hewn in stone buttresses, form the only locks. Still, the objects intended are all fully gained, and the simplicity of the means certainly does not derogate from the merit and execution of the plan.’

There are some other inferior canals in the empire. Kienlung

constructed a waste-weir for carrying off the surplus waters

of the Yellow River of about a hundred miles in length, by

cutting a canal from Ifimg liien in llonan, to one of the principal

affluents of lake Hungtsih. It also answered as a drain for

the marshy land in that part, and has probably recently served

to convey the Hoods from the main stream into the lake. In

the vicinity of Canton and Sucliau are many channels cut

through the plains, which serve both for irrigation and navigation,

but they are not worthy the name of canals. Similar conveniences

are more or less frequently met with in all parts of

the provinces, notably those on the Plain and low coast-lands.

The public roads, in a country so well provided with navigable

streams, are of minor consequence, but these media of travel

are not neglected. ” I have travelled near 600 leagues by land

in China,” observes De Guignes, ^ and have found many good

roads, most of them wide and planted with trees. They are

not usually paved, and consequently in rainy weather are either

channelled by the water or covered with nnid, and in dry weather

so dusty that travellers are obliged to wear spectacles to protect

their eyes. In Kwangtung transportation is perfornied almost

wholly by water, the only roads being across the lines of navigation.

‘ Klaproth, Memoires, Tome III., p. 312 sqq. De Guignes’ Voyages a Peking. Tome II., p. 195. Davis’s Sketchets, Vol. I., passim.H8 almost nortlnv

The pass across the Mei ling is paved or filled up with stones; at Kihngan, in Kiangsi, are paved roads in good condition, but beyond the Yangtsz’, in xSganhwui, they were impracticable, but became better as we proceeded ard, and in many places had trees on both sides. Beyond-the Hwang ho they were broader, and we saw crowds of travelers, carts, nudes, and horses.

In Shantung and Chihli they were generally broad and shady, and very dusty. This is, no doubt, disagreeable, but we went smoothly over these places, while in the villages and towns we were miserably jolted on the pavements. I hope, for the sake of those who may come after me, that the Chinese will not pave their roads before they improve their carriages.

Some of the thoroughfares leading to Peking are paved with thick slabs of stone. One feature of the roads through the northern provinces which attracts attention is the great miiiilxT that lie below the level of the country. It is caused by the wind sweeping along them, and carrying over

A Rf ., I-Cut in thf Loess. runLic JioADS. 39

the fields the dust made and raised by the carts. As soon as the pools left by the rains dry enough to let the carts pass, the earth is reduced to powder ; as the winds sweep through the passage and clear it out, the process in a few years cuts a defile through the loani often fifteen feet deep, which impedes travel by its narrow gauge, hindering the carts as they meet. The banks are protected by revetment Myalls or turf, if necessary. Those near I langchau, and the great road leading from Chehkiang into Kiangsi, are all in good condition. Generally speaking, however, as is the case with most things in China, the roads are not well repaired, and large holes are frequently allowed to remain unfilled in the path, to the great danger of those who travel by night.” ‘

Mountain passes have been cut for facilitating the transit of goods and people over the high ranges in many parts of the empire. The great road leading from Peking south-west through Sliansi and Shensi, and thence to Sz’chuen, is carried across the Peli ling and the valley of the river Ilwai by a mountain road, ” which, for the difficulties it presents and the art and labor with which they have been overcome, does not appear to be inferior to the road over the Simplon.” * At one place on this route, called Li-nai, a passage has been cut through the rock, and steps hewn on both sides of the mountain from its base to the summit. The passage across the peak being only wide enough for one sedan, the guards are perched in little houses placed on poles over the pass. This road was in ancient times the path to the metropolis, and these immense excavations were made from time to time by different monarchs. The pass over the Mei ling, at Kan-ngan, is a work of later date, and so are most of the other roads across this range in Fuhkien and Ivwangtung.

^ Voyages a Peking, Vol. II., p. 214. Compare the letter of a Jesuit missionary (Annales de la Foi, Tome VII., p. 377), who describes houses of rest on the wayside. These singular road-gullies of the loess region have been very thoroughly examined by Baron von Richthofen, from whose work the cut above is taken.^ Penny Cyclopaedia, Vol. XXVIL, p. 656.

The general aspect of the country is perhaps as much modified by labor of man in China as in England, but the appearance of a landscape in the two kingdoms is unlike. Whenever water is a\aihil)le, streams are led upon the rice fields, and this kind of cultivation allows few or no trees to grow in the plats.

Such fields are divided by i-aised banks, which serve for pathways across the marshy enclosui-e, and assist in confining the water when let in upon the growing crop. The bounds of other fields are denoted by stones or other landmarks, and the entire absence of walls, fences, or hedgerows, makes a cultivated plain appear like a vast garden.

The iireatest sameness exists in all the cities. A wall encloses all towns above a .s-^’ or township, and the suburbs are not unfrequently larger than their enceinte. The streets in large towns south of the Hwang ho are paved, and the sewers run under the cross slabs. What filth is not in them is generally in the street, as these drains easily become choked. The roadways arc not usually over ten feet wide, but the low houses on each side make them appear less like alleys than would be the case in western cities. Villages have a pleasant appearance at a distance, usually embowered among trees, between which the whitewashed houses look prettily ; but on entering them one is disappointed at their irregularit}’, dirtiness, and generally decayed look. The gardens and best houses are mostly walled in from sight, while the precincts of temples are the resort of idlers, beggars, and children, with a proportion of pigs and dogs.

Elegance or ornament, orderly arrangement and grandeur of design, cleanliness, or comfort, as these terms are applied in Europe, are almost unknown in Chinese houses, cities, or gardens.

GENERAL ASPECT AND RACE TYPES. 41

Commanding or agreeable situations are chosen for temples and monasteries, which are not only the abode of priests but serve for inns, theatres, and other purposes. The terrace cultivation sometimes renders the acclivities of hills beautiful in the highest degree, but it does not often impart a distinguishing feature to the landscape. A lofty solitary pagoda, an extensive temple shaded by trees in the opening of a vale, a commemorative ^x«’-Z«i*, or boats inoving in every direction through narrow creeks or on broad streams, are some of the peculiar lin eanients of Chinese scenery. No imposing mansions with beautiful grounds are found on the skirts of a town, for the people huddle together in luunlets and villages for mutiuil aid and security.

No tapering spires pointing out the rural chureli, nor towers, pillars, domes, or steeples in the cities, indicating buildings of public utility, rise upon the low level of dun-tiled roofs.

No meadows or pastures, containing herds and tlocks, are visible from tlie hill-tops in China ; nor are coaches or railroad cars observed hurrying across its landscapes. Steamers have just begun to course through some of its rivers, and disturb, by theii whistles and wheels, the drowsy silence of past ages and the slow progress of unwieldy junks—the other changes have yet to come.

The condition and characteristics of the various families of man inhabiting this great empire, render its study far more interesting than anything relating to its physical geography or public works. The Chinese forms the leading family, but the Miaotsz’, the Li-mu, the Kakyens, and other aborigines in the southern provinces, the Manchus, the Mongols, and various

Tartar tribes, the Tibetans, and certain wild races in Kirin and

Formosa, must not be overlooked. The sons of Ilan are indeed

a remarkable race, whether regard be had to their antiquity,

their numbers, their government, or their literature, and on

these accounts deserve the study and respect of every intelligent

student of mankind ; while their unwearied industry, their general

peaceableness and good humor, and their attainments in

domestic order and mechanical arts, connnend them to the notice

of every one who sees in these points of character an earnest

of their future position amid the great family of civilized

nations when once they shall have attained the same.

The physical traits of the Chinese may be described as being between the light and agile Hindu, and the muscular, fleshy European. Their form is well built and symmetrical ; their color is a brunette or sickly white, rather approaching to a yellowish than to a florid tint, but this yellow hue has been much exaggerated ; in the south they are swarthy but not black, ne\er becoming as dark even as the Portuguese, whose fifth or sixth ancestors dwelt near the Tagus. The shades of complexion differ much according to the latitude and degree of exposure to the -u-eather, especially in the females. The hair of the head is lank, black, coarse, and glossy; beard always black, thin, and deficient ; scanty or no whiskers ; and very little hair on the body. Eyes invariably black, and apparently oblique, owing to the slight degree in which the inner angles of the eyelids open, the internal canthi being more acute than in western races, and not allowing the whole iris to be seen ; this peculiarity in the eye distinguishes the eastern races of Asia from all other families of man. There is a marked difference between the features of the mixed race living south of the Mei ling, and the inhabitants of the Great Plain and in Shansi or further west ; the latter are the finer appearing. The hair and eyes being always black, a European with blue eyes and light hair appears strange to them; one reason given by the people of Canton for calling foreigners ‘yangguizi’ or ‘foreign devils,’ is, that they have sunken blue eyes, and red hair like demons.

The cheek-bones are high, and the outline of the face remark ably round. The nose is rather small, much depressed, nearly even with the face at the root, and wide at the extremity ; there is, however, considerable difference in this respect, but no aquiline noses are seen. Lips thicker than among Europeans, but not at all approaching those of the negro. The hands are small, and the lower limbs better proportioned than among any other Asiatics. The height of those living north of the Yangtsz’ is about the same as that of Europeans. A thousand men taken as they come in the streets of Canton, will hardly equal in stature and weight the same number in Rome or New Orleans, while they would, perhaps, exceed these, if gathered in Peking;

their nuiscular powers, however, would probably be less in

either Chinese city than in those of Europe or America.

In size, the women are smaller than European females ; antf

in the eyes of those accustomed to the European style of beauty,

the Chinese women possess little ; the broad upper face, low

nose, and linear eyes, being quite the contrary of handsome.

Nevertheless, the Chinese face is not destitute of beauty,

and when animated with good humor and an expressive eye,

and lighted by the glow of youth and health, the features lose

much of their repulsiveness. Nor do they fade so soon and

ABORIGINAL TRIBES. 43

look as ugly and witliered wlien old as some travellers say, but

are in respect to bearing children and keeping their vigor, more

like Europeans than the Hindus or Persians.

The mountainous regions in Yunnan, Kwangsi, and Ivweichau,

give lodgement to many elans of the Miaotsz’ or ” children

of the soil,” as the words may be rendered. It is singular that

any of these people should have maintained their independence

so long, when so lai’ge a portion of them have partially submitted

to Chinese rule. Those who will not are called sang

Miaots2\ i.e., wild or ‘ unsubdued,’ while the others are termed

sh}ih or ‘ subdued.’ They present so many physical points of

difference as to lead one to infer that they are a more ancient

race than the Chinese around them, and the aborigines of

Southern China. They are rather smaller in size and stature,

have shorter necks, and their features are somewhat more

angular. They are divided into many tribes, and have been

described by Chinese travellers, who have illustrated their habits

by paintings and sketches, from which a good idea can be

obtained of their condition. Dr. Bridgman has translated such

an account, written by a Chinese native traveller, in which he

sketches the manners of eighty-two clans, especially those customs

relating to worship and marriage, showing how little they

have learned from their i-ulei’s or impi-oved from the savage

state. An examination of their languages shows that those of

the Miaotsz’ proper have strong affinities with the Siamese and

Annamese, and those known as Lolo exhibit a decided likeness

to the Burmese. The former of these are mentioned in Chinese

histoi-y during 4,000 years ; the latter about a.d. 250, when a

Shan nation came under Cliinese influence in Yunnan, and was

the object of a warlike expedition. The same race still remain

on the Upper Irrawadi and in Assam as Shans and Ivhamti, ami

in the basins of the IMeinam and Mei-lung, all of them akin to

the Tibetans and Burmese. They form together an interesting

relic of the ancient peoples of the land, and further inquiries

will doubtless develop something of their history and origin.’

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 105. Shanghai Journal, No. III., 1859.Journal of Indian Archipelago, 1852. Missionary Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33,02, 149, etc. T. T. Cooper, Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce, jiassim.

An aboriginal race—the Li-mu—exists in the center of Hainan, an offset from the Miaotsz’, judging by the little that is known of their language. The natives of Formosa seem to have more affinity with their neighbors in Luzon and southwai-d than with the Chinese.

The Mongol and Manchu races have been considered as springing from the same stock, but during centuries of separation under different ‘ circumstances they have altered much.

The Mongols are essentially a nonuadic race, while the Manchus are an agricultural or a hunting people, according to the part of their country they inhabit. The Manchus are of a lighter complexion and somewhat larger than the Chinese, have the same conformation of the eyelids, but leather more beard, while their countenances indicate greater intellectual capacity. They seem to partake of both the Mongol and Chinese character, possessing more determination and largeness of plan than the latter, with much of the rudeness and haughtiness of the former.

They have fair, if not florid, complexions, straight noses, and, in a few cases, brown hair and heavy beards. They are more allied to the Chinese, and when they ruled the northern provinces as the Kin dynasty, amalgamated with them. They may be regarded as the most improvable race in Central Asia, if not on the continent; and the skill with which they have governed the Chinese empire, and adopted a civilization higher than their own, gives promise of still further advances when they become familiar with the civilization of Christian lands.

Under the term Mongols or Moguls a great number of tribes occupying the steppes of Central Asia are comprised. They extend from the borders of the Ivhirgis steppe and Kokand eastward to the Sialkoi Mountains, and it is particularly to this race that the name Tartars or Tatars is applicable. ‘ No such word is now known among the people, except as an ignominious epithet, by the Chinese, who usually write it with two characters—tah-tsz’—meaning ‘ trodden-down people.’ Klaproth confines the appellation of Tartars to the Mongols, Kalmucks, Kalkas, Eleuths, and Buriats, while the Kirghis, Usbecks, Cossacks, and Turks are of Kurdish and Ttirhrman origin.

MANCIIUS AND MONGOLS. 46

The Mongol tribes generally arc a stout, squat, swarthy, ill favored race of men, having high and broad shoulders, short, broad noses, pointed and prominent chins, long teeth distant from each other, eyes black, elliptical, and imsteady, thick, short necks, extremities bony and nervous, muscular thighs, but short legs, with a stature nearly or quite equal to the European.

They have a written language, but their literature is limited and mostly religious. The same language is spoken by all the tribes, with slight variations and only a small admixture of foreign words. Most of the accounts of their origin, their wars, and their habits, were written by foreigners living or travelling among them ; but they themselves, as McCulloch remarks, know as little of these things as rats or marmots do of their descent.

Yet it is not so easy to find the typical Mongol among the medley of nationalities in their towns. A crowd in a town like Yarkand exhibits all the varieties of the human race. The gaunt, almost beardless Manchu, with sunken eyes, high cheekbones, and projecting jowl, contrasts with the smooth face, pinky yellow, oblique eye, flat cheeks, and rounded jowl of the Chinese. The bearded, sallow Toork, the angular, rosy Kirghis, the coarse, hard Dungani, and thick-lipped, square-faced Eleuth, all show poorly with the tall, handsome Cashmerian, the swarthy liadakshi, and robust, intelligent Uzbek. The fate of the vast swarms of this race which have descended from the tal)le-land of Central Asia and overrun, in different ages, the plains of India, China, Syria, Egypt, and Eastern Europe, and the rise and fall of the gigantic empire they themselves erected under Genghis in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, are among the most remarkable episodes in the world’s history. They have always maintained the same character in their native wilds, their conquests have been exterminations rather than subjugations, their history a record of continual quarrels between clans.

The last of the five races is the Tibetan, who partake of the physical characteristics of the Mongols and Hindus. They are short, squat, and broad-shouldered in body, with angular faces, wide, high cheek-bones, small black eyes, and scant beard. They are^ mild in disposition, have a stronger religious feeling than the Chinese, and have never left their own highlands either for emigration or conquest. Their civilization is fullj’ equal to that of tlie Siamese and Burmese, and life and property are more secure with them than among their turbulent neighbors in Butan, Lahore, or Cabul.

It will be seen from this short survey that a full account of the geography, government, manners, literature, and civilization of so large a part of the world and its inhabitants requires the combined labors of many observers, all of them well acquainted with the languages and institutions of the people whom they describe. No one will look, therefore, for more than a brief outline of these subjects in the present work, minute enough, however, to enable readers to form a fair opinion of the people.

It is the industry of the Chinese which has given them their high place among the nations of the earth. Not only has the indigenous vegetation been superseded wherever culture M-ould remunerate toil, but lofty hills have been tilled and terraced almost to their tops, cities have been built upon them, and extensive ranges of wall erected alone; their summits. They practise all the industrial arts whose objects are to feed, clothe, educate or adorn mankind, and maintain the largest population ever united under one system of rule. Ten centuries ago they were the most civilized nation on earth, and the incredulity manifested in Europe, five hundred years ago, at the recitals of Marco Polo regarding their condition, is the counterpart of the sentiments now expressed by the Chinese when they hear of the power and grandeur of western nations.

Isolated by natural boundaries from other peoples, their civilization, developed under peculiar influences, must be compared to, ratlier than judged of, by European. A people from whom some of the most distinguishing inventions of modern Europe came (such as the compass, porcelain, gunpowder, and printing), and were known and practised many centuries earlier; who probably amount to more tlian three huTidred millions, united in one system of manners, letters, and polity; whose cities and capitals rival in numbers the greatest metropoles of any age; who have not only covered the earth, but the waters, with towns and streets—such a nation must occupy a conspicuous place in the history of mankind, and the study of their character and condition commend itself to every well-v/islier of his race.

CIVILIZATION PAST AND FUTURK

It lias been too much the custom of writers to overlook the influence of the Bible upon modern civilization ; but when a comparison is to be drawn between European and Asiatic civilization, this element forces itself upon the attention as the main cause of the superiority of the former. It is not the civilization of luxury or of letters, of arts or of priestcraft ; it is not the spirit of war, the passion for money, nor its exhibitions in trade and the application of machinery, that render a nation permanently great and prosperous. ” Christianity is the summary of all civilization,” says Chenevix ; ” it contains every argument which could be urged in its support, and every precept which explains its nature. Former systems of religion were in conformity with luxury, but this alone seems to have been conceived for the region of civilization. It has flourished in Europe, while it has decayed in Asia, and the most civilized nations are the most purely Christian.” Christianity is essentially the religion of the people, and when it is covered over with forms and contracted into a priesthood, its vitality goes out; this is one reason why it has declined in Asia. The attainments of the Chinese in the arts of life are perhaps as great as they can be without this spring of action, without any other motives to industry, obedience, and morality, than the commands or demands of the present life.

A survey of the world and its various races in successive ages leads one to infer that God has some plan of national character, and that one nation exhibits the development of one trait, while another race gives prominence to another, and subordinates the first. Thus the Egyptian people were eminently a priestly race, devoted to science and occult lore ; the Greeks developed the imaginative powers, excelling in the fine arts ; the Romans were warlike, and the embodiment of force and law ; the Babylonians and Persians magnificent, like the head of gold in Daniel’s vision ; the Arabs predacious, volatile, and imaginative ; the Turks stolid, bigoted, and impassible ; the Hindus are contemplative, religious, and metaphysical ; the (yhinese industrious, peaceful, literary, atlieistic, and self-contained.’ The same religion, and constant intercommunication among European nations, has assimilated

them more than these other races ever could have become ; but every one knows the national peculiarities of the Spaniards,

Italians, French, English, etc., and how they are maintained,

notwithstanding the motives to imitation and coalescence. The

compai’ison of national character and civilization, M’ith the

view of ascertaining such a plan, is a subject worthy the profound

study of any scholar, and one which would orter new

views of the human race. The Chinese would be found to

iiave attained, it is believed, a higher position in general security

of life and property, and in the arts of domestic life and

comfort among the mass, and a greater degree of general literary

intelligence, than any other heathen or Mohammedan nation

that ever existed—or indeed than some now calling: themselves

Christian, as Abyssinia. They have, however, probably done all they can do, reached as high a point as they can without the Gospel ; and its introduction, with its attendant intluences, will erelong change their political and social system. The rise and progress of this revolution among so mighty a mass of liuman beings will form one of the most interesting parts of the history of the world during the nineteenth century, and solve the problem whether it be possible to elevate a race without the intermediate steps of disorganization and reconstruction. ‘ For ol)Sprvations on the Chinese as compared witli other nations, see Sclilef^el’s Philoaifphy of llistuiy, p. 1 18, Bohu’s edition.

CHAPTER II. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN PROVINCES

The provinces of China Proper are poll tloally subdivided in a scientific manner, but in the regions beyond them, these divisions are considerably modified. Manchuria is regarded as belonging to the reigning family, somewhat as Hanover once pertained to the kings of England, and its scanty population is ruled by a simple military organization, the higliev officials being appointed by his majesty himself. The khans ot the Mongols in Mongolia and 111, the Mohammedan begs in Turkestan, and the lamas in Tibet, are assisted in their rule by Chinese residents and generals who direct and uphold the government.

The geography of foreign countries has not been studied by the Chinese ; and so few educated men have travelled even into the islands of the Indian Archipelago, or the kingdoms of Siam, Corea, or Burmah, that the people have had no opportunity to become acquainted with the countries lying on their borders, much less with those in remoter parts, whose names, even, they hardly know. A few native works exist on foreign geography, among which four may be here noticed. ”

1. Researches in the East and West^ 6 vols. Svo. It was written about two centuries ago ; the first volume contains some rude charts intendea to show the situation and form of foreign countries.
2. Notices of the Seas, 1 vol. Its author, Yang Ping-nan, obtained his information from a townsman, who, being wrecked at sea, wss picked up by a foreign ship, and travelled abroad for fourteen years; on his return to China he became blind, and was engaged as an interpreter in Macao.
3. JVotiees of Things heard and seen in Foreign Countries^ 2 vols. 12mo ; written about a century ago, containing among other things a chart of the wholb Vol. I.—4 Chinese coast,
4. The Memoranda of Foreign Tribes, 4 vols.Svo, published in the reign of Kienlung.”‘ A more methodical

work is that of Li Tsing-lai, called ‘Plates Illustrative of tJie

Ileavens^ being an astronomical and geographical work, mucl^

of whose contents were obtained from Europeans residing iiv

the country. But even if the Chinese had better treatises on

these subjects, the information contained in them would be

of little use until it was taught in their schools. The high officers

in the government begin now to see the importance of a

better acquaintance with general geography. Commissioner

Lin, in 1841, published a partial translation of Murray’s Cydol)(

jidia of Geogrcfjjhy, in 20 volumes ; Gov. Seu Ki-yu, in 1850,

issued a compend of geographical notices with maps, and many

others, more accurate and extensive, are now extant.

However scarce their geographical works upon foreign countries

may be, those delineating the topography of their own are

hardly equalled in number and minuteness in any language :

every district and town of importance in the empire, as well as

every department and province, has a local geography of its

own. It may be said that the topographical and statistical

works form, after the ethical, the most valuable portion of

Chinese literature. It would not be difficult to collect a library

of 10,000 volumes of such treatises alone ; the topography of the

city of Suchau, and of the province of Chehkiang, are each in

40 vols., while the Kwamjtuncj Tung Chi, an ‘ Historical and

Statistical Account of Kwangtung,’ is in 182 volumes. Xone

of these works, however, would bear to be translated entii’c,

such is the amount of legendary and unimportant matter contained

in them ; but they contain many data not to be overlooked

by one who undertakes to write a geography of China.

The Climate of the Eighteen Provinces has been represented

in meteorological tables sufficiently well to ascertain its general

salubrity. Pestilences do not frequently visit the land, nor, as

in Southern India, is it deluged with rain during one monsoon,

and parched with drought during the other. The average temperature

of the whole empire is lower than that of any other

‘ Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 420. Macao, 1841.

CLIMATE OF THE PROVINCES. ol

country on the same latitude, and the coast is subject to the

same extremes as that of the Atlantic States in America. The

isothermal line of 70° F. as the average for the year, which

passes south of Canton, runs hy Cairo and Xew Orleans, eight

degrees north of it ; the line of 60° F. average passes from

Shanghai to Marseilles, Raleigh, St. Louis, and north of San

Francisco ; and the line of 50° F. average goes near Peking,

thence on to Vienna, Dublin, Philadelphia, and Puget’s Sound,

in lat. 52°. These various lines show that while Shanghai and

Peking liave temperatures similar to Paleigh and Philadelphia,

nearly on their own parallels, Canton is the coldest place on the

globe in its latitude, and the only place within the tropics

where snow falls near the sea-shore. One result of this projection

of the temperate zone into the tropical is seen in the

greater vigor and size of the people of the three southern pi-ovinces

over any races on the same parallel elsewhere ; and the

productions are not so strictly tropical. The isothermal lines

for the year, as given above, are not so irregular as those for

winter. The line of 00° F. runs by the south of Formosa and

Hongkong, to Cairo and St. Augustine, a range of nine degrees

;

but the winter line of 40° F. passes from Shanghai to Constantinople,

Milan, Dublin, and Ealeigh, ending at Puget’s

Sound, a range of twenty degrees. A third line of 32° for

winter passes through Shantnng to X. Tibet and the Black

Sea, Norway, Xew York, and Sitka—a range of twenty-five

degrees.

Peking (lat. 39° 55′ N.) exhibits a fair average of the climate

in that part of the Plain. The extremes range from 104° to

zero F., but the mean annual temperature is 52.3° F., or more

than 9° lower than Kaples ; the mean winter range is 12° below

freezing, or about 18° lower than that of Paris (lat. 48° 50′),

and 15° lower than Copenhagen. The rainfall seldom reaches

sixteen inches in a year, most of it coming in July and August

the little snow that descends remains only two or three days on

the ground, and is blown away rather than melted ; no one associates

white with winter, but snow is earnestly prayed for as

a purifier of the air against diphtheria and fevers. The winds

from the Plateau cause the barouieter and thermometer to fall, r])ut the sky is clear. In the spring, as the heat increases, the winds raise the dust and sand over the country ; some of these sand-storms extend even to Shanghai, carrying millions of tons of soil from its original place. The dryness of the region has apparently increased during the last century, and constant droughts destroy the trees, which by their absence increase the desiccation now going on. Frost closes the rivers for three months, and ice is cheap. After the second crops fully start in August, the autumns become mild, and till the lOtli of December are calm and genial.’

The climate of the Plain is generally good, but near the rivers and marshy grounds along the Grand Canal, agues and bowel complaints prevail. A resident speaks of the temperature of banking and the region around it : ” This vast Plain being only a marsh half drained, the moisture is excessive, giving rise to many strange diseases, all of them serious, and not unfrequently mortal. The climate affects the natives from

other provinces, and Europeans. I have not known one of the

latter who was not sick for six months or a year after his arrival.

Every one who comes here must prepare himself for a

tertian or quotidian. For myself, after suffering two months

fi’om a malignant fever, I had ten attacks of a maladv the Chinese

here call the sand^ from the skin being covered with little

blackish pimples, resembling grains of dust. It is prompt and

\iolent in its progi’ess, and corrupts the blood so rapidly that in

a few minutes it staijnates and coae-ulates in the veins. The

best remedy the people have is to cicatrize the least fleshy j^arts

of the body with a copper cash. The first attack I experienced

rendered all my limbs insensible in two minutes, and I expected

to die before I could receive extreme unction. After recovering

a little, great lassitude succeeded.” ^ The monsoons

form an important element in the seaside climate as far north

as latitude 31°. The dry and wet seasons correspond to the

north-east and south-west monsoons, assuaging the heats of

summer by their cooling showers, and making the winters

^Comijare an article in the China Review for September-October, 1881, byII. Fritsche : The Amount of Baiii and Snow in Pekinf/.Annates de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 29^3.

CLIMATE OF THE COAST TOWNS. 53

bracing- and healthy. Above the Formosa Channel they are

less regular in the summer than in winter.

The inhabitants of Shanghai suffer from rapid changes in

the autumn and spring months, and pulmonaiy and rheumatic

complaints are connnon. The maximum of heat is 100° F.,

and the minimum 2-i°, but ice is not common, nor does snow

remain long on the ground. The average temperature of the

sunnner is from 80° to 93° by day, and from G0° to 75.° by

.night , the thermometer in winter ranges from 45° to 60° by

day, and from 36° to 45° by night.

Owing in some degree to the hills, the extremes are rather greater at Ningbo than Shanghai. The thermometer ranges from 24° to 107° during the twelvemonth, and changes of 20° in the course of two hours are not unusual, rendering it the most uidiealtliy station along the coast. There is a hot and cold season of three months each at this place. The cold is very piercing when the north-east winds set in, and fires are needed, but natives content themselves with additional clothing.

The large brick beds {hang) common in Chihli are not often

seen. Ice forms in pools, and is gathered to preserve fish.

Snow frequently falls, but does not remain long. Occasionally

it covers the hills in Chehkiang for several weeks to the depth

of six inches. Fuhchau and Canton lie at the base of hills,

Avithin a hundred miles of the sea-coast, and their climates exhibit

greater extremes than Amoy and Hongkong. Frost and

ice are common every winter at each of the former, and fires

are therefore pleasant in the house. The extremes at Fuhchau

are from 38° to 95°, with an average of 56° during December

and 82° for August. Along this whole coast the most refreshing

monsoon makes the summers very agreeable. The climate of

Amoy is delightful, but its insular position renders a residetice

somewhat less agreeable than on the main. Here the thermometer

ranges from 40° to 96° during the year, without the

rapid changes of Xingpo. The heat continues longer, though

assuaged by breezes from the sea.

Meteorology at Canton and its vicinity has been carefully studied ; on the whole, its climate, and especially that of Macao, may be considered more salubrious than in most other places situated between the tropics. The thermometer at Canton in July and August stands on an average at S0° to 88°, and in January and February at 50° to 60°. The highest recorded observation in 1831 was 94°, in July; and the lowest, 29° in January. Ice sometimes forms in shallow vessels a line or two in thickness, but no use is made of it. A fall of snow nearly two inches deep occurred there in February, 1835, which remained on the ground three hours. Having never seen any before, the citizens hardly knew what was its proper name, some calling \t falling cotton, and every one endeavoring to preserve a little for a febrifuge. Another similar fall occurred in the winter of 1861. Fogs are common during February and March, and the heat sometimes renders them very

disagreeable, it being necessary to keep up a little fire to dry

the house. Most of the rain falls in May and June, but there

is nothing like the rainy season at Calcutta and Manilla in July,

August, and September. The regular monsoon comes from

the south-west, with frequent showers to allay the heat. In

the succeeding months, northerly winds connnence, but from

October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear,

and the air invigorating. Few large cities are more healthy

than Canton ; no epidemics nor malaria prevail, notwithstanding

the fact that much of the town is built upon piles.

The climate of Macao and Hongkong has not so great a range

as Canton, from their proximity to the sea. Few cities in Asia

are more salntiferous than Macao, though it has been remarked

that few of the natives there attain a great age. Themaxinnnn

is 90°, with an average summer heat of 84°. The minimum is

50°, and average winter weather 68°, with almost uninterrupted

sunshine. Fogs are not often seen here, but on the river they

prevail, being frequent at Whampoa. Korth-easterly gales

are conmion in the spring and autumn, and have a noticeable

periodicity of three days. The vegetation does not change its

general aspect during the winter, the trees cease to grow, and the

grass becomes brownish ; but the stimulus of the warm moisture

in March soon makes a sinisilJe diffei’ence in the appearance of

the landscape, and bright green leaves ra])idly replace the old.

The reputed insalubrity of Hongkong, in early days, was owing

RAIN-FALL ON CHINESE AND AMERICAN COASTS. 55

to other causes than climate, and when it became a well-built and

well-drained town, its unwholesomeness disappeared. The rainfall

is greater than in Macao, owing to the attraction of the high

peaks. During the rainy weather the walls of houses become

damp, and if newlj plastered, drip with moisture.

The Chinese consider the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi,

and Yunnan to be the most unhealthy of the eighteen, and for

this reason employ them as places of banishment for criminals

from the north-eastern districts. The central portions of the

country are on some accounts the most bracing, not so liable to

sudden changes as the coast, nor so cold as the western and

northern districts. Sz’chuen and tweichau are cooler than

Fuhkien and Chehkiang, owing to the mountains in and upon

their borders.

The marked contrast between the Chinese and American coasts in regard to rain is doubtless owing, in a great degree, to the outlying islands from Formosa to Sagalien on the former, whose high mountains arrest the clouds in their progress inland.

The iLuro-siwo, being outside of them, allows a far greater mass of cold water between it and the shore on the Chinese, than is the case on the Atlantic coast, and renders it the colder of the two by nearly eight degrees of latitude, if isothermal lines alone are regarded. This mass of cold water, having less evaporation, deprives the maritime provinces of rain in diminishing supply as one goes north along the skirts of the Plain, until the Chang-peh shan are reached. The rains which fall in the western provinces and the slopes of the Bayan kara Mountains, coming up from the Indian Ocean during the south-west

monsoon, fall in decreasing quantities as the clouds are driven

north-east across the basins of the Yangtsz’ and Yellow rivers.

In the western part of Kansuh the humidity covers the mountains

with more vegetation than further east, toward the ocean.

Snow falls as late as June, and frosts occur in every month of the

year. The enormous elevation of the western side of China near

Tibet, the absence of an expanse of water like the great lakes,

and the bareness of the mountains north of the Mei ling, account

for much of this difference between the United States and China f

but more extended data are needed for accurate deductions.

The fall of rain at Canton is 70 inches annually, which is the mean of sixteen years’ observation. JS^inety inches was registered during one of these years. Kearly one-half of the whole falls during May, June, and September. The average at Shanghai for four years was 36 inches. Ko observations are recorded for the valley of the Yangtsz Near the edge of the Plateau the rainfall averages 10 inches in the province of Chihli, and rather more in Shansi and Shantung, where moisture is attracted by the mountains. More than three fourths of the rain falls during the ten weeks ending August 31st. Snow seldom remains on the level over a fortnight.

The increased temperature on the southern coast during the months of June and July operates, with other causes, to produce violent storms along the seaboard, called typhoons, a word derived from the Chinese taifeng, or ‘great wind.’ These destructive tornadoes occur from Hainan to Chusan, between July and October, gradually progressing northward as the season advances, and diminishing in fury in the higher latitudes. They annually occasion great losses to the native and foreign shipping in Chinese waters, more than half the sailing ships lost on that coast having suffered in them. Happily, their fury is oftenest spent at sea, but when they occur inland, the loss of life is fearful.

In August, 18G2, and September 21, 1ST4-, the deaths reported in two such storms near Canton, Hongkong, and their vicinity, were upward of 30,000 each. In the latter instance the American steamer Alaska, of 3,500 tons, M’as lifted from her anchorage and quietly put down in five feet of water near the shore, from whence she was safely floated some months afterward.

TYFOONS. 57

Typhoons exhaust their force within a narrow track, which, in such cases as have been registered, lies in no uniform direction, other than from south to north, at a greater or less angle, along the coast. The principal i)heni)iiiena indicating their approach are the direction of the wind, which commences to blow in soft zephyj-s from the north, without, however, assuaging the heat or disturbing the stifling calm, and the falling barometer. The glass usually begins to fall several hours before the storm commences, and the rarefaction of the air is further shown by the heavy swell rolling in upon the beach, though the sea remains unrutfled. The wind increases as it veers to the north-east, and from that point to south-east blows with the greatest force in iitful gusts. The rain falls heaviest toward the close of the gale, when the glass begins to rise. The barometer not unfrequently falls below 28 in. Capt. Krusenstern in 1804 records his surprise at seeing the mercury sink out of sight.

The Chinese have erected temples in Hainan to the Tjfoon

Mother, a goddess whom they supplicate for protection against

these hurricanes. They say “that a few days before a tyfoon

comes on, a slight noise is heard at intervals, whirling round

and then stopping, sometimes impetuous and sometimes slow.

This is a ‘ tyfoon brewing.’ Then fiery clouds collect in thick

masses ; the thunder sounds deep and heavy. Kainbows appear,

now forming an unbroken curve and again separating, and the

ends of the bow dip into the sea. The sea sends back a bellowing

sound, and boils with angry surges ; the loose rocks dash

against each other, and detached sea-weed covers the water;

there is a thick, murky atmosphere ; the water-fowl fly about

affrighted ; the trees and leaves bend to the south—the tyfoon

has connnenced. When to it is superadded a violent rain and

a frightful surf, the force of the tempest is let loose, and away

fly the houses up to the hills, and the ships and boats are

removed to the dry land ; horses and cattle are turned heels

over head, trees are torn up by the roots, and the sea boils up

twenty or thirty feet, inundating the fields and destroying vegetation.

This is called tleh la, or an iron tcJurlwindr ‘ Those

remarkable gusts which annually occur in the Atlantic States,

called tornadoes, defined as local storms affecting a thread of

surface a few miles long, are unknown in China. The healthy

climate of China has had much to do with the civilization of its

inhabitants. Xo similar area in the world exceeds it for general

salubrity.

The Chinese are the only people who have, by means of a

‘ Chinese Repository. Vol. VIII ., p. 230 ; Vol. IV., p. 197. See also Fritsche’a

paper in Journal of N. C. Branch Royal Asiatic Society, No. XII., 1878, pp.

127-385; also Appendix II. in No. X., containing observations taken at Zi-ka

wei.

term added to the name of a place, endeavored to designate ita

relative rank. Three of the words used for this purpose, viz.,

fa, chau, and Men, have been translated as ‘ first,’ ‘ second,’ and

‘ third ‘ rank ; but this gradation is not quite correct, for the terms

do not apply to the city or town alone, but to the portions of

country of which it is the capital. The nature of these and

other terms, and the divisions intended by them, are thus

explained

:

“The Eighteen Provinces are divided into fu, ting, clinu, and Men. A fu

is a large portion or department of a province, under the general control of

one civil officer immediately subordinate to the heads of the provincial government.

A ting is a division of a province smaller than a fu, and either like it

governed by an officer immediately subject to the heads of the provincial

government, or else forming a subordinate part of a/?/. In the former case it

is called chih-l%, i.e. under the ‘direct rule’ of the provincial government;

in the latter case it is sim^jly called ting. A chaii is a division similar to a

ting, and like it either independent of any other division, or forming part of

a/H. The difference between the two consists in the government of a ting

resembling that of a fu more nearly than that of a chau does : that of the chau is less expensive. The ting and chau of the class to which the term chih-li is attached, may be denominated in common with the fu, departments or prefectures ; and the term cMh-Vi may be rendered by tlie word independent.

The subordinate ting and chau may both be called districts. A ?den, which is also a district, is a small division or subordinate part of a department, whether of a,fu, or of an independent chau or ting.

“Each/w, ting, chau, and hien, possesses at least one walled town, the seat of its government, which bears the same name as the department or district to which it pertains. Thus Hiangshan is the chief town of the district Hiang-.shan hien ; and Shanking, that of the department Shanking fu. By European writers, the chief towns of the/w or departments liave been called cities of the first order ; tho.se of the chau, cities of the second order ; and those of the hien, cities of the third order. The division called ting, being rarely met with, lias been left out of the arrangement—an arrangement not recognized in

China. It must be observed that the cliief town of a fu is always also the

cliief town of a hien district ; and sometimes, when of considerable size and

importanc-e, it and the country around are divided into two Iden districts, both

of which have the seat of their government within the same walls: but this

is not the case with the ting and chau departments. A district is not always

subdivided ; instances may occur of a whole district possessing but one important

town. But as there are often large and even walled towns not included in the number of chief or of district towns, consequently not the seat of a regular chau or hien magistracy, a subdivision of a district is therefore frequently rendered necessary ; and for the better government of such towns and the towns surrounding them, magistrates are appointed to them, secondary to the magi.strates of the departments or the districts in which they are

PtJ, TING, CHAU, AND HIEN. 59

comprised. Thus Fnlishan is a very large commercial town or mart called a

chin, situated in the district of Nanhai, of the department of Kwangchau,

about twelve miles distant from Canton. The chief officer of the department

has therefore an assistant residing there, and the town is partly under his

government and partly under that of the Nanhai magistrate, within whose

district it is included, but who resides at Canton. There are several of these

c?iin in the provinces, as Kingteh in Kiangsi, Siangtan in Hunan, etc. ; they are not inclosed by walls. Macao affords another instance : being a place of some importance, both from its size and as the residence of foreigners, an assistant

to the Hiangshan hien magistrate is placed over it, and it is also under

the control of an assistant to the chief magistrate of the fu. Of these assistant

magistrates, there are two ranks secondary to the chief magistrate of a///,

two secondary to the magistrate of a chaii, and two also secondary to the magistrate

of a liien. Tiie places under the rule of these assistant magistrates are

called by various names, most frequently chin and so, and sometimes also chai

and wei. These names do not appear to have reference to any particular form

of municipal government existing in them ; but the chai and the loei are often

military posts ; and sometimes a place is, with respect to its civil government,

the chief city of a fu, while with respect to its military position it is called

icei. There are other towns of still smaller importance ; these are under the

government of inferior magistrates who are called siun kien : a division of

country under such a magistrate is called a sz’, which is best represented by

the term township or commune. The town of Whampoa and country around it form one such division, called Kiautang sz’, belonging to the district of Pwanyu, in the depai’tment of Kwangchau.

“In the mountainous districts of Kwangsi, Yunnan, Kweichau, and Sz’-

chuen, and in some other places, there are districts called tu sz’. Among

these, the same distinctions of fu, chau, and hien exist, together with the

minor division «2′. The magistrates of these departments and districts are liereditary in their succession, being the only hereditary local officers acknowledged by the supreme government.

“There is a larger division than any of the above, but as it does not prevail universally, it was not mentioned in the first instance. It is called tau, a cottrse or circuit, and comprises two or more departments of a province, whether fu, or independent ting or cJtnu. These circuits are subject to the government of officers called tau-tai or intendants of circuit, who often combine with political and judicial powers a military authority and various duties relating to the territory or to the revenue.”

‘The eighteen provinces received their present boundaries and divisions in the reign of Ivienhmg ; and the little advance which has been made abroad in the geography of China is shown by the fact, that although these divisions were established a hundred years ago, the old deniarkations, existing at’ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 54.

the time of the survey in 1710, are still found in many modern European geographies and maps. The following tahle shows their present divisions and government. The three columns under the head of JJepaiiiiieuts contain i\iQ fu, chUdl tiny^ and chihli chau, all of which are properly prefectures ; the three columns under the head of Districts contain the timj, cJiau, and Men.

The province of CniiiLi is the most important of the whole. Qn foreign maps it is sometimes written Pechele {i.e., Korth vJhihii), a name formerly given it in order to distinguish it from Iviangnau, or Xaii-cUiJd’i, in which the seat of government w^as once located. This name is descriptive, rather than technical, and means ‘ Direct rule,’ denoting that from this province the supreme power which governs the empire proceeds; any province, in which the Emperor and court should be fixed, would therefore be termed Chihli, and its chief city King, ‘ capital,’ or King-ta or King-ss\ ‘ court of the capital.’ The surface of this province lying south of the Great Wall is level, excepting a few ridges of hills in the west and north, while the eastern parts, and those south to the Gulf, are among the flattest portions of the Great Plain.

It is bounded on the north-east by Liautung, M’here for a short distance the Great AVall is the frontier line ; on the east by the Gulf of Pechele ; on the south-east and south by Shantung; on the south-west by llonan ; on the west by Shansi and north by Inner Mongolia, where the river Liau forms the boundary. The extensive region beyond the Wall, occupied mostly by the Tsakhar Mongols, is now included within the jurisdiction, and placed under the administration o*f officers residing at one of the garrisoned gates of the Great Wall ; the area of this part is about half that of the whole province. The chief department in the province, that of Shuntien, being both large and important, as containing the metropolis, is divided into four III or circuits, each under the rule of a sub-prefect, who issubordinate to the prefect living at Peking.

Peking’ {i.e., Northern Capital) is situated upon a sandy’ This word shoixld not be written Pekin ; it is pronounced Pei-ching by the citizens, and by most of the people north of the Great River.

TOPOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF CIIIXA PROPEPv, Gl 13 o) a o S 0′;’= so-e a ^ S to pc; Hfol o> ?s 2 5 _S S1^ S S ^ ^^3 « ^ig cs 2 ^ =3 “So g oO iD 3 Sfl £5tzT^ x’^cgO CIS3 O .a> cs> iio 2SC ” to *2 > ^2 o’ 2 ‘”‘ 6B;o -^ 5 o :5: cs £ 1: cs •-O c! CO BD^ 2u 5 ^OH C 2 SC3 M C4 *3 -3 c3

plain, about twelve miles south-west of the Pei ho, and more than a hundred miles west-north-west of its month, in lat. 39° 54′ 36′ K., and long. 11(3° 27′ E., or nearly on the parallel of Samarkand, Naples, and Philadelphia. It is a city worthy of note on many accounts. Its ancient history as the capital of the Yen Kwoh (the ‘ Land of Swallows ‘) during the feudal times, and its later position as the metropolis of the empire for many centuries, give it historical importance ; while its imperial buildings, its broad avenues with their imposing gates and towers, its regular arrangement, extent, populousness, and diversity of costume and equipage, combine to render it to a traveler the most interesting and unique city in Asia. It is now ruinous and poor, but the remains of its former grandeur under Kienlung’s prosperous reign indicate the justness of the comparisons made by the Catholic writers with western cities one hundred and eighty years ago. The entire circuit of the walls and suburbs is reckoned by Ilyacinthe at twenty-five

miles, and its area at twenty-seven square miles, but more accurate

measurements of the walls alone give forty-one //, or

14.25 miles (or 23.55 kilometers) for the Manchu city, including

the cross-wall, and twenty-eight Z/, or ten miles, for the

Chinese city on its south ; not counting the cross-wall, the circuit

measures almost twenty-one miles. The suburbs near the

thirteen outer gates altogether form a small pi-oportion to the

whole ; the area within them is nearly twenty-six square miles.

Those residents who have had the best opportunities estimate

the entire population at a million or somewhat less ; no census

returns are available to prove this figure, nor can it be stated

what is the proportion of Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, except

that the latter outnumber all others. Du Ilalde reckoned it

to be about three millions, and Klaproth one million three hundred

thousand ; and each was probably true at some period,

for the number has diminished with the poverty of the Government.

Peking is regarded by the Chinese as one of their ancient

cities, ])ut it was not made the capital of the whole empire

until Kublai established his court at this spot in 1264. The

Ming emperors who succeeded the Mongols held their court

POSITION AND HISTORY OF PEKING. 63

at Nanking until Yimgloh transferred the seat of government to Peking in 1411, where it lias since remained. Under the Mongols, the city was called Khan-haligh (*.<?., city of the Khan), changed into Cambalii in the accounts of those times; on Chinese maps it is usually called King-sz\ Peking has, during its history, existed under many different names ; after each disaster her walls have been changed and her houses rebuilt, so that to-day she stands, like the capitals of the ancient Roman and Byzantine empires, upon the debris of centuries of buildings. The most important renovations have been those by the Liao dynasty, in 937 A.D., who entirely rebuilt the city, and by the Kin rulers in 1151.

It was at first surrounded by a single wall pierced by nine

gates, whence it is sometimes called the City of Nine Gates.

The southern suburbs were inclosed by Kiatsing in 1543, and

the city now consists of two portions, the northern or inner

city {JSFui ching), containing about fifteen square miles, where

are the palace, government buildings, and barracks for troops; and the southern or Outer city ( Wai ching), where the Chinese live. The wall of the Manchu city averages fifty feet high, forty wide at top, and about sixty at bottom, most of the slope being on the inner face. That around the Outer city is no more than thirty in height, twenty-five thick at bottom, and about fifteen at top. The terre-plein throughout is pave^ with bricks weighing sixty pounds each ; a crenellated parapet runs around the entire town, intended only for archers or musketeers, as no port-holes for cannon exist. It is undoubtedly the finest wall surrounding any city now extant. Near the gates, of which there are sixteen in all, the walls are faced with stone, but in other places with these large bricks, laid in a concrete of lime and clay, which in process of time becomes almost as durable as stone. The intermediate space between facings is filled up with the earth taken from the ditch which surrounds the city. Square buttresses occur at intervals of sixty yards on the outer face, each projecting fifty feet, and every sixth one being twice the size of the others ; their tops furnish room for the troops posted there to resist side attacks. Each gate is surmounted with a brick tower of many stories, over a hundred feet high, built in galleries with port-holes, and giving a very imposing appearance to the city as one approaches it from the wide plain. The gates of the Mancliu city have a double entrance formed by joining their supporting bastions with a circular wall in which are side entrances, thus making an enceinte of several acres, in which the yellow-tiled temple to the tutelary God of War is conspicuous. The arches of all the gates are built solidly of granite; the massive doors are closed and barred every night soon after dark.

At the sides of the gates, and also between them, are esplanades for mounting to the top ; this is shut to the common people, and the guards are not allowed to bring their women upon the wall, which would be deemed an affront to Kwanti. The moat around the city is fed from the Tunghwui River, which also supplies all the other canals leading across or through the city. The approach to Peking from Tung chau is by an elevated stone road, but nothing of the buildings inside the walls is seen ; and were it not for the lofty towers over the gates, it would more resemble an encampment inclosed by a massive wall than a large metropolis. No spires or towers of churches, no pillars or monuments, no domes or minarets, nor even many dw-ellings of superior elevation, break the dull uniformity of this or any Chinese city. In Peking, the different colored yellow or green tiles on official buildings,’ mixed with the brown roofs of common houses, impart a variety to the scene, but the chief objects to relieve the monotony are the large clumps of trees, and the flag -staffs in pairs near the temples.

GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CAPITAL. 65

The view from the walls impresses one with the grand ideas of the founders of the city ; and the palaces in the Forbidden City, towering above everything else, worthily exhibit their notions of what was befitting the sovereigns of the Middle Kingdom. The Bell and Clock Towers, the Prospect Hill, the dagobas, pagodas, and gate towers, and lastly the Temple of ‘ ” You woxald think them all made of, or at least covered with, piii’e gold enamelled in azure and green, so that the spectacle is at once majestic an^ channing.” Magaillans, Noavelln Dencriptioit dc Id Cliiiu\ p. 353.

Heaven, are all likewise visible from this point, and render the scene picturesque and peculiar.*

The plan of the city here given is reduced from a large Chinese

map, but is not very exact. The northern portion occupies

for the most part the same area as the Cambaluc of Marco

Polo, which, however, extended about two miles north, where

the remains of the old north wall of the Mongols still exist.

On their expulsion Ilungwu erected the present northern wall,

and his son Yungloh rebuilt the other three sides in 1419 on a

rather larger scale ; but the ai’rangement of the streets and

gates is due to the Great Khan. When taken possession of by

the Manchus in 1611, they found a magnificent city ready for

them, uninjured and strong, which they apportioned among

their officers and bannermen ; but necessity soon obliged these

men, less frugal and thrifty than the natives, to sell them, and

content themselves with humbler abodes ; consequently, the

greater part of tlie noi-thern city is now tenanted by Chmese.

The innermost inclosure in the l!^ul Ching contains the palace

and its surrounding buildings; the second is occupied by barracks

and public offices, and by many private residences ; the

outer one, for the most part, consists of dwelling-houses, with

shops in the large avenues. The inner inclosui’e measures 6.3

li^ or 2.23 miles, in circuit, and is called Ts£ Kin Ching, or

‘ Carnation Prohibited City ;

‘ the wall is less solid and high than the city wall ; it is covered with bright yellow tiles, guarded by numerous stations of bannermen and gendarmerie, and surrounded by a deep, wide moat. Two gates, the Tunghwa and Si-hiva, on the east and west, afford access to the interior of this habitation of the Emperor, as well as the space and rooms appertaining, which furnish lodgment to the guard

c’afending the approach to the Dragon’s Throne ; a tower at

each corner, and one over each gateway, also gi\’e accommodation

to other troops. The interior of this inclosure is divided

‘ See also Ji’ Unwera Pittoresque, Chine Modern f, par MM. Pauthier et Bazin,

Paris, 185:^, for a good map of Peking, with careful descriptions. Yule’s Murro

Polo, passim. De Guigues, Voydr/cs, Tome I. Williamson, Journeys in North

China, Vol. II. Dr. Rennie, Pckiny and tlixi Pekimjeae. Tour du Monde foi 1864, Tome II.

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

H.

1.

J.

K.

K.

L.

M.

N.

O.

P.

Q.

R.

S.

T.

U.

V.

w.

X.

Y.

Z.

BEFEBENCES.

The Meridian Gate.

Gate of E.\tensive Peace.

Hall of Perfect Peace.

Hall of Secure Peace.

Palace of Heaven—the Emperor’s.

Palace of Earth’s Repose—the Empress’.

Gate to Earth’s Repose, leads to a Garden.

Ching-hwang miao.

Temple of Great Happiness.

Northern gate of Forbidden City.

Nui Koh, or Privy Council Chamber, lies

within the wall.

Gate of Heavenly Rest.

Hall of Intense Mental Exercises.

Library, or Hall of Literary Abyis.

Imperial Ancestral Hall.

Hall of National Portrait-s.

PrintinK Office.

Court of Controllers of Imperial Clan.

Marble Isle ; a marble bridge leads to it.

Five Dragon Pavilion.

Great Ancestral Temple.

Altar to the Gods of Land and Grain.

Artificial Mountain. The Russian school

lies just north of the Eastern gate near N.

A summer-houpc.

Military Examination Hall.

Plantain Garden, or Conservatory,

A Pavilion.

Medical College.

Astronomical Board.

Five of the Six Boards. The Hanlin Yu9n

lies just above them.

House of the Russian Mission.

Colonial Office.

Temple for Imperial worship.

Imperial Observatory, partly on the wall-

Hall of Literary Examination.

Russian Church of the Assumption.

Temple of Eternal Peace of the lamas.

Kwoh Tsz’ Kien, a Manchii College.

Temple of the God of the North Star.

High Watch-tower and Police Office.

Board of Punishments.

Censorate.

Mohammedan Mosque.

I’ortugtiese Church.

Elephant’s Inclosure.

Principal Ching-hwang miau.

Temple of Deceased Emperors of all ages.

Obelisk covering a »cab of Buddha.

Altar to Heaven.—Altar to Earth is on the

north of the city.

Altar to Ayriculture.

Black Dragon Pool, and Temple of God ol

Hain.

Altar to the Moon.

Altar to the Sun.

PALACES OF THE PROHIBITED CITY. 67

Into three parts by two walls running from south to north, and

the whole is occupied by a suite of court-yards and halls, which,

in their prrangenient and architecture, far exceed any other

speciraer?. of the kind in China. According to the notions of a

common Chinese, all here is gold and silver ; ” he will tell you

of gold and silver pillars, gold and silver roofs, and gold and

silver vases, in which swim gold and silver fishes.”

The southern gate, called the Wu 3Idn, or ‘ Meridian Gate,’

is the fourth in going north from the entrance opposite the

Tsien. Mitii, and this distance of nearly half a mile is occupied

by troops. The Wtc Ildn leads into the middle division, in

which are the imperial buildings ; it is especially appropriated

to the Emperor, and whenever he passes through it, a bell

placed in the tower above is struck ; when his troops return in

triumph, a drum is beaten, and the prisoners are here presented

to him ; here, too, the presents he confers on vassals and ambassadors

are pompously bestowed. Passing through this gate

into a large court, over a small creek spanned by five marble

bridges, ornamented with sculptures, the visitor is led through

the Tai-ho Mdii into a second court paved with marble, and

terminated on the sides by gates, porticos, and pillared corridors.

The next building, at the head of this court, called the TaiheDian or ‘ Hall of Highest Peace,’ is a superb marble structure, one hundred and ten feet high, standing on a terrace that raises it twenty feet above the ground ; five flights of stairs, decorated with balustrades and sculptures, lead up to it, and five doors open through it into the next court-yard. It is a great hall of seventy-two pillars, measuring about two hundred feet by ninety broad, with a throne in the midst. Here

the Emperor holds his levees on New Year’s Day, his birthdays,

and other state occasions ; a cortege of about fifty household

courtiers stand near him, while those of noble and inferior

dignity and rank stand in the court below in regular grades,

and, when called upon, fall prostrate as they all make the fixed

obeisances. It was in this hall that Titsingh and Van Braam

were banqueted by Kienlung, January 20, 1795, of which interesting

ceremony the Dutch embassador gives an account, and

since which event no European has entered the building. The three Tien in this iiiclosiire are the audience halls, and the sido buildings contain stores and treasures under the charge of the Household Board, with minor bureaus.

Beyond it are two halls; the first, the CJmmjhe Dian, or ‘Hall of Central Peace,’ having a circular roof, that rests on columns arranged nearly four-square. Here the Emperor ‘jomes to examine the written prayers provided to be offered at the state worship. The second is the Baohe Dian, or ‘ Hall of Secure Peace,’ elevated on a high marble terrace, and containing nine rows of pillars. The highest degrees for literary merit are her6 conferred triennially by the Emperor upon one hundred and fifty or more scholars ; here, also, he banquets his foreign guests and other distinguished persons the day before New Year’s Day. After ascending a stairway, and passing the Iti-eii Tsing 2Idn, the visitor reaches the Kieii Tsing Jfiinj, or ‘Palace of Heavenly Purity’, into which no one can eiiter without special license. In it is the council-chamber, where the Emperor usually sits at morning audience up to eight o’clock, to transact business with his ministers, and see those appointed to office. The building is the most important as it is described to be the loftiest and most mao-nificent of all the palaces. In the court before it is a small tower of gilt copper, adorned with a great number of figures, and- on each side are large incense vases, the uses of which are no doubt religious.

It Avas in this palace that Ivanghi celebrated a singular and

unique festival, in 1722, for all the men in the enquire over

sixty years of age, that being the sixtieth year of his reign.

His grandson Ivienlung, in 1785, in the fiftieth year of his

reign, repeated the ceremony, on which occasion the number

of guests was about three thousand.’ Beyond it stands the

‘ Palace of Earth’s Bepose,’ where ‘ Heaven’s consort ‘ rules

• ler niiniature court in the imperial harem ; there are numerous

buildings of lesser size in this part of the inclosure, and

adjoining the northern Avail of the Forbidden City is the imperial

Flower Garden, designed for the use of its inmates. The

gardens arc adorned with elegant pavilions, tenq)les, and. :

‘ Chinese liepobitory, Vol. IX., p. 259.

IMPERIAL CITY. 69

groves, and interspersed with canals, fountains, pools, and

flower-beds. Two groves rising from the bosoms of small

lakes, and another crowning the summit of an artificial mountain, add to the beauty of the scene, and afford the inmates of the palace an agreeable variety.

In the eastern division of the Prohibited City are the otiices

of the Cabinet, where its members hold their sessions, and the

treasury of the palace. North of it lies the ‘Hall of Intense Thought,’ where sacrifices are presented to Confucius and other sages. Kot far from this hall stands the Wchi-//yen loA, or the Library, the catalogue of whose contents is published from time to time, forming an admirable synopsis of Chinese literature.

At the northern end of the eastern division are numerous

palaces and buildings occupied by princes of the blood, and

those connected Avith them ; and in this quarter is placed the

Fung Sien tien, a small temple where the Emperor comes to

‘ bless his ancestors.’ Here the Emperor and his family perform

their devotions before the tablets of their departed progenitors;

whenever he leaves or returns to his palace, the first

day of a season, and on other occasions, the monarch goes

through his devotions in this hall.

The western division contains a great variety of edifices devoted

to public and private purposes, among which may be

mentioned the hall of distinguished sovereigns, statesmen, and

literati, the printing-office, the Court of Controllers for the

regulation of the receipts and disbursements of the court, and

the Ching-Jncang Mlao^ or ‘Guardian Temple’ of the city.

The number of people residing within the Prohibited City

cannot 1)0 stated, .but probably is not large ; most of them are

Manchus.

The second inclosure, which surrounds the imperial palaces,

is called Hwang Ching^ or ‘ Imperial City,’ and is an oblong rectangle

about six miles in circuit, encompassed by a wall twenty

feet high, and having a gate in each face. From the southern

gate, called the Tlen-an Mdn^ or ‘ Heavenly Rest,’ a broad

avenue leads up to the Kin Chiw/ ; and before it. outside of

the M’all, is an extensive space walled in, and having one entrance

on the south, called the gate of Great Purity, which 110 one is allowed to enter except on foot, unless by special permission. On the right of the avenue within the wall is a gateway leading to the TaiMiao, or ‘ Great Temple’ of the imperial ancestors, a large collection of buildings hiclosed by a wall 3,000 feet in circuit. It is the most honored of religious structures

next to the Temple of Heaven, and contains tablets to princes

and meritorious officers. Here offerings are presented before

the tablets of deceased emperors and empresses, and worship

performed at the end of the year by the members of the imperial

family and clan to their departed forefathers. Across

the avenue from this temple is a gateway leading to the Shie-

Tsih tan, or altar of the gods of Land and Grain. These were

originally Kaa-lung, a Minister of Works, b.c. 2500, and Hautsih,

a remote ancestor of Chan Kung ; here the Emperor sacriiices

in spring and autumn. This altar consists of two stories,

each five feet high, the upper one being fifty-eight feet square; no other altar of the kind is found in the empire, and it would

he tantamount to high treason to erect one and worship upon it.

The north, east, south, and west altar are respectively black,

green, red, and white, and the top yellow ; the ceremonies connected

with the worship held here are among the most ancient practised among the Chinese.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND BARKS. 71

On the north of the palace, separated by a moat, and surrounded by a wall more than a mile in circuit, is the King Shan, or ‘ Prospect Hill,’ an artificial mound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, and having five summits, crowned with as many temples ; many of these show the neglect in which public edifices soon fall. Trees of various kinds border its base, and line the paths leading to the tops. Its height allows the spectator to overlook the whole city, while, too, it is itself a conspicuous object from every direction. The earth and stone in it were taken from the ditches and pools dug in and around the city, and near its base are many tanks of picturesque shape and appearance; so that altogether it forms a great ornament to the city. Another name for it is Mei Shan, or ‘ Coal Hill,’ from a tradition that a quantity of coal Avas placed there, as a supply in case of siege. The western part of this inelosure is chiefly occupied by the Si l”;<;6/<, or ‘Western Park,’ in and around which are found some of the most beautiful objects and spots in the uietropolis. An artificial lake, more than a mile long, and averaging a furlong in breadth, occupies the centre; it is supplied from the Western Hills, and its waters are adorned with the splendid lotus. A marble bridge of nine arches crosses it, and its banks are shaded by groves of trees, under which are well-paved walks. On its south-eastern side is a large summer-house, consisting of several edifices partly in or over the water, and inclosing a number of gardens and walks, in and around which are artificial hills of rock-work beautifully alternating or supporting groves of trees and parterres of flowers.

On the western side is the hall for examining military candidates,

where his majesty in person sees them exliibit their

prowess in equestrian archery. At the north end of the lake is

a bridge leading to an islet, wdiich presents the aspect of a hill

of gentle ascent covered with groves, temples, and summerhouses,

and surmounted with a tower, from which an extensive

view can be enjoyed. On the north of the bridge is a hill on

an island called Kiung-hwa tan^ capped by a white dagoba.

Xear by is an altar forty feet in circuit, and four feet high,

inclosed by a wall, and a temple dedicated to Yuenfi, the

reputed discoverer of the silk-worm, where the Empress annually

offers sacrifices to her ; in the vicinity a plantation of mulberry

trees and a cocoonery are maintained. Xear the temple

of ‘ Great Happiness,’ not far distant from the preceding, on

the northern borders of the lake, is a gilded copper statue of

Maitreya, or the coming Buddha, sixty feet high, with a hundred

arms ; the temple is one of the greatest ornaments of the

Park. Across the lake on its western bank, and entered

through the first gate on the south side of the street, is the

Ts^-kwamj Koh^ wdiere foreign ministers are received by the

Emperor ; the inclosure is kept with great care, and numerous

halls and temples are seen amidst groves of firs. The object

kept in view in the arrangement of these gardens and grounds

has been to make them an epitome of nature, and then furnish

every part with conmiodious buildings. But however elegant

the palaces and grounds may have appeared when new, it is to

be feared that his majesty has no higher ideas of cleanliness and order tliuu lii.s subjects, and tluit the various public and private edifices and gardens in these two inelosures are despoiled of luilf their beauty bj dirt and neglect. The nundjer of the palaces in them both is estimated to be over two hundred, “each of which,” says Attinet, in vague terms, ” is suflSciently large to accommodate the greatest of European noblemen, with all his retijiue.*’

Along the avenue leading south from the Imperial City to the division Avail, are found the principal government offices. Five of the ISix Boards have their bureaus on the east side, the Board of Punishments with its subordinate departments being situated with its courts on the west side; immediately south of this is the Censorate. The office attached to the Board of Itites, for the preparation of the Calendar, commonly called the Astronomical Board, stands directly east of this; and the Medical College has its hall not far off. The Ilanlhi l\en, or National Academy, and the Ll-fan Yuen., or Colonial Office, are also near the south-eastern corner of the Imperial City. Opposite to the Colonial Office is the Tang T)iz\ where the remote ancestors of the reigning family are worshipped by his majesty together with the princes of his family; when they come in procession to this temple in their state dresses, the Emperor, as high-priest of the family, performs the highest religious ceremony before his deified ancestors, viz., three kneelings and nine knockings. After he has completed his devotions, the attendant grandees go through the same ceremonies. The temple itself is pleasantly situated in the midst of a grove of fir and other trees, and the large inclosure around it is prettily laid out.

BUDDHIST AND CONFUCIAN TEMPLES. 73

In the south-eastern part of the city, built partly upon the wall, is the Observatory, which was placed imder the superintendence of the Komish missionaries by Ivanghi, but is now confided to the care of Chinese astronomers. The instruments are arranged on a terrace higher than the city wall, and are beautiful pieces of bronze art, though now antiquated and useless for practical observations. Nearly opposite to the Observatory stands the Ilall for Literary Examinations, Mdiere the candidates of the province assemble to write their essays. In the north-eastern corner of the city is the Bussian Mission and

Astronomical Office, inclosed in a large compound ; near it live

the converts. About half a mile west is the Yung-ho Kung, or

‘ Lamasar}’ of Eternal Peace,’ wherein alwut 1,500 Mongol and

Tibetan priests study the dogmas of Buddhism, or spend their

days in idleness, under the conti’ol of a Gegen or living Buddha.

Their course of study comprises instruction in metaphysics, ascetic

duties, astrology, and medicine ; their daily ritual is performed

in several courts, and the rehearsal of prayers and chants

by so many men strikes the hearer as very impressive. The I’ear

building contains a wooden image, 70 feet in height, of Mait-

•veya, the coming Buddha ; the whole establishment exhibits in its

buildings, pictures, images, cells, and internal arrangemeuts for

study, living, and worship, one of the most complete in the empire.

Several smaller lamasaries occur in other parts of the city.

Directly west of the Yimg-ho Kung^ and presenting the

greatest contrast to its life and activity, lies the Confucian

Temple, where embowered in a grove of ancient cypresses

stands the imposing Wan Mlao^ or ‘ Literary Temple,’ in which

the Example aiid Teacher of all Ages and ten of his great disciples

are worshipped. The hall is 84 feet in front, and the lofty

roof is supported on wooden pillars over 40 feet high, covering

the single room in which their tablets are placed in separate

niches, he in the high seat of honor. All is simple, quiet, and

cheerless ; the scene liere presents an impressive instance of

merited honors paid to the moral teachers of the people. Opposite

and across the court are ten granite stones shaped like

drums, which are believed to have been made about the eighth

century b.c, and contain stanzas recording King Siien’s hunting

expeditions. In another court are many stone tablets containing

the lists of Tslii-sz’ graduates since the Mongol dynasty, many thousands of names with places of residence. Contiguous to this temple is the Pili-yung Kang^ or ‘Classic Ilall’, where the Emperor meets the graduates and literati. It is a beautiful specimen of Chinese architectural taste. Near it are 800 stone tablets on which the authorized texts of the classics are engraved.’

‘ Dr. Martin, The CJdnese (New York, 1881), p. 85.

North of the Imperial City lies the extensive yamiui of fJie Tl-tuh, who has the police and garrison of the city under his control, and exercises great authority in its civil administration. The Drum and Bell Towers stand north of the Ti-ngan Mwi in the street leading to the city wall, each of them over a hundred feet high, and forming conspicuous objects ; the drum and bell are sounded at night watches, and can be heard throughout the city; a clepsydra is still maintained to mark time—a good instance of Chinese conservatism, for clocks are now in general use, and correct the errors of the clepsydra itself.

SHRINES OF ALL KELIGIONS. 75

Outside of the south-western angle of the Imperial City stands the Mohammedan mosque, and a large number of Turks whose ancestors were brought from Turkestan about a century ago live in its vicinity ; this quarter is consequently the chief resort of Moslems who come to the capital. South-%vest of the mosque, near the cross-wall, stands the Xan Tavy, or old For tugiiese church, and just west of the Forbidden City, inside of the Hwang Chlng, is the Peh 2’ang, or Cathedral; Loth are imposing edifices, and near them are large schools and seiiiinaries for the education of children and neophytes. There are religions edifices in the Chinese metropolis appropriated to many forms of religion, viz., the Greek, Latin, and Protestant churches, Islamism, Buddhism in its two principal forms, nationalism, ancestral worship, state worship, and temples dedicated to Confucius and other deified mortals, besides a great number in which the popular idols of the country are adored. One of the most worthy of notice is the Ti- Wang Miao, lying on the avenue leading to the west gate, a large collection of halls wherein all the tablets of former monarchs of China from remote ages are worshipped. The rule for admission into this Walhalla is to accept all save the vicious and oppressive, those who were assassinated and those who lost their kingdoms. This

memorial temple was opened in 1522; the Manchus have even

admitted some of the Tartar rulers of the Kin and Liao dynasties,

raising the total number of tablets to nearly three hundred.

It is an impressive sight, these simple tablets of men who once

ruled the Middle Kingdom, standing .here side by side, wovshipped

by their successors that their spirits may bless the state.

This selection of the good sovereigns alone recalls to mind the

custom in ancient Jerusalem of allowing wicked pi-inces no place

in the sepulchres of the kings. Distinguished statesmen of all

ages, called by the Chinese liroh cJiu, or ‘pillars of state,’ are

associated with their masters in this temple, as not unworthy to

receive equal honors.

A little west of this remarkable temple is the Peli-ta sz\ or ‘White Pagoda Temple,’ so called from a costly dagoba near it erected about a.d. 1100, renovated by Kublai in the thirteenth century, and rebuilt in 1S19. Its most conspicuous feature is the great copper umbrella on the top. When finished, the dagoba was described as covered with jasper, and the projecting parts of the roof with ornaments of exquisite workmanship tastefully arranged. Around this edifice, which contains twenty beads or relics of Buddha, two thousand clay pagodas and five books of charms, are also one hundred and eight small pillars Oil which lamps are burned. The portion of the city lying south of the cross-wall is inhabited mostly by Chinese, and contains

hundreds of /avui-kican, or club-liouses, erected by the gentry

of cities and districts in all parts of the empire to accommodate

their citizens resorting to the capital. Its streets are narrow

and the whole aspect of its buildings and markets indicates the

life and industry of the people. Hundreds of inns accommodate

trayellers who lind no lodging-places in the Nul C/n’urj, and

storehouses, theatres, granaries and markets attract or supply their customers from all parts. There is more dissipation and freedom from etiquette here, and the Chinese officials feel freer from their Manchu colleagues.

Three miles south of the Palace, in the Chinese City, is situated the Tien Tan, or ‘ Altar to Ileayen,’ so placed because it was anciently customary to perform sacrifices to Heaven in the outskirts of the Emperor’s residence city. The compound is inclosed by more than three miles of wall, within which is planted a thick grove of locust {Sajj/iora), pine and fir trees, interspaced with stretches of grass. Within a second wall, which surrounds the sacred buildings, rises a copse of splendid and thickly growing cypress trees, reminding one of the solemn shade in the vicinity of famous temples in Ancient Greece, or of those celebrated shrines described in “Western Asia. The great South Altar, the most important of Chinese religious structures, is a beautiful triple circular terrace of white marble, whose base is 210, middle stage 150, and top 90 feet in width, each terrace encompassed by a richly caryed balustrade. A curious symbolism of the number three and its multiples may be noticed in the measurements of this pile. The uppermost terrace, whose height above the ground is about eighteen feet, is paved with marble slabs, forming nine concentric circles—the inner of nine stones inclosing a central piece, and around this each receding layer consisting of a successive multiple of nine until the square of nine (a favorite number of Chinese philosophy) is reached in the outermost row. It is upon the single nnind stone in the centre of the upper plateau that the Emperor kneels when worshipping Heaven and his ancestors at the winter solstice.

THE TEMPLE OF HEAVEN”. 77

Four lliglits of nine steps each lead from this elevation to the next lower stage, where are placed tablets to the spirits of the sun, the moon, the stars, and the Year God. On the ground at the end of the four stairways stand vessels of bronze in which are placed the bundles of cloth and sundry animals constituting part of the sacrilicial offerings. But of ^’astly greater importance than these in the matter of burnt-offering is the great furnace, nine feet high, faced with green porcelain, and ascended on three of its sides by porcelain staircases. In this receptacle, erected some hundred feet to the south-east of the altar, is consumed a burnt-offering of a bullock—entire and without blemish—at the yearly ceremony. The slaughter-house of the sacrificial bullock stands east of the North Altar, at the end of an elaborate winding passage, or cloister of 72 compartments, each 10 feet in length.

Separated from the Altar to Heaven by a low wall, is a smaller though more conspicuous construction called Kl-l’iih Tan, or ‘ Altar of Prayer for Grain.’ Its proportions and arrangement are somewhat similar to those of the South Altar, but upon its upper terrace rises a magnificent triple-roofed, circular building known to foreigners as the ‘ Temple of Heaven.’

This elaborate house of worship, whose surmounting gilded ball rests 100 feet above the platform, was originally roofed with blue, yellow and green tiles, but by Kienlung these colors were changed to blue. When, added to these brilliant hues, we consider the I’ichly carved and painted eaves, the windows shaded by Venetians of blue-glass rods strung together, and the I’ai’e symmetry of its proportions, it is no exaggeration to call this temple the most remarkable edifice in the capital—or indeed in the empire. The native name is Qi-Nian Dian, or ‘Temple of Prayer for the Year’. In the interior, the large shrines of carved wood for the tablets coiTespond to the movable blue wooden huts which on days of sacrifice are put up on the Southern Altar. Here, upon some day following the first of spring (Fel). G), the Emperor offers his supplications to Heaven for a blessing upon the year. In times of drought, prayer for rain is also made at this altar, the Emperor being obliged to proceed on foot, as a repentant suppliant, to the ‘ Hall of Peni tent Fasting,’ a distance of three miles. A green furnace for burnt-offerings lies to the south-east of this, as of the Korth Altar ; while in the open park not far from the two and seventy cloisters are seven great stones, said to have fallen from heaven and to secure good luck to the country.

Across the avenue upon which is situated this great inclosure of the I’ien Tan, is the Sleii ^uny Tan, or ‘ Altar dedicated to Shinnung,’ the supposed inventor of agriculture. These precincts are about two miles in circumference, and contain four separate altars : to the gods of the heavens, of the earth, of the planet Jupiter, and to Shinnung, The worship here is performed at the vernal equinox, at which time the ceremony of ploughing a part of the inclosed park is performed by the Emperor, assisted by various officials and members of the Board of Rites, The district magistrates and prefect also plough their plats ; but no one touches the imperial portion save the monarch himself. The first two altars are rectangular ; that to the gods of heaven, on the east, is 50 feet long and 4^ feet high: four marble tablets on it contain the names of the gods of the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder. That to the gods of earth is 100 feet long by GO wide ; here the five marble tablets contain the names of celebrated mountains, seas, and lakes in China, Sacrifices are offered to these divinities at various times, and, with the prayers presented, are burned in the furnaces, thus to come before them in the unseen world ; the idea which runs through them partakes of the nature of homage, not of atonement, iS’ early one-half of the Chinese City is empty of dwellings, much of the open land being cultivated ; a large pond for rearing gold-fish near the T’ten Tan is an attractive place. West of this city wall is an old and conspicuous dagobain the Ti.enning sz\ nearly 200 feet high, and a landmark for the city gate. This part of Peking was much the best built when the Liao and Kin dynasties occupied it, west of the main city is the Temple of the Moon, and on the east side, directly opposite, stands the Temple to the Sun ; the T’l Tan, or ‘ Altar to Earth.’ is on the north over against the Altar to Heaven, just desciilicd.

MONUMENT, OK TOPE, OF A LAMA. UWANG SZ’, PEKING.THE BELL TEMPLE AND HWANG SZ*. 79

At all these the Emperor performs religious rites during the twelve months. The inciosure of the Altar to Earth is suuiller, and everything connected with the sacrifices is on an inferior scale to those conducted in the Altar to Heaven, The main altar has two terraces, each 6 feet high, and respectively lOG feet and 00 feet square ; the tablet to Imperial Earth is placed on the npper with those to the Imperial Ancestors, and all are adored at the summer solstice. The bullock for sacrifice is afterwards buried and not burned. Adjoining the terraced altar on the south is a small tank for Mater.

About two miles from the Tl Tan, in a northerly direction, passing through one of the ruined gates of the Peking of Marco Polo’s time on the way, is found the Ta-chioig sz\ or ‘Bell Temple’, in which is hung the great bell of Peking. It was cast about 1406, in the reign of Yungloli, and was covered over in 1578 by a small temple. It is 14 feet high, including the nmbones, 34 feet in circumference at the lim, and 9 inches thick ; the weight is 120,000 lbs. av. ; it is struck by a heavy beam swung on the outside. The Emperor cast five bells in all, but this one alone was hung. It is covered with myriads of Chinese characters, both inside and out, consisting of extracts from the Fah-hwa King and TJng-yen King, two Buddhist classics. In some respects this may be called the most remarkable work of art now in China ; it is the largest suspended bell in the world. A square hole in the top prevents its fracture under the heaviest rinoino-.’

‘ Compare Kirclier, China Illustratn, where an engraving of it may be seen. A bell near Mandalay, mentioned by Dr. Anderson, is 13 feet high, 10 feet across tli3 lips, and weighs 90 tons—evidently a heavier monster than this in Peking. (Mandalay to Momien, p. 18.)

A short distance outside the northern gate, Tah-shing Man, is an open ground for military reviews, and near it a Buddhist temple of some note, called Hwang sz\ containing in its enceinte a remarkable monument erected by Ivienlung. In 1779 the Teshu Lama started for Peking with an escort of 1,500 men; he was met by the Emperor near the city of Si-ning in Ivansuh, conducted to Peking with great honor, and lodged in this temple for several months. He died here of small-pox, November 12, 1780, and this cenotaph of white marble was erected to his nieinoi’v ; the body was inclosed in a <^old cuflin and sent to the Dalai Lama at Lliassa in 1781. The plinth of this beautiful work contains scenes in the })relate’s life carved on the panels, one of which represents a lion rubbing- his eyes with his paw as the tears fall for grief at the Lama’s death.

The Summer Palace at Yiien-ming Yuen lies about seven miles from the north-west corner of Peking, and its entire circuit is reckoned to contain twelve square miles. The country in this direction rises into gentle hills, and advantage has been taken of the original surface in the arrangement of the different parts of the ground, so that ilie whole presents a great variety of hill and dale, woodlands and lawns, interspered with pools, lakes, caverns, and islets joined by bridges and walks, their banks thrown up or diversified like the free hand of nature. Some parts are tilled, groves or tangled thickets occur here and there, and places are purposely left wild to contrast the better with the cultivated precincts of a palace, or to form a rural pathway to a retired temple or arbor. Here were formerly no less than thirty distinct places of residence for various palace officials, around which were houses occupied by eumichs md servants, each constituting a little village.

But all was swept away l)y the British and French troops in

I860, and their ruins still i-cmain to irritate the officials and

people of Peking against all foreigners. Xear the Summer

Palace is the great cantomnent of llai-tien, where the Manchu

garrison is stationed to defend the capital, and whose troops

did their best in the vain effort to stay the attack in I860. As

a contrast to the proceedings connected with this approach of

the British, an extract fi-om Sir John Davis’s Chinese (chap, x.)

will furnish an index of the changed condition of things.

” It was at a place called Jlai-tien, in the innnediate vicinity

of these gardens, that the strange scene occurred which terminated

in the dismissal of the embassy of 1816, On his arrival

there, about daylight in the jnornii?g, with the coinmissioners

and a few other gentlemen, tlie ambassador was drawn

to one of the Emperor’s temporary residences by an invitation

from Duke llo, as he was called, the imperial relative charged

rt’ith the conduct of the negotiations. After passing through

SUMMEIl PALACE AT YUEN-MING YUEN. 81

an open court, where were assembled a vast number of grandees

in their dresses of ceremony, they were shown into a WTetched

room, and soon encompassed l)y a well-dressed crowd, among

whom were princes of the blood by dozens, wearing yellow girdles.

With a childish and unmannei-ly curiosity, consistent

enough with the idle and disorderly life which many of them

are said to lead, they examined the persons and dress of the

gentlemen without ceremony ; while these, tired with their

sleepless journey, and disgusted at the behavior of the celestials,

turned their backs upon them, and laid themselves down to rest.

Duke IIo soon appeared, and surpi’ised the ambassador hy urging

him to proceed directly to an audience of the Emperor, who

was waiting for him. His lordsliip iu vain remonstrated that

to-morrow liad been fixed for the first audience, and that tired

and dusty as they all were at present, it would be worthy

neither of the Emperor nor of himself to wait on his majesty in

a manner so unprepared. He urged, too, that he was unwell,

and required innnediate rest. Duke llo became more and more

pressiug, and at length forgot himself so far as to grasp the

ambassador’s arm violently, and one of the others stepped up at

the same time. His lordship immediately shook them oft’, and

the gentlemen crowded about him ; while the highest indignation

was expressed at such treatment, and a determined resolution

to proceed to no audience this morning. The ambassador

at leugth retired, with the appearance of satisfaction on the

part of Duke Ho, that the audience should take place tomorrow.

There is every reason, however, to suppose that this

person had been largely bribed by the heads of the Canton

local government to frustrate the views of the embassy, and

prevent an audience of the Emperor. The mission, at least, was

on its way back in the afternoon of the same day.”

The principal part of the provisions recpiired for the supply of this iimnense city comes from the southern provinces, and from flocks reared beyond the wall. It has no important manufactures, horn lanterns, wall papers, stone snuff-bottles, and pipe mouth-pieces, being the principal. Trade in silks, foreign fabrics, and food is limited to supplying the local demand, inasmuch as a heavy octroi duty at the gates restrains all enterprise. No foreign merchants are allowed to carry on business here. The government of Peking differs from that of other cities in the empire, the affairs of the department being separated from it, and administered by officers residing in thvi four circuits into which it is divided. ” A minister of one of the Boards is appointed superintendent of the city, and subordinate to him is ^ fuyin, or mayor. Their duties consist in having charge of the metropolitan domain, for the purpose of extending good government to its four divisions. They have under them two district magistrates, each of Mhoni rules half the city; none of these officers are subordinate to the provincial governor, but carry affairs which they cannot determine to the Emperor. They preside or assist at many of the festivals observed in the capital, superintend the military police, and hold the courts which take cognizance of the offences committed there.”‘

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 181.

STREET SCENES AND FEATURES OF PEKING. 80

The thoroughfares leading across Peking, from one gate to the other, are broad, unpaved avenues, more than a hundred feet wide, which appear still wider owing to the lowness of the buildings; the centre is about two feet higher than the sides. The cross-streets in the main city are generally at right angles with them, not over forty feet wide, and for the most part occupied with dwellings. The inhabitants of the avenues are required to keep them well sprinkled in summer; but in rainy weather they are almost impassable from the mud and deep jniddles, the level surface of the ground, and obstructed, neglected drains, preventing rapid drainage. The crowds which throng these avenues, some engaged in various callings, along the sides or in the middle of the way, and others busily passing and repassing, together with the gay appearance of the signl)oards, and. an air of business in the shops, render the great streets of the Chinese metropolis very bustling, and to a foreigner a most interesting scene. Shop-fronts can be entirely opened when necessary ; they are constructed of panels or shutters fitting into grooves, and secured to a row of strong posts which set into mortises. At night, when the shop is

closed, nothing of it is seen from without ; but in the daytime,

when the goods are exposed, tlie scene becomes more animated.

The sign-boards are often broad planks, fixed in stone bases

on each side of the shop-front, and reaching to the eaves, or

above them ; the characters are large and of different colors,

and in order to attract more notice, the signs are often hung

with various colored flags, bearing inscriptions setting forth the

excellence of the goods. The sliops in the outer city are frequently

constructed in this manner, others are made more compact

for warmth in winter, but as a whole they are not brilliant

in their fittings. Their signs are, when possible, images of

the articles sold and always have a red pennon attached ; the

finer shop-fronts are covered with gold-leaf, brilliant when new,

but shabby enough when faded, as it soon does. The aj^pearance

of the main streets exhibits therefore a curious mixture ol

decay and renovation, which is not lessened by the dilapidated

temples and governmental buildings everywhere seen, all indicating

the impoverished state of the exchequer. In many parts of

the city are placed 2>(^i-lau, or honorary gateways, erected to

mark the approach to the palace, and M^orthy, by their size and

ornamental entablatures, to adorn the avenues and impress the

traveller, if they were kept in good condition.

The police of the city is connected with the Bannermen, and

is, on the whole, efiicient and successful in preserving the peace.

During the night the thoroughfares are quiet ; they are lighted

a little by lanterns hanging before the houses, but generally are

dark and cheerless. In the metropolis, as in all Chinese cities,

the air is constantly polluted by the stench arising from private

vessels and pul)lic reservoirs for urine and every kind of offal,

which is all carefully collected by scavengers. By this means,

although the streets are kept clean, they are never sweet ; but

habit renders the people almost insensible to this as well as

other nuisances. Carts, mules, donkeys and horses are to be

hired in all the thoroughfares. The Manchu women ride

astride ; their number in the streets, both riding and walking,

imparts a pleasant feature to the crowd, which is not seen in

cities further south. The extraordinary length and elaborateness

of marriage and funeral processions daily passing through the avenues, adds a pretty feature to them, which other cities Avitli narrow streets catinot emulate.

The environs beyond the suburbs are occupied with niausolea, temples, private mansions, hamlets, and cultivated fields, in or near which are trees, so that the city, viewed from a distance, appears as if situated in a thick forest. Many interesting points for the antiquarian and scientist are to be found in and around this old city, which annually attracts more and more tlic attention of other nations. Its population has decreased regularly since the death of Kienlung in 1707, and is now probably rather less than one million, including the immediate suburbs. The clinuite is healthy, but subject to extremes from zero to 104°; the dryness during ten months of the year is, moreover, extremely irritating. The poor, who resort thither from other parts, form a needy and troublesome ingredient of the population, sometimes rising in large mobs and pillaging the granaries to supply themselves with food, but more commonly perishing in great numbers from cold and hunger. Its peace is always an object of considerable solicitude with the imperial government, not only as it may involve the personal safety of the Emperor, but still more from the disquieting effect it may have upon the administration of the empire. The possession of this capital by an invading force is more nearly equivalent to the control of the country than might be the case in most European kingdoms, but not as much as it might be in Siam, Burmah, or Japan.

The good influences which nuiy be exerted upon the nation from the metropolis are likewise correspondingly great, while the purification of this source of contamiiuition, and the liberalizing of this centre of power, now well begun in various ways, will confer a vast benefit upon the Chinese people.’

‘ Compare the Aiinales de la Foi, Tome X., p. 100, for interesting details concerning the Romish missionurios in Peking. Also Pautliier’s CIdne Moderne,pp. 8-;}(i (I’iiris, l.sr)2), containing an oxccllont map. Bretschneider’s Archeokxjical and Jliitt’iricti! Rencarches on Pddiig, etc., published in the Chinese Recorder, Vol. VI. (1875, passim). Memnirea .mncernaiit fllistoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les A/oeiirs, /<?.<( Usages, etc., des Chinois. par les Mit,si(»inaires de Pckiii ; 16 vols., Paris, 1797-1814. N. B. Dtjimys, Notes for T(>iV.rwts in the: North of China ; Hongkong, 18(5G.

Chihli contains several other large cities, among which Tau-ting, the foniier residence of the governor-general, and Tientsin, are the most important. The former lies about eighty miles south-west of the capital, on the Yungting River and the great road leading to Shansi. The whole department is described as a thoroughly cultivated, populous region ; it is well M’atered, and possesses two or three small lakes.

Tientsin is the largest port on the coast above Shanghai. Owing, however, to the shallowness of the gulf and the bar at the mouth of the Pei ho, over which at neap tide only three or four feet of water flow, the port is rendered inaccessible to large foreign vessels. 1 tti size and importance were formerly chiefly owing to its being t’le terminus of the Grand Canal, where the produce and taxes for the use of the capital were brought. Mr. Gutzlaff, who visited Tientsin in 1831, described it as a bustling place, comparing the stirring life and crowds on the water and shores outside of the walls of the city with those of Liverpool.

The enormous fleet of grain junks carrying rice to the capital is supplemented by a still greater number of vessels which take the food up to Tung chau. Formerly the coast trade increased the shipping at Tientsin to thousands of junks, including all which lined the river for about sixty miles. This native trade has diminished since 1861, inasmuch as steamers arc gradually ousting the native vessels, no one caring to risk insurxince on freight in junks. The country is not very fertile between the city and the sea, owing to the soda and nitre in the soil; but scanty crops are brought forth, and these only after much labor ; one is a species of grass(Phragmites) much used in making floor-mats. Sometimes the rains cause the Pei ho and its affluents to break over their banks, at which periods their waters deposit fertilizing matter over large areas.

The approach to Tientsin from the eastward indicates its importance, and the change from the sparsely populated country lying along the banks of the Pei ho, to the dense crowds on shore and the fleets of boats, adds greatly to the vivacity of its aspect. ” If flue buildings and striking localities are required to give interest to a scene,” remarks Mr. Ellis, ” this has no claims; but, on the other hand, if the gradual crowding of junks till they become innumerable, a vast population, buildings, though not elegant, yet reguhir and peculiar, careful and successful cultivation, can supply these deficiencies, the entrance to Tientsin will not be without attractions to the traveler.’”

The stacks of salt along the river arrest the attention of the voyager; the innuense quantity of this article collected at this city is only a small portion of the amount consumed in the interior. Tientsin will gradually increase in wealth, and nt)\v perhaps contains half a million of inhabitants. Its position renders it one of the most important cities in the empire, and the key of the capital.

Near the endjouehure of the river is Ta-ku, with its forts and gari’ison, a small town noticeable as the spot where the first interview between the Chinese and English plenipotentiaries was held, in August, IS^tO ; and for three engagements between the British and Chinese forces in 1858, 1859, and ISGO. The general aspect of the province is flat and cheerless, the soil near the coast unpi’o(lucti\e, but, as a whole, rich and well cultivated, though the harvests are jeopardized by frequent droughts.

The port of Peking is Tung chau on the Pei ho, twelve miles from the east gate, and joined to it by an elevated stone causeway. All boats here unload their passengers and freight, which are transported in carts, wheelbarrows, or on mules and donkeys.

The city of Tung chau presents a dilapidated appearance amidst all its business and trade, and its population depends on the transit of goods for their chief support. The streets are paved, the largest of them having raised footpaths on their sides. The houses indicate a prosperous community. A single pagoda towers nearly 200 feet above them, and forms a waymark for miles across the country. Tung chau is only 100 feet above the sea, fi-om which it is distant 120 miles in a direct line; consequently, its liability to floods is a serious drawback to its permanent prosperity.

‘ Jourtud of Lord AinhcrsVs Emba.sKy to China^ Cd ed., p. 22. Lundon, 1840

DOLOX-XUli \:SD TOV.^’.S IX THE NORTH. 87

Another city of note is Siuenhwa fu, finely situated between the branches of the Great Wall. Tindvowski remarks, “the crenfvted wall which surrounds it is thirty feet high, and puts one in mind of that of the Krendin, and resembles those of several towns in Uussia; it consists of two thin parallel brick walls, the intennediate space being filled with clay and saud. The Avail is flanked with towers. AVe passed through three gates to enter the city : the first is covered with iron nails; at the second is the guard-house ; we thence proceeded along a broad street, bordered with shops of hardware ; we went through several large and small streets, which are broad and clean ; but, considering its extent, the city is thinly peopled.” ‘

The department of Chahar, or Tsakhar, lies beyond the Great Wall, north and west of the province, a mountainous and thinly settled country, chiefly inhabited by Mongol shepherds who keep the flocks and herds of the Emperor.”

‘ Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, Vol. I., p. 293.London, 1837.•^ Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II. , p. 90.

In the north-east of their grounds lies the thriving town of Dolon-nor (I.e., Seven Lakes), or Lama-miao, of about 20,000 Chinese, founded by Kanghi. The Buddhist temples and manufactories of bells, idols, praying machines, and other religious articles found here, give it its name, and attract “the Mongols, whose women array themselves in the jewelry made here. It is in latitude 42° 16′ X., about ten miles from the Shangtu river, a large branch of the river Liao, on a sandy plain, and is approached by a road Minding among several lakes. North-west of Dolon-nor are the ruins of the ancient Mongolian capital of Shangtu, rendered more famous among English reading people by Coleridge’s exquisite poem—

In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
A stately pleasure-dome decree :
Where Alpli, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to man
Down to a sunless sea.
So twice five miles of fertile ground
With walls and towers were girdled round

—than by Marco Polo’s relation, which moved the poet to pen the lines. It was planned as Mukden now is, an outer and inner Avail inclosing separate peoples, and its tumuli will probably furnish many tablets and relics of the Mongol emperors, when carefully dug over. It was too far from Peking for the Manclm monarchs to rebuild, and the Ming emperors had no power there. It was visited in 1 872 by Messrs. Grosvenor and Bushell of the British Legation ; Dr. BusheH’s description corroborates Polo’s account and Gerbillon’s later notices of its size.’

There are several lakes, the largest of which, the Peh hu, in

the south-western part, connects with the Pei ho throngh the

river Hli-to. The various bi-anches of the five rivers, whose

miited waters disembogue at Ta-ku, afford a precarious water

communication through the southern half of Chihli. Their headwaters

rise in Shan si and beyond the Great AVall, bringing down

much silt, which their lower currents only partially take out into

the gulf; this sediment soon destroys the usefulness of the

channels by raising them dangerously ncai’ the level of the banks.

The utilization of their streams is a difficult problem in civil

engineering, not only here but throughout the Great Plain.

Kear the banks of the Lan ho, a large stream flowing south

from the eastern slopes of the (Jhahar Hills, past Yungping fu

into the gulf, and about one hundred and seventy-four miles

north of Ta-ku, lies Chingpeli, or Jeh-ho, the Emperor’s country

palace. The approach to it is through a pass cut out of the

rock, and resembles that leading to Damascus. The imperial

grounds are embraced by a high range of hills forming a grand

amphitheatre, which at this point is extremely fine. This descent

to the city presents new and captivating views at every

turn of the road. The hunting grounds are inclosed by a high

wall stretching twenty miles over the hills, and stocked with

deer, elks, and other game. The Buddhist temples form the

chief attraction to a visitor. The largest one is square and castellated,

eleven stories high, and about two hundred feet on

each of its sides ; the stories are painted red, yellow and green

alternating. There are several similar but smaller structures

below this one, and on each of the first two or three series is a

row of small chinaware pagodas of a blue color ; their tiles are

‘ Journal of the Boy. Qeog. Foe, 1874. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., pp. 263-26S. Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., p. 134. Gerbillon, Memoires concernant leu Vhinoin (Anih^y’^ cd.), Vol. IV., pp. 701-71(5. Joiiriuil AHutiqve,Ser. II., Tome XL, p. 345. Hue, Tiirtary, etc., Vol. I., p 34, 2d ed., London

SHANDONG PROVINCE. 89

likewise blue. In the bright sunlight the effect of these brilliant hands is very good, and the general neatness adds to the pleasing result of the gay coloring. Nearly a thousand lamas live about these shrines. The town of Re-he (I.e., Hot River) consists mostly of ons street coiling around the hills near the palace; its inhabitants are of a higher grade than usual in Chinese cities, the greater part being connected with the government.

The road through Ku peh kau in the Great Wall from Peking to Jeh-ho is one of the best in the province, and the journey presents a variety of charming scenery ; its chief interest to foreigners is connected with the visit there of Lord Macartney, in 1793.’ This fertile prefecture is rapidly settling by Chinese, whose numbers are now not far from two millions.

The principal productions of Chihli are millet and wheat, sorghum, maize, oats, and many kinds of pulse and fruits, among which are pears, dried and fresh dates(likamnus), apples and grapes ; all these are exported. Coal, both bituminous and anthracite, exists in great abundance ; one mode of using hard coal is to mix its dust with powdered clay and work them into balls and cakes for cooking and fuel. The province also furnishes good marble, granite, lime, and iron, some kinds of precious stones, and clay for bricks and pottery.

‘ Sir G. L. Staunton, Acconntof an KmhasRy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China. 3 vols. Lond., 179G.

The province of Shandong (i.e., East of the Hills) has a long coast-line, its maritime border being more than half its whole circuit. It lies south of the Gulf of Pechele, south-east of Chihli, north of Kiangsu, and borders on Honan, where the Yellow River divides the two. Most of its area is level, the hilly part is the peninsula portion, where the highest points rise too high to admit of cultivation. The Grand Canal enters the province on its course from Tientsin at Lintsing chan in the north-west, passing in a south-easterly direction to the old Yellow River, and adds greatly to its importance. The shores of the promontory are generally l)old, and full of indentations, presenting several excellent harbors ; no important river disembogues within the province, and on each side of the peninsula the waters are shallow. Chifu, in the prefecture of Tangchau, has the hest harhor, and its trade will gradually draw toward it a large population. The hills along the shore have a reniarkahlj uniform, conical shape, resembling the bonnets worn by officers. The hilly regions are arranged in a series of chains running across the promontory, the longest and highest of which runs Avith the general trend of the coast in Tai-ngan fu, some peaks reaching over five thousand feet, but most of them being under three thousand feet high. Their intervales are highly cultivated. The soil is generally productive, except near the shores of the gulf, where it is nitrous. Two crops are aimually produced here as elsewhere in Northern China. The willow, aspen, ailantus, locust(Sop^ora), oak, mulberry, and conifera, are common trees; silk-worms fed on oak leaves furnish silk.

This province is one of the most celebrated in Chinese history, partly from its having been the scene of many remarkable events in the early history of the people up to b.c. 200, but more particularly from its containing the birthplaces of Confucius and Mencius, wdiose fame has gone over the earth. The inhabitants of the province are proud of their nativity on this score, much as the woman of Samaria was because Jacob’s cattle had (huidv water at the well of Sychar.

TAI SHAN, THE ‘ GREAT MOUNT,’ 91

The high mountain called Taishan, or ‘great mount’, is situated near Tai-ngan fu in this province. This peak is mentioned in the Shu King as that where Shun sacrificed to Heaven (b.c.2254) ; it is accordingly celebrated for its historical as well as religious associations. It towers high above all other peaks in the range, as if keeping solitary watch over the country roundabout, and is the great rendezvous of devotees ; every sect has there its temples and idols, scattered up and down its sides, in which priests chant their prayers, and practise a thousand superstitions to attract pilgrims to their shrines. During the spring, the roads leading to the Tai shan are obstructed with long caravans of people coming to accomplish their vows, to supplicate the deities for health or riches, or to solicit the joys of heaven in exchange for the woes of earth. A French missionary mentions having met with pilgrims going to it, one party

of whom consisted of old dames, who had with iulhiite fatigue

and discomfort come from the south of llonan, about three

hundred miles, to “‘remind their god of the long abstinence

from flesh and fish thev had obsei’ved during the course of tlieir

lives, and solicit, as a recompense, a happj transmigration for

their souls.” The youngest of this party was 78, and the oldest

90 years.’ Another traveller says that the pilgrims resort there

during the spring, when there are fairs to attract tliem ; high

and low, official and commoner, men and women,’ old and

young, all sorts gather to worship and traffic. A great temple

lies outside the town, whose grounds furnish a large and secure

area for the tents where the devotees amuse themselves, after

they have finished their devotions. The road to the summit is

about five miles, well paved and furnished with rest-houses,

tea-stalls, and stairways for the convenience of the pilgrims,

and shaded with cypresses. It is beset with beggars, men and

women with all kinds of sores and diseases, crippled and injured,

besieging travellers with cries and self-imposed sufferings,

frequently lying across the path so as to be stepped upon.

A vast number of them live on alms thus collected, and have

scooped themselves holes in the side of the way, where they

live ; their numbers indicate the great crowds whose offerings

support such a M’retched thi-ong on the hill.

‘ Annalcs de la Foi, 1844, Tome XVI., p. 421.

The capital of the province is Tsinan, a well-built city of about 100,000 inhabitants. It was an important town in ancient times as the capital of Tsi, one of the influential feudal States, from b.c.1100 to its conquest by Chf Huangdi about 230 ; the present town lies not far east of the Ta-tsing ho, or new Yellow River, and is accessible by small steamers from sea. It has hills around it, and is protected by three lines of defence, composed of mud, granite, and brick. Three copious sprhigs near the western gate furnish pure water, which is tepid and so abundant as to fill the city moat and form a lake for the solace of the citizens whether in boats upon its bosom or from temples around its shores. Its manufactures are strong fabrics of wild silk, and ornaments of llit-ll, a vitreous substance like strass, of which pnuff-l)()ttlcp, bangles, cups, etc., are made in great variety, to reseuil)le serpentine, jade, ice, and other things. East of Tsinan is the prefect city of Tsing chau, once the provincial capital, and the centre of a populous and fertile region. Tsining chau is an opulent and flourishing place, judging from the gilded and carved shops, temples, and public offices in the suburbs, which stretch along the eastern banks of the Canal ; just beyond the town, the Canal is only a little raised above the level of the extensive marshes on each side, and further south the swamps increase rapidly : when Amherst’s embassy passed, the whole country, as far as the eye could reach, displayed the effects of a most extensive I’ecent inundation. Davis adds, ” The

waters were on a level with those of the Canal, and there was

no need of dams, which wei-e themselves nearly under water,

and sluices for discharging the superfluous water were occasionally

observed. Clumps of large trees, cottages, and towers, were

to be seen on all sides, half under water, and deserted by the

inhabitants ; the number of the latter led to the inference that

they were provided as places of refuge in case of inundation,

which must be here very frequent. Wretched villages t»ccuiTC(l

frequently on the right-hand bank, along which the tracking

path was in some places so completely undermined as to give

way at every step, obliging them to lay down hurdles of reeds

to afford a passage.” ‘

Lin-tsing chau, on the Yu ho, at its junction with the Canal, lies in the midst of a beautiful country, full of gardens and cultivated grounds, interspersed with buildings. This place is the depot for produce brought on the Canal, and a rendezvous for large fleets of boats and baiges. ?sear it is a pagoda in good repair, about 150 feet high, the basement of which is built of granite, and the other stories of glazed bricks.

‘ SketcJies of CJu/ui, Yul. I., p. 257.

CITIES AND CIIAnACTERISTICS OF SHANTUNG. 93

The towns and villages of Shandong have been much ^•isited during the past few years, and tlu’ir inhabitants have become better acquainted with foreigners, with whom increased intercourse has developed its good and bad results. The productions of this fertile province comprise every kind of grain and vegetable finuid in Xoitlieni China, and its trade by sea and along the Canal opens many outlets for enterprising capital. Among its mineral productions are gold, copper, asbestos, galena, antimony, silver, sulphur, fine agates, and saltpetre ; the first occurs in the beds of streams. All these yield in real importance, however, to the coal and iron, which are abundant, and have been worked for ages. Its manufactures supply the common clothing and utensils of its people ; silk fabrics, straw braid woven from a kind of wheat, glass, cheap earthenware, and rugs of every pattern.

Mr. Stevens, an American missionary who risited Wei-hai wei and Chifu in 1837, gives a description of the people, which is still applicable to most parts of the province : “These poor people know nothing, from youth to old age, but the same monotonous round of toil for a subsistence, ?nd never see, never hear anything of the world around them. Improvements in the useful arts and sciences, and an increase of the conveniences of life, are never known among them. In the place where their fathers lived and died, do they live, and toil, and die, to be succeeded by another generation in the same nuiimer.

Few of the comforts of life can be found among them; their houses consisted in general of granite and thatched roofs, but neither table, chair, nor floor, nor any article of furniture could be seen in the houses of the poorest. Every man had his pipe, and tea was in most dwellings. They were industriously engaged, some in ploughing, others in reaping, some carrying out manure, and others bringing home produce; numbers were collected on the thrashing-floors, winnowing, sifting and packing wheat, rice, millet, peas, and in drying maize, all with the greatest diligence. Here, too, were their teams for ploughing, yoked together in all possible ludicrous combinations; sometimes a cow and an ass; or a cow, an ox and an ass; or a cow and two asses; or four asses; and all yoked abreast. All the women had small feet, and wore a pale and sallow aspect, and their miserable, squalid appearance excited an indelible feeling of compassion for their helpless lot. They were not always shy, but were generally ill-clad and ugly, apparently laboring in the fields like the men. But on several occasions, young ladies clothed in gay silks and satins, riding astride upon bags on donkeys, were seen. Ko prospect of melioration for either men or women appears but in the liberalizing and happy influences of Christianity.” ‘

The province of ShanXxi (i.e., West of the Hills) lies between Ciiihli and Shensi, and north of HeNan ; the Yellow River bounds it on the west and partly on the south, and the Great Wall forms most of the northern frontier. It measures 55,2(38 square miles, nearly the same as England and Wales, or the State of Illinois. This province is the original seat of the Chinese people ; and many of the places mentioned and the

scenes recorded in their ancient annals occurred within its borders.

Its rugged surface presents a striking contrast to the level

tracts in Chihli and Shantung. The southern portion of ShansI,

including the region down to the Yellow River, in all an area

of 30,000 square miles, presents a geological formation of great

simplicity from Ilwai king a^ far north as Ping ting. The plain

around the lirst-named cit)^ is bounded on the north by a steep,

castellated raiige of hills which varies from 1,000 to 1,500 feet

in height ; it has few roado ov streams crossing it. On reaching

the top, an undulating table-land stretches northward, varying

from 2,500 to 3,000 feet above the Plain, consisting of coal formation,

above the limestone of the lower steep hills. About

forty miles from those hills, there is a second rise like the first,

up which the road takes one to another plateau, nearly 6,000

feet above the sea. This plateau is built up of later rocks, sandstones,

shales, and conglomerates of green, red, yellow, lilac,

and brown colors, and is deeply eroded by branches of the Tsin

Piver, which finally flow into the Yellow Piver. This plateau

has its north-west boi-der in the Wu ling pass, beyond which

besrins the descent to the basin of the Fan Piver. That basin

is traversed near its eastern side by the Hob shan nearly to Taiyuen; its peaks rise to 8,000 feet in some places ; the rocks are granite and divide the coal measures, anthracite lying on its eastern side and bituminous on the west, as far as the Yellow.
‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 308-335. W. H. Medhurst’s China,chaps, xv.-xix.

NAT- -HANSI. 95

River, and nr \, On top of both plateaus is spread the loess deposi iu depth from ten to five hundred fe^ ” ‘ water-courses in every direction, Avhic’ ‘ ^ .nines.

On the eastern side . Shansi the rocks are made up of ancient for Liatlons v»r deposits of the Sihirian age, presenting a series of peaks, piisses and ranges that render travel very difficult down to u’.j Plain. By these outlying ranges the province is isolated from Chihli, as no useful water communication exists. This coal and iron formation is probably the largest in the “world, and when railroads open it up to easy access it can be leadily -worked along the water-courses. The northern part of the province is drained through the rivers ending at Tientsin. This elevated region cannot be artificially irrigated, and when the rainfall is too small or too late, the people suffer from famine. The northern and southern prefectures exhibit great diversity in their animal, mineral, and vegetable productions. Some of the favorite imperial hunting-grounds are in the north; from the coal, iron, cinnabar, copper, marble, lapis-lazuli, jasper, salt, and other minerals which it affords, the inhabitants gain much of their wealth. The principal grains are wheat and millet, a large variety of vegetables and fruits, such as persimmons, pears, dates and grapes. The rivers are not large, and almost every one of them is a tributary of the Yellow River. The Fan ho, about 300 miles long, is the most important, and empties into it near the south-western corner of the province, after draining the central section. East of this stream, as far as the headwaters of those rivers flowing into Chihli, extends an undulating table-land, having a general altitude of 3,000 feet above the Plain. South of it runs the river Kiang, also an afiiuent of the Yellow River, and near this, in Kiai chau, is a remarkable deposit of salt in a shallow lake (18 miles long and 3 lu-oad), which is surrounded by a high wall. The salt is evaporated in the sun under government direction, the product bringing in a large revenue ; the adjacent town of Lung-tsiien, containing 80,000 inhabitants, is devoted to the business. Salt has been obtained from this region for two thousand years ; the water in some of the springs is only brackish, and used in culiiKiry operations. There are t\\ “> smaller lakes nearei” the Yellow River.

The iron obtained in the lower puitean, ii: the sonth-east neaj Tsih chan, is from clay iron-ure and spathic ore with heniatite4 \vhich occurs in limestone strata at the bottom of the coal formations.

It is extracted in a rude manner, but the produce is etpial to any iron in the world, while its price is only about two cents a pound. The working and transportation of coal and iron employ myriads of people, though they are miserably paid. The province barely supplies its own cotton, but woolen garments and sheepskins are produced to make up the demand for clothing.

Taiyuen fu, the capital, lies on the northern border of a fertile plain, 3,000 feet above the sea level ; this plain extends about 2,000 square miles, and owes its existence to the gradual filling up of a lake there, the waters having cut their way out, and left the river Fan to drain the surplus. Across the IIo shan Range lies another basin of equal fertility and mineral wealth, in Ping-ting chau, where coal, iron, clay and stone exist in unlimited

quantities. In the northern part of this province the Buddhist

tenqjles at AVu-tai shan in Tai chau draw vast crowds of votaries

to their shrines. The hills in which they are built rise

jtroiuinently above the range, and each celebrated locality is

memorialized by its own particular divinity, and the buildings

where he is worshipped. The presence of a living Buddha, or

G’egen, hei-e attracts thousands of Mongols from the north to

adore him ; their toilsome journey adding to the worth of the

\isit. Most of the lamas are from the noi-th and west. The

region north of this seems to be gradually losing its fertility,

owing to the sand which is drifted by north winds from the

Ortous steppes ; and as all the hills are bare of trees, the whole

of Shansi seems destined to increasing poverty and barrenness.

Its inhabitants are shrewd, enterprising traders as well as frugal

agriculturists ; many of the bankers in the Empire are from its

cities.

MOUNTAIN PASSES IN SFIANSl. 97

The great roads from Peking to the south-west and west pass through all the chief towns of this province, and when new pi-()b:ibly (‘(|ualk'(l in eiiglneei’ing and construction anything o^ the kind ever biult by the Konuuis. The stones with which they are paved average 15 inches in thickness. Few regions can exceed in natural difficulties some of the passes over the loess-covered tracts of this province, where the road must wind the Loess-clefts from the Han-sing From Richthofen.

through miles of narrow cuts in the light and tenacious soil, to emerge before a landscape such as that seen in the illustration.’

The province of Henan (i.e. South of the River) comprises some of the most fertile parts of the Plain, and, on account of its abundance and central position, early received the name of

‘ Richthofen, China. Band I. S. 68. Ilcv. Arthur Smith, Glimpses of Travel in the Middle Kingdom. Shanghai, 1875.

Chung Hwa T’l, or the ‘ Middle Flowery Land,’ afterwards enlarged into Chung Kicoh, or ‘ Middle Kingdom.’ Its form is an irregular triangle, and its size nearly the same as ISiiantmig ; it has iShansi and Cliihli on the north, ]S’ganliwui on the southeast, Ilupeh on the south and south-west, and Shensi on the west, bordering also on Shantung and Kiangsu. This area is divided into three basins, that of the Yellow River in the north, of the Hai River on the south, and the Han River on the south-west; the last two are separated by a marked range of mountains, the Fuh-niu shan, which is regarded as the eastern terminus of the Kwunlun Mountains ; it is about 300 miles long, and its eastern end is near Jii-ning fu. This range maintains an elevation of 4,000 to 6,000 feet, and is crossed at Xanchau, where a remarkable natural pass about 30 miles long, rising to 1,200 or 1,500 feet, affords the needed facilities for trade and travel between the central and northern provinces. The Peh and Tan rivers drain its southern slopes into the Ilan, and the eastern sides are abundantly watered by the numerous branches of the Hai River as they flow into Ilungtsih Lake. The northern portion of Henan along the Yellow River is level, fertile and populous, forming one of the richest portions of the province.

For its climate, productions, literary reputation, historical associations, and variety of scenery, this province takes a prominent rank. The earliest records of the Black-haired race refer to this region, and the struggles for dominion among feudal and imperial armies occurred in its plains. Its’ present difficulty of access from the coast will ere long be overcome by railroads, when its capabilities may be further developed, and the cotton, hemp, iron, tutenag, silk and coal be increased for exportation.

THE PKOVIXCE OF IIOXMST. 99

The people at present consume their own food and manufactures, and only require a got)d demand to increase the quality and amounts and exchange them for other things. The three prefectures north of the Yellow River are low-lying; through these the waters of that river have recently found their way into the river Wei and thence to the (lulf of Pechele, at Mang-tsin or east of it ; the gradual rise of the l)ed renders their levels nearly the same, while it makes the main stream so broad and shallow that it is of little use for navigation. These plains are traversed by wheelbarrows and carts, whose drivers and trundlers form a vast body of stalwart men constantly going about in their employment from one city to another.

Kaifung fu, or Pien-liang, the capital, is situated about a

league from the southern bank of the Yellow Kiver, whose bed

is here elevated above the adjacent country. It was the metropolis

from A.D. 960 to 1120, and has often suffered from attacks

of armies as well as from inundations. The dikes are mostly

on the northern shore, and exhibit the industry and unavailing

efforts of the people for scores of leagues. During the period

of the Manchu conquest Kaifung was defended by a loyal general,

who, seeing no other resource against the invaders, broke

down the embankments to drown them, by which mantjeuvre

upwards of 300,000 of the inhabitants perished. The city was

rebuilt, but it has not attained to its ancient splendor, if credit

can be given to the Statistics of Kaifumj^ in which work it

is described as having been six leagues in circuit in the twelfth

century, approached by five roads, and containing numerous

palaces, gardens, and government houses. The valley of the

Kiver Loll lies between the Yellow River and the Fuh-niu Mountains,

a fertile, populous region wherein many of the remarkable

events of Chinese history M’ere enacted. Loh-yang, near Honan,

was the metropolis at three different intervals, and probably

further researches here will bring to light many ancient relics; rock-cut temples and old inscriptions, with graceful bas-reliefs, near the natural gate of Lung-man, where the road crosses Sung slian, have already been seen. Owing to the direction of the roads leading through this region from the south and east, and the passes for travel towards the north-west, it will form a very important center of trade in the future of Central Asia and western China.

The province of Iviangsu is named from the first syllable of the capital, Kiangning, joined to Su, part of the name of the richest city, Suchau. It lies along the sea-coast, in a northwesterly direction, having Shantung on the north, Xganhwnii on the west, and C’hehkiang on the south. The area is about 4:5,000 square miles, equaling Pennsylvania or a little less than England by it-self. It consists, with little interruption, of level tracts interspersed with lakes and marshes, through which How their two noble rivers, which as tliej are the source of the extraordinary fertility of this region, so also render it obnoxious to freshes, or cover the low portions with irreclaimable morasses.

The region of Kiangnan is where the beauty and riches

of China are most amply displayed ; ” and M-hether we considai*,”

remarks Gutzlaff, speaking of this and the adjoining

province, ” their agricultural resom-ces, their great manufactures,

their various productions, their excellent situation on the

banks of these t»vo large streams, their many canals and tributary

rivers, these two provinces doubtless constitute the best

territory of China.” The staple productions are grain, cotton,

tea, silk, and rice, and most kinds of manufactures are here

carried to the greatest perfection. The people have an exceptional

reputation for intelligence and wit, and although the

province has long ceased to possess a court, its cities still ])i’esent

a ga^’er aspect, and are adorned W’ith better structures than

any others in the empire. This province was the scene of the

dreadful ravages of the Tai-ping rebellion, and large districts

are still desolate, while their cities lie waste.

Proljably no other country of equal extent is better watered

than Kiangsu. The Great River, the Grand Canal, many

smaller streams and canals, and a succession of lakes along the

line of the canal, afford easy communication through everj’ part.

The sea-coast has not been surveyed north of the Yangtsz’,

where it is unapproachable in large vessels ; dykes have been

constructed in some portions to prevent the in-flo\v of the

ocean. The largest lake is the Ilungtsih, about two hundred

miles in circumference. South of it lies Ivauyu Lake, and on

the eastern side of the canal opposite is Pauying Lake, both of

them broad sheets of water. Numerous small lakes lie around them. Tai hu, or ‘ Great Lake,’ lies partly in Jiangsu and partly in Zhejiang, and is the largest in the province. Its borders are skirted by romantic scenery, while its bosom is broken by numerous islets, affording convenient resort to the fishermen who get their subsistence from its waters.

CITY OF NANKING. 10^

Kiangning fu (better known abroad as Nanking), the capital

of the province, is situated on the south sliore of tlie Yangtsz’,

194 miles from Shanghai. It was the metropolis from a.d. 317

to 582, and again for 35 years during the Ming dynasty (1368-

1403). This city is the natural location of an imperial court,

accessible by land and water from all cpiarters, and susceptible

of sure defence. “When the Tai-pings were expelled in 1865,

the city was nearly destroyed, and has since that date only

slowly revived. When Hungwu made it his capital, he

strengthened the wall around it, inclosing a great area, 35 miles

in circuit, which was never fully covered with buildings, and at

present has a most ruinous appearance. Davis remarks the

striking resemblance between Home and Xanking, the area

within the walls of both being partially inhabited, and ruins of

buildings lying here and there among the cultivated fields, the

melancholy remains of departed glory. Both of them, however,

have now brighter prospects for the future.

The part occupied by the Manchus is separated by a cross

wall from the Chinese town. The great extent of the wall

renders the defence of the city difficult, besides which it is

overlooked from the hills on the east, from one of which, tlio

Chung shan, a wide view of the surrounding country can be

obtained. On this eastern face are three gates ; the land near

the tM’o toward the river is marshy, and the gates are ap

preached on stone causeys. A deep canal runs up from the

river directly under the walls on the west, serving to strengthen

the approaches on that side. Xanking is laid out in four

rather wide and parallel avenues intersected by others of less

width ; and though not so broad as those of Peking, are on the

Mdiole clean, vrell-paved, and bordered Avith handsomely furnished

shops.

The only remarkable monuments of royalty which remain are

several guardian statues situated not far from the walls. These

statues form an avenue leading up to the sepulchre where the

Emperor Hungwu was buried about 1398. They consist of

gigantic figures like warriors cased in armor, standing on either

side of the road, across which at intervals large stone tablets are

extended, supported by great blocks of stone instead of pillars

Situated at some distance arc a innnber of ]-ude colossal timires of horses, elephants, and other animals, all intended to repre eent the guardians of the mighty dead.’

Nothing made Kanking more celebrated abroad than the

Porcelain Tower, called Pao-nydn tah, or the ‘Recompensing

Favor Monastery,’ which stood pre-eminent above all other

similar buildings in China for its completeness and elegance,

the material of which it was built, and the quantity of gikling

with wliicli its interior was embellished. It was erected by

Yungloh to recompense the great favor of her majesty the

Empress, and occupied 19 years (1411-14:30) in its construction.

It was maintained in good condition by the government, and

three stories which had been thrown down by lightning in

1801 were rebuilt. TheTai-pings blew it up and carried off the

bricks in 1856, fearing lest its geomantic influences should work

against the success of their cause. As to its dimensions : Its

form was octagonal, divided into nine equal stories, the circumference

of the lower story being 120 feet, decreasing gradually

to the top. Its base rested upon a solid foundation of brickwork

ten feet high, up which a flight of twelve steps led into

the tower, whence a spiral staircase of 190 steps carried the

visitor to the summit, 261 feet from the ground. The outer

face was covered with slabs of glazed porcelain of various

colors, principally green, red, yellow, and white, the body of

the edifice being brick. At every story was a projecting roof,

covered with green tiles ; from each corner and from the top of

these roofs were suspended bells, numbering 150 in all.

‘ The curious reader can consult the article by Mayer, in Vol. XII. of the North China Jirnnch Royal Asiatic Societt/’s Journal, 1878, for the meaning of these various objects.

^ Five Years in China, Nashville, Tenn., 1860. See also Voyages of the Nemesis, pp. 450-452, for further details of this city in 1842 ; the Chinese Repository, Vols. I., p. 257, and XIII., p. 261, contain more details on the PagoJa

PORCELAIl^ TOWEll OF NANKING. 103

This beautiful structure was visited in 1852 by Dr. Charles Taylor, an American missionary, who has left a full account of his observations. It was to have been raised to an altitude of 329 feet and of thirteen stories, but only nine were built ; careful measurement gave 261 feet as its height, 8^ feet its thickness at top, and 12 feet at the base, wdiere it was 96 feet 10 inches in diameter. The facing was of bricks made of fine porcelain clay ; the prevailing color was green, owing to the predominance of the tiles on the nnnierous stories. The woodwork supporting these successive roofs was strong, curiously carved and richly painted. The many-colored tiles and bricks were highly glazed, giving the building a gay and beautiful appearance, that was greatly heightened when seen in the reflected sunlight.

When new it had 140 lamps, most of them hanging outside; and a native writer says ” that when lighted they illumine the 33 heavens, and detect the good and evil among men, as well as forever ward off human miseries.” The destruction of a building like this, from mere fanciful ideas, goes far to explain the absence of all old or great edifices in China.

Nanking has extensive manufactories of fiue satin and ci-upc, Nankeen cotton cloth, paper and ink of fine quality, and beautiful artificial flowers of pith paper. In distant parts of the empire, any article which is superior to the common run of workmanship, is said to be from Nanking, though the speaker means only that it was made in that region. It is renowned, too, for its scholars and literary character, and in this particular stands among the first places of learning in the country. It is the residence of the governor-general of three provinces, and consequently the centre of a large concourse of officials, educated men, and students seeking for promotion ; these, with its large libraries and bookstores, all indicating and assisting literary pursuits, combine to give it this distinguished position. In the monastery on Golden Island, near Chinkiang, a library was found by the English officers, but there was no haste in examining its contents, as they intended to have carried off the whole collection, had not peace prevented.

The city of Suchau now exceeds Nanking in size and riches. It is situated on islands lying in the Ta hu, and from this sheet of water many streams and canals connect the city with most parts of the department. The walls are about ten miles in circumference; outside of them are four suburbs, one of which is said to extend ten miles, besides which there is an immense floating population. The whole space includes many canals and pools connected with the Grand Canal and the lake, and preeented in 1859 a scene of activity, industry, and riches whicieonJd not be surpassed elsewhere in China. The population probably then exceeded a million, including the suburbs. It lies north-west of Shanghai, the way passing through a continual range of villages and cities; the environs are highly cultivated, producing cotton, silk, rice, wheat, fruits, and vegetables. It was captured in 1860 by the rebels, and M’lien retaken in 1865 was nearly reduced to a heap of ruins. It is, however, rapidly reviving, as the loss of life was comparatively small.

The Chinese regard this as one of their richest and most beautiful cities, and have a saying, ” that to be happy on earth, one must be born in Suchau, live in Canton, and die in Liauchau, for in the first are the handsomest people, in the second the most C(»8tly luxui-ies, and in the third the best coffins.”

It has a high reputation for its Imildings, the elegance of its tombs, the picturesrpie scenery of its waters and gardens, the politeness and intelligence of its inhabitants, and the beauty of its women. Its manufactures of silk, linen, cotton, and works in iron, ivory, wood, horn, glass, lackered-ware, paper, and other articles, are the chief sources of its wealth and prosperity; the kinds of silk goods produced here surpass in variety and richness those woven in any other place. Vessels can proceed up to the city by several channels from the Yangzi jiang, but junks of large burden anchor at Shanghai, or Songjiang ; the whole country is so intersected by natural and artificial watercourses, that the people have hardly any need for roads and carts, but get about in barrows and sedans. Small steamers find their way to every large village at high tide.*

THE CITIES OF SUCIIAU AND CIIIXKIANG. 105

Chinkiang, situated at the junction of the Grand Canal with the Yangzi jiang, was captured by the British in July, 1842, at a great loss of life to its defenders ; the Manchu general Hailing, finding the city taken, seated himself in his office, and set fire to the house, making it his funeral pyre. Its position renders it the key of the country, in respect to the transport of produce, taxes and provisions for Peking, inasmuch as when the river and canal ai-e both blockaded, the supplies for the north and south are to a great extent intercepted. In times of peace the scenes at the junction afford a good e\hil)itinu of the Industry and trade of the people. BaiTow describes, in 1794, ” tlio multitude of ships of war, of burden and of pleasure, some glidin<^ down the stream, <^)thers sailing against it; some moving by oars, and others lying at anchor; the banks on either side covered with towns and houses as far as the eye could reach; as presenting a prospect more varied and cheerful than any that had hitherto occurred. Kor was the canal, on the opposite side, less lively. For two whole days we were contimially passing among fleets of vessels of different construction and dimensions.” ‘

The country in the vicinity is well cultivated, moderately hilly, and presents a characteristic view of Chinese life and action. ” On the south-east, the hills broke into an undulating country clothed with verdure, and firs bordering upon small lakes. Beyond, stretched the vast river we had just ascended. In the other direction, the land in the foreground continued a low and swampy flat, leaving it difficult at a little distance to determine which of the serpentine channels was the main branch; there were imnnnerable sheets of water, separated by narrow mounds, so that the whole resembled a vast lake, intersected by causeways. Willows grew along their sides, and dwellings were erected on small patches somewhat higher than the common surface.” ” This whole country was the scene of dreadful fighting for many years. Between the Imperialists and Tai-pings the city was totally destroyed, so that in 1801 hardly a house was left. It is now roo-ainino- its natural trade and prosperity.

Near the month of the Grand Canal is Kin shan, or Golden Island,’ a beautiful spot, covered with temples and monastic establishments. A pagoda crowns the summit, and there are many pavilions and halls, of various sizes and degrees of elegance, on its sides and at the base, many of them showing their imperial ownership by the yellow or green tiling. Since the river has been open to traffic, and the devastations of the Tai-pings have ceased, the priests have retui-ned in small munbers to their abodes, but the whole settlement is a pool mockery of its early splendor. A similar one, rather larger, is found at Siung shan, or Silv^er Island, below Chinkiang ; it is, however, on a less extensive scale, though in a beautiful situation.

‘ Travels in China. ‘^ Capt. G. G. Locli, Ecents in CMna, p. 74.^Mentioned by Marco Polo. Yule’s edition, Vol. II., p. 1<37.

Priests are the only occupants; temples and palaces the principal buildings, surrounded by gardens and bowers. Massive granite terraces, decorated with huge stone monsters, are reached from the water by broad flights of steps; fine temples, placed to be seen, and yet shaded by trees, open pavilions, and secluded summer-houses, give it a delightful air of retreat and conifort, which a nearer inspection sadly disappoints.

The banks of the Yangtsz’ during the 250 miles of its course through this province, are uniformly low, and no towns of importance occur close to them, as they would be exposed to the floods. The vast body of water, with its freight of millions of tons of silt goes on its way in a quiet equable current into the Yellow Sea. The dense population of the prefectures on the south bank, contrasted with the sparseness of the region between the Canal and seashore on the north side, indicate the comparative barrenness of the latter, and the difficulty of cultivating marshy lands so nearly level with the sea.

SHANGHAI. 107

The largest seaport in Jiangsu is Shanghai (i.e., Approaching the Sea), now become one of the leading emporia in Asia. It lies on the north shore of the Wusong River, about fourteen miles from its mouth, in lat. 31° 10′ N., and long. 121° 30′ E., at the junction of the Huangpu with it, and by means of both streams communicates with SuZhou, SongJiang, and other large cities on the Grand Canal ; while by the Yangzi’ it receives produce from Yunnan and Sichuan. In these respects its position resembles that of New Orleans.

The town of Wusung is at the mouth of that river, here about a mile wide ; and two miles beyond lies the district town of Paushan. The wall of Shanghai is three miles in circuit, through which six gates open into extensive suburbs ; around the ramparts flows a ditch twenty feet wide. The city stands in a wide plain of extraordinary fertility, intersected by numerous streamlets, and aftoi-ding ample means of navigation and communication; its population is estimated to be at present over 500-000, but the data for this figure are rather imperfect. Since it was opened to foreign commerce in 1843, the growth of the town has been rapid in every element of prosperity, though subject to great vicissitudes by reason of the rebellion which devastated the adjoining country. Its capture by the insurgents in 1851, and their expulsion in February, 1853, with the destruction of the eastern and southern suburbs in 1800, have been its chief disasters since that date. The native trade has gradually passed from the unwieldy and unsafe junks which used to throng the Ilwang-pu east of the city, into steamers and foreign craft, and is now confined, so far as the vessels are concerned, to the inland and coast traffic in coarse, cheap articles.

Shanghai city itself is a dirty place, and poorly built. The houses are mostly made of bluish square brick, imperfectly burned ; and the walls are constructed in a cellular manner by placing bricks on their edges, and covering them with stucco. The streets are about eight feet wide, paved with stone slabs, and in the daytime crowded with people. Silk and embroidery, cotton, and cotton goods, porcelain, ready-made clothes, beautiful skins and furs, bamboo pipes of every size, bamboo ornaments, pictures, bronzes, specimens of old porcelain, and other curiosities, to which the Chinese attach great value, attract the

stranger’s notice. Articles of food form the most extensive

trade of all ; and it is sometimes a difficult matter to get

through the streets, owing to the iiwmense quantities of fish,

pork, fruit, and vegetaUes, which crowd the stands in front of

the shops. Dining-rooms, tea-houses, and bakers’ shops, are

met with at every step, from the poor man who carries around

his kitchen or bakehouse, altogether hardly worth a dollai-, to

the most extensive tavern or tea-house, crowded with customers.

‘ Fortune’s Wanderings in China, p. 120.

For a few cash, a Chinese can dine upon rice, fish, vegetables, and tea; nor does it matter much to him, whether his table is set in the streets or on the ground, in a house or on a deck, he makes himself merry with his chopsticks, and eats what is before him.’ The buildings composing the Cheng-huang miao, and the grounds attached to this establishment, present a good instance of Chinese style and taste in architecture. Large warehouses for storing goods, granaries, and temples, are common; but neither these, nor the public buildings, present any distinguishing features peculiar to this city alone.

The contrast between the narrow, noisome and reeking parts of the native city, and the clean, spacious, well-shaded and well paved streets and large houses of the foreign municipalities, is like that seen in many cities in India. The Chinese are ready enough to enjoy and support the higher style of living, but they are not yet prepared to adopt and maintain similar improvements among themselves. The difficulty of being sure of the co-operation of the rulers in municipal improvements deters intelligent natives from initiating even the commonest sanitary enterprise of their foreign neighbors.

The remaining cities and districts of Iviangsu present nothing worthy of special remark. The Grand Canal runs from north to south, and affords a safe and ample thoroughfare for multitudes of boats in its entire length. Tsing-kiang-pu and Ilwaingan, near the old Yellow River, receive the traffic from the north and Ilungtsih Lake, while Yangchau near the Yangtsz’ River, takes that going north. In this part of the channel, constant dyking has resulted in raising the banks ; the city of Ilwai-ngan, for example, lies below the canal which brings trade to its doors, and may one day be drowned by its benefactor. Salt is manufactured in the districts south of the Yellow River, where the people cultivate but rare patches of arable land.

The island of Tsungming, at the mouth of the Yangtsz’, is about sixty miles long, and sixteen wide, containing over nine hundred square miles, and is gradually enlarging by the constant deposits from the river; it is flat, but contains fresh water. It is highly cultivated and populous, though some places on the northern side are so impregnated with salt, and others so marsh}’, as to be useless for raising food. This island produces a variety of kaoliang or sorghum (Holcus), which is sweet enough to furnish syrup, and is groMu for that purpose in the United States.

POSITIOX AND TOWNS OF NGANIIWUI PllOVINCE, 109

The pruvince of T^ganuwui was so named by condjining the rtrst words in its two large cities, Xgaiikiiig and llw uicliaii, and forms the south-western half of Kiangnan ; it is both larger and more uneven than Kiangsu, ranges of hills stretching along the southern portions, and between the River llwai and the Yangzi. It lies in the central and southern parts of the Plain, north of Kiangsi, west of Kiangsu and Chehkiang, and between them and IJonan and Ilupeh. Its productions and manufactures, the surface, cultivation of the country, and character of the people, are very similar to those of Kiangsu, but the cities are less celebrated. The terrible destruction of life in this province during the Tai-ping rule has only been partially remedied by immigration from other provinces ; it will require years of peace and industry to restore the prosperous days of Taokwang’s reign.

The surface of the country is naturally divided into that portion which lies in the hilly regions around Ilwaichau and Ningkwoh connected with the Tsientang River, the central plain of the Yangtsz’ with its short affluents, and the northern portion which the River Ilwai drains. The southern districts are superior for climate, fertility, and value of their products to most parts of the Empire; and the numerous rivulets which irrigate and open their beautiful valleys to traffic with other districts, render them attractive to settlers. No expense has been spared in erecting and preserving the embankments along the streams, whose waters are thereby placed at the service of the farmers.

The Great River passes through the south from south-west to north-east ; several small tributaries flow into it on both banks, one of which connects with Chao Hu, or Nest Lake, in Lu Zhou Fu, the principal sheet of water in the province. The largest section is drained by the River Huai and its branches, which flow into Hongze Lake ; most of these are navigable quite across to Ilonan. The productions comprise every kind of grain, vegetables, and fruit known in the Plain ; most of the green tea districts lie in the south-eastern parts, particularly in the Sunglo range of hills in ITwuichau prefecture. Silk, cotton, and hemp are also extensively raised ; but excepting iron, few metals are brought to market.

The provincial capital, Xgaiikiiig or Anking, lies close to the northern shore of the Kiang. Davis describes the streets as very narrow, and the shops as unattractive ; the courts and gateways of many good dwelling-houses presented themselves as he passed along the streets. ” The palace of the governor we first took for a temple, but were soon undeceived by the inscriptions on the huge lanterns at the gateway. These official residences seldom display any magnificence. The pride of a Chinese officer of rank consists in his power and station, and as the display of mere wealth attracts little respect, it is neglected more than in any country of the world. The best shops that

we saw were for the sale of horn lanterns and porcelaiu. They

possess the art of softening horn by the application of a very

high degree of moist heat, and extending it into thin laminse of

any shape. These lamps are about as transparent as groundglass,

and, M’hen ornamented with silken hangings, have an elegant

appearance.” During the fifty years since his visit, this

large city has been the sport of prosperous and adverse fortunes,

and is now slowly recovering from its demolition during the

Tai-ping rebellion. It is situated on rising ground near the base

of a range of hills far in the north, the watershed of two basins.

The banks of the river, between Kanking and Xganking, a

distance of 300 miles, are well cultivated, and contain towns

and villages at short intervals. The climate, the scenery, the

bustle on the river near the towns, and the general aspect of

peaceful thrift along this reach, makes it on ordinary occasions

one of the bright scenes in China. AYuhu hien, about sixty

miles above Xanking, lies near tlie mouth of the llwangchi, a

stream connecting it with the back country, and making it the

mart for much of that trade. It was next in importance to

Chinkiang, but its sufferings between the rebels and imperialists

nearly destroyed it. The revival in population and trade has

been encouraging, and its former importance is sure to revive.

Ilwuichau (or in Cantonese, Fychow) is celebrated, among

other things, for its excellent ink and lackered-ware. Fung’

yang (i.e., the Rising Phoenix), a town lying north-west of Thanking, on the River Huai, was intended, by Hongwu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, to have been the capital of the Empire instead of NanJing, and was thus named in anticipation of its future splendor.

KIANGSf PROVINCE. Ill

The province of IviAN<isi (/.<?., AVest of the River) lies south of Xganhwui and Ilupeh, between Chehkiaiig and Fuhkien on the east, and Ilunan on the west, reaching from the Yaugtsz’ to the Mei ling on the south. Its form is oblong, and its entire area is nuide up of the beautiful basin of the Kan kiang, including all the affluents and their minor valleys. The hilly portions form part of the remarkable series of mountainous ridges, which cover all south-eastern and southern China, an area of about 300,000 square miles, extending from Ningpo south-westerly to Annam. It is made up of ranges of short and moderate hills, cut up by a complicated net of water-courses, many of which present a succession of narrow defiles and gentle valleys with bottom lands from five to twelve miles wide. That part of this region in Kiangsi has an irregular watershed on the east, separating it from the Min basin, and a more definite divide on the west from Ilunan and its higher mountains. The province entire is a little larger than all New England, or twice the size of Portugal, but, in population, vastly exceeds those countries.

The surface of the land is rugged, and the character of the inhabitants partakes in some respects of the roughness of their native hills. It is well watered and drained by the River Kan and its tributaries, most of which rise within the province; the main trunk empties into Poyang Lake by numerous mouths, whose silt has gradually made the country around it swampy. For many miles on its eastern and southern banks extends an almost uninhabitable marsh, presenting a dreary appearance. The soil, generally, is productive, and large quantities of rice, wheat, silk, cotton, indigo, tea, and sugar, are grown and exported. It shares, in some degree, the manufactures of the neighboring provinces, especially in Xankeen cloth, vast quantities of which are woven here, but excels them all in the quality and amount of its porcelain. The mountains produce camphor, varnish, oak, banian, fir, pine, and other trees ; those on the west are well wooded, but much of the timber has been carried away during the late rebellion, and left the hill-sides bare and profitless.

Kancliang, the provincial capital, lies near the southern shore

of the Poyang Lake ; the city walls are six miles in circuit, and

accessible by water from all sides. The character of its population

is not favorable among their countrymen, and owing to the

difficulty of reaching it from the Yangtsz’, it escaped the ruin

and rapine which befel Kiukiang. Small steamers can come

up to its jetties, but as the tea and porcelain are shipped on the

south-east side of the lake, Nanchang is not likely to become

a large mart ; few of the cities above it can ever be reached l)y

steamers. Barrow estimated that there were, independent of

innumerable small craft, 100,000 tons of shipping lying before

the place. The banks of the Kan kiang, near the lake, are flat,

and not highly cultivated, but the scenery becomes more varied

and agreeable the further one ascends the stream ; towns and

villages constantly come in sight, and the cultivation, though

not uiiiversal, is more extended. Among other sights on this

river are the bamboo water-wheels, which are so built on the

steep banksides, that the buckets lift their freight 20 or 25

feet, and pour it out in a ceaseless stream over the fields. The

flumes thrown out into the stieani to turn a stronger current on

the wheel, often seriously interfere with navigation. Many

pagodas are seen on eithei* bank of this water-course, some of

them undoubtedly extremely old. As the voyager ascends the river, several large cities are passed, as Linkiang, Kih-ngan, Ivauchau, and Xan-ngan (all capitals of departments), besides numerous towns and villages; so that if the extent of this river and the area of the valley it drains be considered, it will probably bear comparison with that of any valley in the world for populousness, amount and variety of productions, and diligence of cultivation.

Beyond Kihngan are the Shihpah tan, or ‘ Eighteen llapids,’ which are torrents formed by ledges of rocks running across the river, but not of such height or roughness as to seriously obstruct the navigation except at low water. The shores in their vicinage are exceedingly beautiful. The transparency of the stream, the bold I’ocks fringed with wood, and the varied forms of the mountains, call to mind those delightful streams that are discharged from the lakes and iioilh counties of England. The

TOWNS AND PRODUCTIONS OF KIAN(iSI. 113

hilly banks are in many places covered with the Camellia oleifera, whose white blossoms give them the appearance of snow, when the plant is in flower. Kanchan is the town where large boats are obliged to stop; but Nan-ngan is at the head of navigation, about three hundred miles from the lake, where all goods for the south are debarked to be carried across the Mei ling, or ‘ Plnm Pass.’

Within the department of Janchan in Fanliang hien, east of Poyang Lake, are the celebrated porcelain manufactories of Ivingteh chin, named after an Emperor of the Sung dynasty, in whose reign, a.d. 1004, they were established. This mart still supplies all the fine porcelain used in the country, but was almost wholly destroyed during the rebellion, the kilns broken up, and the workmen dispersed to join the rebels or die from want. The million of workmen said to have been employed there thirty years ago are now only gradually resuming their operations, and slowly regaining their prosperity. The approach to the spot is announced by the smoke, and at night it appears like a town on fire, or a vast furnace emitting fiames from numerous vents, there. being, it is said, five hundred kilns constantly burning. Ivingteh chin stands on the river Chang in a plain flanked by high mountains, about forty miles north-east from Jauehau, through which its ware is distributed over the empire.

Genius in China, as elsewhere, renders a place illustrious, and few spots are more celebrated than the vale of the white Deer in the Lii hills, near Kankang, on the west side of Lake Poyang, where Chu Hi, the great conniientator of Confucius, lived and taught, in the twelfth century. It is a secluded valley about seven miles from the city, situated in a nook by the side of a rivulet. The unpretending buildings are comprised in a number of different courts, evidently intended for use rather than show. In one of the halls, the White Deer is represented, and near by a tree is pointed out, said to have been planted by the philosopher’s own hand. This spot is a place of pilgrimage to Chinese literati at the present day, for his writings are prized by them next to their classics. The beauty and sublimity of this region arc lauded by Davis, and its praisea are frequent themes for poetical celebration among native scholars.”

The maritime province of Ciiehkiang, the smallest of the eighteen, lies eastward of Kiangsi and ^N^ganhwui, and between Kiangsu and Fuhkein north and south, and derives its name from the river Cheh or ‘ Crooked,’ which runs across its southern part. Its area is 39,000 square miles, or nearly the same as Ohio; it lies south-east of the plain at the end of the Kan slian, and for fertility, numerous water-courses, rich and populous cities, variety of productions, and excellence of manufactures, is not at all inferior to the larger provinces. Baron Richthofen’s letter to the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, July 25, 1871, contains a good account of its topography. The whole province produces cotton, silk, tea, rice, ground nuts, wheat, ‘indigo, vegetable tallow {stilUngia)^ and pulse, in abundance. It possesses within its limits every requisite for the food and clothing of its inhabitants, while the excellence of its manufactures insures it in exchange a supply of the luxuries of other regions.

The rivers in Chehkiang rise in the province ; and, as might be inferred from the position of the hills, their course is generally short and the currents rapid. Fourteen principal streams are enumerated, of which the Tsientangis the most important.

The main branch of this river rises in the southern districts in two head-waters, which join at Kiichau fu and run thence into Hangchau Bay. The bore which comes up into this river fifteen miles, as far as Hangchau, is the only one along the coast. As its wall of water approaches the city, the junks and boats prepare by turning their bows to meet it, and usually rise over its crest, G or 10 feet at times, without mishap.

The basin of the Tsientang River measures nearly half of the province; by means of rafts and boats the people transport themselves and their produce for about 300 miles to its headwaters.

‘ Davis’s Sketches^ Vol. II., p. 55.

NATURAL FEATURES OF CHEIIKIANG. 115

The valley of Lanki is the largest of the bottom lands, 140 miles long and .5 to 15 wide, and passes north through a gorge 70 miles in length into the lower valley, where it receives the Sin-ngan River from the west in Xganhwui, and thus communicates with Tlwuichau at times of higli water. It is just fitted for the rafting navigation of the region, and by means of its tortuous channels each one of the 29 districts in its entire basin can be readied by water.

The forest and fruit trees of Chehkiang comprise almost

every vahiable species known in the eastern provinces. The

larch, elcococcus, camphor, tallow, fir, mulberry, varnish, and

others, are common, and prove sources of wealth in their timber

and products. The climate is most salubrious ; the grains,

vegetables, animals, and fishes, furnish food ; while its beautiful

manufactures of silk are unrivalled in the world, and have found

their way to all lands. Hemp, lackered- and bamboo-wares,

tea, crockery, paper, ink, and other articles, are also exported.

The inhabitants emulate those in the neighboring regions for

wealth, learning, and refinements, with the exception of the

hilly districts in the south bordering on Kiangsi and Fuhkien.

The dwellers of these upland valleys are shut out by position

and inclination, so that they form a singularly clannish race.

Their dialects are peculiar and very limited in range, and each

group of villagers suspects and shuns the others. They are sometimes rather turbulent, and in some parts the cultivation of the mountain lands is interdicted, and a line of military posts extends around them in the three provinces, in order to prevent the people from settling in their limits; though the interdiction does not forbid cutting the timber growing there.’

HangZhou, the capital of the province, lies in the northern part, less than a mile from the Qiantang. The velocity of this stream indicates a rapid descent of the country towards the ocean, but it discharges very little silt ; the tide rises six or seven feet opposite the city, and nearly thirty at the mouth.

>See Chinese Repository, Vol. FV., p. 488; Journal of N. C. Br. R. A. Society,Vol. VI., pp. 123-128; and Chinese Recorder, Vol. I., 1869, pp. 241-248. These people are relies of tribes of Miaotsz’.

Only a moiety of the inhabitants reside within the walls of the city, the suburbs and the waters around them supporting a large population. A portion of the space in the north-western part is walled off for the accommodation of the Manchu garri-si)]i, which consists of 7,000 troops. The governor-general of Chehkiang and Fulikien has an official house here, as well, also, as the governor of the province, but since the increased importance of Fuhchan. he seldom resides in this city; these, with their courts and troops, in addition to the great trade passing through, render it one of the richest and most important cities in the empire. The position is the most picturesque of any of the numerous localities selected by the Chinese for their capital. It lies in full view of the ocean, and from the hill-top in the center a wide view of the plains south and east is obtained.

‘ Yule’s Marco Poh, Vol. IT., p. 145.

IIANGCIIAU AND ITS ENVIKOISrS. 117

The charming lake, Si Ilu, and the numerous houses on its shores, with the varied scenery of the hills, copses, glades, and river banks, all highly cultivated, within a radius of ten miles, fidly bear out the praises of the Chinese as to i’ts singular beauty. Marco Polo lavishes all his admiration upon its size, riches, manufactures, and government, from which it is to be inferred that it suffered little in the Mongolian conquest. He visited the place when governor of Yangchau in 1286, and enthusiastically describes it as ” beyond dispute the finest and the noblest in the world.” ‘ The Chinese have a proverb—-t^Ar^;?^yu. tlen tang : Hia ya Sa Hang—the purport of which is that Ilangchau and Suchau are fully equal to paradise ; but the comparison of the Venetian traveler gives one a poorer idea of the European cities of his day, than it does of the magnificence of the Chinese, to those who have seen them. The streets are well-paved, ornamented with numerous honorary tablets erected to the memoiy of distinguished individuals, and agreeably interrupting the passage through them. The long main street extending along the Grand Canal into and through the city, thence out by the Tsientang, was, before its ruthless demolition by the Tai-pings in 1S63, probably one of the finest streets in t’^? whole Empire. The shops and warehouses, in point of size and stock of goods contained in them, might vie with the best in London. In population, luxury, wealth, and influence this city rivals Suchau, and for excellence of manufactures probably exceeds the latter place. Were Ilangchau easily reached bji sea, and had it ample harbors, it would engross the trade of the eastern coast; but furious tides (running sometimes 11^ knots an hour) ; the bore jeoparding passage-boats and other small crafts ; sand banks and quick sands ;—these present insuperable difficulties to the commerce by the ocean.

This city was the metropolis of the country during the nine latter princes of the Sung dynasty (1129 to 1280), when the northern parts were under dominion of the tribe of Kin Tartars. One cause of celebrity is found in the beauty of its environs, especially those near the Si llu, or West Lake, an irregular sheet of water about 12 miles in circuit. Barrow observes that ” the natural and artificial beauties of this lake far exceeded anything we had hitherto had an opportunity of seeing in China. The mountains surrounding it were lofty, and broken into a variety of forms that were highly picturesque ; and the valleys were richly clothed with trees of different kinds, among which three species were remarkably striking, not only by their intrinsic beauty, but also by the contrast they formed with themselves and the rest of the trees of the forest. These were the camphor and tallow trees, and the arl)or vitse. The bright, shining green foliage of the first, mhigled with the purple leaves of the second, and over-topped by the stately tree of life, of the deepest green, produced a pleasing effect to the eye ; and the landscape was rendered still more interesting to the mind by the very singular and diversified appearance of several thousand repositories of the dead upon the sloping sides of the inferior hills. Here, as well as elsewhere, the sombre and upright cypress was destined to be the melancholy companion of the tombs.

” Higher still, among the woods, avenues had been opened to admit of rows of small blue houses, exposed on white colonnades, which, on examination, were also found to be mansions of the dead. Xaked coffins, of extraordinary thickness, were everywhere Iving on the surface of the OTOund. The maro-ins of the lake w^ere studded with light aerial buildings, among W’hich one of more solidity and greater extent than the rest was said to belong to the emperor. The grounds were inclosed with brick walls, and mostly planted with vegetables and fruit trees; but in some there appeared to be collections of such shrubs and tiowers as are most esteemed in the country.” ‘

Staunton speaks of the lake as a beautiful sheet of water, perfectly pellucid, full of fish, in most places shallow, and ornamented with a great number of light and fanciful stone bridges, thrown across the arms of the lake as it runs up into the hills.

A stone tower on the summit of a projecting headland attracted attention, from its presenting a different architecture from that usually seen in Chinese buildings. This tower, called the Lui Fung t<(h, lit. ‘Tower of the Thunder Peak’ (not Thundering Wind, as Staunton renders it), from the hill being at first owned by Mr. Lui, was built about a.d. 050, and is to-day a solid structure, though much ruined. It has now four stories, and is about 120 feet high ; something like a regular order is still discernible in the moldering cornices. The legend of the White Snake is associated with this structure, and people constantly cany away pieces of its bricks as charms.

An interesting corroboration of this account is given by Polo, who says, ” Inside the city there is a lake which has a compass of some 30 miles ; and all around it are erected beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest and most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles of the city. There are also on its shores many abbeys and churches of the idolaters. In the middle of the lake are two islands, on each of which stands a rich, beautiful and spacious edifice, furnished in such a style as to seem fit for the palace of an emperor. And when any one of the citizens desired to hold a marriage feast, or to give any other entertainment, it used to be done at one of these palaces.” ‘^

• Travels ih China, p. 522. ‘^ Yule’s Murco Poh, Vol. II., p. 146.

DESCRIPTION OF HANGZHOU. 119

The splendor and size of the numerous Buddhist temples in and around HangZhou attracted travelers to the city more even than (lid its position; these shrines have, however, all been destroyed, and their thousands of priests driven away; the Taipings left no Iniilding untouched. The Yoh Miao stands near the north-west corner of the Si IIu, and contains the tombs of the patriot general ^’oh Pi of the Sung dynasty (a.d. 1125), and his son, who were unjustly executed as traitors. Two conical

mounds mark their resting places, and separated bj a wall, but

inside the inclosnre are four iron statues cast in a kneeling posture

and loaded with chains,—on his right Qin Hui and his wife, on the left a judge and general, who subserved Qin Hui’s hatred of Yue Fei by their flagitious conduct. All four are here doing homage and penance to this just man whom they killed, and by the obloquy they receive serve as a warning to other traitors. In a temple, called Tmg-tHz’ s.z\ not far from the city, ths party of the Dutch embassy were well lodged, and attended by three hundred priests. The establishment was in good repair, and besides two guardian monsters more than thirty feet high, near the entrance, contained five hundred images of the Buddhist Arhans, with miniature pagodas of bronze, of beautiful workmanship.

Ilangchau is better known abroad for manufactures of silk than for any other fabrics, but its position at the termination of the Canal may perhaps give its name to ujany articles which are not actually made there, for lluchau is now a greater depot for raw and woven silks. In the northern suburbs lies an irregular basin, forming the southern extremity of the Canal ; but between the river and the basin there is no communication, so that all goods brought hither nnist be landed. The city contains, among other public buildings, a mosque, bearing an iugcription in Arabic, stating that it is a ” temple for Mussnlmen, when travelling, who wish to consult the Koran,” ‘ It is higher than the adjacent buildings, and adorned with a cupola, pierced with holes at short intervals. It was spared in 1803, as not being an idolatrous temple. There are also several others in the city, it being a stronghold of Islamism in China. “Water communication exists between Ilangchau and Yiiyau, south-east through Shauhing, and thence to Ningbo, by means of which goods find their way to and from the capital. A good road also runs between the two former cities; indeed, elsewhere in the province the thoroughfares are very creditable; they are laid with broad slabs of granite and limestone, and lead over plains and hills in numberless directions.

‘ De Guigiies, Voyages a Peking, Vol. II., pp. 65-77.

Ningbo fu (‘Peaceful AVave city*) is the next important city in Zhejiang, in consequence of its foreign relations. It is adniiiably situated for trade and intluence, at the junction of three streams, in hit. 20° 55′ ^”., and long. 121° 22’ E. ; the united river flows on to the ocean, eleven and a half miles distant, under the name of the Tatsieh. Opposite the city itself, there are but two streams, but the southern branch again subdivides a few miles south-west of Ningbo. Its population has been variously estimated from one-fourth to one-third of a million, and even more, including the subin-ban and floating inhabitants.

This place was called Klng-yuen by the Sung, and received its present name from the Mongols. It was captured in 1862 by the insurgents, who were deterred from destroying it by the presence of foreign men-of-war ; the prosperity of the mart has since increased. When foreigners first resorted to China for trade, Ningbo soon became a centre of silk and other kinds of commodities; the Portuguese settled there, calling it Z/rt>/(^>o, “which is the same name. It is, moreover, an ancient city, and its Annals afford full information upon every point interesting to a Chinese antiquarian, though a foreigner soon tires of the numy insignificant details mixed up with a few valuable statements.’

‘ Compare R. M. Martin’s CJiiiui (Vol. II., ]>. 304), who gives considerable miscellaneous information about the open ports, jtrevious to 184(5; also Dennys’ Treaty Porta of (Jhiiut, 18(57, pp. ;52(5-:54!) ; Richthol’en’s Letlerx, No. T), 1871 ; Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 181 ; Mistsioaarij Recorder, 18(59, pp. 15(5,177.NINGPO. 121

” The plain in which Xingpo lies is a magnificent amphitheatre, stretching away from twelve to eighteen miles on one side to the base of the distant hills, and on the other to the verge of the ocean. As the eye travels along, it catches many a pleasing object. Turn landward, it will see canals and water-courses, fields and snug farm-houses, smiling cottages, family residences, hamlets and villages, family tombs, monasteries and temples. Turn in the opposite direction, and you perceive a plain country descending toward the ocean; but the river alive with all kinds of boats, and the banks studded with ice-houses, most of all attract the attention. From without the city, and while still

Upon the ramparts, look within its walls, you. will be no less gratified. Here there is nothing European, little to remind you ut’ what you have seen in the west. The single-storied and the double-storied houses, the heavy prison-like family mansions, the family vaults and graveyards, the glittering roofs of the temples, the dilapidated official residences, the deserted literary and examination halls, and the prominent sombre Tower of Ningpo, are entirely Chinese. The attention is also arrested for a moment or two by ditches, canals, and reservoirs of water, with their wooden bridges and stone arches.” ‘ Two serious drawbacks to a residence here are the stifling heat of summer and the bad equality of the water.

The circumference of the walls is nearly five miles ; they are

about twenty-five feet high, fifteen feet wide at the top, and

twenty-two at the base, built solidly, though somewhat dilapidated,

and overgrown with grass. A deep moat partly surrounds

them ; conimencing at the North gate, it runs on the west, south,

and south-east side as far as Bridge gate, a distance of nearly

thi’ee miles, and is in some places forty yards wide. Its constant

use as a thoroughfare for boats insures its repair and proper

depth ; the other faces of the city are defended by the river.

There are six gates, and two sally-ports near the south and west

approaches intended for the passage of the boats that ply on the

city canals.

On the east is Bridge gate, within which, and near the walls,

the English factory was once situated. This opening leads out

to the floating bridge ; the latter structure is two hundred yards

long and five broad, made of planks firmly lashed, and laid

upon sixteen lighters closely linked and chained together, but

which can be opened. A busy market is held on the bridge,

and the visitor following the lively crowd finds his way to an

extensive suburb on the opposite side. Ferry boats ply across

both streams in vast numbers, adding greatly to the vivacity of

the scene. The custom-house is situated beyond the bridge,

and this eastern suburb contains several buildings of a religious

‘ Milne, in Chinese Bepositorp, “Vol. XIII. , p. 22, and in liis Life in China, part second. London, 1857.

:ind public cliaracter, lumber-yards, dock-yards, and rows of icelionses, inviting the notice of the traveler. The environs beyond the north gate are not so thickly settled as those across the rivers ; the well cultivated fields, divided and irrigated by numerous water-courses, with scattered hamlets, beguile the visitor in his rambles, and lead him onward.

There are numerous temples and monasteries, and a large variety of assembly-halls, governmental offices, and educational establishments, but none of these edifices are remarkable in an architectural point of view. The assembly-halls or club-houses are numerous, and in their internal arrangements form a cm-ious feature of native society. It is the practice among residents or merchants from other provinces, to subscribe and erect on the spot where they are engaged in business, a temple, dedicated to the patron deity of their native province, in which a few priests are supported, and plays acted in its honor. Sometimes the building is put in charge of a layman, called a ” master of ceremonies,” and the cun-ent expenses defrayed by subscription.

The club-houses are places of resort for travellers from the several provinces or districts, and answer, moreover, to European coffee-houses, in being points where news from abroad is heard and exchanged.

The streets are well paved, and interrupted here and there

by honorary portals of considei*able size and solidity, which also

give variety to an otherwise dull succession of shops and signboards,

or dead walls. Two small lagoons afford space for

some aquatic amusements to the citizens. One called Sun Lake

is only a thousand yards in circuit ; the other, called Moon

Lake, is near the AVest gate, and has three times its perimeter.

]3oth are supplied by sluices passing through the city gates,

while many canals are filled from them, which aid in irrigating

the suburbs. Some of the pleasantest residences of the city are

built on their banks.

NINGPO, CHI.HIIAI, AND THE ARCHIPELAGO. 12B

Among interesting edifices is the Tien-fung tah {i.e., Heavenconferred pagoda), a hexagonal seven-storied tower upward of 100 feet high, which, according to the Aanah of Ningbo, was first erected 1100 years ago, though during that period it has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. Upon the authority of this work, the tower was constructed before the city itself, and its })reservation is considered as connected with the good hick of the place. The visitor mounts to the summit by a flight of narrow stone steps, ascending spirally within the walls.

The most elegant and solid building of the city lies on the water’s edge outside the walls, between the East and Bridge gates ; it is a temple dedicated to the marine goddess Ma Tsupu, and was founded by Fuhkien men in the 12th century, but the present structure was erected in IGSO, and largely endowed.

Its ornaments are elaborate and rich, and its appearance on festival days, gay and animated in an unusual degree. The lanterns and scrolls hanging from the ceiling attract attention by the curious devices and beautiful characters written and drawn on them in bright colors, while the walls are concealed by innumerable drawings.

Chinhai, at the mouth of the river, is so situated by nature and fortified by art, that it commands the passage. Its environs were the scene of a severe engagement between the Chinese and English in October, 1841, on which occasion great slaughter was committed npon the imperial troops. The town lies at the foot of a hill on a tongue of laud on the northern bank of the river, and is partly sheltei-ed from the sea on the north by a dyke about three miles long, composed of large blocks of hewn granite, and proving an admirable defence in severe weather. The walls are twenty feet high and three miles in circumference, but the suburbs extend along the water, attracted by, and for the convenience of, the shipping. Merchant ships report here when proceeding up the river, along whose banks the scenery is diversified, wdiile the water, as usual in China, presents a lively scene. Numerous ice-houses are seen constructed of thick stone walls twelve feet high, each having a door on one side and an incline on the other for the removal and introduction of the ice, and protected by straw and a heavily thatched roof.

The Chusan archipelago forms a single district of which Tinghai is the capital ; it is divided into thirty-four chwang or townships, whose officers are responsible to the district magistrate.

The southern limit of the group is Quesan or the Iviu shan islands, in lat. 29° 21′ X., and long. 121° 10′ E., consist ing of eleven islets, the nortlierninost of which is False Saddle Island ; their total number is over a hundred. Tinghai city lies on the southern side of Chau shan or Boat Island, which gives its name on foreign maps to the whole group. It is twenty miles long, from six to ten wide, and fifty one and a half in circumference. The archipelago seems to be the highest portion of a vast submarine plain, geologically comiected with the Kan shan range on the Continent and the mountains in Kiusiu and Nippon; it is a pi\’ot for the changes in weather and temperature observed north and south of this point along the coast.

The general aspect of these islands and the mainland, is the same beautiful alternation of hills and narrow valleys, everywhere fertile and easily irrigated, with peaks, cascades, and woodlands interspersed. In Chusan itself the fertile and well watered valleys usnally reach to the sea, and are furnished with dykes along the beach, which convert them into plains of greater or less extent, through which run canals, used both for irrigation and navigation. Rice and barley, beans, yams, sweet potatoes, etc., are grown ; every spot of arable soil being cultivated, and terraces constructed on most of the slopes. The view from the tops of the ridges, looking athwart them, or adown their valleys, or to seaward, is highly picturesque. The prevailing rocks belong to the ancient volcanic class, comprising many varieties, but principally clay-stone, trachj^te, and compact and porphyritic felspar. The brief occupation of this island by the British forces in 1841 led to no permanent improvement in the condition of the people, and it has neither trade nor minerals sufficient to attract capital thither. Owing in part, perhaps, to this poverty, Tinghai escaped the ravages of the Tai-pings, and has now recovered from the damage sustained by its first capture.

PUTO ISLAND AND ITS TEMPLES. 125

Puto and a few smaller islands are independent of civil jurisdiction, being ruled by the abbot of the head monastery. This establishment, and that on Golden Island in the Yangtsz’ are among the ‘ richest and best patronized of all the bhiddhist monasteries in China ; both of them have been largely favored by emperors at diffirent periods.

Puto is a narrow islet, 3^ miles long, and lies 1^ miles from the eastern point of Cliusan. Its surface is covered with sixty monasteries, pavilions, temples, and other religious buildings, besides grottos and sundry monuments of superstition, in which at least 2,000 idle priests chant the praises of their gods. One visitor describes his landing and ascending ” a broad and well beaten pathway which led to the top of one of the hills, at every: 5rag and turn of which we encountered a temple or a grotto, an inscription or an image, with here and there a garden tastefully laid out, and walks lined with aromatic shrubs, which diffused a grateful fragrance through the air. The prospect from these heights was extremely delightful; numerous islands, far and near, bestudded the main, rocks and precipices above and below, here and there a mountain monastery rearing its head, and in the valley the great temple, with its yellow tiles indicative of imperial distinction, basked like a basilisk in the noonday-sun. All the aid that could be collected from nature and from Chinese art, was here concentrated to render the scene enchanting. But to the eye of the Christian philanthropist it presented a melancholy picture of moral and spiritual death. The only tliuig we heard out of the mouths of the

priests was Ometo Full ; to every observation that was made,

re-echoed Ometo Full ; and the reply to every inquiry was

Ometo Full. Each pi-iest was furnished with a rosary which

lie was constantly counting, and as he counted repeated the

same senseless, monotonous exclamation. These characters met

the eye at every turn of the road, at every corner of the temples,

and on every scrap of paper; on the bells, on the gateways,

and on the walls, the same words presented themselves; indeed the whole island seemed to be under the spell of this talismanic phrase, and devoted to recording and re-echoing Ometo Full.” ‘ The pristine glory of these temples has become sadly dimmed, many of the buildings present marks of decay, and some of the priesthood are obliged to resort to honest labor in order to gain a living. Deaths in their number are supplied by purchasing youths, who are taught nothing but re-‘ Mcdhurst’s China, its State and Prospects, p. 393.

Jigious literature, a tit training to stunt their minds to pursue the dull niunnuery of singing Onieto Full. The two inipeiial temples present good specimens of Chinese architecture ; but they as well as all other things to be seen at Puto are dilapidated and effete.

Temples were erected on this island as early as a.d. 550, and since it became a resort for priests it seems to have enjoyed the patronage of the government. The goddess of Mercy is said to have visited this spot, and her image is the principal object of worship. No females are allowed to live on the island, nor any persons other than the priests, unless in their employ. The revenues are derived from rent of the lands belong-ino; to the temples, from the collection of those priests who go on begging excursions over the Empire, and from the alms of pilgrims who resort to this agreeable locality. It appears like one of the most beautiful spots on the earth when the ti’aveller lands, just such a place as his imagination had pictured as exclusively belonging to the sunny East, and so far as nature and art can combine, it is really so : but liere the illusion ends. Idleness and ignorance celibacy and idolatr}-, vice, dirt, and dilapidation, in the inmate! or in their habitations, form a poor back-ground for the well dressed connnunity, and gay, variegated prospect seen when stepping ashore.

A town of considerable importance in this province is Chapu,

about fifty miles north-west from Chinhai, across Ilangchau

Pay, and connected with that city through a luxuriant plain by

a well-paved causeway about thirty miles long. Chapu was the

port of Ilangchau, and when it possessed the entii-e trade with

Japan, boasted of being the largest mai’t on the seacoast of Chehkiang.

The town lies at the bottom of a bay on the westei’n

face of some hills fc)rming its eastern point ; and at low tide

the mud extends a long way from the lowland. The suburbs

are situated near a small headland ; the walled town stands

about half a mile ])ehin(l. When attacked by the British in

!^^ay, ]S42, the walls were found in ])()or condition, but the

Manchu garrison stationed here upheld their ancient reputation

for bravery. This body of troops occupies a separate division

of the city, and their cantonment is j)lanned on the model of a

CHAPU AND CAN FIT. 127

camp. The outer defences are numerous, but most of tlie old

fortifications are considerably decayed. The country in tlu;

vicinity is highly cultivated, and possesses an unusual number

of finely constructed, substantial houses.

South-west from Chapu lies the old town of Canfu (called

Kanpu by the Chinese), which was once the port of Ilangchau,

but now deserted, since the stream on which it is situated has

become choked with sand. This place is mentioned in the voyages

of two Arabian travellers in the ninth century, as the chief

port of China, where all shipping centred. The narrow entrance

between Buffalo Island and Ivitto Point is probably the

Gates of China mentioned by them ; and Marco Polo, in 1290,

says, ” The Ocean Sea comes within 25 miles of the city at a

place called Ganfu, where there is a town and an excellent

haven, with a vast amount of shipping which is engaged in the

traffic to and from India and other foreign parts. . . . And a

great river flows from the city of Kinsay to that sea-haven, l)y

which vessels can come up to the city itself.” ‘ Marsden erroneously

supposes Kanpu to be Xingpo, If this was in fact the

only port allowed to be opened for foreign trade, it shows that,

even in the Tang dynasty, the same system of exclusion was

maintained that has so recently been broken up ; though at that

date the Emperors in Shansi had very little authority along the

southern coasts. The changes in the Bay of Ilangchau have

been more potent causes for the loss of trade, and Yule reasonably

concludes that the upper part of it is believed to cover now

the old site in Polo’s time.

‘ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 149. Cathay and the Way Thither, p.cxciii. Reinaud, Relations den Voyages faits par les Arabea dans VTnde et d la Chine, etc. (Paris, 1845), Tome I., p. 19.

The province of Fujian (i.e. Happily Established) is bounded on the north by Zhejiang, north-west and west by Iviangsf, south-west by Ivwangtung, and east by the channel of Formosa. Its western borders are determined, for the most part, by the watershed of the basins of the rivers Min and Kan; a rugged and fertile region of the Xan shan. The line of seacoast is bold, and bordered with a great number of islands, whose lofty granitic or trappean peaks extend in precipitous,

Larreu headlands from Xaiiioli as far as tlie Cliusan archipelago.

Ill the general features of its surface, the islands on its

coasts, and its position with reference to the ocean, it resembles

the region lying east of Xew Hampshire in the United States ;

including Formosa, it about equals Missouri in size.

The Itiver Min is formed by the union of three large streams

at Yenping fu ; it drains all the country lying east of the AVu-i

(Bohea) hills, or about three-fourths of the province. It is

more than three hundred miles long, and owing to its regular

depth, is one of the most useful streams in China ; twenty-seven

walled towns stand on its banks. The tide rises eighteen or

twenty feet at the entrance, and this, with the many islands and

reefs, renders the approach difficult. At Min-ngan hien, about

fourteen miles from the mouth, the stream is contracted to less

than half a mile for about three miles, the water being from

twelve to twenty-five fathoms deep ; the hills on each side rise

from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet. One traveller speaks

of the walls of its forts and batteries, in this part, as affording

a sort of stairs for the more convenient ascent of the hills on

which they are situated. From the top, ” the view embraces a

beautiful scene ; nothing can be more picturesque than the little

plats of wheat and barley intermixing their yellow crops on the

acclivities with bristling pines and arid rocks, and crowned with

garden spots, or surrounded with rice fields and orchards of

oranges. The valley of the Min, viewed from the summit of

the fortress, is truly a beautiful sight.” ‘ The scenery on this

river, though of a different character, will bear comparison with

that of the Hudson for sublimity and beauty ; the hills are,

however, much higher, and the country less fruitful, on the

Min.

* Borget, L(i Chine Ouverte, p. 13G.

AVATKll-COUllSES OF FUIIKIEN ri:()VIX(n<:. 129

Beyond Pagoda Anchorage the passage is too shallow for large vessels, and this obstacle tends to prevent Fuhchau from becoming a place of commerce in keeping with its size and geographical advantages. From the city upwards the river is partially obstructed with rocks and banks, rendering the navigation troublesome as far as Mintsing hien, about thirty miles above it, beyond which the strong rapids render the passageto Yenping extremely tedious,—in high water impossible even with trackers. The banks are steep, and the tow-rope is sometimes taken 50 to 70 feet above the water.

Mr. Stevens says of this river, that ” bold, high, and romantic

hills giA^e a uniform yet ever varying aspect to the country ;

l)ut it partakes so much of the mountainous character, that it

may be truly said that beyond the capital we saw not one plain

even of small extent. Every hill was covered with verdure

from the base to the summit. The less rugged were laid out in

terraces, rising above each other sometimes to the number of

thirty or forty. On these the yellow barley and wheat were

waving over our heads. Here and there a laborer, with a bundle

of grain which he had reaped, was bringing it down on his

shoulder to thrash out. Orange, lemon, and mulberry, or other

trees, sometimes shaded a narrow strip along the banks, half

concealing the cottages of the inhabitants.” ‘

Next in size is the Lung kiang, which flows by Changchau, and disembogues near Amoy after a course of two hundred miles. A large number of small islands lie on the coast of Fuhkien, the first of which, on the west, is Naraoh or ]^an-au, about thirteen miles long. Amoy and Quemoy are the largest islands of a group lying off the estuary of the Lung kiang.

Chimmo Bay is north-east of Amoy, and is the entrance of the passage up to Chinchew, or Tsiuenchau fu, the Zayton * of Marco Polo, and still celebrated for the commercial enterprise of its inhabitants. Before the introduction of steamers into the oasting trade, the harbors and creeks along the provinces of Fuhkien and Kwangtung were infested with numerous fleets of pirates, which used to ” sneak about like rats,” and prey upon the peaceful traders.

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 93.’Yule’s Mnrco Poh, Vol. II., pp. 183-185, etc. A Turkish geography,printed at Constantinople, describes this port under the name of Zeitouii.Compare Klaproth, Memoires sur VAsie, Tome II., p. 208. See further,CJdnese Recoider, Vol. III., p. 87; Vol. IV., p. 77; Vol. V., p. 327, and Vol VI., p. 31, sqq.Vol. I.—9

The grain raised in Fujian is hardly enough to support its population, especially on the sea-board, and large quantities of rice are brought from Siani, Formosa, and elsewhere. Black tea, camphor and other woods, sugar, chinaware, and grass cloth, are the principal exports.

The city of Fuzhou(i.e., Happy City), or Ilokchiu, as it is called by the inhabitants, lies in lat. 26° 5′ north, and long. 119° 20′ east, on the northern side of the Min, thirty -four miles from its mouth, and nine from Pagoda Island. The city lies in a plain, surrounded by hills, forming a natural and most magnificent amphitheatre of vast dimensions, whose fertility emulates and adds to its beauty. Suburbs extend from the walls three miles to the banks, and stretch along on both sides the stream.

They are connected with each other, and a small islet in the

river, by a stone bridge built in the eleventh century. The

scenery is bold, and such parts of the surrounding hills as are not

cultivated or used for graves, are covered with pines ; some of

the hills north of the city are three thousand feet high. Opposite

Fuhchau the land is lower, and the suburb is built upon an

island formed by the division of the main channel, seven miles

above the city ; the branches reunite at Pagoda Island. This

island, and the plain on each side, forms a large basin, about

twenty miles long by fifteen wide. The river is crowded with

floating habitations, ferry-boats, and trading craft, rendering its

surface an animated and noisy scene. The flowers grown in

pots on the boats, and those usually worn by the boatwomen in

their hair, all assist in imparting a pleasing aspect to the lively sight.

The city walls ai-e about thirty feet high and twelve wide at the top. The gates, seven in number, are overlooked by high towers ; smaller guard-houses stand upon the walls at short intervals, in which a few soldiers lodge, and where two or three cannon indicate their object. The city is divided into wards and neighborhoods, each of which is under its own police and headmen, who are resjxnisible for the peace of their respective districts.

APPEARANCE OF FUHCIIAU. 131

From the Wu-shih slum, an eminence on the south of the city, the view is extensive, and presents a great diversity of charming objects. The square battlements of the wall are seen extending in a devious and irregular circuit for more than eight miles, and inclosing most of the buildings, except on the south.

On the south-east, a hill rises abruptly more than two hundred feet, its sides built up with interspersed dwellings ; and another on the extreme north of the cit}’, surmounted by a “watch-tower,

closes the prospect in that dii-ection. Two pagodas within, and

fantastic looking watch-towers upon the walls, large, regularbuilt

granaries, and a vast number of flag-staffs in pairs indicating

temples and offices, contribute to relieve the otherwise dull

monotony, which is still further diversified by many large trees.

Several lookout houses are placed over the streets, or upon the

roofs of buildings, for the accommodation of watchmen, one of

M’hich immediately attracts the attention of the visitor, from

its height, and its clock-dial with Koman letters. Few vacant

spaces occur within the walls of the city, which is everywhere

equally well built.

Serpentine canals divide the country round about into plats of greater or less extent, of every form and hue ; while they help drain the city and provide channels for boats coming from the river. These parts of the landscape are dotted with hamlets and cottages, or, where the ground is higher, with graves and tombstones. To one seated on this eminence, the confused hum of mingling cries ascending from the town below,—the beating of gongs, crackling of fireworks, reports of guns, vociferous cries of hucksters and coolies, combining with the barking of dogs and other domestic sounds, as well as those from the crows, fish-hawks, and magpies nearer by,—inform him in the liv^eliest manner that the beautiful panorama he is looking down upon is filled with teeming multitudes in all the tide of life. On the western side of the city is a sheet of water, called Xi Hu, or West Lake, with a series of unpretending buildings and temples lying along its margin, a bridge crossing its expanse, and fishing-nets and boats floating upon its bosom. The watch-tower, on the hill in the northern part of the city, is upon the wall, which here runs near a precipice two hundred feet high ; it is a most conspicuous object when approaching the place.

The Manchus occupy the eastern side of the city, and number altogether about 8,000 persons; the natives gcncrall}- are not allowed to enter their precincts. They live under their own officers, in much the same style as the Chinese, and, .not having any regular occupation, give no little trouble to the provincial authorities. Though vastly larger than Ningpo, the number of temples and substantial private residences in Fuhchau is much less, and as a whole it is not so well built. The streets are full of abominations, for which the people seem to care very little.

Before foreign trade attained importance, paper money used to be issued by native mercantile iirms in the city, varying in denomination from forty cents to a thousand dollars, and supplying all the advantages with few of the dangers of bank notes.

The blue, red, and black colors, which are blended on these promissory bills, present a gay appearance of signatures and eudorsings. The name of the issuing house, and a number of characters traced around the page, in briglit blue ink, form the original impression. The date of issue, and some ingeniously Avrought cyphers, for the recej^tion of signatures and prevention of forgeries, are of a deep red ; while the entry of the sum, and names of the partners and receiver, stand forth in large blade characters. On the back are the endorsements of various individuals, through whose hands the bill has passed, in order to facilitate the detection of forgeries, but not rendering the writer at all liable. These bills have now nearly disappeared, and bank bills from Hongkong are gradually coming into use. The streets usually are thronged with craftsmen and hucksters, in the fashion of Chinese towns, where the shopmen, in their desire to attract buyers, seem to inuigine, that the more they get in their customers’ way, the more likely they are to sell them something. The shops are thrown ojien so widely, and display such a variety of articles, or expose the M’orkmeii so plainly, that the whole street seems to be leather the stalls of a nuirket, or the aisle in a manufactory, than the town-thoroughfare.

BUILDINGS AND TYPES OF INirABITANTS. 133

The chief civil and military dignitaries of the province reside here, besides the profect and the magistrates of ]\rin and llaukwan districts. The (li’iiKj-lmxing mUio is one of the largest religious edifices in the place, and the temples tif the goddess of Mercy, and god of War, the most frequented. The KiuSien shan, or ‘ Hill of the Nine Genii,’ on the southern side of the town, is a pretty object. The city wall runs over it, and on its sides little houses are built upon rocky steps ; numerous inscriptions are carved in the face of the rocks. Near the eastern gate, called Tang Men., or ‘ Bath gate,’ is a small suburb, where Chinese and Manchus live together, and take care of many hot wells filled from springs near by ; the populace resort hither in large crowds to wash and amuse themselves.

The citizens of Fuhchau bear the character of a reserved, proud, rather turbulent people, imlike the polite, affable natives further north. They are better educated, however, and plume themselves on never having been conquered by foreigners. Their dialect is harsh, contrasting strongly with the nasal tones of the patois of Amoy, and the melliflnous sounds heard at Ningpo. There are few manufactures of importance in the city, its commerce and resources depending almost wholly on the trade with the interior by the River Min. Many culprits wearing the cangue are to be seen in the streets, and in passing none of the hilarious merriment which is heard elsewhere greets the eai”. There is also a general lack of courtesy between acquaintances meeting in the higlnvay, a circumstance quite unusual in China. Beggars crowd the thoroughfares, showing both the poverty and the callousnesj of the inhabitants. One half the male population is supposed to be addicted to the opium pipe, and annually expend millions of dollars for this noxious gratification.

The population of the city and suburljs is reckoned at rather over than under a million souls, including the boat people; it is, no doubt, one of tlie chief cities in the Empire \\\size, trade, and iidluence.

The island in the river is settled by a trading p()])ulati(jii, a great part of whom consist of sailors and boatmen. The country-women, who bring vegetables and poultry to market, are a robust race, and contrast strikingly with the sickly-looking, little-footed ladies of the city, Fishing-boats are numerous in the river, many of which are furnished with cormorants.’

Chinese liejwsitary, Vol. TSV., pp. 185, 225.

Amoy is the best known port in the province, and 150 years ao-Q was the seat of a large foreign coniinercc. It lies in tha district of Tung-ngan, within the prefecture of Tsiuenchau, in lat. 2i° 4U’ X., and long. 118° 20′ E., upon the south-western corner of the island of Amoy, at the mouth of the Lung Kiang. The island itself is about forty miles in circumference, and contains scores of large villages besides the city. The scenery within the bay is picturesque, caused partly by the numerous islands which define it, some of them surmounted by pagodas or temples, and partly by the high hills behind the city, and

crowds of vessels in the liarbor in the foreground.’ There is

an outer and inner city, as one approaches it seaward—or more

properly a citadel and a city—divided by a ridge of rocky hills

having a fortified wall along the top. A paved road connects

the two, which is concealed from the view of the beholder as

he comes in from sea, until he has entered the Inner harbor.

The entire circuit of the city and suburbs is about eight miles,

containing a population of 185,000, while that of the island is

estimated at 100,000 more.

The harbor of Amoy is one of the best on the coast ; the tide

rises and falls from fourteen to sixteen feet. The western side

of the harbor is formed by the island of Kulang su, the batteries

upon it completely commanding the city. It is about a

mile long and two and three-quarters around, and maintains a

large rural population, scattered among four or five hamlets.

The foreign residences scattered over its hills add measurably

to the charm of its aspect when viewed from the harbor. Eastward

of Amoy is the island of Quemoy (/.6\, Golden harbor), whose low, rice grounds on the south-west shore produce a very different effect as opposed to the high land on Amoy ; its population is, moreover, much less.

‘ The Boston Missionary Herald for 1845 (p. 87) coutaius a notice of tha ” WfeHe Deer Cavern,” in tliu neighborhood.

AMOY AND ITS ENVIRONS. 135

The country in this part of Fuhkien is thickly settled and highly cultivated. Mr. Abeel, describing a trip toward TungngaTi, says, ” For a few miles up, the hills wore the same rugged, barren aspect which is so common on the southern coast of China, but fertility and cultivation grew upon us as we advanced ; the mountains on the east became hills, and these were adorned with fields. The villages were numerous at intervals; many of them were indicated in the distance by large groves of trees, but generally the landscape looked naked. Well-sweeps were scattered over the cultivated hills, affording evidence of the need and the means of irrigation.”

In the other direction, toward Changchau, the traveller, beyond Pagoda Island, enters an oval bay ten or twelve miles long, bounded by numerous plains rising in the distance into steep barren mountains, and upon which numerous villages are found ; twenty-three were counted at once by Mr. Abeel, and the boatmen said that all could not be seen. Several large towns, and ” villages uncounted ” are visible in every direction, as one proceeds up the river toward Changchau, thirty-five miles from Amoy. This city is well built, the streets paved with granite, some of them twelve feet wide, and intolerably offensive. A bridge, about eight hundred feet long, spans the river, consisting of beams stretching from one abutment to another, covered with cross pieces. From the hill- top behind a temple at the north-western corner of the city, the prospect is charming.

” Imagine an amphitheatre,” says Mr. Lowrie, ” thirty miles in length and twenty in breadth, hemmed in on all sides by bare pointed hills, a river running through it, an immense city at our feet, with fields of rice and sugar-cane, noble trees and

numerous villages stretching away in every direction. It was

grand and beautiful beyond every conception we had ever

formed of Chinese scenery. Beneath us lay the city, its shape

nearly square, curving a little on the river’s banks, closely built,

and having an amazing number of very large trees within and

around. The guide said that in the last dynasty it had numl)

ered 700,000 inhabitants, and now he thought it contained a

million—probably a large allowance. The villages around also

attracted our attention. I tried to enumerate them, but after counting thirty-nine of large size distinctly visible in less than half the field before us, I gave over the attempt. It is certainly Avithhi the mark to say that within the t-ircuit of thi.- immense plain there are at least one hundred villages, some of them small, but many numbering Inmdreds and even thousands of inliabitants.” ‘

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XI., p. 506.

ChangZhou was the last city in the eastern provinces held by the Tai-pings, a small remnant of their forces having come across the country after the loss of NanJing. They were expolled in 1806, after the town had suffered much from the contending forces. Traces of this destruction have not yet entirely disappeared from the vicinity.

Shilima, or Chiohbe, is a place of some trade, extending a

mile along the shore, and larger than Ilaitang hien, a district

town between it and Amoy. Large numbers of people dwell

in boats on this river, rendering a voyage up its channel somewhat

like going through a street, for the noise and bustle.

The city of Chinchew (or Tsiuenchau), north of Amoy, w’as

once the larger of the two. It is described by Marco Polo, who

reached it after iive days’ journey from Fuhchau, meeting with

a constant succession of flourishing cities, towns and villages.

“At this city is the haven of Zayton, frequented by all the

ships from India, . . . and by all the merchants of Manzi, for

hither is imported the most astonishing quantity of goods and

of precious stones and pearls. . . . For it is one of the two

greatest havens in the world for connnerce.”^ It was gradually

forsaken for Amoy, which was more accessible to junks.

‘ Chinesie Rejmiton/, Vol. XIT., p. T^•.^0^, Fortune’s Tea Districts, chaps, xiv and XV.=” Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. IbG.

THE ISLAND OF FORMOSA. 137

From Zayton, Ivublai Khan’s expedition to Java and Japan sailed, and here the men from Egypt and Arabia traded for silks, sugar, and spices long after the Portuguese reached China. The department of Ilinghwa, situate on the coast between Tsiuenchau and Fuhchau, is exceedingly populous, and its dialect differs distinctly from both of the adjoining prefectures. Its people have a bad reputation, and female infanticide prevails here to a greater degree than elsewhere. At Yenping, on the Min River, the people speak the dialect of banking, showing their origin of not many scores of years past ; there are many patois in these hilly parts of Fnhkien, hirI tlio province as a whole exhibits probably greater discrepancies in its dialects than any other. Its produce is exported north and west, as well as coastwise, and this intcirconrse tends to assimilate the speech of the inhabitants with their neighbors. The natural scenery in the ranges near the Bohea Hills in the borders of Kiangsi attracts visitors from afar. Fortune describes the picturesque grouping of steep rocks, lonely temples on jutting ledges and hidden adits, alternating with hamlets, along the banks of the stream which carries the boats and produce away to a market. The rocks and cliffs here have furnished Chinese artists with many subjects for pen and pencil, while the valley in addition to its natural beauty brings forth the best of teas.

The island of Formosa, lying 90 miles west of Amoy, together with the Pescadore group, forms a department called Taiwan. The former is a fertile, well-watered region, possessing a salubrious climate, and meriting in every respect its name Formosa—a descriptive term first given by the Portuguese to their settlement at Kilung in 1590, and extended afterward to the entire island. Its total length is about 235 miles, while the width at the centre is not far from 80 miles ; the limits of Chinese jurisdiction do not, however, end)race more than the western or level portion, leaving to untamed aborigines the

thickly wooded districts beyond the ]\f((h htii sJkdk a lofty

rantj-e of mountains runnino; north and south and formino- the

backbone of the island. The western coast presents no good

harbors, and vessels lying a long distance oft” shore are exposed

to the double inconvenience of a dano-erons anchoraije and an

inhospitable reception from the natives ; the eastern side is still

less inviting, owing to its possession by savage tribes. From

recent reports it appears, moreover, that the whole coast line is

rising with unusual persistence and regularity, and that the

streams are being choked up at their mouths.

The aborigines of this island are, in those districts that lemain uncontaminated by mixture with Chinese settlers, a remarkably well-built, handsome race, strong, large of eye, bold, and devoted to hunting and ardent spirits (when the latter is procurable), after the manner of wild people the world over; no written language exists among them, nor do they employ any fixed method of reckoning time. They and the inhabitants of Lewchew and neighboring islands are probably of the same race with the Philippine Tagalas, though some have supposed them to be of Malay or Polynesian origin. Like the North American Indians they are divided into numerous clans,

whose mutual feuds are likely to last until one party or another

is exterminated ; this turbulence restrains them from any

united action against the Chinese, whose occupation of the

island has always been irksome to the natives. Their social

condition is extremely low ; though free from the petty vices

of thieving and deception, and friendly toward strangers, the

principle of blood-requital holds among them with full force,

and family revenge is usually the sole object of life among the

men. I^o savage is esteemed who has not beheaded a Chinaman,

while the greater the number of heads brought home from a fray, the higher the position of a brave in the comnumity.

The women are forced to attend both to house and field, but share the laziness of their masters, insomuch that they never cut from the growing rice or millet more than enough for the day’s provision. ” Although these people have men’s forms,” observes a Chinese writer in the peculiar antithetical style common to their literary productions, ” they have not men’s natures. To govern them is impossible; to exterminate them not to be thought of; and so nothing can be done with them. The only thing left is to establish troops with cannon at all the passes through which they issue on their raids, and so overawe them, b^^ military display, from coming out of their fastnesses. The savage tracks lie only through the dense forests, thick with underbi’ush, where hiding is easy.

PRODUCTIONS OF FORMOSA. 139

When they cut off a head, they boil it to separate the flesh, adorn the skull with various ornaments, and hang it up in their huts as evidence of their valor.” In addition to a few native clans who have submitted to the rulers from the mainland and dwell in the border region between the colonists and :i])oi-igines proper, a peculiarly situated race, called Ilahhas^ maintains a neutral position between the hill tribes and the Cliinese. These people were formerly industrious but per«secuted inhabitants of Kwangtung province, who, in order to better their lot, emigrated to Formosa and established close communication with the natives there, making themselves indispensable to them by procuring arms, powder, and manufactured goods, while owing to their industry they were able in time to monopolize the camphor trade. Though retaining the Chinese costume and shaving their heads, they practically ignore Chinese rule, paying tribute and intermarrying with the mountaineers, from whom they have also obtained large tracts of land.

Maize, potatoes, fruits, tobacco, indigo, sugar, rice, and tea, are all grown on this island, the three latter in rapidly increasing quantities for purposes of export. Of natural products salt, coal, sulphur, petroleum, and camphor are of the first importance.

The vast coal basins have hardly been opened or even explored, the only mines now worked being those in the northern part, near Kilung. Native methods of mining are, however, the only ones employed thus far, and it is not surprising, considering their extreme simplicity, that they have not been able to extract coal from remote districts, where the natural difficulties encountered are greatest. Hand labor alone is used, and draining a pit unheard of—compelling a speedy abandoning of the mines when pierced to any great depth in the mountain side. The cost of the coal at the mouth of the pit is about 65 cents per ton for the first qualities, which price improved methods might reduce a third. The presence of volcanoes on this island will, nevertheless, present a serious obstacle to the employment of western mining machinery, especially along the coast, where the measures appear to be excessively dislocated and the work of draining is rendered more difficult. Petroleum is abundant in certain tracts of northern Formosa, flowing plentifully from crevices in the hills, and used to some extent for burning and medicinal purposes by the natives, but not exported. The possibilities of a large sulphur trade are much more important. It is brought from solfatarae and geysers at Tah-yu kang, near Kilung, where it is found in a nearly pure state, as well, too, as a great quantity of sulphurous acid which might with profit be used in the sugar refineries on the island. The manufacture of sidphur is, however forbidden by treaty, though its exportation goes on in small quantities, the contractors taking on themselves all risk of seizure. Camphoi”, perhaps the greatest source of wealth to Formosa, is obtained here by saturating small sticks of the wood with steam, not by boiling as in Japan. The crystals of camphor condense in a receiv-er placed above the furnace ; during the process of distillation an es-^ential oil is produced, which when chemically treated with nitric acid becomes solid camphor. The trees from which the wood is cut grow^ in the most inaccessible tracts of the island, and are, according to all descriptions, of innnense extent, though chopped down by the natives without discrimination or idea of encouraging a second growth.

Among the most interesting natural phenomena of this district are the so-called volcanoes, whoso occasional eruptions have been noticed by many, Mr. Le Gendre, United States Consul at Amoy in 1869, upon a visit to Formosa took occasion to examine more closely into this subject. It appears from his report ‘ that a gas is constantly issuing from the earth, and when a hole to the depth of a few inches is made it can be lighted.

It is most likely, he continues, that from time to time gas jets break forth at points of the hills where they had not been observed before, rushing through its long grass and forests of linge trees, and the rock oil which as a general thing flows in their vicinity. As they are apt to spontaneously ignite in contact with the atmosphere, they must set fire to these materials and cause a local conflagration, that gives to the many peaks of the chain the appearance of volcanoes.

FORMOSA AND THE PESCADORES. 141

Previous to the first half of the fifteenth century the Chinese had little knowledge of Formosa, nor was their sway established over any part of it until 1GS3. It was never really colonized, and became a misooverned and refractorv region from the earliest attempts at subjection. A great emigration is constantly going on from the main, and lands are taken up by capitalists, who not only encourage the people in settling there, but actually purchase large numbers of poor people to occupy these districts. Taiwan fu, the seat of local government, is the ‘ Commercial Relations between the U. S. and Voreign ‘iS(ttiiinx. lS(iO.

largest place on the island ; other harbors or places of importance are Ku-sia and Takow, some miles south of Taiwan, the latter, with Tamsui, on the north-west coast, being one of the recently opened ports of trade. Kihmg possesses a good harbor and is the entrepot of goods for the northern end of the island. Snice the opening (in 1861) of these three towns to foreign intercourse, and the more careful examination of the neutral territory at the foot of the mountains, the resources, peoples, and condition of this productive isle have become better known.

It may be of interest to refer, before leaving Formosa, to the extraordinary fabulous history of the island by one George Psalmanazar, the nam de lylmiie of a remarkable impostor of the commencement of the eighteenth century, who pretended to be a Japanese convert to CJhristianity from Formosa, and who created a profound sensation in Europe by the publication in Latin of a iictitious notice of that country.’

About twenty-five miles west of Formosa, and attached to Taiwan fu, is the district of Pdvghu ting or Pescadore Islands, consisting of a group of twenty-one inhabited islets, the largest of which, called Panghu, is eighty-four miles in circumference; none of them rise three hundred feet above the sea. The two largest, called Prmgliu and Fisher Islands, ai-e situated near the centre of the cluster, and have an excellent harbor between them. The want of trees, and the absence of sheltered valleys, give these islands a barren appearance. Millet, ground-nuts, pine-apples, sweet potatoes, and vegetables are grown, but for most of their supplies they depend upon Formosa. The population of the group is estimated at ‘6()()(^^ of M’hom a large part are fishermen. The Dutch seized these islands in 1G22, and attempted to fortify them by forced Chinese laborers, but removed to Formosa two years after at the instance of the governor of Fuhkien.
‘ ” An nistoricrd and GeograpJdcal Description of Formosa, an Island subject to the Emperor of Japan, ^^ etc. YiXii^voili {MemoiressiirVAsie, Tome I., p. 321) translates an accovint of this island from Chinese sources. E. C. Taintor, The Aborigines of Northern /’l^’/w^Avn!—Shanghai, 1874—read before the North China branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p408, and Vol. V., p. 480.”

CHAPTER III. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE WESTERN PROVINCES

The central provinces of llnpeli and Hunan formerly constituted a single one under the name of Hukwang {i.e. Broad Lakes), and they are still commonly known by this appellation. HuPEH {i.e. Korth of the Lakes) is the smaller of the two, but contains the most arable land. It is bounded north by Honan, east by Kganhwui and Kiangsi, south by Hunan, and west by Sz’chuen and Shensi. Its area is about T0,000 square miles, or slightly above that of Kew England.

The Great Tliver flows through the south, where it connects with all the lakes on both its shores, and nearly doubles its volume of water. The Han kiang, or Han shui rises in the southwest of Shensi, between the Fuh-niu shan and Tapa ling, and drains the south of that province and nearly the whole of Hupeh, joining Yangtsz’ at AVuehang. It is very tortuous in its course, flowing about 1300 miles in all, and is navigable only a portion of the year, during the freshes, as far as Siangyang, about 300 miles. Boats of small size come down, however, at all times from Sin-pu-wan, near its source in Shensi.

THE PROVINCE OP IIUPEH. 143

The mouth is not over 200 feet broad, but the bed of the river as one ascends soon widens to 400 and 500 feet, and at Shayang, 168 miles from Hankow, it is half a mile wide. The area of its whole basin is about the same as the province. The extraordinary effects of a large body of melted snow poured into a number of streams converging on the slopes of a range of hills, and then centering in a narrow valley, bringing their annual deposit of alluvial and silt are seen along the River Han. The rise of this stream is often fifty feet where it is narrowest, and the shores are high ; at Iching the channel varies from 300 to 1500 feet at different seasons, but the i-iverbed from 2000 to 9000 feet, the water rising 18 feet at the fresh. In these wide places, the river presents the aspect of a broad, winding belt of sand dunes, in which the stream meanders in one or many channels, l^avigation, therefore, is difficult and dangerous, since moving sands shift the deep water from place to place, and boats are delayed or run aground. In high water the banks are covered, but the current is then almost as serious an obstacle as the shallows are in winter.

The southeastern part of Ilupeh is occupied by an extensive depression filled with a succession of lakes. The length and breadth of this plain are not far from two hundred miles, and it is considered the most fertile part of China, not being subject to overflows like the shores of the Yellow River, while the descent of the land allows its abundance of water to be readily distributed. Every spot is cultivated, and the surplus of productions is easily transported wherever there is a demand.

The portions nearest the Yangtsz’ are too low for constant cultivation. The Ax Lake, Millet Lake, Red Horse Lake, and Mienyang Lake, are the largest in the province. The remaining parts of both the Lake provinces are hilly and mountainous ; the high range of the Ta-peh shan (‘ Great White Mountains ‘), commencing far into Shensi, extends to the west of Ilupeh, and separates the basins of the Great River from its tributary, the Han Jiang, some of its peaks rising to the snow line. The productions of Ilupeh are bread-stuffs, silk, cotton, tea, fish, and timber; its manufactures are paper, wax, and cloth. The climate is temperate and healthy.

The favorable situation of “Wuchang, the provincial capital,

lias drawn to it most of the trade, which has caused in the

course of years the settlement of Hanyang and Hankow on the

northern bank of the Yangtsz’ and River Han. The number

of vessels gathered here in former years from the other cities

on these two streams was enormous, and gave rise to exaggerated

ideas of the value of the trade. The introduction of steamers has destroyed much of this native commerce, and the cities themselves suffered dreadfully Ijv the Tai-pings, from Mliicli thev are rapidly recovering, and oti a surer foundation. The cities ‘lie in lat. 30° 33′ X. and long. 114° 20’ E., 582 geographical miles distant from Shanghai.

Wuchang is the residence of the provincial officers, the

Manchu garrison, and a literary population of influence, while

the working part depends mostly on Hankow for employment.

Its walls are over twelve miles in circuit, inclosing more vacant

than occupied surface, whose flatness is relieved by a range of

low hills that extend bevond Ilanvano; on the other side of

the liver. The narrow streets are noisome from the offal,

and in summer are sources of malaria, as the drainage is had.

AYhen Haidvow was opened to foreign trade in 1801, it presented

AvucHAXd a:vd Hankou. 145

a most ruinous appearance, but the sense of security inspired by the presence of the men and vessels from far lands rapidly drew the scattered citizens and artisans to rebuild the ruins. The foreigners live near the river side, east of Hankow and west of the River Han, where the anchorage is very favorable, and out of the powerful current of the Yangtsz’. The difference in level of the great stream is about forty feet in the year. In the long years of its early and peaceful trade up to 1850, this region had gathered probably more people on a given area than could be found elsewhere in the world ; and its repute for riches led foreigners to base great hopes on their share, which have been gradually dissipated. The appearance of the city as it was in 1845 is given by Abbt’^ Hue in a few sentences: ” The night had already closed in when we reached the place where the river is entirely covered with vessels, of every size and form, congregated here from all parts. I hardly think there is another port in the world so frequented as this, which passes, too, as among the most commercial in the empire. We entered one of the open ways, a sort of a street having each side defined by floating shops, and after four hours’ toilsome navigation through this difficult labyrinth, arrived at the place of debarkation. For the space of five leagues, one can only see houses along the shore, and an infinitude of beautiful and strange looking vessels in the river, some at anchor and others passing up and down at all hours.” ‘

The coup d’a’il of these three cities is beautiful, their environs being highly cultivated and interspersed with the mansions of the great ; but he adds, “If you draw near, you will find on the margin of the river only a shapeless bank worn away with freshets, and in the streets stalls surmounted with palisades, and workshops undermined by the waters or tumbling to pieces from age. The open spots between these ruins are filled with abominations which diffuse around a suffocating odor. No regulation.s respecting the location of the dwellings, no sidewalks, no place to avoid the crowd which presses upon one, elbowing and disputing the passage, but all get along pell-mell, in the midst of cattle, hogvS, and other domestic animals, each protecting himself as he best can from the filth in his way, which the Chinese collect with care for agricultural uses, and carry along in little open buckets through the crowd.”

Above Hankow, the towns on the Yangtsz’ lie n’earer its

banks^lfsHiey are not so exposed to the freshets. The largest

trading places in this part of Ilupeli on the river, are Shasi,

opposite Kinchau fu, and Ichang near the borders of Sz’chuen,

respectively 293 and 363 miles distance. From the first settlement

there is a safe passage by canal across to Shayang, forty

miles away on the iliver Han ; the travel thence goes north

to Shansi. The other has recently been opened to foreign

trade. It is the terminus of navigation for the large vessels

used from Shanghai upward, as the rapids commence a few

miles beyond, necessitating smaller craft that can be hauled by

trackers. These two marts are large centres of trade and travel,

and were not made desolate by the Tai-pings, as were all other

towns of importance on the lower Yangtsz’.

‘ Annnles de la Fci. i845, Tome XVII., pp. 287, 290. See also Hue’s TravreU in the Chinese Empire, Harper’s Ed., 1855, Vol. II., pp. 142-144. Fnmpelly, pp. 224-22G ; Blakiston’s Yanrjtsze, p. 65 ; Treaty Ports of China, 1867,Art. Hankow.

The portion of the Yangzi in this province, between Yichang and the Sichuan border, exhibits perhaps some of the most Jiiagnificenl- glunpse^,_.M_scenery in the world. Breaking through the limestone foundations that dip on either side of the granite core of the rapids, the river first penetrates the AVu shan, Mitan, and Lukan gorges on the one side, then the lono- defile of Ichang on the other. At various points between and beyond these the stream is broken by more or less formidable rapids. Among these grand ravines the most impressive, though not the longest, is that of Lukan, whose vertical walls rise a thousand feet or more above the narrow river. Nothing can be more striking, observes Blakiston, than suddenly coming upon this huge split in the mountain mass ” by which the river escapes as through a funnel,” The eastern portions of llupch are rougher than the southern, and were overrun during the rebellion by armed bands, so that their best towns were destroyed. Siangyang fu and Fanching, near the northern borders, arc important places in the internal commerce of this region. Its many associations with leading events in Chinese early and feudal history render it an interesting region to native scholars. A large part of the southwestern prefecture of Shingan is hilly, and its mountainous portions are inhabited by a rude, illiterate population, many of whom are partly governed by local rulers.

The province of Hunan is bounded north by Ilupeh, east by Kiangsi, south by Kwangtung and Kwangsi, w.est by Ivweichau and Sz’chuen. Its area is reckoned at 84,000 square miles—equal to Great Britain or the State of Kansas. It is drained by four rivers, whose basins comprise nearly the whole province, and define its limits by their terminal watersheds. The largest is the Siang, which, rising in the hills on the south and east in numerous navigable streams, affords facilities for trade in small boats to the borders of Kiangsi and Kwangtung,

the traffic concentring at Siangtan ; this fertile and populous

basin occupies well-nigh half of the province. Through the

western part of Hunan runs the Yuen kiang, but the rapids

and cascades occur so frequently as to render it far less useful

than the Siang. Boats are towed up to the towns in the southwest

with great labor, carrying only four or five tons cargo;

these are exchanged for mere scows at Ilangkia, 200 miles

above Changteh, in order to reach Yuenchau. The contrast

‘UKAN GOKGE, YANGZI RlVER. NATURAL AND POLITICAL FEATURES OF HUNAN. 147

between the two rivers as serviceable channels of intercourse is

notable. Between these two main rivers runs the Tsz’ kiang,

navigable for only small batteaux, which nnist be pulled up so

many rapids that the river itself has been called Tan ho, or

‘ Rapid River ; ‘ its basin is narrow and fertile, and the produce

is carried to market over the hills both east and west. The

fourth river, the Li shui, empties, like all the others, into the

Tungting Lake, and drains the northwestern portion of the

province ; it is navigable only in its lower course, and is almost

useless for travel. These rivers all keep their own chaimels

through the lake, which is rather a cesspool for the overflow of

the Yangtsz’ during its annual rise than a lake fed by its own

springs and aflluents. At Siangyin, on the River Siang, the

banks are 35 feet above low water, and gradually slope down

to its mouth at Yohchau, or near it. The variation of this

lake from a large sheet of water at one season to a marsh at

another, must of course affect the whole internal trade of the

province, inasnnich as the rivers running through it are in a

continual condition of flood or low water—either extreme

cannot but seriously interfere with steam vessels.

The productions of Ilunan do not represent a very high development

of its soil or mines. Tea and coal are the main exports; tea-oil, ground-nut and tun/j oils, hemp, tobacco, and rice, with iron, copper, tin, and coarse paper make up the list.

The coal-fields of southern Hunan contain deposits equal to those in Pennsylvania ; anthracite occurs on the River Lui, and bituminous on the River Xiang, both beds reaching over the border into Kwangtung. The timber trade in pine, fir, laurel, and other woods is also important. The population of Hunan was somewhat reduced during the Tai-ping rebellion ; its inhabitants have in general a bad reputation among their countrymen for violence and rudeness. The hilly nature of the country tends to segregate them into small communities, which are imperfectly acquainted with each other, because travelling is difficult ; nor is the soil fertile enough to support in many districts a considerable increase of population.

The capital of Hunan, Changsha, lies on the River Xiang, and is one of the most iofluentialj as it is historically one of the most interesting, cities in the central })urt of China ; the festival of the Dragon Boats originated here. Siangtan, at the confluence of the Lien kf, nioie than 200 miles above Yohchan, is one of the greatest tea-marts in China. Its population is reckoned to he a million, and it is a centre of trade and banking for the products of this and other legions ; it extends for three miles along the west bank, and nearly two miles inland, with thousands of boats lining the shores. Its return to prosperity since the rebellion has been marvellously rapid. The city of Changteh on the Yuen River is the next important town, as it is easily reached from Yohchan on the Yangzi; large amounts of rice are grown in the prefecture.

Hunan has a high position for letters, the people are well dressed, healthy, and usually peaceable. The boating population is, however, exceptionally lawless, and forms a difficult class for the local authorities to control. Aboriginal hill-tribes exist in the sonthwestern districts, mIucIi are still more unmanageable, probably through the imjust taxation and oppression of the imperial officers set over them. In addition to these ungovernable elements a large area is occupied by the Yao-Jin, who have possessed themselves of the elevated territory lying between Ynngchau and Kweiyang, in the southern point of the province, and there barricaded the mountain passes so that no one can ascend against their will.

MOUNTAINS AND HIVEKS OF SIIENSl. 140

The province of SnENsi (i.e., Western Defiles) is bounded north by Inner Mongolia, from which it is divided by the Great Wall, cast by Shansi and Ilonan, southeast by Ilupeh, south by Sz’chuen, and west by Ivansuh. Its area is not far from 70,000 square miles, which is geologically and politically most distinctly marked by the Tsingling shan, the watershed between the Wei and Ilan I’ivers. There is only one good road across it to Ilanchung fu near its southern part ; another, farther east, goes from Si-ngan, by a natural pass between it and the Fuh-niu shan, to Shang, on the Tan ho, in the Ilan basin. This part conijM’ises about one-third of Shensf. The other portion includes the basins of the Wei, Loh an<l Wu-ting, and some smaller tributaries of the Yellow River, of which the Wei is the mo.-^t important. This I’iver joins tiie Yehow at the lowest point of its basin, the Tung-kwaii pass, where the larger stream breaks thj-ongh into the lowlands of llonan, and divides eastern and southern Cliina from the northwestern regions.

The whole of this part presents a loess formation, and the beds of the streams are cut deep into it, the roads across them being few. The Wei basni is the most fertile part of the province; the history of the Chinese race has been more connected with its fortunes than with any other portion of their possessions. Its productiveness is shown in the rapid development and peopling of the districts along the banks and affluents.

On the north, the Great Wall separates Shensi from the Ordos -Mongols, its western end reaching the Yellow River at Ninghia—the largest and only imjx^rtant city in that region. All the connections with this region are through Shensi and by Kwei-hwa-ching, l)ut the configuration of the ranges of hills prevents direct travel. Isone of the rivers in this region are serviceable to any great degree for navigation, and but few of them for irrigation ; the crops depend on the rainfall. The climate is more equable and mild than in Shansi, and not so wet as in many parts of Kansuh. The harvests of one good year here furnish food for three poor ones. The chief dependence of the people is on wheat, but rice is grown wherever water can be had; sorghum, millet, pulse, maize, barle}^ ground-nut, and fruits of many sorts fill up the list. Cotton, hemp, tobacco, rapeseed, and poppy are largely cultivated, but the surplus of any crop is not enough in average years to leave much for export.

The ruthless civil war recently quenched in the destruction of the Mohannnedans in the province has left it quite desolate in many parts, and its restoi’ation to former prosperity and population must be slow.

The travel between Shensi and Sz’chuen is almost wholly confined to the great road reaching from Si-ngan to Chingtu. It passes along the River Wei to Hienyang liien on the left bank, where the road north into Kansuh diverges, the other continuing west along the river through a populous region to Paoki hien, where it recrosses the Wei. During this portion, the Tai-peh Mountain, about eleven thousand feet high, with its white summit, adds a prominent feature to the scenery. At Paoki, the crossing at the Tsingliiig slian commences, and occupies seven days of difficult travel through a devious road of 163

miles to Fung hien on the confines of Kansnh. It crosses successive

ridges from C>,OUO to 9,000 feet higli, and is carried along

the sides of hills and down the gorges in a manner reflecting

nnich credit on the engineers of the third centuiy a.d. who

made it. These mountainous regions ai-e thinly settled all the

M’ay down to Paoching, near Ilanchung ; hut upon gaining the

Kiver Ilan, one of the most beautiful and fertile valleys in

China is reached. Its western watershed is the Kiu-tiao shan,’

running southwesterly into Sz’chuen on the west side of the

Kialing River.

The city of Si-ngan is the capital of the northwest of China, and next to Peking in size, population, and importance. It surpasses that city in historical interest and records, and in the long centuries of its existence has upheld its earlier name of Chang-cm^ or ‘ Continuous Peace.’ The approach to it from the east lies across a bluff, whose eastern face is filled with houses cut in the dry earth, and from whose sunnnit the lofty towers and imposing walls are seen across the plain three miles away.

These defences Avere too solid for the Mohammedan rebels, and protected the citizens while even their suburbs were burned. The population occupies the entire enciente, and presents a heterogeneous sprinkling of Tibetans, Mongols and Tartai’s, of whom many thousand Moslems are still spared because they were loyal. Si-ngan has been taken and retaken, rebuilt and destroyed, since its establishment in the twelfth century b.c. by the Martial King, but its position has always assured for it the control of trade between the central and western provinces and Central Asia. The city itself is picturesquely situated, and contains some few remains of its ancient importance, while the

‘ Usually known as the Ta-pa ling ; but Baron von Eiclithofen found that the natives of that region “call those mountains the Kiu-tiao shan, that is the ‘ nine mountain ridges,’ designating therewith the fact that the range is made up of a number of parallel ridges. This name should be retained in preference to the other.” Letter on the Promncc>< of Chihl’i, Shansi, Shenx’t, etc Shanghai, 1872. See also his CMim, Band II. S. SCJJ-STti ; Alex. Wylie, Notes of a Journey from Chin<jtoo to Hankow^ Journ. Roy. Qeoy. Sac. Vol XIV., p. 108.

St-I^GA?^ ITS CAPITAL. 151

neighborhood promises better returns to the sagacious antiquarian

and explorer than any portion of China. The principal

record of the Xestorian mission work in China, the famous tablet

of A.D. 781, still remains in the yard of a temple. Some miles to

the northwest lies the temple Ta-fu-sz’, containing a notable

colossus of Buddha, the largest in China, said to have been cut

by one of the Emperors of the Tang in the ninth century.

This statue is in a cave hewn out of the sandstone rock, being

cut out of the same material and left in the construction of the

grotto. Its height is 56 feet ; the proportions of limbs and

l)ody of the sitting figure are, on the whole, good, the Buddha

being represented with right hand npraised in blessing, and the

figure as well as garments richly covered with color and gilt.

Before the god stand two smaller colossi of the Schang-hoa,

Buddha’s favorite disciples ; their inferior art and workmanship,

however, testify to a later origin. The cave is lighted from

above, after the manner of the Pantheon, by a single round

opening in the vaulting. Sixty feet over the rock temple rises

a tile roofing, and upon the hillside without the cavern are a

nimiber of minor temples and statues.’

Next to this city in importance is Ilanchnng, near the bordor of Sz’chuen ; it was much injured by the Tai-pings, and is only slowly recovering, like all the towns in that valley which were exposed ; none of these rebels crossed the Tsingling Mountains. Yu-lin (‘Elm Forest’) is an important city on the Great Wall in the north of Shensi, the station of a garrison which overawes the Mongols. Several marts carrying on considerable trade are on or near the Wei and Han Rivers.

Gold mines occur in Shensi, and gold is collected in some of the streams ; other metals also are worked. The climate is too cold for rice and silk ; wheat, millet, oats, maize, and cotton supply their places ; rhubarb, nuisk, wax, red-lead, coal, and nephrite are exported. The trade of Si-ngan is chiefly that of bartering the produce of the eastern provinces (reaching it by the great pass of Tung-kwan) and that from Tibet, Kansuh, and 111. Wild animals still inhabit the northern parts, and the number of horses, sheep, goats, and cattle raised for food and service is large compared with eastern China.

‘ See Kreituer, Tmfernen Osten, p. 504. Wien, 1881.

The iniineiise province of Kansuh (/.(\, A^oluntary Reverence,

made by uniting the names of Kanchaufu and ISuh chau) belonged

at one time to Shensi, and extended no farther westtlian Kiayii

kwan; but since the division by Ivienlung, its limits have been

stretched across the desert to the confines of Songaria on the

northwest, and to the borders of Tibet on the west. It is

bounded north and northeast by Gobi and the Dsassaktu

khanate, east by Shensi, south by Sz’chuen, southwest by Kokonor

and the desert, and northwest by Cobdoand lli. Its entire

area cannot be much under 400,000 square miles, the greater

part of which is a barren waste ; it extends across twelve degrees

of latitude and twenty-one degrees of longitude, and comprises

all the best part of the ancient kingdom of Tangut, M’hich

was destroyed by Genghis.

The topography of this vast region is naturally divided into

two distinct areas by the Kiayii kwan at the end of the Great

Wall ; one a fertile, well-watered, populous country, differing

toto cwlo from the sandy or mountainous wildernesses of the

other. The eastern portion is further partitioned into two sections

by the ranges of mountains which cross it nearly from

south to north in parallel lines, dividing the basins of the AVei

and Yellow Rivers near the latter. The passage between them

is over the Fan-shui ling, not far from the Tao ho and by the

town of Tihtao, leading thence up to Lanchau. This part of

the province, watered by the Wei, resembles Shansi in fertility

and productions, and its nearness to the elevated ranges of the

Bayan-kara induces comparatively abundant rainfall. The

streams in the extreme south flow into Sz’chuen, but furnish

few facilities for navigation. The affluents of the Yellow River

are on the whole less useful for irrigation and navigation, and

the four or five which join it near Lanchau vary too nmch in

their supply of water to be depended on.

JIAiSSUII PROVINCE. 153

The peculiar feature of Kansuh is the narrow strip projecting like a wedge into the Tibetan plateau, reaching from Lanchau northwesterly between the Ala shan and Kilien shan to the end of the Great Wall. This strip of territory commands the passage between the basin of the Tarini River and Central Asia and China Proper ; its passage nearly controls trade and power throughout the northern provinces. The Ta-tnng River flows on the south of the Kilien Mountains, but the travel goes near the Wall, where food and fuel are abundant, a long distance beyond its end—even to the desert. The roads from Si-ngan to Lanchan pass up the King River to Pingliang and across several ranges, or else go farther up the River Wei to Tsin chau; the distances are between 500 and 600 miles. From Lanchau one road goes along the Yellow River down to Ninghia, a town inhabited chiefly by Mongols. Another leads 90 miles west to Sining, whither the tribes around Koko-nor repair for trade. The most important continues to Suhchau, this being an easier journey, while its trade furnishes employment to denizens of the region, whose crops are taken by travellers on passage ; this road is about 500 miles in length. Its great importance from early days is indicated by the erection of the Great Wall, in order to prevent inroads along its sides, and by the fortress of Kiayii, which shuts the door upon enemies.

The climate of Kansuh exhibits a remarkable contrast to that

of the eastern provinces. Prejevalsky says it is damp in three

of the seasons; clear, cold winds blowing in winter, and alternatiug

witli calm, warm weather ; out of 92 days up to September

3(>, he registered 72 rainy days, twelve of them snowy.

The highest temperature was 8S° F. in July. Snow and hail

also fall in May. Xorth of the Ala slian, which divides this

moist region from the desert, everything is dry and sandy; their peaks attract the clouds, which sometimes discharge their

contents in torrents, and leave the northern slopes dry ; a marsh

appears over against and only a few miles from a sandy waste.’

‘ Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia, Vol. II., pp. 256-266.

The country east of the Yellow River is fertile, and produces wheat, oats, barley, millet, and other edible plants. Wild animals are frequent, wdiose chase affords both food and peltry; large flocks and herds are also maintained by Tartars living within the province. The mountains contain metals and minerals, among which are copper, almagatholite, jade, gold, and silver. The capital, Lanchau, lies on the south side of the Yellow River, where it turns northeast ; the valley is narrow, and defended on the west Ly a pass, through which the road goes westward. At Sming fii, about a hundred miles east of Qing Hai, the superintendent of Koico-nor resides ; its political importance has largely increased its trade within the last few yeais. Xinghia fu, in the northeast of the province, is the larofest tow’n on the borders of the desert. The destruction of life and all its resources during the recent JNIohannjiedan rebellion, which was crushed out at Suhchau in October, 1873, is not likely to be repeated soon, as the rebels were all destroyed ;’ their Toorkish origin can even now be traced in their features.” Ko relialjle desci’iption of the t(nvns belonging to Kansuh in the districts around Barkul, since the pacificatioTi of the country by the Chinese, has been made.

The province of Sz’cuuen (‘ Four Streams ‘) was the largest of

the old eighteen before Kansuh was extended across the desert,

and is now one of the richest in its pi-oductions. It is bounded

north by Kansuh and Shonsi, east by Ilupeh and Ilunan, south

by Kweichau and Yunnan, west and northwest by Tibet and

Koko-nor; its area is 1G0,S00 square miles, or double most of

the other provinces, rather exceeding Sweden in supei-ticies, as it

falls below California, while it is superior to both in navigable

I’ivers and productions. The emperors at Si-ngan always de-

])ended upon it as the main prop of their power, and in the

third century a.d. the After Hans I’uled at its capital over the

west of China.

‘7)//). Cor., ^S7i, p. 251.

• That this insurroction was not unprccodented we learn from a notice of a similar Moliammedan revolt here in 1784. NouveUes Lcttrcs h\lijiantes des MissiiiitK de Ik (‘}iini\ Tome II., p. 2;3.

TOPOGKAPTIY 01″ SZ’CHUEN PROVINCE. lf).1

Sz’chuen is naturally divided by the four great rivers which run from north to south into the Yangtsz’, and thus form parallel basins ; as a whole these comprise about half of the entire area, and all of the valuable portion. The western part beyond the Min Hiver belongs to the high table lands of Central Asia, and is little else than a series of mountain ranges, sparsely populated and unfit for cultivation, except in small spaces and bottom lands. The eastern portion is a triangular sluiped I’egion surrounded with high niountaiiis composed of Silurian and Devonian formations with intervening deposits, mostly of red clayey sandstone, imparting a peculiar brick color, which has

led Baron von Richthofen to call it the Red Basin. The ranges

of hills average about 3,500 feet high, but the rivers have cut

their channels through the deposits from 1,500 to 2,500 feet

deep, making the travel up and down their waters neither rapid

nor easy. The towns which define this triangular red basin are

Kweichau on the Yangtsz’, from which a line runnhig south

of the river to Pingshan hien, not far from Siichau at its

confluence with the Min, gives the southern border ; thence

taking a circuit as far west as Yachau fu on the Tsing-i River,

and turning northwesterly to Lung-ngan fu, the western side is

roughly skirted, while the eastern side returns to Kweichau

along the watershed of the River Ilan. Within this area, life,

industry, wealth, prosperity, are all found; outside of it, as a

rule, the rivers arc unnavigable, the country uncultivable, and

the people wild and insubordinate, especially on the south and

west.

The four chief rivers in the province, flowing into the Yangtsz’,

are the Kialing, the Loh, the Min, and the Yalung, the

last and westerly beiiig regarded as the main stream of the

Great River, which is called the Kin-sha kiang, west of the

Min. The Kialing rises in Kansuh, and retains that name

along one trunk stream to its mouth, receiving scores of tributaries

from the ridges between its basin and the Ilan, until it

develops into one of the most useful watercourses in China,

coming perhaps next to the Pearl River in Kwangtung. Chungking,

at its embouchure, is the largest dej^ot for trade west of

Icliang, and like St. Louis, on the Mississippi, will grow in importance

as the country beyond develops. The River Fo Loh

(called Fa-sang by Blakiston) is the smallest of the four, its

headwaters being comiected with the Min al)Ove Chingtu ; the

town of Lu chau stands at its mouth ; through its upper part it

is called Chuno; kiani>;. The Min River has its fountains near

those of the Kialing in Koko-nor, and like that stream it gathers

contributions from the ranges defining and crossing its basin; as it descends into the plain of Cliingtu, its waters divide into a dozen channels below 1 1 wan hien, and after ruiuiing more than a hundred miles reunite above ^Afei hien, forming a deep and picturesque riv n* down to Siichau, a thousand miles and more from the source. At its junction, the Min almost doubles the volume of water in summer, when the snows melt. The Ya-Innc River is the only large affluent between the Min and the main trunk ; it comes from the I>ayan-kara mountains, between the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers, and leceives no important tributaries in its long, solitary, and unfnictuous course. The Abbe Hue speaks of crossing its rapid channel near Makian-Dsung just before reaching Tatsienlu, the frontier town ; it takes three luimes in its course.

From Chingtu as a centre, many roads radiate to the other

large towns in the province, by which travel and trade find free

course, and render the connections with other provinces safe

and easy. The roads are paved with flagstones wide enough

to allow passage for two pack-ti’ains abreast ; stairs are made

on the inclines, up and down which mules and ponies travel

without risk, though most of the goods and passengers are

carried by coolies. In order to facilitate travel, footpaths are

opened and paved, leading to every handet, and wherever the

traffic will afford it, bridges of cut stone, iron chains or wii-e,

span the torrent or chasm, according as the exigency’ requires ;

towns or hamlets near these structures take pride in keeping

them in repair.

chIjStgtu a]nd the mix valley. 157

The products of this fertile region are varied and abundant. nice and wheat alternate each other in summer and winter, but the amount of land producing food is barely sufficient for its dense population ; pulse, barley, maize, ground-mits, sorghum, sweet and connnon potatoes, buckwheat and tobacco, are each raised for home consumption. Sugar, hemp, oils of several kinds, cotton, and fruits complete the list of plants mostly grown for home use. The exports consist of raw and woven silk, of which more is sent abroad than from any province ; salt, opium, musk, croton (tun//) oil, gentian, rhubarb, tea, coal, spelter, copper, iron, and insect wax, are all grown oi* made for other regions. The peace which S//chuen enjoyed while other provinces were ravaged by rebels, has tended to develop all its products, and increase its abundance. The climate of this region favors the cultivation of the hillsides, which are composed of disintegrated sandstones, because the moist and mild winters bring forward the winter crops ; snow remains only a few days, if it fall at all, and Mdieat is cut before May. The summer rains and freshets furnish water for the rice fields by filling the streams on a thousand hills. This climate is a great contrast to the dry regions further north, and it is subject to less extremes of temperature and moisture than Yunnan south of it. When this usual experience is altered by exceptional dry or wet seasons, the people are left without food, and their wants cannot be supplied by the abundance of other provinces, owing to the slowness of transit. Brigandage, rioting, cannibalism, and other violence then add to the misery of the poor, and to the difficulty of government.

Chingtu, the capital, lies on the River Min, in the largest plain in the province, roughly measuring a hundred miles one way, and fifty the other, conspicuous for its riches and populousness.

The inhabitants are reckoned to number 3,500,000 souls. This city has been celebrated from the earliest days, but received its present name of the ‘Perfect Capital ‘ when Liu Pi made it his residence. Its population approaches a million, and its walls, shops, yamuns, sti-eets, warehouses, and suburbs, all indicate its wealth and political importance. Marco Polo calls it Sindafu, and the province Acbalec Manzi, describing the fine stone bridge, half a mile long, M’ith a roof resting on marble pillars, under Mhich “trade and industry is carried on,” ‘ which spans the Kian-suy, i.e.^ the Yangtsz’, as the Min is still often termed. The remarkable cave houses of the old iidiabitants still attract the traveler’s notice as he journeys up to Chingtu, along its banks.

> Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 23.

M. David, who lived at this city several months, declares it to be one of the most beautiful towns in China, placed in the midst of a fertile plain watered by many canals, which form a network of great solidity and usefulness. The number of honoraiy gateways in and near it attract the voyager’s eye, and their variety, size, inscriptions, and age furnish an interesting field of in(]iiiry. Many statues cut in fine stone are scattered about the city or used to adoi-n the cemeteries.

The city of Chungking, on the Yangzi, at the mouth of the Jialing River, 725 miles from Hankow, is the next important city in Sichuan, and the center of a great trade on both rivers. The other marts on the Great River are also at the mouths of its affluents, and from Kwaichau to Siichau and Pingslian hien, a distance of 41)0 miles, there is easy and safe communication within the province for all kinds of boats; steam vessels will also liere find admirable opportunities for their employment.

In the western half of Sz’clmen, the people are scattered over intervales and slopes between the numberless hills and mountains that make this one of the roughest parts of China; they are governed by their own local rulers, under Chinese superintendence. They belong to the Lolos race, and have been inimical and insubordinate to Chinese rule from earliest times, preventing their own progress and destroying all desire on the part of their rulers to benefit them. Yachau fu, Tatsieidu, and Datang are the largest towns Avest of Chingtu, on the road to Tibet. On the other side of the province, at

Fungtu hien, occur the fire-wells, where great supplies of

petroleum gas are used to evaporate the salt dug out near by.

The many topics of interest in all parts of Sz’chuen, can only

be referred to in a brief sketch, for it is of itself a kingdom.’

‘ Chinese Repository, “Vol XIX., pp. 317 and .394 Annnles de la Foi, Tome III., pp. :Ui9-:}81, and Tome IV., pp. 40!)-4ir>. J^ter by Baron Hiclithofen oit the Provinces of ChlM’i, Shdiisl, Sheiis’t, Sz’chueiiy etc. Shanghai, 1872-Krt’itiicr, Tiafcriien Onteit, pp. 780-829.

THE PROVINCE OF KWAXGTUNG. 150

The province of Kwangtuno {i.e., Broad East), from its having been for a long time the only one of the eighteen to which foreigners have had access, has almost become synonymous with (vhina, although but little more is really known of it than of the others—except in the vicinage of Canton, and along the course of the Peh kiang, from Xanhiung down to that city. It is bounded north by Kiangsi and llunan, northeast by Fuh-kieu, south by the ocean, and west and northwest hy Kwangsi; with an area about the same as that of the United Kingdom. The natural facilities for internal navigation and an extensive coasting trade, are unusually great ; for while its long line of ‘coast, nearly a thousand miles in length, affords many excellent harbors, the rivers communicate with the regions on the west, north, and east beyond its borders.

The Xan shau runs along the north, between it and Kiangsi

and Ilunan, in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction^

presenting the same succession of short ridges, with bottom

lands ‘and clear streams between them, which are seen in Fuhkien.

These ridges take scores of names as they follow one

another from Kwangsi to Fuhkien, but no part is so well known

as the road, twenty-four miles in length, which crosses the Mei

ling [i.e. Plum ridge), between Xan-ngan and Xanhiung. The

elevation here is about a thousand feet, none of the peaks in

this part exceeding two thousand, but rising higher to the west.

Their summits are limestone, with granite underlying; granite

is also the prevailing rock along the coast. Li-nm ridge in

Hainan has some peaks reaching nearly to the snow-line. The

bottoms of the I’ivers are wide, and their fertility amply repays

the husbandman. Fruits, rice, silk, sugar, tobacco, and vegetables,

constitute the greater part of the pi-oductions. Lead,

iron, and coal, are abundant.

The Zhu Jiang, or Pearl River, which flows past Canton, takes this name only in that short portion of its course ; it is however preferable to employ this as a distinctive name, comprehending the whole stream, rather than to confuse the reader by naming the numerous branches. It is formed by the union of three rivers, the West, Korth, and East, the two first of which unite at Sanshwui, west of the city, while the East River joins them at Whampoa. The Si kiang, or AVest Iliver, by far the largest, rises in the eastern part of Yunnan, and receives tributaries throughout the whole of Kwangsi, along the southern acclivities of the Xan shan, and after a course of 500 miles, passes out to sea through numerous mouths, the best known of which is the Boeca Tigris. The Peh kiang, or North Piver, joins it after a course of 200 miles, and the East Piver is nearly the same length; these two streams discharge the surplus waters of all the northern parts of Kwangtung. The country drained by the three cannot benmch less than 150,000 square miles, and most of their channels are navigable for boats to all the large towns in this and the province of Kwangsi. The Han kiang is the only river of importance in the eastern end of Kwangtung; the large town of Chauchau lies near its mouth. There can hardly be less than three hundred islands scattered along the deeply indented coast line of this province between Namoh Island and Annani, of which nearly one-third belong to the department of Kwangchau.

Canton,, or Kwangchau fu (i.e. Broad City), the provincial capital, lies on the north bank of the Pearl River, in lat. 23° 7’10” K., and long. 113° 11:’ 30″ E., nearly parallel with Havana, Muskat, and Calcutta ; its climate is, however, colder than any of those cities. The name Canton is a corruption of Kwangtung, derived in English from Kamtoin, the Portuguese mode of writing it ; the citizens themselves usually call it Kicangtung Sling chinij, i.e. the provincial capital of Kwangtung or simply sdny cJilny. Another name is Yang-ching, or the ‘City of Rams,’ and a third the City of Cienii, both derived from ancient legends. It lies at the foot of the White Cloud hills, along the banks of the river, about seventy miles north of Macao in a direct line, and ninety northwest of Hongkong ; these distances are greater by the river.

SIZE AND SITUATION OF CANTON. 161

The delta into which the West, JSTorth, and East Rivei’S fall might be called a gulf, if the islands in it did not occupy so much of the area. The whole forms one of the most fertile parts of the province, and one of the most extensive estuaries of any river in the world,—being a rough triangle about a hundred miles long on each side. The bay of Lintin—so called from the islet of that name, where opium and other store ships formerly anchored—is the largest sheet of water, and lies below the principal embouchure of the river, called Fu, 3ft(.n, i.e. Bocca Tigi-is, or Bogue. Few rivers can be more completely protected by nature than this ; their defences of walls and guns at this spot, however, have availed the Chinese but little against the skill and power of their enemies. Ships pass through it up to the auchorage at Whainpoa, about thirty miles, from whence Canton lies twelve miles nearly due west. The approach to it is indicated by two lofty ]3agodas within the walls, and the multitude of boats and junks thronging the river, amidst which the most pleasing object to the ” far- travelled stranger” is the glimpse he gets through their masts of the foreign houses on Sha-meen, and the flagstaifs bearing their national ensigns.

The part of Canton inclosed by walls is about six miles in circumference ; having a partition wall running east and west, which divides it into two unequal parts. The entire circuit, including the suburbs, is nearly ten miles. The population on land and water, so far as the best data enable one to judge, cannot be less than a million of inhabitants. This estimate has been doubted ; and certainty npon the subject is not to be attained, for the census affords no aid in determining this point, owing to the fact that it is set down hy districts, and Canton lies partly in two districts, Kanhai and Pwanyii, which extend beyond the walls many miles. Davis says, ” the whole circuit of the city has been compassed within two hours by persons on foot, and cannot exceed six or seven miles ;

”—-which is true, but he means only that portion contained within the walls ; and there are at least as many houses without the walls as within them, besides the boats. The city is constantly increasing, the western suburbs present many new streets entirely built up within the last ten years. The houses stretch along the river from opposite the Fa ti or Flower grounds to French Folly, a distance of four miles, and the banks are everywhere nearly concealed by the boats and rafts.

The situation of Canton is one w^hich would naturally soon attract settlers. The earliest notices of the city date back two centuries befoi-e Christ, but traders were doubtless located here prior to that time. It grew in importance as the country became better settled, and in a.d. 700, a regular market was opened, and a collector of customs appointed. AYhenthe Manchus overran the country in 1650, this city resisted their ntmost efforts to reduce it for the space of eleven months, and was finally carried by treachery. Martini states that a hundred thousand men were killed at its sack ; and the whole number who lost their lives at the final assault and during the siege was 700,000—if the native accounts are trustworthy.’ Since then, it has been rebuilt, and has increased in prosperity until it is regarded as the second city in the empire for numbers, and is probably at present the first in wealth.

The foundations of the city Avails are of sandstone, their upper

part being brick ; they are about twenty feet thick, and from

twenty-five to forty feet high, having an esplanade on the inside,

and pathways leading to the i-aiiipart, on three sides. The

houses are built near the wall on both sides of it, so that except

on the north, one hardly sees it when walking around the

city. There are twelve outer gates, four in the partition wall,

and two water gates, through which boats pass, into the moat,

from east to west. A ditch once encompassed the walls, now

dry on the northern side ; on the other thi’cc, and within the

city, it and most of the canals arc filled by the tide, which as it

runs out does nmch to cleanse iUp city from its sewage. The

gates are all shut at night, and a guard is stationed near them to

preserve order, but the idle soldiers themselves cause at times

no little disturbance. Among the names of the gates are Gfeat-

Peace gate, Eternal-Rest gate, Five-Genii gate, Bainhoo- Wiehet

gate, etc.

The appearance of the city when viewed from the hills on the north is insipid and uninviting, compared with western cities, being an expanse of reddish roofs, often concealed by frames for drying or dyeing clothes, or shaded and relieved by a few large trees, and interspersed with high, red ])olcs used for flagstaffs. Two pagodas shoot up within the walls, far above the watch towers on them, and with the five-storied tower on Kwanyiji shan near the northern gate, form the most conspicuous objects in the prospect.

‘ The French bishop Palafox gives still another accoimt of the capture of Canton ; his statement contains, however, one or two glaring errors. Vid. Iliitoire de la Conquete de la Chine par lea Tartares^ pp. 150 ff.

SIGHTS OF CANTON CITY. 163

To a spectator at this elevation, the river is a prominent feature in the landscape, as it shines out covered with a great diversity of boats of different colors aiul sizes, some stationary others moving, and all resounding with the mingled hum of laborers, sailors, musicians, hucksters, children, and boatwonien, pursuing their several sports and occupations. On a low sandstone ledge, in the channel off the city, once stood the Sea Pearl(Hai Zhu) Fort, called Dutcli Folly by foreigners, the cpiietude reigning witliin which contrasted agreeably with the liveliness of the waters around. Beyond, on its southern shore, lie the suburb and island of Ilonam, and green fields and low hills are

seen still farther in the distance ; at the western angle of this

island the Pearl Piver divides, at the Peh-ngo tan or Macao

Passage, the greatest body of water flowing south, and leaving a

comparatively narrow channel before the city. The hills on the

north rise twehe hundred feet, their acclivities for miles being

covered with graves and tombs, the necropolis of this vast city.

The streets are too narrow to be seen from such a spot.

Among their names, amounting in all to more than six hundred,

are Dragon street, Martial Dragon street, l\’arl street. Golden

Fknver street, I^ew Green Pea street, Physic street, SjKctaele

street, Old Clothes street, etc. They are not as dirty as those

of some other cities in the empire, and on the whole, considering

the habits of the people and surveillance of the government,

which prevents almost everything like public spirit, Canton has

been a well governed, cleanly city. In these respects it is not

now as w^ell kept, perhaps, as it was before the war, nor was it

ever comparable to modern cities in the West, nor should it be

likened to them : without a coi’poration to attend to its condition,

or having power to levy taxes to defray its unavoidable

expenses, it cannot be expected that it should be as wholesome.

It is more surprising, rather, that it is no worse than it is. The houses along the waterside are built upon piles and those portions of the city are subject to inundations. On the edge of the stream, the water percolates the soil, and spoils all the wells.

The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous. There are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and one hundred and twenty-four temples, pavilions, halls, and other religious edifices within the circuit of the city. The Kwang tah or ‘Plain pagoda,’ was erected by the Mohammedans (who still reside near it), about ten centuries ago, and is rather a minaret than a pagoda, though quite unlike those structures of Turkey in its style of architecture ; it shoots up in an angular, tapering tower, to the height of one hundred and sixty feet. The other is an octagonal ])agoda, of nine stories, one hundred and seventy feet high, first erected more than thirteen hundred years ago. The geoniancei’S say that the whole city is like a junk, these two pagodas are her masts, and the iive-storied tower on the northern wall, her stern sheets.

Among the best known monuments to foreigners visiting this city was the monastery of ChorKj-shoin ^z\ ‘ Temple of Longevity,’ founded in 1573, and occupying spacious grounds. “In the iirst pavilion are three Buddhas ; in the second a sevenstory, gilt pagoda, in which are TO images of Buddha. In the third pavilion is an image of Buddha reclining,, and in a merry mood. A garden in the rear is an attractive place of resort, and another, on one side of the entrance, has a numher of tanks in which gold fish are reared. In the space in front of the temple a fair is held every morning for the sale of jade ornaments and other articles.” ‘ This temple was destroyed in Novemher, 1881, hy a mob who were incensed at the alleged jnisbehaviour of some of the priests toward the female devotees—an instance of the existence in China of a lively popular sentiment regarding certain matters. Near this compound stands the ‘Temple of the Five Hundred Genii,’ containing 500 statues of various sizes in honor of Buddha and his disciples.

‘Dr. Kerr, Cttntoiu (Inidc,

BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN CANTON. 165

The TTaJ-cJiwang sz\ a Buddhist temple at Ilonam usually known as the Plonam Joss-house, is one of the largest in Canton. Its grounds cover about seven aci-es, surrounded by a wall, and divided into courts, garden-spots, and a burial-gromid, where are deposited the ashes of priests after cremation. The buildings consist mostly of cloistei’s or apartments surrounding a court, within which is a temple, a pavilion, or a hall ; these courts are overshadowed by bastard-banian trees, the resort of thousands of birds. The outer gateway leads up a gravelled walk to a high portico guarded by two huge demoniac figures, through which the visitor enters a small inclosure, separated from the largest one by another spacious porch, in which are four colossal statues. This conducts him to the main temple, a low building one hundred feet square, and surrounded by pillars; it contains three wooden gilded images, in a sitting posture, called San Pao Fah, or the Past, Present, and Future Puddha, each of them about twenty-five feet high, and surrounded by numerous altars and attendant images. Daily prayers are chanted before them by a large chapter of priests, all of whom, dressed in yellow canonicals, go through the liturgy. Beyond this a smaller building contains a marble carving somewhat resembling a pagoda, under which is preserved a relic of Puddha, said to be one of his toe-nails. This court has other shrines, and many rooms for the accommodation of the priests, among which are the printing-office and library, both of them respectable for size, and containing the blocks of books issue by them, and sold to devotees.

There are about one hundred and seventy-five priests connected with the establishment, only a portion of whom can read. Among the buildings are several small temples dedicated to national deities whom the Puddhists have adopted into their mythology. One of the houses adjoining holds the hogs (not hiKjs, as was stated in one work) offered by worshippers who feed them as long as they live.

•Two other shrines belonging to the Buddhists, are both of them, like the Honam temple, well endowed. One called Kivanghiao s.i\ or ‘ Temple of Glorious Filial Duty,’ contains two hundred priests, who are supported from glebe lands, estimated at three thousand five hundred acres. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is not exactly known, but probably exceeds two thousand, nine-tenths of whom are Puddhists. There are only three temples of the Pationalists, their numbers and influence being far less in this city than those of the Puddhists.

The Cluntj-liioang miao is an important religious institution in every Chinese city, the temple, being a sort of palladium, in which both rulers and people offer their devotions for the mcIfare of the city. The superintendent of that in Canton pays $4,000 for his situation, which sum, with a large profit, is obtained again in a few years, by the sale of candles, incense, etc., to the worshippers. The temples in China are generally cheerJJess and gloomy abodes, well enough fitted, however, for the residence of inanimate idols and the perfurmance of unsatisfying ceremonies. The entrance courts are usually occupied by liucksters, beggars, and idlers, who are occasionally driven off to give room for the mat-sheds in which theatrical performances got up by priests are acted. The principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in fictnt, and the altar, drums, bells, and other furniture of the temple, are little calculated to enliven it ; the cells and cloisters are inhabited by men almost as senseless as the idols they serve, miserable beings, whose droning, useless life is too often only a cloak for vice, indolence, and crime, which make the class an opprobrium in the eyes of their countrymen.

Canton is the most intluential city in Southern China, and its

reputation for riches and luxury is established throughout the

central and northern provinces, owing to its formerly engrossing

the entire foreign trade np to 1843, for a period of about one

hundred years. At that time the residence of the governorgeneral

Avas at Shao-king fu, west of Canton, and his official

guard of 5,000 troops is still quartered there, as the Manchii

garrison is deemed enougli for the defence of Canton. He and

the lloppo, or collector of customs, once had their yamuns in the

Xew City, but a llomish C^athedral lias been built on the ^te

of the former’s office since its capture in 1857. The governor,

treasurer, Manchu commandant, chancellor, and the lower local

magistrates (ten in all), live in the Old City, and with their official

retinues compose a large body of underlings. Some of these

establishments occupy four or five acres.

The KanyYuenoY Examination Hall, lies in the southeastern corner of the Old City, similar in size and arrangement to these edifices in other cities. It is 1,330 feet long, 583 wide, and covers over sixteen acres. The wall surrounding it is entered at the east and west corners of the south end, where door-keepers are stationed to prevent a crowd of idlers. The cells are arranged in two sets on each side of the main passage^ which is paved and lined with trees: they are further disposed in rows of 57 and 63 cells each—all reached through one side door.

The total is 8,653 ; each cell is 5 feet 9 inches deep, by 3 feet 8 inches wide ; grooves are made in the wall to admit a planlc, serving as a table by day and a bed by night. Once within, the students arc contined to their several stalls, and the outer gate is sealed. A single roof covers the cells of one range, the ranges being 3 feet 8 inches apart. The northern portion includes about one-third of the whole, and is built over with the lialls, courts, lodging-rooms, and guard or eating-houses of the highest examiners, their assistants and copyists, with thousands of waiters, printers, underlings, and soldiers. At the biennial examination the total number of students and others in the Hall reaches nearly twelve thousand men.

THE THIRTEEN HONGS OR FACTORIES. 167

There are four prisons in the city, all of them large establish- v^

ments ; all the capital offenders in the province are brought to Canton for trial before the provincial officers, and this regulation makes it necessary to provide spacious accommodations for them. The execution-ground is a small yard near a pottery manufacture between the southern gate and the river side, and unless the ground is newly stained with blood, or cages containing the heads of the criminals are hung around, has nothing about it to attract the attention. Another public building, situated near the governor’s palace, is the Wan-s/iao Jiung, or ‘ Imperial Presence hall,’ where three days before and after his majesty’s birthday, the officers and citizens assemble to pay him adoration.

The various guilds among the people, and the clubs of scholars

and merchants from other provinces, have, each of them, public

halls which are usually called consoo houses by foreigners, from

a corruption of a native term hung-sz\ i.e., public hall ; but the

usual designation is houi kwan or ‘ Assembly Hall.’ Their

total number must be quite one hundred and fifty, and some of

them are not destitute of elegance.’

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. II., pp. 145, 191, &c.

The former residences of foreigners in the western suburbs were known as Shisan Hang or ‘ Thirteen Hangs,’ “” and for nearly two centuries furnished ulniust theonlv (!\hll)ition to the Chinese people of the Yangren or ‘ocean-men’. Here the fears and the greed of the rulers, landlords, and traders combined to restrain foreigners of all nations “within an area of about fifteen acres, a large part of this space being the Garden or licyxnidxiii’ta

– This word is derived from the Chinese hong or hang, meaning a row or series, and is applied to warehouses because these consist of a succession of rooms. The foreign factories were built in this manner, and therefore the Chinese called each block a hong; the old security-merchants were dubbed liong-merchants, because they lived in such establishments.

“Walk on the baidv of the river. All these houses and out-houses covered a space scarcely as great as the base of the Great Pyramid ; its total population, including native and foreign servants, was upwards of a thousand souls. The shops and nuirkets of the Chinese were separated from them only a few feet, and this greatly increased the danger from fire, as may be inferred from the sketch of the street next on the west side.

VIEW OF A STKEET IN CANTON.ENVIKOXS OF CANTOX. 169

In 1S50, the number of hongs was reckoned to be 16, and the local calendar for that A’ear contained 317 names, not including women and children. Besides the 16 Hangs, four native streets, boidered with shops for the sale of fancy and silk goods to their foreign customers, ran between the factories. This latter name was given to them from their being the residences of factors, for no handicraft was carried on here, nor were many goods stored in them. Fires were not unusual, which demolished jwrtions of them ; in 1822 they were completely consumed; another conflagration in 1843 destroyed two hongs and a street of shops ; and in 1842, owing to a sudden riot, connected with paying the English indemnity, the British Consulate was set on fire. Finally, as if to inaugurate a new era, they were all simultaneously burned by the local authorities to drive out the British forces, in December, 1856, and every trace of this interesting spot as it existed for so long a time in the annals of foreign intercourse obliterated. Since the return of trade, a new and better site has been fomned at Shameen, west of the old spot, by building a solid stone wall and filling in a long, marshy low-tide bank, formerly occupied by boats, to a height of 8 or 10 feet, on which there is room for gardens as well as houses. This is surrounded by water, and thereby secure from fire and mobs t() which the old hongs were exposed. Besidences are obtainable anywhere in the city by foreigners, and the common sight in the olden times of their standing outside of the Great Peace Gate to see the crowd pass in and out while

they themselves could not enter, is no longer seen. A very

good map of the enciente was made by an American missionary,

Daniel Vrooman, by taking the angles of all the conspicuoni

buildings therein, with the highest points in the suburbs ; he

then taught a native to pace the streets between them, compass

in liand (noting courses and distances, which he fixed by the principal gates), until a complete plan was filled out. When the city was opened four years afterwards this map was foundto need no important corrections.

The trades and manufactories at Canton are mainly connected

with the foreign commerce. Many silk fabrics are woven at

Fatshan, a large town situated about ten miles west of the city ;

fire-crackers, paper, mat-sails, cotton clotli, and other articles,

are also made there for exportation. The number of persons

engaged in M’eaving cloth in Canton is about 50000, including

embroiderers ; nearly 7000 barbers and 4200 shoemakers are

stated as the number licensed to shave the crowns and shoe the

soles of their fellow-citizens.

^lie opposite suburb of Ilonam offers pleasant walks for recreation, and the citizens are in the habit of going over the river to saunter in its fields, or in the cool grounds of the great temple ; a race-course and many enjoyable rides on horseback also tempt foreigners into the country. A couple of miles up the river are the Fa ti or Flower gardens which once supplied the plants carried out of the country, and are resorted to bypleasure parties ; but to one accustomed to the squares, gardens, and esplanades of M’estern cities, these grounds appear mean in

the extreme.y Foreigners randjle into the country, but rowing

upon the river is their favorite reci-eation. Like Europeans in

all parts of the East, they retain their own costume and modes

of living, and do not espouse native styles ; though if it were

not for the shaven crown, it is not unlikely that many of them

would adopt the Chinese dress.

The Cantonese enumerate eight remarkable localities, called

l>ah hhuj^ which they consider worth}’ the attention of the

stranger. The first is the peak of Yuehsiu, just within the

walls on the north of the city, and commanding a fine view of

the surrounding country. The Vi-])a Tah^ or Lyre pagoda at AVhampoa, and the ‘Eastern Sea Fish-pearl,’ a rock in the Pearl

River off the city, on wliich the fort ah-eady referred to as

the ‘ Dutch Folly ‘ was formerly situated, are two more ; the

pavilion of the Five Genii, with the five stone rams, and print

of a man’s foot in the rock, ” always filled with water,” near

by ; the rocks of Yu-shan ; the lucky wells of Faukiu in the

western suburbs ; cascade of Si-tsiau, forty miles west of the

city ; and a famous red building in the city, complete the eight

” lions.”

The foreign shipping all anchored, in the early days, at “Whampoa, but this once important anchorage has been nearly deserted since the river steamers began their trips to the outer waters. There are two islands on the south side of the anchorage, called French and Danes’ islands, on which foreigners are buried, some of the gravestones marking a century past. The prospect from the summit of the hills hereabonts is picturesque and charming, giving the spectator a high idea of the fertility and industry of the land and its people. The town of Whanipoa and its pagoda lie north of the anchorage; between this and Canton is another, called Lob creek pagoda, both of them uninhabited and decaying.

MACAO AND HONGKONG. 171

Macao (pronounced Mal’ov) is a Portuguese settlement on a small peninsula projecting from the south-eastern end of the large island of Iliangshan. Its Chinese inhabitants have been governed since 1S49 by the Portuguese authorities somewhat differently from their own people, but the mixed government has succeeded very well. The circuit of this settlement is about eight miles ; its position is beautiful and very agreeable ; nearly surrounded with water, and open to the sea breezes, having a good variety of hill and plain even in its little territory, and a large island on the west called Tul-vtien shan or La})a Island, on which arc pleasant rambles, to be reached by equally pleasant boat excursions, it offers, moreover, one of the healthiest residences in south-eastern Asia. The population is not far from 80,000, of whom more than ‘7,000 are Portuguese and other foreigners, living under the control of the Portuguese authorities. The Portuguese have refused to pay the former annual ground-rent of 000 taels to the Chinese Government, since the assassination of their governor in 1849, and now control all the inhabitants living within the Barrier wall, most of M’lioni have been born therein. The houses occupied by the foreign population aie solidly built of brick or adobie, large, roomy, and open, and from the rising nature of the ground on which they stand, present an imposing appearance to the visitor coming in from the sea.

There are a few notable buildings in the settlement ; the most imposing edifice, St. Paul’s church, was burned in 1835.

Three forts on connnanding eminences protect the town, and others outside of the walls defend its waters ; the governor takes the oaths of office in the Monte fort ; but the government offices are mostly in the Senate house, situated in the middle of the town. Macao was, up to 1813, the only residence for the

families of merchants trading at Canton. Of late the authorities

are doing much to revive the prospei-ity of the place, by making

it a free port. The Typa anchorage lies’ between the islands

Mackerara and Typa, about three miles off the southern end

of the peninsula ; all small vessels go into the Inner harbor on

the west side of the town. Ships anchoring in the Roads are

obliged to lie about three miles off in consequence of shallow

Mater, and large ones cannot come nearer than six or seven miles.’

Since the ascendancy of Hongkong, this once celebrated poi-t

has fallen away in trade and importance, and for many years

had an infamous reputation for the protection its rulers afforded

the coolie trade.

Eastward from Macao, about, forty miles, lies, the English colony of Hongkong, an island in lat. 22° 16^’ K., and long. Ill” 8^’ E., on the eastern side of the estuary of the Pearl River. The island of Hongkong, or Xianggang (i.e., the Fragrant Streams), is nine miles long, eight broad, and twenty-six in circumference, presenting an exceedingly uneven, barren surface, consisting for the most part of ranges of hills, with narrow intervales, and a little level beach land. Victoria Peak is 1825 feet. Probably not one-twentieth of the surface is available for a<^riciiltural purposes. The island and harbor were first ceded to the Crown of England by the treaty made between Captain Elliot and Kishen, in January, 1841, and again by the treaty of Nanjing, in August, 1842 ; lastly, by the Convention of Peking, October 24, ISCO, the opposite peninsula of Ivowlung M’as added, in order to furnish space for quartering troops and storehouse room for naval and military supplies. The town of Victoria lies on the north side, and extends more than three miles along the shore. The secure and convenient harbor has attracted the settlement here, though the nne\en nature of the ground compels the inhabitants to stretch their warehouses and dwellings along the beach.

‘ Cldnese Rejwsitory, passim. An Historical Sketch of the Portwjxiese Settlements in China. Bj Hir A. Ljungstedt. Boston, 188(>.

The architecture of most of the buildings erected in Victoria is eu})erior to anything heretofore seen in (^liina. Its population is now estimated at 130,000, of whom five-sixths are Chinese tradesmen, craftsmen, laborers, and boatmen, few of whom lune their families. • The government of the colony is vested ^’n a governor, chief-justice’, and a legislative council of five, assisted by various subordinate officers and secretaries, the M’liole forming a cumbrous and expensive machinery, compaied “with the needs and resources of the colony The Bishop of Victoria has an advisory control over the missions of the establishment in the southern provinces of China, and supervises the schools in the colony, where many youths are trained in English and Chinese literature.

The supplies of the island are chiefly brought from the mainland where an increasing population of Chinese, under the control of the magistrate of Kowluiig, find ample demand for all the provisions they can furnish.

Three newspapers are published in English, and two in Chinese. The Seaman’s and Military hospitals, the chapels and schools of the London and Church Missionary Society, St. John’s Cathedral, Tioman Catholic establishment, the government house, the magistracy, jail, the ordnance and engineer departments.

TOWNS OF KWAXGTUNG PROVINCE. 173

Exchange, and the Club house, are among the principal edifices. The amount of money expended in buildings in this colony is enormous, aiid most of them are substantial stone or brick houses. The view of the city as seen from the harbor is only excelled in beauty by the wider panorama spread out before the spectator on Victoria Peak. During the forty-odd years of its occupation, this colony lias slowly advanced in commercial importance, and become an entrepot for foreign goods designed for native markets in Southern China. Every facility has been given to the Chinese who resort to its shops to carry away their purchases, by making the port free of every impost,

and preventing the imperial revenue cutters from interfering

with their junks while in sight of the island. The arrangements

of this contested point so that the Chinese revenue shall

not suffer have not satisfied either party, and as it is in the similar

case of Gibraltar, is not likely to soon be settled. Smugglers

must run their own risks with the imperial officers. The

most valuable article leaving Hongkong is opium, but the

greatest portion of its exports pay the duties on entering China

at the five open ports in the province of Kwangtung. As the

focus of postal lines of passenger steamers, and the port where

mercantile vessels come to learn markets, Ilonofkono; exerts a

greater influence on the southeast of Asia than her trade and

size indicate. The island of Shangclmen or San9ian, where Xavier

died, lies southwest of Macao about thirty miles, and is sometimes

visited by devout persons from that place to reverence his tomb, which they keep in repair.

The city oi Shauchau in the northern part of the province lies at the fork of the river, which compels a change of boats for passengers and goods ; it is one of the largest cities after Canton, and a pontoon bridge furnishes the needed facilities for stopping and taxing the boats and goods passing through.

Shanking, west of Canton, is another important town, which held out a long time against the Manchus ;* it was formerly the seat of the provincial authorities, till they removed to Canton in 1630 to keep the foreigners under control. It stretches along six miles of the river bank, a well-built city for China, in a beautiful position. Some of its districts furnish green teas and matting for the Canton market, and this trade has opened the way for a large emigration to foreign countries. Among other towns of note is Xanhiung, situated at the head of navigation on the North River, where goods cross the Mei ling.

‘ Palafox, Conquete de la CJdne, p. 172.

Before the coast was opened to trade, fifty thousand porters obtained a livelihood by transporting packages, passengers, and merchandise to and from this town and Xan-ngan in Kiangsi. It is a thriving place, and the restless habits of these industrious carriers give its population somewhat of a turbulent character. Many of them are women, who usually pair off by themselves and carry as heavy burdens as the men.

Not far from Yangshan hien is a fine cavern, the JV^iu Yen or ‘ Ox Cave,’ on a hillside near the North River. Its entrance is like a grand hall, with pillars TO feet high and 8 or 10 feet thick. The finest part is exposed to the sun, but many pretty rooms and niches are revealed by torches ; echoes 2-esound through their recesses. The stalactites and stalagmites present a vast variety of shapes—some like immense folds of di-apery, between which are lamps, thrones and windows of all shapes and sizes, while others hang from the roof in fanciful forms.

‘ Embassy (of Lord Amherst) to Cldna, Moxon’s ed., 1840, p. 98.

THE ISLAND OF HAINAN. 175

The scenery along the river, between Xanhiung and Shauchau, is described as wild, rugged, and barren in the extreme; the summits of the mountains seem to touch each other across the river, and massive fragments fallen from their sides, in and along the river, indicate that the passage is not altogether free from danger. In this mountainous region coal is procured by opening horizontal shafts to the mines. Ellis ‘ says, it was brought some distance to the place where he saw it, to be used in the manufacture of green vitriol. Many pagodas are passed in the stretch of 330 miles between Xanhiung and Canton, calculated to attract notice, and assure the native boatmen which swarm on its waters, of the protection of the two elements he has to deal with—wind and water. One of the most conspicuous objects in this part of the river are five rocks, which rise abruptly from the banks, and are fancifully called Wt(-7na-tao, or ‘Five-horses’ heads.’ The formation of this part of the province consists of compact, dark-colored limestone, overlying sandstone and breccia. Nearly halfway between Shauchau and Canton is a celebrated mountain and cavern temple, dedicated to Kwanjnn, the goddess of Mercy, and most charmingly situated amid waterfalls, groves, and fine scenery, near a hill about 1850 feet high. The cliff has a sheer descent of five hundred feet; the temple is in a fissure a hundred feet above the water, and consists of two stories; the steps leading up to them, the rooms, walls, and cells, are all cut out of the rock. Inscription;; and scrolls hide the naked walls, and a few inane priests inhabit this somewhat gloomy abode. Mr. Barrow draws a proper comparison between these men and the inmates of the Cork Convent in Portugal, or the Franciscan Convent in Madeira, who had likewise ” chained themselves to a rock, to be gnawed by the vultures of superstition and fanaticism,” but these last have less excuse.

The island of Hainan constitutes a single department, Kiungchau,

but its prefect has no power over the central and mountainous

parts. In early European travels it is named Aynao, Kainan

and Aniam. It is about one hundred and fifty miles long and

one hundred broad, being in extent nearly twice the size of

Sicily. It is separated from the main by Luichau Strait, sixteen

miles wide, whose shoals and reefs render its passage uncertain.

The interior of the island is mountainous, and well wooded, and the inhabitants give a partial submission to the Chinese ; Ihey are identical in race with the mountaineers in Kweichau. This ridge is called Li-mu ling; a remarkable peak in the centre of the southern half, Wuzhi Shan or ‘ Fivefinger Mountain,’ probably rises 10,000 feet. The Chinese inhabitants are mostly descendants of emigrants from Fuhkien, and are either trading, agricultural, marine, or piratical in their vocation, as they can make most money. The lands along the coast are fertile, producing areca-nuts, cocoa-nuts, and other tropical fruits, which are not found on the main. Kiungchau fu lies at the mouth of the Li-mu River, opposite Luichau. The port is Hoiliau, nineteen miles distant, but the entrance is too shallow for most vessels, and the trade consequently seeks a better market at Pakhoi, a town which has recently risen to importance as a treaty port on the mainland. All the thirteen district towns are situated on the coast, and within their circuit, on Chinese maps, a line is drawn, inclosing the centre of the island, within which the Li viin^ or Li people live, some of whom are acknowledged to he independent. They are therefore known as wild and civilized Li, and are usually in a state of chronic irritation from the harsh treatment of the rulers. It is prohahle that they originally came from the Malayan Peninsula (as their features, dress, and habits indicate their atiinity with those tribes), and have gradually withdrawn themselves into their recesses to avoid oppression. In 1202, the Emperor Kublai gave twenty thousand of them lands free for a time in the eastern parts, but the Ming sovereigns found them all intractable and l)elligerent. The population of the island is about a million. Its productions are rice, sweet potatoes, sugar, tobacco, fruits, timber, and insect wax.’

The province of Guangxi(l.e. Broad West) extends westward of Guangdong to the borders of Annam, occupying the region on the southwest of the Xan ling, and has been seldom visited by foreigners, mIioso journeys have been up the Kwai Jiang: or ‘Cassia River’ into Hunan. The banks of the rivers sometimes spread out into plains, more in the eastern parts than elsewhere, on which an abundance of rice is grown. There are mines of gold, silver, and other metals, in this province, most of which are worked under the superintendence of government, but no data are accessible from whicli to ascertain the produce.

Among the commercial productions of Guangxi, are cassia, cassia-oil, ijik-stones, and cabinet-woods; its natural ivsources supply the prin(;i})al articles of trade, for there are no manufactures of importance. IMany partially subdued tribes are found within the limits of this province, who are ruled by their own hereditary governors, under the supervision of the Chinese authorities; there are twenty-four vhau districts occupied by these people, the names of whose head-men are given in the lied

‘ E. C. Taintor, OeogrnpMeal Skelcit of the Mnnd of JTnlnnn, with map.

(Canton. 18«8. Journal N. G. Br. R. A. S., No. VII., Arts. I., 11., and IN.C’/iiTKi li/anew, Vols. I., p. 124, and II., p. 382. N. B. Dennys, Report on thtnetoly-^jpeiied porta of Kiangchow {UoUkiu) in JIi<iu((n, <ind lldiphong in. Tonqidn. Ilouij’koug, 1878.

THE PROVINCE OF KWANGSI. 177

Book, and their position marked in the statistical maps of the

empire, but no information is furnished in either, concerning

the numbers, hmguage, or occupations, of the inhabitants.

Guangxi is well watered by the west lliver and its branches, which enable traders to convey timber and surplus produce to Canton, and receive from thence salt and other articles. The mountains on the northwest are occasionally covered with siK)w; many of the western districts furnish little besides wood for buildings and boats. The basin of the West River is subdivided by ranges of hills into three large valleys, through which flow many tributaries of the leading streams, and as they each usually drop the old name on receiving a new affluent, it is a confusing study to follow them all. On the south the river Yiih rises near Yunnan, and deflects south to Kan-ning near

the borders of Kwangtung, joining the central trunk at Sinchau,

after a course of five hundred miles. On the north the

river Lung and the Hiing-shui receive the surplus drainage

of the northern districts and of Kweichau, a region where the

Miaotsz’ have long kept watch and ward over their hilly abodes.

The waters are then poured into the central trench a few miles

west of Sinchau. This main artery of the province rises in

Yunnan and would connect it by batteaux with Canton City if the channel were improved ; it is called Sz’ ho, and ranks as the largest tributary of the Pearl River.

The capital, Guilin (i.e., Cassia Forest), lies on the Cassia River, a branch of the West River, in the northeast part of the province ; it is a poorly built city, surrounded by canals and branches of the river, destitute of any edifices wortliy of notice and having no great amount of trade. During the Tai-ping rebellion, this and the next town were nearly destroyed between the insurgents and imperialists.

Wuchau fu, on the same river, at its junction with the Long Jiang, or ‘Dragon River’, where they unite and form the West River, is the largest trading town in the province. The independent chau districts are scattered over the southwest near the frontiers of Annam, and if anything can be inferred from their position, it may be concluded that they were settled by Laos tribes, who had been induced, by the comparative security of life and property within the frontiers, to acknowledge the Chinese sway.’

The province of Kweichau (*.<?., Koblc Region) is on the whole the poorest of the eighteen in the character of its inhabitants, amount of its products, and development of its resources.

A range of mountains passes from the northeast side in a southwesterly course to Yunnan, forming the watershed between the valleys of the Yangtsz’ and Siang rivers, a rough but fertile region. The western slopes are peopled by Chinese tillers of the soil, a rude and ignorant race, and rather turbulent; the eastern districts are largely in the hands of the Miaotsz’, who are considered by the officials and their troops to be lawful objects

of oppression and destruction. The climate of the province

is regarded as malarious, owing to the quantity of stagnant

water and the impurity of that drawn from wells. Its productions

consist of rice, wheat, musk, insect wax, tobacco, timber,

and cassia, with lead, copper, silver, quicksilver, and iron. The

quicksilver mines are in Kai chau, north of the provincial capital,

and apparently exceed in extent and richness all other

known deposits of this metal ; they have been worked for centuries.

Cinnabar occurs at various places, about lat. 27°, in a

belt extending quite across the province, and tei’minating near

the borders of Yunnan. Two kinds of silk obtained from the

worms which feed on the mulberry and oak, furnish material

for clothing so cheaply that cotton is imported from other provinces.

Horses and other domestic animals are reared in larger quantities than in the eastern provinces. •

The largest river is the AVu, which drains the central and northern parts of the province, and empties into the Yangtsz’, through the river Kien near Chungking. Other tributaries of that river and West River, also have their sources in this province, and by means of batteaux and rafts are all more or less available for traffic. The natural outlet for the products of Ivweichau is the river Yuen in Ilunan, whose various branches flow into it from the eastern prefectures, but their unsettled condition prevents regular or successful intercourse.

‘ Chinese Repodtory, Vol. XIV., pp. 171 ff.

KWEICHAU PROVINCE AND THE MIAOTSZ 179

The capital, Kweijang, is situated among the mountains ; it is the smallest provincial capital of the eighteen, its walls not being more than two miles in circumference. The other chief towns or departments are of inferior note. There are many military stations in the southern prefectures at the foot of the mountains, intended to restrain the unsubdued tribes of Miaotsz’ who inhabit them.

Miaotsz’ Types.

This name Miaotsz’ is used among the Chinese as a general term for all the dwellers upon these mountains, but is not applied to every clan by the people themselves. They consist of eighty-two tribes in all (found scattered over the mountains in Kwangtung, ITunan, and Kwangsi, as well as in Kweichau), speaking several dialects, and diifering among themselves in their customs, government, and dress. The Chinese have often described and pictured these people, but the notices are confined to a list of their divisions, and an account of their most striking peculiarities. Their language dift’ei’s entirely from the Chinese, but too little is known of it to ascertain its analogies to other tonj^ues; its affinities are most likely with the Laos, and those

tribes between Burmah, Siam, and China. One clan, inhabiting

Lipo hien in the extreme south, is called Yau-jin, and

although they occasionally come down to Canton to trade, the

citizens of that place firmly believe them to be furnished with

short tails like monkeys. They carry arms, are inclined to live

at peace with the lowlanders, but resist eveiy attempt to penetrate

into their fastnesses. The Yau-jin first settled in Kwangsi,

and thence passed over into Lien chau about the twelfth century, where they have since maintained their footing. Both sexes wear their hair braided in a tuft on the top of the head—but never shaven and tressed as the Chinese—and dress in loose garments of cotton and linen ; earrings are in imiversal use among them. They live at strife among themselves, which becomes a source of safety to the Chinese, who are willing enough to liarass and oppress, but are ill able to resist, these hardy mountaineers. In 1832, they broke out in active hostilities, and destroyed numerous parties of troops sent to subdue them, but were finally induced to return to their retreats by offers^of pardon and largesses granted to those who submitted.

A Chinese traveler among the Miaotsz’ says that some of them live in huts constructed upon the branches of trees, others in mud hovels ; and one tribe in clift” houses dug out of the hillsides, sometimes six hundred feet up. Their agriculture is rude, and their garments are obtained Ijy barter from the lowlanders in exchange for metals and grain, or wov^en by themselves.

The religious observances of these tribes are carefully noted, and whatever is connected with nuirriages and funerals.

THE PROVINCE OF YUNNAN. 181

In one tribe, it is the custom for the father of a new-born child, as soon as its mother has become strone^ enouoh to leave her couch, to get into bed himself and there receive the congratulations of his acquaintances, as he exhibits his offspring—a custom which has been found among the Tibetan tribes and elsewhere. Another class has the counterpart of the may-pole and its jocund dance, which, like its corresponding game, is availed of by young men to select their mates.’

The province of Yunnan {i.e., Cloudy South—south of the Yun ling, or ‘Cloudy Mountains”‘) is in the southwest of the empire, bounded by north Sz’chuen, east by Kweichau and Kwangsi, south by Annam, Laos, and Siam, and west by Burmah.

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 29; Vol. XIV., pp. 105-117; G. T. Lay,Chinese as They Are, p. 316 ; Journal of N’. C. Branch of Royal Asiatic Society,No. III., 1H59, and No. VI., 1869. Chinese Recorder, Vols. 11., p. 265, and III., pp. 33, 74, 96, 134 and 147. Peking Gazette for 1872. China Rei-ietc,Vol. v., p. 92.- Known as Widiharit in Pali records. Chinese Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33,74, sqq. ; see also pp. 62, 93, 126, for the record of a visit.

Its distance from the central authority of the Empire since its partial conquest under the Ilanjhjnasty has always made it a weak point, and the uneducated, mixed character of the inhabitants has given an advantage to enterprising leaders to resist Chinese rule. It was recovered from the aborigines by the Tang Emperors, who called it Jung chau, or the region of the Jung tribes, from which the name Karajang, i.e.. Black Jung, which Marco Polo calls it, is derived; Kublai Khan himself led an army in 1253 thither before he conquered China, and sent the Venetians on a mission there about the year 127S, after his establishment at Peking. A son of the Emperor was his Yiceroy over this outlying province at that time. The recent travels of Margary, Baber, and Anderson, of the British service, with Monhot and Garnier of the French, have done much to render this secluded province better known. The central portion is occupied by an extensive plateau, ramifying in various directions and intersected with valley-plains at altitudes of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, in Mdiich lie several large lakes and the seven principal cities in the province. These plains are overtopped by the ridges separating them, which, seen from the lower levels, appear, as in Sliansi, like horizontal, connected summit-lines. All are built up of red sandstone, like the basin in Sz’chuen, through which rivers, small and large, have furroM’ed their beds hundreds and thousands of feet, rendering communication almost impossible in certain directions as soon as one leaves the plateau. In the east and northwest, the defiles are less troublesome, and in this latter portion of the province are some peaks rising far above the snow line. These are called on Col. Yule’s map the Goolan Sigon range. The climate is cooler than in Sz’chuen, owing to this elevation, and not very healthy ; snow lies for weeks at Yunnan fu, and the summers are charming.

The Yangtsz’ enters the province on the northwest for a short distance. The greatest river in it is the Lantsan, which rises in Tibet, and runs for a long distance parallel with and between the Yangzi and Xu Kivers till the three break through the mountains not far from each other, and take different courses,—the largest turning to the eastward across China, the Lantsan southeast throngh Ynnnan to the gulf of Siani, under the name of the Meikon or river of Cambodia, and the third, or Salween, westerly through Burmah. The Meikon receives many large tributaries in its course across the province, and its entire length is not less than 1500 miles. The Lungehuen,

a large affluent of the Irrawadi, runs a little west of the

Salween. The Meinam rises in Yunnan, and flows south into

Siam under the name of the Xanting, and after a course of nearly

eight hundred miles, empties into the sea below Bangkok.

East of the Lantsan are several important streams, of which

three that unite in Annam to form the Sangkoi, are the largest.

The general course of these rivers is southeasterly, and their

upper waters are separated by mountain lidges, between which

the valleys are often reduced to very narrow limits. There are

two lakes in the eastern part of the province, south of the capital,

called Sien and Tien ; the latter is about seventy miles

long by twenty wide, and the Sien hu {I.e., ‘ Fairy Lake ‘) about

two-thirds as large. Another sheet of water in the northwest,

near Tali fu, coiinnunicating with the Yangtsz’ kiang, is called

Urh hai or Uhr sea, which is more* than a hundred miles long,

and about twenty in width.

INHABITANTS AND PRODUCTIONS OF YUNNAN. 183

The capital, Yunnan, lies u})ou the north shore of Lake Tien, and is a town of note, having, moreover, considerable political importance from its trade with other parts of the country through the Yangtsz’, and with Burmah. The city was seriously injured in 1834, by an earthquake, which is said to have lasted three entire days, forcing the inhabitants into tents or the open fields, and overthrowing every important building.’

The traffic between this province and Burinah centres at the fortified post of Tsantah, in the district of Tangjneh, both of them situated on a branch of the Irrawadi. The principal part of the commodities is transported upon animals from these depots to Bhamo, upon the Iri-awadi, the largest market-town in this part of Chin-India. The Chinese participate largely in this trade, which consists of raw and manufactured silk to the amount of §400,000 annualh’, tea, copper, carpets, orpiment, quicksilver, vermilion, drugs, fruits, and other things, carried from their country in exchange for raw cotton to the amount of $1,140,000 annually, ivory, wax, rhinoceros and deer’s horns, precious stones, birds’ nests, peacocks’ feathers, and foreign articles.

The entire traffic is probably $2,500,000 annually, and for a few years past has been regularly increasing. There is considerable intercourse and trade on the southern frontiers with the Lolos, or Laos and Annamese,” partly by means of the head-waters of the Meinam and Meikon—which are supposed to communicate with each other by a natural canal—and partly by caravans over the mountains. Yunnan fu was the capital of a Chinese prince about the time of the decadence of the Ming dynasty, who had rendered himself independent in this part of their empire by the overthrow of the rebel Li, but having linked his fortunes with an imbecile scion of that house, he displeased his officers, and his territories gradually fell under the sway of the conquering Manchus.

‘ A/males de la Foi, Tome VIII. , p. 87.
‘ Two thousand Chinese families live in Amerapura.

The southern and western districts of the province are inhabited by half-subdued tribes who are governed by their own rulers, under the nominal sway of the Chinese, and pass and repass across the frontiers in pursuit of trade or occupation. The extension of British trade from Bangoon toward this part of China, has brought those hill tribes more into notice, and proved in their present low and barbarous condition the accuracy of the ancient description by Marco Polo and the Boman Catholic missionaries. Colonel Yule aptly terms this wide region an “Ethnological Garden of tribes of various race and in every stage of uncivilization.” The unifying influence of the Chinese written language and literary institutions has been neutralized among these races by their tribal dissensions and inaptitude for study of any kind. Anderson gives short vocabularies of the Kakhyen, Shan, Ilotha Shan, Le-san and Poloung languages, all indicating radical differences of origin, the existence of which would keep them from mingling with each other as Avell as from the Chinese.’

The mineral wealth of Yunnan is greater and more varied than that of any other province, certain of the mines having been worked since the Sung dynasty. Coal occurs in many places on the borders of the central plateau ; some of it is anthracite of remarkable solidity and uniformity. Salt occurs in hills, not in wells as in Sz’chuen ; the brine is sometimes obtained by diving tunnels into the hillsides. Metalliferous ores reach from this province into the three neighboring ones. Copper is the most abundant, and the mines in Kingyuen fu, in the southwestern ‘part of Sz’chuen, have supplied both copper and zinc ores during the troubles in Yunnan. The copper at Ilwuili chau in that prefecture is worked by companies which pay a royalty of two taels a pecul to the government, and furnish the metal to the mine owners for $S per pecul. The pehtaiKj or argentan ores are mixed with copper, tin, or lead, by the manufacturers according to the uses the alloys are put to.

Silver exists in several places in the north, and the exploitation of the mines was successful until within 30 years past ; now they cannot be safely or profitably worked, in consequence of political disturbances. Gold is obtained in the sand of some rivers but not to a large extent; lead, iron, tin, and zinc occur in such plenty that they can be exported, but no data are accessible as to the entire product or export.
”’ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien.” rroced. Roy. Geog. Soc, Vols. XIII., p. 392, XIV.’, p. 335, XV., pp. 1G3 and 343. Col. Yule, Trade Routes to Westeru CJdiia—The Geo(jiuq,hic<d Mitynzine,April, 1875. Riclithofen, Recent Attoiipts to find a direct Trade-Road toSonthtDCstern China—Shoiif/fiai Budget, March 2(i, 1874. Journey of A. R.Margary from Shaiighae to Bhamo. Loudon, 1875. Col. H. Browne in Blue Books, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (1870-77).

CHAPTER IV. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF MANCHURIA, MONGOLIA, ILi, AND TIBET

The portions of the Chinese Empire beyond the limits of the Eighteen Provinces, though of far greater extent than China Proper, are comparatively of minor importance. Their vast regions are peopled by different races, whose languages are nnitually unintelligible, and whose tribes are held together under the Chinese sway rather by interest and reciprocal hostilities or dislike, than by force. European geographers have vaguely termed all that space lying north of Tibet to Siberia, and east of the Tsung ling to the Pacific, Chinese Tartary ; while the countries west of the Tsung ling or Belur tag, to the Aral Sea, have been collectively called Inde2}endtnt Tartary. Both these

names have already become nearly obsolete on good maps of

those regions ; the more accurate knowledge brought home by

recent travellers having ascertained that their inhabitants are

neither all Tartars (or Mongols) nor Turks, and further that

the native names and divisions are preferable to a single comprehensive

one. Such names as Manchuria, Mongolia, Songaria,

and Turkestan, derived from the leading tribes dwelling in

those countries, are more definite, though these are not permanent,

owing to the migratory, changeable habits of the people.

From their ignorance of scientific geography, the Chinese have

no general designations for extensive countries, long chains of

mountains, or devious rivers, but apply many names where, if

they were better informed, they would be content with one.

The following table presents a general view of these countries,

giving their leading divisions and forms of government.

EXTENT OF Manchuria. 187

They cannot be classed, however, in the same manner as the provinces, nor are the divisions and capitals here given to be regarded as definitely settled. Their nnited area is 3,951,130 square miles, or a little more than all Europe ; their separate areas cannot be precisely given. Manchuria contains about 400,000 square miles ; Mongolia between 1,300,000 and 1,500,000 square miles ; III about 1,070,000 square miles ; and Tibei from 500,000 to 700,000 square miles.

MANcnuRi.v is so termed from the leading race who dwell there, the 3IandJu/’s or Manclius ^ it is a word of foreign origin, the Chinese having no general appellation for the viceroyalty ruled from Mukden. It comprises the eastern portion of the high table land of Central Asia, and lies between latitudes 39° and 52° X., and longitudes 120° to 134° E. These points include the limits in l^otli directions, giving the region a rectangular shape lying in a north-east and sonth-west direction; roughly speaking, its dimensions are 800 by 500 miles. It is

bounded on the south by the Gulf of Pechele, and the highlands

of Corea on the north bank of the Yalnli River ; on the east

by a line running from the Russian town of Possiet northerly

to the River ITsuri, so as to include Ilinka Lake ; thence from

its headwaters to its junction Nvith the Anmr. This river forms

the northern frontier ; its tributary, the River Argun, together

with the large lakes llurun and Puyur, lie on the west ; from

the latter lake an artificial line stretching nearly due east for

six degrees in lat. 47° strikes the town of Tsitsihar on the

River Xonni. The rest of the western border follows the rivers

Konni and Songari to the Palisade. This obsolete boundary

commences at Shan-hai kwan on the Gulf of Liatung and runs

north-easterly ; it nominally separates the Mongols from the

Manchus for neai’ly 300 miles, and really exists only at the

passes where the roads are guarded by military.

But a portion of this region has yet been traversed by Europeans, and most of it is a wilderness. The entire population is not stated in the census of 1812, and from the nature of the country and wandering habits of the people, many tribes of whom render no allegiance to the Emperor, it would be impossible to take a regular census. Parts of Manchuria, as here defined, have been known under many names at different periods.

LiaiUung (‘East of the River Lian’) has been applied to the country between that river, Corea, and the Sea of Japan ; Tungking(‘Eastern Capital’) referred to the chief town of that region, under the Ming dynasty ; and Kwantung (‘ East of the Pass ‘), denoting the same country, is still a common designation for the whole territory.

Manchuria is now chiefly comprised in the valleys between the ITsuri and Nonni Rivers, up to the Amur on the north, while the basin of the Liau on the south embraces the rest. There are three principal mountain chains. Beginning nearly a hundred miles east of Mukden, in lat. 43°, are the Long White Mountains’ (Chang-bai Shan of the Chinese, or Kolmin-shanguin alin of the Manchus), which form the watershed between the Songari and Yaluh Rivers and serve for the northern frontier of Corea as far as Russian territory. There it divides

and takes the name of Sih-hih-teh, or Sihoti Mountains, for the

eastern spur which runs near the ocean, east of the River ITsuri; and the name of Hurkar Mountains for the western and lower

spurs between that river and the Ilurkar. One noted peak,

called Mount Chakoran, rising over 10,000 feet, lies south-east

of San-sang on the Amur. On the plain, north of Ivirin,

numerous buttes occur, sometimes isolated, and often in lines

fifteen or twenty miles apart ; most of them are wooded.

In the western part of Tsitsihar lies the third great range of

mountains in Manchuria, called the Sialkoi Mountains, a continuation

of the Inner Iling-an range of Mongolia, and separating

the Argun and Nonni basins. The Sialkoi range extends over

a great part of Mongolia, commencing near the bend of the Yellow

River, and reaching in a north-easterly direction, it forms

in Manchuria three sides of the extensive valley of the Xonni,

ending between the Amur and Songari Rivers at their junction.

These regions are more arid than the eastern portions, and

the mountains are rather lower ; but our information is vague

and scanty. As a whole, Manchuria should be called hilly

rather than mountainous, its intervales alone repaying cultivation.

‘ Klaproth {Memoires Relatifs d PAsie, Tome I., Paris, 1834) has translated from the Manchu a narrative of a visit made in 1(577 by one of the grandees of Kanghi’s court to a summit in this range. Chlneise lieposilvry, Vol. XX. , p. 29G.

THE AMUR AND ITS AFFLUENTS. 189

The country north of the Chang-bai Shan as far as the Stanovoi Mountains is drained by one river, viz., the Sagalien, Amur, Kwantung, or Hehlung kiang (for it is known by all these names), and its affluents ; Scujalieii ula in Manchu and Heilong Jiang in Chinese, each mean ‘Black’ or ‘Black Dragon River’. The Amur drains the north-eastern slope of Central Asia by a circuitous course, aided by many large tributaries. Its source is in lat. 50° N. and long. 111° E., in a spur of the Daou-]”ian Mountains, called Kenteh, where it is called the Onon.

After an east and north-east course of nearly five hundred miles,

the Onon is joined in long. 115° E. by the Ingoda, a stream

coming from the east of Lake Baikal, where it takes its rise by a

peak called Tshokondo, the highest of the Yablonsi Khrebet

Mountains. Beyond this junction, under the Bussian name of

Shilka, it flows about two hundred and sixty miles north-east

till it meets the Argun. The Argun rises about three degrees

south of the Onon, on the south side of the Kenteh, and under

the name of Kerlon runs a solitary north-east course for four

Imndred and thirty miles to Lake Hurun, Kerlon, or Dalai-nur; the Kalka here comes in from Lake Buyur or Fir, and their waters leave Lake Hurun atUst-Strelotchnoi (the Arrow’s Mouth) under the name of the Argun, flowing north nearly four hundred miles to the union with the Shilka in lat. 53° ; from its exit as the Argun and onward to the entrance of the Usuri, it forms the boundary between China and Russia for 1,593 versts, or 1,062 miles.

Beyond this town the united stream takes the name of the

Amur (/.(‘., Great River) or Sagalien of the Manchus, running

nearly east about 550 miles beyond Albazin, when its course is

south-east till it joins the Songari. Most of the affluents are on

the north bank ; the main channel grows wider as its size increases,

having so many islands and banks as seriously to interfere

with navigation. The valley thus watered possesses great

natural advantages in soil, climate, and productions, which are

now gradually attracting Russian settlers. In lat. 47^° the Songari River {Sung-hwa kiang of the Chinese) unites with the Amur on the right bank, 950 miles from Ust-Strelotchnoi,

bringing the drainings of the greater portion of ]\ranehuria,

and doubling the main volume of water. The headwaters of

this stream issue from the northern slopes of the C”liang-peh

shan ; quickly combined in a single channel, these waters tlow

past the town of Ivirin, scarcely a hundred miles from the

mountains, in a river twelve feet deep and 900 M-ide. Xear Petune

the Iliver Xonni joins it from Tsitsihar, and their united

stream takes the Chinese name of Kwantung (‘ Mingled Union ‘);

it is a mile and a half wide here and only three or four feet

deep, a sluggish river full of islands. Then going east b}- north,

growing deeper by its affluents, the Ilurka, Mayen, Tunni,

llulan, and other smaller ones, it unites with the Amur at

at Changchu, a hundred miles west from the Usuri. All accounts

agree in giving the Songari the superiority. At Sansing,

it is a deep and rapid river, but further down islands and

banks interfere with the navigation. The Ilurka drains the

original country of the Manchus.’

The district south-east of the desert, and north of the Great

Wall, is drained and fertilized by the Sira-nniren, or Liau

Iliver, which is nearly valueless for navigation. Its main and

western branch divides near the In shan Mountains into the

Hwang ho and Lahar; the former rises near the Pecha peak,

a noted point in those mountains. The Sirainuren runs

through a dry region for nearly 400 miles before it turns south,

and in a zigzag channel reaches the Gulf of Liautung, a powerful stream carrying its quota of deposit into the ocean ; the M’idtli at Yingtsz’ is C50 feet. The depth is IG feet on the bar at high tide. The Yaluh kiang, nearly three hundred miles long, runs in a very crooked channel along the northern frontiers of Corea. iJut little is known about the two lakes, Ilurun and Pir, except that their waters are fresh and full of fish ; the river Urshun unites them, and several smaller streams run into the latter.

‘ Voyage Down the Amur, by Perry McD. Collins, in 1857. New York,1860, cliaps. xxxii.-lx., passim. Ravenstein’s Arnur. Chinese Repository,Vol. XIX., p. 289. Rev. A. Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II.,eliap.s. x.-xiii.

NATURAL RESOURCES OF MANCHURIA. 191

The larger part of Manchuria is covered by forests, the

abode of wild animals, whose capture affords employment,

clothing, and food to their hunters. The rivers and coasts

abound in fish ; among which carp, sturgeon, salmon, pike, and

other species, as well as shell-fish, are plenty ; the pearl-fishery

is sufficiently remunerative to employ many fishermen ; the

Chinese Government used to take cognizance of their success,

and collect a revenue in kind. The argali and jiggetai are

found here as well as in Mongolia ; bears, wolves, tigers, deer,

and numerous fur-bearing animals are hunted for their skins.

The troops are required to furnish 2,4:00 stags annually to the

Emperor, who reserves for his own use only the fieshy part of

the tail as a delicacy. Larks, pheasants, and crows of various

species, with pigeons, thrushes, and grouse, abound. The condor

is the largest bird of prey, and for its size and fierceness rivals

its congener of the Andes.

The greater half of Shingking and the south of Ivirin is cultivated; maize, Setaria wheat, barley, pulse, millet, and buckwheat are the principal crops. Ginseng and rhubarb are collected by troops sent out in detachments under’ the charge of their proper officers. These sections support, moreover, large herds of various domestic animals. The timber which covers the mountains will prove a source of wealth as soon as a remunerative market stimulates the skill and enterprise of settlers; even now, logs over three feet in diameter find their way up to Peking, brought from the Liau valley.

Manchuria is divided into three provinces, Shhujhing, Kirin,

and Tsltnlhar. The province of Shingking includes the ancient

Liautung, and is bounded north by Mongolia ; north-east and

east by Kirin ; south by the Gulf of Liautung and Corea, from

which latter it is separated by the Yaluh Eiver ; and west by

Chahar in Chihli. It contains two departments, viz., Fungtien

and Kinchau, subdivided into fifteen districts; there are also

twelve gai-risoned posts at the twelve gates in the Palisade,

whose inmates collect a small tax on travellers and goods. Manchuria

is under a strictly military government, every male above

eighteen being liable for military service, and being, in fact,

enrolled under that one of the eight standards to which by Liith he belongs. The administration of Shingking is partl;yuivil and partly military ; that of Iviriu and Tsitsihar is entirely military.

The popnlation of the province has been estimated by T. T.

Meadows ‘ at twelve millions, consisting of Manclms and Chinese.

The coast districts are now mostly occupied and cultivated

by emigrants from Shantung, who are pushing the Manchus

toward the Amur, or compelling them to leave their hunting

and take to farming if they wish to stay where they ^vere born.

The conquerors are being civilized and developed by their subjects,

losing the use of their own meagre language, and becoming

more comfortable as they learn to be industrious. But few

aboriginal settlements now remain who still resist these influences.

The inhabitants collect near the river, or along the great

roads, where food or a market are easiest found.

The capital of Shingking is usually known on the spot as

Shin-yang, an older name than the Manchu Mukden, or the

Chinese name Fungtien. As the metropolis of Manchuria, it is

also known as Shingking (the ‘ Affluent Capital ‘), distinguished

from the name of the province by the addition oi jjuti-chiny, or

‘head-garrison.’ It lies in lat. 41° 50^’ X. and long. 123° 30′ E., on the banks of the Shin, a small brancli of the Liau, and is reckoned to be five hundred miles north-east from Peking. The town is surrounded by a low mud wall about ten miles in circuit, at least half a mile distant from the main city wall, whose eight gates have double archways so that the crowd may not interfere in passing ; this wall is about three miles around, and its towers and bastions are in good condition. It is 35 or 40 feet high, and 15 feet wide at the top, of brick throughout ; a crenulated parapet protects the guard. But for its smaller scale, the walls and buildings here are precisely similar to those at Peking.

‘ The Chinese and their Rebdliona. Loudon, 1856.

THE PROVINCE OF SHINGKING. 193

The streets are wide, clean, and the main business avenues lined with large, well built shops, their counters, windows, and other arrangements indicating a great trade. This capital contains a large proportion of governmental establishments, yai/uins^ and nearly all the officials belong to the ruling race. Main streets run across the city from gate to gate, with narrow roads or ku-tung intersecting them. The palace of the early Manchn sovereigns occupies the center; while the large warehouses are outside of the inner city. Everywhere marks of prosperity and security indicate an enterprising population, and for its tidy look, industrious and courteous population, Mukden takes high rank among Chinese cities. Its population is estimated to be under 200,000, mostly Chinese. The Manchu monarchs made it the seat of their government in 1631, and the Emperors have since done everything in their power to enlarge and beautify it. The Emperor Kienlung rendered himself celebrated among his subjects, and made the city of Mukden better known abroad, by a poetical eulogy upon the city and province, which was printed in sixty-four different forms of Chinese writing. This curious piece of imperial vanity and literary effort was translated into French by Amyot.

The town of Ilingking,’ sixty miles east of it, is one of the favored places in Shingking, from its being the family residence of the Manchu monarchs, and the burial-ground of their ancestors.

It is pleasantly situated in an elevated valley, the tombs being three miles north of it upon a mountain called Tsz’yun shan. The circuit of the walls is about three miles. Ilingking lies near the Palisade which separates the province from Ivirin, and its officers have the rule over the surrounding country, and the entrances into that province. It has now dwindled to a small handet, and the guards connected with the tombs comprise most of the inhabitants.

Ivinchau, fifteen leagues from Mukden, carries on considerable

trade in cattle, pulse, and drugs. Gutzlaff ‘ describes the

harbor as shallow, and exposed to southern gales ; the houses

in the town are built of stone, the environs well cultivated and

settled by Chinese from Shantung, while natives of Fuhkien

conduct the trade. The Manchus lead an idle life, but keep

on good terms with the Chinese. When he was there in 1832,

‘Also called Yertden ; Klaprcth, Meinoire.% Tcvme T., p. 446. Remusat

informs us that this name formerly included all vf Kirin, or that which was placed under it.- Voyages Along the Coast of China. New York, 1833»Vol. I.— 18

the authorities had ordered all the females to seclude themselves

in order to put a stop to debauchery among the native

sailors. Horses and camels are numerous and cheap, but the

carriages are clumsy. Kaichau, another port lying on the east

side of the gulf, possesses a better liarboi-, but is not so much

frequented.

Since the treaty of 1858 opened the port of Xiuchwang or

Yingts//, on the Iliver Liau, to foreign trade, the development

of Shingking has rapidly increased. The trade in pulse and

bean-cake and oil employs many vessels annually. Opium,

silk, and paper are prepared for export thi’ough this mart, besides

foreign goods. Fung-hwang ting, lying near the Yaluh

liiver, commands all the trade with Corea, which must pass

through it. There are many restrictions upon this intercourse

by both governments, and the Chinese forbid their subjects

passing the frontiers. The trade is conducted at fairs, under

the supervision of officers and soldiers ; the short time allowed

for concluding the bargains, and the great numbers resorting to

them, render these bazaars more like the frays of opposing clans

than the scenes of peaceable trade. There is a market-town in

Corea itself, called Ki-iu w^an, about four leagues from the

frontier, wliei’e the Chinese ” supply the Coreans with dogs,

cats, pipes, leather, stags’ horns, copper, horses, mules, and

asses ; and receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice,

corn, swine, paper, mats, oxen, furs, and small horses.” Merchants

are allowed not more than four or five hours in which

to conduct this fair, and the Corean officers under whose charge

it is placed, drive all strangers back to the frontier as soon as

the day closes.’

The borders of the sea consist of alluvial soil, efflorescing

a nitrous white salt near the beach, .but very fertile inland,

well cultivated and populous. Beyond, the hill-country is extremely

picturesque. Ever-changing views, torrents and fountains,

varied and abounding vegetation, flocks of black cattle

grazing on the hillsides, goats perched on the overhanging crags,

liorses, asses, and sheep lower down in the intervales, numerous

‘ Annales de la Foi, Tome XVIII., 1840, p. 302.

TRADE AND CLIMATE OF MANCHURIA. 195

well-built Iiamlets, eveiywliere enliven the scene. The department

of Kinchau lies along the Gulf of Liautung, between the

Palisade and the sea, and contains four small district towns,

with forts, around whose garrisons of agricultural troops have

collected a few settlers. On the south, toward Chilili and the

“Wall, the country is better cultivated.

The climate of Manchuria, as a whole, is healthy and moderate,

far removed from the rigor of the plateau on its west, and

not so moist as the outlying islands on the east. In summer

the ranges are TO” to 90° F., thence down to 10° or 20° below

zero. The rivers remain frozen from December nearly to

April, and the fall of snow is less than in Eastern America.

The seasons are really six weeks of spring, five months of summer,

six weeks of autumn and four months of winter ; the last

is in some respects the enjoyable period, and is used l)y the

farmers to l)ring produce to market. If the houses were

tighter, their inmates would suffer little during the cold season.

Hue speaks of hail storms which killed tlocks of sheep in Mongolia,

near’Chahar. Darwin (^N^aturalisfs Yoymje, 2d ed., 1845,

p. 115) corroborates the possibility of his statement by a somewhat

similar experience near Buenos Ayres. He here saw many

deer and other wild animals killed by ” hail as large as small

apples and extremely hard.’” Of the denuded country, near the

Liau River, Abbe Hue says : ” Although it is uncertain where

God placed paradise, we may be sure that he chose some other

country than Liautung ; for of all savage regions, this takes a

distinguished rank for the aridity of the soil and rigor of the

climate. On his entrance, the traveller remarks the barren

aspect of most of the hills, and the nakedness of the plains,

where not a tree nor a thicket, and hardly a slip of a herb is to

be seen. The natives are superior to any Europeans I have

ever seen fof their powers of eating ; beef and pork abound on

their tables, and I think dogs and horses, too, under some other

name ; rich people eat i-ice, the poor are content with boiled

millet, or with another grain called hac-ham,, about thrice the

size of millet and tasting like wheat, which I never saw elsewhere.

The vine is cultivated, but must be covered from October to April ; the grapes are so watery that a hundred liters of juice produce by distillation only forty of poor spirit. The leaves of an oak are used to rear wild silkworms, and this is a considerable branch of industry. The people relish the worms as food after the cocoons have been boiled, drawing them out with a pin, and sucking the whole until nothing but the pellicle is left.” ‘ Another says, the ground freezes seven feet in Kirin, and about three in Shingking ; the thermometer in winter is thirty degrees below zero. The snow is raised into the air by the north-east winds, and becomes so fine that it penetrates the clothes, houses, and enters even the lungs. When travelling, the eyebrows become a mass of ice, the beard a large flake, and the eyelashes are frozen together ; the wind cuts and pierces the skin like razors or needles. The earth is frozen during eight months, but vegetation in summer is rapid, and the streams are swollen by the thawing drifts of snow.

The province of Kikin, or Girin, comprises the country northeast

of Shingking, as far as the Annir and Usuri, which bound

it on the north and east, while Corea and Shingking lie on the

south-east (better separated by the Chang-peh shan than any

political confine) and Mongolia on the west. All signs of the line

of palisades have disappeared (save at the Passes) in the entire

trajct between the Songari and Shan-hai kwan. The region is

mountainous, except in the link of that river after the Xonni

joins it till the Usuri comes in, measuring about one-fourth of

the M’hole. This extensive region is thinly inhabited by Manchus

settled in garrisons along the bottoms of the rivers, by

Goldies, Mangoons, Ghiliaks, and tribes having afiinity with

them, mIio subsist principall}^ by hunting and fishing, and acknowledge

their fealty by a tribute of peltry, but who have no

officers of government placed over them. Du llalde calls them

Kicking Tatse^ Yuj)i Tatse^ and other names, which seem, indeed,

to have been their ancient designations. The Y^u-jn TdJifs’i,

or ‘Fish-skin Tartars,’^ are said to inhabit the extensive valley

of the Usuri, and do not allow the subjects of the Emperor to

‘ AnnaleR de la Foi, Tomo XVI. , p. ‘^i’iO.

– The inhabitants of ancient Gedrosia, now Beloochi.stan, are said to have

clothed themselves in lish-skins. Heereu, Historical Researches among Asiatic

Nations^ Vol. I., p. 175.

TOWNS AND PRODUCTIONS OB’ KIRIN PROVINCE. 197

live among them. In winter they nestle together in kraals like

the Bushmen, and subsist upon the products of their summer’s

tishing, having cut down fuel enough to last them till warm

weather. Shut out, as they have been during the past, from all

elevating influences, these people are likely to be ei-e long amalgamated

and lost, as well among liussian and other settlers coming

in from the north, as amid the Chinese immigrants who occupy

their land in the south. The entire population of this province

cannot be reckoned, from present information, as high as three

millions, the greater part of which live along the Songari valley.

Kirin is divided into three ruling tlmj departments or commanderies,

viz., Kirin ula, or the garrison of Kirin, Petune or

Pedne, and Changchun ting. Kirin, the largest of the three, is

subdivided into eight garrison districts. The town, called

Chaen Chwang, or ‘ Navy Yard,’ in Chinese, is finely situated

on the Songari, in lat. 43” 45′ N., and long. 127° 25′ E., at the

foot of encircling hills, where the river is a thousand feet wide.

The streets are narrow and irregular, the shops low and small,

and much ground in the city is unoccupied. Two great streets

cross each other at right angles, one of them running far into

the river on the west supported by piles. The highways are

paved with wooden blocks, and adorned with flowers, gold fish,

and squares ; its population is about 50,000.

The four other important places in Kirin are Petune, Larin,

Altchuku, or A-shi-ho, and Sansing, the latter at the confluent of

the Sono-ari and Ilurka. Altchuku is the largest, and Petune

next in size, each town having not far from 35,000 inhabitants

;

Larin is perhaps half as lai’ge, and like the others steadily increasing

in numbers and importance. jS inguta on the river Ilurka

has wide regions under its sway where ginseng is gathered ; near

the stockaded town is a subterranean body of water that furnishes

large fish. A great and influential portion of the Chinese

population is Moslem, but no Manchus reside in the place.

The former control trade and travel in every town.

Petune, in lat. 45° 20′ X., and long. 125° 10′ E., is inhabited

by troops and many persons banished from C’hina for their

crimes. Its favorable position renders it a place of considerable

trade, and during the suunner ujonths it is a busy mart for

198 TlIK MIDDLE KINCiDOM.

these tliiiilj peopled regions. It consists of two main streets,

with the chief market at their crossing. .\. large mosque attracts

attention. The third commandery of Changchun, west

of Kirin and south of Petunc, just beyond the Palisade, is a

mere post for overseeing the Manchus and Mongols passing to

and fro on the edge of the steppe.

The resources of this wide domain in timber, minerals, metals,

cattle and grain Ivaxq not yet been explored or developed. The

hills are wooded to the top, the bottoms bring forth two crops

anmially, and the rivers take down timber and grain to the

llussian settlers. Sorghum, millet, barley, maize, pulse, indigo,

and tobacco are the chief crops ; and latterly opium, wdiicli has

rapidly extended, because it pays well. Oil and whiskey are extensi\’

ely manufactured, packed in wicker baskets lined with

paper and transported on Avheelbarrows. The wild and domestic

animals are numerous. ^Vmong the latter the hogs and mules,

more than any other kind, furnish food and transportation ;

while tigers, panthers, and leopards, bears, wolves, and foxes

reward the hunters for their pains in killing them.

The province of Tsi-tsi-hak, or Ilehlung kiang, comprises the

northwest of Manchuria, extending four hundred miles from

east to west, and about five hundred from north to south. It is

bounded north by the Amur, from Sliilka to its junction with

the Songari ; east and southeast by Ivirin, from which the

Songari partly separates it ; southwest by Mongolia, and west

by the lliver Argun, dividing it from Russia. The greatest part

of it is occupied by the valley of the Noimi, jSToun or IS^iin ; its

area of about two hundred thousand square miles is mostly an

iminhabited, mountainous wilderness. It is divided into six

commanderies, viz. : Tsitsihar, Ilulan, Putek, Merguen, Sagalien

ula, and Ilurun-pir, whose officers have control over the

tribes within their limits; of these, Sagalien or Igoon is the

chief town in the northeast districts, and is used by the government

of Peking as a penal settlement. The town stands on a

plain but a rood or so above the river, Avhich sweeps off to the

mountains in the distance. Here is posted a large force of officers

and men, their extensive barracks indicating the importance

attached to the place. The garrison has gradually attracted a

THE PROVINCE OF TSI-TSI-IIAR. 199

population of natives and Chinese from the south, who live by

fishing and hunting, as well as farming.

Tsitsihar, the capital of the province, lies on the River

]^onni, in lat. 47° 20′ N., and long, 124° E., and is a place of some

trade, resorted to by the tribes near the river. Merguen, Hurunpir,

and Ilulan are situated upon rivers, and accessible when

the waters are free from ice. Tsitsihar was built in 1692 by

Kanghi to owerawe the neighboring tribes. It is inclosed hy a

stockade and a ditch. The one-stoi-ied houses are constructed

of logs, or of brick stuccoed, where timber is dear, and warmed

by the brick beds ; the tall chimneys outside the main buildings

give a peculiar appearance to villages. Pulse, maize, tobacco,

millet, and wheat, and latterly poppy are common crops. The

valley of the Nonni is cultivated by the Taguri Manchus, among

whom six thousand six hundred families of Yakutes settled in

1687, when they emigrated from Siberia. The Korchin Mongols

occupy the country south and west of this valley. Some

of its streams produce large pearls. The region lying between

the Sialkoi Mountains and the River Argun is rough and sterile,

presenting few inducements to agriculturalists. Fish abound

in all the rivers, and furs are sought in the hills. Pasturage is

excellent in the bottoms. Fairs, between the natives and Cossacks,

are constantly held at convenient places on the Argun

and other rivers. The racial distinction between the Mongols

and Manchus is here seen in the agricultural labors of the latter,

so opposed to the nomadic habits of the former. This

region has, within the last half century, attracted Chinese settlers

from Shantung and Chihli. These colonists are fast filling

up the vacant lands along the rivers, dispossessing the Manchus

by their thrift and industry, and making the country far more

valuable. They will in this way secure its possession to the

Peking Government, and bring it, by degrees, under Chinese

control, greatly to the benefit of all. In early days the policy

of the Manchus, like that of the E. I. Company in India towardg

British immigration, discountenanced the entrance of Chinese

settlers, and in both cases to the disadvantage of the ruling

power.

The administration of Manchuria consists of a supreme civil

200 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

government at Mukden, and three provincial military one.’-,

though Shingking is under both civil and military. There are

live Boards, each under a president, whose duties are analogous

to those at Peking. The oversight of the city itself is under a

fiiyia or mayor, superior to the prefect. The three provinces

are under as many marshals, whose subordinates rule the conimanderies,

and these last have garrison officers subject to them,

whose rank and power correspond to the size and importance of

their districts. These delegate part of their power to ” assistant

directors,” or residents, who are stationed in every town ; on

the frontier posts, the officers have a higher grade, and report

directly to the marshals or their lieutenants. All the officers,

both civil and military, are Manchus, and a great portion of

them belong to the imperial clan, or are intimately connected

with it. By this arrangement, the Manchus are in a measure

disconnected with the general government of the provinces,

furnished wnth offices and titles, and induced to recommend

themselves for promotion in the Empire by their zeal and fidelity

in their distant posts.’

Mongolia is the first in order of the colonies, by which are

meant those parts of the Empire under the control of the Ll-fan

Yaen, or Foi’eign Office.” According to the statistics of the

Empire, it comprises the region lying between lats. 35° and 52°

X., and from long. 82° to 123° E. ; bounded north by the

Russian governments of Trans-Baikalia, L’kutsk, Yeniseisk,

Tomsk, and Semipolatinsk ; northeast and east by Manchuria

;

south by the provinces of Chihli and Shansi, and the Yellow

River ; southwest by Kansuh ; and west by Cobdo and Ili.

These limits are not very strictly marked at all points, but the

lengtli from east to west is about seventeen hundred miles,

and one thousand in its greatest breadth, inclosing an area of

‘ Rev. Alex. Williamson, Travels in Northern China. London, 1870.

Vol. II., Chaps. I. to XIV. ; Chinene Reposltorij, Vols. IV., p. 57 ; XV., p. 454 -,

Phinene Itecorder, Vol. VII., \HH\, ” The Ris« and Progress of the Maujows,”

by J. Ross, pp. 155, 2;}5, and ;515.

” Compare Niebuhr’s Flistori/ of Rome, Vol. II., Sect. “Of the Colonies,”

where can be observed the essential differences between Roman settlements

abroad and those of the Chinese ; and still greater differences will be fonnd in

contrasting these with the offsets of Grecian States.

CLIMATE AXU DIVISIOXS OF MONGOLIA. 201

1,400,000 square miles, supporting an estimated population uf

two millions. This elevated plain is almost destitute of wood

or water, inclosed southward by the mountains of Tibet, and

northward by offsets from the Altai range. The central part

is occupied by the desert of Gobi, a barren steppe having an

average height of 4,000 feet above the sea level, and destitute

of all running water. Owing to its elevation, extremely vari.:-

l)le climate, and the absence of oases, it may be considered quite

as terrible as Sahara, although the sand-waste liere is, perhaps,

hardly as unmitigated.

The climate of Mongolia is excessively cold for the latitude,

arising partly from its elevation and dry atmosphere, and, on

the steppes, to the want of shelter from the winds. But this

has its compensation in an unclouded sky and the genial rays of

the sun, which support and cheer the people to exertion when

the thermometer is far below zero. The air has been drained of

its moisture by the ridges on every side ; day after day the

sun’s heat reaches the eartli with smaller loss than obtains in

moister regions in the same latitudes. Otherwise these wastes

would support no life at all at such an elevation. In the districts

bordering on Chihli, the people make their houses partly

under ground, in order to avoid the inclemency of the season.

The soil in and upon the confines of this high land is unfit for

agricultural purposes, neither snow nor rain falling in suflicient

quantities, except on the acclivities of the mountain ranges ;

but millet, barley, and wheat might be raised north and south

of it. The nomads rejoice in their freedom from tillage, however,

and move about with their herds and possessions Avithin

the limits marked out by the Chinese for each tribe to occupy.

The space on the north of Gobi to the confines of Russia,

about one hundred and fifty miles wide, is warmer than the

desert, and supports a greater population than the southern

sides. Cattle arc numerous on the hilly tracts, but none are

found in the desert, where wild animals and birds hold undisputed

possession. The thermometer in winter sinks to thirty

and forty degrees below zero (Fr.), and sudden and great

changes are frequent. Xo month in the year is free from snow

or frost ; but on the steppes, the heat in summer is almost

202 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

intolerable, owing to the radiation from the sandy or stony

surface. The snow does not fall very deep, and even in cold

weather the cattle find food under it ; the flocks and herds are

not, however, large.

The principal divisions of Mongolia are four, viz. : 1, Inner

Mongolia, lying between the Wall and south of the desert ; 2,

Outer Mongolia, between the desert and the Altai Mountains,

and reaching from the Inner Iling-an to the Tien shan ; 3, the

country about Koko-nor, between Kansuh, Sz’chuen, and Tibet

;

and, 4, the dependencies of Uliasutai, lying northwestward of

the Kalkas khanates. The whole of this region has been included

under the comprehensive name of Tartary, and if the

limits of Inner and Outer Mongolia had been the bounds of Tartary,

the appellation would have been somewhat appropriate.

But when Genghis arose to power, he called his own tribe

Kitkai Mongol^ ‘ Celestial People,’ and designated all the

other tribes Tatars^ that is ‘ tributaries.’ ‘ The three tribes of

Kalkas, Tsakhars, and Sunnites, now constitute the great body

of Mongols under Chinese rule.

Inner Mongolia, or Nui MunyJcu, is bounded north by

Tsitsihar, the Tsetsen khanate, and Gobi, their frontiers being

‘ Abulgasi-Bayadui-clian (lIi»toire Genenlogique des Tatars, traduite du

Manuscript Tartare ; Leyde : 172G), gives another derivation for these two

names. ” Alanza-chan eut deux lils jumeaiix I’un appelle Tatar and I’autre

Mogull oil pour bien dire Muiig’l, entre les quels il partagea ses Estates lorsqu’il

se vit sur la fin de sa vie.” It is the first prince, he adds, from whom

came the name Tartar—not from a river called Tata, as some liave .stated—

wliile of the second : ” Le terme Mung’l a ests change par une corruption generale

en Mogull ; Mung vent dire trMe on un homme triste, et i)aroeque ce

prince estoit naturellement d’une humeur fort triste, il porta ce nom dans la

verite”—(pp. 27-29). But Visdelon (D’Herbelot, ed. 1778, Tome IV., p. 327)

shows more acquaintance with their history in producing proofs that the name

Tatar was applied in the eightli century by the Chinese to certain tribes living

north of the in shan, Ala shan, and River Liau. In the dissensions following

upon the ruin of the Tang dynasty, some of them migrated eastwards beyond

the Songari, and there in time rallied to subdue the northern provinces,

under the name of Nu-cldh. These are the ancestors of the Manchus. Another

fraction went north to the marshy banks of Lakes Hurun and Puyur,

where they received the name of Moungul Tahtsz\ i.e., Marsh Tatars. This

tribe and name it was that the warlike Genghis afterwards made conspicuous

The sound Mogul used in India is a dialectal variation.

TRIBES OF INNER MONGOLIA. 203

almost luidefinable ; east by Ivirin and Sliingking ; south hy

Chihli and Shansi ; and west by Kansuli. Wherever it runs

the Wall is popularly regarded as the boundary between China

and Mongolia. The country is divided into six m/’nj or clialkans^

like our corps, and twenty-four aimahs ‘ (tribes), which are

again placed under forty-nine standards or Ihochoun^ each of

which generally includes about two thousand families, commanded

l)y hereditary princes, or dsassaks. The principal

tribes are the Kortchin and Ortous. The large tribe of the

Tsakhars, which occupies the region north of the Wall, is governed

by a tatanfj, or general, residing at Kalgan, and their

pasture gi-ounds are now nominally included in the province of

Chihli. The province of Shansi in like manner includes the

lands occupied by the Toumets, who are under the control of a

general stationed at Suiyuen, beyond the Yellow E-iver. In the

pastures northwest from Kalgan, in the vicinity of Lakes

Chazau and Ichi, and reaching more than a hundred miles from

the Great Wall, lie the tracts appropriated to raising horses for

the ” Yellow Banner Corps.” Excepting such grazing lands or

the vast hunting grounds near Jeh-lio, reserved in like manner

by the government, small settlements of Chinese are continually

squatting over the plains of Inner Mongolia, from whence they

have already succeeded in driving many of the aboriginal Mongol

tribes off to the north. Those natives who will not retire

are fain to save themselves from starvation or absorption by

cultivating the soil after the fashion of their neighbors, the

Chinese immigrants. It was, indeed, this influx of settlers

which led Ivanghi to erect the southern portion of Inner Mongolia

into prefectures and districts like China Proper. This

alteration of habits among its population seems destined, ere

long, to modify the aspect of the country.

Most of the smaller tribes, except the Ortous, live between

the western frontiers of Manchuria, and the steppes reaching

north to the Sialkoi range, and south to Chahar. These tribes

are peculiarly favored by the Manchus, from their having joined

them in their conquest of China, and their leading men are

‘ Abulgasi (p. 8:’) fviniislies a notice of these aiinaks and their origin.

204 thp: middle kingdom.

often promoted to liigh stations in the government of the

country.

OcjTEK Mongolia, or Wal Muivjhu^ is the wild tract Iving

north of the last as far as Russia. It is bounded north bv

Russia, east by Tsitsihar, southeast and south by Inner Mongolia,

southwest by Bai’kul in Kansuli, west by Tarbagatai,

and northwest by Cobdo and Uliasutui. The desert of CJobi

occupies the southern half of the i-egion. It is divided into

four lu^ or circuits, each of which is governed by a khan or

prince, claiming direct descent fi’om Genghis, and superintending

the internal management of his own khanate. The Tsetseu

khanate lies west of Ilurun-pir in Tsitsiliar, extending from

Russia south to Inner Mongolia. West of it, reaching from

Siberia across the desert to Inner Mongolia, lies the Tuchetu

(or Tut<letii of Klaproth’) khanate, the most considerable of the

four ; the road fi’om Iviakhta to Ivalgan lies within its borders.

“West of the last, and bounded south by Gobi and northeast

by Uliasutai, lies the region of the Kalkas of Sainnoin ; and on

its northwest li(3S the Dsassaktu khanate, south of Uliasutai,

and reaching to Barkul and Cobdo on the south and west. All

of them are politically under the control of two IManchu residents

stationed at I’rga, who direct the mutual interests of the

Mongols, Chinese, and Russians.

Ilrga, or Ivuren, the capital, is situated in the Tuchetu khanate,

in lat. 48° 20′ X., and long. 1()T^° E., on the Tola River, a

branch of the Selenga. It is the largest and most important

place in Mongolia, and is divided into ^fahiia’i cJi’tn, the Chinese

quartei’, and Jhxjdo-Iviu’c’ii^ the Mongol settlement, nearly

three miles from the other. Its total population is estimated at

30,000, the Chinese inhabitants of M’hich are forbidden by law

to live with their families ; of the Mongols here, by far the larger

part is composed of lamas. In the estimation of these people

Ilrga stands next to Il’lassa in degree of sanctity, being the seat

of the third person in the Tibetan 2)atriarchate. According to

the Lama doctrine this dignitary—the Kutuktu—is the terrestrial

impersonation of the Godhead and never dies, but passes.

‘ Meinoires, Tome I., p. 3.

OUTER MONGOLIA. 205

after lils apparent decease, into the body of some newly born

boy, who is songlit for afterwards according to the prophetic

indications of the Dalai-lania in Tibet. Tliis holy potentate,

thongh of limited education and entirely nnder the control of

the attendant lamas, exercises an nnbonnded influence over the

Kalkas. It is, indeed, by means of him that the Chinese officials

control the native I’aces of Mongolia. His wealth, owing to

contributions of enthusiastic devotees, is enoi-mous ; in and

about Urga he owns 150,000 slaves, an abundance of worldly

goods, and the most pretentious palace in Mongolia. Outside

of its religious buildings, Urga is disgustingly dirty ; the filth

is thrown into the streets, and the habits of the people are

loathsome. Decrepid beggars and starving dogs infest the

Avays ; dead bodies, instead of being interred, are flung to birds

and beasts of prey ; Imts and liovels afford shelter for both rich

and poor.*

The four khanates constitute one ahaah or tribe, subdivided

into eighty-six standards, each of which is restricted to a certain

territory, within which it wanders about at pleasure. There

are altogether one hundred and thirty-five standards of the

Mongols. The Kalkas chiefiy live between the Altai Mountains

and Gobi, but do not cultivate the soil to much effect.

They are devoted to Buddhism, and the lamas hold most of the

power in their hands through the KatfiMu. They render an

annual tribute to the Emperor of horses, camels, sheep, and

other animals or their skins, and receive presents in return of

many times its value, so that they are kept in subjection by

constant bril)ing ; the least restiveness on their part is visited

by a reduction of presents and other penalties. An energetic

government, however, is not wanting in addition. The supreme

tribunal is at Urga ; it is the yaiiiKii, par excellence, and has

both civil and military jurisdiction. The decisions are subject

to the revision of the two Chinese residents, and sentences

are usually carried into execution after their confirmation.

The punishments are horribly sev^ere ; but only a decided

‘ Prejevalsky, Monrjolia, Vol. I. ; Pumpelly, Across America, pp. 382-385 ;

Michie, Across Siberia.

206 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

and cruel hand over these wild tribes can keep them from constant

strife.

Letters are encouraged among them by the Manchus, but

Avith little success. Many Buddhist books have been translated

into Mongolian by order of the Emperors ; nor can we wonder

at the indifference to literature when this stuff is the aliment

])rovided them. Their tents, or yu/’ts, are made of wooden

laths fastened together so as to form a coarse lattice-work ; the

framework consists of several lengths securer! with ropes, leaving

a door about three feet square. The average size is twelve

feet across and ten feet high ; its shape is round and the conical

roof admits light where it emits smoke. The poles or rafters

are looped to the sides, and fastened to a hoop at the top.

Upon this framework sheets of heavy felt are secured according

to the season. A hearth in the centre holds the fire which

heats the kettle hanging over it, and warms the inmates squatted

round, who usually place only felt and sheepskins under

them. The felt protects from cold, rain, snow, and heat in a

wonderful manner. A first-class yiwt is by no means an uncomfortable

dwelling, with its furniture, lining, shrine, and hot

kettle in the centre. A carpet for sleeping and sitting on is sometimes

seen in yurts of the wealthier classes; in these, too, the

walls are lined with cotton or silk, and the floors are of wood.

The lodges of the rich Kalkas have several apartments, and are

elegantly furnished, but destitute of cleanliness, comfort, or

airiness. Most of their cloths, utensils, and arms ai’o procured

from the Chinese. The Sunnites are fewer than the Kalkas,

and roam the wide wastes of Gobi. Both derive some revenue

fi’om conducting caravans across their counti-y, but depend for

their livelihood chiefly upon the produce of their herds and

hunting. Their princes are obliged to reside in Urga, or keep

hostages there, in order that the residents nuiy direct and restrain

their conduct ; but their devotion to the Katitktu^ and

the easy life they lead, are the strongest inducements to remain.

The trade with Tlussia formerly all passed through Iviakhta,

a town near the frontier, and was carried on by special agents

and officials appointed by each nation. The whole business

was managed in the interest of the govermnent, and its ramiK-

IAKHTA AND THE TRADE WITH RUSSIA. 207

fications furnished employment, position, and support to so

many persons as to form a bond of union and guaranty of peace

between them and their subjects. Timkowski’s jonrney with

the decennial mission to Peking in 1820-21 furnishes one of

the best accounts of this trade and intercourse now accessible,

and with Klaproth’s notes, given iti the English translation

published in 1827, has long been the chief reliable authority

for the divisions and organization of the Mongol tribes. Since

the opening of the Suez Canal, through which Russian steamers

carry goods to and fro between Odessa and China, the largest

portion of the Chinese produce no longer goes to Kiakhta.

That which is required for Siberia is sent from Hankow by way

of Shansi’, or from Kalgan and Tientsin, under the direction of

Russian merchants at those places. Furs, which once formed

the richest part of this produce, are gradually diminishing in

quality and quantity wdth the increase of settlers. In 1843 the

export of black tea for Russian consumption was only eight

millions of pounds, besides the brick tea taken by the Mongols.

Cottrell states the total value of the trade, annually, at that

period, at a hundred millions of rubles, reckoned then to be equal

to $20,830,000, on w^hich the Russians paid, in 1836, about

$2,500,000 as import duty. The data respecting this trade of

forty years ago are not very accurate, probably ; the monopoly

was upheld mostly for the benefit (.>f the officials, as private

traders found it too much burdened.

Kiakhta is a haudet of no importance apart from the trade.

The frontier here is marked by a row of granite columns ; a stockade

separates it from Maimai chin. Pumpelly says : ” One

can hardly imagine a sharper line than is here drawn. On the

one side of the stockade wall, the houses, churches, and people

are European, on the other, Chinese. With one step the traveller

passes really from Asia and Asiatic customs and language,

into a refined European society.’” The goods pay duty at the

Russian douane in a suburb of fifty houses, near Kiakhta. The

Chinese town is also a small place, numbering between twelve

and fifteen hundred men (no women being allowed in the settlement)

who lived in idleness most of the year. This curious

haudet has two principal streets crossing at right angles, and gates at the four ends, in the wooden muU which surrounds it.

These streets are badly paved, while their narrowness barely allows the passage of two camels abreast. The one-storied houses are constructed of wood, roofed Avith turf or boards, and consist of two small rooms, one used as a shop and the other as a bedroom. The windows in the rear apartment are made of oiled paper or mica, but the door is the only opening in the shop.

The dwellings are kept clean, the furniture is of a superior description, and considerable taste and show are seen in displaying the goods. The traders live hixuriously, and attract a great crowd there during the fair in February, when the goods are exchanged. They are under the control of a Manchu, called the dzargneh’i, who is appointed for three years, and superintends the police of the settlement as Mell as the commercial proceedings. There are two Buddhist temples here served by lamas, and containing five colossal images sitting cross-legged, and numerous smaller idols.’

The western portion of Mongolia, between the meridians of

84^ and *JG^ E., extending from near the western extremity of

Kansuh province to the confines of Russia, comprising Uliasutai

and its dependencies, Cobdo, and the Kalkas and Tom–gouths of the Tangini JNEountains, is less kiunvn than any other part of it. The residence of the superintending officer of this province is at [Tliasutai (i.e., ‘ Poplar drove ‘), a tt»wn lying northwest of the Seleuira, in the khanate of Sainnoin, in a wiill cultivated and pleasant valley.

Conno, according to the ( 1iin(\se ma])s, lies in the northwest of Mongolia ; it isbounded north and west by the government Yeniseisk, northeast by I’lianghai, and southeast by the Dsassakt.i khanate, south by Kansidi, and west by Tarbagatai. The part occupied by the Ulianghai or Fi-iyangkit tribes of the Tangmi ^lountains lies northeast of ( ‘olxlo, and nctrth of the Sainnoin and Dsassaktu khanates, and separated from Kussia by the Altai.

These tribes are allied to the Samoj^eds, and the i ule over th(Mn is ^CoiirAV?, Recollections of Sibena, Chap. IX., p. 314; Timkowski’s T/aveU, Vol. I., ])p. 4-91, 1821 ; PumpHlly, Acnm America and Asia, p. ;]S7, 1871 ; Klapi-oth, Memoires, Toiuu I., p. (Jo ; Kittor, J),’e Erdkuiule run Asien, Bd. II., l>l.. 11)8-1220.

THE PROVINCE OF COBDO. 200

administered bv twenty-five siiljordinate military officers, subject

to the resident at Uliasutai. This city is said to contain

about two tliousand liouses, is regularly built, and carries on

some trade with Urga ; it lies on the Iro, a tributary of the

Jabkan. Cobdo comprises eleven tribes of Kalkas divided into

thirty-one standards, whose princes obey an amban at Cobdo

City, himself subordinate to the resident at Uliasutai. The

Chinese rule over these tribes is conducted on the same principles

as that over the other IVLjngols, and they all render fealty to

the Emperor through the chief resident at Uliasutai, but liow

much obedience is really paid his orders is not known. The

Kalkas submitted to the Emperor in 1688 to avoid extinction in

their war with the Eleuths, by whom they had been defeated.

Cobdo contains several lakes, many of which I’eceivc rivers without having any outlet. The largest is Upsa-nor, which receives from the east the Kiver Tes, and the Iki-aral-nor into which the Jabkan runs. The Hiver Irtysh falls into Lake Dzaisang.

The existence of so many rivers indicates a more fertile country north of the Altai or Ektag Mountains, but no bounties of nature would avail to induce the inhabitants to adopt settled modes of living and cultivate the soil, if such a clannish state of society exists among them as is described by M. Levchine to be the case among their neighbors, the Kirghis.

The tribes in Cobdo resemble the American Lidians in their habits, disputes, and modes of life, more than the eastern Kalkas, who approximate in their migratory character to the Arabs.

The province of Qinghai, or Koko-nor (called Tsok-gumbam by the Tanguts), is not included in Mongolia by European geographers, nor in the Chinese statistical works is it comprised within its borders ; the inhabitants are, however, mostly Mongols, both Buddhist and Moslem, and the government is conducted on the same plan as that over the Kalkas tribes further north.

This region is known in the histories of Central Asia under the names of Tangout, Sifan, Turfan, etc. On Chinese maps it is politically called Qinghai(‘Azure Sea’), but in their books is named Si Tn or Si Yi/t, ‘ western Limits.’ The borders are now limited on the north by Kansuh, southeast by Sz’chuen, south by Anterior Tibet, and west by the desert, comprising about four degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude. It includes within its limits several large lakes, which receive rivers into their bosoms, and many of them having no outlets.

The Azure Sea is the largest, lying at an altitude of 10,500 feet and overlooked by high mountains, which in winter are covered with snow, and in summer form an emerald frame that deepens the blueness of the Avater. . It is over 200 miles in circuit, and its evaporation is replaced by the inflowing waters of eight large streams ; oue small islet contains a monaster}’, whose inmates are freed from their solitude only when the ice makes a bridge, as no boat is known to have floated on its salt

water. The wide, moist plains on the east and west furnish

pasturage for domestic and wild animals, and constant collisions

occur between the tribes resorting there for food. The travels

of Abbe Hue and Col. Prejevalsky furnish nearly all that is

known concerning the productions and inhabitants of Koko-nor.

The country is nominally divided into thirty-four banners, and

its Chinese rulers reside at Si’ning, east of the lake ; but they

have more to do in defending themselves than in protecting

their subjects. The Avhole country is occupied by the Tanguts

of Til)etan origin, who are brigands by profession, and roam

over the mountains around the headwaters of the Yangtsz’ and

Yellow Kivers ; by the Mohammedan Dunganis, who have latterly

been nearly destroyed in their recent rebellion ; and by

tribes of Mongols under the various names of Eleuths, Kolos,

Kalkas, Surgouths, and Koits. The Chinese maps are filled

with names of various tribes, but their statistical accounts are as

meagre of information as the maps are deficient in accurate and

satisfactory delineations.

THE PROVINCE AND LAKE OF KOKO-NOR. 211

The topographical features of this region are still imperfectly known, and its inhospitable climate is rendered more dangerous by man’s barbarity. High mountain masses alternate with narrow valleys and a few large depressions containing lakes ; the country lying south of the Azure Sea, as far as Burmah, is exceedingly mountainous. “West and southwest of the lake extends the plain of Chaidamu, which at a recent geological age has been the bed of a huge lake; it is now covered with morasses, shaking bogs, small rivers, and sheets of water—the most considerable of the latter bemg Lake Kara, in the extreme western portion.

The saline argillaceous soil of this region is not adapted to vegetation. Large animals are scarce, due in part to the plague of

insects which compels even the natives to retreat to the mountains

with their herds during certain seasons. Its inhabitants

are the same as those of Eastei-n Koko-nor ; thej are divided

into five banners, and number about 1,000 yurts^ or 5,000 souls.

The Burkhan-buddha range forms the southern boundary of

this plain, and the northernmost limit of the lofty plateau of

Tibet. Its length from east to west is not far from 130 miles,

its eastern extremity being near the Yegrai-ula (the near sources

of the Yellow Eiver) and Toso-nor. The range has no lofty

peaks, and stretches in an unbroken chain at a height of 15,000

to 16,000 feet ; it is terribly barren, but does not attain the

line of perpetual snow. The southern range, which separates

the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangtsz’ Rivers, is called the

Bayan-kara Mountains ; that northw^est of this is called on

Chinese maps, Kilien shan and Kan shan, and bounds the desert

on the south. On the northern declivities of the T^an shan

range are several towns lying on or near the road leading across

Central Asia, which leaves the valley of the Yellow Eiver at

Lanchau, in Kansuh, and runs X.X.W. over a rough country to

Liangchau, a town of some importance situated in a fertile and

populous district. From this place it goes northwest to Kanchau,

noted for its manufactures of felted cloths which are in

demand among the Mongol tribes of Koko-nor, and where large

quantities of rhubarb, horses, sheep, and other commodities are

procured. Going still northwest, the traveller reaches Suhchau,

the last large place before passing the Great Wall, which renders

it a mart for provisions and all articles brought from the

west in exchange for the manufactures of China. This city

was the last stronghold of the Dungani Moslems, and when

they were destroyed in 1873 it began to revive out of its ruins.

About fifty miles from this town is the pass of Kiayii, beyond

which the road to Hami, Urumtsi, and 111 leads directly across

the desert, here about three hundred miles wide. This route

has been for ages the line of internal communication between the west of China and the regions lying around and in the basins of the Tarini river and the (‘asi)ian.’ A better idea of the security of traffic and caravans within the Empire, and consequently of the goodness of the Chinese rule, is obtained by comparing the usually safe travel on this route with the hazards, robberies, and poverty formerly met with on the great roads in ]5okhara, and the regions south and west of the Belur tag.

The productions of Koko-nor consist of grain and other vegetables raised along the bottoms of the rivers and margins of the lakes ; sheep, cattle, horses, camels, and other aninuds. Alpine liares, wild asses,’ wild yaks, vultures, lammergeiers, pheasants, antelopes, wolves, mountain sheep, and wild camels are among the denizens of the wilds. The Chinese have settled among the tribes, and Mohammedans of Turkish origin are found in the large towns. There are eight corps between Koko-nor and

Iliasutai, comprising all the tribes and banners, and over which

are placed as many supreme generals or commanders appointed

from Peking. The leading tribes in Ivoko-nor are Eleuths,

Tanguts, and Tourbeths, the former of M’hom are the remnants

of one of the most powerful tribes in Centi-al Asia. Tangout

submitted to the Emperor in 1G90, and its population since the

incorporation has greatly increased. They iidiabit the hilly region

of Kansuh, Ivoko-nor^ Eastern Tsaidam, and the basin of

the Upper Yellow Kiver. They resemble gipsies, being above

the average in height, with thick-set features, broad shoulders,

liair and whiskers, black, dark eyes, nose straight, lips thick

and protruding, face long and never flat, skin tawny. Unlike

the Mongols aiul Chinese they have a strong growth of beard

and whiskers which, however, they always shave. They wear

no tail, Ijut shave their heads; their dress consists of furs and

cloths made into long coats that reach to the knees. Shirts or

trowsers are not made use of ; their upper logs are generally

left bare. Women dress like the men. Their habitations are wooden huts or black cloth tents. The Tangut is cunning,

‘Compare Richthofen, China, Band I., 2or Thoil. ; Yulo, Cathaij and t/ie Way Thither, passim.

•The wild ass is called by Prejevalsky the most remarkable animal of these steppes. Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 220 (2d edition).

THE TANGUTS AND NOMADS OF KOKO-NOR. 218

stingy, lazy, and sliiftless. His sole occupation that of tending

cattle (yaks). He is even more zealous a Buddhist than are the

Mongols, and extremely superstitious.” The trade at Sining is

large, but not equal to that between Yunnan and Burniah at

Tall and Bhamo ; dates, rhubarb, chowries, precious stones, felts,

cloths, etc., are among the commodities seen in the bazaar. It

lies about a hundred miles from the sea, at an elevation of

V,800 feet, and near it is the famous laraasary of Ivunibum,

where MM. Hue and Gabet lived in 1845. The town is well

situated upon the Sining ho, and though constructed for the

most part of wood, presents a fine appearance owing to the

number of official buildings therein. The population numbers

some 00,00(1 souls.”

‘ For a notice of the Ouigours, who formerly ruled Tangout, consult Klaproth, Memmres, Tome II., p. 301, if. See also Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges Asiati’ques, Tome II., p. 61, for a notice of the Ta-ta tung’o, who applied their letters to write Mongolian.

* Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 113; Vol. I., p. 118. Penny Cyclopaedia, Arts. Bayan Kara, Tangut. Kreitner, Imfemen Osten, p. 703. Hue, Tr^i*-els, passim.

The towns lying between the treat Wall and ill, though politically belonging to Xansuh, are more connected with the colonies in their form of government than with the Eighteen Provinces. The first town beyond the Kiayii Pass is Yulimim, distant about ninety miles, and is the residence of officers, who attend to the caravans going to and from the pass. It is represented as lying near the junction of two streams, which flow northerly into the Purunki. The other district town of Tunhwang lies across a mountainous country, upwards of two hundred miles distant. The city of Xgansi chau has been built to facilitate the communication across the desert to Hami or Kamil, the first town in Songaria, and the depot of troops, arms, and munitions of Avar. “With the town of Hami,” says an Austrian visitor in these regions, ” the traveller comes upon the southern foot-hills of the Tien shan, and the first traces of Siberian civilization. Magnificent mountain scenery accompanies him on his way toward the west to the Pussian line. In the government of Semipolatinsk are the express mail-wagons wliicli stand ready at his order to carry him at furious speed to the town of the same name, then to the right bank of the River Irtjsh, and so to Omsk.” ‘ This route and that stretching towards the southwest bring an important trade to llanii ; the country around it is cuUivated by poor Mongols.” Barkul, or Chinsi fu, in hit. 43° 40′ ]X., and long. 93° 30’ E., is the most important place in the department ; the district is called Iho hien. A thousand Manchus, and three thousand Chinese, guard the post. The town is situated on the south of Lake Barkul, and its vicinity receives some cultivation, llami and Turfan each form a ihi(j district in the southeast and west of the department. The trade at all these places consists mostly of articles of food and clothing.

Urumtsi, c)r Tih-hwa chau (the Bivh-halih of the Ouigours in 1100 % in hit. 43° 45′ N., and long. 89° E., is the westernmost department of Kansuh, divided into three districts, and containing many posts and settlements. In the war with the Eleuths in 1770, the inhabitants around this place were exterminated, and the countiy afterwards repeopled by upwards of ten thousand troops, with their families, and by exiles; emigrants from Kansuh were also induced to settle there. The Chinese accounts

speak of a high monntain near the city, always covered

with ice and snow, whose base is wooded, and abounding with

pheasants ; coal is also obtained in this region. The cold is

great, and snow falls as late as July. Many parts produce

grain and vegetables. All this department formerly constituted

a portion of Songaria. The policy of the Chinese government

is to induce the tribes to settle, by placing large bodies of troops

with their families at all important points, and sending their

exiled criminals to till the soil ; the Mongols then find an increasing demand for their cattle and other products, and are induced to become stationary to meet it. So far as is known, this policy had succeeded well in the regions beyond the Wall, and those around Koko-nor ; but the rebellion of the Dunganis, who arose in these outlying regions at the moment when the energies of the Peking government were all directed to suppressing the Tai-ping insurrection, destroyed these improvements, and frustrated, for an indefinite period, the promising development of civilization among the inhabitants.

‘ Lieut. Krcitner, Imfernen Osten.

” In Remusat’s Ilii^toire de la VUle de Khotun (p. 70) there is an account of a journey made in the lOth century between Kanchan and Klioten.

^ Remusat calls it PciUiUope. Nouveaux MelamjeSy Tome I., p. 5.

DIVISIONS AND BOUNDARIES OF ILI. 215

That part of the Empire called Ili is a vast region lying on

each side of the Tien shan, and including a tract nearly as large

as Mongolia, and not much more susceptible of cultivation. Its

limits may be stated as extending from lat. 36° to 49° K., and

from long. 71° to 96° E., and its entire area, although difficult

to estimate from its irregularity, can hardly be less than 900,000

square miles, of which Songaria occupies rattier more than onethird.

It is divided into two Lu^ or ‘ Circuits,’ viz., the Tien

shan Pell Lu, and Tien shan Nan Lu, or the circuits north and

south of the Celestial Mountains. The former is commonly

designated Songaria, or Dzungaria, from the Songares or

Eleuths, who ruled it till a few scores of years past, and the latter

used to be known as Little Bokhara, or Eastern Turkestan.

tli is bounded north by the Altai range, separating it from

the Kirghls ; northeast by the Irtysh Piver and Outer Mongolia

; east and southeast by ITrumtsi and Barkul in Ivansuh ;

south by the desert and the Ivwanlun range ; and west by the

Belur-tag, dividing it from Badakshan and Russian territory.’

‘ The recent treaty between Russia and China (ratified in 1881), marks the boundaries between Ili and Russian territory in the following sections: Art. VII. A tract of country in the west of Ili is ceded to Russia, where those who go over to Russia and are thereby dispossessed of their land in tli may settle. The boundary line of Chinese tli and Russian territory will stretch from the Pieh-chen-tao [Bedschin-tau] Mountains along the course of the Hocrh-kwo-ssU [Yehorsos] River, to its junction with the Ili River, thence across the 111 River, and south to the east of the village of Kwo-li-cha-ti”‘ [Kaldschatl on the Wu-tsung-tau range, and from this point south along the old boundary line fixed by the agreement of Ta-Cheng [Tashkend] in the year 1864.

Art. VIII. The boundary line to the east of the Chi-sang lake, fixed iu the year 1864 by the agreement of Ta-Cheng [Tashkend], having proved unsatisfactory, high officers will be specially deputed by both countries jointly to examine and alter it so that a satisfactory result may be attained. That there may be no doubt what part of the Kliassak country belongs to China and what to Russia, the boundary will consist of a straight line drawn from the Kwei Tung Mountains across the Hei-i-erh-te-shih River to the Sa-wu-crh range, and Ill lenoftli, the Northern Circuit extends about nine hundred miles, and the width, on an average, is three hundred miles. The Southern Circuit reaches nearly twelve hundred and fifty miles from west to east, and varies from three hundred to five hundred in breadth, as it extends to the IvM’unhm range on the south. There is probably most arable land in the Northern Circuit.

Ili, taken north of the Tarim basin, may be regarded as an

inland isthmus, extending southwest from the south of Siberia,

off between the Gobi and Caspian deserts, till it reaches the

Hindu Kush, leading down to the valley of the Indus. The

former of these deserts incloses it on the east and south, the

other on the west and northwest, separated from each other by

the Belur and Muz-tag ranges, which join with the Tien shan,

that divide the isthmus itself into t\\o parts. These deserts

united are equal in extent to that of Sahara, l)ut are not as arid

and tenantless.

This region has some peculiar features, among which its great

elevation, its isolation in respect to its water-courses, and the

character of its vegetation, are the most remarkable. Songaria

is especially noticeable for the many closed river-basins which

occur between the Altai and Tien shan, among the various

liiinor ranges of hills, each of which is entirely isolated, and

containing a lake, the receptacle of its drainage. The largest

of these singular basins is that of the Kiver 111, which runs

about three hundred miles westward, from its rise in the Tien

shan (lat. 85°) till it falls into Lake Balkash, which also receives

some other streams ; the superficies of the whole basin is about forty thousand square miles. The other lakes lie northeastward of Balkash ; the largest of them are the Dzaisang, which receives the Irtysh, the Kisilbasli, into which the ITrungu the liigli of Beors deputed to settle the boundiuy will fix the iit>\v boundary .along such straight line which is within the old bounchxry.

Art. IX. As to the boundary on the west, between the Province of Fei-rrhkan[Ferghana], which is subject to Russia, and Chinese Kashgar, officials will be deputed V)y both countries to examine it, and they will fix the boundary line between the territories at present actually under the jurisdiction of either country, and they will erect boundary stones thereon.

TOPOGRAPHY OF ILI. 217

flows, and four or five smaller ones between them, lying north

of the city of III. Lake Tenmrtu, or Issik-kul, lies now just

beyond the southwestern part of this Circuit, and was until

recently contained therein. This sheet of water is deep and

never freezes ; it is brackish, but full of fish ; the dimensions

are about one liundred miles long, and thirty-five wide ; its

superabundant waters flow oif through the Chu ho into the

Xirghis steppe.

The Ala-tau range defines the lake on the north shore. Says

a Hussian traveller in describing this region, ” It M^ould be difl[icnlt

to imagine anything more splendid than the view of the

Tien shan from this spot. The dark blue surface of the Issikkul,

like sapphire, may M’ell bear comparison with the equally

blue surface of Geneva Lake, but its expanse—five times as

great—seeming almost unlimited, and the matchless splendor of

its background, gives it a grandeur which the Swiss lake does

not possess. The unbroken, snowy chain liere stretches away

for at least 200 miles of the length of the Issik-kul ; the sharp

outlines of the spurs and dark valleys in the front range are

softened by a thin mist, which hangs over the water and

heightens the clear, sharp outlines of the white heads of the

Tien shan giants, as they rise and glisten on the azure canopy

of a central Asian sky. The line of perpetual snow connnences

at three-fifths of their slope up, but as one looks, their snowless

base seems to sink the deeper in the far east, till the waves of

the lake seem to wash the snowy crests of Ivhan-Tengse.” Forty

small rivers flow into it, but its size is gradually lessening.’

Little is known concerning the topography, the productions,

or the civilization of the tribes who inhabit a large part of Songaria,

but the efforts of the Chinese government have been

systematically directed to developing its agricultural resources,

by stationing bodies of troops, who cultivate the soil, there, and

by banishing criminals thither, who are obliged to work for and

assist the troops. It gives one a higher idea of the rulers of

China, themselves wandering nomads originally, when they are

seen carrying on such a plan for extending the capabilities of

these remote parts of their Empire, and teaching, partly by force, partly by bribes, and partly by example, the Mongol tribes under them the advantages of a settled life.

‘ Compare also Schuyler, Turkistan, Vol. II., pp. 137 ff

The productions of Songaria are nnmerons. Wheat, barley,

rice and millet, are the chief corn stuffs ; tobacco, cotton, melons,

and some fruits, are grown ; herds of horses, camels, cattle, and

sheep, afford means of locomotion and food to the people, while

the mountains and lakes supply game and fish. The inhabitants

are composed mostly of Eleuths, with a tribe of Tourgouths,

and remnants of the Songares, together with Mongols, Manchus,

and Chinese troops, settlers and criminals.

TiEN-SHAN Peh Lu is divided by the Chinese into three commanderies, llh, on the west, Tarhagatai on the north, and Kurkara usu on the east, between Ili and the west end of Kansuh.

The government of the ISTorth and South Circuits is under the control of Manchu military officers residing at Ili. This city, called by the Chinese Ilwuiyuen ching, and Gouldja (orlvuldja) and Kuren by the natives, lies on the north bank of the Ili River, in lat. 43° 55′ K., and long. 81^° E. ; it contains about fifty thousand inhabitants, and carries on considerable trade with China through the towns in Ivansuh. The city was defended by six strong fortresses in its neighborhood, and tho solidity of the stone walls enabled it to resist a vigorous assault in the Dungani rebellion. Its circuit is nearly four miles, and two wide avenues cross its centre, dividing it into four equal parts, through each of which run many lanes. Its houses indicate the Turkish origin of its builders in their clay or adobe walls and flat roofs, and this impression is increased by the Junnna mosque of the Taranchis, and the Dungan mosque, outside of the walls. The last has a wonderful minaret built of small roofed pavilions one over another; both of them affect the Chinese architecture in their roofs, and their walls are faced with diamond-shaped tiles. The Buddhist temple has hardly been rebuilt since the city has returned to Chinese rule. The supply of meats and vegetables is constant, and the variety and quality exceed that of most other towns in the region. The population is gradually increasing with the return of peace and trade, but is still under twenty thousand, of which not one-fifth are Chinese and Manchus : the Taranchis constitute half of the whole, and Dunganis are the next in number. The province is the richest and best cultivated of all this reijion of fli : its coal, metals, and fruits are sources of prosperity, and with its return to Chinese sway under new relations in respect to Russian trade, its future is promising.

TIEN-SHAlSr PEU LU AXD THE TOWX OF KULDJA. 219

The destruction of life was dreadful at the capture of Kuldja and other towns, which were then left a heap of ruins.’

Schuyler estimates that not more than a hundred thousand people remained in the province, out of a third of a million in 1860. It is stated in Chinese works that when Amursana, the discontented chief of the Songares, applied, in 1775, to Kienlung for assistance against his rival Tawats or Davatsi, and was sent back with a Chinese army, in the engagements which ensued, more than a million of people were destroyed, and the whole country depopulated. At that time, Knldja was built by

Kienlung, and soon became a place of note. Outside of the

town are the barracks for the troops, which consist of Eleuths

and Mohammedans, as well as ]\[anchus and Chinese. Coal is

found in this region, and most of the inland rivers produce

abundance of fish, wliile wild animals and birds are numerous.

The resources of the country are, however, insufficient to meet

the expenses of the military establishment, and the presents

made to the begs, and the deficit is supplied from China.”

‘ 175,000 perished in Kuklja alone.
” The question of the existence of volcanoes in Central Asia, especially on the Knldja frontier, has always been a matter of doubt and discussion among geologists and Russian explorers. The Governor of Semiretchinsk, General Kolpakofsky, was, in 1881, able to report the discovery of the perpetual fires in the Tien shan range of mountains. The mountain Bai shan was found twelve miles northeast of Kuldja, in a basin surrounded by the massive Ailak mountains ; its fires are not volcanic, but proceed from burning coal. On the sides of the mountain there are caves emitting smoke and sulphurous gas. Mr. Schuyler, in his Turkistan, mentions that these perpetual fires in the mountains, referred to by Chinese historians, were considered by Severtzofif, a Russian, who explored the region, as being caused by the ignition of the seams of coal, or the carburetted h^’drogen gas in the seams. The same author further mentions that Captain Tosnofskey, another Russian explorer, was told of a place in the neighborhood from which steam constantly rose, and that near this crevice there had existed, from ancient times, three pits, where per sons afflicted with rheumatism or skin diseases were in the habit of bathing.

Subordinate to the control of the commandant at Knldja are nine garrisoned places situated in the same valley, at each of which are bodies of Chinese convicts. The two remaining districts of Tarbagatai and Ivur-kara usu are small compared with 111 ; the first lies between Cobdo and the Kirghis steppe, and is inhabited mostly by emigrants from the steppes of the latter, who render merely a nominal subjection to the gari’isons placed over them, but are easily governed through their tribal rulers. The Tourgouths, who emigrated from Kussia in 1772, into China, are located in this district and Cobdo, as well as in the valleys of the Tekes and Kunges rivers. They have become more or less assimilated with other tribes since they were placed here. In the war with the Songares, many of the people fled from the valley of IK to this region, and after that country was

settled, they submitted to the Emperor, and partly returned to

111. The chief town, called Tuguchuk by the Kirghis, and

Suitsing cliing by the Chinese, is situated not far from the

southern base of the Tarbagatai Mountains, and contains about

six hundred houses, half of which belong to the garrison. It

is one of the nine fortified towns under the control of the commandant

at Kuldja, and a place of some trade with the Kirghis.

There are two residents stationed here, with high powers to oversee

the trade across the frontier, but their duties are inferior

in importance to those of the officials at Ilrga. 2,500 Manchu

and Chinese troops remain at this post, and since the conquest

of the country in 1772 by Kienhmg, its agricniltural products

have gradually increased under the industry of the Chinese.

The tribes dwelling in this distant province are restricted within

certain limits, and their obedience secured by presents. The

climate of Tarbagatai is changeable, and the cold weather

comprises more than half the year. The basin of Lake

Aladvul, or Alaktu-kul, occupies the southwest, and part of the

Trtysh and Lake Dzaisang the northeast, so that it is well

watered. The trade consists chiefiy of domestic animals and

cloths.

POSITION OF TIEN-SHAN NAN LU. 221

The town of Kur-kara usu lies on the Ttiver Kur, northeast from Kuldja and oti the road between it and TTrumtsi ; it ia called Kingsui ching by the Chinese. The number of troops stationed at all these posts is estimated at sixty thousand, and the total population of Songaria under two millions.

The TiEN-SHAN Kan Lit, or Southern C^ircuit of Ili,the territory

of ‘ the eight Mohammedan cities,’ was named Sin

Kiang (‘ New Frontier ‘) by Kienlung. It is less fertile than

the T^orthern Circuit, the greatest part of its area consisting of

ruffo-ed mountains or barren wastes, barelv affordino; subsistence

for herds of cattle and goats. The principal boundaries are the

Kwanlun Mountains, and the desert, separating it from Tibet on

the south ; Cashmere lies on the southwest, and Badukshan and

Kokand are separated from it on the west and northwest by

the Belur-tag, all of them defined and partitioned by the mountain

ranges over which the passes 12,000 to 16,000 feet high

furnish both defence and travel according to the season.

The greater part of this Circuit is occupied with the basin of

the Tarim or Ergu, which flows from the Belur range in four

principal branches ‘ (called from the towns lying upon their

banks the Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, and Khoten Rivers), and

running eastward, receives several affluents from the north and

south, and falls into Lake Lob in long. 89^ E., after a course,

including windings, of between 1,100 and 1,300 miles. Of the

river system from which this stream flows Baron Ilichthofen

says, ” the region which gives birth to this river is on a scale of

grandeur such as no other river in the world can boast. It is

girt round by a wide semicircular collar of mountains of the

loftiest and grandest character, often rising in ridges of 18,000

to 20,000 feet in height, while the peaks shoot up to 25,000 and

even 28,000 feet. The basin which fills in the horse-shoe shaped

space encompassed by these gigantic elevations, though deeply

depressed below them, stands at a height above the sea varying

from 6,000 feet at the margin to about 2,000 in the middle,

and formed the bed of an ancient sea. From its wall-like sides

on the south, west, and north, the waters rush headlong down,

and though the winds blowing from all directions deposit most

of their moisture on the remoter sides of the surrounding

‘ Wood, Jmirney to the Source of the River Oxus, p. 356. From the hills that encircle Lake Sir-i-kol rise some of the principal rivers in Asia : the Yarkand, Kashgar, Sirr, Kuner, and Oxus.

ranges, viz., the southern foot of the Himalayas, the west side

of the Paniii-, and the northern slope of the Tien shan, the

streams formed thereby windhig through the cloud-capped lofty

cradle-land, and breaking tlirough the mountain chains, reach

the old ocean bed onlj^ partly well watered. The smallest of

them disappear in the sand, others flow some distance before

expanding into a level salt basin and are there absorbed. Only

the largest, whose munber the Chinese estimate at sixty, unite

with the Tarim, a river 1,150 miles long, and therefore in

length between the Khine and Danube, but far surpassing both

in the massiveness of surrounding mountains, just as it exceeds

the Daimbe in the extent of its basin. Its tributaries foi-m

along the foot of the mountains a number of fruitful oases, and

these by means of artificial irrigation have been converted into

flourishing, cultivated states, and have played an important part

in the history of these regions.” ‘ Col. Prejevalsky’s explorations

in this totally unknown country have brought out a multitude

of facts pregnant with interest both for histoi’ical and geographical

study. Among the most important results of his discoveries is the location of Lob more than a degree to the south of its position on Chinese maps, and a consequent bend of the Tarim from its due eastern course before it reaches its outlet.

This lake, consisting of two sheets of water, the Kara-buran

and Kara-kurc’hin (or Chon-kul), lies on the edge of the deseit,

in an uniidiabited region, and surrounded by great swamps,

which extend also northwest along the Tarim to its junction

with the Kaidu. It is shallow, overgrown with weeds, and is

for the most part a morass, the water being fresh, despite the sail

marshes in the vicinity. The people living near it speak a language

most like that of Ivhoten ; they are Moslems. Lake Lob is elliptical, 90 to 100 versts long and 20 wide, 2,200 feet above the sea. Enormous flocks of birds come from Khoten on the southwest, as they go north, and make Lob-nor their stopping-place. The desert in this region is poor and desolate in the extreme.

‘ RicJitJioferi’ s Bemarks in Prejevalsky’s Loh-nor, p. i;?8. London, 1879.

THE RIVER TARIM AND LOB-NOR. 223

Its southern side is formed by the Altyn-tag range, a spur of the Kwanlun Mountains that rises about 14,000 feet in a sheer wall. Wild camels are found in its ravines, whose sight, hearing, and smell are marvellously acute. No other river basins of any size are found within the Circuit, except a large tributary called the Kaidu, which, draining a parallel valley north of Lobnor, two hundred miles long, runs into a lake nearly as large, called Bostang-nor, from which an outlet on the south continues it into the Tarim, about eighty miles from its mouth.

The tributaries of this river are represented as much more serviceable for agricultural purposes than the main trunk is for navigation. The plain through which the Tarim flows is about two hundred miles broad and not far from nine hundred miles long, most of it unfit for cultivation or pasturage. The desert extends considerably west of the two lakes. The climate of this region is exceedingly dry, and its barrenness is owing, apparently, more to the want of moisture than to the nature of the soil. The western parts are colder than those toward Kansuh, the river being passable on ice at Yarkand, in lat. 38°, for three months, while frost is hardly known at Hami, in lat. 43°.

The productions of the valley of the Tai’im comprise most of the grains and fruits found in Southern Europe ; the sesamum is cultivated for oil instead of the olive. Few trees or shrubs cover the mountain acclivities or plains. All the domestic animals abound, except the hog, which is i-eared in small numbers by the Chinese. The camel and yak are hunted and raised for food and service, their coats affording both skins and hair for garments. The horse, camel, black cattle, ass, and sheep, are found wild on the edge of the desert, where they find a precarious subsistence. The mountains and marshes contain jackals, tigers, bears, wolves, lynxes, and deer, together with some large species of birds of prey. Gold, copper, and iron are brought from this region, but the amount is not large, and as articles of trade they are less important than the sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sulphur, and asbestos obtained from the volcanic region in the east of the Celestial Mountains. The best specimens of the yuh or nephrite, so highly prized by the Chinese, are obtained in the Southern Circuit.

The present divisions of this Circuit are regulated by the position of the eight Mohammedan cities. The western departments of Kansnh naturally belong to the same region, and the cities now pertaining to that province are inhabited by entirely

similar races, and governed in the same feudal manner, with

some advantages in consideration of their early submission to

Kienlung. The first town on the road, of note, is Ilami ; Turfan

and Pidshan are less important as trading posts than as

garrisons. The eight cities are named in the Statistics of the

Empire in the following order, beginning at the east : Harashar,

Kuche, Ushi (including Sairim and Bai), Aksu, Khoten,

Yarkand, Kashgar, and Yingkeshar or Yangi Hissar. The

superior officers live at Yarkand, but the Southern Circuit is

divided into four minor governments at Ilarashar, Ushi, Yarkand,

and Khoten, each of whose residents reports both to Kuldja

and Peking. There is constant restiveness on the part of the

subject races, who are all Moslems, arising from their clannish

habits and feuds ; they have not the elements of substantial

progress and national growth, either under their own rulers or

Chinese. They have lately thrown off the Peking Government,

but they have generally regretted the rapines and waste caused

by the strifes and change, and Avould probably receive the

Kitai (so they term the Chinese) back again. The latter are

not hard masters, and bring trade and wealth the longer they

remain. One of the IJsbek chiefs under Yakub khan gave

the pith of the situation between the two, when he replied to

Dr. Bellew’s remark that he talked like a Chinese himself,

” Ko, I hate them. But they were not bad rulers. “We had

everything then ; we have nothing now. We never see any

signs of the Kitai trade, nor of the wealth they brought here.”‘

Ilarashar (or Karashar) lies on the Kaidu River, not far from

Lake Bagarash or Bostang, about two hundred and ninety miles

west of Turfan, in lat. 42° 15′ N., and long. 87° E. It is a

large district, and has two towns of some note within the jurisdiction

of its officers—namely, Korla and Bukur. Ilarashar is

fortified, and from its being a secure position, and the seat of

the chief resident, attracts considerable trade. The embroidery

is superior ; but the tribes living in the district are more addicted

to hunting than disposed to sedentary trades. Korla lies

TOWNS OF THE SOUTheRISr CIIiCUIT. 225

southwest of llarasliar on the Kaidii, between lakes Bostany;

and Lob, and the productions of the town and its vicinity indi

cate a fertile soil ; the Chinese say the Mohammedans who live

here are fond of singing, but have no ideas of ceremony or

Virbanity. Bukur lies two hundred miles Avest of Korla and

” might be a rich and delicious country,”” says the Chinese account,

” but those idle, vagrant Mohannnedans only use their

strength in theft and plunder ; the Avomen blush at nothing.”

The town formerly contained upward of ten thousand inhal)-

itants, but Kienlung nearly destroyed it ; the district has been

since resettled by Iloshoits, Tourbeths, and Turks, and the people

carry on some trade in the produce of their herds, skins, copper,

and agates.

Kuche, about eighty miles west from Bukur, hit. 41° 3T’ X.,

and long. 83° 20′ E., is a larger an<l more important city than that

t)f Ilarashar, for the road which crosses the Tien shan l)y the

pass Muz-daban to Ili, here joins tliat coming from Aksu on

the west and Ilami on the east. It is three miles in circuit, and

is defended by ten forts and three hundred troops. The

bazaars contain grain, fruits, and vegetables, raised in the vicinity

by great labor, for the land requires to be irrigated by hand

from Avells, pools, and streams. Copper, sulphur, and saltpeti’e

are carried across to 111, for use of government as well as traffic,

being partly levied from the inhabitants as taxes ; linen is

manufactured in the town, and sal ammoniac, cimiabar, and

quicksilver are procured fi’oni the mountains. Kuche is considered

the gate of Turkestan, and is the chief town, politically

speaking, between Ilami and Yarkand. The district and town

of Shayar lie south of Kuche, in a marshy valley producing

abundance of rice, melons, and fruit ; the pears are particularly

good. Two small lakes, Baba-kul and Sary-kamysch, lie to the

east of this town, and are the only bodies of water between

Bostang-nor and Issik-kul. The population is about four thousand,

ruled by hegs subordinate to the general at Kuche.

The valley of. the Aksu contains two large towms, Aksu and Ushi or Ush-turfan, besides several posts and villages. Between the former and Kuche, lie the small garrisons and districts of Bai and Sairim. The first contains from four to five hundred families, ruled by their own chiefs. Sairim or Ilanlemuli is siiboi-dinate to Ushi in some degree, but its productions, climate, and inhabitants are like those of Kuche. ” Their manners are simple,” remarks a Chinese writer, speaking of the people; ” they are neither cowards nor rogues like the other Mohammedans; they are fond of singing, drinking, and dancing, like those of Kuche.” Aksu is a large commercial and manufacturing

town, containing twenty thousand inhabitants, situated,

like Kuche, at the termination of a road leading across the Tien

slian to til, and attracting to its market traders from Siberia,

i)okhara, and Kokand, as well as along the great road. Its manufactures

of cotton, silk, leather, harnesses, crockery, precious

stones, and metals are good, and sent abroad in great numbers.

The country produces grain, fruits, vegetables, and cattle in perfection, and the people are more civilized than those on the east and north; “they are generous and nol)lo, and both slug and ] idieulc the oddities and niggardliness of the other jMobammedans.”

The Chinese garrison consists of three thousand soldiers, and the officers are accountable to those at Ushi. Ushi lies al)Out TO miles due west of Aksu, in lat. 41° 15′ N. and long. 79° 40′ E., and is stated to contain ten thousand inhabitants.

^ CiilU’d aho Pourouts. Compare Klaproth {Memoircs, Tome III., p. 332), who has a notice of these tribes.

THE GOVERNMENT AND TOWN OF KASJIGAR. 227

The Chinese name is Yung-ning ching(ie. ‘City of Eternal Tranquillity’). The officers stationed here report to the commandant at Ili, but they communicate directly with Peking, and receive the Emperor’s sanction to their choice of begs, and to the envoys forwarded to the capital with tribute. Copper money is cast here in ingots, somewhat like the ingots of sycee in the provinces. There are six forts attached to Uslif, to keep in order the wandering tribes of the Kii’ghis, called I’ruth l\irghi’s,’ which roam over the fi’ontier regions between Ushi and ^’arkand. They pay homage to the officers at Ushi, but give no tribute. Those who do pay tribute are taxed a tenth, but the Kii-ghis on this frontier are usually allowed to roam where they like, provided they keep the peace. This region was nearly depopulated by Kienlung’s generals, and at present supports a sparse population compared with its fertility and resources.

The government of Kashgar, known, at the time of the Arab conquest, as Klehlh Bul’hara, presents a vast, undulating plain, of which the slope is very gradual toward the east, and of which the general elevation maybe reckoned at from three to four thousand feet above the sea. The aspect of its surface is mostly one of unmitigated waste—a vast spread of bare sand and gloomy salts, traversed in all directions by dunes and banks of gravel, with the scantiest vegetation, and all but absence of animal life. Such is the view that meets the eye ajid joins the horizon everywhere on the plain immediately beyond the river courses and the settlements planted on their banks.’ The population of this whole district is considerably less than a million

and a half. The natural mineral productions hei’e are of great

value, and it is a knowledge of this fact which has induced the

Chinese to persevere in retaining so expensive and turl)ulent a

frontier province. The gold and jade of Ivhoten, silver and

lead of Cosharab, and copper of Khalistan, have given abundant

employment to Chinese settlers ; while coal, iron, sulphur,

alum, sal ammoniac, and zinc, though worked in unimportant

quantities before the insurrection of Yakub khan (Atalik

Gliazi), furnished the inhabitants with supplies for domestic

use. An important hinderance to building villages in many sections

of this territory is the prevalence of sand dunes here.

Solitary houses and even whole settlements lying in the path of

these moving hills are suddenly overwhelmed and oftentimes

totalh’ effaced.

The town of Kashgar is situated at the northwestern angle

of the Southern Circuit, on the Kashgar River, a branch of the

Tarim, in lat. 39° 25′ X., and long. 76° 5′ E., at the extreme

west of the Empire. Several roads meet here. Going in a

northw^est direction, one leads over the Tien shan to Kokand ; a

second passes south, through Yarkand and Khoten, to Leh and

Cashmere ; a third, the great caravan route, from China through

1 H. W. Bellew, Kashmir and Kashgar. A Narrative of the Journey of the Embassy to Kashgar in 1873-4, p. 2.

Uslii, iiiav be said to end liere ; and the fourth and most frequented,

leads off northwest over the Tien shan through the

llowat Pass, and along the western banks of Lake Issik-kul to

111. Kashgar was the capital of the Oigours for a long time, and

its ruler forced his people, as far east as llanii, to accept Islaniisni

about the year lUCiO. They then came under Genghis’

sway, and this city increased its iuiportance. but when Abubahr

JMiza took Yarkand, he razed Kashgar to the ground. Under

Chinese rule it became one of the richest marts in Central

Asia, and its future im])ortance is secured by its position. The

city is enclosed with high and massive walls, supported by buttress

bastions, and protected by a deep ditcli on three sides, the river flowing under the fourth. There are but two gates ; the area within is about fifty acres. Around it are populous suburbs.

In the middle of the town is a large s(piare, and four bazaars

branch from it through to the gates ; the gari-ison is placed

without the wall^. The nuinufactures of Kashgar excel those

of any other town in the two Circuits, especially in jade, gold,

silk, cotton, gold and silver cloths, and carpets. The country

around produces fruit and grain in abundance; “the manners

of the people have an appearance of elegance and politeness,”

says the Chinese geographer ;

” the women dance

and sing in fanuly parties ; they fear and respect the officers,

and have not the M’ild, uncultivated aspect of those in

Ushi.” This judgment is in a measure confirmed by Bellew,

who credits the people with being singularly free from prejudice

against the foreigners, quite indifferent on any score of his

nationality or religion, and content so long as lie pays his way

and does not offend the customs of the natives. Sevei-al towns

arc subordinate to Kashgar, because of its oversight of their

I’ulers, and consumption of their products. Southwest lies Tashl)

alig, and on the road leading to Yarkand is Yangi Tlissar, both

of them towns of some importance ; the whole distance from

Kashgar presents a succession of sandy or saline tracts, alternating

with fertile bottoms wherever water runs. Small villages

and post houses serve to connect the larger towns, but the soil

does not reward the cultivators with much produce.

THE CITY OF YARKAND. 229

Tarkand, or Yerkiang, is the political capital of the Southern

Circuit, as the highest militaiy officers and strongest force

are stationed liere. It is situated on the Yarkand Itiver, in hit.

36° 30′ X., and long. 77° 15′ E., in the midst of a sand-girt

oasis of great fertility. The environs are ai)undantlv su])plied

with water by canals. The stone walls are three miles in circumference,

but its suburbs are nuicli larger ; the houses are

built of dried bricks, and the town has a more substantial appearance

than others in III. There are njanj mosques and colleges,

which, with the public buildings occupied by the government

and ti’oops, add to its consideration. Yarkand is one of

the ancient cities of Tartary, and was, in remote times, a royal

residence of Turk princes of the Afrasyab dynasty. In modern

times it owes its rank as a well-built city chiefly to Abubahr

Miza, whose short-lived sway from Aksu to Wakhan left its

chief results in the mosques and bazaars erected or enlarged by

him. By means of quarrying jade in the Karakash valley, and

W’orking the bangles, ear-rings and other articles in the city,

thousands of families found employment under Chinese rule.

With the overthrow of that sway and then of Yakub khan in

its restoration, all this industry disappeared. In the destruction

ensuing on these long struggles for supremac}^, one learns the

explanation of the barbarism which has succeeded the downfall

of mighty empires all over AYestern ^isia. The city has no important

manufactures ; it enjoys a local reputation for its

leather, and boots and shoes made here are esteemed all over

the province. Among other articles of trade are horses, silk,

and wool, and fabrics made from them ; but everything found

at Ivashgar is sold also at this market. In a Chinese notice of

the city, the customs at Yarkand are stated to have yielded over

$45,000 annually ; the taxes are 35,400 sacks of grain, 57,569

pieces of linen, 15,000 lbs. of copper, besides gold, silk, varnish,

and hemp, part of which are carried to 111. Jade is obtained

from the river in large pieces, yellow, white, black, and reddish,

and the articles made from it are cariied to China. The Chinese

authorities have no olqection to the resorting thither of

natives of Kokand, Badakshan, and other neighboring states,

many of whom settle and marry.

Klioten is situated on the southern side of the desert, and the

district embraces all the country south of Aksu and \ arkand,

alono- the northern base of the Kwanlun Mountains, for more

tlian three hundred miles from east to west. The capital is

called Ilchi on Chmese maps, and lies in an extensive plain on

the Khoten Kiver in lat. 37° N., and long. 80^ E. The town

of Karakash (meaning ‘Black Jade’)’ lies in lat. 37° 10′, long.

80″ 13′ 30″, a few miles northwest in the same valley, and is

said by traders to be the capital rather than Ilchi ; it is located

on the road to Yarkaud, distant twelve days’ journey. On

this road the town of (iumnu is also placed, whose chief had in

his possession a stone supposed to have the power of causing

rain. Kirrea lies five days’ journey east of Ilchi, near the pass

across the mountains into Tibet and Ladak ; a gold mine is

M’orked near this place, the produce of which is monopolized by

the Chinese. The three towns of Karakash, tlchi, and Kirrea,

are the only places of importance between the valley of the

Tarim and Tibet, but none of them have been visited for a long

time by Europeans.* The population of the town or district is

unknown ; one notice ‘ gives it a very large number, approaching

three millions and even more, which at any rate indicates

a more fertile soil and genial climate than the regions north and

south of it. Dr. Morrison, in his Yieia of China, puts it at

44,630 inhabitants ; and although the former includes the whole

district, and is probably too large, the second seems to be nnich

too small.

Khoten is known, in Chinese books, by the names of Yu-tu’/i,

Ilwan-na, KleuAan, and Klu,-sa-tan-na—the last meaning, in

Sanscrit, ” Breast of tiie Earth.” * Its eastern part is marshy,

i)ut that the country nnist have a considerable elevation is

manifest from the fact that the river which drains and connects

it with the Tarim runs quite across the desert in its

course. The country is governed by two high officei-s and a

‘ But Remusat says that Karakash is a river and no town.

‘” Wood {Journey to the Oxuk, p. 279) refers to a frontier town by the name

of Ecla.

‘ Penny Ci/clopcedia, Art. Tuian Shan nan lu.

* Rdmusat, Ilis’oire de Hhotan, p. 35.

KHOTEN DISTRICT. 2^1

detachment of troops ; there are six towns under their jurisdiction,

the inhabitants of which are ruled in the same manner as

the other Mohammedan cities. The people, however, are said

to be mostly of the JJuddhist faith, and the Chinese give a good

accoimt of their peacefulness and industi-y. The trade with

Leh and ll’lassa is carried on by a road crossing the Kwunlun

over the Kirrea Pass, beyond which it divides. The productions

of Khoten are fine linen and cotton stuffs, jade ornaments,

amber, copper, grain, fruits, and vegetables ; the former for exportation,

the latter for use. It was in this region that Col.

Prejcvalsky discovered (in 1879) a new variety of wild horse, a

specimen of which has been stuffed and exhibited in St. Petersburg.

The animal in question, though belonging undoubtedly

to the genus J^quus, presents, in many respects, an intermediate

form between the domestic horse and the wdld ass.

Remusat published, in 1820, an account of this country,

drawn from Chinese books, in wdiich the principal events in its

histoiy are stated, commencing with the Han dynasty, before

the Christian era, down to the Manchu conquest. In the early

part of its history, Khoten was the resort of many priests from

India, and the Buddhist faith was early established there. It

was an independent kingdom most of the time, from its earliest

mention to the era of Genghis khan, the princes sometimes extending

their sway from the Iviayii pass and Koko-nor to the

Tsung ling, and then being obliged to contract to the valley now

designated as Khoten. After the expulsion of the Mongols

from China, Khoten asserted its independence, but afterward

fell under the sway of the Songares and Eleuths, and lost many

of its inhabitants. The Manchus conquered it in 1770, when

the rest of the region between the Tien shan and Kwanlun fell

under their sway, but neither have they settled in it to the same

extent, nor made thereof a penal settlement, as in other parts

of 111.-

The government of Ili differs in some respects from that of

Mongolia, where religion is partly called in to aid the state. In

‘ Concerning the nomenclature of this region compare Remusat, Histoire de

Khotan, p. 66. See, moreover, ib., p. 47 ff., the legend of a drove of desert

rats assisting the king of this land against the army of his enemies.

the Northern Circuit, the authority is strictly military, exercised

by means of residents and generals, with bodies of troops under

their control. The supreme connnand of all Hi is intrusted by

the colonial office to a Manchu UiaH(jl(an,ov military governorgeneral

at Kuldja, who has under him two coimcillors to take

cognizance of civil cases, and thirty -four residents scattered

about in both Circuits. This governor has also the control of

the troops stationed in the three western departments of Kansuh,

but has nothing to do M’ith the civil jurisdiction of those

towns. The entire number of soldiers under his hand is stated

at 60,000, most of whom have families, and add agricultural,

mechanical, or other labors to the profession of arms. The

councillors are not altogether sul)ordhiatc to the general, but report

to the Colonial Office.

In the Northern Circuit, there is a deputy appointed for every village and town, invested with military powers over the troops and convicts, and civil supervision over the native jpiko or chieftains, who are the real rulers acknowledged by the clans.

The character of the inhabitants north of the Tien shan is rendered

unlike that of those dwelling in the Southern Circuit, not

more by the diversity in their language and nomadic habits,

than by the sway religious rites and allegiance have over them.

Through this latter motive, the government of Mongolia and

the Xorthern Circuit is rendered far easier and more effectual

for the distant court of Peking than it otherwise Avould be.

The appointment of the native chieftains is first announced to

the general at Kuldja and the Colonial Office, and they succeed

to their post when confirmed, which, as the station is in a measure

hereditaiy, usually follows in course.

The inhabitants of the Southern Circuit are Mohammedans

and acknowledge a less Milling subjection to the Emperor than

those in the Xorthern, the differences in race, religion, and language

being probably the leading reasons. The government

of the whole rejjrion is divided amoni»; the Manchu residents or

aiiihatin at the eight cities, who are nominally responsible to the

general at Ili, and independent of each other, but there is a

gradation in rank and power, the one at Yarkaiid having the

priority. The begs are chosen by the tribes themselves, and

GOVERNMEXT OF IlI 233

exercise authority in all petty cases arising among the people,

without the interference of the Chinese. The troops are all

Manchu or Chinese, none of the Turks being enrolled in separate

bodies, though individuals are employed with safety.

There is considerable difference in the rank and inliuence of

the begs, which is upheld and respected by the amhcDis. The

allowances and style granted them are regulated in a measure

by their feudal importance. The revenue is derived from a

monthly capitation tax on each man of about half a dollar, and

tithes on the produce ; there are no transit duties as in China,

but custom-houses are established at the frontier trading towns.

The language generally used in the Southern Circuit is the

Jaghatai Turki of the Kalmucks ; the Usbecks constitute the majority

of the people, but Eleuths and Kalmucks are everywhere

intermixed. The Tibetans have settled in Khoten, or more

probably, remnants still exist there of the former ijihabitants.

The history of the vast region constituting the present government

of 111 early attracted the attention of oriental scholars,

and few portions of the world have had a more exciting historj’.

After the expulsion of the Mongols from China by

Hungwu, A.D. 1366, they found that they, as a tribe, were inferior

in power to the westei’u triljes, but it was not till about

1680 that the Eleuths, noi-th of the Tien slian under the Galdan,’

began to attack the Kalkas, and drive them eastward.

The Sunnites, Tsakhars, and Solons, portions of the Eastern

Mongols, had already joined the Manchus ; and the Kalkas, to

avoid extermination, submitted to them also, and besought their

assistance against the Eleuths. Kanghi received their allegiance,

and tried to settle the difficulties peaceably, but was

obliged to send his troops against the Galdan, and drivj him

from the territory of the Kalkas to the westward of Lob-nor

and Barkul. The Emperor was materially aided in this enterprise

by the secession from the Eleuths of the Songares,

whose khan had taken offence, and drawn his hordes off to the

south. The khans of the Kalkas and their vast territory thus

‘ “Galdan, better kuown by his title of Contaisch “—Remusat, Nouveaux

Melanges, Tome II., p. 29, See also Scliuyler’s TurkiMan, Vol. II., p. 168.

became subject to the Chinese. The Galdan lost all his forces,

and expired bj poison, in 1697, his power dying with him, and

his tribe having already become too weak to resist.

Upon the ruins of his power arose that of Arabdan, the khan

of the Songares. lie subjugated the ]S’orthern Circuit, passed

over into Turkestan, Tangout, and Khoten, and gradually reduced

to his sway nearly all the elevated region of Central Asia

M’est of Kansuh. lie expelled the Tourgouths from their possessions

in Cobdo, and compelled them to retreat to the banks

of the Volga. Ivanghi expelled the Songares from the districts

about Koko-nor, but made no impression upon their authority

in Songaria. After the death of Arabdan, about 1720, his

throne was disputed, and the power weakened by dissensions

among his sons, so that it Avas seized by two usurpers, Amursana

and Tawats, Avho also fell out after their object was gained.

Annn-sana repaired to Peking for assistance, and with the aid

of a Chinese army expelled Tawats, and took possession of the

throne of Arabdan. But he had no intention of becoming a

vassal to Ivienlung, and was no sooner reinstated than he resisted

him ; he defeated two Chinese armies sent against him,

but succumbed on the third attack, and fled to Tobolsk, -where

he died in 1757.

The territory of Arabdan then fell to Ivienlung, and he pursued

his successes with such cruelty that the Northern Circuit

was nearly depopulated, and the Songares and Eleuths became

almost extinct as distinct tribes. The banished tribe of Tourgouths

was then invited by the Emperor to retui-n from Russian

sway to their ancient possessions, which they accepted in

1772; the history of the Chinese embassy to them, and their

disastrous journey back to Cobdo over the Ivirghis steppe and

through the midst of their enemies, is one of the most remarkable

instances of nomadic wanderings and unexampled suffering

in modern times.’ Chinese troops, emigrants, exiles, and

nomadic tribes and families, M^ere sent and encouraged to come

‘ Compare Remusat (Nouvrnvx Melanges, Tome II., p. 102), who lias compiled

a brief life of their leader Ubusha. De Quincey’s essay, The Flight of a

Tartar Tribe. Ritter, Asien, Bd. V. pp. 531-58:^ : Welthistorischer Einflusa

des chinenicheu lieichs auf Central- tinU West-Asien.

HISTORY AND CONQUEST OF ILI 235

into the vacant territory, so that erelong it began to resume its

former importance. In the period which has since elapsed, the

Manchus have been enabled to prevent any combination among

the clans, and maintain their own authority by a mixed system

of coercion and coaxing which they well know how to practise.

The agricultural and mineral resources of the country have

been developed, many of the nomads induced to attend to agriculture

by making their chieftains emulous of each others prosperity,

and by exciting a spirit of traffic among all.

There have been some disturbances from time to time, but no

master spirit has arisen ^v]lo has been able to unite the tribes

against the Chinese. In 1825, there “svas an attempt made

from Kokand by Jehangir, grandson of the l:ojeh or prince of

Kashgar, to regain possession of Turkestan ; the khan of Kokand

assisted him with a small army, and such was their dislike

of the Chinese, that as soon as Jehangir appeared, the Mohammedans

arose and drove the Chinese troops away or put them

to death, opening the gates to the invader, lie took possession

of Tarkand and Kashgar, and advanced to Aksu” where the

winter put a stop to the campaign. In the next year, the khan

of Kokand, seeing the disposition of the people, thought he

would embark himself in the same cause, and made an incursion

as far as Aksu and Khoten, reducing more than half the

Southern Circuit to himself, but ostensibly in aid of Jehangir.

The kojeh, beginning to fear his aid, withdrew ; and the khan,

having suffered some reverses from the Chinese troops, made his

peace on very favorable terms, and returned to his own country.

Jehangir went to Khoten fi-om Yarkand, but his conduct there

displeasing the people, the Chinese troops, about 60,000 in

number, had no difficulty in dispersing his force, and resuming

their sway. The adherents of the kojeh fled toward Badakshan,

while he himself repaired to Isaac, the newly appointed kojeh

of Kashgar, by whom he was delivered up to the Chinese with

his family, and all of them most barbarously destroyed.

The kojeh was rewarded with the office of prince of Kashgar,

but having been accused of treasonable designs he was ordered

to come to Peking for trial ; the charges were all disproved,

and he returned to Kashgar after several years’ residence at the capital of the Empire. The country was gradually reduced

by Changliiig, the general at Ili, but Kashgar suffered so nuich

by the war and removal of the chief authority to Yarkand,

that it has not since regained its Importance. During this war,

the dislike of the Mohammedans to the Chinese sway M’as exhibited

in the large forces Jehangir brought into the field ; and

if he had been a popular spirited leader, there is reason for

supposing he might have finally wrested these cities from the

Chinese. The joy of Taukwang at the successful termination

of the expedition and capture of the rebel, was so extravagant

as to appear childish ; and when Jehangir was executed at

Peking, he ordered the sons of two officers who had been reported

killed, ” to witness his execution, in order to give expansion

to the indignation which had accumulated in their

breasts ; and let the rebel’s heart be torn out and given to them

to sacrifice it at the tombs of their fathers, and thus console

their faithful spirits.” Honors Avere heaped upon Changling at

his return to Peking, and rewards and titles showered upon all

the troops engaged in the war.

Since this insurrection, the frontiers of Kashgar and Kokand

have been passed and repassed by the Pruth Kirghis; iiil830,

they excited so much trouble because their trade was restricted,

that a large force was called out to restrain them, and many

lives were lost before the rising was subdued. The causes of

the dispute wei-e then examined, and the trade allowed to go on

as befoi’e. The oppressions of the residents sometimes goad

on the Mohammedans to rise against the Chinese, but the

policy of the Emperor is conciliatory, and the complaints of the

people are in general listened to. The visits of the begs and

princes to Peking with tribute affords them an opportunity to

state their grievances, while it also prevents them from caballing

among themselves. In 1871 the Russians took possession of

nearly the whole of Tien-Shan Peh Lu during an insurrection of

the Dunganis against Chinese control. The Tarantchis having

attacked a Russian outpost, and Yakub Beg being on suspiciously

good terms with the rebels, it was determined to occupy

Kuldja—which was effected after a campaign of less than a

month, led by Gen. l\olpakofsky. The Chinese government was

BOUNDARIES OF TIBET. 2S1

imniediatelv informed that the place should be restored whenever

a sutHcient force could be brought there to hold it against

attacks, and preserve order. After the final conquest of the

Dungan tribes in 1S79-SO, this territory was returned by the

Ilussians upon conclusion of their last treaty M’ith China, exactly

ten years from the date of possession. The old manner

of government is now resumed and the country slowly recoveriiiiT

from the fri^-htful devastation of the insurrection. The

salai’ies of the governor-general and his councillors, and the

residents, are small, and they are all obliged to resort to illegal

means to reimburse their outlays. The highest officer receives

about $5,200 annually, and his councillors about $2,000 ; the residents

from $2,300 down to $500 and less. These sums do not,

probably, constitute one-tenth of the receipts of their situations.’

The third gi-eat division of the colonial part of the Chinese

empire, that of Tibet, is less known than III, though its area is

hardly less extensive. It constitutes the most southern of the

three great table lands of Central Asia, and is surrounded with

high mountains which separate it from all the contiguous regions.

The word Tibet or Tubet is unknown among the inhabitants

as the name of their country ; it is a corruption by the

Mongols of T(c po,’ the country of the Tu, a race w^hich overran

it in the sixth century ; Turner gives another name, Pue-hoachim-,

signifying the ‘ snowy country of the north,’ doubtless a

local or ancient term. The general appellation by the people is

Pot or Bod, or Bod yul—”- the land of Bod.” ‘ It is roughly

bounded northeast by Ivoko-nor ; east by Sz’chuen and Yunnan ;

south by Assam, Butan, Xipal, and Gurhwal ; west by Cashmere

; and north by the unknown i-anges of the Kwanlun Mountains.

The southern frontier curves considerably in its course,

1 Chinese Repository, Vol. V., pp. 267, 316, 351, etc. ; Vol. IX., p. 113.

Penny Uyclo^mUa, Art. Songaria. Boiilger, Russia and England in Central

Asia, 2 Vols., London, 1879. Schuyler, Turkistan, 2 vols., N. Y., 1877.

Petermann’s Mlttheilungen, Appendices XLII. and XLIII., 1875.

– This derivation is explained somewhat differently in R^musat, Nouveaux

Melanges, Tome I., p. 190.

3 To these Ritter adds the names of Wei, Dzang, Nga-ri, Kham, Bhodi, Peuu-

Tsang, Si-Dzang, Tliupho, Tubl.at, TGbGt, Tiibet, Tibet, and Barantola, asall

applying to this country. Asien, Bd. III., S. 174-183.

but is not less than 1,500 miles from the western extremity of

Kipal to the province of Yunnan ; the northern border is about

1,300 miles ; the western frontiers cannot be accurately defined,

and depend more upon the possession of the passes through which

trade is carried on than any political separation. Beltistan,

Little Tibet, and Ladak, although included in its limits on

Chinese maps, have too little subjection or connection with the

court of Peking, to be reckoned among its dependencies.

Tibet, in its largest limits, is a table land, the highest plains

of which have a mean elevation of 11,510 feet, or about 1,300

feet lower than the plateau of Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca.

The snow-line on the north side of the Himalaya is at an altitude

of 16,630 feet ; on the southern slope it is at 12,982 feet.

Several striking analogies may be traced between this country

and Peru : the tripartite divisions caused by lofty ranges ; their

common staples of wool, from alpacas and vicunas in one, and

sheep and goats in the other ; the abundance of precious

metals, and many specific customs. The entire province of

Tibet is divided by mountain chains into three distinct parts; its western portion consists of the basin of the Lidus, until it breaks through into Cashmere at Makpon-i-Shagaron. It begins near Mount Ivailasa, and stretches northwest between the Hindu Ivush and Himalaya, comprising the whole of Beltistan and Ladak ; the Kara-korum, Mus-tag, or Tsung ling range defines it on the northeast. The second part consists of an extensive desert land, commencing at Mount Kailasa, and having the Tsung ling on the west, the Kwjlnlun on the north

(which separates it from Khoten, and the high waterslied of the

Yangtsz’, Salween, and other rivers), and Lake Tengkiri, on the

east ; the Himalaya constitutes its southern boundary. This

high i-egion, called Katshe or Kor-kache, has not been traversed

by intelligent travellers and is one of the few yet unknown regions

of the earth, and is nearly uninhabitable, owing to the extreme rigor of its climate.’

‘ Se<‘ Ri’musat, Nouvennx Milnnc/es, T. , p. 100, for notices of tribes anciently inliabiting this district and Bokhara. Compare also Heeren {Historical Re’ aenrcJies, Vol. I., j)p. 180-186), who gives in brief the accounts of Herodotus k)id Ctesias.

\ NATURAL FEATURES OF TIBET. 239

The eastern part, consisting of the basin of the Yaru-tsangbu,

contains, in its plains, most of the towns in Tibet, until it

reaches the Alpine region which lies between the River Yarn

and the Yangtsz’, a space extending from long. 1)5° to 99° E.

This district is described as a succession of ridges and gorges,

over which the road takes the traveller on narrow and steep

paths, crossing the valleys by ropes and bridges enveloped in

the clouds. Mount Kailasa, a notable peak lying in the northeastern

part of Xari, is not far from 26,000 feet high. The

number of summits covered with perpetual snow exceeds that

of any other part of the world of the same extent.

The road from Sz’chuen to H’lassa strikes the Yalung kiang,

in the district of Ta tsien lu, and then goes southwesterly to

Batang on the Yangtsz’ kiang ; crossing the river it proceeds

up the narrow valley a short distance, and then crosses the

mountains northwest to the Lantsan kiang or River Meikon, by

a series of pathways leading over the gorges, till it reaches

Tsiamdo ; from this point the road turns gradually southwest,

following the valleys when practicable, till it ends at H’lassa.

The largest river in Tibet is the Erechumbu, or Yaru-tsangbu ;

tsangha means river, and is often alone used for this whole

name. It rises in the Tamchuk range, at the Mariam-la pass

in Nari, 60 miles east of Lake Manasarowa, the source of the

Sutlej ; it flows a little south of east for about seven hundred

miles, through the whole of Southern Tibet, between the first

and second ranges of the Himalayas, as far as long. 90° E.

Its tributaries on the north are mimerous, and among them the

Nauk-tsani>;bu and Dzany;tsu are the larij-est. The volume of

water which flows through the mountains into Assam by this

river, is equal to that by the Indus into Scinde. The disputed

question, whether the Yaru-tsangbu joins the Brahmaputra or

Irrawadi, has been settled by presumptive evidence in favor

of the former, but a distance of about 400 miles is still unexplored; ‘ the fall in this part is about 11,000 feet, to where the river Dihong has been traced in Assam. This makes the Brah-‘ Introduction by Col. Yule, iu Gill’s River of Golden 8and.luaputra the largest and longest river in Southern Asia ; Its passage into Assam is near 95° E. longitude.

The eastern part of Tibet, beyond this meridian, is traversed

by numerous ranges of lofty mountains, having no separate

names, the direction of which is from west to east, and from

northwest to southeast. From these ranges, lateral branches

run out in different directions, containing deep valleys between

them. In proportion as the principal chains advance towards

the southeast they converge towards one another, and thus the

valleys between them gradually become narrower, until at last,

on the frontiers of Yunnan and Burmah, they are mere mountain

passes, whose entire breadth does not much exceed a

hundred miles, having four streams flowing through them.

In fact, Tibet incloses the fountain heads of all the large rivers

of Southern and Eastern Asia. The names and courses of those

in Eastern Tibet are known ordy imperfectly from Chinese

maps, but others have described them after their entrance into

the lowlands.

Tibet, especially the central part, is a country of lakes, in this

respect resembling Cobdo. The largest, Tengkiri-nor, situated

in the midst of stupendous mountains, about one hundred and

ten miles northwest of Il’lassa, is over a hundred miles long and

about thirty wide. The i-egion north of it contains many isolated

lakes, most of them salt. Two of the largest, the Bouka

and Kara, are represented as connected with the Tliver Xu.

Lake Khamba-la, Yamoruk or Yarbrokyu, sometimes called

Palti, from a town on its northern sliore, is a large lake south of

iriassa, remarkable for its ring shape, the centi-e being filled

by a large island, around which its waters flow in a chamiel

thirty miles or more in width. On the island is a nunnery,

called the Palace of the Holy Sow, said to be the finest in the

country. In Balti or Little Tibet are many sheets of water, the

largest of which, the Yik and Paha, are connected by a river

flowing through a marshy country. A long succession of lakes

fill one of the basins in Katsche, suggesting the former existence

of another Aral Sea. The sacred lakes of Manasarowa and

Ilavan-hrad (Ma])am-dalai and Langga-nor, of the Cliinese)

form the headwaters of the Sutlej.

CLIMATE, FOOD ANJ) l’K<>DUCTIONS. 241

The climate of Tibet is cliaracterized by its purity and excessive

dryness. The valleys are hot, notwithstanding their proximity

to snow-capped mountains; from May to October the sky

is clear in the table -lands, and in the valleys the moisture and

temperature are favorable to vegetation, the harvest being gathered

before the gales and snows set in, after October. The

effects of the air resemble or are worse than those of the kamsin

in Egypt. The trees wither, and their leaves may be ground

to powder between the fingers ; planks and beams break, and

the iidial)itants cover the tind)ers and wood-work of their houses

with coarse cotton, in order to preserve them against the destructive

saccidity. The timber neither rots nor is worm-eaten.

Mutton, exposed to the open air, Ijecomes so “dry that it may be

powdered like bread ; when once dried it is preserved during

years. This flesh-bread is a common food in Tibet. The carcass

of the animal, divested of its skin and viscera, is placed

where the frosty air Mnll have free access to it, until all the

juices of the body dry np, and the whole becomes one stiffened

mass. Xo salt is used, nor does it ever become tainted, and is

eaten without any further dressing or cooking ; the natives eat it

at all periods after it is frozen, and prefer the fresh to that which

has been kept some months. The food called janiha is prepared

by cooking brick tea during several hours, then adding butter

and salt, and stirring the mixture until it becomes a thick broth.

AVhen eaten the stuff is served in wooden bowls, and a plentiful,

supply of roasted barley-meal poured in, the whole being kneaded

by the hands and devoured in the shape of dough pellets.

The productions of Tibet consist of domestic animals, cattle,

horses, pigs ; some wild animals, such as the white-breasted

argali, orongo-antelope, ata-dzeren, wolf, and steppe-fox ; and few

plants or forests, presenting a strong contrast with Nipal and

Butan, where vegetable life flourishes more luxuriantly. Sheep

and goats are reared in immense flocks, for beasts of burden

over the passes, and for their flesh, hair, and coats. Chiefest

among the animals of tliis mountain land is the yak.’ The

‘ Called by Wood Kasli-gow {Journey to the Oxus, p. 319). Chauri gau^aarlykt and sarlac, are other names. doiiiesticated variety, or long-haired yak, is the inseparable companion and most trusty servant not only of the Tibetans, but of tribes in Cashmere, Ladak, Tangout, and JVIongolia, even as far north as Urga. It is a cross-breed, or mule from the yak bull and native cow, which alone is hardy enough for these elevated regions.’ These creatures are of the same size as our cattle, strong, sure-footed and possessed of extraordinary endurance; they retain, however, something of their wild nature, even after long domestication, and must be carefully treated,

Domesticated Yak.

especially when being loaded and unloaded. They thrive best

in hilly countries, well watered and covered with grass—the two

last being indispensable. The hair is black or black and white,

seldom entirely white. One sort is without horns, and when

crossed with the cow bears sterile males, or females which are

fertile for one generation. As to the wild yak of Til)et, a traveller

says : ” This handsome animal is of extraordinary size and

beauty, measuring, when grown, eleven feet in length, exclusive

of its bushy tail, which is three feet long; its height at the

hump is six feet ; girth around the body eleven feet, and its

‘ This cross is mentioned by Maroo Polo, Yule^a ed., Vol. I., p. 241.

AlSriMALS OP TIBET. 243

weight ten or eleven liundred weight. The head is aaorned

with ponderous liorns, two feet nine inches h)ng, and one foot

four indies in circumference at the root. The body is covered

with tliick, black hair, which in the old males assumes a chestnut

color on the back and upper parts of the sides, and a deep

fringe of black hair hangs down from the flanks. The muzzle

is partly gray, and the younger males liave marks of the same

color on the upper part of the body, whilst a narrow, silverygray

stripe runs down the centre of the back. The hair of

young yaks is much softer than that of older ones ; they are

also distinguishable by their smaller size, and by handsomer

horns, with the points turned up. The females are much

smaller than the males, and not nearly so striking in appearance

; their horns are shorter and lighter, the hump smaller,

and the tail and flanks not nearly as hairy.” ‘ This animal is

useful for its milk, flesh, and wool, as well as for agricultural

purposes and travel.

There is comparatively little agriculture. The variety of

wild animals, birds, and fishes, is very great ; among them the

musk deer, feline animals, eagles, and wild sheep, are objects

of the chase. The brute creation are generally clothed with an

abundance of fine hair or wool ; even the horses have a shaggier

coat than is granted to bears in more genial climes. The

Tibetan mastiff is one of the largest and fiercest of its race,

almost nntamable, and unknown out of its native country.

The nnisk deer is clothed with a thick coverino; of hair two or

three inches long, standing erect over the whole body ; the

animal resembles a hog in size and form, having, however,

slender legs. The Tibetan goat affords the shawl wool, so

highly prized for the manufacture of garments.^

‘ Prejevalsky, Travels in Mongolia, etc., Vol. I., p. 187.

“^ B. H. Hodgson, Notice of the Mammals of Tibet, Journal As. Soc. of BeU’gal, Vol. XI., pp. 275 ff. ; also ib. Vols. XVI., p. 763, XIX., p. 466, and XXVI., No. 3, 1857. Abbe Armand David-, Notes sur quelques oiseaux de Thibet, Nouv. Arch, du MuMum, Bull, V. 1869, p. 33; ib. Bull, VI., pp. 19 and 33. Bull, VIII., 1872, pp. 3-128, IX., pp. 15-48, X., pp. 3-82. Recherches pour servir a Vhistoire naturelle des mammiferes comprennant des considerations su)’ la classification de ces animaux, etc. , des etudes sur la faiine de la Chineel du Tibet oriental, par MM. Milne-Edwards, etc, 2 vols. Paris, 1868-74.

Fruits are common ; small peaches, grapes, apples, and nuts, constitute the limited variety. Barley is raised more than any

other grain the principal part of agricultural labors being performed

by the Avomen. Pulse and wheat ai’e cultivated, but no

rice “svest of Illassa. Ithubarl), asaf{jL’tida, ginger, madder, and

safflower are collected or prepared, but most of the medicines

come from China and Butan. Turnips, rape, garlic, onions, and

melons are raised in small quantities. The mineral productions

are exceedingly rich. Gold occurs in mines and placer diggings,

and forms a constant article of export ; lead, silver, copper, and

cinnabar are also dug out of the ground, but iron has not been

found to much extent. The great difficulty in the way of the

inhabitants availing themselves of their metallic Avealth, apart

fi’om their ignorance of the best modes of mining, is the want

t>f fuel with which to smelt the ore. Tincal, or crude borax,

is gathered on the borders of a small lake in the neighborhood

of Tengkiri-nor, where also any quantity of rock salt can be

obtained. Precious stones are met with, most of which find

their way to China.

The 2)resent divisions of Tibet, by the Chinese, are Tsien

Tsang^ or Anterior Tibet, and JIau Tsang, or Ulterior Tibet.

Anterior Tibet is also called U (Wei) and U-tsang, and includes

the central part of Bod-yur where Il’lassa is ; east of

this lies Ivham (Kang) or Khamyul, and northeast toward

Ivoko-nor is Ivhamsok, /.(?., Ivham on the River Sok. Kear the

bend of the Brahmaputra is the district of Ivongbo, where I’ice

can be raised ; going westward are Takpo, doUs and gTsang on

the borders of Xari, ending in a line nearly continuous with

the eastern border of Kipal. The Chinese books mention eight

cantons in Anterior Tibet, five of them lying east of ITlassa,

added to which are thirty-nine feudal townships in Khamsok

called tu-sz\ all of them chiefiy nominal or at present antiquated.

Csoma de Ivciros speaks of several small principalities

in Kham, and describes the inhabitants as differing from the

rest of the Tibetans in appearance and language ; they assimilate

probably with the tribes on the l]urman and Chinese frontiers.

Xari ( A-li in Chinese) is divided into Mangyul, Khorsum,

and Maryul. The first of these districts lies nearly centerh’LASSA

the (ATITAL. 24^

iiiinous with Xipal, and its area is probably about the same, but

its cold, drj, and elevated i-egions, support only a few sliepherds

; Khorsuni and Maryul lie north and northwest in a

still more inhospitable clime ; the latter adjoins Ladak and

Balti and is the reservoir of hundreds of lakes situated from

12,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. A ridge separates the

valley of the Indus from the Sutlej, crossed at the Bogola Pass,

19,220 feet high, and then- over the Gugtila Pass, 19,500 feet

into Gartok. The people throughout this elevated region are

forced to live in tents, wood being ahuost unknown for buildil’lassa,

the gyalsa or capital of Tibet, is situated on the Kichu

River, about twelve leagues from its junction with the

Yarn, in lat. 29° 39′ ]S\, and long. 91°05’E. ; the name signifies

God’s ground^ and it is the largest town in this part of Asia.

It is famous for the convents near it, composing the ecclesiastical

establishments of the Dalai (or ‘ Ocean ‘)-lama, whose residence

is in the monastery of Pobrang-marbu {I.e., ‘ Red town ‘) on

Mount Putala. The principal building of this establishment is

three hundred and sixty-seven feet high, and it contains, as the

Chinese expression is, ” a myriad of rooms.” This city is the

head-quarters of Buddhism, and the hierarchy of lamas, who, by

means of the Dalai-lama, and his subordinate the Kiituktu, exercise

priestly control over wellnigh all Mongolia as well as Tibet.

The city lies in a fertile plain nearly 12,000 feet high, about

twelve miles wide, and one hundred and twenty-five from north

to south, producing harvests of barlej^ and millet, with abundant

pasturage and some fruit trees. Mountains and hills encircle it; of these the westernmost is Putala, the liver running so near its base that a wall has been built to preserve the buildings from the rise of the waters. The Chinese garrison is quartered about two miles north of this mount, and two large temples, called ITlassa tm-‘kang and Bamotsietso-hang, resplendent with gold and precious stones, stand very near it. The four monasteries.

Sera, Brebung, Samye, and Galdan, constitute as many separate establishuients.’ During the sway of the Songares in’ Klaproth, Description du Ttibet, p. 246.Ill, their prince xVrabdan made a descent npon IPlassa, and the Lama Avas killed. Kanglu placed a new one upon the see, in 1720, appointing six leading officers of the old Lama to assist him in the government. Three of these joined in an insurrection, and in the conflicts which succeeded, IFlassa suffered considerably.

The population of the town is conjectured to be 24,000 ; that of the province is reckoned by Csoma at about 050,000.

The town was visited in the year 1811 by j\rr. Manning whose description of its dirty and miserable streets swarming Mitli dogs and beggars, and the meanness of its buildings, corresponds

with what Hue and Gabet found in 1846. Mr. Manning

remained there nearly five months, and had several intei:-

views with the Dalai-lama ; lie was much impeded in his

observations by a Cantonese viansJd or teachei’, and exposed to

danger of illness from insufficient shelter and clothing. His

reception by the chief of the Buddhist faith on the 17th of

December, was equally remarkable with that by the Teshu-lama

of Bogle in 1774, and of Turner in 1783. Mr. Manning was

alone and unprotected and had very few presents, but his offering

was accepted ; it consisted of a piece of fine broadcloth, two

brass candlesticks, twenty new dollars, and two vials of lavender

water. He rode to the foot of the mountain Putala, and

dismounted on the first platform to ascend by a long stairway

of four hundred steps, part of them cut in the rock, and the

rest ladder steps from story to stoiy in the palace, till he

reached a large platform roof off which was the reception hall.

Upon entering this he found that the Ti-mu-fu or Gesiib Jiwihoche,

the highest civil functionary in Tibet, was also present,

wliich caused him some confusion : “I did not know how

much ceremony to go through with one before I began with

the other. I made the due obeisance, touching the ground three times with my head to the (ii’and Lama, and once to the 2\-ina-fu. I presented my gifts, delivering the coins with a handsome silk scarf with my own hands to them both. While I was Jxotovnmj, the awkward servants let one of the bottles of lavender water fall and break. Havin<i: delivered the scarf to the Grand Lama, I took oft” my hat, and humbly gave him my clean shaven head to lay his hands upon. . . . The Lama’s beautiful and interesting face and manner engrossed all my attention.

SIIIGATSE AND TESIIU-LUMBO. 247

He was about seven yeai-s old ; had the simple manners

of a well educated princely child. His face was, I thought,

poetically and affectingly beautiful. He was of a cheerful disposition,

his beautiful mouth perpetually unbending into a

graceful smile, which illuminated his whole countenance. No

doubt my grim beard and spectacles excited his risibility. “We

had not been seated long before he put questions which we rose

to receive and answer. He inquired whether I had met with

difficulties on the road ; to which I replied that I had had

troubles, but now that I had the happiness of being in his presence

they were amply compensated. I could see that this

answer pleased both him and his people, for they found that I

was not a mere rustic, but had some tincture of civility in me.” ‘

The capital of Tsangor Ulterior Tibet is Shigatse, situated 126

miles west of H’lassa, and under its control. The monastery

where the Teshu-lama and his court resides is a few miles

distant, and constitutes a town of about 4,000 priests, named

Teshu-Lumbo. He is styled Panchen Rimboche, and is the

incarnation of Amitabha ]>uddha. His palace is built of dark

l)rick and has a roof of gilded copper ; the houses rise one

above another and the gilt ornaments on the temples combine

to give a princely appearance to the town. The fortress of

Shigatse stands so as to command both places. The plain

between this town and H’lassa is a fertile tract, and judging

from the number of towns in the valleys of the basin of the

Yaru, its productive powers are comparatively great. Ulterior

Tibet is divided into six other cantons, besides the territory

under the jurisdiction of the chief town, most of their fortified

capitals lying westward of Shigatse.

‘ Mis-sion of George Bogle to Tibet and Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhaaa^Edited by C. R. Markliam. London, 1876, p. 265.

The degree of skill the Tibetans have attained in manufactures, mechanical arts, and general civilization, is less than that of the Chinese, but superior to the Mongols. They appear to be a mild and humane people, possessing a religious sense and enjoying an easy life compared with their southern neighbors.

They are well-bred and affable, fond of gossiping and festivities, which soften the heart and cheer the temper. Women are treated with care and are not often compelled to work out of doors, ^s’o two people or countries widely separated present a stronger contrast than do the stout, tall, muscular, and floi-id Butias, upon their fertile fields and wooded hills, with the squat, puny, sluggish, and swarthy Tibetans in their rugged, barren mountains. They distinguish five sorts of people among

themselves, the last of whom are the Butias ; the others are

the inhabitants of Kham, or Anterior Tibet, those in Tsang, the

nomads of Kor-kache, and the people of Little Tibet. All of

them speak Tibetan with some variations. The Tibetans are

clad with woollens and furs to such a degree that they appear

to emulate the animals they derive’ them from in their weight

and warmth ; and with this clothing is found no small quantity

of dirt. The dress of the sexes varies slightly in its shape ;

yellow and red are the predominant colors. Large bulgar boots

of hide are worn by all persons ; the remainder of the dress

consists of woollen robes and furs like those of the Chinese.

The women wear many jewels, and adorn their hair as do the

Mongols with pearls, coral, and turquoises. Girls braid their

hair in three tresses, married women in two. The head is protected

by high velvet caps ; the men wear broad-brimmed

coverings of various materials.

The two religious sects are distinguished by yellow and red

caps ; the latter are comparatively few, allow marriage to the

lamas, but do not differ materially in their ritual or tenets.

There is no country where so large a proportion of the people

are devoted to religious service as in Tibet, nor .one where the

secular part of the inhabitants pays such implicit deference to

the clergy. The food of the Tibetans is taken at all hours,

nmtton, barley, and tea constituting the staple articles. On

all visits tea is presented, and the cup replenished as often as it

is drained. Spirits and beer, both made from barley, are common

beverages. On every visit of ceremony, and whenever a

letter is sent from one person to another, it is necessary to connect

a silk scarf with it, the size and texture being proportioned

to the rank and condition of the parties. The sentence Omviaiil 2)ttdiiii- hum is woven upon each end.

OM MANX PADMI HUM. 249

The following note by Col. Yule, condensed from Koeppen’s

Lamaisehe Hlcrai’clde iind Kurhe, contains the most satisfactory

explanation of this puzzling mystic formnla : ” Om mani

padmi hum!—the primeval six syllables, as the lamas l ly,

among all prayers on earth form that which is most abundantly

recited, written, printed, and even spun by machines for the

good of the faithful. These syllables form the only prayer

knoM’u to the ordinary Tibetans and Mongols; they are the first

words that the child learns to stannner, and the last gasping

utterance of the dying. The wanderer nmrmurs them on his

M’ay, the herdsman beside his cattle, the matron at her household

tasks, the monk in all the stages of contemplation (/.^., of

fa7- niente) y they form at once a cry of battle and a shout of

victory ! They are to be read wherever the Lama church

hath spread, upon banners, upon rocks, upon trees, upon walls,

upon monuments of stone, upon household utensils, upon strips

of paper, upon human skulls and skeletons ! They foi*m, according

to the idea of the believers, the utmost conception of all

religion, of all wisdom, of all revelation, the path of rescue and

the gate of salvation ! Properly and literally these

four words, a single utterance of which is sufficient of itself

to purchase an inestimable salvation, signify nothing more

than : ” O the Jewel in the Lotus ! Amen !

” Li this interpretation,

most probably, the Jetcel stands for the Bodhisatva

Avalokite5vara, so often born from the bud of a lotus flower.

According to this the whole fornmla is simply a salutation to

the mighty saint who has taken under his especial chai-ge the

conversion of the Xorth, and with him who first employed it

the mystic formula meant no more than Ave AvaloJiitecvara !

But this simple explanation of course does not satisfy the Lama

schoolmen, who revel in glorifications and multitudinous glossifications

of this formula. The six syllables are the heart of

hearts, the root of all knowledge, the ladder to re-birth in

higher forms of being, the conquerors of the five evils, the

flame that burns up sin, the hannner that breaks up torment,

and so on. Om saves the gods, tua the Asuras, ni the men, jH((7 the animals, ?//< the spectre world oi p?’etas, ^lan the in

habitants of hell! O/a^ is ‘the blessing of self-renunciation,

ma of mercy, ?u’ of chastity, etc’ * Truly monstrous,’ says

Koeppen,”is the number oi pcuh/us \\\nch in the great festivals

Imm and buzz through the air like flies.’ In some places

each worshipper reports to the highest Lama how many oni

‘jiKinis he has nttered, and the total immber emitted by the

congregation is counted by the billion.”

Grueber and Dorville describe Manij>e as an idol, befoi’e

which xtidfa yens insol’dis gcdleulatlonihus sacra sua faclt.,

hlentldtn verTja haec repetens:

—’ O JManipe, mi hum, O Manipe,

mi hum ; id est Manipe, salva nos !

‘ ” Ileniusat {Melanges

I^ostJiuiiies, Paris, 1843, p. 90) translates this phrase by:

” Adoration, O thou precious stone who art in the lotus ! ” and

observes that it illustrates the fundamental dogma of Buddhism,

viz. : the production of the material universe by an absolute

being; all things which exist are shut up in the breast of the

divine substance ; the ‘ precious stone ‘ signifying that tJte

world is in God. Mr. Jameson says that the sentence Oni

tnaxi jxtdiiii JuDKj is formed of the initial letters of various

deities, all of whom are supposed to be implored in the prayer.’

In reverential salutations, the cap is removed by the inferior,

and tbe arms hang by the side. The bodies of the dead are

placed in an open inclosure, in the same nuumer as practised by

the Parsees, where birds and beasts of prey devour them, or

they are dismembered in an exposed place. Lanuis are burned,

and their ashes collected into urns. As soon as the breath has

departed, the body is seated in the same attitude as Buddha is

represented, with the legs bent before, aiul the soles of the feet

turned upwards. The right hand rests upon the thigh, the

left turns up near the body, the tlnnnb touching the shoulder.

In this attitude of contemplation, the corpse is burned.

In Tibet, as in Butan, the custom of polyandry prevails. The

choice of a Avife lies with the eldest son, who having made

known his intentions to his parents sends a matchmaker to pro-

‘ Comjiare, for further discussion of this suhjoct, Timkowski’s Misffion ts Peking, London. 1827, Vol. II., p. :i4y. Wilson’s Abode of >S/toiC, p. 329.

TIBETAN TYPES AND CUSTOMS. 251

pose the matter to the parents of the girl. The consent of the

parents being obtained, the matchmaker places an ornament of

a jewel set in gold, called sedskc upon the head of the damsel,

and gives her presents of jewels, dresses, cattle, etc., according

to the means of the young man. The guests invited on the

day of the marriage bring presents of such things as they

choose, which augments the dowry, A tent is set up before

the bride’s house, in which are placed three or four square

cushions, and the ground around sprinkled with wheat ; the

bride is seated on the highest cushion, her parents and friends

standing near her according to their rank, and the assembled

party there partake of a feast. The bride is then conducted to

the house of her lover by the friends present, her person being

sprinkled with wheat or barley as she goes along, and there

placed by his side, and both of them served with tea and spirits.

Soon after, the groom seats himself apart, and every one present

gives a scarf, those of superior rank binding them around their

necks, equals and inferiors laying them by their sides. The

next day, a procession is formed of the relatives of the newly

married pair, wdiich visits all the friends, and the marriage is

conqjleted. The girl thus becomes the wife of all the brothers,

and manages the domestic concerns of their household. The

number of her husbands is son)etimes indicated by as many

points in her cap. This custom is strengthened by the desire,

on the part of the family, to keep the property intact among

its members ; but it does not prevent one of the husbands leaving

the roof and marrying another woman, nor is the usage

universal, liemusat speaks of a novel in Tibetan, in which the

author admirably portrays the love of his heroine, Triharticha,

for her four lovers, and bi’ings their marriage in at the end in

the happiest manner.

The dwellings of the poor are built of unhewn stones, rudely piled upon each other without cement, two stories high, and resembling brick-kilns in shape and size ; the windows are small, in order not to weaken the structure ; the roof is flat, defended by a brushwood parapet, and protected from the molestation of evil spirits by flags, strips of paper tied to strings, or branches of trees. Timber is costly and little used ; the floors are of marble or tiles, and the furniture consists of little else than mats and cushions. The temples and convents are more imposing and commodious structures ; some of those at Il’lassa are among the noblest specimens of architecture in Central Asia.

The mausoleum of the Teshu-lama at Teshu Lumbu resembles

a plain square watch-tower surmounted by a double Chinese

canopy roof, the eaves of which are hung with Ijells, on which

the breeze plays a ceaseless dirge. The body of the lama reposes

in a coffin of gold, and his effigy, also of gold, is placed

within the concavity of a large shell upon the top of the pyramidal

structure which contains it. The sides of the pyramid

are silver plates, and on the steps are deposited the jewels and

other costly articles which once appertained to him. An altar

in front receives the oblations and incense daily presented before

the tomb, and near by is a second statue of the deceased as

large as life in the attitude of reading. Scrolls and pennons of

silk hang from the ceiling, and the walls are adorned with

paintings of priests engaged in prayer. The whole structure is

substantially built, and its rich ornaments are placed there n<jt

less for security than to do honor to the revered person deposited

beneath. The windows are closed with mohair curtains,

and a skylight in the upper story serves for lighting the room,

and for passing out upon the roof. The roof or parapet is

ornamented with cylinders of copper or other nuiteiials, which

imparts a brilliant appearance to the ediiices.

The manufactures of Tibet consist of woollens, cloth, blankets,

yarn, goat-hair shawls, musk, paper, metals, and jewelry.

Their lapidaries cut every kind of oriuiment in superior style,

and gold and silverware forms a considerable article of trade to

China. These and other crafts nmst necessai’ily languish, liowever,

from the immense proportion of men who are witiidi’awn

from labor into monasteries, compelling the residue to devote

most of their strength to tillage. The most important exports

to China consist of gold dust, precious stones, bezoars, asafcetida,

musk, woollens, and skins ; for which the people receive

silks, teas, chinaware, tobacco, musical instruments, and metals.

The trade is carried on throuy-h Sinino- fu in Kansuh, and Batang in Sz’chneii. Tincal, rock-salt, and shawl wool, are additional articles sent to Ladak, Biitan, and India.

COMMERCE AND LANGUAGE OF TIBET. 25;}

Music is studied by the priesthood for their ceremonies, and

with much better effect than among the Chinese priests. Their

amusements consist in archery, dancing, and observance of

many festivals connected with the worship of the dead or of

the living. Dram-drinking is common, but the people camiot

be called a drunken race, nor does the habit of opium eating or

smoking, so fatally general in Assam, prevail, inasmuch as the

poppy cannot well be cultivated among the mountains.

Education is confined to the priesthood, but the women, who conduct much of the traffic, also learn arithmetic and writing. The language is alphabetical, and reads from left to right; there are two forms of the character, the uchen used for books, and the umin employed in writing, which do not differ more than the Iloman and the running-hand in English. The form of the characters shows their Sanscrit origin, but there are many consonants in the language not found in that tongue, and silent letters are not unfrequent in the written words. There are thirty consonants in the alphbet, distributed into eight classes, with four additional voM-el signs ; each of them ends in a short a, as la, oiga, cJia, which can be lengthened by a diacritical mark placed underneath. The syllables are separated

from each other by a point ; the accented consonant is that

which follows the vowel, and the others, whether before or

after it, are pronounced as rapidly as possible, and not unfrequently

omitted altogether in speaking. The variations in this

respect constitute the chief features of the patois found in different

parts where Tibetan is spoken. A dictionary and grammar ‘

of this language were printed in 1S34 in Calcutta by (‘soma de

Korcis, a Hungarian who resided among the priests near Ladak.

The literature is almost wholly theological, as far as it has been

examined, and such works as are not of this character, have

probably been introduced from China. Their divisions of time,

numeration, chronology, and weights, have also been adopted

‘ Essay towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English. A Grammar of the Tibetan Lauguage in English. Calcutta, 1834. from that country with a few alterations. An Englishman, Mr. Brian Hodgson, who lived in Kipal from lb20 to 1843, has added more than any one else to our knowledge of the literature of this country. This gentleman procured complete copies of the original documents of the Buddhist canon preserved in Sanscrit in Nipalese monasteries, as well as (by a present from the Dalai-lama) the whole of the existing literary remains of the once flourishing Christian mission at Il’lassa. His more important essays on these lands have now been brought together in a single volume.’

The history of Tibet has been made partially known to Europe through the Mongol author, Sanang Setsen,^ but if free access could be had to their annals, it is probable that a methodical history could be extracted, reaching back at least three centuries before Christ. Tibet was ruled by its ow^n princes till the rise of Genghis ; the first monarch, who united the various tribes under his sway b. c. 313, was Seger-Sandilutu-Kagan-Tlil-Esen,^ and from the fact that Buddhism was introduced during his reign, it miglit be inferred that he came from the south. Il’lassa was founded by Srongzan-Ctambo, or Srongbdzan sgambouo,^ about a.d. 630, after which time Tibetan

history becomes more authentic, inasmuch as this king introduced

the alphabet. The Tang dynasty carried their arms into

Tibet from Khoten, but the people threw off their yoke during

the decline of that family. Mohammedanism also disturbed the

supremacy of the Buddhist faith, and severe persecutions followed

about the beginning of the tenth century by an Islam

prince Darma, but it was rej^elled at liis death, and has neversince

made the least impression upon the people. Genghis reduced

Tangout, one of the principalities, northeast of Koko-nor,

and soon after brought the whole country under his sway ; this

‘ Essays on the Language, Literature, and Religion of Nejial and Tibet, etc.Loudon, 1874.-‘ R musat, Observations stir VlJistoire des Mongols orientemix de S:inang Setsen,Paris, I’an 8. Ssanang Ssetsen, Oeschichte der Mongolen, Uebers., von. J.J. Schmidt, Petersb., 1829.^ Remusat relates tlic story of his origin, Melanges Posthmnes, p. 400.• Klaproth, Description du Tubet.

HISTORY OF TIBET. 255

Kiiblai still further settled as a dependency of his empire. The people recovered their independence on the expulsion of the Mongols, and under the Ming dynasty formed several small kingdoms, among which were Ladak and Rodok, both of them still existing.

From a short resume of letters written from Tibet in 162(), by Romish missionaries living there, it appears that the kingdom of Sopo was the most powerful in the north, and Cogur, IT-tsang, and Mai-yul were three southern principalities. The king of Cogue allowed these missionaries to reside in his territories, and took pleasure in hearing them converse and dispute with the lamas. The Dalai-lama at this time was the king’s brother, and possessed subordinate influence in the state, but the priests were numerous and influential. The conquest of Mongolia and Tangout opened the way for Ivanglil to enter Tibet, but the intercourse between the Emperor and Dalai-lama was chiefly connected with religion and carrying tribute. An index of the freedom of communication between Tibet and the west is found in the passports issued to the traders visiting iriassa in lOSS. The lamas held the supreme power imtil towards the end of his reign, when Chinese influence became paramount. The country had already been concpiered by the Songar chieftain, so that on his defeat it could ofPer little resistance.

Ivanghi appointed six of the highest princes or gidlho over the provinces ; but soon after his death, in 1727, three of them conspired against Yungching, and were not subdued without considerable resistance. The Emperor then appointed the loyal prince or gialbo as governor-general, and he remained in his vice-regal office till his death, about 1750. Kienlung, finding that his son was endeavoring to make himself fully independent, executed him as a rebel, suppressed the office, and appointed two Chinese generals to be associated with the Dalailama and his coadjutoi-, in the administration of the country.

The troops were increased and forts erected in all parts of the country to awe the people and facilitate trade.

The present government of Tibet is superintended by two ta chilly ‘or great ministers,’ residing at Il’lassa, who act con-“‘ointly, while they serve as checks upon each other ; they do not hold their office for a long time. They have absolute control over all the troops in the country, and the military are generally confined to the garrisons, and do not cultivate the soil. The collection of revenue, transmission of tribute to Peking, and direction of the persons who carry it, and those mIu) conduct the trade at Batang and Sining fu, are all under their control. The Dalai-lama, and the Teshu-lama are the high religious officers of the country, each of them independent in his own province, but the former holding the highest place in the hierarchy. The Chinese residents confer with each concerning the direction of his own province. All their appointments to office or nobility must be sanctioned by the residents before they are A’alid, but merely religious officers are not under this surveillance. In the villages, the authority is administered by secular deputy lamas called delni^ and by commandants called kaiipon^ who are sent from the capital. Each dcha is assisted by a native vazir of the place, who, Avith the chief lama, foiiii the local government, amenable to the supreme magistracy. The western province of Kari is peopled by nomads, who wander over the regions north of Tlavan-hrad, and are under the authority of larjxni-‘^ sent from IFlassa, without the assistance of lamas. The two higli-pi-iests themselves are likewise assisted by councillors. One of these, called Soopoon(‘hoondx)o, who held the office of sadeeh or adviser when Turner visited Teshu-Lumbo, was a ]V[anchu by birth, but had long lived in Tibet.

GOVERNMENT OF TIBET. 257

The nomadic clans of Dam Mongols and other tribes occupying the thirty-nine feudal townships or ta-sz’ in Anterior Tibet, are governed by the residents without the intervention of the lamas. The disturbances in Ulterior Tibet in 1792, resulting from the irruption of the Kipalese and sack of Teshu-Lumbo, were speedily quelled by the energy of Kienlung’s government, and the invaders forced to sue for mercy. The southern frontier was, in consequence of this inroad, strongly fortified by a chain of posts, and the communication with the states between Tibet and India strictly forbidden and w^atched. It gave the Chinese an opportunity to strengthen their rule and extend their inlluence north to Khoten and into Ladak. The natural mildness of character of the Tibetans, and similarity of religion renders thera much easier under the Chinese joke, than the Mohammedans.*
‘ Authorities on Tibet besides those already referred to: Journal Asiatique,Tomes IV., p. 281 ; VIII., p. 117; IX., p. 81 ; XIV., pp. 177, ff. 277, 406,etc. Dii Halde, DescHption of (Jhiim., Vol. II., pp. 884-888. Capt. Samuel Turner, Account of an Embassy to the Court of Teslioo Lama in Tibet, London, 1800. Histoire cic ce qui s’est ]Mi>se au lioyaume du Tibet, en Pann’e 1(}26 ; trad de I’ltalien. Paris, 1829. P. Kircher, CJiinn llhistrnta. MM. Peron et Billecocq, liecueil de Voyages du lldbet, Paris, 1796. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal^ passim. Chinese Repository, Vols. VI., pp. 28, 494,IX., p. 20, and XIII., p. 50.5. Hitter, Asien, Bd. II., 4er Abschnitt, and Bd.III., S. 187-424. Richthofen, China, Bd. I., S. 228, 247, 466, 670, 688, etc.C. H. Desgodin, La mission du Tibet de 1855 a 1870, comprennant Pexpose desaffaires rdigieuses, etc. Dhtpres les lettres de M. fabbe Desgodins, missionaireapofitoliquc, Verdun, 1872. Lieut.’ Kreitner, Jm fernen Osten, pp. 829 ff.,and in The r»jndar Science Monthly, for August, 1882. Emil Schlagintweit,Tibetan Buddhism, Illustrated by Literary Documents and Objects of Religious Worship, London, 1868. Abbe Hue, I’ravels through Tartary, Tibet and China, 2 vols.Vol. I.—17

CHAPTER V. POPULATION AND STATISTICS

Much of the interest appertaining to the country and people here treated of, in the minds of philanthropic and intelligent men, has arisen from the impression they have received of its vast population. A country twice the size of the Chinese empire would present few attractions to the Christian^ the merchant, or the ethnologist, if it were no better inhabited than Sahara, or Arizona : a people might possess most admirable institutions, and a matchless form of government, yet these excellencies would lose their interest, did we hear that it is the republic of San Marino or the kingdom of Muscat, where they are found. The population of few countries in the world has been accurately ascertained, and probably that of China is less satisfactory than any European or American state of the present day. It is far easier to take a census among a people who understand its object, and will honestly assist in its execution, than in a despotic, half-civilized country, Avherc the mass of the inhabitants are afraid of contact or intercourse with their rulers; in most of such states, as Abyssinia, Turkey, Persia, etc., there is either no regular emnneration at all, or merely a general estimate for the purposes of i-cvemie or conscription.

CREDIT DUE TO CHINESE CENSUSES. 259

The subject of the population of Cliiiui has engaged the attention of the monarchs of the present dynasty, and their censuses have been the best sources of information in making up an intelligent opinion upon the matter. Whatever may be our views of the actual population, it is plain that these censuses, with all their discrepancies and inaccuracies, are the only reliable sources of information. The conflicting opinions and

conclusions of foreign writers neither give any additional weight

to them, nor detract at all from their credibility. As the question

stands at present, they can be doubted, but cannot be

denied ; it is impossible to prove them, while there are many

grounds for believing them; the enormous total which they

exhibit can be declared to be improbable, but not shown to be

impossible.

No one who has been in China can hesitate to acknowledge that there are some strong grounds for giving credit to them, but the total goes so far beyond his calculations, that entire belief nmst, indeed, be deferred till some new data have been furnished. There are, perhaps, more peculiar encouragements

to the increase of population there than in any other

country, mostly arising from a salubrious climate, semi-annual

crops, unceasing industry, early marriages, and an equable

taxation, involving reasonable security of life and property.

Turning to other countries of Asia, we soon observe that in

Japan and Persia these causes have less influence ; in Siam

and Burmah they are weak ; in Tibet they are almost powerless.

At this point every one must rest, as the result of an examination

into the population of the Chinese Empire ; though,

from the survey of its principal divisions, made in the preceding

chapters, its capability of maintaining a dense population needs

no additional- evidence. The mind, however, is bewildered in

some degree by the contemplation of millions upon millions of

human beings thus collected under one government ; and it

almost wishes there might be grounds for disbelieving the

enormous total, from the dieadful results that might follow

the tyrannical caprice or unrestrained fury of their rulers,

or the still more shocking scenes of rapine and the hideous

extremities of want which a bad harvest would necessarily

cause.

Chinese literature contains many documents describing

classes of society comprised in censuses in the various dynasties.

The results of those enumerations have been digested by Ma

Twan-lin in a judicious and intelligent manner in the chapters

treating on population, from which M. Ed. Biot has elaborated

many important data.’ The early records show that the census

was designed to contain only the number of taxable people, excluding all persons bound to give personal service, who were

under the control of others. Moreover, all othcials and slaves,

all persons over 60 or 66 years of age, the weak or sick, those

needing help, and sometimes such as were newly placed on state

lands, were likewise omitted. Deducting these classes. Ma

Twan-lin gives one census taken in the ninth century, b.c, as

13,704,923 persons, between the ages of 15 and 05, living

within the frontiers north of the Yangtsz’ Eiver. This figure

would be worth, according to the tables of modern statistics,

about 65 per cent, of the entire population, or as representing

21,753,528 inhabitants.

The mighty conqueror, Tsin Chi Ilwangtf, changed the personal

corvc’c to scutage, and introduced a kind of poll tax, by

accepting the money from many who could not be forced to do

the work required. This practice was followed in the 11 an

dynasty, and in b.c. 194, the poll-tax was legalized, to include

all men between 15 and 66, while a lighter impost was le\ ied

on those between 7 and 14. During the four centuries of this

family’s regime, the object and modes of a census were well

understood. Ma Twan-lin gives the results of ten taken between

A.D. 2 and 155. His details show that it was done

simply for revenue, and was omitted in bad years, when drought

or freshets destroyed the harvests ; they show, too, an increase

in the number of slaves, that women were now enumerated,

and that girls between 15 and 30 paid a poll-tax. In b.c. 30,

the limits of age were placed between 7 and 56. The average

of these ten censuses is 63,500,600, the first one being as high

as 83,640,000, while the next and lowest, taken fifty-five years

afterwards, is only 29,180,000, and the third is 47,396,<»00.

These great variations are explained by the disturbances arising

in consequence of the usurpation of Wangmang, a.d. 9-27, and

subsequent change of the ca})ital, and the impossibility, during

this troubled period, of canvassing all parts of the Empire.

‘ This careful digest is contained in the Journal Asiatique for 1836 (April and May), and will repay perusal.

MA TWAN-LIN’s study OF THE cp:nsu8es. 261

The irfcroiice from thesc data, that tlio real population of the Chinese Empire north of the Nan ling at the time of Christ was at least eighty millions, is as well groinided as almost any fact in its history.’

After the downfall of the Ilan dynasty, a long period of

civil war ensued, in which the destruction of life and property

was so enormous that the population was i-educed to one-sixth

of the amount set down in a.d. 230, when disease, epidemics,

and earthquakes increased the losses caused by war and the cessation

of agricultui’e, according to Ma Twan-lin ; and it is not

till A.D. 280, when the Tsin dynasty had subjected all to its

sway, that the country began to revive. In that year an enumeration

was made which stated the free peojjle between 12

and 66 years in the land at 14,163,863, or 23,180,000 in all.

From this period till the Sui dynasty came into power, in 589,

Cliina was torn by dissensions and rival monarchs, and the

recorded censuses covered only a portion of the land, the figures

including even fewer of the people, owing to the great number

of serfs or bondmen who had sought safety under the protection

of landowners. At this time a new mode of taking the census

was ordered, in M’hich the people were classified into those from

1 to 3 years, then 3 to 10, then 10 to IT, and 17 to 60, after

which age they were not taxed ; the ratio of the land tax was

also fixed. A .census taken in 606 in this way gives an estimated

population of 46,019,956 in all China ; the frontiers, at

this period, hardly reached to the Xan ling Mountains, and the

author’s explanation of the manner of carrying on some public

works shows that even this sum did not include persons who were

liable to l)e called on for personal service, while all officials, slaves,

and beggars were omitted. Troubles arose again from these

enforced works, and it was not till the advent to power of the

Tang dynasty, in 618, that a regular enumeration was possible.

‘ The population of the Ronican Empire at the same period is estimated at 85,000,000 bj Merivale (Vol. IV., pp. ‘^,?,Q-M’^i), but the data are less complete than in China; he reckons the European provinces at 45,000,000, and the Asiatic and African colonies at the remainder, giving 27,000,000 to Asia Minor and Syria. The area of China, at this time, was less than Rome by about one fourth.

This family reigned 287 years, and Ma Twan-lin gives fifteen

returns of the population up to 841. They show great variations,

some of them difficult to explain even by omitting ot

supplying large classes of the inhabitants. The one most carefully

taken was in a.d. 75-i, and gives an estimated total of

about seventy millions for the whole Empire, which, though

nearly the same as that in the Ilan dynasty in a.d. 2, extended

over a far greater area, even to the whole southern seaboard.

In addition to former enumerated classes, many thousands of priests were passed by in this census.

The years of anarchy following the Tang, till a.d. 976, M-hen the Sung dynasty obtained possession, caused their usual effect. Its first census gives only about sixteen millions of taxable population that year, when its authority was not firmly assured ; but

in 1021 the returns rise to 43,388,380, and thence gradually

increase to 100,095,250 in 1102, just before the provinces north

of the Yellow River, by far the most fertile and loyal, were lost.

The last enumeration, in 1223, while Ma Twan-lin was living,

places the returns in the southern provinces at 63,304,000 ; this

was fifty years before Kublai khan conquered the Empire. Our

author gives some details concerning the classes included in the

census during his own lifetime, which prove to a reasonable

mind that the real number of mouths living on the land Avas, if

anything, higher than the estimates. In 1290, the Mongol

Emperor published his enumeration, placing the taxable population

at 58,834,711, “not counting those who had fled to the

mountains and lakes, or who had joined the rebels.” This was

not long after his ruthless hand had almost depopulated vast

regions in the northern provinces, before he could quiet them.

In the continuation of Ma Twan-lin’s Ti (‘searches, thei-e are

sixteen censuses given for the Ming dynasty between 1381 and

1580 ; the lowest figure is 46,800,000, in 1506, and the highest,

66,590,000, in 1412, the average for the two centuries being

56,715,360 inhabitants. One of its compilers declares that he

cannot reconcile their great discrepancies, and throws doubts on

their totals from his inability to learn the mo(^leof emimeration.

Three are given for three consecutive years (1402-1404), the

difference between the extremes of which amounts to sixteen

millions, but they were all taken when Yungloh was fighting Kienwan, his nephew, at Nanking, and settling himself at Peking as Emperor, during which years large districts could not possibly have been counted.

COMPARATIVE CENSUS TABLES. 263

Before entering upon a careful examination of this question,

it will be well to bring together the various estimates taken of

the population during the present dynasty. The details given

in the table on page 264 have been taken from the best sources,

and are as good as the people themselves possess.

Besides these detailed accounts, there have been several

aggregates of the whole country given by other native writers

than Ma Twan-lin, and some by foreigners, professedly drawn

from original sources, but who have not stated their authorities.

The most trustworthy, together with those given in the other

table, are here placed in chronological order.

Authorities.

/ Continuation of MaTwan-lin. Ed.I Biot, Jour7ial Asiatique, 1836.

Oeneral Statistics of the Empire ;Medhurst’s China, p. 53.

‘, Till Tung Chi, a statistical work; \ Morrison’s View of China.

j General Statistica ; Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 359.

I Memoires sur les Chinois, Tome f VI., p. 377 ff.

] Les Missionaires, De Guignes,

I Tomelll, p. 67.

i General Statistics ; Chinese Repo-

\ sitory. Vol. I., p. 359.

J

Yih Tung Chi, a statistical work ;

( Morrison’s Vieto of China.

I Memoiressur lesChinois^TomeYI.

f De Guignes, Tome III. , p. 73.

j Allerstein ; Grosier ; De Guignes,

] Tome III., p. 67.

\ ” Z.” of Berlin, in Chinese Repo-

\ sitory. Vol. I., p. 361.

j General Statistics ; Dr. Morrison,

I Anglo-Chinese Coll. Report,

\ 1839. Statement made to Lord

( Macartney.

] General Statistics ; Chinese Repo-

( sitory. Vol. I., p. 359.

\ VassUivitch.

] Chinese Ciistoni’s Reports.

Seven of these censuses, viz., the 7th, 8th, 12th, 13th, 17th,

20th, 21st and 23d, are given in detail in the following table.

364 tiij: middle kingdom.

c O 3) CP o o^o^o —^ ~_ —_ —_ o ^_ :r_ —__ o

©j”-^’cct-*” CO* -T ;r”-r – to 7?’ ::’ //cc -T ir: r*’

Tr-gi,-(0 CO rrir2-Tr;c;-T:ct:r-r. r: xco

els??,:

~ ^? 5 »

oil a>

^_^ —• N^ ^-^ ,*J l*X ^—’ -‘. ‘y T —^ ^’. l*X ^ ‘.r •— •*•’ -f^

x’jT C-“cTi–rT^jij ;^’ -^ (^ —’ ^ ;^” 4^ai”X iO ifj

1(5 = 100 o ooin o

:c JO t- a, -^ lO =- r; o

o iO X CO ;o 00 ?* T 😮

I- rt as i: i- «:ca:_^ s-j

;C5’rX!W CO ;c”iCt:^ -^

lO OOO U3″0 O

CO <— O iC T 2? ?*

O X O ‘^ lO ^ cc

JB ‘—O i-H TJ ‘-‘.’5”

a;i-r^5’*o^»:c-jrm -r o c: ir: ‘t t-_^oo (»

cS X vr rr .r CO = 7′ – i m /; th x g 3 o (- :^

<r« !- t- ^r ^ (- c; -r :^ = x o; x i- t-_~ -r o 😮

irfic c:’i; ITT* r-‘ lo’xTx.’ x’ i- 1- ttScovi tT

t-i U r-l(N T( ri 1-1

‘”id

•52J «

000=0000 oO oO oO oO oO O00!=0G> oO oO O00O0-^ 000= O — 00 C= 0^=:__0_0 0^0 0^=^ 0000 cT o”o cTo^oo cTcTo ^o

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THE CENSUSES INDIVIDUALLY CONSIDERED. 265

The first three belong to the Ming dynasty, and are taken from

a continuation of Ma Twan din’s Researches, whence they were

quoted in the Mtrror of Hlstonj, without their details. During

the Ming dynasty, a portion of the country now called the

Eighteen Provinces, was not under the control of IlungM’u and

his descendants. The wars with the Japanese, and with tribes

on the north and west, together with the civil wars and struggles

between the Chinese themselves, and with the Nu-chi in

Manchuria, nmst have somewhat decreased the population.

The first census of 1662 (No. 4), is incidentally mentioned by

Kierlung in 1791, as having been taken at that time, from his

making some observations upon the increase of the population

and comparing the early censuses with the one he had recently

ordered. This sum of 21,068,600 does not, however, include

all the inhabitants of China at that date ; for the Manchus

commenced their sway in 161:’±, and did not exercise full authority

over all the provinces much before 1700 ; Canton was

taken in 1650, Formosa in 1683.

The census of 1668 (Ko. 5), shows a little increase over that

of 1662, but is likewise confined to the conquered portions ; and

in those provinces which had been subdued, there were extensive

tracts which had been almost depopulated at the conquest.

Any one who reads the recitals of Semedo, Martini, Trigautius,

and othei’s, concerning the massaci-es and destruction of life

both by the Manchus and by Chinese l)andits, between 1630

and 1650, M’ill feel no loss in accounting for the diminution of

numbers, down to 1710. But the chief explanation of the decrease

from sixty to twenty-seven millions is to be found in the

object of taking the census, viz., to levy a poll-tax, and get at

the number of men fit for the army—two reasons for most men

to avoid the registration.

The census of 1711 (No. 8), is the first one on record which bears the appearance of crediljility, when its several parts are compared with each other. The dates of the preceding (Nos. 6 and 7), are rather uncertain ; the last was extracted by Dr. Morrison from a book published in 1790, and he thought it was probably taken as early as 1650, though that is unlikely.

The other is given by Dr. Medhurst without any explanation, and their great disparity leads us to think that both are dated wrongly. The census of 1711 is much more consistent in itself, though there are some reasons for supposing that neither did it include all the population then in China. The census was still taken for enrolment in the army, and to levy a capitation tax upon all males between the ages of sixteen and sixty. But this tax and registration were evaded and resisted by the indignant Chinese, who had never been chronicled in this fashion by their own princes; the Emperor Kanghi, therefore, abolished the capitation tax. It was not till about this time that the

Manchus had subdued and pacified the southern provinces, and

it is not improbable that this census, and the survey taken by

the Jesuits, were among their acts of sovereignty. Finding

the people unwilling to be registered, the poll tax was merged

in the land tax, and no census ordered during the reign of

Yungching, till Kienlung revived it in order to have some

guide in apportioning relief during seasons of distress and scarcity,

establishing granaries, and aiding the police in their duties.

Many, therefore, who would do all in their power to prevent

their names being taken, when they were liable to be taxed or

called on to do military service, could have no objection to

come forward, when the design of the census was to benefit

themselves. It matters very little, however, for what object the

census was taken, if there is reason to believe it to have been

accurate. It might indeed act as a stimulus to multiply names

and figures whom there were no people to represent, as the

principle of paying the marshals a percentage on the numbers

they reported did in some parts of New York State in 1840.

The three next numbers (9, 10, and 11), are taken from De

Guignes, who quotes Amiot, but gives no Chinese authorities.

The last is given in full by De Guignes, and both this and that

of Allerstein, dated twenty years after, ai-e introduced into the

table. There are some disci’epancies between these two and

the census of 1753, taken from the General Statistics, which

cannot easily be reconciled. The internal evidence is in favor

of the latter, over the census of 1743 ; it is taken from a new

edition of the Ta Tsing IFioul Tien, or ‘ General Statistics of

the Empire,’ and the increase during the forty-two years which

COMPAIJISON OF LATER CENSUSES. 267

had elapsed since the last census is regular in all the provinces,

with the exception of Shantung and Kiangnan. The extraordinary

fertility of these provinces would easily induce immigration,

while in the war of conquest, their popnlousness and wealth attracted the armies of the Manchus, and the destruction of life was disproportionably great. The smaller numbers given to the western and southern provinces correspond

moreover to the opposition experienced in those regions.

On the whole, the census taken in 1753 compares very well

with that of 1711, and both of them bear an aspect of verity,

which does not belong to the table of 1743 quoted by De Guignes.

From 1711 to 1753, the population doubled itself in about

twenty-two years, premising that the whole country was faithfully

registered at the iii-st census. For instance, the province

of Kweichau, in 1711, presents on the average a mere fraction

of a little more than a single person to two square miles ; while

in 1753 it had increased in the unexampled ratio of three to a square mile, which is doubling its population every seven years ; Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Kansuh (all of them containing to this day, partially subdued tribes), had also multiplied their numbers in nearly the same proportion, owing in great measure, probably, to the more extended census than to the mere increase of population.

The amounts for 173G, three of 1743, and those of 1760,

1761, and 1762 (Xos. 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, and 17), are all extracted

from De Guignes, who took them from the Memolres

sur les Chlnois. The last, that of 1762, is given in detail in the

table. The discrepancy of sixty millions between that given

by Amiot for 1760, and that by Dr. Morrison for the same

year, is owing, there can be little doubt, to foreigners, and not

to an error of the Chinese. The work from which Dr. Morrison

extracted his estimate for that year was published in 1790,

but the census was taken between 1760 and 1765. The same

work contains the census of 1711 (Xo. 8), quoted by him, and

there is good cause for believing that Amiot’s or Grosier’s

estimate of 157,343,975 for 1743, is the very same census, he having multiplied the number 28,605,716 by five, supposing them to have been families and not individuals. The three ascribed to the year 1743, are probably all derived from the same native authorities by different individuals.

The three dated in 1760, 1761, and 1762, are harmonious with each other ; but if they are taken, those of 1753 and 1760, extracted from the Ylh Tung CIu hy I)i-. Morrison, must be rejected, which are far more reasonable, and correspond better with the preceding one of 1711. It may be remarked, that by reckoning five persons to a family in calculating the census of 1753, as Amiot does for 1743, the population would be 189,223,820 instead of 103,050,060, as given in the table. This explains the apparent decrease of fifty millions. All the discrepancies between these various tables and censuses must not be charged upon the Chinese, since it is by no means easy to ascertain their modes of taking the census and their use of terms. In the tables, for example, they employ the phrase y^/lting, for a male over 15 years of age, as the integer ; this has, then, to be multiplied by some factor of increase to get at the total population ; and this last figure must be obtained elsewhere.

It must not be overlooked that the object in taking a census being to calcidate the probable revenue by enumei’atingthe taxable persons, the margin of error and deficiency depends on the peace of the state at the time, and not chiefly on the estimate of five or more to a household.

The amount for 1736 corresponds sufficiently closely with that for 1743 ; and reckoning the same number of persons in a family in 1753, that tallies well enough with those for 1760, 1761, and 1762, the whole showing a gradual increase for twenty-five years. But all of them, except that of 1753, ai’6 probably rated too high. That for 1762 (Xo. 17), has been justly considered as one of the most authentic.

THE FOUR MOST RELIABLE CEISTSUSES. 269

The amount given by ” Z.” of Berlin (Xo. 18), of 155^ millions for 1790 is quoted in the Clihiem liejms’dot’y, but the writer states no authorities, was probably never in China, and as it appears at present, is undeserving the least notice. That given by Dr. Morrison for 1792 (Xo. 19), the year before Lord Macartney’s embassy’, is quoted from an edition of that date, but probably Avas really taken in 1765 or thereabouts, but he did nut publish it in detail.’ It is probably much nearer the truth than the amount of ao’d millions by the commissioner Chau to the English ambassador. This estimate has had much more respect paid to it as an authentic document than it deserved.

The Chinese connnissioner would naturally wish to exalt his country in the eyes of its far-travelled visitors, and not having the official returns to refer to, would not be likely to state them less than they were. lie gave the population of the provinces in round numbers, perhaps altogether from his own memory, aided by those of his attendant clerks, with the impression that his hearers would never be able to refer to the original native authorities.

The next one quoted (Xo. 21) is the most satisfactory of all the censuses in Chinese works, and was considered by both the Morrisons and by Dr. Bridgman, editor of the Chinese Jiejwsitori/, as ” the most accurate that has yet been given of the population.”

In questions of this nature, one well authenticated table is

worth a score of doubtful origin. It has been shown how

apocryphal are many of the statements given in foreign books,

but with the census of 1812, the source of error which is chiefly

to be guarded against is the average given to a family. This

is done by the Chinese themselves on no uniform plan, and it

may be the case that the estimate of individuals from the number

of families is made in separate towns, fi-oni an intimate

acquaintance with the particular district, which would be less

liable to eri-or than a general average. The number of families

given in the census of 1753, is 37,785,552, which is more than

one-third of the population.

The four censuses which deserve the most credit, so far as

the sources are considered, are those of 1711, 1753, 1792, and

1812 {i.e., Nos. 8, 13, 19, and 21) ; these, when compared,

show the following rate of increase: From 1711 to 1753, the population increased 7”1,222,602,

which was an annual advance of l,70-±,82-l: inhabitants, or a’ Sir G. Staunton, PJmbassy to China, Vol. II., Appendix, p. 615 : ” Table of the Population and Extent of China proper, within the Great V/all. Taken in round numbers from the Statements of Chow ta-zhin.” little more than six per cent, per annum for forty-two years.

Tiiis high rate, it must be remembered, does not take into account

the more thorough subjugation of the south and west at

the later date, when the Manchus could safely enrol large districts,

where in 1711 they would have found so much difficulty

that they would not have attempted it.

From 1753 to 1792, the increase was 104,636,882, or an annual

advance of 2,682,997 inhabitants, or about 2^ per cent,

per annum for thirty-nine years. During this period, the

country enjoyed almost uninterrupted peace under the vigorous

sway of Kienlung, and the unsettled regions of the south and

west rapidly filled up.

From 1792 to 1812, the increase was 51:,126,679, or an annual

advance of 2,706,333—not quite one per cent, per annum

—for twenty years. At the same rate of progress the present

population would amount to over 150,000,000, and this might

have been the case had not the Tai-ping rebellion reduced the

numbers. An enumeration (Xo. 22), was published by the

Russian Professor of Chinese Yassilivitch in 1868 as a translation

from official documents. Foreigners have had greater

opportunities for travel through the country, between the years

1840 to 1880, and have ascertained the enormous depopulation

in some places caused by wars, short supplies of food in consequence

of scarcity of laborers, famines, or brigandage, each

adding its own power of destruction at different places and

times. The conclusion will not completely satisfy any inquirer,

but the population of the Empire cannot now reasonably

be estimated as high as the census of 1812, by at

least twenty-five millions. The last in the list of these censuses

(No. 23), is added as an example of the efforts of intelligent

persons residing in China to come to a definite and

independent conclusion on this point from such data as they

can obtain. The Imperial Customs’ Service has been able to

command the best native assistance in their researches, and the

table of population given above fi-om the Gotha Almanac is

the sunnnary of what has been ascertained. The population

of extra-})rovincial (^hina is really uulvnown at present. Manclmria

is put down at twelve millions by one author, and three

PRESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE IN THEIR FAVOR. 271

or four millions, by another, without any official autliurity for

either ; and all those vast regions in Ili and Tibet may easily

be set down at from twelve to fifteen millions. To sum up,

one must confess that if the Chinese censuses are worth but

little, compared with those taken in European states, they are

better than the guesses of foreigners who have never been in

the country, or who have travelled only partially in it.

The Chinese are doubtless one of the most conceited nations

on the earth, but with all their vanity, they have never bethought

themselves of rating their population twenty-five or

thirty per cent, higher than they suppose it to be, for the purpose

of exalting themselves in the eyes of foreigners or in their

own. Except in one case none of the estimates were presented

to. Of intended to be known by foreigners. The distances in U

between places given in Chinese itineraries correspond very

well with the real distances ; the number of districts, towns,

and villages in the departments and provinces, as stated in

their local and general topographical works, agree with the

actual examination, so far as it can be made : why should their

censuses be charged with gross error, when, however much we

may doubt them, we cannot disprove them, and the weight of

evidence derived from actual observation rather confirms them

than otherwise ; and while their account of towns, villages,

distances, etc., are unhesitatingly adopted until better can be

obtained ? Some discrepancies in the various tables are ascribable

to foreigners, and some of the censuses are incomplete,

or the year cannot be precisely fixed, both of which vitiate the

deductions made from them as to the rate of increase. Some

reasons for believing that the highest population ascribed to

the Chinese Empire is not greater than the country can support,

will first be stated, and the objections against receiving the

censuses then considered.’

‘ This interesting subject can then be left with the reader, who will find

further remarks in Medhurst’s China, De Guignes’ Voyages d Peking, The Missionaries,

in Tomes VI. and VIII. of Memoires, Ed. Biot, in Journal Asiatique

for 1836. The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during the 4,000

Years of its Historical Existence ; or the Rise and Fall of the Chinese Pojmlation,

by T. Sacharoflf. Translated into English by the Rev. W. Lobscheid, Hongkong,

1862. Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., pp. 88, 103, and 117

The area of the Eighteen Provinces is rather imperfectly given

at 1,348,870 sqnare miles, and the average population, there

fore, for the whole, in 1812, was 268 persons on every sqnare

mile ; that of the nine eastern provinces in and near the Great

Plain, comprising 502,192 sqnare miles, or two-fifths of the

whole, is 458 persons, and the nine southern and western provinces,

constituting the other three-fifths, is 154 to a square mile.

The surface and fertility of the country in these two portions

differ so greatly, as to lead one to look for results like these.

The areas of some European states and their population, are

added to assist in making a comparison with China, and coming

to a clearer idea about their relative density.

states.

France

German}’ . ..

Great Britain

Italy

Holland

Spain

Japan

Benural

204.092

212,091

121,608

114,296

20,497

190,625

160,474

156,200

Population.

dp:nsity of populations in Europe and china. 273

ture-lands, and only ten millions devoted to grain and vegeta

bles ; the other two millions consist of fallow-ground, hop-beds,

etc. One author estimates that in England 42 acres in a hundred,

and in Ireland G4, are pastures—a little more than half of

the whole. There are, then, on the average about two acres of

land for the support of each individual, or rather less than this,

if the land required for the food of horses be subtracted. It

has been calculated that eight men can be fed on the same

amount of land that one horse requires ; and that four acres of

pasture-land will furnish no more food for man than one of

ploughed land. The introduction of railroads has superseded

the use of horses to such an extent that it is estimated there are

only 200,000 horses now in England, instead of a million in 1830.

If, therefore, one-half the land appropriated to pasture should

be devoted to grain, and no more horses and dogs raised than a

million of acres could support, England and Wales could easily

maintain a population of more than four hundred to a square

mile, supposing them to be willing to live on what the land and

water can furnish.

The Irish consume a greater proportion of vegetables than

the English, even since the improvement by emigration after

1851 ; many of these live a beggaily life upon half an acre, and

even less, -and seldom taste animal food. The quantity of land

under cultivation in Belgium is about fifteen-seventeenths of

the whole, which gives an average of about two acres to each

person, or the same as in England. In these two countries, the

people consume more meat than in Ireland, and the amoimt of

land occupied for pasturage is in nearly equal proportions in

Belgium and England. In France, the average of cultivated

land is If acre ; in Holland, If acre to each person.

If the same proportion between the arable and uncultivated

land exists in China as in England, namely one-fourth, there are

about six hundred and fifty millions of acres under cultivation

in China ; and we are not left altogether to conjecture, for by a

report made to Ivienlung in 1745, it appears that the area of

the land under cultivation was 595,598,221 acres ; a subsequent

calculation places it at 640,579,381 acres, which is almost the

same proportion as in England. Estimating it at six hundred and fifty millions—for it lias since increased rather than diminished—it gives one acre and four-fifths to every person, Which is by no means a small supply for the Chinese, considering that there are no cultivated pastures or meadows.

In comparing the population of different countries, the

manner of living and the articles of food in use, form such important

elements of the calculation, in ascertaining whether the

country be overstocked or not, that a mere tabular view of the

number of persons on a square mile is an imperfect criterion of

the amount of inhabitants the land would maintain if they consumed

the same food, and lived in the same manner in all of

them. Living as the Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and other

Asiatics do, chiefly upon vegetables, the country can hardly be

said to maintain more than one-half or one-third as many people

on a square mile as it might do, if their energies were developed

to the same extent with those of the English or Belgians.

The population of these eastern regions has been repressed by the combined influences of ignorance, insecurity of life and property, religious prejudices, vice, and wars, so that the land has never maintained as many inhabitants as one would have otherwise reasonably expected therefrom.

Nearly all the cultivated soil in China is employed in raising food for man. AVoollen garments and leather are little used, while cotton and mulberry cultivation take np only a small proportion of the soil. There is not, so far as is known, a single acre of land sown with grass-seed, and therefore almost no human labor is devoted to raising food for animals, which will not also serve to sustain man. Horses are seldom used for pomp or war, for travelling or carrying burdens, but mules, camels, asses, and goats are employed for transportation and other purposes north of the Yangtsz’ River. Horses are fed on cooked rice, bran, sorghum seed, pulse, oats, and grass cut along

the banks of streams, or on hillsides. In the southern and

eastern provinces, all animals are rare, the transport of goods

and passengers being done by boats or by men. The natives

make no use of butter, cheese, or milk, and the few cattle employed

in agriculture easily gather a living on the waste ground

around the villages. In the south, the buffalo is applied more

AREA AND VALUE OF ARABLE LAND IN CHINA. 275

than the ox to plough the rice fields, and the habits of this

animal make it cheaper to keep him in good condition, while he

can also do more work. The winter stock is grass cut upon the

hills, straw, bean stalks, and vegetables, ^o wool being wanted

for making cloth, flocks of sheep and goats are seldom seen—it

may almost be said are unknown in the east and south.

No animal is reared cheaper than the hog ; hatching and

raising ducks affords employment to thousands of people ; hundreds

of these fowl gather their own food along the river

shore, being easily attended by a single keeper. Geese and

poultry are also cheaply reared. In fishing, which is carried on

to an enormous extent, no pasture-grounds, no manuring, no

barns, are needed, nor are taxes paid by the cultivator and consumer.

While the people get their animal food in these ways, its preparation takes away the least possible amount of cultivated soil. The space occupied for roads and pleasure-gromids is insignificant, but there is perhaps an amount appropriated for burial places quite equal to the area used for those purposes in European countries ; it is, however, less valuable land, and much of it would be useless for culture, even if otherwise unoccupied.

Graves are dug on hills, in ravines and copses, and wherever they will be retired and dry; or if in the ancestral field, they do not hinder the crop growing close around them.

Moreover, it is very common to preserve the coffin in temples

and cemeteries until it is decayed, partly in order to save the

expense of a grave, and partly to worship the remains, or preserve

them until gathered to their fathers, in their distant

native places. They are often placed in the corners of the fields,

or under precipices where they remain till dust returns to dust,

and bones and wood both moulder away. These and other customs

limit the consumption of land for graves much more than

would be supposed, when one sees, as at Macao, almost as much

space taken up by the dead for a grave as by the living for a

hut. The necropolis of Canton occupies the hills north of the

city, of which not one-fiftieth part could ever have been used

for agriculture, but where cattle are allowed to graze, as much

as if there were no tombs.

Under its genial and equable climate, nioi’e than three-fourths

of the area of China Proper produces two crops annually. In

Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Fuhkien, two ci’ops of rice are taken

year after year from the low lauds ; while in the loess regions

of the northwest, a three-fold return from the grain fields is

annually looked for, if the rain-fall is not withheld. In the

winter season, in the neighborhood of towns, a third crop of

sweet potatoes, cabbages, turnips, or some other vegetable is

grown, T)e Guignes estimates the retui-ns of a rice crop at ten

for one, which, with the vegetables, will give full twenty-five

fold from an acre in a year ; few parts, however, yield this increase.

Little or no land lies fallow, for constant manuring and

turning of the soil prevents the necessity of repose. The diligence

exhibited in collecting and applying manure is Avell

known, and if all this industry result in the production of two

crops instead of one, it really doubles the area under cultivation,

Avhen its superficies are compared with those of other

countries. If the amount of land which produces two ci’ops be

estimated at one-fourth of the whole (and it is perhaps as near

one-third), the area of arable land in the provinces may be considered

as representing a total of 812 millions of acres, or 2f

acres to an individual. The land is not, however, cut up into such

small farms as to prevent its being managed as w^ell as the people

know how to stock and cultivate it ; manual labor is the chief

dependence of the farmer, fewer cattle, carts, ploughs, and machines being employed than in other countries. In rice fields no aninuils are used after the wet land has received the shoots, transplanting, weeding, and reaping being done by men.

In no other country besides Japan is so much food derived from the water. Not only arc the coasts, estuaries, rivers, and lakes, covered with fishing-boats of various sizes, which are provided with everything fitted for the capture of whatever lives in the waters, but the spawn of fish is collected and reared.

TENDENCIKS TO INCREASE OF POrULATION”. 277

Rice fields are often converted into pools in the winter season, and stocked with fish; and the tanks dug for irrigation usually contain fish. By all these means, an immense supply of food is obtained at a cheap rate, which is eaten fresh or preserved with or without salt, and sent over the Empire, at a cost which places it within the reach of all above beggary. Other articles of food, both animal and vegetable, such as dogs, game, worms, spring greens, tripang, leaves, etc., do indeed compose part of their meals, but it is comparatively an inconsiderable fraction, and need not enter into the calculation. Enough has been stated to show that the land is abundantly able to support the population ascribed to it, even with all the drawbacks known to exist; and that, taking the highest estimate to be true, and considering the mode of living, the average population on a square mile in China is less than in several European countries.

The political and social causes which tend to multiply the inhabitants are numerous and powerful. The failure of male posterity to continue the succession of the family, and worship at the tombs of parents, is considered by all classes as one of the most afflictive misfortunes of life; the laws allow unlimited facilities of adoption, and secure the rights of those taken into the family in this way. The custom of betrothing children, and the obligation society imposes upon the youth when arrived at maturity, to fulfil the contracts entered into by their parents, acts favorably to the establishment of families and the nurture of children, and restricts polygamy. Parents desire children for a support in old age, as there is no legal or benevolent provision

for aged poverty, and public opinion stigmatizes the man

who allows his aged or infirm parents to suffer when he can

help them. The law requires the owners of domestic slaves to

provide husbands for their females, and prohibits the involuntary

or forcible separation of husband and wife, or parents and

children, when the latter are of tender age. All these causes

and influences tend to increase population, and equalize the

consumption and use of property more, perhaps, than in any

other land.

The custom of families remaining together tends to the

same result. The local importance of a large family in the

country is weakened by its male members removing to town, or

emigrating; consequently, the patriarch of three or four generations

endeavors to retain his sons and grandsons around him, their houses joining his, and they and their families forming a social, united company. Such cases as those mentioned in the.

Sacred Commands are of course rare, where nine generations of the family of Chang Kung-i inhabited one lioiise, or of Chin, at whose table seven hundred mouths were daily fed,’ but it is the tendency of society. This remark does not indicate that great landed proprietors exist, whose hereditary estates are secured by entail to the great injur}- of the state, as in Great Britain,

for the farms are generally small and cultivated by the

owner or on the metayer system. Families are supported on a

more economical plan, the claims of kindred are better enforced,

the land is cultivated with more care, and the local importance

of the family perpetuated. This is, however, a very different system from that advocated by Fourier in France, or Greeley in America, for these little communities are placed

under one natural head, whose authority is acknowledged and

upheld, and his indignation feared. Workmen of the same profession form unions, each person contributing a certain sum on the promise of assistance when sick or disabled, and this custom prevents and alleviates a vast amount of poverty.

‘ Sacred Edict, pp. 51, 60.

RESTRICTIONS UPON EMIGRATION. 279

The obstacles put in the way of emigrating beyond sea, both in law and prejudice, operate to deter respectable persons from leaving their native land. Necessity has made the law a dead letter, and thousands annually leave their homes. No better evidence of the dense population can be offered to those acquainted with Chinese feelings and character, than the extent of emigration. “What stronger proof,” observes Medhurst,” of the dense population of China could be afforded than the fact, that emigration is going on in spite of restrictions and disabilities, from a country where learning and civilization reign, and where all the dearest interests and prejudices of the emigrants are found, to lands like Burmah, Siam, Cambodia, Tibet, Manchuria, and the Indian Archipelago, where comparative ignorance and barbarity prevail, and where the extremes of a tropical or frozen region are to be exchanged for a mild and temperate climate? Added to this consideration, that not a single female is permitted or ventures to leave the country, when consequently, all the tender attachments that bind heart to heart must be burst asunder, and, perhaps, forever.”‘

Moreover, if they return with wealth enough to live upon, they are liable to the vexatious extortions of needy relatives, sharpers, and police, who have a handle for their fleecing whip in the law against leaving the country ; although this clause has been neutralized by subsequent acts, and is not in force, the power of public opinion is against going. A case occurred in 1832, at Canton, where the son of a Chinese living in Calcutta, who had been sent home by his parent with his mother, to perform the usual ceremonies in the ancestral hall, was seized by his uncle as he was about to be married, on the pretext that his father had unequally divided the paternal inheritance; he

was obliged to pay a thousand dollars to free himself. Soon

after his marriage, a few sharpers laid hold of him and bore

him away in a sedan, as he was walking near his house, but his

cries attracted the police, who carried them all to the magistrates,

where he was liberated—after being obliged to fee his

deliverers.’ Another case occurred in Macao in 1838. A

man had been living several years in Singapore as a merchant,

and when he settled in Macao still kept up an interest in the

trade with that place. Accounts of his great wealth became

rumored abroad, and he was seriously annoyed by relatives.

One night, a number of thieves, dressed like police-runners,

came to his house to search for opium, and their boisterous

manner terrified him to such a degree, that in order to escape

them he jumped from the terrace upon the hard gravelled

court-yard, and broke his leg, of which he shortly afterward

died. A third case is mentioned, where the returned emigrants,

consisting of a man and his wife, who was a Malay, and

two children, were rescued from extortion, when before the

magistrate, by the kindness of his wife and mother, who wished

to see the foreign woman.” Such instances are now unknown,

owing to the increase of emigration ; they were, indeed, never numerically great, on account of the small number of those who came back.

‘ China : Its State ojid Prospects, p. 42.

^ Ta Tslag Leu Lee ; being the Fundamental Laws, etc., of the Penal Codt of China, by Sir G. T. Staunton, Bart , London, 1810. Section CCXXV.

^ Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 382.

* Ibid., Vol. VII., p. 503; Vol. II., p. 161.

The anxiety of the government to provide stores of food for times of scarcity, shows rather its fear of the disastrous residts following a short crop—such as the gathering of clamoi’ous crowds of starving poor, the increase of bandits and disorganization of society—than any peculiar care of the rulers, or that these storehouses really supply deficiencies. The evil consequences resulting from an overgrown population are experienced in one or another part of the provinces almost every year ; and drought, inundations, locusts, mildew, or other natural causes, often give rise to insurrections and disturbances. There can be no doubt, however, that, without adding a single acre to the area of arable land, these evils would be materially alleviated, if the intercommunication of traders and their goods, between distant parts of the country, were more frequent, speedy, and safe; but this is not likely to be the case until both rulers and ruled make greater advances in just government, science, obedience, and regard for each other s right.

It would be a satisfaction if foreigners could verify any part

of the census. But this is, at present, impossible. They cannot

examine the records in the ofiice of the Board of Revenue,

nor can they ascertain the population in a given district from

the archives in the hands of the local authorities, or the mode

of taking it. Neither can they go through a village or town to

count the number of houses and their inhabitants, and calculate

from actual examination of a few parts what the whole would

be. “Where\er foreigners have journeyed, there has appeared

much the same succession of waste land, hilly regions, cultivated

plains, and M’ooded heights, as in other countries, M’ith an

abundance of people, but not more than the land could support,

if properly tilled.

METHOD OF TAKING THE CENSUS. 281

The people are grouped into hamlets and villages, under the control of village elders and officers. In the district of Nanhai, Avhich forms the western part of the city of Canton, and the surrounding country for more than a hundred square miles, there are one hundred and eighty /it'((/if/ or villages; the population of each hiang varies from two hundred and upwards to one hundred thousand, but ordinarily ranges between three hundred and thirty-five hundred. If each of the eighty-eight districts in the province of Kwangtung contains the same number of JtlaiKj, there will be, including the district towns, 15,928 villages, towns, and cities in all, with an average population of twelve hundred inhabitants to each. From the top of the hills on Dane’s Island, at Whampoa, thirty-six towns and villages can

be counted, of which Canton is one; and four of these contain

from twelve to fifteen hundred houses. The whole district of

Hiangshan, in which Macao lies, is also well covered with villages,

though their exact number is not known. The island of

Anioy contains more than fourscore villages and towns, and

this island forms only a part of the district of Tung-ngan. The

banks of the river leading from Amoy up to Changchau fu, are

likewise well peopled. The environs of Ningpo and Shanghai

are closely settled, though that is no more than one always expects

near large cities, where the demand for food in the city

itself causes the vicinity to be well peopled and tilled. In a

notice of an irruption of the sea in 1819, along the coast of

Shantung, it was reported that a hundred and forty villages

were laid under water.

Marco Polo describes the mode followed in the days of Kublai

khan : ” It is the custom for every burgess of the city, and

in fact for every description of person in it, to write over his

door his own name, the name of his wife, and those of his children,

his slaves, and all the inmates of his house, and also the number of animals that he keeps. And if any one dies in the house, then the name of that person is erased, and if a child is born its name is added. So in this way the sovereign is able to know exactly the population of the city. And this is the practice throughout all Manzi and Cathay.” ‘ This custom was observed long before the Mongol conquest, and is followed at present ; so that it is perhaps easier to take a census in China than in most European countries.

The law upon this subject is contained in Sees. LXXV. and

‘ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vul. II., p. 152.

LXXVI. of the statutes. It enacts various penalties for not

registering the members of a family, and its provisions all go to

show that the people are desirous rather of evading the census

than of exaggerating it. When a family has omitted to make

any entry, the head of it is liable to be punished with one hundred

blows if he is a freeholder, and with eighty if he is not.

If the master of a family has among his household another distinct family whom he omits to register, the punishment is the same as in the last clause, with a modification, according as the unregistered persons and family are relatives or strangers.

Persons in government employ omitting to register their families, are less severely punished. A master of family failing to register all the males in his household who are lia1)le to public service, shall be punished with from sixty to one hundred blows,

according to the demerits of the ofPence ; this clause was in

effect repealed, when the land tax was substituted for the capitation

tax. Omissions, from neglect or inadvertency to register

all the individuals and families in a village or town, on the part

of the headmen or government clerks, are punishable with

different degrees of severity. All persons whatsoever are to

be registered according to their accustomed occupations or professions,

whether civil or military, whether couriers, artisans,

physicians, asti’ologers, laborers, musicians, or of any other denomination

whatever ; and subterfuges in representing one’s self

as belonging to a profession not liable to public service, are

visited as usual with the bamboo ; persons falsely describing

themselves as belonging to the army, in order to evade public

service, are banished as well as beaten. From these clauses it

is seen that the Manchus have extended the enumeration to

classes M’hich were exempted in the Ilan, Tang, and other

dynasties, and thus come nearer to the actual population.

‘ Penal Code, p. 79, Staunton’s translation.

ITS PROBABLE ACCURACY. 283

” In the Chinese government,” observes Dr. Morrison, ” there appears great regularity and system. Every district has its appropriate officers, every street its constable, and every ten houses their tything man. Thus they have all the requisite means of ascertaining the population with considerable accuracy. Every family is required to have a board always hanging up in the house, and ready for the inspection of authorized officers,

on which the names of all persons, men, women, and children,

in the house are inscribed. This board is called mun-j>ai

or ‘door-tablet,’ because when there are women and children

within, the officers are expected to take the account from the

board at the door. Were all the inmates of a family faithfully

inserted, the amount of the population would, of course, be

ascertained with great accuracy. But it is said that names are

sometimes omitted through neglect or design ; others think

that the account of persons given in is generally correct.”

The door-tablets are sometimes pasted on the door, thus serving

as a kind of door-plate ; in these cases correctness of enumeration

is readily secured, for the neighbors are likely to know

if the record is below the truth, and the householder is not

likely to exaggerate the taxable inmates under his roof. I have

read these inun-jMil on the doors of a long ro\v of houses ; they

were pi-inted blanks filled in, and then pasted outside for thejy<;o-

Mah or tithing man to examine. Both Dr. Morrison and his

son, than whom no one has had better opportunities to know the

true state of the ease, or been more desirous (^f dealing fairly

with the Chinese, regarded the censuses given in the General

Statistics as more trustworthy than any other documents available.

In conclusion, it may be asked, are the results of the enumeration

of the people, as contained in the statistical works published

by the government, to be rejected or doubted, therefore,

because the Chinese officers do not wish to ascertain the exact

population ; or because they are not capable of doing it ; or,

lastly, because they wish to impose upon foreign powers by an

arithmetical array of millions they do not possess ? The question

seems to hang upon this trilemma. It is acknowledged

that they falsify or garble statements in a manner calculated to

throw doubt upon everything they write, as in the reports of

victories and battles sent to the Emperor, in the memorials upon

the opium trade, in their descriptions of natural objects in

books of medicine, and in many other things. But the question

is as applicable to China as to France : is the estimated population of France in 1801 to be called in question, because the Moniteur gsive false accounts of Napoleon’s battles in 18131

It would be a strange combination of conceit and folly, for a

ministry composed of men able to carry on all the details of a

complicated government like that of China, to systematically

exaggerate the population, and then proceed, for more than a

century, with taxation, disbursements, and official appointments,

founded upon these censuses. Somebody at least must know

them to be worthless, and the proof that they were so, must,

one would think, ere long Jbe apparent. The provinces and

departments have been divided and subdivided since the Jesuits

made their survey, because they were becoming too densely

settled for the same officers to rule over them.

Still less will any one assert that the Chinese are not capable

of taking as accurate a census as they are of measuring distances,

or laying out districts and townships. Errors may be

found in the former as well as in the latter, and doubtless are

so ; for it is not contended that the four censuses of 1711, 1Y53,

1792, and 1812 are as accurate as those now taken in England,

France, or the United States, but that they are the best data

extant, and that if they are rejected we leave tolerable evidence

and take up with that which is doubtful and suppositive. The

censuses taken in China since the Christian era are, on the

whole, more satisfactory than those of all other nations put

together up to the Reformation, and further careful research

will no doubt increase our respect for them.

Ere long we may be able to traverse a census in its details of

record and deduction, and thus satisfy a reasonable curiosity,

especially as to the last reported total after the carnage of the

rebellion. On the other hand, it may be stated that in the last

census, the entire population of Manchuria, Koko-nor, 111, and

Mongolia, is estimated at only 2,107,286 persons, and nearly all

the inhabitants of those vast regions are subject to the Emperor.

The population of Tibet is not included in any census,

its people not being taxable. It is doubtful if an enumeration

of any part of the extra provincial territory has ever been

taken, inasmuch as the Mongol tril)es, and still less the TTsbeck

or other Moslem races, are unused to such a thing, and would

EVIDENCES IN FAVOR OF THE CENSUS, 28,”)

not be nnnibered. Yet, the Chinese cannot be eliarged with

exaggeration, when good judges, as Klaproth and others, reckon

the whole at between six and seven millions ; and Khoten alone,

one author states, has three and a half millions. No writer of

importance estimates the inhabitants of these regions as high

as thirty millions— as does 11. Mont. Martin—which would be

more than ten to a square mile, excluding Gobi ; while Siberia

(though not so well peopled) has only 3,611,300 persons on an

area of 2,649,600 square miles, or 1^ to each square mile.

The reasons just given why the Chinese desire posterity are

not all those which have favored national increase. The uninterrupted

peace’ which the country enjoyed between the years

1700 and 1850 operated to greatly develop its resources. Every

encouragement has been given to all classes to multiply and

fill the land. Polygamy, slavery, and prostitution, three social

evils which check increase, have been circumscribed in their

effects. Early betrothment and poverty do much to prevent

the first ; female slaves can be and are usually married ; while

public prostitution is reduced by a separation of the sexes and

early marriages. No fears of overpassing the supply of food

restrain the people from rearing families, though the Emperor

Kienlung issued a proclamation in 1793, calling upon all ranks

of his subjects to economize the gifts of heaven, lest, erelong,

the people exceed the means of subsistence.

It is difficult to see what this or that reason or objection has to do with the subject, except where the laws of population are set at defiance, which is not the case in China. Food and work, peace and security, climate and fertile soil, not universities or

steamboats, are the encouragements needed for the multiplication

of mankind ; though they do not have that effect in all

countries (as in Mexico and Brazil), it is no reason why they

should not in others. There are grounds for believing that not

more than two-thirds of the whole population of China were

included in the census of 1711, but that allowance cannot be

made for Ireland in 1785 ; and consequently, her annual percentage

of increase, up to 18-41, would then be greater than

China, during the forty-two years ending with 1753. McCulloch

quotes De Guignes approvingly, but the Frenchman takes the rough estimate of 333,000,000 given to Macartney, which is less trustworthy than that of 307,407,200, and compares it with Grosier’s of 157,343,975, which is certainly wrong through his misinterpretation. De Guignes proceeds from the data in his possession in 1802 (which were less than those now available), and from his own observations in travelling through the country in 179G, to show the improbability of the estimated population.

But the observations made in journeys, taken as were those of the English and Dutch embassies, though they passed through some of the best provinces, cannot be regarded as good evidence against official statistics.

“Would any one suppose, in travelling from Boston to Chatham,

and then from Albany to Buffalo, along the railroad, that

Massachusetts contained, in 1870, exactly double the population

on a square mile of New York ? So, in going from Peking to

Canton, the judgment which six intelligent travellers might

form of the population of China could easily be found to differ

by one-half. De Guignes says, after comparing China with

Holland and France, ” All these reasons clearly demonstrate

that the population of China does not exceed that of other

countries ;” and such is in truth the case, if the kind of food,

number of crops, and materials of dress be taken into account.

His remarks on the population and productiveness of the country are, like his whole work, replete with good sense and candor; but some of his deductions would have been different, had he

been in possession of all the data since obtained.’ The discrepancies

between the different censuses have been usually considered

a strong internal evidence against them, and they should receive

due consideration. The really difficult point is to fix the

percentage that must be allowed for the classes not included as

taxable, and the power of the government to enumerate those

who wished to avoid a census and the subsequent taxation.

After all these reasons for receiving the total of 1812 as the

best one, there are, on the other hand, two principal objections

against taking the Chinese census as altogether tinistworthy.

‘ Voyages a Peking, Tome III. , pp. 55-80.

POSSIBILITIES OF ERROR. 287

The first is the enormous averages of 850, 705, and 071 inhabitants on a square mile, severally apportioned to Kiangsu, Xganliwui, and Cliehkiang, or, what is perhaps a fairer calculation, of 458 persons to the nine eastern provinces. Whatever amount of circumstantial evidence may be brought forward in confirmation of the census as a whole, and explanation of the mode of taking it, a more positive proof seems to be necessary before giving implicit credence to this result. Such a population on such an extensive area is marvellous, notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, facilities of navigation, and salubrity of the

climate of these regions, although acknowledged to be almost

unequalled. While we admit the full force of all that has been

urged in support of the census, and are willing to take it as the

best document on the subject extant, it is desirable to have

proofs derived from personal observation, and to defer the settlement

of this question until better opportunities are afforded.

So high an average is, indeed, not without example. Captain

Wilkes ascertained, in 1840, that one of the islands of the Fiji

group supported a population of over a thousand on a square

mile. On Lord North’s Island, in the Pelew group, the crew

of the American whaler Mentor ascertained there were four

hundred inhabitants living on half a square mile. These, and

many other islands in that genial clime, contain a population

far exceeding that of any large country, and each separate community

is obliged to depend M’holly on its own labor. They

cannot, however, be cited as altogether parallel cases, though if

it be true, as Barrow says, ” that an acre of cotton will clothe

two or three hundred persons,” not much more land need be

occupied with cotton or mulberry plants, for clothing in China,

than in the South Sea Islands.

The second objection against receiving the result of the census

is, that we are not well informed as to the mode of enumerating

the people by families, and the manner of taking the account,

when the patriarch of two or three generations lives in

a hamlet, with all his children and domestics around him. Two

of the provisions in Sec. XXY. of the Code^ seem to be designed

for some such state of society ; and the liability to underrate

the males fit for public service, when a capitation tax was

ordered, and to overrate the inmates of such a house, when the head of it might suppose he would thereby receive increased aid from government when calamity overtook him, are equally apparent.

The door-tablet is also liable to mistake, and in shops and workhouses, where the clerks and workmen live and sleep on the premises, it is not known what kind of report of families the assessors make. On these important points our present information is imperfect, while the evident liability to serious error in the ultimate results makes one hesitate. The Chinese may have taken a census satisfactory’ for their purposes, showing

the number of families, and the a^•erage in each ; but the point

of this objection is, that ^ve do not know how the families aie

enumerated, and therefore are at fault in reckoning the individuals.

The average of persons in a household is set down at five

by the Chinese, and in England, in 1831, *t was 4.7, but it is

probably less than that in a thickly settled country, if every

married couple and their children be taken as a family, whether

living by themselves, or grouped in patriarchal hamlets.

Ko one doubts that the population is enormous, constituting

by far the greatest assemblage of human beings using one speech

ever congreo ated under one monarch. To the merchants and

manufacturers of the West, the determination of this question

is of some importance, and through them to their governments.

The political economist and philologist, the naturalist and geographer,

have also greater or less degrees of interest in the

contemplation of such a people, iiduibiting so beautiful and feitile

a country. But the Christian philanthropist tui-ns to the

consideration of this subject with the liveliest solicitude ; for if

the weight of evidence is in favor of the highest estimate, he

feels his responsibility increase to a painful degree. The danger

to this people is furthermore greatly enhanced by the 0})ium

traffic—a trade which, as if the Rivers Phlegethon and Lethe

were united in it, carries fire and destruction wherever it flows,

and leaves a deadly forgetfulness wherever it has passed. Let

these facts appeal to all calling themselves Christians, to send

the antidote to this baleful drug, and diffuse a knowledge of the

principles of the Gospel among them, thereby placing life as

well as death before them.

REVENUE OF THE EMPIRE. 289

If the population of the Empire is not easily ascertained, a satisfactory account of the public revenue and expenditures is still more difficult to obtain ; it possesses far less interest, of course, in itself, and in such a country as China is subject to many variations. The market value of the grain, silk, and other products in which a large proportion of the taxes are paid, varies from year to year; and although this does not materially affect the government which receives these articles, it complicates the subject very much when attempting to ascertain the real taxation. Statistics on these subjects are only of recent date in Europe, and should not yet be looked for in China, drawn up with much regard to truth. The central government requires each province to support itself, and furnish a certain surplusage for the maintenance of the Emperor and his court; but it is well known that his Majesty is continually embarrassed for the want of funds, and that the provinces do not all supply enough revenue to meet their own outlays.

The amounts given by various authors as the revenue of

China at different times, are so discordant, that a single glance

shows that they were obtained from partial or incomplete returns,

or else refer only to the surplusage sent to the capital.

De Guignes remarks very truly, that the Chinese are so fully persuaded of the riches, power, and resources of their country, that a foreigner is likely to receive different accounts from every

native he asks ; but there appears to be no good reason why the

government should falsify or abridge their fiscal accounts. In

1587, Trigault, one of the French missionaries, stated the revenue

at only tls. 20,000,000. In 1655, Xieuhoff reckoned it at

tls. 108,000,000. About twelve years after, Magalhaens gave

the treasures of the Emperor at $20,423,962 ; and Le Comte,

about the same time, placed the revenue at $22,000,000, and

both of them estimated the receipts from rice, silk, etc., at

$30,000,000, making the whole revenue previous to Kanghi’s

death, in 1721, between fifty and seventy millions of dollars.

Barrow reckoned the receipts from all sources in 1796 at

tls. 198,000,000, derived from a rough estimate given by the

commissioner who accompanied the embassy. Sir George

Staunton places the total sum at $330,000,000 ; of which

$60,000,000 only were transmitted to Peking. Medhurst,

Vol. T.—19.

drawing his iiiforuiation from original sources, thus states the

principal items of the receipts :

Land taxes in money,)

( Tie. 3I,745,9()6 valued at $42,327,954

Land taxes in grain, }- sent to Peking, ^ Shih 4,2:30,’.)57 ” 12,692,871

Custom and transit duties, ) ( Tls. 1,480,997 ” 1,974,662

Land taxes in money, l kent in Drovinces ‘ ”^^«- 28,705,125 ” 38,373,500

Grain, ( ^^P’^^P’^*”‘^””®^

1 Shih 31,596,569 ” 105,689,707

$200,958,694

The shih of rice is estimated at $3, but this does not include

the cost of transportation to the capital.’ At $200,000,-

000, the tax received by government from each person on an

average is about sixty cents ; Barrow estimates the capitation

at about ninety cents. The account of the revenue in taels

from each province given in the table of population on page

264, is extracted from the Hed Mooh for 18-40 ; ” the account

of the revenue in rice, as stated in the official documents

for that year, is 4,114,000 shih, or about five hundred and

fifty millions of pounds, calling each shUi a pecul. The

manner in wdiich the various items of the revenue are divided

is thus stated for Kwangtung, in the Ited Booh for 1842 :

Taels.

Land tax in money 1,264,304

Pawnl)rokers’ taxes 5,990

Taxes at the frontier and on transportation 719,307

Retained 339,143

Miscellaneous sources 59,530

Salt department (gabel) 47,510

Revenue from customs <at Canton 43,750

Other stations iu the province 53,670

2,533,204

This is evidently only the sum sent to the capital from this

province, ostensibly as the revenue, and which the provincial

treasury must collect. The real receipts from this province or

any other cannot well be ascertained by foreigners ; it is, however,

known, that in former years, the collector of customs at

Canton was obliged to remit annually from eight hundred

thousand to one million three hundred thousand taels, and

‘ The fihih, says Medhurst, is a measure of grain containing 3,460 English

cubic inches. China : Its State and Prospects, p. 68. London, 1838.

* Aiinalea de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 440.

SOURCES AND AMOUNT OF REVENUE. 291

the gross receipts of bis office were not far from three millions

of taels.’ This was then the richest collectorate in the

Empire ; hut since the foreign trade at the open ports has been

placed under foreign supervision, the resoui’ces of the Empire

have been better reported. A recent analysis of the sources of

revenue in the Eighteen Provinces has been furnished by the

eustoms service ; it places them under different headings from

the preceding list, though the total does not materially differ.

Out of this whole amount the sum derived from the trade in

foreign shipping goes most directly to the central exchequer.

Taels.

Land tax in money 18,000,000

Li-kin or internal excise on goods 20,000,000

Import and export duties collected by foreigners 12,000,000

Import and export duties on native commerce 3,000,000

Salt gabel 5,000,000

Sales of offices and degrees 7,000,000

Sundries „ 1,400,000

Amount paid in silver 66,400,000

Land tax paid in produce 13,100,000

79,500,000

De Guignes has examined the subject of the revenue with

his usual caution, and bases his calculations on a proclamation

of Kienlung in 1777, in which it was stated that the total income

in bullion at that period was tls. 27,967,000.

Taels.

Income in money as above 27,967,000

Equal revenue in kind from grain 27,967,000

Tax on the second crop in the southern provinces 21 ,800,000

Gabel, coal, transit duties, etc 6,479,400

Customs at Canton. .’. 800,000

Revenue from silk, porcelain, varnish, and other manufactures.. 7,000,000

Adding house and shop taxes, licenses, tonnage duties, etc 4,000,000

Total revenue 89,713,400

The difference of about eighty millions of dollars between

this amount and that given by Medhurst, will not surprise one

who has looked into this perplexing matter. All these calculations

are based on approximations, which, although easily made

‘ Chinese Commercial Guide, 2d edition, 1842, p. 143.

up, cannot be verified to onr satisfaction ; but all agree in placing

the total amount of revenue below that of any European

government in proportion to the population. In 1823, a paper

M-as published by a graduate uj^on the fiscal condition of the

country, in which he gave a careful analysis of the receij)ts and

disbursements. P. P. Thoms translated it in detail, and summarized

the former under three heads of taxes reckoned at

tls. 33,327,056, rice sent to Peking 0,34(5,438, and supplies to

army 7,227,300—in all tls. 46,900,854. Out of the first snni

tls. 24,507,933 went to civilians and the army, leaving tls. 5,819,-

123 for the Peking government, and tls. 3,000,000 for the Yellow

Piver repairs and Yuen-ming Palace. The resources of the

Empire this writer foots up at tls. 74,461,633, or just one-half

of what Medhurst gives. The extraordinary sources of revenue

which are resorted to in time of war or bad harvests, are sale of

oflSce and honors, temporary increase of duties, and demands

for contributions from wealthy merchants and landholders. The first is the most fruitful source, and nniy be regarded rather as a permanent than a temporary expediency employed to make

up deficiencies. The mines of gold and silver, pearl fisheries in

Manchuria and elsewhere, precious stones brought from 111 and

Ivhoten, and other localities, furnish several millions.

The expenditures, almost every year, exceed the revenue, but

how the deficit is supplied does not clearly appear ; it has been sometimes drawn from the rich by force, at other times made good by paltering with the currency, as in 1852-55, and again by reducing rations and salaries. In 1832, the Emperor said the excess of disbursements was tls. 28,000,000 ;

‘ and, in 1836, the defalcation was still greater, and oflfices and titles to the amount of tls. 10,000,000 were put up for sale to supply it.

This deficiency has become more and more alarming since the drain of specie annually sent abroad in payment for opium has been increased by military exactions for suppressing the lebellion up to 1867. At that date the Empire began to recuperate.

‘ Chinese Rejiositorij, Vol. I., p. 159.

PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. 293

The principal items of the expenditure are thus stated by De Guignes:

Taels,

Salary of civil and military officers, a tithe of the impost on lands. 7,773,500

Pay of 00(),()U0 infantry, three taels per month, half in money and

half in rations •21,G00,()()&

Pay of 242,000 cavalry, at four taels jjer month 11,010,000

Mounting the cavalry, twenty taels each 4,840,000

Uniforms for both arms of the service, four taels 3,308,000

Arms and ammunition 842,000

Navy, revenue cutters, etc 13,500,000

Canals and transportation of revenue 4,000,000

Forts, artillery, and munitions of war 3,800,000

71,339,500

This, according to his calculation, shows a surplus of nearly twenty millions of taels every year. But the outlays for quelling insurrections and transporting troops, deficiency from bad harvests, defalcation of officers, payments to the tribes and princes in Mongolia and 111, and other unitsual demands, more than exceed Ihis surplus. In 1833, the Peking Gazette contained an elaborate paper on the revenue, proposing various ways and means for increasing it. The author, named Xa, says

the income from land tax, the gabel, customs and transit duty,

does not in all exceed forty millions of taels, while the expenditures

should not much transcend thirty in years of peace.* This

places the budget much lower than other authorities, but the

censor perhaps includes only the imperial resources, though the

estimate would then be too high. The pay and equipment of

the troops is the largest item of expenditure, and it is probable

that here the apparent force and pay are far too great, and that

reductions are constantly made in this department by compelling

the soldiers to depend more and more for support upon

the plats of land belonging to them. It is considered the best

evidence of good government on the part of an officer to render

his account of the revenue satisfactorily, but from the injudicious

system which exists of combining fiscal, legislative, and

judicial functions and control in the same person, the temptations

to defraud are strong, and the pecuhitions proportionabl}’ great.

The salaries of officers, for some reasons, are placed so low as

‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 481.

to prove that the legal allowances were really the nominal incomes,

and the sums set against their names in the lied Book

as y<-ing tlen, or anti-extortion perquisites (lit., ‘ nourishing

frugality ‘), are the salaries.. That of a governor-general is

from 15,000 to 25,000 taels for the latter, and only ISO or 200

taels for the legal salary ; a governor gets 15,0UO when he is

alone, and 10,000 or 12,000 when under a governor-general ; a

treasurer from 4,500 to 10,000 ; a judge from 3,000 to 8,000 ;

a prefect from 2,0(»0 to 4,5U0 ; district nuigistrates from 700 to 1,000, according to the onerousness of the post ; an intendant from 3,000 to 4,500 ; a literary chancellor from 2,000 to 5,000 ; and military men from 4,0(»0 taels down to 100 or 150 per annum. The perquisites of the highest and lowest officers are disproportionate, for the people prefer to lay their important cases before the highest courts at once, in order to avoid the expense of passing through those of a lower grade. The personal disposition of the functionary modifies the exactions lie makes upon the people so much, that no guess can be made as to the amount.

The land tax is the principal resource for the revenue in rural districts, and this is well understood by all parties, so that there is less room for exactions. The land tax is from 1^ to 10 cents a inao (or from 10 to QQ cents an acre), according to the quality of the land, and difficulty of tillage ; taking the average at 25 cents an acre, the income from this source would be up- M^ard of 150 millions of dollars. The clerks, constables, lictors, and underlings of the courts ..ud prisons, are the “claws” of their superiors, as the Chinese aptly call them, and perform most of their extortions, and are correspondingly odious to the people. In toM’ns and trading places, it is easier for the officers to exact in various Avays from wealthy people, than in the country, where rich people often hire bodies of retainers to defy the police, and practise extortion and i-obbery themselves. Like other Asiatic governments, China suffers from the consequences of Ijribery, peculation, extortion, and poorly paid officers, but she has no powerful aristocracy to retain the money thus squeezed out of the people, and ere long it finds its way out of the hands of emperors and ministei’S back into the mass of the people, officers’ salaries and the land-tax. 295

The Chinese believe, however, that the Emperor annually remits such amounts as he is able to collect into Mukden, in time of extremity ; but latterly he has not been able to do so at all, and probably never sent as much to that city as the popular ideas imagine. The sum applied to filling the granaries is much larger, but this popular provision in case of need is really a light draft upon the resources of the country, as it is usually managed. In Canton, there are onh fourteen buildings appropriated to this purpose, few of them more than thirty feet square, and none of them full.