从此走进深度人生 Deep net, deep life.

作者: deepoo

  • 雷日科夫《大国悲剧》

    中文版前言

      苏联的兴亡是20世纪人类历史上影响至巨的大事件,它直接改变了世界地缘政治和国际关系的大格局。如今,苏联的兴亡史、苏联解体的经验教训及其后果,已经成为世界各国的理论工作者研究社会主义前景和实践的重要课题。
      对苏联解体和苏共垮台,我们是感到十分惋惜和遗憾的。上世纪五六十年代,我曾经多次陪同毛泽东、刘少奇、周恩来和邓小平等同志赴苏联访问,苏联领导人赫鲁晓夫等来华访问,我也曾当过翻译。我结交了很多苏联朋友,同他们建立了深厚的友谊。随着苏共和苏联的逝去,这些都已成为如烟的往事。因为这层关系,我对苏联解体之谜格外关注,对新解密的苏联档案和有关当事人的回忆和反思格外留心。
      雷日科夫是苏联解体前的部长会议主席,亲历了苏联解体的全过程,对彼时的真实景况和内幕有非他人能比的了解和洞悉,雷日科夫的著述因而就多了更深一层的价值和意义。雷日科夫这些年写过不少书,但他对此书特别重视。他说:“这本书我写了十多年。”书的主题是苏联解体——这是对他震撼至烈的人生经历。书中除了叙述苏联发生在1989至1991年的各种重大事件外,更重要的是对经验教训的总结和后果的反思。起初作者只是备忘,把一些重要的事件记录下来。可是后来,随着戈尔巴乔夫改革造成的后果日益严重,他和整个俄罗斯思想界一样,开始了对一连串重大历史事件前因后果的深入思考。他把所有这些都写进了此书。他说:“我希望这本书在某种程度上能回答我心灵和理智的呼唤。”
      时间是最好的老师,拉开时间距离的观照可能更为客观、冷静、清明和超脱。痛定思痛之余,15年来,雷日科夫几乎没有一天放松过对这些问题的探讨研究。他曾同数以千计的本国和国外思想精英交换看法,促膝长谈;也曾无数次深入底层,倾听普通人的意见;他还曾阅读了大量的有关著作。此书基本按时间顺序,全面回顾了苏联解体过程中的所有重大事件,并清晰地梳理了它们的来龙去脉。对于苏联解体的原因,说法很多,以致许多资深的研究者也感到扑朔迷离,迷雾重重。但由于雷日科夫当时身处最高决策层,因此对于历史关节点的把握就非常准确,对于此起彼伏的各种事件错综复杂的因果关系,就叙述得更合乎逻辑,也更为清楚。这种系统、明晰、中肯、准确、全面并具有独特视角的叙述,对所有想要深入了解这段历史真相的人,都将是莫大的帮助。
      雷日科夫在叙述这些事件时主要围绕两条线索展开:一条是当时以叶利钦为代表的党内反对派和以所谓“民主派”为代表的社会上的反对派是如何同流合污,一步一步发展起来的;另一条则是苏共领导中以戈尔巴乔夫为首的苏共是如何一步步丧失领导权,而苏联又是如何一步一步解体垮台的。其间各种思潮的来龙去脉,各种社会力量的起伏动荡,各种国际力量的相互作用阐述十分深刻细致,值得深思,足以成为我们的借鉴。
      这本书虽属宏观叙事,但却始终保持了明白晓畅的语言叙事风格,结合了大量历史细节,以亲身经历的具体事实澄清了许多似是而非的传言和关于某些问题的悬案,可谓做到了有根有据,深入浅出。而且事事讲来心平气和,有睿智的长者之风,读起来引人入胜,发人警醒。
      无论如何,苏联解体都是一个“大国悲剧”。前苏联70年的历史已经成为蕴藏丰厚的研究资源。在当前我国思想舆论界掀起一轮“大国研究热”的当口,新华出版社翻译出版这样一部解剖曾经的超级大国苏联崩溃的著作,无疑很有意义。我相信,此书的翻译出版,定能引起专家学者和普通读者的广泛兴趣和关注,定能为我国的社会主义研究和苏联研究以及其他内容广泛的理论研究提供重要参考,并有助于我们进一步坚定社会主义信念,坚定我们走中国特色社会主义道路的信心和决心。
      是为序。
      2007年11月
    (前言作者曾任中共中央办公厅翻译组组长,中共中央书记处书记、中共中央统战部部长,第七届全国政协副主席,民政部副部长;中华慈善总会会长)

      瓦连京·拉斯普京:序言:真相与后果

      事情的真相如何,产生的后果又如何?——这就是本书的内容以及意义之所在。它详细讲述了发生于1989—1991年间导致一个强大国家解体的各种事件;它还讲述了各共和国分裂出去后,这些事件对千百万人民造成的后果。这本书读起来太沉重。特别是对于老一代:他们既是这些事件的见证者,又是参与者。他们不由自主会为所发生的一切感到痛苦和歉疚。

      自从1991年12月苏联彻底瓦解以来,15年过去了。15年来,出现了俄罗斯的新一代。对于他们,这些事件已经成为遥远的往事,遥远得就像1917年的革命,或者17世纪初波兰的入侵。

      看着他们,不由得想起“改革”高潮时期,叶利钦从莫斯科四郊的科学城搬来十多万支持者,拉到练马场①去搞大游行。那可都是些有教养的成年人啊,而且都不是普通人!他们把《真理报》上转载的一篇由意大利记者撰写的关于叶利钦在美国耍酒疯的文章撕烂了,扔在练马场的地上,使出吃奶的力气又是跺又是踩。那可是事关他们包装着民主之父外衣的偶像,是他们的旗帜,是被他们刚刚拥戴起来的领袖啊!那些人已经不可能接受任何别的形象,也不可能听得进任何别的道理了。几天之后,报纸的总编被解职了。直到现在,我的耳中依然回响着那些发言者的叫喊,回响着那充满火药味的、本能的、振振有词的宣泄和咆哮。

      我之所以回忆起这个场景,只是为了展示那些“可诅咒的”日子究竟有着什么样的环境和心理氛围。没错,上帝要惩罚谁,就一定要先把他变成个丧失理智的人。

      尼·伊·雷日科夫在《大国悲剧》里对那些年人民代表大会在事件中所起的负面作用说得很谨慎。作为一名“人民当政机构”的代表,历次代表大会,甚至每一次会议,我都从来没有缺席过,因此有权多说几句:那真是一种魔鬼的智慧啊!它所“创造”出来这个东西,把已经白热化的氛围炒作得更加炽热了。不过,这种白热化氛围当时仅存在于大城市和民族边疆地区,而1989年5—6月间对第一次代表大会所作的两个星期转播,却把仇恨的种子撒遍了每一个角落。“革命者”对此作了精心策划,并有精确分工。不排除大会开幕前一个半月发生的第比利斯事件也是经过精心策划的,它正好安排在这个时间。否则怎么会这么巧,恰好给肆无忌惮地向联盟政权展开进攻提供炮弹呢?这一来全国都可以看到当局有多么软弱,它正在退让。代表大会开幕前是第比利斯事件,而闭幕之后,就在6月份,又发生了血洗费尔干纳事件。1990年1月,巴库再次出现更恐怖的血腥屠杀。而且,紧随从“人民监狱”里跑出来的自发暴徒之后,维尔纽斯又发生了电视塔挑衅事件,还动用了武器,出了人命。俄罗斯发生的一系列血腥事件难道是偶然吗?如果……谁都知道,血总是越搅越腥的。

      代表大会各次会议上出现的野蛮行径简直难以名状。为了让非正义事业取得胜利,不仅要求不讲道德,不知羞耻,还要不顾一切。什么民主!什么文明讨论!那些家伙像划分战斗队似的按地区划分小组,在没有遭遇到任何有效抵抗的情况下,受到初战告捷的鼓舞,在国内外公开的和暗藏的敌人的支持下,经常用打冲锋的办法来抢话筒,对与会代表横加谩骂,而且讲的话常常根本不是冲着人去的,而是冲着电视镜头,更不许别人开口。只要见到谁对他们构成威胁,谁能阻挡他们的那种破坏的杀气,比如像雷日科夫、利加乔夫、罗季奥诺夫上将等,他们就会像一群疯狗似的扑上去,刻意罗织罪名,提供伪证,以最无耻的手段制造事端,布置心理攻势。

      而且,所有的一切立刻就会被各地所效仿,并以同样的方式传入政权机关。

      最后,政权终于被夺走了,那些人成了俄罗斯的主子。

      再后来到了1993年。在炮打白宫之后,这批新主子汇集到克里姆林宫,想再次庆祝选举胜利,但胜利却没有出现。其中的一个,作家卡里亚金,一个最疯狂的家伙,对着镜头喊:“俄罗斯呀,你疯了!”

      而一贫如洗、奄奄一息的俄罗斯只不过是从强加给它的全国规模的疯狂中刚刚开始有那么一点点苏醒。

      本书作者雷日科夫并不是旧制度、旧体制的卫道士。那些东西驾着已经破损的轮子,如今显然是难以前进了。他主张的是一种逐步的、没有痛苦的向现代经营管理的转变。如果能够接受雷日科夫政府制定的纲领,在6—8年期间,而不是像冒险分子所主张的那样在500天之内,把经济转到市场轨道,那么,巨大而沉重的国家大厦就不会垮塌,也不会在自己的废墟中埋进千百万条生命。

      雷日科夫最有权来写这部令人悲痛的回忆录。他不仅有权写,而且生活赋予他责任,一定要把这本书写好。对于发生的一切,他没有任何应该自责的地方。戈尔巴乔夫在难以调和的矛盾中装好人左右逢源;谢瓦尔德纳泽是暗地里,而雅科夫列夫则是公然地同情和帮助拆毁大厦的人;利加乔夫只能被迫对无耻的法西斯指控左推右挡,有一段时间还剥夺了他起积极作用的权利;只有雷日科夫一次又一次地登上讲坛,召唤理智,希望能够制止解体。

      每当民族之间发生冲突的时候,他总是出现在现场。在白热化的费尔干纳,他把成千上万的土耳其族梅斯赫蒂人从死神手中抢夺出来,用飞机把他们送往俄罗斯;他以最快的方式调派空运和陆运工具,从巴库运送抢救出来的亚美尼亚人和俄罗斯人。在本书中,20世纪80年代末、90年代初的悲惨事件以完整的逻辑展现出来。苏联解体,没有赢家,无论高加索,还是波罗的海沿岸,无论乌克兰,还是亚细亚“腹地”,哪里都没有和平,没有幸福。有些人妄自尊大,自我吹嘘,但伴之而来的必然是软弱无力;有些人在西方面前卑躬屈膝,自贬为无足轻重的臣属之国,前头的苦头还有得吃;还有一种人怎么也找不到自己合适的位置。除了白俄罗斯和吉尔吉斯斯坦的部分地区,到处都在清除俄语,就像是俄语也成了俄罗斯不讨人喜欢的代理人。这些人原本是在俄罗斯羽翼下成长起来的,但却说什么也消停不下来,说什么也舍不得停止吹胡子瞪眼睛:“哼!怎么会有股俄国味儿?”——而且,这股劲头在俄罗斯本土居然也非常盛行。

      于是,雷日科夫又像是一个中世纪的骑士,这回是冲过去保卫俄语,保卫由于肢解派的意愿而流落“异国他乡”的千百万我们的同胞。不过,有些人还是不愿接受真理。但是,愿意也罢,不愿也罢,该说的他照样要说。缩头缩脑躲进掩体的事他永远做不来。
    (序言作者为俄罗斯作家)

    历史不过是时代的“人质”

      具有划时代意义的重大历史事件,其诞生和发展常使我想起一条河。人类生活的变化就跟一条河一样,有它的起源,有它的主河道,还有先后流入主河道的各条支流。它们把这条河变得越来越宽,越来越深,但同时也带来了一些有害的杂质。生活之流也像这条河一样,它逐渐积蓄着力量,临到末了,则或是由于以前取得的成果得到革新和改善而为人们带来欢乐,或是由于引发彻底毁灭而为人们带来悲哀。

      苏联人民也曾有过类似的经验。自从统一国家毁灭以来,15年间发表了无数回忆录,出现了无数分析事件原委的著作。对于种种事件带来的后果、实现的手段、产生的原因以及未来生活的前景,每个人都有着自己的解释。

       历史不过是时代的“人质”。人们往往只是简单地抄写历史,目的不外乎是再一次取媚于新一代统治者。但历史总有说出真相的一天。

      动笔之始,我还得提起一个现在说来已经是60年前的文件——那就是美国中央情报局局长艾伦·杜勒斯当着美国总统杜鲁门在国际关系委员会上发表的一篇演说。1945年,他就已经明确地提出了瓦解苏联的目的、任务和手段:

      战争将要结束,一切都会有办法弄妥,都会安排好。我们将倾其所有,拿出所有的黄金,全部物质力量,把人们塑造成我们需要的样子,让他们听我们的。

      人的脑子,人的意识,是会变的。只要把脑子弄乱,我们就能不知不觉改变人们的价值观念,并迫使他们相信一种经过偷换的价值观念。用什么办法来做?我们一定要在俄罗斯内部找到同意我们思想意识的人,找到我们的同盟军。

      一场就其规模而言无与伦比的悲剧——一个最不屈的人民遭到毁灭的悲剧——将会一幕接一幕地上演,他们的自我意识将无可挽回地走向消亡。比方说,我们将从文学和艺术中逐渐抹去他们的社会存在,我们将训练那些艺术家,打消他们想表现或者研究那些发生在人民群众深层的过程的兴趣。文学,戏剧,电影——一切都将表现和歌颂人类最卑劣的情感。我们将使用一切办法去支持和抬举一批所谓的艺术家,让他们往人类的意识中灌输性崇拜、暴力崇拜、暴虐狂崇拜、背叛行为崇拜,总之是对一切不道德行为的崇拜。在国家管理中,我们要制造混乱和无所适从……

      我们将不知不觉地,但积极地和经常不断地促进官员们的恣意妄为,让他们贪贿无度,丧失原则。官僚主义和拖沓推诿将被视为善举,而诚信和正派将被人耻笑,变成人人所不齿和不合时宜的东西。无赖和无耻、欺骗和谎言、酗酒和吸毒、人防人赛过惧怕野兽、羞耻之心的缺失、叛卖、民族主义和民族仇恨,首先是对俄罗斯人民的仇恨——我们将以高超的手法,在不知不觉间把这一切都神圣化,让它绽放出绚丽之花……只有少数人,极少数人,才能感觉到或者认识到究竟发生了什么。但是我们会把这些人置于孤立无援的境地,把他们变成众人耻笑的对象;我们会找到毁谤他们的办法,宣布他们是社会渣滓。我们要把布尔什维克主义的根挖出来,把精神道德的基础庸俗化并加以清除。我们将以这种方法一代接一代地动摇和破坏列宁主义的狂热。我们要从青少年抓起,要把主要的赌注押在青年身上,要让它变质、发霉、腐烂。我们要把他们变成无耻之徒、庸人和世界主义者。我们一定要做到。

      40年后,一切果然这样发生了。西方,特别是美国,消灭苏维埃国家的目标果然完全实现了。不过,我当然绝不会以为,这样一个大国的悲剧性解体能够仅仅发生在外部因素的影响之下。如果内部没有一个实际上完全奉行苏联的敌人所树立的目标的“第五纵队”,而只靠外部力量,谁也不能把我们国家怎么样。这只要回想一下俄罗斯千百年来的历史,包括卫国战争那悲惨的时光和最后的胜利结局,就可以一目了然。

      世界上最好的老师就是生活本身。生活告诉我们,所谓的民主变革实际上给我们带来了什么,特别是在千百万人民的社会经济地位方面。毫不奇怪,许多人都在越来越经常地问自己:难道真的需要这场改革吗?难道它真的是历史的必需和必然吗?而且,许多人很自然地怀着一种尊敬的心情回想起苏联时代——日子过得虽不富裕,但劳动、休息、教育、医疗服务、必要的社会福利等方面都能得到可靠的保障。

      人们终于明白,原来第一拨“民主派”是厚颜无耻地欺骗了他们。那些家伙曾许诺很快就会过上天堂般的日子,而这些玫瑰色的甜言蜜语现已犹如朝雾般消散。还有一些人,他们在人民中只占很小一部分,现在要什么有什么,而且全是过去连想都不敢想的东西。不过这些东西实际上是直接从绝大多数人手里抢过来的。所以,许多人对“改革”的态度绝对是负面的。这是一个不得不承认的事实,它的悲惨之处更在于,从根本上来说,它是一种内心深处的迷失,而大众传媒却用尽了浑身解数来支持这种迷失。

      问题在于,在许多人的眼里,戈尔巴乔夫的“改革”也好,盖达尔—丘拜斯—叶利钦的“激进改革”也好,它们都汇入了同一的过程,尽管就目的、社会经济内容和政治推动力而言,它们其实是相互对立的东西。他们之间的共同点只有一条,那就是“改革”的失败和垮台创造了消灭苏联和改变苏联社会政治制度的有利条件。

      任何一个社会制度,如果能全面发展,经常不断地回应时代的新要求,那它就是一个足够稳定的制度。停滞是制度老化、制度毁灭的前兆。所以,苏联社会根据新时代的要求进行改革,就成为历史的需要和必然。它无疑应该早在几十年之前就开始,如果当时就去完成这样一个复杂的过程,无论是经济条件、社会条件还是其他条件,显然都要有利得多。但正如大家所了解的那样,这一过程直到1985年才到来,而它的道路上铺满的已经不是玫瑰,而是荆棘。我想细述的正是这个问题,即关于“改革”和“改革者”的悲剧,关于我国人民的大悲剧——当时,我身处这些事件的旋涡之中。

    经济:“照着俄罗斯老妈的屁股踹了一脚”

      应当承认,我国在着手改革时,它的领导并没有以应有的方式深入评估进行改革应采取哪些相互联系的必要步骤,以及由此产生的长期后果。我想,说来也真是遗憾,那些指责20世纪80年代改革行动缺乏明确纲领的人是正确的。当然,他们没有考虑必须采取某种决定的具体政治环境,但这一点并不能否定,他们的指责在本质上是正确的。不过以我的观点来看,当时有一点倒是现实的,也是正确的,那就是决定改革从经济开始。其实,戈尔巴乔夫改革的初衷也是要对国家经济做一番改革。

      硬性计划经济体制是上世纪30年代建立的,它顺利完成了工业化任务,并对战胜希特勒德国起到保证作用,使得在难以想象的短时期内恢复国民经济成为可能,而在“冷战”年代,则建立了同西方的军事均势。但生活不会在原地踏步不前,逐渐开始有所感觉:苏联的国民经济还无法完全满足居民日益增长的社会经济需求,也无法解决国家发展所提出的一系列至为重要的任务。

      这就需要找到国民经济运行的更为有效的手段。上世纪60年代中期,苏联部长会议主席柯西金就搞过一次经济改革。但他并未触及社会主义体制的基础,仅仅是把一定的自由下放给企业。当时我是乌拉尔机械厂的总工程师,后来又当上了总经理,我们当时曾感到非常满意。

      总的来说,改革促使第八个五年计划(1966—1970)达到了最高的经济指标。遗憾的是1968年捷克事件之后,柯西金的改革逐渐自生自灭。后来到了勃列日涅夫时期,虽也曾在一定程度上试图对改革加以恢复和完善,却没有取得任何实际成绩。

      到了1983年,新任总书记安德罗波夫公开下达任务,要大家把现在究竟生活在什么社会的问题弄个明白。这是个十分严肃的问题:必须重新判定国内已有制度的本质,它在人类历史上所处的地位。与此同时,安德罗波夫又委托政治局委员戈尔巴乔夫、政治局候补委员多尔吉赫、中央委员会经济工作书记雷日科夫深入研究经济领域出现的局势,并就经济改革提出建议。在两年时间内,我们就这一问题开展的工作吸引了大批学者、专家、生产一线的工作者,并成为1985年戈尔巴乔夫在苏共中央4月全会上作报告的基础。再以后,在整个80年代后半期,苏联政府始终紧张地进行着制订经济改革具体途径和方法的工作。

      为了让经济取得“喘息”机会,需要解决一系列原则性问题。如果对问题的根本加以审视就会发现,首先需要克服的是人与生产手段和劳动成果越来越明显的相离异的现象。由此产生了劳动者对劳动负责、提高劳动效率和质量的动因明显不足。于是又出现了一个问题,就是我们这个社会的所有制及其发展前景的问题。正如所知,我国所有制的基本形式是国有,是全民所有。而且,集体农庄合作社所有制也逐渐具有了国有的特征。考虑到学者们的意见和国外经验,我们认为,在国家手中保持50%—60%的所有权比较合理——这主要是指在国民经济的基础部门以及国防工业部门的企业。其余的50%—40%可以是股份制形式或者个体形式,但不包括土地。宅旁地、别墅用地和菜园果园用地可以除外。在制订方案时,我们特别注意所谓“民营企业”对象,但其所有者只应是集体。

      与这种观点相对立的是自由主义经济学家以及以雅科夫列夫为首的一群政治家们的观点,他们一心为私有制唱赞歌,坚持认为只有私有制才能自然而然地解决国家的所有社会经济问题。

      要想逐步过渡到由国家进行必要调节、以社会为指向的市场经济,过渡纲领的制定者面前还存在着不少复杂的问题:要为我国实现深刻的、内容极其广泛的科技革命创造一切必要条件,要改革价格形成的体制,要改变生产资料生产和生活用品生产的比例关系,扩大生活用品的生产等等。

      总之,在回应时代呼唤的同时,苏联政府从现实的社会经济状况出发,于1989年制订了一个方案,把采取有力措施深化改革同在各个管理层面上审慎行动结合起来。我们在走向市场的同时首先力图稳定社会经济局势,然后再向前进,走向一个更加发达的商品—货币体系。

      有的人号召我们在没有准备的情况下立刻全面投入市场经济的旋涡,并且举历史为例说,欧洲和美国在第二次世界大战后实际实行的也是中央集权的计划经济,但他们却一往无前地勇敢地投入了市场经济。这倒是不错。不过他们具有长期搞市场经济的经验,只是由于战争,才在一定程度上中断了五六年而已。他们即使投身进去也不会被淹没。此外,我还要说,他们在战后根本就没有排斥国家计划因素,而且现在也不排斥,而我们那些刚刚冒出头来的主张市场经济的救世主们——实际上也就是目前我国经济的瞎眼指路人——却一听计划经济就躲得远远的,就像躲瘟疫似的。

      我们的关于过渡到由国家进行必要调节、以社会为指向的市场经济,把居民承受的困难降到最低的建议,遭到了自由派经济学家、政治活动家和其他社会活动家的坚决反对。他们最直接的目的,就是要彻底摧毁当时存在的经济制度。他们同当时相当一部分干部一道,十分顺利地达到了目的。在这群虚伪的家伙身上,有一个细节很说明问题:当时他们没有一个人提到过,“自由主义的改革”将把最严重的考验压到百姓的头上。到了上世纪90年代中期,当他们看到这种改革已不可逆转时,他们这才公开地大声宣扬,说他们再清楚不过,要是照他们的脚本演下去,会对大多数人民和国家带来什么后果。

      随着时间的推移,激进经济改革派行动的荒谬性和破坏性已经暴露无遗。在他们——用自由派一个头头的话来说——“照着俄罗斯老妈的屁股踹了一脚”之后,人民觉醒了。到了今天,所谓的“500天计划”就很难赢得掌声和欢呼了。

      但这个计划的制订者亚夫林斯基、布尔布利斯、费奥多罗夫、扎多尔诺夫等人还是会记得的。他们记得,但他们在想办法让人民忘记。亚夫林斯基在苏联解体后甚至成立了一个党,叫“亚布卢”党。他连续十年宣扬自己的思想,可是却从来没有敢提自己的这个产儿——500天。人们终于咬开了这个苹果,原来里头长了蛆!现在,盖达尔这个经济激进主义的跟屁虫及其同伙居然还有脸在他的研究所里教导我们如何生活。

      这些人干了坏事之后就躲到了一边,听凭国家和人民在艰难困苦中挣扎。

    国内政策:“把苏共闹个天翻地覆”

      1987年末,戈尔巴乔夫和他最亲密的战友们形成了一个坚定的信念:如果脱离政治改革,在经济领域就不可能出现进步的变革。他们的形象说法就是首先一定要“把苏共闹个天翻地覆”。

      客观地说,党内早就出现了变革的必要性。党的确起过伟大的历史作用。在紧张到极点的上世纪30年代,在第二次世界大战迫在眉睫的时刻,在伟大卫国战争岁月,在战后年代以及冷战时期,正是苏共在掌握着全国的命运。如果换了另外一种社会制度,那些年未必就能取得如此巨大的成就。

      可是时代变了,那么当然党的活动也应该出现重大的甚至方向性的变化。在国家的社会经济发展中,负责的主要是政府,所以我认为党应该从直接管理经济的工作中摆脱出来,把这些职能交给立法机关和行政机关。依我的看法,意识形态工作和制订发展战略的工作留给苏共来做比较合理。同时还应该让它从停滞了几十年的理论教条和党务工作实践中解放出来。

      而且,早先的戈尔巴乔夫也是持这种意见的。例如,在苏共中央1988年的2月全会上他就说过:“现在我们已经走到必须改造我们的政治体制的地步了。这当然不是说要取代现行制度,而是要向其中引入质量上全新的结构和成分,要向它提供新的内容和动力……政治体制改革的基本问题涉及党和国家机构功能的划分。在这个问题上还是应该以列宁主义为基础。党的指导和领导作用是社会主义社会发挥作用和发展的必不可少的条件。”

      但是,看看他后来离职后的所作所为,看看他那些公开否定党的言论,不由得要对他的真诚,对他的信念,还有他是否正派的问题,画一个大大的问号。

      1991年8月23日,当蒙羞的苏联总统在72小时软禁后由福罗斯送回来,跑到俄罗斯最高苏维埃的“耻辱讲坛”发表演说时,他还能说一些他信奉社会主义思想,他忠于改革后的党之类的话。可是时间仅仅过了一天,他却……放弃了苏共中央总书记的职责!再就这个问题发表宣言时,他竟然颠三倒四地说,他的责任是像保护国家公民那样保护每一个共产党员免受无根据的法律追究,同时还宣布党自行解散。

      圈圈终于圆上了。这种情况迟早总会发生。戈尔巴乔夫同党分道扬镳了。但为什么他对中央委员会提出的关于苏共自行解散的建议在许多人看来只不过是一个既定事实,这件事至今还是一个谜。我看是潜意识中几十年培养起来的东西起了作用,总相信党的领袖总书记的一切行动不会有错。

      那些日子可是胜利者趾高气扬的日子。趾高气扬的还有一帮立马就倒向他们,倒向权力的人,哪还管这权力究竟是什么权力!见风使舵的人从来就没有自己的信念。看来那些抢到了政权并自称国内唯一民主派的人们,如果他们真是民主派的话,就应该委托同样是“民主”的检察机关,对那些他们认为是70年来把国家搞到丧权辱国一贫如洗地步的人提起公诉才是。难道这些“民主派”不正是自诩为为把我国建成真正法制国家而奋斗的最高尚的战士吗?

      不过这样一来就会出现一个问题:有些人昨天也是共产党员,而且远不是什么党内的小角色,可他们又起过什么作用,该负什么责任呢?是否因此才退而想出了这么一个绝对违反法律,违反民主原则的解散苏共的法令呢?1500万共产党员被排除到了司法之外。看来,当时真没有几家报纸能忍得住不挖苦说,这个命令是叶利钦在过节的时候给倒台的共产党送的一份厚礼。不过他们“忘记”了,几十年来,这个日子可一直是整个国家的节日,是全民族的节日啊!

      苏联共产党曾经是国内改革的倡导者,可是过了5年,它却被赶下了政治舞台,而它的一千好几百万党员当中,竟没有一个人站出来捍卫它,这究竟是怎么搞的呢?

      原来,到了1989年,国内政治局势起了剧烈的变化。夏初召开的苏联第一届人民代表大会,是根据修改后的宪法召开的。在代表大会炽热的气氛中,与苏共的活动相关联的一切重大问题全被“遗忘”了,却提出了许多针对它的批判和严重指责,而且还号召进行报复。在有些发言中,可以感到发言人无论作为一个公民还是一个政治家,都还不够成熟。他们表示,希望能对摆脱了“苏共压迫”的这个国家有所帮助;他们自己还对自己开展公正的批评,揭露党在社会活动中实际存在的问题。不过还有一些则是完全自觉的、专为破坏党的威信而经过精心策划的行动。苏共是通过历史发展而成就为一个强大的政治组织的,它同国家组织已经水乳交融地连为一体。正因为如此,为解体势力的利益而破坏党的威信是一件极其危险的事。但那些导演这一切的人很清楚,为了改变政权和社会制度,必须切断党和国家之间的纽带,因为那是国家赖以存在的基础。

      苏共之所以能走到酿成悲剧的一步,是因为几十年来它把权力视为自己的专利,它已经丧失了现实的日常政治斗争的能力。结果当一个统一的机体丧失了自己最优良的品质——战斗性,自我牺牲精神,无私奉献精神……的时候,它衰退了。

      由于种种原因,苏共丧失了对人民群众的影响力,国内随之开始出现反对立场的社会运动。它们在苏联解体和社会制度解体的过程中起到了非常重要的作用。它们大致可以分为三类:持不同政见者、杂牌军和民主派。也可以把他们的活动看成三次浪潮。

      持不同政见者运动发端于上世纪60年代初,从事的基本是维权活动,他们不同当局合作,但也拒绝使用暴力。他们人数很少,而且分散,组织很差,但引起了西方的注意,并得到国内少部分知识分子的支持。对于这些人来说,要点在于苏联存在着反对派这一事实。在一定条件下,它们可能取得一定的政治分量。

      老一辈可能还记得对持不同政见者的审判。有关这些审判的消息曾为部分人所知晓。主要是通过境外的这个那个之声的无线电广播,其内容是真话假话都有。

      可是到了1986年12月,通过了一项政治议案,取消了对反对派的刑事诉讼。过去的持不同政见者开始走出劳改营和监狱。但他们的运动实际上并没有卷土重来。很多人已经厌倦了“为人权而斗争”,还有一些人则由于在西方有了名气,便跑到国外过起了太平日子。具有讽刺意味的是,实际上持不同政见运动的历史正是在1986年由于对他们停止迫害而画上了句号。

      就在这个时候,国内开始迅速出现各种社会团体,他们的成员被称为杂牌军。这些团体其实没有什么原则。他们当中有的是民主派,有的主张爱国,有的主张无政府主义,有的主张君主主义,有共产党,有社会民主党,还有保守自由派,等等。许多团体的形成不是根据意识形态原则,而是根据活动方向:有的从事环境保护,有的从事古迹保护等等。杂牌军同持不同政见者的不同之处在于它们同当局和平共处,不反对加入国家机构以及其他官方机构如工会、共青团等。但不久许多杂牌军的活动开始具有越来越浓的政治性质。参加杂牌军组织的人以一种特殊的方式“玩大政治”,他们先取得经验,然后就学会了把成千上万的群众带上街头。

      第1章乱自何来大国悲剧——苏联解体的前因后果内部的辩论磨炼了反对派活动家的技巧,培养了未来的政治家、记者、社会活动家。上世纪90年代他们中的一些人成为社会团体、新成立的政治机构、大众传媒的领导人。时至今日,我们也依然能在电视屏幕上和各种政治场合看到这些人的身影。现如今,他们还在“教导”人民在民主变革的条件下应该如何生活。

      这样一来,由于苏共不能按必要方向实现改革,在一个历史造成的极短时期内,酿成了反对派政治运动,而其中的一部分,又自觉或不自觉地促使苏联瓦解,促使当时存在的社会制度消灭。

    对外政策:西方找到了“可以与之打交道的人”

      戈尔巴乔夫与他的前任赫鲁晓夫、勃列日涅夫有所不同,后二者只是在他们在位的后期,才热心投入外交活动,而他却从一开始便乐此不疲。

      戈尔巴乔夫同西方的合作开始于1984年的秋天,当时他作为一个普通的政治局委员,会见了英国首相撒切尔夫人。正如所知,这次会见是由苏联驻加拿大大使雅科夫列夫组织的。未来的总书记在此之前不久认识了雅科夫列夫,由于志同道合,俩人一拍即合。值得注意的是,这次会见的地点不是通常的伦敦政府官邸(唐宁街10号),而是郊区的切克斯别墅,那是个专门用来接待正式访英的外国领导人,首相希望与之推心置腹进行特殊重要谈话的地方。

      实际上这是一次对未来总书记的摸底会见:西方领导人对契尔年科的健康状况了如指掌。会见后撒切尔夫人抛出了一句名言:“这是个可以与之打交道的人……他值得信赖。”这就是这位铁娘子对其他各国同事发出的信号。后来她不无自豪地说:“是我们把戈尔巴乔夫提拔起来当了总书记。”

      1986年10月,在两个月的沉寂之后,里根同意了戈尔巴乔夫的提议:在雷克雅未克同他会见。他们在当地举行了好多个小时的一对一秘密谈判。美国总统需要知道,戈尔巴乔夫是否已经作好牺牲苏联利益、对美国效忠的准备。后来,到了1993年,戈尔巴乔夫在法国撤掉了嘴巴上的岗哨,承认在雷克雅未克会见时“实际上已把苏联交付美国听凭处置”,他说:“雷克雅未克实际上是一场戏……一场重头大戏……我认为,如果没有里根这样强有力的人物,整个过程就不会开始……这次峰会上我们……走得已经那么远,根本就不可能再有回头路。”

      雷克雅未克之后又举行过无数次的会见和谈判。1989年末,当戈尔巴乔夫在马耳他同老布什总统会见的时候,整个移交苏联政治国防阵地的过程已经完成。当时有些快言快语的人和外交官都形象地说,冷战是在地中海暖洋洋的海水中埋葬的。

      戈尔巴乔夫在总书记的位子上坐了6年,同美国总统会见了11次。由于相当程度上绝对单方面的让步,柏林墙垮了,华沙条约、社会主义国家的盟友关系以及苏联本身都垮了。在醉醺醺的叶利钦指挥下奏响的军乐声中,部队满面蒙羞地开出了自己的军事基地。他们无处可去,只好在露天地里支上行军的帐篷栖身。这就是戈尔巴乔夫同他的朋友科尔在阿尔赫兹国家别墅签订协议所导致的可耻结果。

      戈尔巴乔夫—谢瓦尔德纳泽(后者是为他担任外交部长的小伙计)的对外政策使苏联的外交威望一落千丈。结果是几年之内苏联丧失了超级大国的地位,而世界则失去了整个20世纪下半叶赖以顺利维持地缘政治均势的两极体制。如今人类生活在单极世界,占有统治地位的是唯一的一个超级大国——美国,它除了拥有强大的军事和经济力量之外,还拥有为了一己之利企图按自己模式改造世界所有国家的疯狂愿望。

      所以,如果把总书记兼总统戈尔巴乔夫在国际舞台上的活动称之为错误,那实在是太荒谬了。不过他首先满足的是西方的利益,而且总是以牺牲苏联的利益为代价。这一政策不但削弱了他在国际舞台上的地位,而且还使得西方对苏联人民的影响日益加剧,使得苏联国内反苏、反社会主义的力量日趋活跃,最终导致这个国家从地图上消失。

    意识形态:总书记“梦想着要把共产主埋葬”

      “设计师”、“施工队”以及改革的其他意识形态专家们和组织者们都非常清楚地明白,只有大多数或相当一部分社会成员支持改革,我国根本性的经济和政治变革才有可能得以实施。然而到了上世纪80年代,党真正直接依靠工农,并与他们共同组成一支可以说是挟雷霆万钧之力的时代,早已成为遥远而光荣的英雄主义过去。联系逐渐变成形式上的和单方面的东西:总是从上到下、从党到群众,很少有自下而上、从群众到党的事情发生。此外,蓬勃发展的大众传媒开始给予社会精神生活的形成以强大的影响。首先是电视、广播,还有日报、周刊、各种大小杂志。那么,在这些机构工作,决定它们立场的又是些什么人呢?当然是从事脑力劳动的人。这样一来,知识分子就踏上了政治生活的前沿。人民精神生活的“气候”,广大人民群众的社会意识以及公民的政治行为在巨大的乃至后来是起决定作用的程度上,都由这些人来决定。

      要想取得知识分子对改革的支持,就必须保证在国内实行真正的言论自由。

      国家的领导层,包括本书笔者,都赞成社会生活的这种变化:应该向国内的公开性转变,向外部世界开放。我们当中许多人都明白,由于我国历史情况十分复杂,在实施这种变化时要多加小心,权衡利弊,以免国家航船颠覆。不论这只船是什么船,但它毕竟是我们自己的船。既然我们大家都载着自己的欢乐和苦难乘着这艘船航行,总不能让它遭到危险,即便是为了一个更美好的未来。让它连同乘客一道沉向海底总是不行的。

      公开性宣布了,书刊检查制度放松了,后来还完全取消了。“意见多元化”首先立即造成政治和意识形态出版物的大量出现。“大杂志”的印数直线上升。例如,《新世界》的销量竟达到150万份。值得一提的是,在官方书报检查制度已经完全放开的今天这个“民主”时代,该刊2005年的印量也不过8000份。

      我还记得那些年政府如何像发了疯似的想方设法为报纸杂志扩大纸张供应。不得不大量提高从芬兰等国进口纸张的数量。既然我们认为自由发表意见的路线对头,那就应该竭尽全力,保证出版部门有纸张来印刷自己的东西,其中也包括印反政府的文章。现在根据我得到的消息,这样的问题是不存在了。如果你有钱,那就去买纸,就去印刷,如果没有,那你就关门。

      1986年中央的两家刊物换了领导。他们的头头被换成了自由共产主义色彩的“60年代人”。在批评过去以及批评当时的“停滞不前的官僚”方面,以雅科夫列夫为首的《莫斯科新闻报》和以柯罗季奇为首的《星火杂志》表现尤为突出。

      我想起了把柯罗季奇任命为《星火杂志》主编的那段往事。在这之前,他工作和生活在乌克兰。讨论候选人的时候,有些同志由于对柯罗季奇很了解,反对把他调到莫斯科来。但利加乔夫作了最后的决定。他以特有的固执一心一意要提拔这个人,认为他肯定能成为一个优秀的改革者。利加乔夫可以理解。我的家庭藏书中有一本未来《星火杂志》主编的书——《仇恨的面孔》,是讲他的美国之行的,其中他鞭笞了美国的种族主义。后来,等到苏维埃政权解体后,他又跑到美国去工作和生活了许多年(其实是躲到那边去了)。可是,在他工作的那所学校,学生和老师又知不知道,这位教授过去是怎样写他们国家的呢?未必清楚!喏,利加乔夫和他的战友们却读过这么一部作品,而它无疑对总编的任命起了作用。这件事我也就是提一下,可以作为一个例证,说明我们的许多“知识分子”思想和良心变得有多快。

      我想,可能正好是公开性大行其道的时候吧。出现了好多“大胆”的电影、戏剧、书籍之类的东西。可以公开讨论的问题范围放得越来越开了。再有就是言论自由的发展——当时有个说法叫“格拉斯诺斯奇”(公开性,全世界几乎所有的字典对这个词都采取了音译的办法)。这些很快就变成了信息的大潮,其中也包括不可信的信息,纯粹是吮吸着手指头生造出来的信息。它们都越来越公开地指向现存的社会和国家制度。为了这一点,首先当然要利用我们生活中的阴暗面。遗憾的是阴暗面在斯大林时期还真不少。当然,从那时起,几十年都过去了,国内好多东西都变了,国家也成了另外一种样子。但过去的那些东西还是成了破坏国家现状的一个武器,而且正如后来所见,很快又成了破坏它未来的武器。

      在推行言论自由的那几年中,人们不是寻找建设性的办法来医治社会疾病,而是利用言论自由来毁灭这个社会。

      可是支持公开性以及其他民主过程的政策却一直没有变。1987年5月,停止了对美国之音以及其他反苏广播电台的干扰;6月,简化我国公民出国手续的决定开始生效。

      1987年11月2日,召开了隆重纪念十月革命70周年的大会。戈尔巴乔夫在会上作报告。他宣称:“苏共对共产主义运动的未来不会有所怀疑。它将取代资本主义……我们正在走向一个新世界——共产主义世界。我们一定把这条路走到底,永不回头!”这些引起暴风雨般欢呼的话语说过仅仅四年,苏联没有了,社会主义没有了,更不必提什么总书记号召的共产主义事业了。他那卑鄙无耻的嘴脸真叫人惊奇:几年之后,他居然又称,自他懂事以来,就一直梦想着要把共产主义埋葬……

      遗憾的是卑鄙无耻毫无原则的不仅是他这一个人。再来看发生得较晚的另外一例——1993年4月叶利钦同文艺界知识分子代表们在大剧院贝多芬厅会见的一幕吧。电视观众看到和听到的是一个怎样的场景啊!他们在高喊:“再加把劲!”“对他们再狠点!”“扭断他们的脖子!”这些喊声竟然成了陷入亢奋状态的“艺术大师中坚”们嘴里最心平气和的语言表现。一方面这说明了他们疯狂的仇恨,另一方面,又说明他们赤裸裸的奴颜婢膝,引得千百万电视观众直想作呕(这是我后来同各种各样的人物经过无数次会见才得知的结论)。那真是一个真实展现自我的好机会。他们果然这样做了!正如已故的老牌剧作家维克托·谢尔盖耶维奇·罗佐夫所言,这种丝毫不加掩饰的奴颜婢膝在我们这一代人当中是绝对见不到的。他们在精神上洗劫了那些对他们寄予信任的人。但在这之前他们早已把自己洗劫一空了。我不想一一列举那些一度曾为大众所尊敬和爱戴的名字,我只想说,他们中的许多人由于不仅在那一天,而且总之是在新环境下突然展现出自己丑陋的政治面貌和道德面貌,因而从人们的心上永远抹去了自己过去的艺术成就。

      总之,在意识形态领域,破坏性倾向战胜了实证主义倾向。这是因为苏共,准确地说,因为它的中央和几任总书记,在整个后斯大林时期一直没有能够对全党和全社会提出要求克服侵蚀党和社会血肉肌体的教条主义的任务(除了安德罗波夫,但他来得及做的只是指出这种必要性)。在这个发生了巨大变化的世界上,在我们国内,教条主义早已不能反映事物的真实状况,而他们却不懂得深入进行科学分析、认真发展建设新型社会的理论和实践的历史必要性。

      戈尔巴乔夫和中央政治局在宣布向公开性、言论自由、全面民主化过渡的同时,并没有把对于从斯大林时期起就在许多方面被《联共(布)党史简明教程》歪曲的党和国家的历史加以科学、客观、慎重地重新审视的主动权抓到自己手上,却把这一极为尖锐的、具有强大震撼力的信息工作交到了自己的潜在敌人手上。那些人后来果然成了公开的敌人,并以此为自己赢得了真理和正义斗士的美称,而且还因此赢得了如果不是带领社会大多数也是带领相当一部分人前进的可能。

      当戈尔巴乔夫陷入政治困境时,对于“民主派”针对领导了这个国家整整70年的苏共所大力展开的常常是诬蔑性的攻击,他们几乎没有做出任何回应。当敌人向苏联和社会主义发起实实在在的进攻时,党的意识形态“机器”竟完全丧失了行动的能力。

      戈尔巴乔夫在号召搞诚实的、公开的政治的同时却在施加各种影响,甚至公然贩卖谎言(例如所谓的《里宾特洛普—莫洛托夫秘密备忘录》、卡廷案件等等)。他所提出的大量口号和纲领都空洞无物,毫无根据,缺乏应有的组织工作。戈尔巴乔夫不懂得:无法兑现的政治许诺,只能是一股破坏力量。

      这一切决定了群众对改革、对党、对戈尔巴乔夫只能是失望,从而也加强了对手的地位。

    民族关系②:竟然成了摧毁苏联的攻城

      20世纪的大部分年月,整个世界都曾以惊奇和赞赏的心情观察着苏联如何解决民族关系问题。可以说,我们的多民族国家似乎已经成了各民族牢不可破友谊的典范。可是,忽然之间,在这块占世界六分之一的土地上,一会儿在波罗的海沿岸地区,一会儿在乌克兰,一会儿格鲁吉亚,一会儿阿塞拜疆,一会儿在中亚的某个加盟共和国,民族主义又再次兽性大发了。这种能够在某种程度上威胁国家安全的大规模现象,在一个强大的国家是无法存在的,可是只要苏联开始衰败,顷刻之间,它就能变成一只摧毁国家的攻城槌。

      在历史上,俄罗斯就是把一块块土地合并入政治经济联盟而形成的。加入的每一个民族,都有自己的文化。共同的国家利益把它们融合到了一起。它们在加入俄罗斯家园之后,共同的职责已不是相互竞争,而是在统一的国家中相互协作。巨大的领土面积、复杂的推动力和地缘政治条件、民族构成的多元化决定了共同的民族利益——必须采取一切手段巩固国家,巩固一切国家机构。它们的责任就在于保证我国领土完整和国家安全,制订可以为大家都接受的多样化的宗教民族文化特色共存的形式。

      在我们国家,俄罗斯人民作为数量最多的民族,为这个成长中的国家支撑着最主要的负担。它是建设和巩固这个国家的最主要的支柱。同时,却并不存在任何专属于俄罗斯族的特权。俄罗斯的任何一个民族,都既不是统治民族,也不是从属民族。

      可是,历史有时就爱这样,它跟我们开了个惊人的玩笑:当各加盟共和国准备退出苏联之时以及它们退出之后,有些国家的民族主义甚至是地方沙文主义的褐色之花就怒放起来了。众所周知,以波罗的海沿岸地区的几个共和国为例,那里的沙文主义者为了推行民族歧视政策,或者简直就是想要直接把居民中的俄罗斯族从当地排挤出去,都挖空心思使用了一些什么样的手段哪!而当那些国家存在于苏联内部的时候,这些俄罗斯人又为国家的发展作过多少贡献啊!

      同时,遗憾的是,在俄罗斯内部,当“自由民主派”当权之后,也先后出现了一个个沙文主义集团,更有甚者,还有大行法西斯之道的社会渣滓——他们用民族主义的口号,打着关怀俄罗斯人民利益的旗号,来掩饰自己内心的贫乏和野蛮。这在很大程度上是由于把政权抢夺到手的那些人往好里说都是西方的思想附庸,实际都是直接听命于西方的走狗,他们决心把俄罗斯交付西方听凭宰割。这样的心理以及相应的实践活动,一定会产生相反的一面——赤裸裸的、攻击性极强的民族主义。这是在本质上同真正的爱国主义完全相对立的东西。何况,在上世纪90年代,反爱国主义简直都已经成了叶利钦政权的招牌。时时刻刻都会有人把脏水往爱国主义和爱国主义者头上泼,有的人使出浑身解数,为的就是要把这些概念彻底消灭,尤其是在年轻一代的眼里。当局努力用他们的靴底,去践踏人民记忆中最神圣的事件、日期,甚至连伟大卫国战争胜利日也不放过。这一切在一定程度上造成了反弹,不过当然是畸形的反弹,那就是出现了民族主义的情绪和极端主义组织。

      在民族主义和沙文主义这样的概念同爱国主义的概念之间,人的意识中并不是任何时候都能很清楚地划出一条界线,更何况年轻人。

      什么是全民爱国主义?事实上伟大卫国战争对此已经作出了最令人信服的回答。难道说没有爱国主义人们能忍受那种可怕的损失,能克服那种生活的艰难困苦,直至胜利吗?不能的!

      最近几年来,我国这方面情况正在好转。在前线和后方参与过斗争的老战士又开始受到尊敬,人们对自己国家不寻常的历史开始比较尊重。不过,事情总是这样,在这种情况下,又是那些昨天还在践踏我们历史和伟大胜利的人开始搞起了爱国主义运动。真是——只有天知道了。

      还有一个概念在一定程度上也跟我们所说的这些人有关系,这就是所谓的“全人类价值”。我也想就此谈一点看法。1987年戈尔巴乔夫把这么个概念引入了思想武库,为的是想要“淡化”党传统的意识形态提法。起初,这个概念只是用来作为“对外使用”,因为这里边还包含维护和平、裁军、防止生态灾难等思想。后来,在“全人类价值”中又加入了法制国家的原则,即西方民主的基本要素。可以认为,也就是在这个时期,出现了党和国家的首脑向“西方价值”的转变。这种情况几乎对所有的方面都产生了影响——对外政策方面,意识形态方面,经济方面,等等。总书记思想观点的变化在中央和地方领导人中引起的反响是各不相同的。对于戈尔巴乔夫的这一转变,意识形态专家、改革“设计师”雅科夫列夫拿着到处鼓吹,说这是根本性的、“指标性的”转变,特别是跑到国外去吹。而党和经济工作的大部分骨干则对之充满了疑虑。

      国内生活中我们原来所固有的集体主义不见了,取而代之的是个人主义;生产资料公有制被私有制取代了;人民被分裂成互相敌对的两部分——富人攫取了大部分财富,却把大多数老百姓搞得一贫如洗;我们祖国的伟大文化,受到了不值一文的西方水货的排挤,文化变得只知道迎合把赚钱作为最高理想的人们的低俗口味,等等。这就是最近15年来为我们造成的境况。而这一切却美其名曰是向“世界文明”的回归。不过这个过程是戈尔巴乔夫时期开始的,如今我们这个一度在世界上为许多人充当过精神领袖的国家却变成了一名落后的学生。

      这种把“泛人类价值”向俄罗斯土壤不加考虑地、片面地、机械地移植的结果,无疑对实现在美国倡导下推行的全球化是有利的。在这种情况下,人民的民族价值和国家主权,以及由此而产生的政治、社会、经济和文化后果,就完全被置于次要地位去了。

      我们的悲剧就在于我们丢失了“苏维埃价值”,我们没有把过去的一切正面的东西带到新时期来。非但如此,许多对我们格格不入的、不为大多数人民所接受的教义,也被强加给我们这个社会。我们的国家缺少一种起核心作用的思想,有的只是起瓦解作用的、外来的思想和价值。

    苏联解体:审判何时开始

      戈尔巴乔夫“改革”时期的行为在好多地方都使人想起赫鲁晓夫统治时代:许多事情有始无终,没有改革的战略路线,搞得匆匆忙忙,缺少深思熟虑,几乎所有的事情都是即兴而为的产物。雕塑家涅依兹韦斯内在给赫鲁晓夫竖立的墓碑上天才地表现了赫鲁晓夫的行为和性格:他把墓碑清晰地分成两部分(由黑白两种大理石做成),以此来强调这个人思想行为的矛盾性。

      的确是这样,一方面,他放松了对文化活动家们创作的监控,另一方面,他又捣毁了练马场大厅的雕塑展,其中就有这个涅依兹韦斯内的作品。他批准了出版反斯大林的作品,同时又对俄罗斯东正教会给予重创,对苏军给予沉重打击。

      考虑到这种无法一以贯之的情况,就会出现一个问题:这个“解冻”究竟又是个什么东西呢?是伴随着融雪的温暖的天气呢,还是制造泥泞,制造污泥浊水,制造阴雨连绵或者制造雾气弥漫的天气呢?照我看回答也是不确定:一切都取决于究竟从什么立场来看这个现象。

      坐上国家的高位之后,戈尔巴乔夫起初对军人是很尊重的。他心里很明白,在整个俄罗斯历史上,军队始终是社会上受到尊重的一部分。可是事过不久,他就开始向军队发起攻击,甚至动用了一批“分析家”,他们对人民反复宣称,百姓之所以生活不好,是因为大量经费用到了军队身上。

      在这个问题上,戈尔巴乔夫的小伙计——外交部长谢瓦尔德纳泽——为他帮了不少忙。众所周知,这个人在苏联历史上留下了灾难性的痕迹。这位外交官居然宣称,我国的军事开支占国民总收入的19%。后来戈尔巴乔夫拿过来凑了个整数,于是又变成了20%。其实他们两个都非常清楚地知道,我国国防开支所占比例最多不超过12%,而且从来也没有超过这个数字。因此,戈尔巴乔夫在破坏苏军威望方面,是一步不差地走了赫鲁晓夫的老路。

      这样一来,在戈尔巴乔夫掌权的年代,我国军事政治阵地和国防阵地就目标明确地、坚定不移地、一步一步地解除了武装。读者可能会问,那么国家的其他领导成员又到哪里去了呢?为了回答这个问题,我可以请读者们也看看今天的情况。俄联邦政府的部长们是否了解总统外交谈判和外交决策的情况呢?显然并不了解。苏联那时的情况也是这样:国防部长、外交部长和克格勃的主席形式上虽然是内阁成员,但实际上所有的一切完全都是总书记和苏联总统一手操办的。

      从1945年起,战后年代世界上形成了两极政治体制:一极是苏联,而另一极则是美国。这种体制为维护和平,避免总体上的武装冲突,建立了很有分量的保证,尽管当时一直在搞所谓的“冷战”。由于世界上两个主导大国之间的军事力量大致均衡,相对地缘均势还能得到保持,这样才能在出现问题时求得最终的政治解决。越南的情况是这样,阿富汗的问题是这样,还有许多其他的问题也是这样。

      1991年苏联的解体,消除了所有抑制西方侵略首先是美国侵略的因素。两级世界垮台了。苏联解体后,一些国家的政治活动家也讲了不少建立多极世界的话,但至今也只不过是一种良好的愿望,因为这样的政治力量配置,对于仅余的唯一一个超级大国美国来说,是完全不能接受的。几十年来,他们一直都梦想着在世界上起领袖作用,如今目的终于达到,他们的手脚放开了。

      后果马上显现出来。第一个遭受打击的就是南斯拉夫。经过十年动乱,一个受到全世界承认的统一国家,被肢解成六个部分,现在又要分裂出来第七个“主权独立”国家——科索沃。

      不出所料,美国也找到了把联军开进阿富汗的借口,而在整个上世纪80年代的后半期,它却不断要求苏联部队从那里撤出来。

      后来,他甚至不顾联合国的反对,纠集了一些国家,入侵并占领了伊拉克,在当地建立了所谓的“民主”生活和“民主”统治。结果把这个国家搞得血流成河。接下来将会是黎巴嫩、伊朗、朝鲜和其他所有在某一点上不合乎美国标准的主权国家。

      今天发生的种种,实际上同1938年在欧洲出现的问题并无二致:当年的英法两国领导人签署了慕尼黑协定,说得确切些,就是同希特勒和墨索里尼搞了妥协。西方以这一行动为法西斯德国奴役欧洲各国、向苏联开战亮起了绿灯。今天,西欧以自己对美国侵略政策的支持,亲手为它统治世界扫清了道路。

      为了这个目的,正在向全世界灌输一种观念,似乎只存在一种文明,那就是美国和西欧的文明,唯有它才是世界上一切古老文明的继承人(不仅继承了欧洲的即希腊罗马的,而且还继承了东方的,包括中国的和印度的),似乎只有这种西方的价值观体系——有人把它叫做“大西洋价值观体系”——才是唯一真正人道和民主的价值观体系。

      不过这种唯一“大西洋”文明理论的炮制者,其虚伪无知也实在惊人。按照他们的意见,在这一基本的、“无可争议”的文明之中,竟全然没有中国、伊朗、印度、俄罗斯等国家的地位。甚至就连日本和中国以及今天的印度和东南亚国家所展示的科学、文化、经济方面的巨大飞跃,也无法动摇拥戴这一理论的许许多多西方政客。

      在当代这个瞬息万变的世界上,俄国虽自身的麻烦和问题不少,但也还是积极努力地在保持与自己伟大历史相称的地位。但遗憾的是这一复兴过程也包含着一定的危险——丧失自己精神世界的某些珍贵特色、生活方式和独特文化的危险。

      俄罗斯是横跨欧亚的伟大文明,它是在斯拉夫民族、突厥民族和无数其他民族无数个世纪以来友好合作基础上的产物。它的地缘政治地位非常具有特点,它是一条连接欧亚的陆地通道。

      俄罗斯广袤的疆土,它那多姿多彩的精神、文化和自然、气候,各具特色的民族和宗教长期相互作用——所有这些都要求社会一方面要有超前的思维,要善于同面临的危险作斗争;而另一方面,则要求把各族人民和各种力量都团结起来,以解决国家的问题。正因为如此,在精神和文化生活中它才既比较倾向于仁爱,又倾向于崇拜领导者的作用,信奉救世主。这些民族自觉意识中的特质不是外部强加的,而是历史形成的。它们同爱国主义、国家观念、大国地位意识等有机地结合在一起,没有这种东西,一个巨大的国家就不可能复兴,人民的统一就得不到保证。

      东正教是俄国文化的一个重要基础。在许多个世纪之前,正是它,作为一种建设强大国家的思想,促进了俄国社会分散力量的团结,促进了我国国家思想的形成。基督教中的天主教一支同东正教一支之间的思想冲突在历史上源远流长,它决定了东西方之间斗争的本质。天主教和新教之间的对立,是抑制西方思想扩张的形式之一,隐藏在这种东西背后的,首先是领土利益。本书在后面还要讲到波罗的海沿岸地区各国以及乌克兰的教会斗争的问题以及它的后果。

      我们国家在把这样或那样的政治决定付诸实施之前,一定要考虑到本国人民的思想情绪,它的深层的精神缘由。东正教是俄国人民的国教,唯有它才能比较全面地符合俄国人民的世界观。

      与此同时,在俄罗斯这样一个多民族国家,尽管教会同国家是分离的,但也要求国家对其他宗教信仰给予同样的重视和尊重。因为总有一部分人民信奉的是伊斯兰教、佛教或者犹太教。不过,在尊重我国的这些传统宗教的同时,我想在本章中谈谈东正教问题。

      今天,我们越来越经常听到有人说,东正教价值体系不太适合市场经济。暗地里针对东正教也正在开展一场攻击。这是通过西方传教士和形形色色的宗教团体、教派的大规模扩张活动进行的,简直就是又一场货真价实的十字军东征。从本质来讲,这是一种改变我国整个社会面貌的企图。经过这场可怕的战役之后,结果就是要在过去俄国的原址上,建立起一个新的国家,国名可能还是这个国名,但人民的心理已完全改变,传统的价值观在百姓心目中将不再占有地位。

      在消灭俄国文化的行动中,根除我们这个多民族国家千百年来独特传统的努力,将会起到主导作用。比方说,美国对这个目标就毫不掩饰。近年来,俄国实际上已经成为美国信息文化侵略的对象,其目的,就是要毁灭俄国的精神价值和社会道德。有相当一部分文学艺术界知识分子,他们利用公开性诅咒苏联的书刊检查制度——有的盲目,有的自觉,他们疯狂顶礼膜拜西方,特别是美国文化。

      在我们国家的那些“思想统治者”的支持下,这场进攻战的结果,就是由美国通过它在我国的代理人,实际掌控了俄国电视这一对百姓影响最大的信息媒体。传统价值观念遭到清洗,“美国生活方式”的原则和风格被强加到人民头上。头脑健全的人们和社会活动家力图抗御这种局面,但遭到俄国电视实际主子的激烈反对。

      行政和立法当局实际上是在同这种情况妥协。而且,我国文化就整体而言目前已被阴暗、迷信、反科学的观点所淹没。从电视屏幕和“黄色”报刊汹涌而来的蒙昧主义之流是那么的浓稠,以至星星点点的健康思想、端正行为和高尚道德很容易就被它淹没了。

      第二次世界大战之后,各文明之间的边界又回到了历史上原来应该有的老地方,划出了与我们同宗的斯拉夫民族波兰、捷克、斯洛伐克、南斯拉夫和保加利亚的西部边界。西方为了促使苏联垮台,树立了一个把欧洲文明分水岭向东推移的目标。然而,“世界新秩序”的建筑师们并没有打算就此止步不前。这里指的是他们再次力图消灭早已存在的西方世界战略老对手——俄国,首先是俄罗斯族——的独特文化的企图。

      遗憾的是这种状况终于发生了。实际上所有在苏联垮台后感到手足无措的斯拉夫民族,都无情地陷入了从属于西方的境况。他们通过北约以及其他政治、经济、军事机制,跟西方拴到了一起。唯有南斯拉夫是一个例外。之所以会选中它来作为侵略和破坏的对象,其原因就在于它竟敢保持自己的政治独立性,同时也爆出了自己就广义而言的文化特性。

      南斯拉夫发生的一切间接地证实了一种猜测,这就是文明的分裂将首先发生在西方—俄罗斯一线。今天人们已经看清,无论西方如何在我国内外竭尽全力,但依然难以淹没并同化俄罗斯的和俄国的文化。历史表明,我国在吸收西方技术文化成就的同时,从来就没有为西方文化所吞并过,反因此而增强了表现自我鲜明独特文化个性的条件。

      俄国在上世纪90年代向西方的急剧倾斜说明,如果对西方思想价值不采取批判态度,如果不考虑俄罗斯文化特点,而把西方的东西机械地向俄罗斯土壤移植,就不可能导致祖国文化的完善,而是导致它遭到破坏。更何况正如大家都明白的那样,西方文化也并不希望把俄罗斯拥入自己的怀抱。

      有些接近叶利钦的学者认为,是布尔什维克中止了我国文化的欧化,剥夺了它彻底变革自己的良机。这些学者还算不错,因为他们毕竟还讨论讨论俄国文化。可是另外还有一些人,他们则从根本上否定了俄国文化这个概念。

      毕竟,不是文明的对立,而是文明的对话,才能为人类赢得未来。联合国的活动保障了20世纪下半叶的和平,而其中有很多地方正是要归功于不同文明之间的思想交流。大家知道,创建联合国的倡议者是美国总统富兰克林·罗斯福。可是当今美国领导人的所作所为,对这位先驱者的理想是一种直接的背叛。

      遗憾的是上个世纪的最后十年间(苏联解体之后)某些以维护世界和平为己任的国际组织信任度遭到破坏。今天,在第三个千年开始之际,我们遇到了世界集体安全体系的深刻危机。

      素有民族和国家命运主宰之称的北约不顾一切地东移,该军政联盟各成员国脱离联合国监督的实际状况,联合国威望的灾难性丧失使人们有理由得出结论,以这些国际组织目前的状况,是再也不可能客观地解决世界性问题的。他们统统都处于美国的监管之下,程度不同地沦为美国的工具。他们已无力成为世界的保障。希望在世界性震撼的新威胁面前,人类能找到维护世界平衡机制基础现代化的有效途径。

      不过,在21世纪,对我们这个世界的安全而言,其基本威胁就是那些越积越多的全球文化问题。

       “我想,”莫斯科大学校长、俄罗斯科学院院士萨多夫尼奇说,“拯救人类的一条主要路线,就是承认文化差异的事实,并安排好它们之间的对话。掀起人类仇恨的恶浪是不能解决任何问题的。我们的世界异常丰富多彩,它是一个复杂的系统,因此一定要在相互作用上下工夫——这才是我们的出发点。我相信,当这种对话的机制逐渐消亡的时候,当文化的相互渗透过程趋于结束的时候,过去的那些强大帝国定将不复存在。现在比任何时候都更需要宽容。应该找出一些线索,一些头绪,虽说十分复杂,也要力求作出一些决定来,解开这团问题的乱麻。要学会在不同的人、不同文明之间,在不同宗教信仰的代表之间开展对话——这就是当今的任务。”

      本书试图探讨降临到我们国家头上的种种灾难的原因。如果读者在其中能找到有关我们这个混乱时代的哪怕是部分令人惶惑不安的问题的回答,笔者也会感到莫大的欣慰。

    不妥当的任命

      1986年12月16日,哈萨克斯坦共产党中央全会在阿拉木图召开了创纪录的短会。与会者只用18分钟,便一致同意解除领导哈萨克斯坦几近30年的金姆哈梅塔·阿赫梅多维奇·库纳耶夫党中央第一书记的职务。又一致选举苏共中央提名的乌里扬诺夫斯克党组织领导人盖纳季·瓦西里耶维奇·科尔宾接替他的职务。

      当时正值戈尔巴乔夫宣布的改革实施第20个月。随着改革,有相当一部分干部也出现了变动:许多在勃列日涅夫手下工作多年的老领导理应把自己的位置让给那些对新思想和新活动形式更为敏感的新人。

      严格说来,明显的干部更换在安德罗波夫领导时便已开始。在契尔年科当政时范围继续扩大。到了戈尔巴乔夫,进入了决定性阶段。情况表明,从1983年开始,几年内有90%的州委书记和加盟共和国党中央书记被替换。市委和区委书记在80年代后期的轮换,把这一级别党的干部更新了2—3次。

      第一阶段——即戈尔巴乔夫之前——的干部更换,为他掌权扫清了道路。很明显,如果被勃列日涅夫的干部包围,戈尔巴乔夫就很难坐上苏共中央总书记的交椅。第二阶段即挑选干部来实现改革的阶段。值得注意的是,正是随着戈尔巴乔夫登上国内最高职位——苏共中央总书记,才得以首先针对党内高层领导着手“清洗”。

      在1985年7月党中央全会上,罗曼诺夫被解除中央书记和政治局委员职务,责令其退休。他在中央书记处的职位及相关职责——监管军事工业综合体的工作——由列宁格勒党组织领导人扎依科夫接替。

      又过了不多时,在同年的12月,首都党组织领导人格里申也被责令退休,此前不久任中央委员会建设部主任、而后成为苏共中央书记的叶利钦接替了他的职务。

      不过令人难以置信的是,这里起主要作用的人物却是利加乔夫。正是他把叶利钦这个他未来最凶恶的誓不两立的敌人召到了莫斯科。利加乔夫成为中央书记后,分管党的干部工作,在访问斯维尔德洛夫斯克时,喜欢上了这位精力充沛的苏共州委第一书记。归来后,他固执地、以他所特有的那种坚持不懈的精神开始证明,叶利钦这种类型的领导人正是改革所需要的。当然,利加乔夫首先是说服了契尔年科和戈尔巴乔夫。关于这个问题,没有人同我以及中央其他书记商量过。我常常问自己:为什么会发生这种事情,为什么恰恰是利加乔夫成了建议把叶利钦调进莫斯科的人,把他推上了影响全苏联的道路?我想,应该是他们的性格中有许多相似之处吧。但是,他们两个是同类电荷,所以迟早要互相排斥,事实果然如此。

      有两个加盟共和国——哈萨克斯坦和乌克兰——党的领导人进入了中央政治局的班子,他们是库纳耶夫和谢尔比茨基。他们是党内极有威信的人物,不仅进入了勃列日涅夫的“核心”,而且也是他的私人朋友。可是出现了一个情况:在因契尔年科逝世而召开的政治局会议上,既不见库纳耶夫,也不见谢尔比茨基。二人没有来得及参加会议,当时一个在阿拉木图,另一个在美国。考虑到他们的缺席,在第二天,也就是3月22日星期一全会召开前,又重开了一次政治局会议。补充一句,这次会议谢尔比茨基也没有赶上。随后几年,关于这件事曾有过不少议论。我不认为这是事先策划好的。在当时的环境下,即使谢尔比茨基参加了,公开表示反对,也不会改变局势。

      如上所述,哈萨克斯坦共产党领导人库纳耶夫进入了中央政治局。他不仅是一位加盟共和国的,而且也是全苏的著名政治活动家。

      库纳耶夫是哈萨克人,莫斯科有色金属和黄金学院毕业,当过钻床工、技师和车间主任,巴尔喀什炼铜厂所属科乌布拉达矿矿长和总工程师,里捷尔斯克矿矿长和列宁诺戈尔矿井管理处主任。作为一个生产的天才组织者和精通业务的专家,他被任命为哈萨克斯坦加盟共和国人民委员会副主席、部长会议副主席,后来又担任部长会议主席。论文答辩通过后,他成为技术科学博士、加盟共和国科学院院士,而后又成为该科学院院长。八枚列宁勋章和三次社会主义劳动英雄称号,表明他对加盟共和国、对全苏功勋卓著。他比任何人都了解哈萨克斯坦,在该共和国他的名字老幼皆知。

      上世纪80年代我同库纳耶夫交往甚密。我在苏联国家计委工作,担任苏共中央分管经济的书记时,以及在担任苏联部长会议主席期间,经常同他见面,一起研究过哈萨克斯坦的许多社会和经济问题。库纳耶夫是一位聪明、有教养的人,在他身上体现出他在生产、科研和政治活动中的修养。他所具有的那种沉静、坚定、朴实和交往中的随和,使他明显地优于国内党的某些高层领导人。

      这位受人尊敬的党和国家领导人于1986年12月14日飞到莫斯科,同往常一样下榻在哈萨克常设代表团的宾馆。早晨去了苏共中央,几分钟后得知他已不再是加盟共和国党中央第一书记,也知道了谁是他的接班人。

      库纳耶夫是一个头脑清醒的政治家,他很明白,是到了该离开这个岗位的时候了。他已经上了年纪,现在的领导方法完全是另外一套,再加上莫斯科新政权的歧视目光,这些都不能为他的工作和生活增添一丝信心和乐观情绪。

      后来在一次记者访问中他坦诚地说:“我不想为自己辩解,我作出的决定有正确的,也有不正确的;我有功也有过。但是我清楚地知道,一个人不能长期连续当‘头头’,否则会变得麻木,免不了会有过失,尤其是干部政策。包围自己的不应该是崇拜者,而应该是聪明人,能更新思想观念的聪明人。”

      苏共中央内部有些人认为,库纳耶夫曾是勃列日涅夫的私人朋友,戈尔巴乔夫和同他亲近的党内人士对库纳耶夫反感就是由此而来。可他们自己也在勃列日涅夫手下工作过。在他们看来,这位哈萨克斯坦的领导者是“停滞”时代的人,通过多年工作,他在共和国中造就了一个领导帮派,这个帮派具有典型的负面表现——信奉的原则就是“家丑不可外扬”。

      当然,在库纳耶夫周围也难免有一些品质不好的人,会卷入丑闻之中。有人也曾想方设法把腐败的罪名扣到他头上,但最后不了了之。他并不是一个清心寡欲的人,但他的无私精神值得许多人学习,而且不仅在哈萨克斯坦。尽管库纳耶夫工作中有这样那样的缺点,那些作出解除他职务决定的人也要考虑到,这个为共和国做了许多好事谋了不少利益的人,在共和国是享有良好声誉的。此事表明,在当时的情况下实施既定干部更换政策,要求具有十分审慎细致的态度,可是从种种迹象看来,苏共中央领导根本就没有很好考虑过。

      更糟糕的是,莫斯科又决定,在该共和国形势变得复杂的情况下,领导哈萨克斯坦共产党的人应该是一个原则性强的、铁面无私的人——对这一点倒不会有任何反对意见。可不知为什么,又规定必须是俄罗斯人。就这样,选择落到了科尔宾身上。

      我同科尔宾早就认识,对他的劳动生涯了解得很清楚。他的工人生活是从在下塔吉尔——就其规模和重要性而言是中乌拉尔的第二大城市——的一个工厂当制模学徒工开始的。他在那里一直干到副总工程师和厂党委书记,区委书记和下塔吉尔市委书记。在随后几年又升为苏共斯维尔德洛夫斯克州委第二书记,格鲁吉亚党中央第二书记,苏共乌里扬诺夫斯克州委第一书记,苏共哈萨克斯坦中央第一书记。他在苏联人民监督委员会主席任上结束了自己的劳动生涯,当之无愧地受到国家许多奖励和表彰。

      我们二人的生活道路在许多方面是相符和交叉的。把我和科尔宾联系在一起的是“老乡”的情谊,我们年龄相仿,都在乌拉尔工业部门工作过,那时我们经常在正式场合和私下见面。

      在他担任下塔吉尔市委第一书记期间,我正在乌拉尔机器厂任总工程师,我厂同实力雄厚的下塔吉尔冶金联合企业有密切合作,他们的设备基本上由我厂提供。

      这个城市里还有一家乌拉尔车辆机械厂。它的名字并没有反映它的全貌,它确实为国家铁路生产了大量车厢,但工厂的第二部分生产的却是坦克。伟大卫国战争期间便是这样,当时生产过传奇坦克T—34,战后阶段也没有停止。在战争期间,乌拉尔机器厂为乌拉尔车辆机械厂提供坦克炮和坦克外壳。战后则为生产各种类型的现代坦克提供坦克炮。有件事说起来很令人痛心:1993年炮打“白宫”,用的就是乌拉尔车辆机械厂和乌拉尔机器厂生产的坦克和大炮。

      科尔宾被任命为斯维尔德洛夫斯克州党委第二书记时候,我也被任命为乌拉尔机器总厂的厂长。大家知道,当时的党组织事实上管理着地区生活的各个方面,工业也不例外。所以,我同监管工业的科尔宾接触很频繁。说句公道话,他并没有“勒紧我们嘴里的嚼子”。他对生产业务很懂行,是一个讲原则的、要求严格的领导者,了解工业企业生活的细枝末节,因而受到厂内职工的尊敬。

      巧合的是,我和科尔宾几乎是同时离开乌拉尔,只差一个月。他被选为格鲁吉亚党中央第二书记,我则当上了重型机械和交通机械制造部的第一副部长。这之后我们的联系也没有中断过。科尔宾经常向我们提出一些有关我们部门在格鲁吉亚的企业工作的问题,并提出一些发展共和国机械制造业的建议。

      我在苏联计委工作和成为苏共中央书记时,他在国内各地区任职,在中央代表地区的利益。当时我们也经常来往。科尔宾清楚地看到了格鲁吉亚经济发展的某种片面性,并尽全力促进共和国全方位发展。他为此做了很多事情。由于他精通业务,有工作能力,精力充沛,同人们打交道作风民主,所以在格鲁吉亚享有极高的威信。

      我也忘不了他在乌里扬诺夫斯克的活动,包括创建现被称做“阿维阿斯塔尔”的规模宏大的航空综合体时所表现出的坚韧不拔的精神。这一综合体可说是生产高质量飞机的规模最宏大的现代化工厂。全国都为它的创建出过力。可惜的是,它现在的境况非常艰难。还有就是乌里扬诺夫斯克至今仍在建设中的横跨伏尔加的大桥。州委第一书记抓大桥建设抓得非常紧,逼得大家团团转,也多亏他,大桥工程才能上马。这个对该州、对全国都很重要的大工程至今没有竣工,可不是科尔宾的错。

      然后,就是哈萨克斯坦了……两年半过后,苏联最高苏维埃会议上讨论推选科尔宾担任苏联人民监督委员会主席时,戈尔巴乔夫还提到过科尔宾的政绩,而且说这个决定通过得非常及时,他说:“科尔宾做了很多有益的事。正因为如此,我们有理由根据他的生活经验和党的工作经验,考虑到他的政治、道德品质,推荐他担任哈萨克斯坦党中央第一书记职务。”

      可是,在最高苏维埃批准科尔宾担任苏联人民监督委员会主席时,有人却又提出了1986年12月的问题。反对科尔宾的谎言劈头盖脸袭来,开始对他目标明确地进行人身攻击,真是极尽诬蔑之能事!我不想摘引那些信口雌黄的言论。它们会不由得令人想到福音书中的话:“顽石也会喊叫。”福音书的这句话换成现在的话来说,就是愤怒到了不仅人,就连不会说话的石头也要发出愤怒呼喊的程度。

      讲完我对科尔宾的态度,我还想说,这个人是那个时代思想的体现者,他受的就是那样的教育,只能那样生活。这里没有他的任何过错。我们所有的人都是怀着党的理想信念接受教育的。当然,我们对党的某些行为也会抱有怀疑,但在战略方面我们还是忠于它的。科尔宾是那个时代的产儿,正是那些像他一样的人,开始着手实现根本性的变革,后来又使这些变革毁于一旦。这也正是那一代人的伟大和悲剧所在。

      尽管我对科尔宾个人和他的工作经历十分敬重,但过去和现在我都一直认为,戈尔巴乔夫、利哈乔夫和当时政治局对他的这次任命,显然没有经过深思熟虑。而且一反几十年的传统,派往加盟共和国任最高职务的竟是一位俄罗斯人,一位在哈萨克斯坦实际无人知晓的人。科尔宾和库纳耶夫不同,他只是在工作过的地区才有名气和威望,虽说他也是苏共中央委员和最高苏维埃代表。而在此前,作为苏联最大的共和国之一,哈萨克斯坦在苏共中央政治局的代表是共和国的党中央第一书记,这对于该党不仅具有道德心理意义,而且有极为重要的组织政治意义。很自然,这一措施不能不在哈萨克斯坦领导层中引发负面的反应。

      不过,戈尔巴乔夫及其一伙对党的领导,其主要的和非常严重的错误还在于另一方面:在他们所宣称的新条件下,工作中所采取的,却完全是干部政策的老套套,这套办法在当时不能不引起众怒,尤其是在民族共和国。

      事实上中央总书记向全国和全世界大肆宣扬自己的改革和公开性政策已将近两年,千方百计地鼓励意见的多元化等等,而自己用的却是非常官僚主义的陈旧的方法。他根本没同共和国的领导、共和国党组织的积极分子讨论过,更没有同人民商量过。

      大家是在哈萨克斯坦党中央全会上才知道,共和国要换新领导了:苏共中央书记拉祖莫夫斯基宣布库纳耶夫辞职——当然是“本人申请”,并代表党的领导人和党中央委员会推荐科尔宾任共和国党的第一书记。与会者当然也就遵守党的纪律,唯命是从地投票通过了推荐的人选。但是,正是我在这一章开头提到的完成这一程序的18分钟,破坏了哈萨克斯坦的安定局面,推动了类似事件后来在其他苏联加盟共和国的发生。

      阿拉木图事件的发生发展非常突然而迅速。请注意,全会召开的时间是1986年12月16日,而17日一早七八点钟,党中央大楼前的广场上便出现了第一批青年人,主要是首府高校的学生,约两三百人,打着反对中央全会决定的标语,对选举科尔宾表示不满。

      11时30分游行示威者离开广场,奔向城市各街道。13时30分青年队伍突破卡车筑成的路障,又回到原来的地方。这时游行队伍已增至5000人。没有参加环城游行的好奇的路人也开始在广场聚集,很快又出现了“援军”:一大队青年从和平街方向向广场涌来,从哈萨克大学也来了约600人。他们一字一顿地喊:“阿乌耶利别科夫,纳扎尔巴耶夫!”游行者举着标语牌:“列宁同党在一起!”“我们——为哈萨克斯坦!”许多人原以为这是支持改革的例行群众集会,但是另外的标语——比方说“库纳耶夫在哪里?”——推翻了最初的想法。游行者要求库纳耶夫出来见他们,就艰苦的生活条件、住房困难、使用本族语言范围受限等问题向他提出了要求。这些要求反映在用哈萨克语和俄语书写的口号中:“任何民族不得有任何特权”“要尊重列宁的民族政策原则!”“列宁思想万岁!”“共和国应有自己的领袖!”游行的人们手无寸铁,他们举着列宁像,唱着民歌。在事件发展的这个阶段并没有出现对其他民族的攻击;没有号召推翻国家制度,也没有出现流氓行为。

      但是却接到了封锁广场的命令,不准进出。新来的游行队伍企图冲破封锁,进入广场,于是发生了小冲突。广场内的人帮助新来的队伍冲破封锁,紧张的局势便出现了。内务部长沃拉索夫下令将全国八个城市的内务部特种部队派往阿拉木图。部队来到广场,装备是防弹背心、钢盔、盾牌、警棍。两辆专用车上还有专用装备——烟幕弹、信号弹、催泪瓦斯“稠李树”。同军人一起的还有一组执勤犬。从15时到17时,哈萨克斯坦党中央执行局的成员卡马利坚诺夫、缅恩德巴耶夫、穆卡舍夫,纳扎尔巴耶夫一直都站在广场观礼台上。他们呼吁集会群众解散,但回应的是一片嘘声和口哨声。雪球和冰块飞上观礼台。共和国最高苏维埃主席穆卡舍夫向集会群众讲话,他说游行群众提出的要求是没有道理的,号召大家解散。

      这一切都没有起作用:集会者侮辱保卫观礼台的士兵和军校学员,抢他们的帽子。民警从人群中抓了那些带头闹事的人,群众又企图把他们抢回去,于是便开始了肢体冲突。士兵接到命令把人群赶出广场,但群众向他们投掷石块、砖头、灰泥块。有人受伤了。

      此时,观礼台上的卡马利坚诺夫、叶利米索夫、巴萨罗夫一个接一个地呼吁集会者散去,警告说不然将使用武力。一些著名的文化活动家也发表了讲话。但这一切全没奏效。人群谁的话也不听,只坚持一点——赶走科尔宾。所有要求的实质归于一点——让哈萨克人取代俄国人做哈萨克斯坦共产党中央第一书记。有人呼吁让库纳耶夫回来,建议纳扎尔巴耶夫、卡马利坚诺夫进共和国领导班子。

      集会群众同护法机关的冲突渐渐地演变成残酷的恶斗。而后在广场上集会的群众大喊大叫地开始冲击党中央大楼,企图冲垮士兵、民警、边防战士的横队。殴斗愈演愈烈。木棒、钢筋、石块全派上了用场。士兵被迫使用皮带和警棍。疯狂的暴徒烧了几辆汽车,捣毁了两个商店的橱窗。打砸抢的人在增加。安抚人群的企图没有奏效。双方都有人受伤。也没能避免死人:纠察队员萨维茨基——地方电视台的工作人员被野蛮地殴打致死。16岁的俄罗斯男孩在远离广场的公共汽车上被刺。他对乘务员说了句粗鲁话,站在旁边的人就向他心脏捅了一刀。三天后一位在广场殴斗中受伤的哈萨克人死亡。

      关于在阿拉木图发生的事件,官方报告作了最好的说明:
      21时—22时,运载专用装备赶赴广场的军车遭到石块袭击,卫兵逃散,专用装备落到广场人群手中。
      22时,市内务局局长接到命令用消防车驱散游行群众,20辆消防车冲向人群,架起水炮向人群喷射。人群向消防车投掷石块,30辆消防车受损。
      23时30分—24时,发动了又一轮驱散游行示威的行动,这次动用了工兵铲、警棍和警犬。行动后仍留在柏油马路上的人被集中起来用车运走。广场肃清了。在附近街道、住宅楼的门洞、宿舍里继续搜捕从广场逃跑的人。

      根据戈尔巴乔夫的指示,由苏联国家安全委员会、内务部、检察院等机关领导人组成的小组急飞阿拉木图。组长是苏共中央政治局委员索洛缅采夫。国家安全委员会副主席博勃科夫是小组成员,他回忆道:
      我们飞抵前,广场骚乱已经结束。我们目睹了这一骚乱的后果。哈萨克斯坦首都给我们留下了令人不快的印象,尤其是坐落着哈萨克斯坦党中央大楼的勃列日涅夫中心广场。在广场和邻近的街道上,仍可见有几辆汽车火焰在燃烧,到处是成堆的玻璃碎片、石块、棍棒、铁条——发生在这里的流血斗殴的遗留物。一进党中央大楼,便感到了形势紧张。科尔宾、纳扎尔巴耶夫和其他领导人明显地焦躁不安。根据科尔宾的说明,发生这一切主要应归罪于共和国安全委员会主席米罗什尼克,他没有足够重视库纳耶夫追随者们的阴谋,是他们策划了这次挑衅行动。甚至有人怀疑,米罗什尼克有意对科尔宾隐瞒了大学生要搞动乱的情报。

      大家群起谴责库纳耶夫,因为他拒绝在群众大会上讲话,拒绝号召广场上的群众支持选科尔宾。此外,所有参加会见的人都一致认为,学生的行动是库纳耶夫及其追随者策划的。索洛缅采夫要求揭露群众骚乱的组织者。

      但是,事件过去三年后,库纳耶夫在记者采访时澄清了这个问题。长期以来,事件的某些参与者为了洗清自己,极力混淆问题。库纳耶夫说:
      12月17日11时左右,哈萨克斯坦党中央第二书记米罗什欣给我打电话,请我去中央委员会。我问:“这是怎么回事?我可是退休了!”他回答说:“广场上有一批青年人集会。他们要求解释昨晚中央全会的决定。最好是你向集会者解释一下问题的实质。”我表示同意,我问:“科尔宾同意吗?”米罗什欣作了肯定的回答。

      这之后我马上来到中央,进入中央第一书记办公室,在那里已经集合了全体中央局成员。他们在讨论如何应对广场集会的问题。科尔宾建议纳扎尔巴耶夫和卡马利坚诺夫向青年人讲话。并没有让我做什么。我在科尔宾办公室坐了两个多小时,根本没有谈到要我讲话的事。然后科尔宾开始同莫斯科通话,为了怕影响他,我和其他委员们,除了米罗什欣,全离开了办公室。

      过了一段时间,科尔宾召集全体中央局委员,也邀请了我。他对我说:“您没事了,可以休息了,我们自己采取措施,恢复秩序。”临走时,我问米罗什欣,为什么把我找来,却又没让我讲话。他回答说:“我们商量后,决定不让你去广场,也不用讲话了。”1987年6月在莫斯科苏共中央开会期间,米罗什欣又一次肯定说,当时没有允许我去广场讲话。

      ……共和国领导者谁也没有向青年人解释全会决定的实质。相反却残酷镇压集会者。许多大学生和工人受难。据哈萨克斯坦共青团中央的材料,因参加广场事件或支持这些事件,有几千大学生被开除学籍,许多人被迫放弃学业。对一大批共产党员采取了具有迫害性质的惩罚措施。

      ……我被定为“阿拉木图事件”的主要组织者之一,虽然我同它毫无关系。科尔宾不止一次说,我拒绝向广场青年讲话是事件扩大的原因之一。不仅这件事,而且共和国党组织生活中发生的所有消极现象,都同我的名字、我的活动联系上了。他们忘记了,长期以来党中央一直信任我,把大工业企业、科研所、党和苏维埃机关的工作委托给我。我总是努力履行党员的职责,忠实地做人。

      事件期间戈尔巴乔夫曾同库纳耶夫谈话。那时我正在总书记办公室。戈尔巴乔夫因受到来自阿拉木图片面情报的影响,他语调严厉地要求库纳耶夫制止混乱,毫不含糊地认为正是库纳耶夫要为这些事件负责。但是库纳耶夫坚决否认加给自己的罪名。他公开声称,他同发生的事件毫无关系。我想,他说的是真话。

      第二天,12月18日,党中央大楼前的广场上空荡荡,只有数量不多的好奇者。市内街道上偶尔还有为数不多的年轻人聚在一起,向巡逻车投掷石块。

      主要的骚乱已经过去,但人民没有安定下来。有议论说骚乱是在哈萨克斯坦独立的口号下进行的,要求共和国拥有主权,说这是一次成熟的民族自我意识的群众性公开表现。我认为,在当时这种说法并没有充分的根据。不过阿拉木图事件不论其内幕如何,都不可能不留下痕迹。果然,几年之后,卡拉巴赫和苏木加伊特、费尔干纳、第比利斯和巴库、波罗的海沿岸国家和乌克兰出事了。最后是苏联的瓦解。“催化剂”虽与哈萨克斯坦事件中的不一样,但它的破坏性更大,因为在大多数情况下,其中都含有作为国家、社会、人民统一之大敌的民族主义的意识形态和实践活动。

    失乐园

      哈萨克民族共同体的形成是一个长期的、复杂的过程,其成员有操突厥语和蒙古语的不同民族。哈萨克作为一个具有固定形态的民族,已有500多年历史,一直可以追溯到15世纪的后半叶。在此之前,存在着几个民族联合体,即哈萨克的三个玉兹——大玉兹、中玉兹、小玉兹。

      历史上哈萨克国家的第一个形态是汗国(15—17世纪)。大汗的权力之争、放牧地之争以及其他原因,严重阻碍了哈萨克斯坦土地上统一国家的建立。俄罗斯外交家巧妙地利用了这些统治者之间的争斗,运用了与其说是军事行动,不如说是外交手段,把它们纳入了俄罗斯版图。哈萨克玉兹并入俄罗斯是一个长期的过程——几乎用了100年,从1730年到1824年。在这一段时期内,三个玉兹的汗都相继向沙皇政权提出请求,接纳他们为俄罗斯臣民。这样看来,哈萨克人归附俄罗斯的历史,一部分已有两个世纪,另外一部分也已将近一个世纪。

      同俄罗斯合并之后,哈萨克族取得了抵御外国侵略的屏障,使自己这个历史形成的民族共同体得到维护。汗国之间经年不断的战事停止了。同俄罗斯文化的联系成了哈萨克社会相当重要的精神进步的重要因素。在社会发展和经济发展中,都发生了值得肯定的变化。

      同时,哈萨克土地中的一部分被收为国家资源,得以把其中的部分分给中央俄罗斯缺少耕地地区的来自乌克兰的移民。他们中的绝大部分之所以来到哈萨克斯坦,正是因为无地可种和生活困难。当然,这也伤害了哈萨克本土居民的利益。但是不要忽视,移民们在这片广阔土地上生息劳作,也使它成为了宜于居住的地方(通常这个目的也许要经过几百年才能达到),为游牧地区带来了农业文明和定居的生活方式。

      我的家族的命运也同这一东迁垦荒运动有联系。我爷爷和父亲都是矿工。曾祖父是农民,因为无地可种,于19世纪后半叶携家带口来到这广阔的东方土地。我不知道是什么原因让他们在一个名叫“乌拉尔军”的哥萨克屯安家定居了。

      这是俄罗斯帝国的一个特殊的边区。乌拉尔哥萨克不承认土地私有制。他们的全部土地归村社所有。科罗连科在自己的著名的随笔中写道:“……整片土地不知私有制为何物,甚至也不知道俄罗斯的村社土地分配制度……”

      乌拉尔(1775年前称做雅依克)哥萨克——是一批复杂的矛盾的人。他们的那种特殊性格多半是由于他们长时间生活在外来威胁的氛围中。

      在他们的深层关系中,并不是一切都很顺当。自然的经济问题中掺杂着民族问题:外来者是俄罗斯人和乌克兰人,而哈萨克人则又是哥萨克人生活环境中的“另类”。对于哥萨克来说,所有从俄罗斯迁来的人都是“俄罗斯人”……

      我的曾祖父一家就是生活在这种矛盾的条件下。多年过去了,他的孩子们,包括我的爷爷,娶了土生土长的哥萨克女人。我的民族属性也由此而生——是世居俄罗斯中部地带的俄罗斯人同热爱自由的乌拉尔军哥萨克人的融合。

      多年以后,我的爷爷奶奶由于各种原因又回到了顿巴斯。先是当农民,而后成了矿工。

      俄罗斯人、乌克兰人都愿意互做邻居。哈萨克斯坦有不少俄罗斯名称的村镇和城市。1837年建立了一个哥萨克军事要塞,叫做维尔诺耶(忠诚)。选用这个名称是把它作为一种坚定不移、对俄罗斯国籍忠贞不贰的象征。这之前那里是一个哈萨克居民点,叫阿拉马特。到苏维埃政权时代,城市改称阿拉木图。

      哈萨克斯坦成了俄国的一部分,对这一事实乃至它的后果,哈萨克斯坦各社会政治阶层的评价远远不同。一部分人——该地区的传统精英分子——常常把宗法制生活方式的破坏,商品—货币关系的发展,看做是对“祖辈神圣精神的”亵渎。另外一些人则期盼俄罗斯民主力量能促进哈萨克人民启蒙思想的发展。

      从苏维埃政权在哈萨克斯坦确立之日起,开始了国家建设的新阶段。1920年8月,俄罗斯苏维埃联邦共和国全俄中央执行委员会主席团通过决议,建立吉尔吉斯苏维埃社会主义自治共和国(哈萨克共和国最初的名称),其中包括若干由哈萨克族人居住的州。到了1924年,中亚地区按民族重新划界,所有的哈萨克族土地合并为一个统一的苏维埃民族国家,1925年又更改了国名,使之符合历史,开始称为哈萨克共和国。

      哈萨克人约占共和国居民的61%。当时便有人建议,把哈萨克苏维埃社会主义自治共和国改为加盟共和国,但这种改革1936年才得以实现。

      上世纪20年代推行了一系列旨在改善居民状况的措施。比如愿意从事农业生产的人分到了耕地和草场,建设了新的工厂,甚至出现了完整的工业部门。当时即便该地区也未能避免政治上的极端主义。那个因1918年在乌拉尔积极参与枪杀沙皇一家而出了名的戈洛谢金,从1925年起领导了俄共(布)哈萨克边区委员会整整8年,在共和国内也留下了关于他的血腥记忆。由于推行游牧民和半游牧民强制定居的极左的行动,共和国的居民消失了几乎1/5。

      上世纪30年代初开始,共和国经济迅速发展,先是工业,而后是农业。1937年在哈萨克斯坦大工业企业达到2000多家便是明证。1940—1975年间,从事工业生产人数的增长速度等于俄罗斯的2.7倍。当然,这种速度也是受到军事局势的影响,但起主要作用的还是苏联实行的关注民族共和国全面迅速发展的政策。发展首先涉及经济。经济的建立靠的是全国的资金,同时又靠动员地方资源,包括矿产资源。矿产正是哈萨克斯坦所富有的。比如,大家知道,仅煤矿就有400多处,铜矿、铁矿、铅锌矿、金铜矿、磷钙土矿、石油、天然气等几十处。在这个有着各种原料的基地,不仅采掘工业,而且冶金业、铝业、化学工业等部门都得到迅速发展。哈萨克斯坦生产50余种有色、稀有、贵金属、稀土及其他金属。遗憾的是金属加工业、重型机械和拖拉机制造业尚欠发达。好在各加盟共和国组成一个统一国家,同其他共和国的广泛合作联系,补偿了上述这一不足。

      哈萨克斯坦拥有巨大经济潜力。我在1987年曾访问该共和国,在埃基巴斯图兹走访了2号地区国营发电站,而后又参观了东方露天采煤场。两个工程规模大得惊人,更令人惊羡的是高端技术装备。乌斯季—卡缅诺戈尔斯克铅锌联合工厂给我留下了深刻印象。生产铝和锌这种国民经济急需的有色金属,又要在生产过程中避免污染,这需要具有多么尖端的技术啊!坐落在市郊的村镇中漂亮的个人住房星罗棋布,也引起了我的注意。看来,这是我国大城市中第一批真正由个人兴建的独门独院的住宅。

      在参观卡拉干达冶金联合工厂时,我一直觉得我是置身于故乡的乌拉尔重型机械制造厂。这里的许多车间,其装备都是由当初我所在的工厂生产的,那时我曾是工厂的总工程师和总厂长。是的,这是我们这个共同的伟大国家高效劳动分工和生产合作的有目共睹的成就。

      哈萨克斯坦大约有1/5有经济作为能力的居民从事农业生产。在这里,畜牧业的专业化是人们一直认真关注的。在各苏维埃共和国帮助下完成处女地垦荒任务后,哈萨克斯坦成了全国粮食的主要产地之一。如果说1940年全苏联粮食每38吨中只有一吨是哈萨克斯坦所生产,到了1986年,每7吨中就有一吨是来自哈萨克斯坦。

      总的说来,很明显,哈萨克斯坦需要加快发展加工工业,深加工工业,但是,可惜,进行这种重要的结构改造的时间已经没有了……

      哈萨克斯坦在精神发展方面也发生了巨大变化。居民中普遍的文盲现象已经消除,形成了一支科学的、艺术的、工程技术的知识分子队伍,建立了广泛的高等院校和科研机关网。正是在苏维埃政权时期,共和国发展成为文明的现代国家。它的发展在当时成为苏联实行的民族政策成效卓著的光辉范例。

      历史不容抹黑,也不容美化,尤其是当我们从制订和实现民族政策这一角度研究历史的时候。民族政策直接影响到非常敏感的、隶属不同民族的人们之间的复杂关系,需要审慎对待。就我的看法,不能说这里的一切在理论上和实践上都没有问题。过去时代遗留的东西,以及屡屡未能克服的不顾客观情况超前行动的愿望,都对事业造成了根本的伤害。比方说,认为我国民族问题已经完全解决,在这种背景下对民族发展和民族间的相互关系实际过程的研究,就常常被简单的口号代替。

      学者、文艺界知识分子的某些代表以及政治家们明显过早地强调了民族的融合。而那些谈到每个民族全面发展具有首要意义,应该小心谨慎对待民族传统和习俗的人,则被斥为民族主义。这也就是为什么我国各级管理机关在作出有关大民族和小民族经济、社会发展、文化领域的实际决定时,没有考虑到民族关系的复杂性和它们之间许许多多的细微差异。

      不愿抛弃陈规陋习,不善于更广泛、深入、慎重地思考多民族国家中的民族政策问题,必然会带来巨大的麻烦,甚至酿成悲剧。

      最近15年证明,不管是在俄罗斯国内,还是在国与国的关系中,民族问题的重要性在后苏联时期一点也不比苏联时期小。更何况现在这一问题有时还具有令人感到毛骨悚然的形式和特点。

      我想,大家还记得,早在1988年末,爱沙尼亚苏维埃共和国最高苏维埃就已通过了关于共和国主权的宣言。这种做法的特别危险之处还在于,它宣示了爱沙尼亚法律凌驾于苏联法律之上。部分竟然有权把自己的意志强加给整体——这种事情看似荒谬,但坏榜样却具有传染性。到了1990年,这种部分超越整体的论题具有了实际的毁灭性力量。

      问题在于,正是这一年,全国刮起了当时被称做“主权大展示”之风。争独立的不仅仅有加盟共和国,还有自治共和国、边疆区、民族区,甚至某些原来实际上并不存在的地区。在这一刮“主权风”的过程中,对国家统一打击最严重的是1990年俄罗斯联邦共和国最高苏维埃关于俄罗斯国家主权的宣言,它是由俄罗斯最高法律机关宣布的凌驾于联盟之上的法律。正是这次行动,意味着全苏权力和管理中心将不可避免地消亡。这样一来,也就为消灭统一国家创造了一切条件。

      各方传来的清醒的呼声,当时并没有引起注意。比方说,为了努力保存苏联,哈萨克斯坦议会曾呼吁那些并不高明的“改革者”要“表现出政治智慧、毅力和民主性,尽一切可能制止将要来临的灾难——我们伟大国家的解体”。他们的话是具有预见性的,也适合于哈萨克斯坦:“联盟的解体必将导致全面崩溃——共和国经济的崩溃,千百万人民生活的急剧下降,将会使我们倒退几十年,将给各加盟共和国之间的合作带来无法弥补的损害。除了在平等的主权共和国之间签订联盟条约,以此为基础革新联盟,别无他途……”

      1991年12月1日进行了哈萨克斯坦历史上第一个总统的全民选举,纳扎尔巴耶夫当选。

      纳扎尔巴耶夫上世纪80年代是苏联哈萨克苏维埃加盟共和国部长会议主席,就其职位,他也就是苏联部长会议主席团成员。我当时领导苏联政府,自然同他有密切的联系。那时在我的印象中,他就是一个具有非凡才能和分析头脑的人,性格坚定、目标明确,虽然作为一个国务活动家显得年轻些。在苏联政府的季度扩大会议上,他通常都要积极发言。当然,纳扎尔巴耶夫提出的问题主要是涉及哈萨克斯坦。他的视野、思维的范围也很广阔。后来他成了共和国党中央第一书记。应该说,哈萨克斯坦共和国国内事件的进一步发展,以至后来在苏联和独联体发生的一切,都让我更加确信,他是一位重要的国务活动家,不仅在哈萨克斯坦,而且远在哈萨克斯坦境外地区都拥有威信。

      1991年12月16日哈萨克斯坦共和国宣布独立。这之前,12月8日,在籍籍无名的坐落于离波兰边境30公里的别洛韦日森林的白俄罗斯村庄维斯库利,就已经发生了无可挽回的事件:苏联不复存在了。后来才知道,在有关这一骇人听闻事件的文件上签字的,有俄罗斯、乌克兰和白俄罗斯领导人——叶利钦、克拉夫丘克、舒什凯维奇。恕我直言,他们并不是祖国历史上的什么杰出的人物,却把毁灭伟大国家的罪责揽到了自己头上。是的,甚至他们亲身体验的那种掺和着酒劲儿的政治快感,也并没有妨碍他们明白,他们所干的事其实就是搞政变。对此,世界上并没有一个国家(看来只有我国)表示赞许。这些犯罪分子们宣称,似乎他们只是确认了苏联政治上的死亡。这种骗人的手法有点像一群医生蓄意把患者搞得病入膏肓,然后又弄出个“三人小组”来宣布这个活着的患者已经辞世,并把他送入太平间。相信总有一天,这些家伙的真正作用会得到公正的评价。

      纳扎尔巴耶夫没有参加这可耻的别洛韦日事件,政治远见使他没有堕入彀中。但是正如常言所说,生米已煮成熟饭,更因为12月8日已经宣布成立独联体取代苏联,其成员有俄罗斯、白俄罗斯、乌克兰,所以其他的各苏维埃加盟共和国只好自己决定未来的命运。结果是1991年12月21日在哈萨克斯坦签署了建立包括前苏联加盟共和国中11个独立国家的独联体的阿拉木图宣言。我想,当时这样的文件还是必要的,因为独联体的创立消除了苏联混乱无序崩溃的危险及由此而产生的各种可能的后果。但可惜15年前宣言规定的许多东西,只是停留在纸上。这在很大程度上是因为这些年来在独联体各国内部以及在其成员的相互关系中,民族问题和民族关系问题已变得日益尖锐的缘故。

      自然会有人问:为什么会发生这种事?我想,答案应该到1991年我国历史突变这一事实中寻找。在那之前,我们都生活在被称为多民族的,而我更愿意把它称之为国际主义的国家里,因为这个说法更准确地指明了苏维埃政权时期形成的不同民族之间关系的性质。事实也是如此,当乌兹别克斯坦和亚美尼亚发生了具有悲剧性后果的地震时,全国不是都伸出了援手吗?有些格鲁吉亚人、乌克兰人、波罗的海沿岸的人,他们把话剧、展览这些东西送到莫斯科来(也送到其他城市去),可是在这些各共和国代表的心目中,莫斯科不就是他们亲爱的家园吗?而那些科学、文化、艺术活动家们,不管他属于哪一个民族,他们所受到的,不也都是全国人民的承认和爱戴吗?我讲的这些,只不过是具有伟大历史意义的各民族真正统一过程中的一鳞半爪。在这一过程中,民族隶属问题在人们的日常生活中事实上已经退居次要地位,甚至可以说是完全消失了。

      可是当我们的共同家园被毁之后,一切就坍塌了。于是大家只好星散,各回各的民族老家。其间出现了政治投机分子、企图攫取政权的冒险家,他们又吹燃了本来已渐趋熄灭的民族主义炭火。什么手段都用上了:学者们开始连篇累牍地炮制与过去方向完全相悖的文章和课本,政治家们则立刻忘记了他们借以受教育的俄语,发疯似的学习怎样才能用本民族共和国的语言发音正确地喊出有关他们民族利益的新口号。新滋生的“实业人士”掌握了“美丽的”外来语词——“比兹涅斯”、“巴克瑟”、“马尼”等等。对这一切本可以一笑置之,然而这些新思潮东一处西一处很快都化成了反俄罗斯族的、反俄国的声明和行动。它们的性质显而易见:共和国的事业越糟,领导者越是无能克服困难摆脱危机环境,他们就越想讨好来自大洋彼岸的木偶操纵者,这些在本国人民心目中威信扫地的人,就越是想捡起民族主义这个破烂武器,找到妨碍他们实现国内外既定目标的敌人。当然,要想“发明”比俄罗斯更合适的敌人是不可能的:不但目标显著,而且就在身边。当然不可能把它打倒在地,但是却可以用它来装出一副为本国人民幸福竭尽全力搏斗的样子……

      这是一群投向根本就不存在的火焰的政治飞蛾(但他们迟早会烧毁自己的翅膀),遗憾的是各共和国都有部分居民被他们引入歧途。这些人的名字不值得一提:他们在空中飞不了多久,而且他们捞到的荣誉也实在太多。但是苏联解体后新成立的国家还有一大堆更严重的问题。对于俄罗斯来说,同时也是对这些国家来说,最尖锐的问题之一就是这些国家中俄罗斯居民、操俄语的居民的状况问题,就是他们如何迁回祖国母亲怀抱的问题。

      现在让我们简要回顾一下很大程度上(如果不是全部)由民族主义情绪,或者说得确切些,由那些在新国家内与之利害攸关的人煽动起来的局势。还是以哈萨克斯坦为例。

    复乐园的努力

      可以说,现在俄罗斯和哈萨克斯坦共和国的关系是良好的。共同的经济利益、对外政治任务、科学和文化联系,使我们在许多方面有共同语言。然而,苏联解体之后,尽管是在这样一个国家内,它的俄罗斯居民也不得不经受(现在也是)不少困难,许多人被迫从该共和国迁出。在苏联时代,俄国人对哈萨克斯坦的发展作出了巨大的贡献。俄罗斯人是该共和国工人阶级的主要成员,占70%,这一点就是明证。但是,到了1991—1992年,俄罗斯居民们却突然成了“大国沙文主义者”、“占领者”和“殖民者”。讲俄语的学校减少了,共和国用俄语讲授的课程也减少了。可以理解,在这种环境下,但凡有一点可能,俄国人都会想方设法到境外,最好是到俄罗斯,去找工作。人们纷纷抛弃一切,到新的地方安家落户。

      俄罗斯和哈萨克斯坦间的移民过程涉及大批群众,其规模堪与人类历史上最大的“民族迁移”相比。从哈萨克斯坦向俄罗斯迁移的结果,仅1990—1999年间哈萨克斯坦就流失了将近140万人。这一移民潮在90年代中期达到高峰——超过76万人。在俄罗斯移民总数中,哈萨克斯坦移民所占比重约为40%,约占最近十年间由独联体各国移居俄罗斯总人数的1/4。有一点很有意思,据1989年人口统计资料,俄罗斯居住着63.6万哈萨克族人,其中在十年过程中离开我们国家的只有6000人。当前哈萨克斯坦居民中大约只有40%是哈萨克族,俄罗斯族大约也占到40%,其他民族占20%。

      近年来各种事件的发展,令我们有某些理由对俄罗斯和哈萨克斯坦关系的历史前景持乐观态度。当前面临的局势对共和国本身产生了一系列负面影响,这就促使共和国领导对国家内外方针进行重新审视。首先是哈萨克斯坦总统发表正式声明,采取行动,同俄罗斯签署了一系列协议,在我国开设领事馆,等等。从一切迹象看来,比较露骨的、较大规模的民族主义表现在哈萨克斯坦已成为过去,民族政策基本踏上正常轨道。虽然这些还不足以提供俄罗斯居民在共和国稳定居住的充分保证,但总算是可以让俄罗斯人在一个长期阶段过上相对稳定的生活。他们可以利用这样一个时期去适应,并形成保卫自己未来利益的机制。

      不仅历史经验,而且俄罗斯同哈萨克斯坦相互关系的实践也证明,要想消除肆无忌惮的、其实质为破坏性的民族主义毒素,最好的药方就是国家间、人民间的全面合作,在共同利益基础上的一体化。可惜的是独联体各国未能就范围广泛的问题进行协作,至今仍令人颇感失望。这就提醒前苏联各加盟共和国的领导人,要寻求更有效的国与国之间的一体化形式。

      建立这种新联盟的倡议者之一是哈萨克斯坦总统纳扎尔巴耶夫。1994年正式访问莫斯科时,他在莫斯科国立大学的演讲中,公开提出成立欧亚大陆联盟的必要性。许多俄罗斯的以及一系列独联体国家的领导人和社会活动家对此设想表示赞同,因为他们明白,他们之间现有的合作,在很大程度上是徒具形式,双方国家之间的关系不能保证遗留的和新产生的问题得到解决。同年的9月,根据纳扎尔巴耶夫倡议,在阿拉木图召开了国际科学—实践大会《欧亚大陆:国际潜力及其开发》。

      苏联解体过去了3年。这期间有一个想法始终没有离开过我的脑海:这个伟大的国家究竟发生了什么事情?下一步是什么在等待着我们?还有没有办法把过去的加盟共和国、现今的主权国家重新团结成一个一体化的建构?

      得到哈萨克斯坦总统参加这次大会的邀请之后,对这个问题应持什么立场、观点,我想了许多。当然也是在准备自己在大会上的发言。这次机会对我来说非常重要——我已经3年没有机会就这一重要问题阐述我作为公民的观点了。正是因为对这个问题持有自己的见解,对经济政策有不同意见,我才辞去了苏联部长会议主席的职务。

      请允许我在这里摘录我在这次会议上的几段讲话:
      在这里,在哈萨克斯坦土地上召开这次大会的事实本身,几乎是具有象征性的。最近,正是从这里,发出了后苏维埃广阔土地一体化的倡议。欧亚大陆联盟的主张就是其中之一……
      哈萨克斯坦总统的立场有了越来越多的认同者。这种立场的吸引力、对这种立场的理解,在我看来,是因为它反映了客观现实,反映了苏联国家重组的过程和在这片领土上成立的新国家的改革过程。
      新的边境和海关,许多居民阶层的无权和贫困,分崩离析的经济联系,难民潮,雪崩一样的犯罪和贪腐,地区冲突,不断加深的互不信任——这些就是我们一度强大的国家崩溃的后果。

      今日在我们词汇里出现的许多说法,如“近邻外国和远邻外国”、“移民”、“签字国”、“难民”等等,成了这个时期独特的标志。

      中央对政治和国家权力的失控过程演变成为经济的分裂。在几十年漫长时光中一直由互代和互补这样的基本原则起作用的全苏劳动分工体系瓦解了。

      物质生产的经济条件,各共和国之间早已确立的经贸交流实质内容,尤其是合作关系,雪崩般地崩溃了。由于这个原因,独联体各国国内生产总值缩减了30%到50%……

      独联体国家把对外经济联系从独联体内部转向其他国家的趋势越来越明显。在他们之间互相供货减少的同时,燃料、金属及其他原料资源源源转向了世界市场。

      把现今独立国家一体化的必要性硬是同苏联解体联系在一起是不对的。一体化的主要原因首先在于国家的经济,在于利用昔日苏联积累起来的强大潜力。这种潜力一定可以起到稳定的作用,克服向市场过渡产生的休克现象……

      严格地讲,“国家一体化”这一概念不完全实用于我们的独联体。在世界实践中这一概念通常是用在那些从一开始就是独立的国家,它们拥有自己独特的、因而也是多样化的经济调整模式,有对结合条件(主要是国家政治体制,经济和国防能力)的广阔选择余地。(还是以欧共体为例……)

      我们这里所指的,是这些独立国家的又一次一体化。这些直接相邻的国家不仅位于欧亚大陆,而且从前苏联统一经济的存在中,继承了全面的依赖关系和相互关联的合作生产,往往具有垄断水平高而技术水平落后的特点。许多企业的产品由于竞争能力低下,应该承认基本上只能在相互贸易的市场上找到销路。这就是今天的现实。

      考虑到任何范围中的一体化,都要首先立足于独联体各国国民经济的相互联系,我又强调说:
      不管我们是否愿意,由于历史原因,我们不得不置身于早先已存在的经济关系轨道之上。问题只在于这些关系将是混乱无序的,还是应该让我们把它引入协调的经济体系轨道。正如有句名言所说:“……每一个个体,都只能置于共同关系中加以考察……”
      我一直是主张开放经济的,但一定要遵循伙伴关系和互利原则。如果不把我们当做地位平等的伙伴,在制定对外关系战略时,我们就应对此加以考虑。目前,类似的“游戏”还在继续。
      可以完全有把握地认定,即使将来有西方资本投入,主要也是投向原料部门和生态方面不利于西方的部门。首先是投向燃料能源综合体,这是他们今天和明天都需要的。看不到这一点,就等于促使我们更加依赖西方,促使我们己经严重扭曲的经济长期停滞,使许多经济部门落后于时代。(我想提请读者注意、这些话是我1994年说的!)。

      现在,世界上明显地划分出三个强大的经济发展中心:美国、欧盟和太平洋沿岸地区。这些中心之间的关系很不一般,它们有矛盾、甚至互相对立。但也有日益深化的合作。这是时代的要求。任务是要在这个“三角”中找到自己的平等地位,将之变成为自己谋取经济福利的源泉。

      这种事情只有在我们学会正确支配自己的巨大潜能,克服头脑中根深蒂固的自卑情结时,才能完成。我们具有一切条件,可以成为平等伙伴,而不是世界经济的附庸。为此首先要做的就是再结成一体,汇集我们所有的努力,为每个成员谋取幸福……

      在苏联这个框架内,俄罗斯的作用虽然显著,但并不是我们“死乞白赖”非起这种作用不可。它在同某些共和国打交道时,充当的是输血者,它在统一的国民经济综合体中,满足了这些国家不少需求。很遗憾,不知为什么这一点并没有被注意到……

      在新的组合结构中,像过去那种由俄罗斯输血的状况不会再有了。新国家以不少代价争取到的独立和主权,在客观上就决定了它们必须遵守伙伴关系和互利关系的原则……

      这就是我在12年前讲话的部分内容。

      从纳扎尔巴耶夫宣布建立欧亚大陆联盟的想法那一刻起,许多年过去了。当时许多国家的首脑没有接受这一建议。怕在某些方面失去主权的担心,促使他们不敢和任何有效的一体化沾边,即便这种一体化有利于巩固和发展自己的国家。但是生活本身坚持要求创建一个新的组合形式,所以也出现了一些地区性联盟。而欧亚大陆联盟的构想,不管怎样,并没有寿终正寝,只是在俄罗斯换了首脑后,这一构想才得到正式承认:2000年10月白俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦、俄罗斯、塔吉克斯坦和乌兹别克斯坦等5个国家的总统在阿斯坦市签署了关于建立欧亚大陆经济共同体的声明及相关条约,2001年5月得到了俄罗斯国家杜马和联邦会议批准。

      2003年2月在莫斯科召开了欧亚大陆经济共同体第一届经济论坛。这次大型活动的主要目的,是加深成员国之间经济一体化的进程。一体化本身以及一系列必要的民族机构的建立,使我们这些国家有可能比此前在独联体框架中更广泛地提高多方面合作的效率。正如预想的那样,共同体所带来的一个附带的、但非常重要的结果,恰恰就是民族间,首先是国家关系方面矛盾摩擦的明显缓和。实践证明,一体化是民族主义不可调和的敌人,也是同这种邪恶作斗争的有效工具。

    廓清12月事件的本源

      现在,当本章的叙述完成之时,我还想回顾一下早已成为往事的1986年阿拉木图事件,并就它的实质提出某些结论性看法。上面已经提到,关于12月事件和动乱,派到阿拉木图的莫斯科委员会不失时机地进行了跟踪调查。动乱期间委员会掌握了领导权,对有关动乱的种种说法都进行了分析研究,其中有一种说法认为,存在一个组织群众(请注意:基本是青年学生)搞示威游行的专门指挥部,走上街头的有吸毒者、酒鬼和无业游民。但委员会更倾向于认为这是一次有组织的民族主义动乱。

      然而仔细的调查表明,吸毒者和酒鬼作乱的说法是没有任何根据的。据共和国卫生部资料,经医学检测,被拘留者当中没有一个吸毒者,也没有一个酒鬼。根本就不存在什么指挥部,这一点也已搞清。还有一个说法:库纳耶夫身边的人有不少都同可疑事件有关联。他们利用了青年人的好冲动,是挑唆破坏法制的人。有个普通工人就说:“应该恢复共和国的秩序,大家在这里相处得就像兄弟,谁同谁都没有个人恩怨,这些暴行都是黑社会、刑事犯罪分子、贪污分子、受贿官员干的,他们害怕科尔宾上任后共和国形势会发生变化,那些藏在库纳耶夫背后的既得利益者,要为这一切负责。”

      可以说,在阿拉木图事件中,某些大学中具有民族主义情绪的代表确实起到很大的挑拨作用。但不管怎么说,当时的动乱并没有明显的民族主义色彩。哈萨克人和俄罗斯人几十年来朝夕相处在一个大家庭中,此时这种影响还是起到了明显的作用。

      关于这一点,纳扎尔巴耶夫是这样写的:“我认为,促使莫斯科的代表把我们完全排除在监控广场事件之外的主要原因,是怀疑我们会利用群众的情绪牟取私利。尤其使他们不安的是游行群众纷纷递上条子,建议推举阿乌耶利别科夫、杰米坚科、米罗什欣、莫罗佐夫、穆卡舍夫、纳扎尔巴耶夫等人为共产党中央第一书记的候选人。可以说,单就这一列出的名单,也明白无误地证明,青年人根本没有反对俄罗斯族的人当共和国领导的意思。虽然如此,臭名昭著的‘哈萨克民族主义’这张牌还是打出去了。在那些日子里,领导人都是用一种不容反驳的、有辱人自尊心的命令的腔调来同我谈话。”

      在我看来,正是莫斯科领导人同地方干部交往中的这种盛气凌人的作风,成为先是学潮、而后转为骚乱的主要原因。恕我直言,中央那种不仅对共和国领导人,而且对共和国居民说一不二的作风,负责党的干部政策的利加乔夫简直是粗暴生硬的工作,还有那位遇事完全听他指挥的总书记的愚蠢——正是所有这一切,激起了那些充满青春活力的相信国内社会关系体制真正改革的人们愤怒的浪潮。他们觉得这是往他们心灵上吐了一口浓痰!关于发生的事件,苏联人民代表、著名诗人奥尔扎斯·苏列依缅诺夫说得好:“国内政治环境的变化,业已开始的民主化进程,影响了这些事件的发生,此时的青年人相信了大多数人的意志将成为政府法令的这种宣言……说起话来满嘴新词,干起事来还是老一套,这种言行不一,尤其令相信改革的青年人、学生和年轻工人极度愤慨。”

      可是来到阿拉木图的那些中央代表,莫斯科那些提议和组织实施共和国第一书记任命工作的人,能承认自己智能上和政治上的失败吗?当然不能,因为强制和说一不二的作风在他们身上是根深蒂固的。于是他们就又犯了一个不亚于前一个错误的错误:搬出民族主义这顶大帽子来吓人。

      发布的第一批消息称,骚乱是“觉悟不高的青年人在民族主义分子的挑唆下”组织的。报纸连珠炮似的射出了一颗颗炮弹:“黑社会、被收买的三K党分子、地下民族主义组织……”首次出现了一个新词儿——“反改革势力”。最后,苏共中央通过决议,内中有几段谈到了“哈萨克民族主义”。

      阿拉木图事件证明,民族主义是一把双刃剑,会使双方受到伤害——不论哪一方,也不论使用这一武器是否出于美好的愿望。我有时甚至觉得,中央关于哈萨克斯坦事件性质的错误结论在某种程度上起到了煽动国内民族主义情绪的挑拨作用。这再明显不过地证明,借助错误结论也能激怒群众,促使他们走上街头,从而收到某种政治效果。

      当然,这在共和国引起了起初是没有声息的、而后便是公开的负面的反应。3年以后,哈萨克斯坦最高苏维埃第十五次会议一致谴责苏共中央决议没有客观地、合乎原则地评价十二月事件,却把它称之为“哈萨克民族主义的表现”。在共和国党中央例行全会上通过的声明说:“应该完全肯定地指出,青年人走上广场,目的不是反对其他民族。”

      阿拉木图12月事件——这是国内年轻民主的稚嫩幼芽同当时依然遵循陈规旧矩和老标准解决政治问题的那套制度之间发生的第一次冲突。公开性的宣布,人们接受它并实际运用它的决心,同旧思维以及党和国家机关工作习惯之间的矛盾这时便初步公开显露出来。

      在高调宣布“公开性”和“改革”的同时,倡导“改革”的戈尔巴乔夫并没有考虑过渡阶段的复杂性。然而社会生活的这两个内容却同几十年来根深蒂固的制度发生了冲突。戈尔巴乔夫固有的易冲动性和解决问题的浮躁和肤浅,成为80年代后期发生这些事件和许多其他事件的原因。

      1986年12月的阿拉木图事件,事实上是对“改革”的第一次考试,遗憾的是“改革”没有及格。更糟的是以戈尔巴乔夫为首的党和国家领导人并没有汲取内中深刻的教训。他们在彼时彼地看到的所谓民族主义表现,其实并不存在。而真正民族主义复活的危险和利用反社会主义、反苏维埃、反改革势力来消灭党、国家和我国社会政治制度的危险,他们却并没有看清楚。

      此后不久,我们便会遇到货真价实的民族主义了。

    历史罕见的罪行

      读者可以发现,前几章讲到了1986—1990年期间在某些加盟共和国发生的破坏事件,它们同地方的民族主义深深纠缠在一起,为后来的一些政治行动埋下了种子,最终导致我们共同的祖国——苏维埃社会主义共和国联盟的毁灭。正是民族主义同另外一些社会经济、政治等因素,甚至同某些完全个人的因素纠结在一起,构成了那根带来厄运的火柴,而一些利害攸关的势力则用它点燃了干柴堆。人们受到根本无法兑现的许诺的蛊惑,竟把他们的过去——在强大的统一国家中的生活——扔进了熊熊的火堆。过不多久,他们就以苦涩的心情认识到,原来这种努力,争取的竟是关于未来光辉“主权”的不切实际的幻想。

      当然,在消灭这个大国的过程中,一次次民族主义的突然爆发的确起到一定的作用,但破坏苏联的主要推动力,还是来自中央,从莫斯科发出的。

      同时,为了保持客观,应该指出,具有破坏性的离心过程在俄联邦开始得也要比其他加盟共和国晚得多。看来,这里显示出,俄罗斯在我国整个历史上所起的作用是特别的。因为在千百年过程中,唯有它始终是形成统一强大国家的核心。人民甚至在潜意识中也一直都记得这一点,而且为此感到骄傲。全世界的人也都是把苏联和俄罗斯这两个概念等同看待的。

      俄联邦未来的领导人叶利钦在苏联解体中的作用是极为巨大的。他的战友们为此也负有很大的责任。他们的行为将在当代世界史上留下长久的痕迹。

      好多个世纪以来,俄罗斯一直都在保卫自己免遭侵略者的侵犯——俄罗斯这块大馅饼实在是太美味了,土地那么辽阔,自然资源那么丰富,再加上人民又勤劳,有才能。我们祖国也曾经历过艰难困苦的年代,但在同侵略者斗争的过程中,每一次它都获得了胜利。

      20世纪我们曾两次亲手毁掉了统一国家——一次是1917年,一次是1991年。1917年革命之后,当时的政治家仅过了5年就找到了共同语言,建立了苏联。第二次解体后,遗憾的是直到现在在各主权国家中占上风的还是政治上的离心力,而不是向心力。

      这些无论就规模或后果而言,都称得上是历史罕见的罪行,是如何在俄罗斯首都发生,又为什么会在俄罗斯发生呢?俄罗斯是最大的共和国,又是个起缔造国家作用的共和国。因此,它本不该挑起任何行动,以牺牲国家其他地区及其人民为代价,来解决自己的问题。可是在改革的浪潮中,又出现了什么样的力量?这些力量的领导人为了达到目的,而且往往还是纯粹个人的目的(这些个人往往用人民利益的烟幕弹把自己的目的掩盖起来),又采用了一些什么手段呢?

    党内局势

      1987年10月,召开了一次苏共中央全会的例会。开会的地方在克里姆林宫,礼堂是专门为会议而修建的。现在,这个礼堂叫做克里姆林宫大理石厅。国家总统每年都在这里向俄联邦委员会发表咨文。

      这次全会是一次普通会议,是根据党章规定召开的,没有任何不符合议事规程的地方。跟往常一样,宣布全会开幕的是苏共中央总书记戈尔巴乔夫,由他提出议事日程。其实中央委员们全都早就接到这方面的通知,所以走的完全是一种仪式性质的程序。当戈尔巴乔夫按照惯例询问谁反对或者谁弃权时,叶利钦从第一排(政治局委员都坐在台上主席团,政治局候补委员坐在台下第一排)站了起来,建议审议把他从政治局候补委员提升为政治局委员,他原来是政治局候补委员。

      对于全体中央委员乃至政治局委员来说,这是一个完全的意外。我们很自然当时就问戈尔巴乔夫,这是怎么回事。从他那含糊其辞的回答中大家弄明白了,原来在南方休假时,他真的接到过叶利钦的这样一份申请报告。按照既定规则,他有责任把这件事通知政治局,以就此形成集体意见。如果叶利钦不愿撤回自己的申请,就要把问题提交全会讨论。只有苏共中央全会才有权选举或撤销政治局委员和候补委员以及中央书记。戈尔巴乔夫没有这样做,他向党内同志隐瞒了这样一份申请存在的事实,正如后来时间所示,这件事成了长长一串严重之极的事件的第一环,不仅影响到党内,而且影响到全国。

      叶利钦从1968年起就担任党的工作,起初是斯维尔德洛夫州委的一个部长,后来又当上了州委的第一书记。在这件事发生之前,他担任苏共莫斯科市委第一书记已经几乎两年,并当选为政治局候补委员。在首都人们对他的看法相当分歧。许多人注意到他的行动很激进,特别是在干部问题上,注意到他说的许多话都很彪悍豪放,自我标榜的意味十分明显,几乎在老远老远的地方就能嗅到,用现在的话来说,就是喜欢搞民粹主义,喜欢谈谈同特权作斗争的必要性等等。与此同时,他又显然没有搞日常普通工作的兴趣,情况堪忧。特别是在中央政府和党中央都支持他为解决莫斯科所面临的各种极其重要的问题而作出努力的情况下。

      叶利钦在全会的发言后来就简直变成了不值一提的神话。实际上那是一次颠三倒四不清不楚的发言,如果还能把它叫做发言的话。正如他后来在自己表示“忏悔”的检讨书中所说,那次发言虽很激烈,但却并不恰当。而戈尔巴乔夫本应该建议事先在政治局审议出现的问题,然后再拿到下次全会上去讨论,但却把这事搞成了一场争论。这样做也许非常民主,但却是极端地考虑不周。

      一个接一个的发言,确切些说,一个接一个的批判发言,在全会上就像开了闸的水似的奔流。我也不必再来重复它们。全会之后第二天,就公布了发言人的名单,过几年后,这些发言的速记稿也发表了。为什么党的高层——尽管这只是些莫斯科的和地方的领导人——反应会如此激烈呢?看来,大概是因为党正在通过它的领导人和政治局展现“公开性”,而且正处于“多元化”前夕的缘故吧。当时,几乎所有的人都对这个发言表现得非常病态,其实,那远不是什么纲领性的问题,只不过对自己的一个同事,对中央领导干部,特别是对书记利加乔夫的工作方法表示不满而已。

      激烈的讨论以及对“离经叛道之徒”绝对毫无意义的狂轰滥炸,导致适得其反的效果:俄罗斯的事就是这样,一个关于人民英雄,关于老百姓的“守护神”受到迫害的神话就这样诞生了。

      于是自然又出现了另一个问题:以叶利钦的这样一个肤浅的、显然具有个人目的的发言,又如何会引起如此这般的反应呢?

      以我的看法,把全会搞成一场大批判实在是一个大错,它昭示了我国最高领导的不成熟,首先是政治局委员们和中央书记们的不成熟。我很理解,当时各级党组织的多数领导,还没有能够摆脱党内生活的各种标准和关系的束缚。既然党的高层倡导变革,其中也包括苏共内部的变革,那怎么能允许搞这么个“大批判”呢?

      看来,党的领导并没有完全认识到,在党的各级领导人同普通党员基本群众之间出现的分裂有多么严重。到了1991年,当戈尔巴乔夫按照叶利钦的指示解散苏共之后,这种分裂就充分暴露出来——1900万党员中,竟没有一个人站出来保卫它。

      这样一来,由于党的领导应对无方,缺乏才干,一个俄国版的绿林好汉罗宾汉就这样诞生了。他只不过是个非常平庸的政客,早在斯维尔德洛夫斯克的那些年我就对他有所了解,现在却成了反对派破坏力量的旗帜。

      第二天政治局开会,按惯例对闭幕的全会进行总结。在戈尔巴乔夫介绍情况之后,葛罗米柯当时是苏联最高苏维埃主席团主席,向报告人提了个问题,请他说说对叶利钦打算怎么处理。总书记喋喋不休地说了一些模棱两可的话,意思是现在时候不同了,不是为这种事处罚谁的时候了,还得给他找个工作。

      葛罗米柯比我们都年长,生活经验,特别是政治经验,比与会的其他人员可要丰富多了。

      “米哈伊尔·谢尔盖耶维奇,你可得小心!”葛罗米柯说,“我觉得可以把他派远点,出国去当个大使什么的吧。”

      可惜谁也没有认真听取这位长者的声音,于是后来的灾难性事件的链条又添加了一个环节。

      过了差不多两年,在克里姆林宫的代表大会堂(现在叫做克里姆林宫国家大会堂)召开一个国家级纪念日的纪念大会。事有凑巧,我到场的时间稍微早了一点。上楼走进主席团的专用房间。戈尔巴乔夫和赖莎·马克西莫芙娜,还有中央委员会书记伊万·瓦西里耶维奇·卡皮塔诺夫已经坐在长桌旁,正在喝茶。有人也给我端来了茶。戈尔巴乔夫忽然问了我一个问题:

      “尼古拉·伊万诺维奇,你那位老乡叶利钦都在搞些什么名堂?”

      老实说,这个问题我要回答起来还真犯难。戈尔巴乔夫看出我为难的样子,就对他的夫人说:

      “赖莎,你可别责怪尼古拉。它是唯一一个提醒我跟叶戈尔(指利加乔夫),说无论如何都不能任命叶利钦为莫斯科市委第一书记的人。”

      戈尔巴乔夫虽然缺点不少,但记性很好,什么事都记得清清楚楚。我想,他一定会永远记得,而且现在也记得,早在1985年夏天发生在老广场苏共中央总书记办公室的那次谈话。

      那次事件已经很晚了,突然,直通总书记的电话铃声响了(我还在中央委员会工作)。他请我马上过去。几分钟后,我到了他那边。戈尔巴乔夫和利加乔夫正在办公室边踱着步边讨论什么问题。一听他们的话我就明白了,正在讨论谁可以成为格里申的继任。

      “你也知道,现在是该加强莫斯科领导的时候了。我跟叶戈尔正在研究莫斯科市委第一书记的人选,想听听你的意见。”戈尔巴乔夫这样说。

      “我想,你们已经有些眉目了吧?”

      “是的。我们需要派一个强有力的、有战斗性的同志到那边去。我跟叶戈尔·库兹米奇的意见,这个人应该是叶利钦。你了解他,你的意见呢?”

      说老实话,我不太考虑干部的问题,我自己的问题——经济问题——已经够我忙的了。不过这样的意见,我可不能表示同意。这样的意向使我非常惊讶。

      “是的,我了解叶利钦,而且认为他完全不适合这个角色。请不要忘记,现在研究的是首都这么个大的党组织,这可是个大量工厂工人、国家主要科技精英和文化精英聚集的地方。放在这里的领导人应该有智慧,善于机变,应该是知识分子型的。叶利钦却是另一种特质的人:虽说他是搞建筑出身,但究其本性而言却是个破坏者。你们准会看到,他会把整个林子都毁了的!他手里可不能掌大权。你们把他从斯维尔德洛夫斯克调进中央就已经犯了个错误,可不能再犯另一个错误,而且是致命的错误了。”

      我的意见没有被接受。实际上他们已经有了决定。我只好说:“我没法说服你们。走这一步你们一定会后悔的。到时候再吃后悔药可就晚了!”

      我们就这么分手了,谁也没能说服谁。我过去没有写过这次谈话的事,不过后来倒是戈尔巴乔夫自己说了公道话,他在电视上承认,想当年他在克里姆林宫对自己的夫人说过:唯一反对任命叶利钦当莫斯科市委书记的人是雷日科夫。不过我们没听他的话。

      有时历史喜欢跟人开玩笑。正如所说,坚持把自己最凶狠、最不肯调和的政敌调入莫斯科的恰恰是利加乔夫。现在,当我们回首往事,评估同叶利钦有关的种种决定,包括怎样把他调入莫斯科市委的时候,不由得就会想起古希腊人充满睿智的话语:上帝如果要惩罚谁,定会先让他丧失理智。

      社会大震荡和国家发生的破坏性巨变往往会促使许多人思考个人及偶发事件在历史上的作用,我们也因此而常常问自己和别人:如果是这样的话,那又该有个什么结果呢?如果说当上全党领导的不是戈尔巴乔夫,那改革会不会有如此毁灭性的后果呢?如果叶利钦还待在乌拉尔,那苏联又会是什么样子呢?有关个人在历史上的作用的理论著作还真不少,从古希腊哲学家到法国启蒙派,从马克思主义奠基人到无数知名不知名的作者。照我看来,整个20世纪,也许只是我国最后15—20年的历史,就能为这些哲学家们、社会学家们、历史学家们……进行分析和作出结论提供相当鲜明的资料。

      不过,还是让我们再回来谈谈具体事实吧。十月全会的8个月后,到了1988年的6月,19次党代表会议在克里姆林宫开幕了。列在议程上的一个议题是审议苏共27届代表大会各项决议执行情况和深化改革任务的执行情况。在克里姆林宫大会堂集合了5000名大会代表。

      作报告的是苏共中央总书记戈尔巴乔夫。他的报告分析了改革以来几年间取得的成绩,有一部分是讲激进经济改革的,还有许多其他的问题。不过,最主要的恐怕还是3年来第一次提出了政治体制改革的问题。代表大会按不同问题组织了几个委员会,其中也有一个以政治局委员雷日科夫为首的民族关系问题委员会。

      现在,当我翻阅会议速记时,我发现政权的各个分支,其中也包括党组织,都发出了批评与自我批评的强烈呼声。给人的印象似乎是闸门被冲毁了,自我鞭笞的洪流滚滚而来,不可阻挡。看来也没有什么奇怪的,多年来所有的发言都是严格程式化的,只能照本宣科,发言稿都是经过严格审查的,可现在却突然对你说:想讲什么就讲什么吧。多年来积攒下来的东西也就全浮到了表面。党代表会议上的发言很尖锐,丝毫不留情面,甚至有点自虐狂的味道。

      现在我要给自己提一个问题:最近15年来究竟出现了什么情况呢?那些竭尽全力发起攻击的人,当他们掌权之后,本应该想方设法让这些情况在我国政治生活和日常生活中永远不再重演。可是他们并没有采取任何措施来改善局势。难道叶利钦——下面我还要谈到他的发言——在成为俄罗斯总统之后,对他原来批评的东西有丝毫改进吗?相反,过去的成绩全被抛弃了,缺点毛病却全复活了,发展到了前所未有的程度。而且,国内形势越是恶劣,叶利钦及其一伙就越是对老百姓说形势大好。回想改革之前乃至改革年代,作报告的任何发言人都有一个不成文的规定:成绩要尽量少谈,问题和任务要尽量多谈。看来这和一党制有关。在没有反对党和反对运动的情况下,人们正是以这种方式来揭露缺点的。

      现在,一切都翻过来了。

      在苏联以后的15年议会工作——8年国家杜马、3年联邦院——中,我不止一次听取过我国政府成员的报告和发言。他们滔滔不绝谈论子虚乌有的“成就”,却对缺点错误缄口不言。这引起代表们极大的反感,但随着立法机构越来越公开地倒向政府,能听到他们讲真话的希望日趋渺茫,直到最后完全破灭……

      不过,在19次党代表会议上,以我之见再次犯下了一个对苏共、对国家来说都是致命的错误。正是在这次会议上,叶利钦被彻底推向了正在迅速形成的反对派阵营,不久,他就成了这一派的首领。为了能把当时面临的局势说得更明白,我想引几段叶利钦以及他主要的反对者——政治局委员、中央书记利加乔夫在大会上的发言。

      根据不成文的规定,主持中央书记处会议的中央委员会书记是党内非正式的二把手。当时的这个人就是利加乔夫。叶利钦在当时已从首都党组织第一书记的职位上被撤了下来,但还是中央委员,因为选举他的是党代表大会,只有党代表大会才能把中央委员撤下来。

      在党代表会议上,叶利钦得到了一个发言的机会。如果单就他的发言分析,抛开最后十来年对这个人形成的感情色彩和偏见不说,这个发言的确是极具批判性,也相当尖锐的。虽说发言的词句不是那么华丽,但这一次同上一次著名的全会不同,他谈的问题颇为言之有物。

      “代表会议的主要问题,”叶利钦宣称,“是党内的民主化问题。我的意思是说,它正在逐步变得越来越糟。当然,也要讨论当前的热点问题:改革的整体问题和社会的根本性革新的问题。会议的筹备阶段本身,就引起了非同寻常的兴趣,为共产党员们和全体苏联人民重新带来了希望。改革使人民感到振奋。而且,看来改革也正是应该由党内开始。然后,党才能像过去一样,带领人民前进。若要从改革的观点来看,恰恰是党落后了。也就是说,今天的这次会议,早就应该召开。”

      不能不承认,他讲的这些话有的地方很有道理,特别是关于党内问题的说法。可是不由得会产生一种印象,似乎他这个有20年党龄的党的活动家,对待党的重大缺点所抱的态度,却仿佛是一个路人。其实,多年来他不也正是处于产生和制造这些缺点的人之列吗?因此也就不由得会产生想法:这个人不真诚,他非常善于利用当前形势来谋取个人利益。

      实践证实了我所有的疑虑:要对一个人下断语,只能观其行。看看“后期”叶利钦的所作所为,就可以用一句圣经上的名言来说:“所有的东西都原形毕露了”。再看看他发言中的另外一段话,就更能得出结论。

      我碰巧就知道莫斯科市和斯维尔德洛夫州的党组织要把多少个百万卢布划拨到中央。可这些钱用到哪里去了,我可不知道。我只知道除了那些合理的开支之外,还建起了许多豪华住宅、别墅……疗养院的规模搞得那么大,当别的党的代表们到那边去访问的时候,叫人简直是不好意思。难道不应该用这笔钱来在物质上支持一下我们的基层党组织,其中也包括给基层干部发工资吗?然后我们又会对一些党的大干部陷于贪腐感到惊讶,惊讶于他们受贿,谎报成绩,行为不正派,道德败坏,不谦虚谨慎,破坏党内团结等等。

      勃列日涅夫时期的上层腐败波及许多地区,对这一点不应估计不足,简单对待。腐败的程度看来要比有些人估计的更深,根据我在莫斯科工作的经验,黑社会肯定也存在。

      还有个社会公正问题。当然,从大的方面来看,在社会主义原则方面,这个问题是解决了。但还遗留了一些问题,这些问题还没有解决,他们引起人们愤怒,降低党的威信,对改革的速度产生致命的影响。

      我的意见——应该这样办:在我们社会主义社会,如果有的东西短缺,那这种短缺就要让所有的人在同样程度上分担,不应有例外……

      发言人的最后这句话显然说过头了,陷入了煽动的狂热。也许他特别害怕成为一个“在社会主义社会”真正是好多东西都短缺的人,于是很快他就一头栽进了过去那些恣意妄为的敌人的怀抱,然后又领导了从整体上消灭我们的制度和国家的行动,开始放手复辟被人民推翻的资本主义,复辟一个由社会不公和人剥削人占统治地位的社会。

      这位“热爱真理”的为人类幸福而斗争的“战士”又达到了什么目的呢?他为自己和自己的一伙,争取到了应有尽有的一切,而所有这些,正是他在刚刚过去的昨天所愤怒地谴责的内容。而对于人民和国家来说,他所带来的则是工业和农业的毁灭,是在国际舞台上把俄罗斯搞成一个一贫如洗的乞丐,是把老百姓分化为畸形的社会经济阶层,是把他们逐步引向衰亡,是把科学和文化引向退化。

      难怪美国人说:赢得大选之后,首先要做的就是忘掉竞选时的承诺。看来,我们的这位令人难忘的叶利钦先生在他的“历史性”出访中也学会了这一招。

      上世纪90年代,恰恰是在叶利钦统治俄罗斯的时候,腐败、贪贿、刑事犯罪,其中包括有组织犯罪统统大行其道,其规模达到了空前的程度。他慷慨地为土匪强盗大开方便之门,创建温室条件。当局的亲信和当时同总统过从密切的人士大肆搜刮人民的财产。当叶利钦在最高层当权的时候,人民目睹了,聆听了,也领教了他究竟有多么正派,多么道德高尚,多么谦虚谨慎。

      不过,有些这方面的内容,为了那些容易消火的健忘之士,我还是想提上一笔。他早就把到区立医院治病和特意坐着哗啦哗啦作响的“莫斯科人”牌小汽车进克里姆林宫的事忘记了……

      在他那本“忏悔录”里,党的领导人生活中许多具体事件受到很大关注。说实话,对于当时那些制度规矩,我也有好多看不惯的地方,还不止一次地就这些问题讲过话,写过东西。可是,为什么当他成为俄国元首之后,却不仅把受批判的东西全部保留下来,而且还变本加厉,加以发展呢?而他对待普通百姓的态度,简直更是厚颜无耻,完全是挑衅式的,搞的那一套排场,既毫无品位,又极尽张扬。当老人们半年半年地领不到养老金——那可是他们活命的唯一来源啊——几乎要饿死的时候,他却大修克里姆林宫的厅堂和自家的官邸,搞得那么豪华,以至法美两国总统见了都惊讶得简直下巴都要掉下来。

      可以预料,总有一天,会把账目公布出来,为了装修这些厅堂,那座郊区的官邸,还有买那些昂贵的家具,修那些防备自己人民的坚固围墙,我们国家究竟得花多少钱。

      在全国,在那些“最最民主”的政府办公室里,贪贿成风,腐败盛行,一切都公然大行其道。共产党跟他们怎么能比!以前不管怎么说还有人怕党委,也畏惧自己的良心,可现在简直是为所欲为,连闸都刹不住了……

      在这位总统的面前出现的,有一座座宫殿般的别墅,有一排排属于“生活新主人们”的最昂贵的轿车,有多架专机和多艘专用游艇,这些都是遵照叶利钦本人的命令装备和修建起来的。直至今日,当他把一个强大国家彻底捣毁,转入“荣休”之后,还能乘着这些专机飞来飞去,飞到巴黎去出席网球公开赛……还能弄到钱(当然不是一笔小数目)在意大利的什么地方租一套私家别墅,等等。这就是“民主”的实际代价,而我们轻信的人民居然就上钩了。

      这些都是后来的事。可是在1988年的夏天,叶利钦还是想回到党和国家政权的上层,他向第19次党代表会议提出申请说:

      代表同志们:提一个不太得体的问题。我想提的要求,就是恢复我在中央十月全会后的政治上的名誉。(会场出现议论声)如果你们认为时间不够,那我就不说了。

      戈尔巴乔夫:叶利钦同志,说吧,大家请你说呢。(掌声)同志们,我看,关于叶利钦的问题用不着再保守秘密了。就请叶利钦同志把他想说的话都说一说吧。然后如果有必要的话,我们也可以说一说。请吧,叶利钦同志。

      叶利钦:代表同志们:过50年再恢复政治名誉现在简直成了一种习惯。这对于社会的康复当然有好处。不过我还是要请求生前恢复政治名誉。我认为,这是一个原则的要求,考虑到在报告中和大家的发言中都谈到的社会主义多元化、批评自由、对反对意见的宽容等等,我觉得这样提也是得体的。

      大家知道,我在苏共中央十月全会上的发言被认为是一个政治错误。可是全会上的问题被一而再、再而三地在报刊上提出,党员们也这样提出。这些天来,这些问题其实也在这个讲台上,在报告和发言中再次提起。我认为,我发言中唯一的错误在于我的发言不是时候——我不该在十月革命70周年前夕提出来。

      看来我们大家全都应该掌握政治辩论的规则,容忍对手的意见,就像列宁所做的那样。不要马上就给对手扣帽子,也不要马上就把它列为异端邪说。

      在代表会议的发言中以及我的发言中,我在苏共中央十月全会上(1987年)所谈的那些问题,得到了全面的反映。我对发生的一切感到无比痛心,请求代表会议撤销中央全会就此所作的决议。如果认为可以撤销,此举将可在共产党员心目中为我恢复名誉。这绝不仅仅是个人问题,这将符合改革精神,符合民主精神,而且,以我的感觉,这将对改革有所帮助,为人们增添信心。

      是的,社会的革新是很不容易的。但这毕竟是一种进步,哪怕进步不大,而且,生活本身迫使我们走的也只能是这条路。(掌声)

      不过,大多数后来发言的人,我想其中也免不了有总书记及其亲信的示意,还是以惯常的战斗激情,继续狠批叶利钦,最后他的恢复名誉问题也就不了了之。

      为了举个例子,我想引用一段利加乔夫在代表会议上的发言:

      也许,让我来谈同叶利钦同志发言有关的事情,要比领导班子里的其他人更难。这倒不是由于事情也牵扯到我。不过,也该是厘清事情真相的时候了……

      不应该沉默,因为共产党员叶利钦走上了一条错误的道路。看来,他所拥有的不是创造力,而是破坏力。他对改革过程,对党所认可的工作方式方法的评价是不对的,是错误的……

      叶利钦同志在中央全会上责备中央书记处的内容,也正是他本人在莫斯科市委的所作所为。我想指出一点,作为市委书记,他本人却从来不参加书记会议。我还要说,有一点让人很难相信,那就是他身为政治局成员,应该参加政治局的会议,这些会议一开就是八九个、十来个小时,而叶利钦却几乎总是从不参加讨论那些全国性的重大问题,从不参与那些全国人民等待着的决定。他在沉默,他在等待。真是咄咄怪事,可这是事实。难道这就意味着党内同志式的态度?中央书记的工作,中央机关活动的目的和意义,不就在于帮助地方做好工作吗?

      这次代表会议之后,叶利钦身上受迫害的人民英雄的光环变得更灿烂了。过了不多时间,尽管想方设法对他进行了愚蠢透顶的阻挠,但他还是以巨大差额胜出自己的选举对手,当选为人民代表。如果代表会议真的为他“恢复了名誉”,那也许就不会出现新一轮酝酿破坏事件的过程。由于我们的民族心理,“失宠”反倒帮他赢得了选举。

      我在这里并不想讨论“上层”的策略是对还是错。其实这里的回答只有一个,就是这种策略愚蠢到家。遗憾的是叶利钦本人同当时他的“敌人”之间并没有什么区别,而且他在自己的书里甚至还写道:“我是这个制度培育出来的。”当这一天终于到来的时候,他只不过是跟欺侮过自己的人算了一笔总账,把党给查禁了。他不过是个我们土生土长的罗宾汉,他的斗争对象就是党的高层,因为他当众受到了对方的鞭笞。他赢了。于是他怀着一种痛快的心情把对手侮辱了一番。至于他同时也把1900万共产党员推进了污泥塘,那就无所谓了!至于法律受到了践踏,那也只是小事一桩!然后,他成了俄罗斯的大老板,成了“沙皇鲍里斯”,他对此一点也不以为耻,反而不止一次地到处宣扬……

      20年一直待在党的机关——这会使性格产生严重扭曲。我还没见过一个机关干部,在权力机关里的经历对他不会产生某种程度的影响。这种扭曲常常会使人的灵魂变得丑陋,使信仰、理想、希望丧失。如果我还相信叶利钦是“真诚地入党”(这是他的话)的话,那么,1990年,在党的18次代表大会上他的那种故作姿态的退党,其真诚性就很引起我怀疑了。那么,从这个意义上来说,在治理我们这个分裂的国家的问题上,在党死亡之后,在以叶利钦为首的“民主派”掌权之后,情况又有多大的变化呢?要说好的变化,那可是绝对谈不上。

      19次党代表会议表明,在党内已经形成了一种明显的认识,虽说当时还不太成形,稍后不久,这种认识就以一句非常流行的话表述出来,那就是:再也不能这样继续下去了。在彻底进行经济改革的同时,政治体制必然也要求进行变革。这一点使我们在经济领域和生产领域工作的干部特别感到不安。

      我们心里非常明白,经济管理工作越是向前发展,就越是会集中到党的领导手里。但与此同时,以党的领导人为代表的最高当局,实际上对国家发生的一切却不负任何责任。在已经形成的政治体制中,立法机构——最高苏维埃以及各级苏维埃——在很大程度上只不过是把党的机构所制订的决议草案赋予法律法规的形式。选举机制也越来越形同虚设。这样一来,各级苏维埃的威望也越来越不显著,尽管就其本质和潜力而言,它们实际应该拥有对国家和社会实行有效民主管理的一切必要条件。

      今天,许多人,特别是所谓的民主派,已经完全“忘记”了,正是苏联共产党,在19次代表会议上最早宣布了进行政治改革的迫切性和必要性。

      在这次党代表会议上,就像过去那样,第一个提出的问题是纯经济方面的问题:对第15个五年计划的前半期进行总结,并对党组织今后在这方面的任务进行讨论。第二个问题则是党内和社会生活的进一步民主化的问题。就这两个问题作报告的都是戈尔巴乔夫。他当时讲的话很对:“今天应该有勇气承认,如果政治体制僵化,没有变革,那我们就无法完成改革的任务。”

      接着他就像在1987年1月的中央全会上提出七项原则一样,又列举了政治改革的七项原则。不过,在这次党代表会议上,他并没有提出一项对任何民主而言都是根本性的任务——国内三权即立法、行政、司法的最终相互制衡问题。天平明显地向立法倾斜。

      就在总书记到代表会议作报告之前,政治局按惯例进行了讨论。我又没有沉默:

      “我在这份报告中看出一个明显的倾向,就是对行政部门的削弱。这是不可以的!还是让我们按照经典的三权分立的办法来明确划分它们的功能吧。我们应该明明白白地规定每一种权力的作用范围。如果要把全部权力——我再说一遍:是全部!——都划归苏维埃的话,那依我的看法这样是不正确的。苏维埃能承担起这个责任吗?我怀疑。一旦无力承担,那国家就会失去控制……”

      你们觉得奇怪吗?我受到了责备。又是老一套:我总是护着部长会议啦,我不懂时代的要求啦。于是,我对自己的反对者说出了自己对这些听起来吓人的所谓“时代要求”的看法。它们完全是同基本的、经典的三权划分相矛盾,同最起码的有头脑的意见相左的。那一次的辩论进行得很激烈。不过,政治局中通常总是那样,遗憾的是我又成了少数。总书记明白,把苏维埃端出来起作用的想法,准会在老百姓当中获得难以想象的支持,至于细节问题嘛,可以在干起来以后再去考虑。

      现在我在这里谈自己对预定把全部权力交付苏维埃这一问题的立场时,我要强调一点:我绝不反对给予苏维埃以实际权力,但我那时认为,而且现在依然认为,这件事应该在明确的法律范围内进行。当我还在乌拉尔重型机械厂当厂长的时候,我就被选为苏联最高苏维埃代表了。当代表的那些年里,我非常清楚地理解到,议会所起的实际作用可要比苏联宪法中所宣布的小得多。下面的各级苏维埃情况也是相仿佛。

      这种局面的确应该彻底改变。但是,不能从一个极端走到另外一个极端。而我们的情况却往往正是如此。我不能忍受的是,当戈尔巴乔夫把党从就其本质而言并不适应的社会组织功能中解放出来时,考虑的显然不是如何使三权之间的关系恢复正常,也就是说,考虑的并不是如何提高国家管理效率,而是想简单地把自己的交椅从老广场搬进克里姆林宫,实际上是要保留所有原来的权力,换汤不换药。这就是他复活70年前列宁的口号——一切权力归苏维埃!——的主要目的(当然是完全改变了这个口号的历史意义)。

      在把全部权力移交苏维埃的同时,总书记在报告中讲到,党应该从管理职能中退出来,只充当政治力量,但同时又不肯削弱它的“先锋队”角色。相反,他还特别强调,“没有党的指导作用……就不可能完成改革的任务”。而且,他还确信,一定要把相应的党委第一书记放到苏维埃主席的位子上去。

      顺便说一句,恰好是这个观点,在代表会议上引起了不少反对意见。大家觉得,党如果要以这样的方式摆脱对生活各个方面的实际日常领导,包括经济工作领导,那其实只不过是走走形式而已。换言之,表面上虽不像过去那样,但实际上苏维埃依然处于党组织毫无限制的、绝对的、说一不二的管制之下。我无法确切地肯定,这种方案是否专为戈尔巴乔夫量身定制,让他将来既能领导最高苏维埃,又能继续当苏共中央总书记。我说不清楚,从来也没有人就此跟我讨论过。我觉得,从形式上来看,这项提案好像只是根据必须保留党对经济工作影响力的意见提出来的,而实际上主要目的却是要把总书记和新的最高苏维埃主席这两个职位合二而一,然后,如上所说,再把“全部政权”都交给他。

      问题的“理论面”已经考虑周全了。在实际做法上,未来的人民代表大会、苏联最高苏维埃体制以及代表选举制度,也都已经提交给代表会议,并对之做了讨论。会议之后接着还有好多事:1989年春天的时候,苏联最高苏维埃的任期还有不到一年了。

      本章我们还将对把全部权力交给苏维埃的问题进行讨论。我们将从问题的另一面来研究它。现在我不能不指出,代表会议的工作还有另一方面的内容:在许多夸夸其谈,对改革表示支持的发言,其中包括戈尔巴乔夫本人的发言中,也响起了一些惶恐不安的批评调子。其中比较鲜明的一个发言,表达了对局势的极大不安,就是前线老战士、杰出的作家尤里·邦达列夫的发言。我想,过一段时间,改革时期的历史学家也许会把这篇发言全文发表出来。现在,我想提纲挈领地复述一下,并引用其中的某些段落。发言出自作家笔下,所以非常形象。比如说,在谈到改革产生的破坏作用时,他将之与圣经中巴比伦塔的毁灭相比,说那是一个未能达成相互理解的人类的未能实现的友爱的象征:“我们不需要在毁灭自己过去的同时再搭上自己的未来。我们反对把我们的理智变成潜意识,而把疑虑变成狂热。”

      关于改革的目标模糊不清这一点,他也做了毫不含糊的评论:

      如果说4月这个充满等待的春天的月份让我们意识到必须采取行动,那么现在已经是对于无可抗拒的发展规律的历史逻辑进行深思的时候了。

      能不能把我们的改革比成一架飞机,当它起飞之后,竟不知道在它降落的终点是否有一个飞机场?尽管关于民主,关于扩大公开性,清理垃圾场的辩论和争论进行得沸沸扬扬,但我们要想立于不败之地,就只能有一个选择,那就是对于改革的道德目标要有一致的看法,那就是改革要为了全体人民的物质利益和精神团结。唯有团结一致,才能在目的地修建好一片降落的场地。团结一致是唯一的选择。

      他以极度的不安和痛苦,谈到了道德,谈到了作家、记者、媒体对社会精神生活所负的责任:

      缺乏道德的书刊不可能教育别人有道德。意识形态中的反道德主义会腐蚀人的精神。也许,并不是所有坐在报刊总编办公室里的人,都能完全认识到或者想认识,公开性和民主是高尚的精神道德方面的和公民的纪律约束,而不是恣意妄为;按照伊万·卡拉马佐夫(掌声)③的哲学,改革的革命情感产生于道德信仰,而不是产生于用以代替康复手段的毒药……

      那些把我们生活的过去,把我们民族的圣土,把各族人民在卫国战争中蒙受的牺牲,把文化传统统统倒进脏水坑,也就是把记忆、信仰和希望从人们意识中抹去的出版物,它们正在为我们一切的思想失误,为我们思想上的、纯粹感情的、良心上的赫罗斯特拉特④建造一座丑陋的纪念碑,意识形态史定会以羞愧的心情和诅咒来回忆这座纪念碑的诞生……

      遗憾的是邦达列夫的这种忧心忡忡后来被局势的发展,被1990—1991年改革的终结以及“独立自主”的俄罗斯现实所证实。这位艺术家和思想家对当时社会上发生的事件的理解,比政治家们早了许多,他能对未来看得很远很远。也许,他的发言是改革诞生三年后敲响的最令人不安的警钟。那是一个转折的关头,从那时起,破坏倾向以及其他的力量就日益压过了创造的力量。

      代表会议结束后,在党中央和最高苏维埃机关中,匆匆忙忙展开了起草选举法、修改苏联宪法的工作。法律的第一批修改方案都是同苏维埃制度有关的。可惜事情到此并未止步不前。篡改宪法的工作刚一登场,这个“满含创意”的过程就变得难以掌控了。宪法被看成比一张可以随意涂抹的废纸还不如。它受到任意践踏,最后终于寿终正寝。

      当然,对于具体的修改意见我是不会反对的,因为这是生活,是生活发展提出的要求,特别是当那些修改对国家有好处的时候。我反对的只是那种匆忙从事,草率成篇的做法,那就是当时的做法。我反对对基本大法的不尊重。毫不奇怪,对别的法律态度也会如此的。

      以美国宪法为例。众所周知,它是1787年通过的。200年来对它所作的修改只有26处!再说沙皇俄国,它倒是没有宪法,但却有个所谓的基本国家法。1905年的革命对它提出的修改也只有几条,都是资产阶级民主性质的。

      苏维埃政权存在的70年中,先后通过了四部宪法:1918年、1924年、1936年和1977年。它们都有着相应的名称:列宁宪法、斯大林宪法(这个名称广泛使用于官方宣传)和勃列日涅夫宪法。到了1988年,开始对最后一部宪法进行大刀阔斧式的极其粗野的修改。修改涉及一多半条文,但在我国只管了一年时间。到了1990年,宪法已经又改过了两次。最初是为了引入总统制和一些新的国家机构:总统委员会、联邦院;后来又为了要废除苏联部长会议这个主要的国家执行机关和指挥机关,为了废除总统委员会,设立副总统职位等等。1991年的宪法也有着类似的命运,而到了12月份,它竟然又被扔进了故纸堆。有一个并非不知名的人民代表,对这种对待国家根本大法的轻率态度好有一比,他说:我们对待宪法的态度,简直就像对待街头拉客的妓女。

      对待俄罗斯宪法的态度就更是肆无忌惮和不知羞耻。起初,是千方百计地操纵它,不久之后,对它就简直是肆意糟蹋。不过,一旦踏上欺诈和叛卖的道路,又怎能再停下来呢?这种思想方式和行为方式竟逐渐演变成为标准。1997年10月,叶利钦当上了俄联邦总统,他把手放在宪法上宣誓,要遵守俄国宪法和其他法律,可是后来又当着全国和全世界的面,对宪法和法律横加践踏,在1993年他炮轰议会,把按他的意志量身定做的宪法强加给社会。按急就篇搞出来的草案立即交付全民公决,直到现在人们还在争论:出来投票支持这部宪法的老百姓究竟占多大百分比?总之,严格地说,它究竟算不算通过?就连在斯大林时期宪法草案的讨论也要搞几乎将近半年,结果还出现了200万左右条的补充和修改意见。对1977年的宪法,全国人民也展开过热烈的讨论。

      我想,读者已经得出结论,我对叶利钦1993年的宪法并没有什么好感。但我却属于那些不支持在改变我国基本法问题上过于草率的人。不能一出现问题就喊:应该修改宪法!生活告诉我:自打1988年一动这个根本大法,就一发不可收拾了,后来,正如我在上面提到的那样,终于搞得宪法也没有了,国家也寿终正寝了。可是,想当年围绕着修改宪法和制订新选举法的事有过多少争论!部长会议对这些事虽都没有参加,但我作为政治局委员,一份不落地阅读了所有的文件,出席会议时也不能不就这样那样的问题发表意见。我不排除自己有些搞不懂的问题,乃至有些反驳意见提得匆忙草率,实在是对提案考虑得不够周全,未能同了解情况的人交换意见所致。那么当时的立法工作又是如何进行的呢?我们收到文件的时间一般都在晚上,也就是第二天上午政治局开会之前。有时候不仅找不到时间跟人商量,就连看一遍的时间都没有。记得曾产生过许多疑问,有时甚至是痛苦的疑问。

      首先,我不太明白,干嘛要设这么个人民代表大会?总书记在党代表会议的报告中解释得含糊不清。他说,这个新设立的机构之所以必要,是因为“它将强有力地、直接地表达社会意愿”。我真想跟他开个玩笑,问问他是什么意愿。不过,这里的问题不在于讲台上玩弄的文字游戏,而在于实质。戈尔巴乔夫只是简单地把列宁关于代表大会是“广泛的人民会议”的思想来了个文字转换。换句话说,那就是百姓讲坛——在那儿老百姓什么话都可以说。至于所有的具体事,还是得上最高苏维埃会上去解决。后来果然就是这么干的。

      我不太明白的还有一件事,就是为什么代表名额一定要2250人?这么一个奇怪的还带着零头的数是怎么来的?如果是“广泛的人民会议”,那5000人不是更合乎逻辑吗?很简单的道理,准备开会用的克里姆林宫的代表大会堂不就有5000个座位吗?……

      当第一届人民代表大会结束后,我发现事情竟搞得如此草率,而且也开始认识到这么一个大喊大叫、七嘴八舌的政权机构破坏作用极大,便问卢基扬诺夫和雅科夫列夫,在国内搞这么个有组织的群众大会是不是他们的主意?他们都面带羞涩地谢绝了这份首创专利的荣誉。那么,首创者究竟是谁呢?戈尔巴乔夫?他可未必能够一个人就想出这么个高招。

      那么,对于这么一个作为人民权力机构的代表大会,我是不是过于挑剔了?不过,话既然说到这儿,我要指出,这样的机构只是存在于苏联和俄联邦,而原苏联的其他加盟共和国却都理智地避免了建立这么一个尾大不掉、效率低下的机构的做法。不过它可是国家的最高权力机构。既然如此,为什么它却没有召开最后一次会议,以通过一个宪法决议,解散国名为苏联的国家呢?

      我虽对苏联和俄联邦人民代表大会存在的合理性抱怀疑态度,但对最高苏维埃却并非如此。这并不是因为我们互相喜欢,而且也不可能互相喜欢,因为议会和政府之间的关系就本性而言,就是建立在矛盾对立的基础上的。在我于1990年10月实际离开苏联部长会议主席这个岗位之前的一年半时间里,我同议会之间的交往相当密切,而那种状态则既不算十分和谐,架吵得也不算厉害。这就要看从哪个角度看了。不过在我看来,最高苏维埃和政府毕竟还能够互相尊重,他们逐渐也学会了如何在一起工作,虽说并不总是那么轻松,但还算是找到了共同解决问题的办法。

      与此同时,我对最高苏维埃的代表们也有一些看法,就是他们把讨论和决定所有问题的权力都抓到自己手里,有立法问题,也有经济管理问题,经常把行政权,有时甚至是司法权都抓了过去。我就是搞不明白,为什么最高苏维埃要把苏共中央的那套组织机构以及各个部门、各个分支机构都几乎照单全收,完全照搬过来,而它们的责任却要交由各委员会去承担?以前的工作不是远比党的机关干部做得更顺手吗?况且,他们也远非具有专业知识的人哪。

      春天日益临近,选举定在1989年3月26日。选举法的修改同宪法一样,也是提交全国人民讨论,然后通过。代表候选人为争取选票而开展的斗争搞得非同小可。但参选人的处境可是大不平等。照我来看,操弄出选举法来的那些人害怕了,他们害怕的正是他们奋斗了半天的东西,确切地说,就是……民主。他们从立法上就规定了未来代表构成的两重性:其中的一部分当选者——1500人——必须通过按地区原则选举的荆棘丛生的道路,而另一部分,750人,则可以很轻易地、毫不费力地进入代表大会,因为这些人都是由听命于当局的社会团体选出的。

      自然,所有这些组织,其中也包括各种文化艺术联合会,首先会把自己的领导人选出来,那些人几乎毫无例外地都成了代表。还有一件事也很自然,那就是那些在地方上经过一阵阵拼死拼活的厮杀才战胜对手当上代表的人,自然也会相当敌视那些不费吹灰之力就当上代表的同行。

      我不敢说立刻就发现了这种体制的错误所在。我从来也不相信有的人保证,说是这样一来,社会团体就可以获得直接对政权机构施加影响的补充管道——这只不过是在不大体面的辩论中又抓到手的一个论据罢了。起初我有点天真地认为,在没有多党制的情况下,这种社团代表制将会使得代表大会和最高苏维埃的议会代表构成变得更为多样,将扩大议会的社会基础。可是没过多久,我的天真就破灭了。

      早在拟订750人名单的阶段,所遵循的原则就已经不十分民主了。其中100名来自有1900万党员的苏联共产党,100名来自有2600万团员的共青团,而还有100名却来自几乎有两亿成员的工会!……谁又愿意挺身而出解释一下这种不公平的代表制的原因呢?而且还出现了一种现象:同样一批选民,竟选出了好几个代表。

      即以苏共中央委员为例,起初,他们选举党的代表,后来又选举工会的代表(尽管是间接地)——每个共产党员都是其中的什么成员。然后,再是按居住地选取。同样情况也发生在科学院院士、作家、艺术家、保卫和平人士……等人的身上。然而,新苏维埃国家的普通公民,却只能有一次选举权——按居住地投票。

      说到这儿我不能不指出,所有的民主派都谴责所谓的“红色百人团代表”,也就是苏共代表团。这个代表团完全是按老规矩构成的,依我看,那是党的好原则:其中既有党委书记,也有作家、学者、工人、农民……

      对选举进行过总结之后,立刻召开了政治局会议,会上我们在评价选举结果的问题上同总书记又发生了分歧。戈尔巴乔夫情绪欢快昂扬。他说,选举昭示了党在人民群众心目中的巨大威望:87%的人民代表是苏共党员……他一反常规,在会上竟然第一个发言,似乎是想以自己的威信来肯定胜利,因为他预感到了有人可能有不同意见。然而某些与会者的态度却有所不同。我说:党在选举中失败了。30名按地区提出的地方党组织领导人,全都在吵吵嚷嚷中蒙羞落选,而战胜他们的对手远不如他们那么头衔显赫、有名气,但却更有“说服力”。
      “但他们也是党员!”戈尔巴乔夫说。
      “他们当选的原因不在于是苏共党员,”我表示不同意,“相反,他们从来不张扬自己是党员。”
      我说:令人非常遗憾的是,这种情况远非个例。这是一个令人不安的迹象,说明党大大落后于它所发起的改革。给人一种印象,似乎苏共领导躺在改革发起人的功劳簿上,自以为威望过人,不想看到自己正是以一种过时的方法在工作。我提出问题:难道在这30个输掉选举的人当中,真的有谁是跟自己的幸运对手做过一番较量的吗?然后自己回答:没有。我看,他们恐怕还是以为一切就像过去那样,只要哪位党的负责人给基层下一道命令,叫大家给州委领导投上一票,那所有的人都会立刻乖乖地完成任务。可不是那时候了!选举恰恰表明,那种享有说一不二的威望的时代已经一去不复返了,现在要想建立威望,就得天天奋斗,每个人都得这样干才行,党也好,领导人也好,谁都不能例外。可不能以为这场选举只是30个人输掉了。是党输掉了这场选战,因为它相信了这些人,把自己交到了这些人手上。

      遗憾的是党的领导——从区委书记到政治局委员——看来都还没有意识到这个相当普通的道理。选战之后的乐观情绪很快就消失了:87%当中的大多数开始大张旗鼓、急急忙忙退出苏共。可以肯定地说,这种事发生在他们身上,决不是什么觉醒,而是彻头彻尾的叛变。不过这可是一个绝对令人不安的信号!它意味着做党员就得不到群众拥护。不过,从党内向党外的“移民”直到变得规模吓人时,苏共领导还在稳坐钓鱼船,他们安慰自己说:耗子从船上逃跑怕什么?方向还是正确的嘛,航线还是清楚的嘛,前进的步伐并没有改变嘛……他们不是健忘就是不懂:耗子弃船逃跑,那是因为遇到了灭顶之灾……一而再、再而三地宣称自己“正确”,宣称航线不会改变,毫无自我改革的愿望,过分自信,不善于聆听足够振聋发聩的报警信号,终于导致1991年8月共产党的毁灭。
      马上会有人问我:那么,你是不是早就看出这样的结局呢?
      我会回答:不是。因为我还缺乏这样的想像力。我只不过希望能有另外一种生活闯进党的权力通道,这种生活跟思想一样,它也是诞生于这些通道,然后再扩散到该范围之外的四面八方。

      不过,回想起我国历史上的首次民主选举时,我的心情还是非常满意。尽管在这个过程中出现了好多我所不喜欢的民粹主义的错误,好多荒唐事,斗争也不是那么公正,但重要的并不是这些!重要的在于每一个达到选举年龄的公民,他的生活中终于出现了选择政权的真正自由——其表现哪怕仅仅在于如果哪个候选人都不能令他满意,那他就可以谁都不选。而且那次选举就像一切新鲜事物一样,还伴有一点在当时几乎已经被人遗忘的兴奋心情,这样的心情对生活总是有好处的。

      我要承认,我是有意专门谈论1987—1988年间党内的几次会议以及后来的苏联宪法修订工作的。因为以我的看法,正是在这个时期,具有破坏性的反对运动开始迅速形成,它的领导人开始出现,并最终导致国家的瓦解和毁灭。

      读者有权问:作者是不是反对一切反对力量呢?绝对不是!我坚信,一个民主社会是不可能没有反对派的。这无疑也适用于国家议会、地区和地方政权机关。不过我反对这样的反对派:它仇恨自己的国家,仇恨本国人民,苏联的垮台使它欣喜若狂,而且,毫无疑问,它也会兴高采烈地按照布热津斯基的药方来把俄国整垮。我正是把这种反对派归结为破坏者,也就是说,客观地讲,也可以把它们归结为祖国的叛徒一伙。

      非常遗憾的是,社会的一些变化在这些负面现象中起了很大的作用。当代表会议开过之后,它的影响在苏联和俄联邦人民代表大会上变得特别明显起来。在第一届人民代表大会上,针对苏共提出了许多批评意见,包括严重指控,乃至号召“复仇”,号召要把国家从“苏共的压迫下”解放出来。发言中当然也包含着公正的批评,揭露出党的活动在社会上造成的某些实际问题。常常可以感觉到发言者流露出来的公民政治的不成熟性。但也的确有一些完全成熟的、精心策划的行动,其目的就是破坏党的威信。而党之所以能成为一个强大的政治组织,是历史发展的结果,它同国家早已深深地一体化,因此很自然,一切胜利属于它,一切缺点错误也属于它。惟其如此,破坏党的威信就是一件非常可怕的事。那些策划这一切的人知道,要想改变政权和社会制度,就必须首先部分或全部斩断党和国家之间的纽带,因为这是国家的生命线。卑鄙无耻的谎言到处泛滥,谎言把原苏联3亿百姓中的许多人骗成了傻瓜。不少人起初孩子般天真地以为,只要一取缔共产党,生活就会大变样,变得更好,更纯洁,更人道,更公正,当然也更富有……

      政治危机之所以日益发展,还有更深层的原因。19次党代表会议开过之后,苏联人民代表大会以及常设的最高苏维埃成了国家政权的新结构形式。党到了必须立刻进行改革、彻底改造的时候了。严格地说,这种事甚至本应该早点做,应该提前让它做好应对新条件下工作的准备——新的组织条件、理论条件、意识形态条件等等。

      所有这些主客观因素引起了许多党组织的惊惶不安,它们提出立即召开中央全会的建议,建议在全会上一定要讨论新条件下党的活动的性质问题,以及党自身要作出什么改变的问题。可以明显地看出,如果再不制定党活动的新战略路线及策略,那么对百姓来说,整个改革就会是一场空前的失败。

      我的这次发言没有被人揪住不放,就像对待叶利钦那样,也没有再搞什么名堂:时间不一样了。

      不过,党为什么就不能及时,或者哪怕是迟一点也行,进行一番变革,为新条件下的工作做好准备呢?这是谁的错?我可以引用“改革的教父”、已故的雅科夫列夫当年答记者问时说过的话作为回答。在一家著名的报纸上,他相当明确地表述了党内和苏联破坏分子的战略:“首先要通过专制的党来摧毁专制制度,绝没有别的道路可走……因为只有利用党那种既表现为组织性,又表现为纪律性,表现为听话的专制性质,才能把专制制度摧毁……”我想,只有这一点才能解释,为什么戈尔巴乔夫、雅科夫列夫及其一伙不希望在苏联发生暴风骤雨般政治动荡的条件下对党进行改革,因为他们是想要用党来作为改变我国社会政治制度的工具。真是卑鄙到了极点:这些朝三暮四、反复无常的小人,竟然想利用一个建立了强大国家并在战争中捍卫了苏联的党来毁灭这个国家。
      所谓的“民主派”掀起的反共浪潮越来越高,这浪潮在推进中没有遇到任何反抗。第三届人民代表特别大会选举了戈尔巴乔夫当国家总统,在一片喧嚣声和欣喜若狂的气氛中,废除了苏联宪法第六条——关于苏共在国家中的作用和地位的条款。

      正如某些口舌刻薄之徒所言,苏联人民在苏共领导下反对苏共的时刻来临了。在这个说法当中,如果“苏联人民”一说还大有不实,那么这“苏共”一说遗憾的是与事实倒颇为相近:党由于盲从,或者支持、放纵自己的最高领导,毁掉了它最积极的那部分成员。然后时过不久,在苏共的意识形态领袖作出榜样之后,成千上万的党员也离党而去。由于这种骇人听闻的叛卖,党终于垮台了。

      1990年7月初,苏共的最后一届——28届——代表大会开幕了。

      党内实际上出现了分裂,队伍的划分标准是政治色彩,甚至是民族色彩。以党中央、中央政治局、总书记为一方,以地方党组织为另一方,出现了党内的对立。这种情况逐月变得越来越严重。毫不奇怪,在28届代表大会召开前的一年到一年半时间里,党员人数减少了一百万。

      政治局内部也出现了分裂。这个苏共最高机构通过热烈争论找到必要的解决办法的时代已经一去不返了。现在政治局内出现了好几个小帮派,斗得不可开交。一帮是戈尔巴乔夫、雅科夫列夫、谢瓦尔德纳泽、麦德韦杰夫,另一帮是雷日科夫、沃罗特尼科夫、斯柳恩科夫、扎伊科夫。当然,还有“沼泽派”。在个别问题上,有时甚至是私人问题上的分歧,影响到相互关系,危害到共同事业。

      虽然从1990年开始政治局实际上已经停止了活动,但临到代表大会召开的前几天,它还是开了一次会。会议是在诺沃奥加廖沃举行的。戈尔巴乔夫正在那边为代表大会准备报告。我的战友、同事当中,没有一个人参与报告的起草工作。政治局也没有按惯例对这个文件进行认真审议。

      在讨论某些问题的时候,提出了新政治局和新书记处未来构成人选的问题。有与会者对已确定的候选人又提出补充,建议我和卢基扬诺夫进入政治局。我们俩都很明白,在当时的情况下,这种做法只能给党带来危害。国家总统是苏共总书记,部长会议主席和最高苏维埃主席又都是政治局委员,这可能为苏共的敌人提供加强攻击的借口,指控它大权独揽,把国家所有最高职位统统集中到一党手中。我跟卢基扬诺夫只好一再说服在场的人,采取这样的步骤是合理的。不过我们认为,继续担任中央委员还是必要的,只要代表大会还选我们。我之所以写这段文字,是因为后来有些出版物,特别是在纪念改革20周年的时候,居然说我跟卢基扬诺夫千方百计想钻进政治局,但未能得逞云云。

      苏共距离被查禁的日子还有不到两年时间了……

      我竟然成了最后一代共产党员中入党最早的党员。我的祖父和父亲都曾在顿巴斯矿上工作。后来我那已经过世的弟弟叶夫盖尼也在那个矿上工作,不过掌子面已经到了地下一公里的深处。他们在阴暗潮湿的地下劳动,并不是为了捞个什么党员的称号。这首先是因为他们的生活方式就是如此。

      矿山是一个劳动条件非常艰苦的地方,常常还非常危险,在那里工作的人性格都非常坚强。人到了地底下,身上的所有杂质就全被冲刷得干干净净了。矿工的劳动又好比是一种日常平凡的英雄行为,他们很知道自己的价值。也许正因为如此,有一回当我假期回家探亲的时候,弟弟见我的手提箱里有一本《星火》杂志,是以戴矿工头盔的赫鲁晓夫像为封面的,便很严肃地问:

      “这么一副嘴脸,怎么还戴上咱们矿工的头盔了?”

      也不知怎么搞的,全家人里头,只有我成了苏共党员。甚至我的夫人柳德米拉·谢尔盖耶芙娜,当有人提议要她入党时,她却这样回答:我家已经有一个党员,这就够了。

    党内局势(14)

      1982年11月22日安德罗波夫在中央全会作了一个有关组织问题的简短发言,他对中央委员们说,现在需要对经济给予特别关注,政治局以为有必要在中央设立一个管经济的书记的职位。接着,就提出了我的名字。全会赞同了安德罗波夫的意见。

      全会过后,我立刻被任命为中央经济部部长。我永远都不会忘记那次全会,它使我的生命之流进入了另一个完全不同的河道。没有那次全会,我还真不知道自己未来的命运将会如何。

      接下来我收到了许多口头和书面祝贺。我还保存着我父母发来的电报,两位老人家现在已经不在人世了:

      亲爱的尼古拉,祝贺你当选为苏共中央书记。孩子,你的肩头现在承担着重大的责任,你要不辜负人民的信任。祝你身体健康,工作上获得巨大成绩。亲吻你,拥抱你。

      矿区的普通劳动者距离高层领导和大政治非常遥远,他们表达的是人民的信任,因为他们就是人民,就是那些国家领导人应该为之活着和工作的人。

      这一生我始终努力不懈,以求不辜负人民和父母的信任。苏共被出卖了,因此我发誓再不加入其他任何政党。我一定信守自己的誓言。

    几次决定命运的人民代表大会

      正如所知,首次通过民主选举产生的第一届人民代表大会,于1989年5月25日上午10时在克里姆林宫大会堂开幕……而今天,苏联没有了,代表大会没有了,最高苏维埃也没有了。人民选出来的代表们把自己当代表的徽章收进了装那些手头用不着的东西的匣子——留给孙子们作纪念吧。不过所有的人都应该记住,解散代表大会和苏联最高苏维埃是1991年8月以后“民主派”破坏俄国政权的一系列行动的先声。这件事的执行者是俄联邦最高苏维埃,也就是那个仅仅过了两年就在坦克和大炮的攻击下解散的机构……

      关于代表大会有两个不算太愉快的回忆:第一个回忆——就是萨哈罗夫院士那完全合理、完全符合一般民主精神的建议——要听一听苏联最高苏维埃主席职位候选人对自己立场的表述——没有得到支持。虽然精神可嘉,但建议没有通过。因为,后来才知道,候选人总共只有一个,而这个人却认为他应该先当选,然后才作报告。尽管选举之前克里姆林宫会堂的讲坛上已经对这两个职位合二为一的合理性响起了质疑声,但代表们对这样的发言并不支持。不过有这样的发言也是可以理解的:在那些日子,除戈尔巴乔夫外别无选择。所以著名作家,深孚众望的人民代表成吉斯·艾特玛托夫,才提议他作为苏联最高苏维埃主席职位的候选人。

      选举他当主席肯定只是一种纯粹的形式,所以当奥波连斯基代表毛遂自荐地出来竞选时,才引起了满堂哄笑。阿帕提特市的一个名不见经传的居民,极地地质研究所试验室的一个工作人员,竟想跟改革的创始人来一番较量……不过,问题的实质其实在于,他不过是想用自己真诚的公民行动来加强刚刚诞生的民主。我想重复一下他说过的话:“其实我非常清楚,跟戈尔巴乔夫同志竞争,我是一点希望也没有。我只希望在我国历史上,在我们大家的实践中,终于出现了一次真正的选举。尽管这样做并没有什么选择的基础,但毕竟是一次选举。”

      他的名字甚至没有被列入选票。我们这些代表并不希望,或者更准确地说,还不善于理解,民主一旦诞生,一旦通过这件事宣布了自身的存在,自然就会每时每刻、每分每秒都在提出证实它自我存在的要求。甚至是这些细节。特别是这些细节!如果谈到出现了什么不愉快的事,那就是戈尔巴乔夫觉得最好还是对此事表示沉默。我不打算猜测他沉默的原因,不过我想,他也未必能正确评估奥波连斯基行动的意义。

      第二个回忆就是斯维尔德洛夫斯克市代表布尔布利斯为了讨好自己的同乡战友叶利钦,提议他作为苏联最高苏维埃主席职位的候选人。叶利钦对这个建议作了一个含糊不清的回答,倒也十分耐人寻味:

      “由于本人从昨天开始成了一个失业的人,我本来是可以同意这样一个提议,认真工作,承认改革的。不过现在我选择自动放弃候选人资格。”

      叶利钦取得政权后,没有忘记这位“忠诚到不肯谄媚”的人物的功绩,把他任命到一个至今人们也搞不大明白、根本不需要的职位上——当上了国务秘书。这真是投桃报李。

      看来还有个不愉快的回忆,那就是在那真正可称为是永志难忘的日子里,良心受到的钻心般的刺痛。那些日子对我特别难忘:6月7日上午,在苏联新一届的最高苏维埃会议上,后来又在人民代表大会的会议上,我被任命为并被批准为国家部长会议主席。这并不是一个形式上的任命。当天我在台上站了很久,报告以后政府活动的纲领,并回答了无数提问。

      我成了苏联由人民代表大会批准的第一任也是最后一任政府主席。别以为这是小事一桩,是一段依样画葫芦的历史。在那次代表大会上,一切都是破题儿第一遭。错误是从来没犯过的,快乐也是从来没尝到过的。还想说一句,后来,在最高苏维埃任命由我提名的政府成员时,代表们充分表现出了自己的脾气——犟得很,而且还不大讲理。

      随着代表大会的进行越来越清楚地看到,反对派组织正在会上形成。可以清楚地看出它的“干部队伍”、政治方向以及夺取国家政权的斗争手段,同时还看出社会制度正在改变。这个问题我要具体地谈,因为有好多事情在社会的记忆中已经蒙上了一层时间的薄雾,至于年轻人就更是毫不知情了。

      好了,代表大会的最重要的任务之一,就是成立苏联最高苏维埃。按照宪法规定,它仍同过去一样由两院组成,即联盟院和民族院。这个问题的讨论搞得非常冗长,简直催人欲睡:就拟订名单程序、各加盟共和国额度、提名办法、投票等内容发言的达数十人之多。最后等到所有的问题都讨论一遍,才把提出的名单提交无记名投票。俄联邦民族院的选票中列出了12名候选人,其中包括叶利钦。投他的票的代表当中,有1185人赞成,964人反对。其他各位候选人得到的反对票比他都要少得多。就俄联邦代表进行投票时还有一个特点:如果每个共和国出一个名额,应该是11个名额,但选票上的候选人却有12人。这样一来,叶利钦就没有能够进入最高苏维埃。

      在组成联盟院的过程中,许多事件也令人难忘。有些人民代表表现得蛮不讲理,破坏议事规程,占着讲坛不下台,抓住话筒不放,对什么问题都评头论足。对他们的投票情况就更是说明问题:比如扎斯拉夫斯卡亚院士,她是“农村无前途论”的提出者,同意她的仅为591票,而反对她的则达到了1558票。支持扎斯拉夫斯基的为829票,反对的为1320票。后来这个人在莫斯科的卡卢加镇由于做生意搞诈骗,大大地出过一回风头,然后就从政治舞台上消失了。这样在最高苏维埃选举中落选的有波波夫,后来在首都当上了不走运的市长,他的不走运的副手斯坦凯维奇,以及著名的农业问题评论家切尔尼琴科——这个人在批评我们的农民的同时,又在自己的口袋里揣着一枚由他创立的,说来惭愧,几乎没有党员的农业党的图章。

      总之,根据最高苏维埃选举的结果可以得出结论,就是大多数人民代表不支持当时正在出现的反对派,他们隐约地明白或者感到,这里存在着一种对国家的危险。

      几天之后,一个当选为民族院人民代表的鄂木斯克国立大学劳动法、环境法和农业法副教授卡赞尼克提出一项议案,建议在“不经过投票的情况下由叶利钦取代本人进入民族院……同志们,我担心如果再投一次票,叶利钦同志还是通不过,而这种情况绝对不该发生。”

      提议被通过了。叶利钦就以这种非常奇怪的方式当上了苏联最高苏维埃的委员乃至其中一个委员会的主席。为了感谢这一行动,叶利钦在当上俄罗斯总统后,随即任命卡赞尼克为国家总检察长。不过这位天真的,看来也正派的人,还是看清自己究竟落到了什么人堆里,于是很快又回到了自己的故乡鄂木斯克。

      代表大会开幕后的第三天,在否定国内现存一切事物的积极分子们为进入最高苏维埃而开展的选战遭遇一败涂地之后,阿法纳西耶夫和波波夫发言了。阿法纳西耶夫是国立莫斯科历史档案学院的院长,而波波夫则是《经济问题》杂志的主编。他们在发言中公开站在当局和大多数的对立面。假面具终于摘下来了!

      阿法纳西耶夫在发言中宣称,代表大会成立的是斯大林—勃列日涅夫式的最高苏维埃,选出来的代表都水平低下。他责难与会者“大多数都是听话的打手”,阻碍了代表大会任用进步人士。顺便说一句,这种提法后来就成为“民主派”在苏联人民代表大会各届会议工作期间挂在嘴边的一句话。

      波波夫是未来反对派的另一位领袖人物。他对代表大会开始的工作表示失望,把大多数代表说成是缺乏智慧的群氓,不懂得思想多元化,只知道秉承组织的旨意行事。不过闹不明白这组织究竟是什么意思——指国家组织呢,还是党组织或议会组织?根据这位波波夫的意见,代表大会上“缺乏智慧的群氓”,为的就是形成一个听话的机构——最高苏维埃,然后再以最高苏维埃的名义,继续对国家领导中的“进步一翼”施加压力。
      因此,用他的话来说,就是只好想一想怎样来变更立场了。首先,莫斯科地区代表中的科研机构和文艺团体小组认为有必要退出莫斯科代表团。他建议考虑成立一个跨地区的独立的代表小组,并号召代表中所有的志同道合者都参加这个小组。

      果然,1989年7月末,在莫斯科的电影之家召开了第一次跨地区组合代表会议。选出了组合的联合主席,他们是阿法纳西耶夫、叶利钦、帕尔姆、波波夫、萨哈罗夫⑤。跨地区代表会议得到了媒体,特别是电视的广泛介绍。还成立了协调委员会,其成员包括索布恰克、特拉夫金、斯坦凯维奇、波尔托拉宁、布尔布利斯这样一些人⑥。波罗的海沿岸几个共和国的代表表示,希望他们的组合成员身份不要正式登记。

      这样一来,我们国家合法的反对派组织就正式形成了。他把许多具有反对派思想的代表团结起来,形成了基本力量,它就是80年代末破坏活动的组织者,最后导致了国家的解体。组合及其协调委员会的领导人过了大约两年都进入了政权机构,开始领导俄罗斯、莫斯科和列宁格勒。

      起初,看来是出于策略上的考虑,组合的领导宣布的目标是有节制的,即对共和国和地方政权机构施加影响。他们的文件说:组合将准备对苏联最高苏维埃以及代表大会文件的修正案提出新问题,“不要把自己同最高苏维埃对立起来,而是相反,要使最高苏维埃激进化,要促使它更加迅速地彻底转变成表达人民要求的机构”。

      又过了不多久,情况变得明朗化了:跨地区代表组合虽说是一个议会党团,但却并没有打算把自己局限在议会活动上。它越来越觊觎国家政治生活中的特殊地位。从这个组合的头几次会议开始,就可以清楚地看出,它同人民代表大会、苏联最高苏维埃,同当局的地方机构,以及同政权机构的人民代表,都发生了对抗。可以清楚地看出,把少数人民代表团结起来的组合,它所追求的目标,就是要反映大多数人民的意见并成为与“尸位素餐的党内官僚”进行对抗的实际力量。在第二届人民代表大会上,跨地区组合成员宣布,他们同与会大多数代表之间存在着原则分歧。受跨地区代表组合的委托,阿法纳西耶夫在会上作了一个正式声明,指出了推动组合走向反对立场的具体分歧。

      其实,跨地区代表组合这时已经采取了反苏和反联盟的立场(它把苏联叫做“帝国”),并开始对民族分裂分子的领袖表示支持。从他们形形色色的要求当中,可以分析出两大主要要求,后来在摧毁伟大国家的过程中起到了可怕的作用,这就是废除苏联宪法第六条关于苏共领导地位的内容,以及罢工合法化的内容。组合提出了一个口号:“一切权力归苏维埃!”其目的就是要打破苏共的主宰地位,后来又宣布苏维埃是党内官僚的避难所,到了1993年1月则干脆消灭了苏维埃。

      不久,跨地区代表组合的领导人之间开始了争夺领导权的斗争。阿法纳西耶夫凌驾于组合之上的企图以失败告终。其中有一个不算不重要的原因,那就是他的日本之行。他在那里把被称为“北方领土”的我国的几个岛屿“奉送”给了日本。而就这个问题直到现在还在进行着复杂的谈判,在谈判桌上,俄罗斯当今的领导坚决不同意把这些岛屿移交给日本。可是在当时,阿法纳西耶夫的立场却引得右翼势力狂喜不已,也引得几乎全国都非常不满。

      阿法纳西耶夫最出风头的时间要数他在第一届大会上发言的时候。后来虽然他还是跨地区代表组合的联合主席之一,但他的社会活动却变得暗淡了,他热衷于出国访问,答记者问,在各种各样的政治集会上担任主席。而且,据我所知,对于自己的代表职责履行起来也是马马虎虎。总之,他已经不再工作,而是头顶着侥幸得来的光环睡大觉了。

      在发生这些事情之前,阿法纳西耶夫多年来一直领导着我国的一个少年先锋队性质的组织,以社会主义精神、热爱党和祖国来教育孩子们。正是这样一些双重道德的人物,在公开性和多元化的年代里,开创了叛卖行为的先河。

      在阿法纳西耶夫领导的学院里,有过许多党和国家领导人的子女在那里学习。但后来这些下一代竟欢天喜地地把他们的父辈通过斗争得来的一切踩到了脚下。再往后,在取得学院领导和教育部同意之后,学院又被金融寡头涅夫兹林出价一亿美元收购,涅夫兹林也就成了这所学院的头头,虽说跟学院并没有任何关系。不过他的“领导”倒也没能持续多久。现在他正从“神圣的”以色列土地眺望着我们祖国,而阿法纳西耶夫则在不久前离开了学院,临走还重重地摔响了身后的门。

      阿法纳西耶夫是否明白,在他的学院,事物肯定会这样发展,而且全国的情况也是一样?从最近的消息来看,他一定尝到了失望的苦涩。

      跨地区代表组合的领导人为了扩大自己面前的人物,就一定要建立一个有效的架构。他们本想创办一份自己的报纸,但没有得到支持,于是转而利用一家由库尔恰托夫原子能研究所出版的发行量很大的报纸《苏维埃物理学家》作为基地,出版以《人民代表》为名的专刊。报社设立了编辑部,又设立了人民代表首创基金。无数专家和助手小组实际上已成为跨地区人民代表组合的办事机构。

      跨地区人民代表组合由于内部矛盾而消磨了积极性,它没有为第一届代表大会的工作作出什么建设性的贡献,对第二届(1989年12月)也是同样,它也没能制订出现实的行动纲领。不过它却成为一个核心,把各种各样反对力量都团结起来,并于1990年1月正式组成了激进运动“民主俄罗斯”。它公开把极端反共定为自己意识形态和行动的基础。

      当时国外媒体对跨地区人民代表组合的建立和活动得出了有趣的结论。

      加拿大《多伦多之星》写道:“组合的成立表明,在改革过程中,共产党内部的危机已经达到了何等深刻的地步”。

      《印度时报》指出:跨地区人民代表组合“是一群无政府主义者、共产主义者、自由主义者、民族主义者和社会民主主义者的大杂烩……他们所说的一切,同任何实用主义态度都少有共同之处,看来这个组合相互联系太少,以至难以收到足够的效果”。

      英国《每日电讯》指出,组合的要求“远远超出了戈尔巴乔夫总统提出的改革。新组合的信心由于矿工罢工获得成功而有所增强,这次罢工迫使党和政府屈服。罢工行动明确地告诉激进派,他们的目标同工人相吻合。组合的建立证实了党内的两极分化”。

      不过,前面我曾保证过,要回到政权归苏维埃这个问题上来,并从另一个侧面,即从民主派的角度来分析这个问题,现在是该履行诺言的时候了。为了能把某些思想印象表达得比较完整,我先要请读者原谅可能出现的重复。前面说过,跨地区代表组合在最初阶段曾拾起过“全部政权归苏维埃!”的口号来武装自己。我想,这绝非偶然:因为在许许多多人心目中,“苏维埃”一词至今仍被看做是人民的政权。正因为如此,当那些过去的共产党员摇身一变成了反共分子之后,才会在将近20年的过程中,不断通过报刊、电视、广播把苏维埃政权骂得狗血喷头。

      遗憾的是各种事件演变的结果,逐渐把苏维埃的政权功能搞得越来越成为形式,这是因为这些功能都渐渐集中到了党的领导机构手上。所以当改革导致把真正的社会主义性质实实在在地归还给我国社会的任务出现时,解决这个任务的最重要的方向之一自然就成了国家的全面民主化,而且首先是把实实在在的权力归还给人民代表苏维埃。因此,在1988年的我国政治生活中又重新响起了“一切权力归苏维埃!”的口号。这个口号是戈尔巴乔夫在19次党代表会议上提出的。当时口号所表示的内容同20世纪初革命前的内容有所不同,意味着要把权力由苏共中央的手中转交给人民代表苏维埃。

      当然,“一切”这个词本身所表示的要求,在80年代的环境下是完全不能接受的,而且就总体而言,也是错误的。这个口号反映了一个主要之点,就是在苏维埃的面前正展现出一个新生命。从1989年开始,苏维埃逐渐摆脱了历史形成的弱点和缺点,克服了浴火再生和发展的困难,正在成为一种比较现实、比较有效率的政权。

      当时国内许多政治家都相信,站在新起点面前的苏维埃具有巨大的潜力。我也是这些人当中的一个。我经常会想起人民代表萨哈罗夫院士在代表大会上的发言。他的口才并不怎么样,口齿又不清,说起话来总是含含糊糊,但同时却又把苏维埃的作用讲得那么明白,他说苏维埃应该在各共和国、各州、区、村把权力掌握在自己手上。

      这位跨地区人民代表组合的联合主席萨哈罗夫在国家的社会生活中留下了深深的印痕。我认识他,但并没有什么私交,而且我们的政治观点在许多方面也并不一致。就是这位献身科学的人,氢弹制造者之一,作为一个人民代表,自打代表大会工作的第一天起就在会上起着显著的、重要的作用。他号称“民主之父”,正是把民主同苏维埃国家制度形式结合起来的第一人,他在自己提交的宪法草案中为这一点备了案。我还保存有这份文件的副本,上头有作者的批注。这位上了年纪的科学院院士,三次荣膺社会主义劳动英雄称号,得过诺贝尔奖金的人,就是他,在胸口挂了个好大好大的牌牌,上头大字写着:“一切权力归苏维埃!”那么,我们又该如何来理解那些一直以萨哈罗夫的名义发誓,而掉过头来又消灭苏维埃政权的人们呢?……

      我要提醒一句:苏维埃政权是在我们国家诞生,并成为我国具有标志性意义的政权组织的。它是从千百年来人民集体议事的传统中以再自然不过的形式发展起来的。在我们的意识中,“我们”是一直高于“我”的。正是苏维埃制度大大巩固了苏联和苏联这块领土上出现的大多数国家公民心理的这个特点。

      现在,统治阶层在我国强制推行资本主义。可是这种东西是违反我国传统的,它必然要把每一个人意识中的“我”摆放到首位,而且还要以怪异的方式将这个“我”放大,把它与“我们”对立起来,并把“我们”排斥到角落里去。所以,从这个角度来看,我们自然完全可以说,苏维埃已经成了我国野蛮资本主义狂热崇拜者最近阶段的一个牺牲品。

      我们所固有的集体主义传统无日无时不在经受着摧残,这究竟会把我们国家和人民引向何方?在这个问题上,不妨听听一个人说的话——那可是一个最难以归入共产主义信徒乃至对苏维埃心存好感之列的人物——索尔仁尼琴。他说:“我走遍了俄罗斯各地,收到四面八方成千上万封来信,形成了一种感觉,就是我国民众已成为茫然无助的一群。底层的百姓实际上已经没有活路。我国发生的一切,全同他们没有关系。他们几乎没有任何选择。或者俯首帖耳贫贱度日,或者另寻出路,比如说,从事非法行业;要不就欺骗国家,要不就互相欺骗。”

      萨哈罗夫在第二届代表大会期间——1989年12月15日——突然去世。我们政治局委员和中央书记处书记等几个人于12月18日参加了在科学院主席团大楼前举行的人民代表同这位科学家的遗体告别的仪式。我觉得,如果他还能活着,那在我们的国家生活中,许多情况将会改观。在他去世之后,反对派失去了精神和道德的领袖。构建正常运转的议会体制的机会丧失了。在跨地区议会代表组合中,极端倾向占了上风。不过组合毕竟还是需要一个哪怕是表面上的天授神权的领袖人物。无论是波波夫、索布恰克甚至还是阿法纳西耶夫,都无法担当这个角色,于是这份“殊荣”就落到了叶利钦头上。

      首先是以跨地区议员组合为代表的反对派接过了戈尔巴乔夫的“一切权力归苏维埃!”的口号,用以同党和国家进行斗争,改变社会制度。不过,当它把管理国家的控制阀一旦抓到手上时,议程上立刻就出现了一个新的、同前一个口号完全相反的口号:“打倒苏维埃政权!”

      ……1993年9月和10月到来了。俄罗斯总统把手置于其上宣誓就职的那部宪法,竟被他自己踩到了脚下。代表政权的各级人民代表苏维埃被解散了。为“民主派”治理国家扫清道路的口号,如今被扔进了污水坑。

      我经常想:如果萨哈罗夫还活着,那反对派会怎样行动?国家究竟是会以渐进的方式还是激进的方式发生变化?是先“打得落花流水”,然后再……当我回顾国内由公开性和“多元化”搅动起来的局势时,得出了唯一的答案:大多数人民当时是不可能接受渐进的。这一点我从切身体验上就可以感觉到。我曾就把经济转为市场关系,同时为居民建立发达的社会保障系统,对市场实行国家调控多次提出建议,但却遭到坚决反对:一切马上就要实现,今天就要!要在500天之内,而不是6—8年才实现!
      看来,这是人们对望眼欲穿的人间福利的一种相当自然的反应。多少年来,在改革还没有开始之前,党就一直在宣扬这些福利。而且,总书记和总统戈尔巴乔夫又一再许愿,结果把人民对政权的信任搞得荡然无存。这也是老百姓欢迎和支持向他们推荐的那个既颇有拿破仑派头,又带着土烘烘的、但很起作用的民粹主义色彩的领袖叶利钦的原因之一。老百姓在他身上看到了新的救世主,而在1985年,他们也曾一度对戈尔巴乔夫抱有希望。

      说到叶利钦,我只想提几件所谓他那个时代的事情:大多数人还对他位居国家总统期间出尽丑态、所谓国家元首“家族”贪赃枉法,特别是最重要的一点——国民经济遭到破坏记忆犹新。偷盗抢劫横行,百姓一贫如洗,精神生活所有领域不断蜕化,犯罪现象泛滥,乃至百姓生活于恐怖之中,等等。要想让人民“分清良莠”,恐怕还真得有个几年。为了这件事,人民付出的代价实在太大了。
      1989年叶利钦完成了美国之行。
      既然千百万人经过痛苦的切身体验已经确信,他所有的“民主”活动,都不外乎是出于乡下草台班子一个无师自通、敝帚自珍的戏子所表演的往往由醉醺醺的扭捏作态构成的愚蠢透顶的粗野的杂耍洋相,或者是彻头彻尾的蛊惑宣传,或者是不知羞耻的谎话连篇、信口雌黄。我只想引用意大利记者祖科尼文章中的几小段不大为我国所知的文字。

      改革的美国之夜散发着威士忌和美元的气味,被聚光灯所照亮。莫斯科的人民英雄叶利钦,这个专给戈尔巴乔夫念倒霉咒,专给公开性揭老底的人物,正犹如旋风般在美国上空掠过。他说过的话语在旋转回荡。他在身后留下的痕迹是关于灾难的预言、疯狂的花销、答记者问和著名的黑标签杰克·达尼埃尔斯牌肯德基威士忌那股特别的气味。他应约翰·霍普金斯大学政治学系之邀来到巴尔的摩,住进酒店之后一晚上独自就喝光了半公升装的一瓶。一位教授大清早坐车来接他到大学的会场,不禁吓傻了。叶利钦送了他一个醉醺醺的沾满唾液的吻,又把喝了半瓶的威士忌递到他手上。“为自由干杯!”叶利钦在清晨六点半向他提出了建议,手里挥动着倒满了酒的玻璃杯——那是一只通常在浴室里放牙刷牙膏的杯子。只不过他是自己把酒干了……

      还有一件事就远不是大家都了解的了,那是为叶利钦的美国之行做协调工作的哈利逊在回忆录中写道的:

      飞机着陆了。叶利钦走下舷梯。不过他没有向迎候他的代表团致意,却沿着起降区走向飞机尾部,背转身去,开始冲着飞机后轮撒尿。我们大为震惊,站在那儿不知所措。叶利钦走回来后,一句话也没说,同官员们一一握手,从一名年轻妇女手上接过一束鲜花,坐进了等候他的高级轿车。

      说实在话,在引用报刊上这些段落的时候,我真是觉得不太舒服。这位在大洋彼岸解开裤带的我国同胞,他的事迹读起来实在叫人恶心:这是个受到生物本能驱动的人,可是两年之后,竟“经全民选举”,当选为俄罗斯联邦总统!

      在翻阅那些日子的国外出版物时,人们会注意到我们未来的总统讲到自己国家时的那种放肆和不可原谅。我想提醒一句,政治家是有一个不成文的规定的,那就是自己国内的问题应该回家去谈。

      还记得德国总理施密特在访问莫斯科的时候,有人问了他一个有关他政治对手科尔的问题。他回答得非常简短,而且斩钉截铁:“我到莫斯科不是来谈论科尔先生的。这件事我会到波恩去做。”
      古巴廖夫,当年的《真理报》副主编,在自己的《总统,或者俄国版水门事件》一书中相当鲜明地描述了读者和公众的反应:“这种事不可能,这是对一个好人的污蔑。”等等。电视台回放了叶利钦在美国期间的纪录片,掀起了一片叫喊声,都说那是卑劣的歪曲,是恶意造假,是通过合成的办法把单词拉长了等等。而且说,要把他在巴尔的摩大学发表演说的讲台拍摄得很正常,而把讲台旁边站着的那个人,说得好听点,拍得脚跟有点不大稳,那都是用上了合成技术。而且苏联最高苏维埃还组织了专门委员会,举行多次群众大会,愤怒声讨国家领导人,而所有这一切,都是为了支持亲爱的人民卫士鲍里斯·叶利钦。

      是的,当时很难说服人们。他们期待着叶利钦这样的正义斗士,而且转瞬之间不假思索就为自己树立了一个偶像。任何有关叶利钦的负面消息都会立刻被他们否定。套在麻袋里洗澡的事儿人们不相信——那是污蔑;在飞机上睡过了头没能跟爱尔兰总统在香农见面——那是撒谎;到别墅“批阅文件”——那是因为时时想着文件,想着国家。不过,当他在德国喝得醉醺醺地指挥乐队,而一切又通过电视播放出来时,许多人的幻想终于破灭了。

      然而这些事都是后来发生的,而1990年秋天正是群众大会浪潮席卷全国的时候。那些大会都是由“民主俄罗斯”的领导人组织的。顷刻之间,这个组织就把本身作为人民代表的性质抛到了九霄云外,得出结论说,通过议会斗争夺取政权的道路是一条漫长的道路,其结果难以预测。他们选取了一条夺取国内政权的比较激进的道路——把群众大会、罢工、破坏百姓生活保障系统等作为有效手段来运用。

      我怀着一颗颤抖的心回想起那年的秋天。商店的货架子全空了。海港和火车站停着装运食品和日用品的货柜,可是却有人把钱塞给那些想参加卸货的人,把他们打发回家去。铁路线上出现堵塞,国内的铁路大动脉实际上全被切断。粮食和蔬菜烂在地里,水果烂在果园里。各种商品短缺、刑事犯罪、民族关系恶化、罢工等各种情况一下子在全国各地都冒了出来。事实上国内已经出现了经济和政治生活的全面瓦解。最后,政权瘫痪了。

      这一切对谁有利呢?当然是对那些为了破坏国家政权威信而无所不用其极的人,对那些一心想夺取政权的人。自打那时起,在整整15年多的时间里,为了反过来证明“民主派”夺取政权有理,电视台一个劲地播放同样的画面:空荡荡的食品柜台。不过现在的那些“独立”媒体的大老板们却羞答答地不愿说出,为什么商店会变得空空荡荡。

      我的心里常常会出现一个问题:如果这些事发生在叶利钦当权的时候,甚至发生在当今政权之下,那会怎么样?为了让这些人的头脑清醒清醒,会把他们弄进去待上多少年?我说,年头不会少了!这么处理是对的——可不能拿国家人民的命运开玩笑!

      到处都在开群众大会,可实际上又做不出任何决定。庶民政治把国内的权力抓到了自己手中。是谁在早就极端复杂、极端严重的局势上再火上浇油?是谁组织大规模游行示威,以它作为破坏管理结构乃至整个国家的手段?请看名单吧——他们都是把人民命运拨弄于股掌之上的“玩家”。就比方有一份传单,上头宣布1990年9月16日在练马场开群众大会:“参加者有阿法纳西耶夫、扎斯拉夫斯基、格德良、穆拉舍夫、波波夫、索布恰克、斯坦凯维奇、雅库宁。叶利钦将应邀出席。”不过,当这些先生掌权之后,他们很快便把练马场翻修了,搞得丑陋不堪,说得好听点,是搞了个没有品味的商贸中心,目的则是让人没法在“民主时代”再在这里开群众大会。

      有些名字(以及他们本人)已经被人遗忘了,不过这不应该:正是他们构成了第一梯队,完成了连希特勒也无法完成的“伟业”——让这个国家遭受到历史上最严重的失败。我只想就其中的某些人物说几句。
      加夫里尔·哈里托诺维奇·波波夫有一次声称,消灭苏联共产党的人正是他。他总是喜欢高估自己的作用,但我们却不能否定他在这一毁灭国家的历史过程中所起的积极作用。后来他对自己竭力推举的叶利钦颇为失望,但在此之前他当过一段时间的莫斯科市长,最大限度地利用这一职位为自己捞好处:他征用了党和国家财产中的一块“大肥肉”,以此为基础建立了一座以他为首的私立学校——国际大学。我经常在中央一级的报纸上读到他的文章,发现他变得简直认不出来了:现在他成了个具有国家观念的活动家、捍卫俄国人民利益的斗士。不过,人的本性是迟早都会暴露的:前不久他出了一本小破书,里头利用各种资料,收集了红军在卫国战争期间的一切“恶行”,讲述了某些士兵和军官在德国的不良行为,但却对希特勒暴徒在我国犯下的滔天罪行缄口不言。

      在苏联最高苏维埃各次会议上,常有一个外表整洁相貌端正的年轻人参加辩论,他就是人民代表斯坦凯维奇。他跟他的同事索布恰克一样,自动宣布自己是新民主的“浪漫派”。斯坦凯维奇利用这一“高尚的形象”和莫斯科副市长的职位大肆中饱私囊。这位“民主浪漫派”有许多“本事”,比如同刑事犯罪组织有着动人的关系,贪贿成性,把前苏联部长帕托利切夫的住宅据为己有等等。所以并不奇怪,早在担任第一届国家杜马议员期间,执法机关就对他提出过收受贿赂的指控。只是代表们没有同意剥夺他的豁免权。不过,正如所知,这只馋猫也知道是偷吃了谁家的肉,于是这位“浪漫派”便在代表特权到期之前拿着外交护照偷偷地溜出了国。他先后在美国、德国混了一阵,最后又跑到波兰,国际刑警组织终于探听到他的踪迹。这时“自由派”媒体又是一阵叫嚣,说什么“黑暗势力”开始了对第一批民主浪漫派人士的迫害。

      凡是掌过权的“民主派”和“自由派”人士,几乎都有这么一些内容可供谈说。能够经得起权力诱惑的人,说来惭愧,真是少而又少。而且他们那所谓“民主”信仰本身,也只不过是一层政治外壳而已。眼前就有一个现成的例子:在所谓“专制”条件下,群众大会是可以随时随地找一个理由就举行的,甚至哪怕跑到卢日尼基去举行也可以。可是到了“民主政权”时期,却出现了形形色色的硬性限制和行政禁令,使用暴力,挑起护法机关工作人员同示威者之间的冲突。前不久法庭对39名年轻人开庭审判,他们一个个铐着双手被带上法庭。他们受到指控,在俄联邦总统办公厅公众接待室组织骚乱,其中8人被判处监禁1年半至3年半不等。大家可以比较一下当年“民主派”的行动规模和接待室骚乱之间的差别!

      1990年5月16日,俄罗斯联邦第一届人民代表大会在克里姆林宫大会堂开幕了。根据宪法规定,宣布大会开幕的是俄罗斯联邦人民代表中央选举委员会主席卡扎科夫。迄至代表大会开幕日止,当选代表数为1059人,有9个席位空缺。卡扎科夫宣布,出席大会的有戈尔巴乔夫、雷日科夫、卢基扬诺夫、总统委员会成员、苏共中央政治局委员和书记。

      围绕着代表大会日程、俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃主席的选举,展开了激烈的斗争。代表们公开分裂成极端敌对的两个阵营:一部分以苏共为导向,另一部分则以有文化有知识的“民主俄罗斯”运动力量集团为归属。这一届代表大会还有一个难以忘却的情况,就是俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃主席的选举成了一场马拉松。直到5月29日,在最少必须获得531票的情况下,叶利钦获得535票当选。4票,这仅仅是大会代表人数的大约0.5%,最终却决定了代表大会以后的政治命运,也决定了俄罗斯后来的命运!

      有关俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃领导的问题,早在代表大会筹备期间在政治局就讨论过多次。依我的看法,政治局,特别是戈尔巴乔夫领导的中央书记处,在这个至关重要的干部问题上犯下了严重错误。他们推荐的都是一些在极为错综复杂的环境下显然通不过的候选人——弗拉索夫、博罗兹科夫。在一次政治局会议上我一针见血地说:这些同志都不错,可是代表大会不会支持他们。我们将不得不把这个位置让给叶利钦,他一点也不想掩盖要成为共和国当时最高政权机关首脑的意图,而这个共和国则实际上决定着整个国家的生命。在发言中我说,我们可以推荐任何一个全苏领导人到俄罗斯最高岗位上——雷日科夫也行,利加乔夫也行,或者别的哪位政治局委员和中央书记都行。可是,就这个问题并没有能够形成什么决议。
      代表大会开幕后,立即出现了一个俄罗斯联邦主权的问题。讨论进行得很热烈,连续讨论了三天——1990年5月22日、23日、24日。现在,当我检视当时的讨论速记稿时,想要指出一点:代表们关注的问题,主要都是一些个别性质的问题或条文表述方式。然而却没有任何一位代表在原则问题上对这一步骤提出过一次反对意见。正是这样一个步骤,成了苏联历史上致命的一步,因为正是它为苏联的解体提供了土壤。参加讨论的有40个代表,后来又有一个编辑委员会工作了两周半。

      俄罗斯联邦国家主权宣言的各色各样方案和无数修正案,其中还包括该共和国法律高于其他加盟共和国法律的方案,于6月11日和12日两天提交讨论和表决。总表决是在6月12日举行的。同意宣言的票数为907,反对票为13,弃权为9票。共产党员们也都表现得政治上盲目短见,无能预见这个问题可能导致的严重后果。当时做总结的已经是当选为主席的叶利钦:
      “决议通过。”(暴风雨般经久不歇的掌声。响起了欢呼声:乌拉!乌拉!)
      “祝贺全体人民代表和俄联邦各族人民。”(掌声)
      就这样,俄国的第一届人民代表大会成了破坏伟大国家的主要力量,而1990年6月12日这个被“民主派”宣布为伟大节日的日子,则成了我们在全世界面前蒙羞的日子。

      俄国代表们又是出于什么想法才通过这项决议的呢?他们不可能不知道,主权就意味着一个国家完全独立于其他国家。也就是说,俄罗斯宣布自己独立于其他各加盟共和国,也就是说,它拒绝承担结构国家的作用。仅仅是这一条,就注定了苏联要垮台。不错,根据苏联宪法,俄罗斯联邦也好,其他任何一个加盟共和国也好,本来就都是主权国家。而在实际上,它们都把自己的部分功能交给了将它们团结起来的中央政权。宣言炮制者用表面看来完全“高尚”的理由掩盖了真实用意,说是要保障俄罗斯公民“能够体面地生活,享受自由发展,并使用本民族语言”,仿佛这些原则在全苏宪法中不存在,国家根本就不关心他们,不关心所有这些条件的实现似的。

      政治就是这样,话说得很一般,但话的背后却隐藏着现实的利益。利益是各种各样的,不过依我来看,其中有一个共同的目标,就是要不惜任何代价摆脱中央权力——其中既包括党,也包括国家——的“关照”。所有那些在精神上鼓舞了和行动上导演了这一事件的人,他们的任务就是把俄罗斯同全苏中央对立起来,把苏联“帝国”搞垮。刚刚成立了一个“新”党——俄罗斯共产党——的党员们,都害怕触犯主权思想,害怕失去情绪狂热但方向不明的选民的支持,他们可能不理解俄罗斯的独立,也没有采取反对独立的立场。此外,这个党的领导也并不反对实际上拥有“主权”地位,即使是为了不受到责难,不承担主动执行苏共中央决定和指示的恶名也好。

      在我的面前摆放着这几次会议的速记记录,还有记名投票结果的名册。许多我所熟悉的名字,他们都投了赞成票。后来,过了几年之后,我向其中有些人提问:为什么当时他们会支持俄罗斯主权宣言?唯一的回答是:我们连想都没想它会让苏联垮台。

      不过,要想使俄罗斯主权起到消灭苏联及其现行制度的作用,还得赋予这样一个思想以实际起作用的机制。它之所以能建立起来,得益于一个从正常逻辑来看有点像白痴的论点:俄罗斯法律高于全苏法律。换言之,“部分”被宣布高于“整体”。这意味着所有组织机构资源及其附属的物资资源、财经资源等,将统统脱离全国中央的管理,这样一来,中央的存在实际上已毫无意义。请想想,在表决之前、表决当时和表决之后,这样一点难道还搞不明白吗?

      1990年6月13日一大早,我送英国首相撒切尔夫人去机场。当时她正在莫斯科访问,准备乘飞机到毁于地震的列宁纳堪(在亚美尼亚)参加英国帮助建设的一所学校的落成典礼。
      一坐进汽车她就说:
      “雷日科夫先生,昨天晚上我从你们的电视上看到,俄罗斯议会通过有关主权的法律,其中最主要的一点就是俄罗斯的法律高于联邦法律。您了解情况吗?您怎么看这个问题?”
      “我当然了解,”我这样回答。“‘主权’这个概念本身是没有什么问题的,因为俄罗斯拥有的权利实际上少于苏联的其他加盟共和国。但若对主权再做其他补充,就无论如何也不对了,特别是共和国的法律高过全苏法律这一条。这将是统一国家瓦解的开始。在这样的条件下,国家将无法起作用,而且,紧随俄罗斯之后,其他共和国立刻也会照此办理。”

      这部法律通过后不到几个小时,就出现了这样一次谈话。就连她这个局外人也很清楚,对于一个统一国家来说,出现这种事情是不能容许的。她拿这个事件同自己国家做了比照,说了些我看是十分正确的想法。这里我想说一个小插曲,它更像一个政治笑话:三年之后,撒切尔夫人——当时她已经是政府首脑——又来到俄罗斯,为了加快改革,她所提出的建议不是别的,恰恰是……解散我们的议会。如果是我,比方说,跑到英国去——我俩的地位可是同样的,都是前首相——提出建议要立即解散他们的议会,有意思,会出现什么情况呢?

      这样,实际上直接统一国家的问题便画上了句号。我再说一遍,苏联的俄罗斯第一届人民代表大会成了瓦解伟大国家的罪魁祸首,俄罗斯的新领导在这里则起到了“特洛伊木马”的作用。伟大的国家由伟人所缔造,但却为卑劣的宵小所毁——这话真说得一点不错。

    “您当时为什么不说服我们?”

      有位上了年纪的妇女在街上认出了我,看来是不由自主地表达了许多人的想法:“尼古拉·伊万诺维奇,您当时为什么不说服我们?!”

      为了让蒙在人们眼睛上、心灵上、思想上的那层纱帘最终能揭下去,让人们本能地听到和意识到提请他们注意的、向他们提出过警示的那些东西,还真得需要经过几个困难苦涩的年头。想当年向人们提出呼唤的情况还历历在目,可那已是如此遥远的过去。

      在我多年来主要从事的国民经济领域和经济领域中,有过许多值得肯定的地方,但遗憾的是也有不少缺点。我曾不止一次说,逐年来,在许多方面,经济都越来越成为政治的人质。起初,当改革开始的头两三年,那时经济的运行还是照原来的样子,遵循指令计划模式,经济发展的速度非常快,也很平稳。但由于戈尔巴乔夫不断花样翻新的思想,国内经济生活变得忽冷忽热。他常到全国各地去东走西走,到处许愿。今天加速发展,明天科技进步,后天又是农村问题,冶金行业、电子工业……等等。

      我们也曾试图让他放郑重一些,提醒他如果所有的问题堆成堆,经济势必受到损害。可是不行:“你们不明白,这可是人民的期待!”人民的确有期待,他们渴望国内发生严肃的、根本性的变革——第一方面,第二方面,第三方面……不过经济这个东西是有惯性的。要想作必要的调整,就需要时间,不停地折腾它只会妨碍它的发展。过了三四年,老百姓对改革失望了,于是当局再也得不到人们的尊重。事情办糟了。

      我非常清楚地知道,过去的经济模式当年曾解决过许多全球性的、国家的和社会经济的问题,不过这种模式的潜力已经挖光了。然而说和做并不是一回事,问题的压力越来越大,可解决它们却需要时间。结果在相当一部分人心目中,政府逐渐由主张进步的类型“蜕化”成了保守类型。

      需要找出一种新模式,它既能刺激国民经济的发展,又不会引起激烈的震荡。经过好多个月的探讨和细致研究,我们这一届政府于1990年5月向最高苏维埃提出了经济在必要的国家调控机制下向社会导向的市场关系过渡的纲领。我们提出了三种可能的新经济模式。

      其中两种,是作为参考信息制订出来的,指出它们可以存在,但却不是我们所推荐的,因为他们过于激进,为此人民将付出高昂的代价。顺便提一句,其中最激进的一个模式,过了半年却被叶利钦和盖达尔拿去作为武器,并于1992年1月开始搞他们的激进经济改革。至于后果如何,老百姓至今犹然感受在身。

      我们向议会提出的方案,是逐步的,渐进式的,计划花费6年到8年时间向市场关系过渡。此外,我们感到非常不安的是当时国内出现的政治上的不稳定局面:苏联人民代表大会和苏联最高苏维埃的各种决议、俄罗斯联邦人民代表大会行使的权力——所有这些都在动摇对国家的治理。在弱势政权之下开展激进改革,照我看来是不会有前途的,也是非常危险的。苏联最高苏维埃基本同意了我们的纲领,并委托政府在秋季全会之前提出具体建议。

      在第一届俄罗斯联邦人民代表大会开会的日子里,我已经说过,为争夺俄罗斯最高苏维埃主席和共和国政府主席的位置,斗争是非常激烈的。共和国部长会议主席的位子有好几个候选人,而且其中的两位是出自我们的“队伍”。我指的是我的副手沃罗宁和西拉耶夫。跟过去一样,充当风向标的是俄罗斯原部长会议主席弗拉索夫。莫斯科郊区布托夫斯基砖厂厂长波恰罗夫是个在选举中为支持叶利钦当选代表出过大力的人,这会儿远远地跑到了前头。不过他也似乎明白,一个共和国的总理,说得不好听点,水平上总该比一个小砖厂的厂长要高一点才是,所以大家也并不急着让他尝到这个甜头。于是波恰罗夫给自己准备了一张重要的王牌——他宣称:他有一个自己的、在500天之内向市场过渡的纲领。

      波恰罗夫提请代表大会裁决的这种“超级革命”的新发明我早就领教过。早在1990年初春,阿巴尔金的小组就曾为苏联最高苏维埃全会制订过一份向社会导向的市场过渡的政府建议,与此同时我还研究过大量其他方案,要么是由一个单位或团体提出的,要么是由个别学者提出的。有两位年轻经济学家,一个叫扎多尔诺夫,一个叫米哈伊洛夫,他们搞了一份供讨论用的纲要,标题就叫《400天》。目的是为这年3月将选出的国家总统提出一个激进行动计划。

      有一天晚上,当对许多经济改革原则问题进行例行讨论之后,有人告诉我有这么一份文件存在。我对此并没有给予注意,建议不要对一些枝节问题浪费精力。可是不知怎么一来这份纲要落到了波恰罗夫手上。这个人又加进了他的“创造性贡献”:把“400天”改成了“500天”,在每一个阶段上各增加了几天,然后没有改动一个字,就把它作为自己的独创方案端了出来。他还把事情做得更绝,竟署上自己的名字,拿到一个西伯利亚的出版社印了出来。几乎是在同时,这份纲要也在莫斯科出版了,署的是那两位经济学家,还有亚夫林斯基的名字,只不过标题是《400天》。亚夫林斯基当时在苏联部长会议的一个委员会工作,他的上司是我的副手阿巴尔金院士。

      总之,剽窃行为昭然若揭。亚夫林斯基甚至不得不在《莫斯科新闻》上发表了一个声明:“波恰罗夫在俄罗斯最高苏维埃提出的“500天纲要”,从一开始就是作为一个全苏纲要策划的……”

      不过,政治文章方面的剽窃以及围在亚夫林斯基身边低声下气地奔走忙碌,并没有能帮得了波恰罗夫,最后他还是没能当上总理。亚夫林斯基后来反而在沙塔林院士、戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦的支持下,靠自己手下那批青年同事的根本不现实的、纯属空想的经济理论,赢得了好响亮的名声。正是在那次答记者问中,他把自己同那群有经验的学者区隔开来:“至于说到拥护“500天纲要”的人当中将会有一些反对者,其中包括某些著名经济学家,像阿巴尔金、沙塔林、亚辛等,我看是一桩好事。”不过亚夫林斯基可是把沙塔林和亚辛看错了,他们选择了倒向速战速决的“500天纲要”,而沙塔林居然还同他分享了原创者的荣誉:这个纲要被称做“沙塔林—亚夫林斯基纲要”,而沙塔林更坐上了俄罗斯联邦部长会议副主席的交椅。

      1991年,当时已经因自己的(抑或不是自己的?)“500天纲要”而闻名遐迩的亚夫林斯基前往美国访问。他从那边带回了一个苏联经济形势的分析报告,报告上白纸黑字写着,要想完成艰苦异常的向市场的冲击,至少需要6—8年的时间,而且提出了一个跟我们一致的期限——1997年。

      不过,报刊媒体就仿佛是听了统一指挥似的为这“500天”纲要猛吹不已,它们完全忘记了苏联最高苏维埃已经通过了政府的提案,并委托政府再把提案补充一下,做一些修订。我对我国的这个“第四权力机构”可以说深有了解,相信它要找的是一个代人受过之人,说得不好听一点,就是找个“替罪羊”,这样就可以把经济政策的所有错误都推到它头上。再说得清楚点,不是报刊媒体需要这么个替罪羊,而是戈尔巴乔夫需要,因为这个人当然不会承认自己有什么过错。

      对于我国科学界的总体而言,特别是对于经济学界而言,有一件事很不幸,就是其中混进了许多人,他们非常善于利用早已发现的、早已验证过的东西来为自己捞取学位和职称,甚至全靠这一手。搞阴谋诡计的本事得到的评价永远不会比发现新事物的本事来得低。我这一辈子当中,有许多年是跟生产一线和经济工作打交道的。我所了解的学者有好几百,我很看重他们,他们是事业的推进者。如果说他们有许多想法在好多方面都出现了不了了之的现象,那也不是他们的错。这是我国悲剧中不可分的一部分……

      戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦的对立简直就把国家分裂成了两个敌对阵营,这种情况使我们的工作变得没有意义,因为俄罗斯联邦第一届人民代表大会之后,在全苏法律和各加盟共和国的法律之间,便爆发了一场混战,它首先打击的是事业,是经济,是人。

      1990年7月末,在戈尔巴乔夫外出休假之前,他明确地表示了自己对把经济推向市场原则的这份政府纲要的立场,而在5月份的总统办公会上,他也早已表示过同意的态度。然而到了8月份却透露出来,原来在苏联和俄罗斯两位领导人之间背着我又达成了一项协议。什么协议呢?8月3日播出的叶利钦电视访谈回答了这个问题。从这次电视谈话的摘要中,可以得出一个无可置疑的结论,即国家总统早在当时就已经走上了不可饶恕的妥协之路,并在后来导致国家毁灭。

      现在我不加任何改动,一字不易地将这部分访谈内容引用如下:

      问:……您曾经在我们的访谈中提起过,您打算建议中央接受俄罗斯的纲领。您还提到,无论中央是否接受这一纲领,您也还是会坚持俄罗斯应该有自己的经济纲领。请告诉我,如果,比方说,中央不接受您的纲领,在这种情况下您会采取什么行动?

      答:今天我可以告诉你,中央是一定会接受的,因为今天《消息报》上登了,戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦两个人签订了一个专门的类似于协定的东西,打算以俄罗斯的纲要为思想基础,建立一个小组,而这个小组将以俄罗斯的纲要为基础,搞一个全苏的纲领。也就是说,不是政府搞的那个现在受到批评的全苏纲要。我想,要通过的当然不会是那个纲要,是吧?这将导致全苏政府退位,而纲要将会是以俄罗斯观点为基础的那个纲要,一定是以俄罗斯观点为基础的。我跟戈尔巴乔夫就是在那个时候签署这样一个文件的。那时候我也在这儿。(指叶利钦也在那儿休假。——作者)我们通过几次电话,然后就签署了这样一个文件。我搞了一个书面建议给他,指出这是唯一的出路。我们建议按俄罗斯纲要来搞,要避免让我们再搞一套俄罗斯的货币单位,因为如果苏联不接受,那我们就要在俄罗斯内部来实施这个纲要,我们将使用自己的货币单位。那我们将不得不走这一步。

      好多媒体,特别是《消息报》,立刻作出了大胆的猜测,说是出现了一个强势联盟——戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦,而“帝国的独裁中央”将淘汰出局,正在制订的纲要将成为联盟条约经济部分的核心,这一协议将促进各主权共和国的实际团结等等。字里行间透露出来的意思就是:要打倒雷日科夫政府,它妨碍国家政治经济生活的迅速改变。我跟我的战友们完全看得清清楚楚,政治上的和经济上的极端主义将毁掉这个国家,改变社会制度。我们无法同意这一点。我们明白,就实质而言,这事不仅关系到是否能为人民、为社会、为国家进行政治经济体制变革的问题,而且更关系到国家民族的存亡。

      这样一来,在制订向市场过渡的纲领的过程中,实际是存在着两个中心。我们准备在9月1日之前拿出自己的纲要来——这是苏联最高苏维埃给我们规定的日期。我们还是像过去一样,在“松树林”工作。而在另一处——莫斯科郊区的一家宾馆“小松林”,则集中了“沙塔林派”的人士。这里我想提一句,“松树林”和“小松林”,大概还没有一个新闻记者不拿这么有趣的名称上的巧合来打趣两句的。

      根据阿巴尔金的提议,8月21日我跟他来到“小松林”,希望能找到个妥协的办法,以求把两股力量团结起来完成共同的任务。俄罗斯的新总理西拉耶夫也到了那里。我们面对面地坐了下来,我把制订政府纲要的情况说了一下,希望找出两个纲要之间的共同点,并再次呼吁共同努力。可是谈何容易!我们进入了公然仇视我们的敌人的营垒,我们在那里出现,对于他们就是一次极其不愉快的事件。而且跟我们谈话的腔调简直就像是老师训斥预备班的学生,几乎就是咬牙切齿的那股劲,哪里还有一点点学界精英温文尔雅的派头!三个钟头毫无所获地过去了。我觉得如果要说服,只有说服那些能听你说也想听你说的人才有可能。我的谈话对象做不到这一点,也不想做到这一点。

      这次会见没有带来任何正面的结果。相反,它告诉我们,双方之间的鸿沟已无法填补。而且有一种非常清晰的感觉,他们的所有战术行动,哪怕是每一个细节,都是受到身在南方的戈尔巴乔夫及其幕僚们的指挥的。

      现在已经没有人还记得,后来的“激进”市场改革,其源头正出自当年这些跟我对话的人物。今天,当一个泱泱大国已经不复存在,当俄罗斯和其他那些原来的加盟共和国正经历着长达多年的社会经济危机的时候,沙塔林、亚夫林斯基和亚辛这些名字乃至他们本人都正在被人们忘记,而亚夫林斯基和亚辛也在矢口 否认他们的所作所为。也许,面对目前的这种满目疮痍,他们会比较适合于把一切都忘到脑后吧?不过我还是要提醒一句:这一切正是他们搞起来的。只是到后来,他们的思想才为新的激进市场派——盖达尔、丘拜斯、费奥多罗夫等人——接了过去。

      戈尔巴乔夫依然在黑海休息,实际上他几乎不给我打电话,对工作进展情况不感兴趣。其实他本是理应对此有生死攸关之感的。所有这一切再次证明,他有别的考虑,也有别的人可以依靠。1990年8月20日,总统忽然停止休假,返回莫斯科,会见了制订“500天纲要”的人们。从苏联政府的班子里他没有叫一个人过去参加会见。这时我们已经明白,拟订联邦条约时,已经不可能再提出任何经过协调的经济建议了,提交苏联最高苏维埃全会的将是两份完全不同的纲要。

      1991年眼看着就要到来,可摆在眼前的各种问题根本没有使任何人感到担忧。不过各加盟共和国、各地区、各企业的领导可就坐不住了,他们发电报、打电话,向部长会议发起了一通通狂轰滥炸:怎么开展工作?两种法律、两套规章制度在整个苏联的领土上斗来斗去,甚至展开激战,而且还牵扯到共和国的主权之争,在这种情况下,他们应该照哪个法律,那套规章制度办?

      叶利钦向许多企业领导提出建议,要他们不再服从苏联的指令,转而接受俄罗斯法律约束,并答应为此削减他们的税额。只要纲要一生效,下一年的经济完全可能泡汤。此外,“500天纲要”所建议的东西,跟最高苏维埃通过的法律也完全抵触。

      国家总统提前休假归来的第二天,我采纳了几个副手的建议,试图请戈尔巴乔夫近日内同苏联部长会议主席团成员见上一面。8月23日,这样的会见举行了。它延续了6个小时。第一个发言的是我,然后是所有的主席团成员。我现在还保留着我的发言提纲,它也许可以见证我们提出的问题有多尖锐,说明国内当时的一般局势:

      我们之所以提出这次会见的请求,是因为政府非常需要就一系列迫在眉睫的、十万火急的问题,同国家总统进行坦率的对话。

      头一个问题就是国内总体上的以及大部分加盟共和国的社会政治局势非常严重。国内正在形成一种非常困难的局面,其政治经济生活发展的前景很难预测。国家正陷入极端复杂的政经危机之中。

      第二个问题,我们需要决定我们的立场,这就是对1991年的经济我们应该怎么办?

      第三个问题:整个苏联的命运问题。

      这些问题如果得不到解决,将导致严重后果:经济混乱,严重政治危机。

      与此同时,国内发生这些问题的所有责任,实际将落到政府头上。一切的目的都是为了把政府从国家管理体制中清除出去。今天,政府已经成为抑制解构因素和不稳定因素日益增长的最后一股现实力量。一旦政府垮台,将改变国内政治力量布局的平衡。

      还有一个同样尖锐的问题,就是失控。这种情况非常可怕。它首先表现在政令不行,不把总统的命令当一回事,宣布加盟共和国的法律高于全苏法律,通过完全国家主权宣言,等等。如果说过去在这个问题上是波罗的海沿岸及各加盟共和国在带头,那么现在这种情况就具有了更为严重的规模——在这些行动中带头的是俄罗斯和乌克兰。然而所有的责任,甚至包括烟草问题,都会落到中央领导的头上。

      乍一看来,这些问题都带有自发性质,但它们破坏国家现行政治制度的作用越来越明显。实际上提出来的问题是苏联作为统一的国家是否还能够继续存在。围绕着这个问题展开了尖锐异常的政治斗争。问题提得非常明确:苏联是否能作为一个统一国家而存在?它在国际社会中是否还能成为一个法人?它是否将不再存在,而由俄罗斯来作为苏联法理上的继承人?(在别洛韦日森林协议一年前,就已经在这样说了。——雷日科夫)

      “人们试图作根本性改变的不仅是加盟共和国同苏联之间的经济关系,而且还有制度本身的性质。有人想要重新审议基本的政治经济原则,推翻现存的政治制度。

      在所有这一切的影响下,经济越来越失去了它的活力。不仅是生产规模日益萎缩,统一的国民经济共同体也遭到破坏。如果不采取紧急措施,这一过程将以灾难告终。许多共和国都采取了限制企业权利的措施,其后果就是企业之间的直接联系普遍中断,它们拒绝续签合同,供应产品。加之现行法律和税收政策遭到破坏,而地方的、共和国的和全苏这三个预算体系的形成将会在最短期间内使国民经济完全瘫痪。政治不稳定直接影响国民经济,国民经济不稳又影响政治的这种恶性循环开始了。

      尽管对政府的批评越来越激烈,它在最后几个月还是在两方面展开了紧张的工作:搞完了向可控制的市场经济转型的纲要的制订工作;制订了国家1991年经济社会发展基本指标。不过这项工作的效果今天看来是非常的低,因为政府的决定根本就不能被接受,离心力变得越来越严重。

      今天,所有的企业几乎都没有编制来年的计划。在安排他们的物质技术保障、外汇保障时,在价格问题和税收问题上,所有的问题都不清楚。由于这些原因,许多共和国编制地方预算的工作已经瘫痪。苏联最高苏维埃就这些问题通过的法律许多加盟共和国都不承认。宪法已不起作用。

      某些加盟共和国中出现了大量内部不经协调就通过形形色色决议和决定的情况,这实际上是在破坏我国已经形成的完整系统。这就是实际局面。不管政府在这个问题上要负多大责任,今天的主要任务还是要调动一切力量防止国民经济运行中出现混乱。

      经过对各加盟共和国在发展经济问题上对制订大家都可以接受的决定的态度的分析,又经在苏联最高苏维埃开展咨询,直接开展同各共和国代表制订市场过度纲要的工作,并召开有各共和国政府首脑参加的苏联部长会议扩大会议——上述种种使我们明确,如果不订立一个全苏条约,如果我们对今后将在怎样的国家体制条件下生活没有一个明确的概念,任何向市场经济过渡的纲领都只能是空话,都不能实现。不过,很难预期全苏条约能够得以在近期内订立。这是一个极为复杂的过程,也可能拖得很长。

      不过,我们却无法使国家的生活止步不前,使制订1991年国家发展计划的工作停顿下来,我们不能停止执行已经通过的重大社会纲要,为企业的实际经济活动踩紧刹车,让新条件下的经济运行从最初的实际步骤中再倒退回去。苏联部长会议主席团细致全面地研究局势后得出结论,认为目前形势下唯一现实的出路就是在新的全苏条约签订之前,由各加盟共和国和全苏先签订一份经济协议,并以此为基础,组织编制1991年计划的工作。这份协议应该包括经相互协商确定的企业计划组织原则,税收体制的实施,各加盟共和国都能接受的新价格政策,物质技术保障体制,企业、共和国和全苏外汇基金的构成,乃至其他许多原则问题的决定,只有解决了这些原则问题,来年每一个共和国的每一个经济环节才有可能存活。这就是政府主席团希望在这次会见时讨论的主要问题……

      部长会议主席团成员的发言涉及的大致也是这些问题,只不过列举了更多的细节,更加具体。

      这就是在那个极其复杂的时期我们对国家真实局势的看法。我们意识到在国家头上高悬着关乎生死的危险。我想,读者对于这种局势的深刻戏剧性会有所评价:明明看出国家正在被推向毁灭,而且也提出了挽救它的现实道路,但却遇到了无法逾越的障碍,那就是对祖国命运反应迟钝的无动于衷,或者说就是对祖国的直接叛卖。

      8月30日,根据我们同戈尔巴乔夫会见的结果,在苏联最高苏维埃会议厅召开了各加盟共和国代表、各部部长、人民代表和无数应邀出席者的会议。头一天接近深夜,总统办公厅完全出人意料地下发了一份18页的材料,要求会议审议。材料是由沙塔林小组准备的,是一个“500天”方案的压缩版之类的东西。那里头没有一句话讲到建议来年按什么原则生活。只讲了一些有关向市场关系过渡的最一般的意见,以及各加盟共和国的作用和地位。

      现在完全清楚了,采取这样的措施,是为了引导会议丢开具体问题不去解决,也根本不管几个月之后国家会发生什么变化,只想把各加盟共和国吸引到自己一边,并在它们的支持下走向“全苏舞台”。我常常问自己,今天已经作古的沙塔林,当年是否曾考虑过自己采取的步骤会产生什么后果呢?我想,他只不过是被更有经验的政客利用来作为达到目的的工具而已。无论我们之间的私交多么好,我还是要直截了当地说:他在毁灭国家的过程中还真起了不小的作用,尽管我相信他并不希望这样做。

      会开了两天。发言者一个接一个上台,他们全是按照指挥棒行事,谈的根本不是迫切需要解决的问题,而是要把这18页东西跟政府建议对立起来。叶利钦是最先发言的人之一:

      “雷日科夫的政府应该立刻辞职!”

      乌克兰部长会议第一副主席福明也毫不掩饰对全苏政府的敌视。这个人以乌克兰共和国的名义所作的发言,就其歇斯底里和卑鄙无耻的程度而言,至今我也没有发现能有人出其右者。为了将来能分一杯羹,他可以不计后果。经验丰富的总理马索尔已经无法让乌克兰的领导层满意了。

      就连以谢尔巴科夫为首的官方工会也没有在一旁袖手旁观:他往政府头上没有少泼脏水。有意思,现在,当物价像火箭似的往上飙涨,而老百姓,也就是工会会员们的贫苦日甚一日的时候,这个工会领袖上哪儿去了?他为什么一声不吭了?

      第二天的发言更加强硬。一夜功夫,反政府力量获得了聚集成团的机会。经济协议的问题被抛到了一边。很少有人再提起它。会议临了又把我弄到台上。这一回我没有准备什么提纲。斗争十分激烈。要求人们保持理智的呼吁简直像是对着荒原在呼喊。神经受到的刺激到了极限。我在台上像火山一样爆发了,对那些把国家拖向深渊的政客们发出了愤怒的声讨。

      “如果不是因为对人民负有责任,”最后我说,“在这样的局面下,我们一天也不想多干。只是为了这一点,我们才没有这么做。”

      从台上下来的时候,我的身子就好像在云里雾里。我带着副主席们离开了会议厅。大家都很压抑,我是更不用说:一方面也是因为我没能控制住自己。不过我们还是有足够的勇气和理智得出共同结论:现在还不能走。这不仅是一个我们失败的问题。应该斗争。

      1990年9月,代表们假期结束后,苏联最高苏维埃和俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃恢复了工作。联盟院就经济向市场关系过渡展开了激烈的交锋:我们不管三七二十一,还是像5月里决定的那样,在9月1日提交了必要的材料。“500天纲要”也是争论的焦点。戈尔巴乔夫在苏联最高苏维埃的一次会议上对前期讨论作总结时明确地说,正是这个纲要,给他留下了更深刻的印象。这是他第一次在公开场合就此表态。说心里话,也正是在这一时刻,我想到了自己辞职已不可避免,当天的新闻发布会上,我谈了这个意思:

      “如果通过的决定同政府的立场不一致,那政府就无法执行它……只有当心存信念,我才有可能完成自己的职责。如果缺乏信念,或者明知它会产生危害,这样的事情我是不会参与的。”

      不过当时最高苏维埃和总统都还没有作出决定。中间休息之后,布尔布利斯代表——读者还记得第一届代表大会上正是他推举叶利钦当苏联最高苏维埃主席——从“白宫”飞驰而来,两眼放光,欣喜若狂地宣布,俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃在下午两点通过了“500天纲要”。“俄罗斯联邦已经作出了决定,”他骄傲地宣布,以此表示:苏联最高苏维埃愿意怎么讨论就怎么讨论好了,反正俄罗斯会按自己的办法行事。底下是一阵吵嚷,一阵喊叫,大厅里人们又跑去抢话筒。最后通过了一个含糊不清的决议,说是会议“注意到”苏联部长会议的报告,认为审议这个问题的所有材料是“合理的”,并“发现”最高苏维埃主席团对这个问题“准备不足”——又把卢基扬诺夫狠狠地刺了一下……

      那些天克里姆林宫里也在进行着无尽无休的辩论、争论、斗争。我们也不得不一遍又一遍在新闻发布会上阐述政府的立场。下面引用一段在这种同记者会见场合的速记稿摘要:

      雷日科夫:我国在许多方面都还没有为强制向市场过渡做好准备,社会意识也没有做好准备。因此我们主张慎重的做法。政府之所以捍卫自身立场,采取如此强硬的态度,是有道理的。为了制订新建议,我们邀请了科学界非常有分量的人物。新建议考虑了议会的建议,以及各种可供选择的改革方案。然后,又对将要推行的改革作了模拟试验,对所有的优缺点都作了数学分析。在研究过程中,对向市场过渡的方案有两种考虑:一套是激进方案,不少著名的苏联经济学家都主张这个方案;另一套则是温和方案,政府建议的正是后者。

      头一套方案的模型(几乎是立即放开价格,实际上完全取消国家订货)表明,头几年生产规模、就业率、生活水平将会急剧下降……

      分析第二套方案表明,也会出现下降,但会是一种比较平稳,比较和缓的下降。从总体来看,全国人民的生活水平也会下降,但下降幅度比第一套方案要小。因而经济趋向健康的速度也会稍缓慢一些。

      风雨大作的1990年秋天到来了。苏联最高苏维埃喋喋不休的辩论令人生厌,要求“穷人政府”下台的群众大会不断举行,俄罗斯议会通过决议要求苏联部长会议下台(反对票1票,弃权票16票),媒体上的批评犹如狂风暴雨不断袭来。

      在向我国政府发起总攻的过程中,各加盟共和国和中央之间的关系变得越来越复杂。对抗,首先是俄罗斯同中央政权的对抗,变得越来越尖锐。全苏政权很快便成为一种可有可无的东西,处于风雨飘摇之中。

      政治上日益严重的分歧对经济产生了毁灭性的影响,而经济的恶化反过来又加强了国家的解体过程。我们陷入了一个罪恶的怪圈。但所有冲破怪圈的努力都遇到了疯狂的抵制。

      离开我退出舞台的日子也就是一个多月的时间了……

      为什么我非要拖到犯心梗之后才下台?为什么我没有在跟戈尔巴乔夫谈过之后,或者后来在那次令人感到无比沉痛的全会的新闻发布会上就宣布下台?为什么当周围所有的人,包括戈尔巴乔夫,当那些跟我并肩走过漫长道路的人,都在狠狠地扇我跟政府的大耳刮子时,我还在忍耐?难道我没有自尊心?难道总理的交椅对我就那么宝贵?

      不,我要回答,不是的。是普通的责任感支撑着我。最高苏维埃11月全会过后,我就已经作出了辞职的决定。而将它宣布则是在12月初,那是在第四届大会开幕之前。因此,病情只不过是使一切提前了一两个星期。

      有一次我翻出了一页答记者问的记录,已经记不清是回答谁的问题了。可能是回答一家外国报纸的提问。那里有这样一个问题:“近来政府常常受到批评,甚至要求它下台。您看来并不像是一个赖在位子上不肯辞职,只知道追逐官位和前程的人。那是什么迫使您要如此执着地推行自己的路线呢?”

      我是这样回答的:
      问题在于政府的路线使有些人感到不满意,这条路线之所以强硬,是由于它牵涉到我们的国家是否能继续存在,国民经济中是否会出现混乱,那些靠工资、养老金和助学金过日子的人是否能得到社会保障,而一旦去除了所有的或几乎所有的调节因素,人们是否能经受住市场自发势力的打击。有人以此作为赌注,竟说政府无法摆脱保守思维。不对!政府为了有助于摆脱危机,愿意敞开大门。不过,作为一届对人民负责的政府,它没有权力跟在那些想把一切都打得落花流水,根本不计后果的人后面跑。政府最重要的任务,就是保证人民如何能以最小的代价来完成向市场的过渡。如果有人责难政府忘记了这一点,那么,他要么是不了解情况,要么就是,说得客气点,不大正派……但如果人民,人民在最高苏维埃的代表,认为政府的行动有损于社会的利益,那就请他们来决定我们的命运好了。

      当时说过的每一句话,现在我还可以再说一遍。显然,我这一代人受到的教育就是这样:要把事业进行到底,决不投降,不被困难所折服,要尽一切可能,哪怕最后是下台的下场。我也要说一句,就是在我向记者们宣告有可能辞职的那些日子里,部长会议收到了无数电报,要求我们不要屈服。提出这种要求的不仅有我的同龄人,最使我感到高兴,并让人对光辉未来充满希望的,是还有许多非常年轻的人,他们说:等一等,不要走,不要半途而废……

      但我们还是不得不走。还是逼得我们非走不可。

      12月初,应我的请求,戈尔巴乔夫单独会见了我。会见时我告诉他,已经下了最后的决心,要辞去国家政府首脑的职务。他听到之后表现得相当平静,甚至有一点如释重负。他跟我一样,对这次不太轻松的谈话早有准备。他请我谈谈关于接任者的意见。我谈了自己的想法。

      会见临了,我对戈尔巴乔夫说:
      “请记住我的话。现在,有人强迫您拿掉政府。这只是许多牺牲品中的第一件。再往下就是苏联最高苏维埃,然后是您自己。请为国家的前途命运着想,现在还有点时间……”

      他从来就是不顺心的话不爱听,最善于对有些问题装聋作哑……

      今天,当我回过头来分析往事的时候,我毫不动摇地得出了结论:我们是正确的。我们被人称做保守分子,但我们都是正常的、思维健康的人,我们关心事业,关心人民,关心国家。

      我的政府在退出战斗时保持了尊严,它并没有被打倒,依然怀着对理想的信念。生活表明,我们是正确的。

      1991年6月12日(俄罗斯在1990年宣布主权独立的日子)宣布,将进行俄罗斯联邦总统大选。早在4月,各州、各共和国、各劳动集体和许多社会政治活动家就纷纷给我打来电话,请求我同意参选俄罗斯总统。同各地方各单位的代表会见,最后也会提出同样的请求。在道德上我完全有拒绝的权力,因为我有个理由,就是不久前才得过一场大病。不过,如果是这样,我一辈子都会因为自己甚至没有打算参加战斗而责备自己。

      那是一个对于全国来说都非常可怕的日子。我在注视着当天如暴风骤雨般发展着的事件的同时,清楚地认识到俄罗斯和苏联各权力部门之间对立的高潮正在到来。如果叶利钦在大选中胜出,那么国家的命运就注定了。如果另一个人胜出,其中也包括雷日科夫,那么灾难还有避免的可能,通过深思熟虑的改革,依靠中央和各加盟共和国之间正常的相互关系,国家将不会被破坏,局势将得到稳定。与此同时我还意识到,由于人民对戈尔巴乔夫及其政策没有好感,由于叶利钦的反对活动在全国范围都引起了极度混乱,要想胜出也不那么容易。人民将会不知所措。许多人心存幻想,期待着当第501天到来的时候能见到天堂,认为叶利钦才是祖国的大救星。我最大的希望就是人们能听到我警示的声音。

      我不想详述竞选活动中的一波三折。什么都有了:有诬蔑造谣,有脏水淋头,也有含血喷人。总之无所不用其极。而且,还常常把我的名字同戈尔巴乔夫连在一起。我做了很大努力向人们解释,说实情根本不是这样,我们早已分道扬镳,说他已背叛了改革的理想,背叛了那些曾跟他一同创业共事的人,但并非所有的人都能听得进去。人们投票不仅是为了选叶利钦,而且还是为了反戈尔巴乔夫。而且,我的反对者在把我跟他“捆在一起”这件事上也没有少下工夫。

      为了能对那个时代和当时出现的局势有一个概念,让我来引用一段《苏维埃俄罗斯报》在大选两星期前发表的访问记。我通过这份很有权威的出版物于国内旅行期间回答了该报记者别兰所提的一些比较尖锐的问题。采访的标题《我建议走另外一条路……》本身就很说明问题。

      “他怎么敢把自己放到俄罗斯总统的宝座上?大家都知道,人民将选举叶利钦。”“您是奉戈尔巴乔夫之命呢还是奉中央之命?”

      ——我是自愿参选的。既不是奉中央之命,也不是奉戈尔巴乔夫之命。当了5年的国家部长会议主席,我亲身体验了什么叫掌权。我尝够了掌权的滋味,知道掌权有多辛苦,而且往往是吃力不讨好。

      但不论是在苏联还是在俄罗斯,情况都在日益恶化,危机四伏。我不相信叶利钦现在提出的这个纲领能使局面好转。情况将更为恶化。所以我不能袖手旁观,看着局势发展。这就是我的原因……

      现在再来谈谈向市场过渡的纲要问题。去年(1990)夏天,你们还记得,曾经有过两个纲要,一个是政府提出的,还有一个就是“500天”纲要。后者还有一个名称,叫做“休克疗法”纲要。我对这个纲要的态度非常明确。我坚信,经济必须转上新轨道,而且我还最早提出:硬性计划分配系统潜力已经到头,再按老办法将无法继续前进,需要转向比较有弹性的经济关系形式了。但我们提出的模式是可调控的市场,是逐步平稳过渡。当旧的东西倒下去的时候,当时就应该有新的东西建立起来,就应该仔细衡量,预测、而不是挥动板斧,速战速决。

      我坚决反对“休克疗法”这种办法。我过去认为,现在也还是认为,几个月之内就要过渡到新经济关系的做法,将会引发非常严重的后果。

      为了向自由市场过渡,就应该建立相应的结构。如果非要像现在这样说:好了,从新的年度开始就废止国家订货了,你们就自谋出路吧,那是一种不负责任的态度。眼下已经是困难重重了,但如果从新的一年开始干脆就不要调控,那大批企业将无法工作。特别是机械制造业,因为企业之间存在着紧密的合作关系。

      还有一条:我赞成所有制形式的多样化。应该找到一种形式,让人真正成为自己生产资料的所有者。至于说到小企业,什么手工作坊、快餐店、商业店铺等等,那我们这里还可能出现私有制。在这种情况下,我主张那些本身就在小企业工作的人有优先权,让他们首先能够得到这些企业。让他们自己来决定自己的命运,不必通过交易市场、拍卖市场,因为在那种地方,占便宜的都是赚大钱的人。

      至于说到大型企业,可以有股份制,有集体所有制,比方说,每一个工作的集体成员都可分得生产资料,也可分得自己的一份利润,这就叫全民企业。就应该走这样的道路。在农业中我坚决反对土地私有,反对把起商品生产作用的土地自由买卖。(我要说明:我说的是“起商品生产作用的土地”,当然不是指宅旁地,园田地和别墅用地。)

      每个人都应该有权在土地上劳动,他可以根据自己的心意选择:想当农庄主吗?请吧;想留在集体农庄吗?随便。我还主张租赁的土地可以作为遗产继承。不过是不是可以买卖呢?……

      “对于那些不盈利的企业,您怎么看待它们的私有化问题?”“您是个保守派,您反对住房改革。那就是说,您想把我们拖回停滞时期。”

      ——我决不同意那些提出号召要在新年之前跟亏损企业“做个了断”和强行把它们私有化,也就是把它们拍卖的人。这样匆忙从事是非常危险的。

      就拿煤炭工业来说,它欠了国家230亿卢布的债。可是如果我们土生土长的或者是外国的商人们把这些矿山买下来,那又会出现什么情况呢?谁去为成千上万的失业工人着想呢?因此我理解,企业亏损的确是我们的不幸,这是我国经济脖子上的铅坠。但是要提出强制私有化的口号看来还早。今天,我们25%的农场都亏损,那怎么办,难道把集体化再做回去?也许,是否应该具体情况具体分析,帮助经济重新站起来?其中也包含引入新的所有制形式?

      再来谈谈住宅私有化的问题。一年前这个问题在总统顾问委员会上讨论过。有人建议建立住宅市场,允许自由买卖住宅。为了加速建立这样一个市场,有人建议大幅提高房租,特别是对超过标准的面积。听起来似乎很动人。但是我立刻表示坚决反对。不能不经深入研究和计算就这样轻率地对待这个问题。今天,比方说,我们苏联有6000万退休职工。根据我们掌握的资料,其中3000万人有超过标准的住宅,有的5平方,有的10平方,还有的更多。有的因为孩子走了,有的因为丈夫或者妻子去世了……于是便出现了这种情况。难道说要把这些老人从窝里起出去?一个家可不仅仅是四堵墙。这更多的是一个道德问题,是一个品德问题。同时也是个物质问题:想一想,如果为超标的住宅他们要付所说的那种高价,那什么养老金也剩不下。

      难道那些年轻人,那些困难家庭能买得起住宅吗?房子会跑到谁手里去,难道还不清楚吗?

      在这个问题上我就是个保守分子,过去是,现在还是。

      “雷日科夫主张提高价格。”“辞职的时候,他向巴甫洛夫建议要提高价格。”

      ——是的,我们经常讲,价格组成问题上有落后的地方。应该调整价格,不过1988年就应该做。那时做损失会比现在小得多。

      根据计算,1990年提高价格需要付出的代价是1600亿卢布,而且其中有许多产品完全需要补贴,儿童用品还几乎没有涉及。可是由于“手段不普及”,我受够了攻击,尽管需要控制价格的事是国内几乎所有领导人、所有主要经济学家都同意的。(这里我想先说一句,我要提醒大家,从1992年1月2日起,若以我们的建议为基数,叶利钦和盖达尔实际上把价格提高了两倍,许多商品甚至提高了三倍。不久,这些价格就飞快地往上涨,从几百倍涨到几千倍,把千百万人民抛进了贫困的深渊。那些轰轰烈烈的声明呢?叶利钦不是说一旦涨价他就要卧轨吗?这些全都忘到脑后去了。而这一切给人民的打击是多么痛苦。)

      “您同戈尔巴乔夫的关系?”“您跟他有分歧吗?”“如果您当选为俄罗斯总统,您会在各方面同他保持一致吗?”“您干嘛要辞职?”

      ——现在我同戈尔巴乔夫没有任何关系。我不参加任何会议,也不是顾问。

      从前,大概是在1987年以前,我跟他没有什么特别的分歧。你们可能还记得,改革当时进展很快,我国经济也正处于上升阶段。然而即使在当时,我也依然有自己独立的、独特的立场。我觉得,原则性的意见还是有可能表达的,即使我在政治局处于少数。你们可能还记得那次反酒精饮料运动。对于建议开展运动的一些方法,我是反对的。

      最近,特别是1988—1990年以来,我跟戈尔巴乔夫之间的分歧很大。我直截了当地谈论这些分歧,当面向他提——既在政治局,也在总统顾问委员会。比如关于住房私有化的问题就是。

      最值得一提的是向市场过渡的纲要。政府纲要曾两次提交总统委员会审议。我把它提交上去,遭遇到批评,然后又是补充,最后说:好吧,雷日科夫同志,把它提交苏联最高苏维埃吧。我知道批评会是激烈的。特别是在价格问题上。不过,1988年的每一个文件不是都说,进行零售价格改革时务必要听取人民的意见吗?我怎么还能有别的做法呢?所以我就走上台把我们怎么看这些问题老老实实都说了。让所有的火力都冲我来吧……

      在立场问题上我始终是表里如一的。唯一可以自责的就是应该把我去年(1990年)12月在第四届苏联人民代表大会上说的话提前一年说出来。改革已经不是原来1985年预想的那个样子了。

      至于说到我下台的问题,主要原因在于代表大会开幕的前几个星期我通知了戈尔巴乔夫,我不同意所推行的经济和政治改革,所以宣布辞职。

      但不管怎么样,我的立场还是没有变。我认为,今天发生的这种变化,是把我们国家引向“休克疗法”,这将对人民生活产生严重影响。

      比方说,根据波兰的情况,我们对此就可以有所了解。不错,现在那边柜台上倒是什么都有,可就是普通老百姓买不起。以降低需求的这种方式来保证市场的丰足,是无须乎什么太高的智慧的,我可以在一夜之间就做到:把价格一抬高,商店里不就什么都有了!但我赞成用别的办法:应该找到一种平衡,既有商品,老百姓又能买得起。

      “你先把国家的经济搞得一团糟,然后又打算当俄罗斯总统。”

      ——让我们先来回顾一下近年来国内都发生了一些什么事。我觉得,头三年我们的发展还是正常的。然后就出现了一件件完全莫名其妙的事情:又是法律大战,又是罢工运动,又是条约关系遭到破坏……

      是的,从总体来说,国家的发展并不十分如愿,其中也包括不如我所愿。不过,正如所知,只有通过比较才能有所认识。一切都走着瞧吧,如果叶利钦胜出的话……

      “您怎么看叶利钦?”

      ——我早就认识这个人,我跟他在斯维尔德洛夫斯克同过事。他在州委,我在工厂。

      我不同意他的俄罗斯社会经济发展纲要。这一点我已经说过。我也不理解他的行为和行动方式。他在苏共党内得到了提拔重用,当上了政治局候补委员,成了首都党组织的领导人,可后来却把自己受到的教育、自己20年来一直在党的纪律协助下宣传推广的一切,放到脚下践踏。这叫什么立场?他还掀起了一场反对中央的“战争”!无论什么时候他都觉得有人跟他作对。

      最后我要直言不讳地说:如果选举我为俄罗斯总统,我会为俄罗斯而斗争,捍卫它的利益。但同时我也要实行一条保全苏联的路线。

      这些都是在1991年5月30日说的。读者可以对我当时对叶利钦胜选后的预见性予以评说。有些东西我还是可能估计不足,但就总体而言我对人民和国家命运的担忧还是实现了。在总统竞选活动当中,我在6名候选人中赢得了第二的位置。对于未来总统的竞选班子而言,迅雷不及掩耳也是他们的战略考虑:可不能给时间让老百姓多思考。于是,任务就这样解决了……

      1991年的8月到来了。这个月份的特别之处在于它是苏联垮台过程中的转折点。分析当时的事件可以得出结论:“暴乱分子”并没有明确的纲领目标。在国家非常状态委员会的行动中,并没有任何有组织的政治力量介入。政治局没有采取任何行动,没有通过任何文件,这次“暴乱”对于党的总部而言是事起仓猝。8月20日大约有2/3的中央委员在莫斯科,但书记处却拒绝召集中央全会。8月以后曾立案对党的许多地区领导人和某些书记处成员进行侦查,但统统因为这些组织同莫斯科发生的事件毫无关系而宣告侦结。人民基本上都没有参加到这些事件中去,这说明他们相信,这只是小集团之间的政治冲突。

      但胜利的一方立即向苏共发起了致命的打击。叶利钦的最亲密战友布尔布利斯给戈尔巴乔夫写了个条子:

      “苏共中央内部正在加紧销毁文件。总书记应下达命令,立即停止苏共中央大楼内的行动。卢日科夫已经切断了电力供应。他手上拥有执行苏联总统和总书记命令的力量。布尔布利斯”字条上有一条8月23日写的批语:“同意。戈尔巴乔夫”。

      戈尔巴乔夫被叫到俄罗斯最高苏维埃全会上,受到叶利钦难以名状的羞辱。这位昔日的党内战友对待他的态度,就像是训斥一个淘气的学生。就在全会进行期间,在顷刻间全都变成了反共先锋的代表们的一片哄闹声中,叶利钦签署了解散苏联共产党的命令。

      电视和广播都对这幕闹剧进行了直播。从这一刻起,戈尔巴乔夫已不复存在,他只剩下了一具躯壳。他在这场对全国致命的赌博中大败亏输。六年前在进军号角声中拉开序幕的改革像肥皂泡一般破灭了。

      当天,苏共中央书记处通过决定:“苏共中央应该通过一个艰难的,但诚实的决议——自动解散。至于各加盟共和国共产党的命运,由各自自行决定。”

      第二天戈尔巴乔夫认可了对党下达的禁令,卸下了总书记的权力,号召党中央自动解散。这样他就埋葬了党——这是他青年时代就加入的党,党指引他走过了一生,引领他登上了国家最高职位。而党的垮台则为毫无障碍地消灭我们的国家扫清了道路。

      克里姆林宫的代表大会堂。1991年9月2日。上午10时,苏联人民代表大会第五届特别会议开幕。受苏联总统及10个加盟共和国最高领导人的委托,纳扎尔巴耶夫宣读了一份特殊的《宣言》。其中建议制订一份主权国家联盟条约,由各加盟共和国自愿签署,立即建立经济同盟,以利国民经济正常运转。

      根据各加盟共和国代表权平等的原则,筹建人民代表苏维埃以取代苏联最高苏维埃和人民代表大会,并成立国务委员会,吸收苏联总统和各加盟共和国最高领导人参加。为了协调国民经济管理,协商推进经济改革有关事宜,成立跨共和国经济委员会。

      为了保存统一的武装力量,预计还要在国防领域缔结集体安全协议。宣言还向人民代表大会提出请求,支持各加盟共和国要求联合国对这些国家的国际法主体地位予以承认,并审议它们在这个组织中的会员国地位问题。

      在这个时刻,代表们全都已经心知肚明,苏联的存在事实上已经结束。所有的人都非常清楚,它实际上是一个没有生命力的架构,之所以还被人提出来,是因为多少还希望能保存一点统一国家的基础。

      我跟不少代表都有一种确定不移的看法,就是觉得这次代表大会并非如那些堕落到只知追求轰动效应的媒体所言,是一届胜利者的代表大会,却反而应该是一届战败者的代表大会,他们终于明白了,国家正在加速走下坡路,而代表们正以自己的活动从各方面推动这一进程。大多数代表情绪都非常低沉,我甚至可以说他们非常压抑。看来我们好像是在出席一次集体葬礼。

      在这一届非同寻常的代表大会进行的过程中,也提出过一些有益的意见。例如,乌克兰社会主义加盟共和国最高苏维埃主席克拉夫丘克(后来在别洛韦日拆散苏联的三个人之一)实际上就支持了经济联盟的思想,他提出建议:为了防止经济混乱,应立即成立跨加盟共和国的跨国组织、理事会或委员会,授予全权,以保证国民经济各部门能继续发挥作用,满足民生需求。不过他似乎有点“不好意思”提起,正好在一年前,我在苏联最高苏维埃的讲台上,就号召过各加盟共和国签署这样一个1991年的经济协议,可是,如果读者们还记得的话,这个提议却遇到了激烈的反对……

      然而,在这短短的时间内,克拉夫丘克以及各加盟共和国的其他领导尝到了他们自己在1991年前夕所造成的经济混乱的破坏性苦果。

      会上还响起了一些其他的清醒的意见,比方像南乌拉尔的奥尔洛夫就说:作为一名工业区的代表,他支持建立跨共和国机构,以调节跨国经济关系。他说:“如果不这样做,如果代表大会不能通过此项建议,那就要请某一个共和国承担起这种调节任务来。否则各共和国将诉诸武力来解决问题,而这意味着什么,我想各位一定清楚。各共和国在最近的10—15年内是无法获得经济独立的。”

      就总体而言,代表大会的气氛还是处于对社会命运的担忧之中。国家正在受到民族灾难日益加剧的威胁,但又提不出任何现实的建议来维护国家的统一。我还记得,比方说,白俄罗斯的茹拉夫廖夫是这样说的:“从联盟条约草案所建议的框架来看,联盟国家是无法建立的。它将国非国,邦非邦……联盟条约草案中提出的所谓国家是没有的,也不可能存在。”

      顿涅茨州代表萨乌宁警告说:“公民们为苏联的解体、未来对它的瓜分、国境的设立、难民潮的涌现感到不安(报上就是这么说的)。他们认为,这些情况将伴随经济危机造成灾难,制造新的民族冲突,甚至可能产生更严重的后果。”

      我在准备这份材料的时候,再次仔细研究了该次代表大会的速记稿。我想提醒:超过80%的代表都是共产党员,但却只有一两个发言的人提到了苏共的问题。我想引用一段新西伯利亚工程建筑学院院长亚岑科说的话:

      戈尔巴乔夫不仅是国家领导人,而且还是党的总书记。他的领导居然搞得个别在他身边工作的领导人参加了暴乱……如果一个领导人对谁同你志同道合,谁支持你都既不了解也没有感觉,那还算个什么领导人!戈尔巴乔夫先生,您可是党的总书记,是它的“船长”,可是却在党最困难的时候逃离了“舰桥”,任凭党和普通党员听由命运摆布。

      苏联和俄联邦的最高领导人戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦千方百计想让大家相信,《宣言》中的建议都是时代潮流,它们表达了国家生活中不可避免的民主变革。

      叶利钦在这次非常党代会上的发言是一个胜利者的发言,他被胜利陶醉了。他宣布,作为俄罗斯总统,他一定会解决这些问题。究竟干得怎么样,现在每一个人都看得清清楚楚……

      戈尔巴乔夫的处境最为复杂。他还要想办法保全面子,为国家非常委员会、苏共和苏联的解体,为国内无政府主义等问题的出现而辩解。看得出来,对于苏联将要变成一个较为模糊不定因而也更为软弱无力的机构这一点,他是早就已经妥协了:
      “在结束我的发言时候,我要表示我最深刻的信念:我确信目前最中心、最首先要求立即明确的问题,就是关于我们国家体制的问题。这个问题得不到解决,别的问题——经济问题,政治问题,社会问题,科学问题,民族关系问题等也都无法解决。这一点我是确信的。全民公决时人们表达了保全苏联并予以彻底革新的意愿。在诺沃奥加廖沃谈判过程中我们找到了一个形式,就是主权国家联盟,现在我们需要对它进行再思考。就让我们再次来思考这个问题吧!”

      响应他的都是些应声虫,例如西拉耶夫,后来当上了俄罗斯政府首脑。8月事件和他担当的新角色使他失去了理智,竟提出了不经审判和侦查就枪毙国家非常委员会成员的建议。这个政坛新手在发言中颇为得意地宣称:“是的,过去那个统一的苏联死亡了。我们应该对那些为了‘泱泱大国’向隅而泣的人说一句:想要让帝国的僵尸复活么?这不等于是给死人做热敷吗?我们现在所依据的,完全是另外一种价值观,另外一种思想了!”

      价值观的确是大不一样了……值钱的东西从老百姓和国家的口袋里放进了当代布尔乔亚私人的保险柜里。旧思想的确也被新思想排挤掉了,这新思想就是:要不择手段地获取利润,金钱决定一切。

      莫斯科和全俄罗斯总主教阿列克谢的发言真是发人深省。我真想把他的整篇发言都引用在这里,但由于篇幅的缘故,只能引用几段:

      尊敬的兄弟姐妹们,人民代表们:我们这次非常代表大会的责任真是无比重大。我呼吁各位要深刻感受我们的责任——这不仅是对当代同胞的责任,也是对我们先辈的责任,还是对那些并非在随意空想的沙滩上,并非在蛊惑煽动、贪恋权势、自私自利、嫉妒横生的基础上,而是在信仰、忠诚、充满牺牲的爱的基础上建造了共同家园的人们的责任。我们的同胞正在等待我们这些代表说话,等待我们作出决定,希望能在众生迷茫的心灵中唤起乐观情绪,唤起公正解决我国面临各种问题的希望。正是我国各族人民的无数儿女用自己的功勋、生命、才华和能力,才造就了我们祖国的真正光荣。

      我们对子孙后代的责任也同样重大。他们未来的生活将是我们言行的评判。未来的基础是在过去奠定的。而过去,则是我们历史的共同。它是我们民族传统不可分割的一部分,这不是我们的意志所能否定的。如果对这些事物不屑一顾,如果想否定它,抛弃它,在面临混乱变革的今天,这就意味着把我们民族的未来置于危险之中。近几十年的历史向我们展示了无数因忘记历史而产生的悲惨事例,以及遗忘造成的悲惨后果。

      我想用我国东正教精神领袖的这番教导来结束我对非常人民代表大会的叙述。它竟然成了为一个统一大国的覆灭而敲响的丧钟。而为了建立这样一个大国,我们的祖先曾付出过数百年日复一日胼手胝足的的劳作。

      三个月后,这个大国就不复存在。虽然当代有许多伟人对此发出过警告。当我结束这一令人心情沉痛的章节时,我想援引我国一位同胞,一位著名的哲学家和思想家,一位俄罗斯大地上的爱国者——伊万·亚历山德罗维奇·伊林在几十年前说过的一段话。他的遗骸前不久才回到他的祖国俄罗斯。话是这样说的:

      俄罗斯是自然和精神的有机统一。谁要是想把它分开,谁就是个最可悲的人!……这种可悲之处在于这种盲目而荒谬的做法必将产生可怕的后果,这些后果将表现在经济上、战略上、国家体制上和民族精神上。而且,不仅我们的子孙后代,就连别的民族,也一定不会忘记统一的俄罗斯,将会在自己身上尝到蓄意肢解它的恶果的滋味。

    一个强大国家机体的消亡

      2006年12月8日,是苏联在世界地图上停止存在的15周年纪念。为了纪念这个日子,拍摄了一部关于别洛韦日森林的影片,里面记录了三个领导人——俄罗斯、乌克兰和白俄罗斯总统签署文件,破坏苏联的场面。三人中的一个——叶利钦——拒绝到场参加拍摄,但在《俄罗斯报》发表了一个长篇访谈。

      这篇《自白》,还是当年为自己行为辩解的那些老套子理由。

      一个正常的、有思维能力的人,就不能看不到我们国家和人民发生了什么变化。他所谓苏联解体不可避免,都是厚颜无耻的谎言和粗鄙无理的诽谤。对这15年里发生了什么,他根本也不想搞明白。

      就让这本书对我们伟大国家的主要破坏者蓄意不言的许多问题作一个回答吧。

      一个强大国家机体的消亡是很不容易的,因为它身上的创伤大多不是外部敌人造成的。那些不肖子孙对着我们国家的躯体去杀,去砍,毫不顾及它是自己的祖国,是我们共同的母亲。他们竟敢嘲弄自己的母亲,毫不在乎他们的罪孽将永生永世得不到宽恕。

      苏联的解体无疑有着各种外部的和内部的原因。无论哪种原因,实际上他们的目的只有一个,就是消灭苏联,消除在政治上、经济上、军事上和精神上同西方首先是同美国抗衡的力量,而后者正在为独霸世界作出不择手段的努力。正是那些力量,正是我们国家的那些具体的人,他们怀着对社会主义的仇恨,出于自己的民族主义观点和算计,更主要的是出于个人对权利的贪婪,促成了这样一次历史的大倒退,犯下了滔天罪行,毁灭了一个强大的国家,毁灭了它的社会制度,使绝大多数百姓陷入了极度贫困的境地。

      现在,让我们来总结回忆一下整个的过程。

    政权危机和政权瘫痪

      前面有一章我已经谈到1991年9月苏联人民代表大会第五届特别会议通过了改革国家政权的决议。正是这些决议,成为实际摧毁苏联作为统一国家的运作机制的开端,对中央的攻击开始具有公开的性质。各加盟共和国公然拒不执行承担着国家管理职能的联盟领导和机构的决定,实际上变得毫无作为能力。总统戈尔巴乔夫的威信日渐丧失,政权也处于同样境况。

      国内出现了最后两三年间瓦解国家的力量一直想要达致的局面。不能说这一切都是突然间自发出现的。特别是我在1990年末的去职,完全是当时出现的局势、是那种政治和经济改革路线的产物,而那条路线则最终选择了由时代所产生的戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦。

      我预见到国内局势发展的严重危害和悲惨后果,便于1990年12月19日,也就是离辞去苏联部长会议主席职务不到一个月的时间,在第四届苏联人民代表大会上作了发言,把为国家和人民的前途担忧的想法和盘托出。这是一个经过痛苦的思考而作的发言,它已成为我的政治遗嘱。

      由我领导的全苏政府清楚地见到国内出现的局势危害严重,我们的任务在于再次提出警示:灾难正日益临近。但给我的印象是,我这些话说了根本没人听。一部分代表收听的完全是另外一个“频道”,而大多数则已经被少数人的大喊大叫和好战精神吓得避让犹恐不及。

      听众席上传来了呼喊声:“你干嘛要吓唬我们?”“你要提高粮价!”等等。在这个充满火药味的,我甚至要说是相当邪恶的、充满敌意的代表大会上,我最后的话是:“今天你们向我叫喊,因为我建议在完全能够得到补偿的情况下把粮价提高几戈比,可是对于国家未来的命运,你们却不愿作任何的考量。”

      在离开讲台之前我向听众扔过一句:
      “你们还会想起这一届政府的!……”
      当人们尝够了叶利钦“天堂般生活”的苦难之后,的确又不止一次地回想起这次发言来。

      苏联人民代表大会第五届特别会议批准了某些加盟共和国总统联名声明,以及苏联最高苏维埃就国内发生颠覆国家活动而提出的建议。宣布了过渡时期——“符合各加盟共和国意愿及各族人民利益的国家关系新体制的形成时期”——的出现。

      通过了一项就当时局势而言十分典型的法律新标准——《拒绝加入新联盟的程序》。该程序要求必须举行全民公决,或由共和国议会通过决议。还要求一条:同苏联就实施这一国家行为有关的所有各项问题举行谈判。

      在苏联方面,过渡时期的最高权力机构被宣布为最高苏维埃,同原来的最高苏维埃有很大差别。它由两院组成:共和国院和联盟院。共和国院由各加盟共和国选出苏联人民代表和地方议会代表构成。为了保证参加该院的各加盟共和国权利平等,每个共和国只有一票。联盟院按现有名额经与各加盟共和国最高权力机关协商后由苏联人民代表组成。

      我国原来的最高国家权力机构——苏联人民代表大会——被第五届特别代表大会解散了。各加盟共和国的最高国家权力机关获得了在各自国家领土上中止由苏联最高苏维埃通过的各项法律效力的权力。该法规具有明显的全联邦性质。

      还成立了另一个新的联盟最高权力机构——国务委员会,它由苏联总统及各加盟共和国最高职务的人士构成。该机构的职权范围非常广泛,也非常不确定。因此,它几乎具有无限的权力,这就降低了最高代表机构——苏联最高苏维埃的作用。

      为了协调全国经济,协调开展经济改革,按均等原则成立了跨共和国经济委员会。委员会主席由苏联总统任命,并征得国务委员会同意。该委员会是苏联国民经济管理运作委员会的接续者,是根据总统戈尔巴乔夫于1991年8月24日发布的命令组建的。主席为西拉耶夫,副主席为沃利斯基,委员为卢日科夫和亚夫林斯基。

      代表大会闭幕后,戈尔巴乔夫又得以恢复了过去冻结的诺沃奥加廖沃谈判。但这次的讨论有别于过去,一切都变了:各共和国领导人把主动权抓到了自己手里,而苏联总统则被迫采取防御态势。正如叶利钦在他的《总统手记》中所说:“……他开始让步,而这在8月份之前是所有的人都不敢想的……在诺沃奥加廖沃谈判中,原来的加盟共和国一个接一个地离他而去,这对戈尔巴乔夫是一个打击。先是波罗的海三国……然后是格鲁吉亚、摩尔多瓦、亚美尼亚、阿塞拜疆……而且,在10月和11月的诺沃奥加廖沃会议上,气氛也跟暴乱之前完全不一样了。如果说过去绝大多数共和国领导人都不敢跟苏联总统争论,而且有时候还责备我‘过于极端’的话,那么现在他们都争相批驳戈尔巴乔夫,甚至连张嘴的机会都不给我了。”

      1991年11月25日,在诺沃奥加廖沃召开了新一轮加盟共和国首脑会议,准备草签条约。但乌克兰领导人克拉夫丘克和阿塞拜疆领导人穆塔利波夫由于不赞成而没有与会。

      叶利钦的《总统手记》写道:“关于草签条约的声明迫使各加盟共和国领导人对条约文本提出了根本性的修改。这主要涉及如何把中央剩余的权力移交给各加盟共和国的问题。苏联总统先是温和地说服,然后就开始生气、发火了。他说的那些根本不起作用,各加盟共和国领导人顽固地要求中央给予更多的独立。不管戈尔巴乔夫来软的还是硬的,也不管他如何坚持,都无法使各加盟共和国尝到了自由甜头的领导人改变主意。当戈尔巴乔夫再次试图坚持自己的表述方式时,我们大家就像一个人似的立刻都起来反对他,他实在忍不住了,竟从桌旁跳了起来,径直跑出了会议厅。就在这个时候,会议厅里出现了短暂而沉重得令人难以忍受的寂静,大家突然全明白了:这是我们最后一次在这里开会了。诺沃奥加廖沃史诗已经结束了。在这个方向上,已经再也不会有任何动作了。应该想出点什么新主意来才是。”

      两年之后,戈尔巴乔夫在一家俄罗斯报纸上是这样阐述当年的事件的:“在诺沃奥加廖沃,出现了联邦问题。我站起来说:在此之前,我跟你们一致;如果再往前走,走到反对联盟国家,那我就离开你们走人,由你们自己去决定想要个什么样的联盟,由你们自己负全部责任。于是我回到自己的办公室。他们讨价还价了一番,又跑来找我——来的是叶利钦和舒什凯维奇。这样,才出现了一个联邦制国家的方案,但毕竟还是一个国家——联盟国家被保存下来了。在这一点上我看到了保存国家的保证。”

      结果到了1991年的11月末,出现了一个更为和解的联盟条约草案稿——主权国家联盟条约。每一个加入联盟的共和国在该方案中都被称为主权国家。主权国家联盟应该成为一个“联邦民主国家,其权力仅限于该条约参加国自愿授予它的权力范围”。以下的文字就更荒谬了:主权国家联盟依然是国家,它拥有领土、国籍、立法、行政和司法机构,但主权的宣示仅为在国际关系场合。

      在这份草案中,还有许多荒唐的地方:比如草案说,主权国家联盟不具有自己的财产,它的权力是各加盟共和国授予的,联盟机关的拨款程序要经由特别协商,等等。有的还完全违背了逻辑:拟议中的国家竟然没有自己的宪法,没有自己的根本大法……

      现在很难想象,其实我国以及各加盟共和国的某些领导人当年十分清楚,他们在炮制条约的一个又一个方案时,早已心知肚明他们是在目标明确地为毁掉自己的国家而创造条件。这些只是掩盖他们真正目的的烟幕,而真正的目的就是不惜一切代价让苏联垮台,让自己完全独立。他们实在太希望在自己的共和国中成为握有全权的主宰了。为了这个目的他们已事实上走上了犯罪的道路。不过他们没有想到,类似的情况也会发生在他们未来国家的内部。说来也巧,这种情况正好就在俄罗斯也发生了,也就是在叶利钦说过“你们能吞下多少主权,就拿多少主权好了!”之后。为了能使地方“吞食主权”的胃口消减,真是耗费了不少年月,好不容易才使得俄罗斯免除了解体之危。时间已过了15年,可是至今仍然要从国家预算中划拨出大笔大笔经费来给某些俄联邦的共和国,以求摆脱被他们“吞食”主权。

      可是,为什么戈尔巴乔夫能够同意走这条对于国家来说致命的妥协之路呢?现在他到处讲,他曾为一切形式的国家统一而斗争过。我想,这是他在耍滑头。他绝不是这么一个天真的政客,以为只要建立一个虚幻的联盟,就可以把它看做是一个现实的存在了。而且,具有类似政权结构形式和各共和国间相互关系形式的南斯拉夫就是一个非常鲜明的例子。当时我国的这位领导人是受到什么力量的推动呢?是希望哪怕是名义上保留国家元首的地位?或者并不是为了什么个人目的,而是真的有什么政治动机和打算?找不到令人信服的答案。

      不管什么动机,最终结果是国家政权垮掉了。各级政治领导一齐动手摧毁了国家,他们在争夺自己大位的时候根本就不考虑老百姓。局势极度动荡,国家已完全失控。

      在这种局势下,戈尔巴乔夫于1991年12月3日向我国议会发出呼吁,要求同意主权国家联盟条约。他写道:

      这份文件是经过全面考虑和非常认真的分析,并有各主权共和国代表参加,进行长期谈判和认真修改后的产物。各主权共和国的领导人曾不止一次单独或共同讨论过这份文件。审议时也曾多次作出以扩大联邦特色和民主性为目的的彻底修改。

      我的立场很明确。我主张新的联盟,即主权国家联盟——这将是一个联邦制的主权国家。我希望在你们作出决定之前,大家都能很好地了解我的这个立场。不能再继续拖延了。丧失时间将可能造成灾难性的后果。

      但时间已经丧失了。当时,离别洛韦日森林会见只剩下了5天……

    酒气熏天之夜和雾影迷蒙之晨

       1991年12月8日,在离波兰国境只有三公里,离白俄罗斯别洛韦日森林中的一个基本不知名的小村庄维斯库利不远的地方,俄罗斯联邦总统叶利钦、乌克兰总统克拉夫丘克、白俄罗斯共和国最高苏维埃主席舒什凯维奇在严格保密的情况下决定解散苏联,成立独立国家联合体。

      “我们,白俄罗斯共和国、俄罗斯联邦、乌克兰,作为苏联的创始国,1922年联盟条约的签字国(下称高层谈判方),”别洛韦日协议中这样说,“共同确认:苏联作为国际法主体和地缘政治实体已终止存在。”

      这是人类历史上的弥天大罪。那么,此前发生了什么?是谁干下了这件事?又是怎么干的?

      为了备足炸毁苏联的爆炸物,别洛韦日的阴谋家们跟恐怖分子一样,早就开始做工作了。其中起主要作用的无疑是叶利钦。他对戈尔巴乔夫恨之入骨,这种恨很快又演变为对整个苏联中央的仇恨。因为,要想解除他心头之恨,只有扳倒戈尔巴乔夫和整个苏联政权。为此,也就一定要搞垮国家本身。从叶利钦个人的政治品质和人品来讲,无论如何他也不会在这个问题上手软的。以叶利钦为首的由俄罗斯联邦人民代表大会成立的宪法委员会,在1990年的9—10月间提交了一份俄罗斯联邦新宪法草案,其中竟然没有提到一句苏维埃社会主义共和国联盟。这件事能发生在苏联被消灭之前的一年多,当然绝非偶然。

      提起这件事,我想起自己最后一次同叶利钦、哈斯布拉托夫以及我原来的副手西拉耶夫正式会见的情景。后来,生活把这次会见的参加者,其中包括戈尔巴乔夫,不仅分散到不同的方向,而且送进了彼此敌对的阵营。1990年11月11日,戈尔巴乔夫打电话给我,告诉我他下午约好要同俄罗斯的领导人见面,先是跟叶利钦单独谈话,然后再有其他人参加。当时从戈尔巴乔夫电话中感觉这种会见的组织方式,是一种为两个独立国家领导人接触作准备的外交程序。我不反对这样的会见,因为我觉得必须利用一切机会,想方设法同这些活动家找到共同语言。我还存有一线希望:他们总不至于为了个人政治目的而毁掉国家统一的经济,置必然会出现的最严重后果于不顾吧……

      会见预定在克里姆林宫政府大厦三楼国家总统办公室。这个办公室,还有政治局会议室和机关工作人员的几个房间,是专门为勃列日涅夫装修的。

      5点钟时我上到三楼。哈斯布拉托夫、西拉耶夫和布尔布利斯已经在总统接待室里等着了。我跟布尔布利斯其实并不熟悉。我只知道他也是从斯维尔德洛夫斯克来的,是叶利钦特别信任的人物。我曾在人民代表大会和苏联最高苏维埃全会上见过这个人。这一回是我头一次直接同他发生冲突,在我的眼中,他在国家生活中所起的作用简直是致命的。总会有一天,会出来一个好刨根问底的历史学家,他一定会给这个人画一幅肖像。现在,在我的面前站着的,不,准确地说是不停地旋转着的这个人,两只眼睛也在骨碌骨碌地翻动着。我不知道当时他为什么会在接待室里,在接受邀请参加会见的人员中并没有他。

      总统的同时也是苏共中央总书记的办公室,经过一夏天发生了很大的变化。那个时代的公务办公室里的传统家具被撤下去了,换了很时髦的新家具。墙上挂着一个很醒目的苏联国徽,办公桌后面的角落里插着国旗。在一张单独摆放在一旁的更适合于喝茶用的桌子旁,一边坐着叶利钦、哈斯布拉托夫、西拉耶夫,另一边坐着戈尔巴乔夫和我。卢基扬诺夫由于有急事,没有出席。

      戈尔巴乔夫向进来的人通报了他同叶利钦一同讨论如何保持国家完整、推进中央改革、自治共和国分裂行动带给俄罗斯的危险、加盟共和国如何参与中央政府工作等问题以及俄罗斯联邦经济问题的情况。这一系列问题我是按习惯在记事本中记录下来的。

      这次会议的气氛我也忘不了。与会者在解决国家任务方面的思想步调并不一致,他们是一些无论观点还是目标都无法取得一致的人。叶利钦说话的调门提得很高,满是一副胜利者同战败者谈话的派头。这位俄罗斯领导人的手势、表情和行为毋庸置疑地表明,他并没有想要利用这次会见,来寻求这个最大的加盟共和国同中央之间的共同语言的意思,而只是想把自己的条件强加给中央。哈斯布拉托夫的立场比较中立,看来作为一个经济学家,他很明白自己的领袖提出的要求有多么荒谬。西拉耶夫则以谄媚的眼光看着自己的新老板,只要老板说什么,就同意什么。

      讨论从联邦和加盟共和国的税收制度和税率开始。俄罗斯领导人开始坚持所谓的单渠道制,即全部税入都由各加盟共和国征收,然后再把一小部分上缴中央,以满足全苏财政需要。至于究竟是些什么需要,实际上谁也说不清楚。我在这里先提前说一句,后来,过了不长时间,俄罗斯下面的那些共和国也学着把这个对任何联邦都起破坏作用的原则拿过来当武器。叶利钦那伙人对此表示反对的时候,那可真是义愤填膺哪!可是在当时,他们追求的主要目标则是毁掉苏联。至于今后俄罗斯联邦该怎么办,他们还真的不太介意。

      我提出理由说,在现存的联盟和各加盟共和国之间的权力分配制度下,这样的财政关系根本不现实,而且还会引发国家管理中的混乱,所以不应被采纳。

      后来就更有意思了。提出要把所有外经活动收入全部留在各加盟共和国,而且还要由中央划拨50吨黄金交给俄罗斯支配,授予俄罗斯颁发出口原材料及其他产品许可证的权力,等等。对于像是否应该由中央统一为各加盟共和国采购食品、粮食、某些原料,特别是轻工业原料,由谁来偿付到期的外债等问题,则拿不出任何令人信服的回答。要求这些问题应该在签署新的联盟协议并重新界定中央与各加盟共和国功能时加以审议的建议也没有得到重视。

      我提出建议,要停止各银行之间的斗争,停止破坏国家的统一金融系统。但回答完全停留在口号水平:说什么俄罗斯已经宣布是主权国家了,各加盟共和国的法律具有至高无上的地位,现在提出的要求同它的新地位完全一致,等等。

      又讨论了几个比较次要的问题,最后正如通常在这种情况下所做的那样,成立了一个由苏联和俄罗斯部长会议联合组成的委员会,由该委员会负责分割财产,组织税务和银行系统,从事外经活动。

      这次会见给我留下了十分沉重的印象。在决定来年即1991年国家生活的许多主要问题上,依然存在着原则分歧。显然,我们的谈判对手目的是要在经济上引爆苏联,引发人民对中央政权的更大不满,并通过这个浪潮来加强自己的政治地位。俄罗斯同中央政权的对抗越来越尖锐。国家灾难性地飞速成为一个虚幻的、不稳定的存在。戈尔巴乔夫及其一伙也希望能稍稍稳定一下局面,但俄罗斯及其他加盟共和国的领导公然怠工,施加直接影响瓦解了这些努力。几乎整个1991年都在这种状况下度过。

      最后,戈尔巴乔夫又提出要同叶利钦、克拉夫丘克、纳扎尔巴耶夫、舒什凯维奇在1991年12月9日会见,签订新的联盟条约,并决定同希望加入联盟的其他各加盟共和国签约的日期和顺序。

      根据我的看法,这个关于成立主权国家联盟的条约草案,用列宁评价另一个条约——布勒斯特条约——的话来说,本身就是一个“卑鄙下流”之作。而签约的“威胁”则是最后为彻底解决苏联垮台问题抠动了扳机。起初看来一切还相当像模像样。舒什凯维奇在白俄罗斯政府首脑凯比奇的建议下,邀请俄罗斯总统正式访问该共和国(同时还非正式地到别洛韦日森林去打猎),目的是要说服叶利钦供给明斯克更多能源——天然气和石油,因为冬天快到了。

      根据戈尔巴乔夫回忆,他在叶利钦临行之前,同后者有过一次谈话:

      ……我问叶利钦,到白俄罗斯打算谈什么?他回答说:“我跟白俄罗斯有些共同的问题。我想解决一下。顺便再跟乌克兰人谈谈。克拉夫丘克不愿意到这边来,我却同意到那边去。”

      我提醒他:“我们不是星期一要见面吗?把克拉夫丘克请过来就是了。”他回答说:“想跟白俄罗斯人谈谈,听听克拉夫丘克说什么。”于是我说:“那好,鲍里斯·尼古拉耶维奇,咱们先说好,到白俄罗斯您谈的东西可不能超越联盟条约的范围。”叶利钦回答说:“克拉夫丘克可不一定会同意这个条约,他现在可是独立的。”“那您可以建议他成为一个非正式成员,”我这样说。“那他也不一定同意。”“那就让我们星期一在莫斯科决定一切好了,”我最后说。

      当时的谈话就是充满了这种信任的气氛,就连叶利钦也没有拒绝。

      应该指出,当时起决定作用的人物是克拉夫丘克。我们伟大国家的命运正是系于此人之身。几个月后,在回答记者采访时他也证实了这一点:“如果我说,乌克兰将签署联盟条约,那叶利钦也会签。”不过在维斯库利,民族主义的气焰和虚荣的狂妄自大,以及以“独立”乌克兰首位总统载入史册的愿望还是占了上风。乌克兰总统和俄罗斯总统在破坏的意图方面一拍即合,对苏联的命运造成了致命的打击。

      别洛韦日森林的会见在严守秘密中进行,那里发生的许多事情直到后来才公诸于世。

      飞机载着一群苏联的破坏分子于12月7日17时40分向明斯克飞去。到达维斯库利时已经是晚上了。克拉夫丘克已先期抵达,不等叶利钦到,就带着随从打猎去了。叶利钦到达后,举行了一次小宴。三位领导被别洛韦日的酒精搞得眼酣耳热之余,联袂出猎。然后,阴谋家们向下属交代了任务:要在一夜之间“搞出”一个决定苏联命运的政治文件来。

      作为苏联政府首脑的我,可以说亲眼目睹了这些年代有意识消灭我国经济的事实。这帮家伙的首要目的,就在于迫使人民生活水平下降,以求达到唆使人民起来对中央造反的目的。一切都遵循一个原则——搞得越糟越好。因为只有这样,这些家伙才能为自己铺设一条道路,通往梦寐以求的政权。从这三个国贼的声明中可以得出一个结论,似乎各共和国的最高管理机构和领导人只是在一旁袖手旁观,并没有参加任何破坏活动。而他们所宣称的共和国法律凌驾于全苏法律之上的说法,禁止把货物运出各加盟共和国的禁令,以及对物价进行的分别调整等等,完全被人们“遗忘”了。其实,正是各加盟共和国领导人的这样一些分裂主义的决定,才把统一的经济空间分割得七零八落。不管怎么说,过去的加盟共和国,对比方说讲俄语的人口的权利,就根本未予顾及。国家的外债问题也被忽略了,当时的外债大约有700亿美元。叶利钦把这么个沉重的包袱加到了元气大伤的俄罗斯一个国家肩上,尽管借来的债款在使用时,所有的加盟共和国都沾了光。再说,关于克里米亚问题,若是对之视而不见,那要么是醉生梦死,要么就是脑子里缺了根弦。

      听听克拉夫丘克在苏联垮台8年之后,为了在别洛韦日“替乌克兰捍卫了克里米亚”而获得奖励时都说了些什么吧。他说,坚持把克里米亚留在乌克兰手中“并不难,因为叶利钦非常恨戈尔巴乔夫,为了把戈尔巴乔夫整垮,何止克里米亚,他简直可以把整个俄罗斯都拱手交出来”。现在清楚了,当乌克兰代表团起程去别洛韦日的时候,就已经胸有成竹,俄国人是不打算把塞瓦斯托波尔留在自己的版图内了。他们甚至都打算同意让克里米亚划归俄国了。不过,当叶利钦竟连提都没有提起“塞瓦斯托波尔”和“克里米亚”这两个字眼时,你说他们该有多惊讶!至于这个问题对俄罗斯和克里米亚的大多数居民会有多尖锐,现在和将来都是一个不言自明的问题。

      总之,在一个历经无数世纪而构成的国家,及其由各种政治经济关系和传统形成的特点趋于毁灭时,出现的问题真是无可胜数。

      这样,国家的覆灭终成事实。

      别洛韦日事件4天之后,1991年12月12日,苏联宪法监督委员会从文件合法性的角度,对三国元首解散苏联的声明作出了反应。指出,根据1922年的联盟条约,白俄罗斯、俄罗斯联邦、乌克兰都只是苏联创立国中的一分子,与其他成员国相比,并不具有任何特别的权力。从那时起,在苏联宪法中,一直是各加盟共和国权力一律平等的原则在起作用。因此,白俄罗斯、俄罗斯联邦、乌克兰三国没有权力决定涉及所有加盟苏联的共和国的权力和利益的问题,更何况其他各加盟共和国乃是绝对多数。委员会作出结论:这样的文件没有法律约束力。此外,委员会强调,别洛韦日协议所通过的条款可能导致法律遭到破坏,社会无法管理,产生无政府主义。根据委员会的意见,通过这种文件只能看成是对国内局势的政治评估,自然没有法律效力。

      不过,无论是这些理由,还是总统戈尔巴乔夫就此发出的多次声明,都没有收到任何效果。破坏统一国家的进程仍在继续发展,不久就“胜利”完成。

      别洛韦日协议的签署还不足以合法地把消灭苏联及其所有相应政治法理后果的事实确定下来。首先,要求俄罗斯、白俄罗斯、乌克兰三个国家权力中的最高立法机构批准成立独联体的协议。未经批准这些文件就不具有政治效力。在忙乱之中协议的炮制者和签字人甚至没有觉察有必要提交批准,也没有搞明白这批准程序究竟应该以什么形式进行。一切都要取决于别洛韦日协议的审议应该在什么层次上进行:是作为苏联三个缔约主体加盟共和国之间的条约来审议呢,还是作为已宣布“独立”的乌克兰和白俄罗斯为一方同联盟主体为另一方,其中当时还包括俄罗斯,签订的条约,或者是作为三个主权国家之间签订的国际条约来审议呢?

      乌克兰领导人首先发难,要求批准别洛韦日协议。1991年12月10日,该共和国最高苏维埃把批准协议一事提上了议事日程。从一大早开始,这个问题便一个一个小时地向后推迟,因为各委员会的常任代表都就文本提出了大量意见。这些问题必须要同白俄罗斯和俄罗斯的领导人商议才行。直到议会的晚间会议上,克拉夫丘克才得以把问题都协调清楚。

      他的发言讲了大约半个小时。他责难中央使国家解体,以达到把权力重新集中到自己手中的目的。“有人想要教训我们,”克拉夫丘克说,“以为对我们民族的关怀胜过我们自己。”

      乌克兰最高苏维埃未经讨论就在228票反对的情况下批准了协议,但有所保留。保留的地方有12条,对文件的许多条款都提出了修正。例如,“开放边境”一条就遭到异议,并决定放到以后再说。别洛韦日协议(也叫明斯克协议)被看成是“对外政策的协调活动”,而在基辅公布的文本则被看成只是“对外政策领域的一次咨询活动”。在有关武装力量的表述中出现了重要补充。乌克兰议会加上的词句是:“独联体各成员国对驻扎在它们领土上的原苏联武装力量各部进行改造,在他们的基础上建立自己的武装力量,共同合作,保证国际和平和安全……”这样一来,话题就转到了武装力量在各加盟共和国之间如何分割的问题上。克拉夫丘克利用这个机会,宣布自己是共和国武装力量的最高总司令,下辖三个军区和黑海舰队,留给中央的仅仅是一些直辖的战略武装力量。

      白俄罗斯在批准明斯克协议方面从法律地位上来讲稍微有些复杂。问题在于它同乌克兰不同,没有举行独立的全民公决,这样从法律角度来讲共和国的地位就远不是那么无懈可击。12月10日,白俄罗斯最高苏维埃召开全会。在最高苏维埃主席舒什凯维奇简短地介绍了3国首脑在别洛韦日森林工作的结果之后,议会里的“左派”和“右派”突然都对是否应该批准独联体协议表示怀疑,当然原因多种多样。左派害怕这是一个“狡猾的陷阱”,以他们的意见准会把独联体又引向原来的那种一元化的国家。而右派则完全相反,他们认为独联体将意味着苏联的彻底垮台,将会引起国内极度混乱。有些代表则认定舒什凯维奇签署文件是越权行为。不过,尽管起初的问题只不过是应不应该同意成立独联体,但许多代表还是要求立即批准明斯克协议。这个立场在263名代表的支持下取得了胜利,反对的只有1票,弃权的2票。

      共和国最高苏维埃也发表声明,废除1922年的联盟条约,通过了与此相关的程序处理法案。

      俄罗斯联邦在批准协议的问题上处于最复杂的法律地位。它的当局并不具备任何基础从立法层面上来批准由叶利钦和布尔布利斯在维斯库利签署的这份文件。唯一的一个拥有权力就协议和废除联盟条约作出合法决定的机构,就是俄罗斯联邦人民代表大会,它是国家权力最高机构。而且,为此还必须通过决议,对俄罗斯联邦宪法进行修改和补充。但这种方案对于想消灭苏联的一方是绝不可能被接受的,因为他们在俄罗斯联邦人民代表中,在具有专业素养人士中并不占有大多数。因此他们把别洛韦日协议作为俄罗斯联邦的“国际条约”提了出来,这样,根据宪法,废除它就属于该共和国最高苏维埃的权力范围了。他们也用同样的办法,把1922年的联盟条约也提了出来,并达到了宣布废除它的目的。所有这些都是在1991年12月12日的俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃会议上通过的。

      当天叶利钦作了个报告。他把白俄罗斯谈判说成是“近期来不断发展的各种过程的合乎规律的结果”。早在两年前他就说过,显然,“联盟制度没有能力进行根本性的自我更新。相反,指挥系统把自己最后一点活力都投向了维护自己的权力,以致成为改革的主要障碍”。叶利钦对草拟的联盟条约各稿都不断地挑鼻子挑眼。“在这些方案里,”他总是这样说,“搞出来的模式其实还是那种强势中央联盟。加盟共和国的主权原则仅仅被看做是一种装饰品……只有4月在诺沃奥加廖沃才终于迈出了具有实际意义的一步,各共和国才同意达成一致,签署联盟条约……8月以后,苏联解体进入最后阶段,开始了它的弥留期……这个阶段我们简直是陷入了无尽无休的谈判和协商、大大小小的讨论、交换意见……所有这一切似乎具有了一种恶劣的规律的性质……苏联的3个创始国制止了自发的、无政府主义的解体过程……找到了一种在新条件下共同生活的唯一可能的形式——独立国家联合体,而不是一个谁在其中也无法独立的国家。”

      叶利钦批评一种说法,就是3个共和国的领导人在别洛韦日森林“消灭了苏联”。他说:“苏联对自己过去的成员已经无法起到任何正面作用了。国际社会都认为他是个破产者……只有独立国家联合体才能保证千百年来形成的,而现在已几乎完全丧失殆尽的政治、法律和经济空间得以保全……达致这个目标的最大障碍——联盟中央——走向了终结,因为它没有能力从过去制度的传统中解脱出来,而其中最主要的一个传统,就是把向人民发号施令的大权抓在手中,就是束缚各加盟共和国的独立性。”

      在全会上很少能听见批评协议的声音。会场笼罩在一种似乎已经拥有了无限主权的喜悦之中。批准明斯克协议的记名投票的结果是:同意188票,反对6票,弃权为7票。当投票结果宣布后,大会速记稿中出现了这样的记录:“暴风雨般的掌声,全体起立”。这次颠覆国家的行动以及对一个伟大国家的破坏行动就这样得到了“合法化”。

      当然,对叶利钦的发言完全可以进行逐条批驳,但是,生活本身对他的言论,更主要的是对他的所作所为,以及对他的同案犯和帮凶们的所作所为,给出了最好的,也是最有说服力的评价。苏联被消灭后,各共和国无一例外地出现了政治和经济混乱。千百万人民为自己领导人的罪行,为自己政治上的盲从和轻信,付出了而且现在仍在付出骇人听闻的代价。

      1996年3月在俄罗斯国家杜马一次例会的议事日程上,出现了审议废除别洛韦日协议的提案。就这个问题提出议案的是俄联邦共产党,以及“人民政权党”和“农业党”这两个党的议会党团。

      在讨论议事日程的时候,正如所料,几年前支持叶利钦及其破坏行动的那些人都起来反对审议这个问题。其中有“亚布卢”议会党团的领导人亚夫林斯基,有亲政府的“我们的家园俄罗斯”议会党团领导人别洛夫、斯塔罗沃伊托夫和尤申科。而且,投票赞成把这个问题排除在议事日程之外的代表居然还占到代表总数的57%。

      废除别洛韦日协议的决议在1996年3月15日得到通过,赞成票为252票,占国家杜马代表总人数的56%。请记住,在1991年12月12日批准别洛韦日协议的时候,投赞成票的俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃代表占了90%以上。

      生活就是这样教育了人。他们是普通人,不是混进政权机构的祖国的叛徒。但是不出所料,以叶利钦为首的这批叛徒是根本不打算执行我国议会的这一决定的。

      议会为废除别洛韦日协议而斗争的历史,把我们的思绪一次又一次带到1991年12月的那些令人发指的日子。

      如果说发生了国家非常委员会事件,人民代表大会第五届特别会议闭幕之后国家政权机关已经完全被破坏,正如前面所说,出现了政权的瘫痪的话,那么到了12月,政权就已经进入了最后的弥留期。当我们回忆起这样的局面时,不由自主要寻找答案:为什么戈尔巴乔夫身为苏联总统,在别洛韦日以后的日子里不能采取战斗的原则立场呢?为什么他不能为自己国家的完整统一而战斗到底呢?

      要想看透一个人的内心,了解他的真实意图是很难的。但要说戈尔巴乔夫早就怀有消灭为他开拓了生活美好前景的共产党,消灭培养他成长的社会主义之心,那是绝不会有错的。在1991年以后,他自己就说过这样的话。

      当然,别洛韦日的阴谋家们使他陷入了一个很不寻常的状况。下面是他的话:

      叶利钦走了之后,过了一天,又过了一天。谁也不知道任何情况,谁也没有向我作过任何报告。我给部长们打电话,他们也是什么都不知道。这时我就给沙波什尼科夫打了个电话——他知道。原来那些人已经跟他谈过了。我想,到底发生了什么事情呢?看来,沙波什尼科夫立刻又往白俄罗斯挂了电话,说戈尔巴乔夫大发脾气了。于是舒什凯维奇给我打电话了:“米哈伊尔·谢尔盖耶维奇,我这是代表大家给你打电话。”我就问:“那为什么是你打电话?”他回答说:“是叶利钦和克拉夫丘克委托我打的。叶利钦跟布什通过话了:向布什汇报了,又让我给您打电话。”我说:“这实在太丢人了。你们给美国总统打电话,却绕过了苏联总统,背着我去达成协议。叶利钦在哪儿?把电话给他。”叶利钦拿起电话,开始支支吾吾,我看是在编……

      而且我要指出,他们头一个就给美国总统打电话,这不仅是奴才向自己真正的主子作报告,而且也是希望能抱住他的大腿。

      在这种局面下,苏联总统能够做什么,又应该做什么呢?

      在接获这样的情报之后,他应该立即利用他所拥有的一切手段。据苏联最高苏维埃原主席卢基扬诺夫说,别洛韦日会上的参加者——3个加盟共和国的领导人都在非常紧张地等待着戈尔巴乔夫会采取什么行动。“他还是最高统帅,只要下一道总统令,这几个签署文件的人以及他们的文件都将会灰飞烟灭。因为这可是关乎伟大国家前途的问题,关乎3亿人民命运的问题,关乎全球力量平衡的问题。然而,一个宣誓要维护和捍卫联盟的人,却没有能够下达这道坚定的命令。”

      我过去认为,现在也认为,危机时刻戈尔巴乔夫没有能够履行自己的法定职责。他应该立即把情况向联合国、安理会、苏联人民代表大会、最高苏维埃通报,并声讨别洛韦日协议。在代表大会面前,他应该以最断然的方式提出问题:请大家决定,是我们自行解散,还是保存苏联。可是他却并没有这样做。在1991年年末,所有的法律都已被破坏殆尽,无论是联邦法还是国际法,用有的人的话说,无论是上帝的法还是老百姓的法。

      作为一年半之前手放在苏联宪法上宣过誓,要维护国家神圣统一的一国总统,他有义务履行自己的誓言!即使在这种情况下他失败了,在历史上他依然是一个为自己国家的完整而斗争到底的领导人。遗憾的是这种情况没有出现。现在他遭到了自己人民的鄙视和诅咒。

      总之,戈尔巴乔夫没有采取任何具体措施,他走了另外一条路。发了许多声明,举行了许多新闻发布会。总统也发表了声明,但说得好听点,很平静。他甚至在别洛韦日协议中发现了某些值得肯定的地方。但苏联的这位国家元首也能料到,这份协议对我国人民和整个国际社会利益的触动会有多么深,这就要求对之作出全面的政治和法理评估。

      “我深深地确信,在现在的局势下,”戈尔巴乔夫认为,“各加盟共和国最高苏维埃和苏联最高苏维埃都必须既对主权国家联盟条约草案,也对明斯克签订的协议进行讨论。由于协议中提出的另一种国家体制形式问题属于苏联人民代表大会的职权范围,所以必须召开代表大会。此外,”声明在末尾又说,“我也不排除就这个问题举行全民公决。”

      看来戈尔巴乔夫是“忘记了”他跟各加盟共和国领导人一道,早在第五届特别人民代表大会上就已经亲手埋葬了苏联人民代表大会这一最高国务权力机构,并把这一权力转交到苏联最高苏维埃手上。苏联人民代表由于并不是最高苏维埃成员,只是有权出席最高苏维埃的会议而已。

      尽管如此,许多人民代表还是无法接受国家遭到毁灭的事实。12月9日我接到电话通知,代表们自发地组织了一个苏联人民代表大会召集小组。1991年12月10日,在新阿尔巴特大街的人民代表大厦20楼举行了为召开第六届苏联人民代表特别会议征集签名的活动。我也在这个文件上签了名。就在这时,戈尔巴乔夫给签名活动的组织者人民代表斯马林打了个电话。斯马林当我们的面告诉国家总统,已征集到足够的签名,可以召开大会。然后他匆匆忙忙收拾好签名册,跑去见戈尔巴乔夫。我知道,他把总数超过500人的签名和来电交到戈尔巴乔夫手上,并得到总统亲口许诺,召开代表大会。这次会见后的第二天,《消息报》以头版头条发表了一篇文章,醒目的标题是:《雷日科夫和切尔比科夫意图召开代表大会》。不仅是这份苏联最高苏维埃原来的机关报,而且还有苏共中央的其他一些出版物,都表示反对这一建议。而且,从总体上它们都采取了公开亲叶利钦的立场。

      究竟是什么原因影响到戈尔巴乔夫没有作出召开特别代表大会的决定,这一点我不清楚。很难说这里究竟是什么因素起了主要作用:也许是不愿意破釜沉舟,也许是想要加入到新的权力结构中去,也许就是很简单的胆怯,也许是想要把自己的叛卖进行到逻辑的终结……

      1991年12月12日,就在俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃批准别洛韦日协议的那一天,在阿什哈巴德举行了中亚和哈萨克斯坦各加盟共和国首脑会议。会议是在土库曼总统尼亚佐夫的建议下召开的。

      这几个加盟共和国的总统经过长时间争论,决定加入独联体,但不是作为协议的“附议者”,而是要作为“平等的创始国”。从阿什哈巴德声明可以得出结论,亚洲的几个加盟共和国并不认为独联体已经建立。文件直接指出,“必须协调建立独立国家联合体的努力”,而且“应该保证原苏联各主体国在制定有关独立国家联合体的决议和文件的过程中享有平等的参与权;所有组成独联体的国家都应该被认为具有创始国的地位”。由此可以得出一个现实的结论,即创建独联体的问题“应该提交到各主权国首脑会议上予以审议”。也就是说,别洛韦日谈判的结果只是被看成未来由范围更广泛的参加者展开创建独联体步骤的一个平台。

      阿什哈巴德会议决定“召开哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、土库曼斯坦和乌兹别克斯坦等国家元首会议,并邀请白俄罗斯、俄罗斯和乌克兰3国总统参加”。

      1991年12月21日,在阿拉木图召开了11个原苏联加盟共和国领导人会议(除了波罗的海沿岸三国和格鲁吉亚,其余全参加了)。在各国首脑会议上提出了建立联邦的建议。不过一提起这一点,就引起了克拉夫丘克的坚决抵制。他声称乌克兰是个主权国家,决不参加任何联邦联盟之类的凌驾于共和国之上的组织。看来,正是考虑到这一点,阿拉木图通过的声明中才写进了一条,说独立国家联合体“既不是一个国家,也不是凌驾于一个国家之上的组织”。

      这一立场为各独联体成员国处理相互关系不断带来巨大困难。

      会议的结果对明斯克协议进行了一定的修改。包括头一次的3国领导人在内,大家签署的文件,实质上已经变成了一个新的文件,这就是1991年12月21日签署的阿拉木图宣言,以及一系列补充协议和备忘录。

      有关苏联前途命运的表述变得更准确了:“从独立国家联合体成立之日起,苏维埃社会主义共和国联盟停止存在。”组成独立国家联合体的11个主权共和国领导人致信戈尔巴乔夫,告知他苏联以及苏联总统制度停止存在的事实。各独立国家首脑在信中对苏联总统戈尔巴乔夫值得肯定的重大贡献表示感谢……

      阿拉木图会议的结果没有给戈尔巴乔夫留下什么希望。1991年12月25日莫斯科时间17时,全国听到了他作为一个已不存在的国家的总统所作的最后一次讲话。

      就在他的讲话声中,一幅巨大的红旗——苏联国旗——在克里姆林宫的穹顶之上抖动了一下,然后缓缓下降。降下这面旗子的,是颠覆行动的主要鼓动者和组织者布尔布利斯,获此“殊荣”是为了奖赏他叛卖行动的彻底性。几分钟后,克里姆林宫的旗杆上升起了三色旗。

      一个永远载入人类史册的伟大时代——超级大国苏维埃社会主义共和国联盟的时代——就这样结束了。

    夜幕笼罩大地

      就这样,在世界1/6的土地上,一个统一的国家——苏联——变成了15个主权国家。阴暗的交易完成了——在一群向权力冲刺的“领袖们”的号角声中,在无数被愚弄的群众的欢呼声中。但欢乐并没有持续多久,便开始了痛苦的清醒过程。正如歌中唱道:“早晨我们醒来了……”

      在俄罗斯,整个这段时期的局势都显得异常复杂,难以逆料,对于大多数老百姓则尤为艰难。于是,在1998年经国家杜马的一群代表动议,共218名代表,其中也包括笔者,提议对俄联邦总统叶利钦提出指控(弹劾),准备把他赶下台。

      提出这一指控的法律根据就是俄罗斯联邦宪法第93条,其中说,国家总统可以由联邦委员会免去职务,不过一定要在国家杜马指控他犯有叛国罪或其他重罪的基础上。⑦

      国家杜马为了审查叶利钦的这些罪状,成立了一个专门委员会。讨论中形成了五点指控:

      第一:1991年12月俄罗斯总统叶利钦制定和签署了别洛韦日协议,最终消灭了苏联,犯下了叛国罪;

      第二:1993年9—10月期间,叶利钦总统组织并积极参与实施了颠覆国家的活动,违犯了俄联邦的刑法条款;

      第三:1994年11月30日,叶利钦总统颁布了2137号命令——《关于在车臣共和国领土上以及在奥塞梯—印古什冲突地区恢复行使宪法和法制的办法》,下令在车臣共和国开始军事行动,犯下罪行;

      第四:作为俄罗斯联邦武装部队最高统帅,叶利钦总统在履行职务期间给俄联邦国防力量和安全造成重大损失;

      第五:叶利钦及其同谋的政策基础是“改革”,它将俄罗斯引入社会经济危机,破坏了国民经济的主要部门,导致社会分化加剧,使国家安全丧失,人民生活水平急剧下降,居民人口萎缩。

      大批代表和专家参与了委员会的工作,听取了许多官员的证词。委员会的会议在十分民主的气氛中展开。辩论进行得非常激烈,不仅充分听取了弹劾方的意见,而且还听取了反对方的意见。可以说,委员会已掌握了完全客观阐明国内局势的与苏联解体相关的以及解体以后的基础资料。

      因此,在国家杜马的例会上讨论这个问题时,完全可以满怀信心地以所获得的材料为根据。

      我也要利用它们,以求足够翔实地把我国当代历史上这一并非不重要的的事件作一个具体叙述。⑧我只想强调一点,就是所有实际材料和对国内局势的分析都是锁定在1998年,我决不把它们说成是今天的事情,也决不把它们套到今天头上,因为它们就像是在给叶利钦的统治作一个总结。从这个意义上来讲,照我看,它们还真具有不小的历史价值。

      无疑,所有这五条指控都是对破坏国家罪的直接指控。

      好了,前面已经说过,在订立别洛韦日协议以及协议订立后的那段日子里,有形形色色的活动家都出来维护叶利钦。他们总是在说叶利钦和别洛韦日会议的其他参加者并没有去毁灭苏联,他们只不过记录了它的瓦解,而俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃既然批准了协议,那自然也就完全洗清了叶利钦身上的一切罪过。可是国家杜马特别委员会则根据这一指控内容的原则条款,非常明确地得出了完全不同的结论。

      第一点:认为1922年联盟条约失效,这一点是完全违法的。这个条约先是由6个加盟共和国,即俄罗斯、乌克兰、白俄罗斯以及高加索联邦的阿塞拜疆、亚美尼亚和格鲁吉亚签署,后来又有9个共和国加入,这样就组成了苏联。而且,条约的基本条款又成为苏联1924年宪法的一部分。后来,它的基本条款实际上完整地写进了苏联1936和1937年的宪法和所有加盟共和国的宪法(比如俄罗斯联邦1925、1937和1977年的宪法)。

      1922年的联盟条约以及与之相一致的宪法标准,根本就不可能有废除一说,因为这是一个具有创始性质的文件。它不是什么国际条约,而是创始性质的条约。创建的是一个新国家。条约中以及后来的宪法中保留了每一个组成苏联的加盟共和国自由退出的权力。退出的程序在1990年4月3日的苏联法律中有规定。只有履行了与这个法律相一致的全部程序之后,某个加盟共和国退出苏联的问题才能最终由苏联人民代表大会来决定。

      第二点:别洛韦日协议炮制者们犯下的罪行(我看是最大的重罪)实际上是取消全苏全民公决结果的罪。我要指出,苏联人民代表大会于1990年12月24日通过决议,就是否应该保存革新后的苏联的问题在全国举行全民公决。在1亿8560万有投票权的苏联公民中,实际参加投票人数为1亿4850万,占80%。其中有1亿1350万或76.4%的人投票赞成保留苏联。根据全民公决法,这个决定在整个苏联版图上具有强制力,要取消它只有再举行全民公决。法律责成所有国家机关、团体和所有官员都责无旁贷地要履行这一决定。

      第三点:叶利钦在签署别洛韦日协议的同时,也破坏了俄联邦所有公民的宪法权利。根据当时有效的苏联和俄罗斯联邦宪法,苏维埃俄罗斯的每一个公民都是全苏联的公民。有70%以上的俄联邦公民于3月17日再次表示,愿意做苏联公民。别洛韦日协议却破坏了个人法律地位的最主要基础之一——国籍制度。2500万在自己土地上的俄罗斯人,一夜之间竟变成了外国人。

      15年过去了,可是国籍问题、难民问题、如何在新居留地安置他们的问题依然还是那么尖锐。由于统一国家解体,各主权国家推行了一种剥夺俄罗斯人公民权的政策,给他们造成了难以忍受的生活条件,他们被迫又回到自己历史上的祖国来侨居。

      由独联体各国和波罗的海沿岸地区迁来的移民,在过去10年中的头5年,每年就达到100多万,而在整个90年代平均每年为38万。对于每个移民来说,这样的迁移其实就是生活中一次根本性的大变故,会带来无数异常复杂的问题,说得好听点,这些都是巨大的困难。

      不过在那酒气熏天的别洛韦日之夜,签署文件的那帮家伙才不管老百姓的死活呢。一定要达到主要目标——瓦解统一国家,夺取梦寐以求的权力。

      叶利钦和他的同案犯做到了许多国家在几个世纪的过程中一直想做的事:瓦解、消灭我们的国家。至于谁能够从中渔利,这一点不难猜测。例如,1991年12月25日美利坚合众国总统乔治·布什(老布什)在自己的声明中强调:“美国欢迎和支持新的独联体国家所作出的倾向于自由的历史性选择……这些事件虽有可能造成不稳定和混乱,但它们显然符合我们国家的利益。”

      早在别洛韦日协议签订之前,叶利钦身边的人就在大洋彼岸朋友们的授意下,制定出肢解苏联的计划。这些人经过长期工作,影响了叶利钦政策的形成,这些无疑对1991年12月8日通过的决定都产生了影响。例如,由波波夫提出,并经“民主俄罗斯党”同意的计划,包含以下内容:把俄罗斯联邦分成7个部分,把乌克兰分成3部分,总之,在苏联留下的废墟上,要建立起17个主权国家。这个哈里托诺夫竟超过了希特勒和罗森伯格,这两个家伙在1941年德国进攻苏联之前制定的计划,“总共”也只不过想要在我们国家成立10个辖下的帝国领地而已。

      还有一个计划则是涉及到当前的俄罗斯。美国的中央情报局建议把俄国分解成8个独立国家。为了让我国读者了解他们将有可能在哪个国家生活,我把它们连同首都全部引在下面:
      俄罗斯共和国(莫斯科);
      西北共和国(圣彼得堡);
      伏尔加共和国(萨拉托夫);
      哥萨克共和国(斯塔夫罗波尔);
      乌拉尔共和国(叶卡捷琳堡);
      西西伯利亚共和国(克拉斯诺亚尔斯克);
      萨哈民主共和国(雅库茨克);
      远东共和国(符拉迪沃斯托克);
      恶劣的榜样具有感染性,特别是当境外那些与我们势不两立的“朋友”们喜欢这样做,而且现在也想这样做的时候。每天媒体上都会出现一些材料,提出一些深刻的地缘政治学“科学”论证和号召:“俄罗斯干嘛需要高加索呢?”“我们的男孩干嘛要为高加索送命呢?”等等。根据叶利钦犯罪活动的某些同党、新自由主义改革派及其类似人物的意见,俄罗斯由于拥有无边无垠的广袤土地,是一个无法管理的国家,所以据说由于这个原因,一个国家就应该分解成无数独立的“公国”。那些“自由主义民主派”的活动家们,他们的理想和思考也不乏“爱国主义”情绪,他们希望把科利半岛北部的俄罗斯领土奉送给芬兰。我们这些家生家养的“爱国者”正在处心积虑地等待有一天条件成熟,允许俄罗斯把千岛群岛转让给日本,然后,如果不是在此之前的话,还要把加里宁格勒交给德国。他们思考的方式大致是:既然叶利钦把克里米亚连同塞瓦斯托波尔送给了乌克兰,戈尔巴乔夫匆匆忙忙把俄国领土连同纳尔瓦送给了爱沙尼亚,那么……

      我常常问自己:如果面对这样的情况,国外那些民主国家的领导人又会怎么办?让我们闭起眼睛想一想,假如小布什把阿拉斯加归还了俄罗斯,而在良心发现的时候又把得克萨斯还给了那片土地的旧主墨西哥,或者干脆把美国拆开,让大家散伙,让每个州都成为主权国家,那又会是一个什么光景?或者,比方说,法国总统突然决定要满足民族极端分子的要求,把主权交付给诺曼底,而大不列颠的首相则向阿根廷道歉,并归还福克兰群岛,最后又宣布爱尔兰独立。或者加拿大、西班牙的领导人也都争先恐后宣布魁北克和巴斯克人的居住地独立。那他们会闹个什么结果?于是,自然也就得出结论:所有在西方具有健康思维的人绝不允许的事,从这帮俄国帮闲的立场来看,则不仅是可能的,而且正是他们所希望的。这就是他们“爱国主义”的真正价值。

      1991年12月,叶利钦完成了针对苏联的重大叛国行动,给俄罗斯造成巨大损失。可以毫不夸大地说,这种情况涉及生活的方方面面——涉及我国在国际社会的威信和作用,涉及经济、国防能力、科学发展、生产和文化、居民生活水平等等。现从无数确凿的事实中,仅举国家杜马专门委员会弹劾俄罗斯总统叶利钦材料中的几例。再重复一遍,情况都是1998年发生的。

      在经济方面。

      起初,叶利钦的战友们所提出的、他们翻来覆去重复的目标和任务,在人民的眼里看来都相当高尚:原打算在国内经济政治生活民主化和自由化的基础上,提高居民的生活水准和质量。然而——现在这一点简直可以说是洞若观火——宣布的目标不仅未能实现,人们的生存条件反倒是恶化了好几倍。为了破坏原苏联的经济和社会政治制度,造成了史无前例的牺牲。千千万万的人被迫日日夜夜为了基本生存条件而挣扎。

      要知道俄罗斯可是世界上唯一一个完全可以自给自足的国家。它占有地球上10%的领土,但人口却只占总人口的2.4%。它拥有极为丰富极为多样化的原料储量,巨大的智力资源和社会、人力资源,就其居民的生存条件而言,它具有跻身于世界各国前列的一切先决条件。然而,在这些条件和居民生活的实际水平、生活质量之间,却存在着一条鸿沟,而且还在越变越深。

      在叶利钦统治的年代,俄国同美国相比,或者同离得比较近的其他经济比较发达的国家相比,许多国情指标都灾难性地恶化了。比方说,1998年俄国国家预算开支按居民人均计算要比美国少34倍,比芬兰少43倍。

      俄国在30年代曾经是欧洲的第二大强国,到了20世纪中叶,他同美国一道并肩成为世界超级大国,可是现在却跌进了工业发展边缘化的低谷。改革期间全国工业总产量缩小了一半以上。有些经济领域出现了雪崩式的灾难性的生产下滑。机械制造业产品产量缩小了60%多。轻工和纺织工业的生产下滑了80%多。许多部门企业的产品产量缩小了5倍。个别企业,其中包括那些构成城市骨干的企业,实际上已经停止了生产,而它们的工人和技术人员则丧失了生存的手段。

      有些经济部门整个地被消灭了,特别是机床制造业、建筑机械生产、农机生产、电子工业和工具制造行业,还有许多国防工业联合体的企业和科研院所。经过这样一番折腾之后,俄罗斯又怎能谈得上对西方的独立呢?

      苏维埃政权被摧毁后,没有新建过一个电站,没有建设过一个稍微像样点的大工厂。这段时间有成千上万的现代企业被关闭,被偷抢一空(我在这里还没有谈到学校、医疗机构、俱乐部、图书馆、少先队活动基地、幼儿园……这些后面我还要详谈),简直就是一场反工业化运动。说明这种情况的不仅有数量指标,还有质量指标:实际上整个国民经济中的现代生产容量已变得非常小,大多数经济行业根本不具备竞争力,技术领域中的储备能力已经变得无可挽回地老化,而它们的损耗也达到了60%—80%的程度。

      俄罗斯的出口以燃料和原料为主的结构一直没有改变。出口了国内铝业生产的78%,镍产量的82%,铜产量的71%,无机肥的78%,天然气的30%,石油的40%,大量稀土元素。与此同时,在俄罗斯没有探明一处甚至是中等规模的矿藏。地质工作陷于低谷,完全被摧毁了。整个国家全靠苏联时期的存底过日子。

      仅在不远的过去苏联还是世界科技进步的领袖国家之一,具有较大的科技潜力。20世纪1/3的重大科技发现都是原苏联的科学家们完成的。今天,我们国家迅速地衰退成殖民地性质的国家。它在高科技产品出口中所占份额仅有1%。这样就使得过去在科技发展方面所占优势荡然无存。与此同时,国内有80%以上的新科技成果无法得到应用。成千上万的科技工作者被迫改行。国家在丧失科技潜力的同时也失去未来,失去了为自己的人民建设应有生活的条件。俄罗斯对科学的拨款日趋萎缩,仅占国内生产总值的0.5%。而且,这点儿可怜的钱也到不了科学家的手上。

      农业也遭到了重创。农业各部门的总产量下降了35%还多。粮食产量下降了一半。肉类生产也下降了一半,奶类30%以上。大牲畜、羊只和家禽的饲养量缩减了两倍或两倍以上。为了让它们能恢复到1990年的水平,恐怕需要许多年才成。俄罗斯的耕地缩小了2000多万公顷,恢复起来也不会是一日之功。

      给人的印象是,为了讨好西方生产者,正在对我国农业进行有目的的破坏。应该指出,世界各国实践表明,30%的食品进口就已经公认是进入危机状态了,然后就要出现对供应国产生战略依赖的情况。俄罗斯本来一直都可以供应自己高质量的而且便宜的食品,现在却要采购几乎45%的食品以供消费,而且最大的几个城市依赖国外供应的程度竟然达到了70%—80%。

      苏联统一经济空间、国民经济和科学的破坏,产生了近千万的失业大军,他们丧失了最起码的生存保障。根据官方统计资料,这个数字波动在600万到700万之间,大约为具有经济活动能力人口的1/10。实际上如果说到精确数字,1998年的失业人口要超过2500万。其中只有一小部分有可能得到失业救济金,而且还不是经常。

      叶利钦和他的政府为了很少一部分人的利益,在俄罗斯推行了全民所有国家财产的私有化。结果1998年在相对来说比较幸运的20%的居民身上,集中了一半以上的国民总收入,而收入的主要部分,则为200—300个家庭据为己有,他们攫取了国家财富的绝大部分,同时也攫取了国家的权力。

      根据国家杜马特别委员会的看法,价格的自由化,公民收入和储蓄的严重缩水,完全都是总统和政府的蓄意所为,其目的非常明确。这样的做法对于一小撮人来说是非常有利的,他们从绝大多数百姓身上搜刮财富,达到暴富的目的。俄罗斯人在一夜之间损失了几乎250万亿卢布(按旧币值)的存款,而这些钱是构成他们生计的来源之一,是全家人在遭遇困境时的“保命钱”。困境来临了,可是千百万人却只能两手空空攥紧拳头来面对它。

      其实,百姓被金融金字塔的组织者掠夺,负有直接责任的是总统和政府:一个本不具备牢靠法律基础的政权,却批准了许多显然犯罪或者半犯罪的组织去行动,它们在这段时间从俄罗斯人手中又把国家劫余的一切来了个一扫而光。

      叶利钦和盖达尔从1992年1月2日起,彻底“放开了”物价。他们保证,物价仅仅“只会”上涨3倍,然后呢,就会稳定下来,再然后就要下降了。结果是什么,这我们都知道:对叶利钦、盖达尔神话故事里的情节我们都有过切身感受,而叶利钦、亚夫林斯基的“500天”狂想曲也都让我们遭过大罪。

      老百姓的支付能力大大打了折扣。总统和政府广泛利用这种害人的宏观经济政策机制,以同通货膨胀斗争为借口,有意识地缩减了生产领域的货币流通总量。这样就立刻引发了支付危机,使生产停摆,犯罪经济横行,工资急剧缩减,也引发了国家巨大的内外债务。然后政府又力图以从百姓身上搜刮来的储蓄款作为抵偿债务的手段,而且还拖欠老百姓的工资。发放债券和各种有价代用票证的机器都全速开动起来,用它们来代替流通货币,强加给人民。社会开支的不断紧缩,对老百姓又是一个重大打击,首先就是教育、医疗卫生、养老金等方面的支出和各种津贴。

      众所周知,工资是大部分居民的主要生活来源。尽管如此,但为了一小撮亲信集团和新生资产阶级,以及为他们服务的成为政权社会支柱的贪腐官员的进一步发家致富,总统有意识地长期不发工资和各种津贴,实际上是把自己千千万万的同胞送入了忍受饥饿和半饥饿煎熬的境地。好多部门的职工竟成年累月地领不到工资。由于吃不饱饭,人们忍饥挨饿,许多人,甚至上学的孩子,都有被饿昏过去的情况。

      为了彻底改变俄国的社会经济关系,形成一个新阶级——私有主,叶利钦蓄意使俄国公民的生活条件恶化,一方面死亡率大大提高,另一方面出生率下降,这就必然引起人口的巨大损失。结果导致国内人口数量急剧下降。

      与此同时,有人也提出了许多改变他所推行的社会经济路线的建议,但都遭到他一一否决。

      委员会的这一结论,遭到国家杜马两个代表的反对,这两个代表刚巧也是对所有指控统统表示反对的人。他们的道理还是老一套的鬼话。在这个问题上,他们所说的道理简直可以称得上是绝妙:一方面他们也承认由于生育率的急剧下降和死亡率的上升,俄国人口总数的确有了相当程度的的下降,但他们以为原因既不在于俄国公民生活条件的恶化,也不在于大规模的失业现象,或者工资和养老金过低造成的贫困;既不在于人们的日常开支入不敷出,也不在于大多数居民付不起医疗费。近年来我国居民人数的下降,按照他们的解释,其原因在于人民长期以来一直处于自我隔绝的条件之下(所谓“铁幕”),这就使“俄罗斯族群丧失了免疫功能,丧失了身处外族包围和具有攻击性环境下的活力”。不过作出这种“发现”的人,却在自己并不情愿的情况下肯定了一个事实,就是俄罗斯推行“经济改革”的结果,人民不仅陷入了一种格格不入的环境,而且陷入了一个对他们抱有敌意的环境!有意思的是叶利钦是否会因为自己的捍卫者帮了倒忙而对他们表示感谢呢?

      值得一提的是在委员会的会议上有人指出,俄国居民中,减少速度最快的部分是斯拉夫人。伊柳亨代表甚至发表声明说,国家总统实行的政策同德国纳粹扫清苏联经济区、灭绝斯拉夫人,以接纳雅利安“优等人种”的手法同出一辙。

      正是别洛韦日协议撕裂了一个完整的生活空间——政治的、经济的、文化语言的,破坏了千百年来的传统和生活方式,破坏了全体居民作为统一的社会共同体而每一个民族(种族)又保持着独立的人口再生产的休养生息的环境本身。因此不难理解,到了20世纪90年代,俄罗斯第一次强烈地感受到人口缩减、民族消亡的危机。有什么样的生命体能不衰亡呢?更何况这种繁衍是处于一种格格不入的、受到攻击的环境之下呢!近几年来,男人的平均寿命竟降到了57岁,而女人则不到70岁。⑨

      死亡率的确大大提高了,而且特别值得指出的是死者当中有1/3都是有劳动能力的年龄段的人。而且在这类居民中男子的死亡率高过女子4倍。这常常是因为意外事故、受伤、暴力、被杀、自杀、酗酒、吸毒等等。老年人死亡的速度加快了,也就是说,出现了最直接意义的生理上的断代现象。而这种传承性本应是社会财富、智慧知识和人类所累积的生活经验得以延续下去的基础。

      目前死亡人数高过出生人数1.5—1.7倍。在叶利钦、盖达尔推行激进改革政策的年代里,结婚人数降低了30%,出生率降低了37%。我国出生率是欧洲最低的,这个数字比保持一代一代简单更迭所必需的数字低了40%。这首先是艰苦的经济条件所产生的直接后果,它在许多方面同一个事实有着联系,就是每一千例正常分娩就伴随有200—215例堕胎。再有,有什么办法,到哪儿去养孩子呢?因为正如俗话所说,住宅问题卡住了千百万家庭的喉咙。要知道在建造供免费分配的住宅这个问题上,在叶利钦“在位”的这些年中,我们欠账实在太多了。再说一句,自打2005年通过一系列有关住宅的方案以来,免费分房就已经基本不存在了。建房的总体速度已经下降了2.4倍,房价变得很昂贵,根本不是普通老百姓能够买得起的。

      俄罗斯总体上的人口损失,加上死亡和由于极度恶劣的社会经济条件而没有出生的,这个数字已经超过了800万。也就是说,在叶利钦统治的七年间⑩,人口平均每年减少的数量几乎为100万。而且,这还是在这种可怕的损失部分得到由原苏联各加盟共和国迁入人口补充的情况下。这岂不就意味着在我们这个时代当局完全可以在不动枪炮,只用经济手段的条件下,“顺利地”发动一场反对自己人民的战争吗?

      负面人口变化有许多地方都是同居民健康状况的恶化分不开的。前面已经部分谈到了这方面的情况,这里要说的是,在1992年到1998年,局势简直就成了灾难性的。让我再来引用一些委员会的材料。

      居民健康状况的负面动向可以从各个年龄段和各个社会组合人群中显示出来,实际上各种疾病的统计资料无不如此。心血管疾病、肿瘤、内分泌疾病、代谢疾病的规模急剧增长。传染病的状况十分堪忧,特别是结核病、肝炎、肠道病、寄生虫病,还有性病、艾滋病。非常令人担忧的情况,比如说,梅毒的传播率扩大了64倍,而且性病的发展现在还波及到儿童和少年,实在不能不说是一个悲剧——既是社会的,也是人类的。

      托马斯·曼有一句说得很形象的话:“病就是穷人的路。”这句话对于每一个人来说现在具有了越来越具体的、戏剧性的含义。现在很多人都买不起那些每天每时都在涨价的药,付不起专家诊费或者手术费。普通百姓根本就去不起疗养院,因为他们的工资或者养老金还不够买一张单程的车票。

      70%的居民经常处于极度紧张之中,他们的神经和情绪由于经济的、社会的、生态的或者其他方面的原因而极度亢奋。因此功能性神经心理疾病患者的数量也在不断上升,越来越多的人从毒品和酒精中寻求解脱。不能不指出,正是这样一批社会病患者,现在成了社会上最流行的现象,他们由于陷入贫困,由于无法找到自己应有的位置,由于他们的所有生存条件都在恶化,看不到摆脱全面危机的明确而现实的道路,因而深陷堕落之中。

      所有的一切不能不在俄罗斯人生活的社会层面上对下一代有所影响。2005年6月的国际儿童节俄联邦内务部部长努尔加利耶夫声称,俄国有200万儿童没有父母,有600万居住在社会不良环境中,还有400万酗酒和吸毒。国内流浪儿总数达到87万。这还只是公开的数字,根据专家的意见,是大大被降低了的。可是有一个数字是没有被降低的:每个儿童的生活津贴每月只有70卢布!这还是在国内根本不缺钱的时候!

      国内贩卖儿童的罪行公然盛行。穿白大褂的男男女女把发育完全正常的儿童诊断成弱智儿童,为把他们销售,特别是销售到大洋彼岸赢利而创造条件。

      看来只有请捷尔任斯基复活,才能解决我们国家流浪儿童的问题了。想当年内战和卫国战争之后,这个社会问题一度那么严重,不是也解决了吗!

      这就是我国人民的可以说完全垮掉的、可怜的生活水平的大致情景,其中一个原因,就是我国医疗保健事业的濒死状况和商业化。在苏维埃时代,它曾是世界公认最优秀的制度。到了1998年,它却成了国家的整个社会服务体系完全垮掉的最有力的见证之一,这完全是由于1991年12月8日叶利钦及其一伙在别洛韦日森林中催出的恶果。

      除此之外,国家杜马特别委员会在研究了类似的材料之后,认为应该也必须控诉叶利钦对俄罗斯民族犯下的种族灭绝罪。

      在国际法中,“种族灭绝”概念最初是经1948年12月9日联合国大会通过的防止和惩处种族灭绝罪公约引入和确立的。苏联加入这个条约的时间是1954年,因此它也适用于作为苏联法权承继人的俄罗斯联邦。该公约第二条把种族灭绝界定为以完全或部分消灭某民族、种族、人种或宗教人群为目的的行动,其手段为:杀害该群体成员,对该群体成员实行严重身体伤害,蓄意伤害成员身体器官,蓄意为某个人群营造以完全或部分对其实施肉体消灭为目的的生活条件,在该人群中实施以防止生育为目的的手段,强制儿童由一个人群向另一个人群转移。无疑,叶利钦的所作所为就其本质而言在许多方面都符合这些条款。

      叶利钦的追随者如祖拉波夫、库德琳之流,对俄罗斯人生活的社会条件也带来了极大的危害。他们炮制的反人类的122号法令,把最后遗留的那点好处也都搜刮得一干二净。杜马兴高采烈地通过了这个法令,联邦委员会批准了它,国家总统也签署了它。干这桩事的代表们应该想想,上一届代表仅仅在7年前还曾经指控叶利钦对本国人民犯下了种族灭绝罪!

      在谈到俄罗斯儿童的处境时,不能不涉及另一个涉及儿童的问题,这就是学校伙食状况。大家都明白,儿童和青少年时代如果营养摄入不足,将会对身体发育、发病状况、学习成绩等产生不良影响,造成代谢障碍,形成慢性疾病。

      中小学学生——在我国这个数字是1700万——的大部分时间都是在普教机构中度过的。在这些地方,卫生条例规定要为他们准备热食——早餐,为全日制的孩子们准备两餐——早餐和午餐,而为在校时间更长的还要准备下午餐。根据俄罗斯卫生保健社会发展部的资料显示,在俄联邦各行政主体,校餐的价格每天是在0卢布至12—15卢布之间浮动。学生在校就食热餐的比例在俄罗斯是由小学到中学到中学高年级逐步递减,大约各占82%、64%和51%以下。至于说到校餐的质量,根据俄罗斯医学科学院饮食研究所的资料,学生在校所能摄取的饮食,充其量不过是每日饮食标准的30%—40%。

      农村学校状况的麻烦就更大了:仅一条就说明问题——近65%的学校没有合格的饮用水。

      当然,儿童问题在学校只不过是一个延续,而它的源头出现得要早得多。因为大约有70%的妇女健康上多少都有些问题。孕妇中能够正常分娩的不过40%。过半数的新生儿健康也有问题。大约15%—20%的学龄前儿童患有慢性病。到中学毕业时完全健康的青少年仅占10%。在儿童身体和心理发育方面越来越经常地发现出现障碍的情况,即出现晚熟现象,而不是像苏联时期出现早熟现象。结果年轻人中由于健康状况而不适合服兵役和从事有效的创造性活动的人数越来越多。

      例如,根据俄罗斯政府副总理、俄联邦国防部长伊万诺夫在国家杜马答询时的发言,2005年秋季应征的人员中,大约10%体重不足,因此这批青年本应在入伍后立刻进入军事训练,但却不得不送去“增肥”。而且,由于体重不达标,兵役局还免除了多达9万名17岁青年的兵役。

      总之,国家杜马特别委员会得出明确结论:在我国推行所谓“改革”,以及由此而产生的破坏性后果,主要责任应该由总统叶利钦来负,因为根据俄罗斯联邦宪法,他是国家元首,由他来组织政府,领导政府活动,决定国家内外政策的方向。他在某些情况下行使自己的职权,而在另一些情况下又选择不作为,以此造成对国家和俄国人民利益的损害;他实际上把国家杜马排除在一系列重大社会经济问题的决策之外。在对待国家杜马的态度上,他的行为常常同当年对待俄联邦最高苏维埃的态度一样。

      正是在叶利钦统治的年代,浓浓的黑雾笼罩了我国大地。自然会有人问:一个国家元首怎么会允许这样的情况出现?不错,他的确不是内行,这一点任何人都能看得出,可是他不是有一大群专家学者、生产第一线的第一流专家供他差遣吗?但他却根本不想利用这些人的潜力。作为一个了解他性格的人,我可以说,他就好像是在向自己的人民进行报复,只是说不清为了什么!对于这个人来说,俄罗斯人民,1991年怀着欣喜若狂的心情投票要他上台的人民,简直就是一堆粪土。他要的是权,眼睛里只有权,为了权他可以炮打俄罗斯联邦最高苏维埃,他可以消灭人民代表苏维埃。他权欲熏天,权力就是他生命的终极意义,对此他毫不讳言。

      无疑,叶利钦对他的西方“朋友”,是承担着一定的义务的。否则就无法解释一个事实,就是他置我国科学界的抗议于不顾,执意推行对俄国和俄国人民危害极深的经济改革路线,并拒绝对之进行任何修改。国外的一群经济学家——诺贝尔奖得主——也给他写过类似的论据充分的信,揭示出这种改革对俄罗斯有多深的危害。但结果也是一样。

      叶利钦改革俄罗斯的同时也是实现美国对外政策战略目标的一个步骤,这个目标就是进一步削弱俄罗斯这个苏联的继承者,进一步巩固在一个大国统治下的国际新秩序。正如比尔·克林顿在1995年10月25日的参谋长联席会议秘密会议上所说:“……最近10年来对苏联及其盟友的政策清楚表明,我们所采取的清除世界上最强大的国家之一以及最强大军事联盟的路线是多么正确。我们利用苏联外交的失误,戈尔巴乔夫及其一伙的非同寻常的自以为是,其中还包括利用那些公开站在亲美立场上的人,我们获得了杜鲁门总统想要通过原子弹从苏联获取的东西。不过,这里有一个非常重要的区别,就是我们还附带获得了原料供应,而不是原子弹毁掉的国家。如果是那样,恢复起来可就不容易了。”

      今天的领导人继承的俄罗斯,是一个被毁掉的俄罗斯,其中有许多可以想见和难以想见的灾难。虽然已经有了一些正面进展,但面临的还是百废待兴的局面,希望现在这段黑暗的日子过去后将会出现曙光,我国受苦受难的人民将享受盼望已久的灿烂光明!我们绝不该失去希望!

      50年前俄国杰出的哲学家伊万·亚历山德罗维奇·伊林,当时他身处流放之中,在《我们的任务》一书中就曾以预言家的敏锐写道:
      俄罗斯绝不是一块块领土、一个个民族偶然的集合和堆砌,也不是把一个个“州”人为地组合在一起形成的机制,它是一个活生生的、历史形成的、文化上有内在逻辑的机体。它是不能被随意肢解的。这个机体在地理学上是一个整体,它的各个部分在经济上互为营养;这个机体在精神、语言和文化上也是一个整体,历史地把俄罗斯民族同它的民族小兄弟团结在一起,在精神上也互为营养;这个机体在国家战略上也是一个整体,它向全世界证明了它自我防卫的意志和能力;它还是一座屹立于欧亚两洲的堡垒,因此也是世界均势的堡垒。对它的肢解将是一次史无前例的政治冒险,它的毁灭性的后果将给人类带来长久的影响。

    后记

      这本书写了足足有十多年。起初只是为了备忘,把发生在改革年代的那些零散的、比较重要的、后来又对瓦解这个强大统一国家苏联起着多方面作用的事件记录下来。但随着上个世纪80—90年代之交那些悲惨年头逐渐远去,我跟我的许多同龄人,由于曾经身处我国生活这一最艰苦年代各种事件的旋涡之中,便萌生了想要更深入探讨其前因后果的要求。但愿本书在一定程度上能够回答这种心灵和理智的呼唤。现在,当这项工作行将结束之际,笔者想对这些基本的看法,再作一个简短明确的表述,希望读者能够原谅我的烦言赘语,因为它们跟本书基本内容密切相关。

      其实,笔者并没有把分析我国解体的所有原因和事实列为本书的任务。我很清楚,要做到这一点,需要许多研究人员和研究机构花费巨大的劳动才能完成。本书中所涉及的,只是导致这一大悲剧发生的某些情况。本书的名称也清楚地说明了我本人对这一具有世界意义事件的态度。

      俄联邦总统普京在他的多次演说中,也对我国15年前发生的种种事件作出了评价,并把它称之为世纪悲剧和灾难。作为历史事实来说,这是正确的。但这一历史事件的后果非常深远,远远超出了时间的甚或领土的范围,具有全球性质,并将在几个世纪的过程中影响整个人类历史的进程。

      世界政治地图经过一定历史阶段总免不了要发生变化,因为它要反映新的地缘政治关系。二战以后的情况就是如此。三个战胜国领导人在克里米亚和波茨坦开会,后来又通过1975年的赫尔辛基协议,把它的结果固定下来。而这些结果的出发点,便是世界政治力量的相对平衡。这种平衡以及另一个并非不重要的因素——原子弹,使我们得以在没有大的全球冲突,没有世界大战的条件下,度过了半个多世纪。要知道,一战和二战之间相隔了只不过是短短的20年。可是现在,在苏联解体后的15年内,欧洲,其中也包括原来的苏联,竟出现了24个新国家。而且这个过程还未必就此会打住。现在,眼下就至少有科索沃、阿布哈兹、南奥塞梯、纳戈尔内—卡拉巴赫、德涅斯特沿岸地区共和国在等着。

      苏联垮掉之后,国际力量平衡也被破坏了,强烈的地区震荡的冲击波扩散到全世界。其中既包括南斯拉夫的覆灭,也包括阿富汗和伊拉克的战争。北朝鲜和伊朗也正在受到威胁。此外,不是还有近东各国之间由于多国利益而发生的多年流血冲突吗?

      关于这个强大的、具有崇高威望的国家在世界地图上的消失,关于出现这一历史悲剧的原因,近15年来发表过许多论著:既有各种各样的科学研究成果,也有些近乎科学的东西,还有某些对个别事件主观性极强的描述和回忆录等等。不过,每种著作所涉及的,也仅仅只能是事件的某些方面而已。看来,对历史进行全面的、不偏不倚的、没有争议的记述的时刻还没有到来。

      我想,最终一定会有人出来,我国领导人也会表现出政治魄力,把客观评价这一灾难的全部复杂原因,把对那股策划并实现了这一灾难的力量进行分析,确立为自己的任务,并完成该任务。做这件事的目的不应该是为了某一个帮派的利益,或是出于向苏联和苏联人民自1917至1991年走过的道路泼脏水的个人想法——现在的“民主派”就喜欢干这种事。为了我国的未来,为了我国人民的未来,这样的分析是必不可少的。

      导致1991年各种事件的原因相当多。起作用的有各种内部和外部因素。笔者在本书第一章谈到过外部对我国施加的影响,特别是引述了杜勒斯在1945年讲过的一些话。究其本质而言,这些话里包含了同我国进行长期斗争的全部指导思想。

      西方,特别是美国,许多地方都是根据这一指导思想来行动的。他们千方百计在我国特定的知识分子圈子中为自己寻找“朋友”。苏联克格勃主席安德罗波夫把这些人称之为“影响的代理人”。应该说,他们在完成任务过程中很卖力气。

      那场“冷战”的展开也不是偶然的。几十年中,它可把苏联拖苦了,把大量国家资源吸引到军备竞赛中去,而它们本来是可以用来解决国计民生问题的。这一点对苏联人的生活水平不能没有影响。苏联同社会主义联合体的盟友,在经济上较之于美国和它的欧洲仆从要弱一些,因此,为了保持基本军事均势而出现的国防开支,就对我国和我国人民产生了比对方更为容易感知的影响。此外,还有不少资源,苏联也作为援助给了自己的盟友,只是现在几乎所有这些盟友都跑到了西方的卵翼之下。

      苏联解体的主要原因无疑是在内部。其中有经济的、社会的、党和国家的,还有许多其他原因。我并不打算在本书中一一列举它们。不过,关于其中的一个原因,一个现在看来并没有最终彻底解决的、直接导致我国出现悲剧的原因,我在本书中倒是讲得相当详细和具体。这就是改革年代后期我国各地突然爆发并迅速发展的民族主义。正是这个东西,成了苏维埃国家内部破坏过程的强有力的催化剂。

      对于俄罗斯帝国和苏联而言,民族关系问题是一个自久远年代起即已存在的现实问题。

      基辅罗斯解体后,古俄罗斯民族分裂成为三支斯拉夫兄弟民族,这就是俄罗斯族、乌克兰族和白俄罗斯族。这几个族群具有同一个根,所以可以认为,15世纪中叶以前,罗斯国家实际上是一个多族群国家。不过随着第一个俄罗斯沙皇伊凡雷帝先是征服喀山汗国,然后又征服阿斯特拉罕汗国,加之西伯利亚、北高加索和中亚各族人民的归附,俄罗斯遂成就为一个巨大的多民族国家。

      俄罗斯帝国土地上的各个民族,他们的民族特点、传统和文化,产生了彼此在各方面极不相同的管理方法和管理体制。俄罗斯的中央地区有自己的管理架构和方法。波兰、芬兰、中亚地区也有自己的一套不同于中央的管理体制,有它们符合自己的传统和生活方式的特别的法制体系。国家机制在体制设置上的多样性以及工作的弹性,使得民族关系不可能碰撞出过大的火花。

      当1922年苏联成立的时候,建立统一多民族新国家的问题曾是一个非常尖锐的问题。列宁在这个问题上的立场是众所周知的,他同自己的战友们发生了激烈的争论。笔者在本书中对这个问题给予了特别关注。正如所知,列宁的意见占了上风:成立了由各加盟共和国组成的苏联,它们都享有直至可以退出统一国家的特权。应该看到,当时列宁没有别的选择,因为如果立即完成统一国家的架构,这个国家实际上就不可能建立。

      在苏联有过民族问题的纲领,而且也一直在实施之中。对中亚各发展缓慢的共和国以及其他“边远”地区的共和国的经济援助问题被提到国策的高度。实际上除了白俄罗斯之外,其他各加盟共和国都能享受主要是由俄罗斯联邦提供的补贴。结果就出现了这个主要的联邦制共和国在生活水平和其他社会指标上落后于其他共和国的现象。这一切为的都是巩固和发展各族人民的友谊。

      应该指出,苏共在民族问题领域内的活动是有利于这些问题的正面解决的。这些年来,在各加盟共和国以及俄联邦内部某些民族的社会经济发展和文化发展方面,做了大量工作。已经构建出一种各加盟共和国参加国家管理、参加议会、参加国家科学文化等方面生活的合理制度。

      民族关系的牢不可破曾经经受过伟大卫国战争的考验。各民族苏维埃联合体的生命力和威力是胜利的一大重要源泉。无疑,由多个民族组成的人民在最艰苦的考验年代之所以能团结一致,还有一个事实也起了作用,那就是我国当时正面临被最凶恶的敌人——法西斯德国及其仇恨人类的意识形态所奴役的危险。

      苏维埃联合体并不是一个神话,尽管在贯彻国家的民族政策时,有时也出现过严重的错误和失误,致使难以充分发挥这一政策的潜力。

      后来开始了“改革”,苏联领导有意识地把注意力贯注于各族人民生活中的缺点和负面现象,目的就是要动员力量,引导国内状况朝向好的方向改变。但由于苏共及其对苏联社会影响的日渐衰微,以及各种“运动”和“战线”的出现,在许多加盟共和国,民族问题都成了同中央权力进行斗争的一张牌。

      在这些究其本质基本是民族主义的运动中,它们的领袖人物动用了一切手段来证明,各共和国人民如果脱离苏联而生活,如果他们有了国家主权,日子会过得好得多。实际状况被有意歪曲了,这些地区不同程度都靠经常性的输血维持的事实被有意缄口不语。也就是说,其实全苏的资源再分配是对他们有利的。人们被导入了误区,而真正的那种妄自尊大的意图却被一些用以引发对中央不满的负面口号掩盖起来。逐渐,这些运动也好,党派也好,都撕下了假面,这才看出他们的活动已经导致了极端民族主义的遍地开花。糟糕的地方还在于,在许多人的眼里,它已经不再是什么不道德的,或是政治上极端有害的现象了。

      还有一个纯主观的因素,对我们国家的毁灭也起到了非常重大的作用,它特别清楚地表现在当时的两个领导人——戈尔巴乔夫和叶利钦——的个人品质和活动中。

      戈尔巴乔夫由于政治上的无能,把我国引到了深渊的边缘,等到苏联眼看就要寿终正寝的那年,他再去无头苍蝇似的忙忙碌碌,早已于事无补。能够保全并彻底革新统一国家的机会已经错失,当时我国已发生了根本性的变化,致使上千年历史积累起来的优秀成果废于一旦。现在戈尔巴乔夫实际上已经从政治舞台消失,可是却始终没有搞明白自己有意也好无意也好,在祖国面前犯下了多么可怕的罪过。

      第二个人物——“破坏英雄”叶利钦的命运却有所不同。为了攫取国家最高权力,他可以无所不用其极。他用自己的行动千方百计鼓动波罗的海沿岸地区的、乌克兰的以及其他共和国的民族主义行动,以此作为同国家中央政权斗争的政治杠杆。一旦作出最重要决定的关头来临,他就毫不犹豫地跑到别洛韦日森林去有意识地展开了搞垮国家的行动。

      当时依然在位的苏联总统戈尔巴乔夫怯懦地逃避了自己的直接职责——捍卫苏联宪法,而以许多国际机构——其中包括联合国——为代表的国际社会,也就把克里米亚会议、波茨坦会议和赫尔辛基协议抛到了一边,迫不及待地对以成立15个国家来取代一个国家表示欢迎。

      叶利钦在取得俄罗斯的最高权力之后,表现出了自己的治国“才干”。当时他也许是出于有意,也许是没有考虑周全,并没有注意有人对他提醒,他对苏联的政策也可能会在他的俄联邦政治中起作用。为了追求选票和俄罗斯各自治共和国、边疆区和各州的支持,他以民粹主义的手法宣称,这些单位想要多少主权,就可以拿多少主权。

      国家首脑的这些行动以及其他一些类似的行动,不能不对国内总的政治经济状况产生影响。此外,叶利钦的行为远不是那么前后一贯。最后,俄罗斯就成了一个无法管理的烂摊子,而他周围的那些人,说得客气点,远不是什么通常所说的国之栋梁。他们就像苍蝇围着粪堆飞来飞去似的,围在这位“主子”身边转来转去,每个人都在追求个人私利,或是自己公司的利益。

      地方看到联邦政权是如此的不堪,便也开始各自寻求自己的活路。有的急急忙忙开始修改本共和国、本边疆区、本州的宪法章程,而且修改后的文件往往跟俄联邦宪法相抵触;还有一些州则走得更远,他们开始准备提案,想要建立某些特殊的共和国,比如乌拉尔共和国。

      叶利钦身边的人见到国家管理上出现了这种灾难性的局面,便提出了一个办法:在联邦政权和联邦主体之间签订协议。于是各处一哄而上:几年之内,签订了大约50个左右的协议。而这一切竟是在当时国内宪法还在起作用的情况下发生的!为了废除这些协议,后来的俄罗斯总统普京真是费了好大的心力和周章,其中有两个共和国,即鞑靼斯坦和巴什科尔托斯坦,直到现在在国家预算中还列入了大笔“为他们失去的机会”而要求补偿的经费。

      叶利钦的国家被各种矛盾所撕裂,贪污受贿处处有肥沃的土壤,犯罪盛行,民族文化和传统遭到毁灭。八年过去,叶利钦身后留下了一个衰败、虚弱、管理不善的国家。国名还在,国土还在,人民还在,但国家却只不过虚有其表。新上任的总统要把一盘散沙整合成一个具有全部国家特征的真正国家,真是要花费不少心力。

      最后这5到7年时间,是一段“整合”俄罗斯的时期。每过一年,它就变得更接近于真正的,而不是虚拟的国家一点。采取的一些步骤,比如强化纵向权力和国防力量,比如在对外政策领域采取明确立场,比如在某些社会结构方面作出各种决定以确立基本法规……这些都不能不在某些社会人士中,特别是在所谓社会的自由主义一翼,引起愤怒的风暴。“警察国家”是那些西方应声虫和西方帮闲所给予今日俄罗斯的最温和的评语。

      而“自主民主”思想及其诠释文字在媒体上发表后,引起了多么强烈的批评风暴和多么难听的阵阵叫嚣啊。劈头盖脸的脏水也泼到了第10届世界俄罗斯全民大会的头上。大会的主报告人——斯摩棱斯克、加里宁格勒都主教基里尔说,世界上当然存在着某些放之四海而皆准的行为准则,但这决不意味着西方的社会制度、民主原则、人际关系标准同样适合于所有国家。每一种文明都有它自己的值得肯定的社会生活经验,它同样也有存在的权利。

      在我国历史上有几个阶段,国家曾处于极端艰难的状态,面临崩溃边缘。但历经种种考验之后,俄罗斯重又站立起来,不仅找到了复兴的勇气和力量,更找到了继续发展的勇气和力量。

      1613年大混乱时期之后的情况是这样。其后100年间,俄国的新土地开拓者走过了自乌拉尔至太平洋的遥远历程,甚至开发了部分美洲大陆。中亚和北高加索也被收入俄罗斯帝国版图。300年后,俄国成为了一个伟大的多民族强国。

      到了1917年,新的震荡出现了:两次革命,破坏,内战,失去了大面积的领土,国家的经济潜力也遭到破坏。看来,俄罗斯帝国残留的几个部分似乎永远也不可能再重新联合起来了,似乎它也再成不了什么大国。然而,建立苏联的政治决定,20年的巨大努力,在人民付出了忍受艰难困苦的代价、推行了工业化以及其他种种重大改革之后,我国又跻身于高度发达的国家之列了。建立起来的生产和科技潜力,我国人民面对受奴役的危险在伟大卫国战争中所表现出来的团结一致,终使我国得以战胜20世纪最强大的敌人——法西斯德国及其仆从。

      二战为我国人民带来了无法比拟的灾难。想当年那场无比惨烈的战争过后,我国处境之艰难现在真是难以名状。人民当中最有劳动能力的一部分牺牲了,我国欧洲领土直到伏尔加河的一大片,上头的国民经济全被摧毁了。外国专家们“给了”我们40年到100年的恢复期。可是,经济却在5到7年内全部恢复了。只不过上千万人的牺牲至今却依然有所感觉。

      伟大卫国战争之后,苏联成了超级大国。它实际上已经恢复了1917年革命后丢失的领土。苏联成为世界政治中一支决定性的力量。

      然后是1991年。统一国家被肢解成为15个部分,产生了严重的后果。这些,本书已经讲得很充分了。但我国正在一步步站立起来,尽管许多东西都被破坏,被掠夺,被践踏,但它正在恢复大国的地位。

      我相信,经过这次震荡,俄罗斯将重新奋起,占据自己在世界上应该占据的位置。需要政治家和人民的意志力,需要大家共同奋起创造,需要建立一个现代化的社会,但同时也更要保持并发展我国的历史和精神传统。

      我相信俄罗斯人民和俄罗斯国家的未来,正是怀着这样一种信念,我写下了这些对祖国艰难岁月以及它未来命运的叙述和思考的文字。

      尼·伊·雷日科夫  2006年12月31日于莫斯科

      ① 紧靠着克里姆林宫的一个广场,位于亚历山大花园和无名烈士墓旁边。现该广场地下又建有新的购物中心。——译者

      ②本节参考了哲学博士M.C.朱努索夫教授的理论著作。

      ③ 19世纪俄国作家陀思妥耶夫斯基的长篇小说《卡拉马佐夫兄弟》中的主人公。——译者

      ④ 赫罗斯特拉特是古希腊的一个人,他为了在历史上留名,于公元前356年竟纵火焚烧了古代建筑艺术的珍品——阿泰密斯神庙。——译者

      ⑤阿法纳西耶夫为历史学家,一度人莫斯科历史档案学院院长,曾任“民主俄罗斯”运动联合主席之一;帕尔姆不详;波波夫为经济学家,俄罗斯民主改革运动主席;萨哈罗夫,核物理学家,苏联时期著名的持不同政见者。——译者

      ⑥索布恰克于1991-1996年间任列宁格勒市(后圣彼得堡市)市长;特拉夫金后创立俄国民主党,任该党政治委员会主席和议会党团主席,一度任俄联邦司法部部长;斯坦凯维奇不详;波尔托拉宁原为莫斯科真理报主编,先后任俄联邦出版信息部部长、联邦政府副总理、国家杜马信息政治通讯联络委员会主席;布尔布利斯先后任俄联邦国务秘书、俄联邦总统委员会国务秘书等职。——译者

      ⑦为免除犯下重罪的俄罗斯联邦总统叶利钦的职务而提出的议案,有一个简短的法律结论,刊载在国家杜马专门委员会文件资料集中。

      ⑧本章的这个部分就是以俄联邦国家杜马特别委员会对俄罗斯总统叶利钦提出指控的文件为基础写成的,其中有罗季奥诺夫、伊柳亨、维涅季克托夫等人的证词和发言,还有俄罗斯科学院院士奥希波夫和俄国科学院通讯院士库兹涅佐夫的研究资料。

      ⑨这部分使用了医学科学院通讯院士维涅季克托夫向特别委员会提交的材料。

      ⑩这是指到国家杜马特别委员会开会的日期为止。

  • 加亚·文斯《人类进化史:火、语言、美与时间如何创造了我们》

    Transcendence: How Humans Evolved through Fire, Language, Beauty, and Time

    目录
    前言
    创世
    第一章 开端:孕育人类的地球
    第二章 诞生:成为文化的物种

    第三章 环境改造:重新创造我们的生态系统
    第四章 大脑发展:学会用火让我们更加智慧
    第五章 文化杠杆:构建一个聪明的集体大脑
    语言
    第六章 故事:存储累积的思想
    第七章 语言:天生的交流欲望
    第八章 讲述:构建人类的信任

    第九章 归属感:身份认同的塑造
    第十章 饰品和珍宝:被创造的价值
    第十一章 建造者:我们物种的纪念碑
    时间
    第十二章 计时器:创造时间认知
    第十三章 理性:发明科学的关键
    第十四章 全能人:人类的未来

    前言

    2004 年,内尔·哈比森准备更换他的英国护照,但是他提供的照片却出了问题。英国护照署规定,护照照片“不可包含申请人之外的其他人或物”“不可戴帽子,不可含奶嘴,不可戴有色眼镜”。
    但是没有任何一项规定提及天线。
    尽管如此,英国政府仍然要求哈比森摘掉他头上的“配件”,重新提交换证申请。哈比森解释,他头上的天线不是配件,而是他身体的一部分,是他大脑的延伸。而且,天线也摘不掉,因为天线已经通过手术被植入他的颅骨。最终,英国政府给哈比森签发了护照。
    哈比森也因此成为世界上首位被正式承认的电子人。
    哈比森则称自己为“跨物种”人。在科技的帮助下,他进化成了不一样的人,不同于生物学意义上的人,已经超出了自然的范畴。
    哈比森现在有了超感官认知能力,他可以通过头上的天线“听到”颜色。哈比森患有罕见的先天性全色盲症,他看不见颜色,眼中的世界全部笼罩在灰色的阴影下。21 岁时,这位艺术生同一名音乐家和几名程序员一起策划开发了一款电子设备,这款设备能够将色彩转化为音符与和弦,从而让他感知色彩。苦寻之下,在 2004 年,哈比森终于找到一位愿意帮助他将设备植入体内的匿名医生。
    哈比森头上有一根可弯曲的黑色天线。天线从他后脑的头发下伸出,向上绕过头顶,垂到额头前。哈比森把头发剪成锅盖形,看起来就好像一个头盔罩在头上。这样的造型进一步模糊了生物人和人造人之间的界限。天线的前端有一只电子眼,可以识别哈比森周围物体的颜色。这些颜色的光波频率会通过天线传送到哈比森头骨中的芯片中。这个芯片可以将传来的光波频率转换成相应的声音频率,帮助哈比森通过头骨“听到”世界的颜色。
    植入芯片和天线后,颜色信息如洪水般涌入哈比森的大脑。一开始,他非常不适应。他要十分费力地弄懂这些颜色信息,分辨出哪种声音对应哪种颜色。但是,15年过去了,现如今的他生活在“色彩丰富”的交响乐中,甚至连梦境都是彩色的了。哈比森脑内的电子传感器已与他的大脑完美结合,他可以把各种声音当成颜色来体验。后来,哈比森开始尝试将人们的声音和音乐作品绘制成画,从莫扎特的古典音乐到 Lady Gaga(美国歌手)的流行音乐都有涉猎。接着,他开始将自己的感知扩展到人类感知范围之外。现在,哈比森能够感知到紫外线、红外线,所以他可以“看见”暗处的东西,欣赏到那些正常人看不到的图案,甚至还能感知到残留在树干上的动物尿液中的紫外线荧光。哈比森还升级了芯片,使芯片可以接入互联网,因此他可以同卫星相连,通过外部设备感知色彩。哈比森说,这个芯片就是一个可以不断进化的器官。
    2018 年,哈比森将指南针组件嵌入膝盖中,这使他能够感知地球磁场。他的下一个植入物是他设计的一个冠状装置,他将这个装置称为“时间器官”。这个装置会覆盖他的整个大脑,创造出一个 24 小时围绕头骨不停旋转的热点,使他能够感知时间。换言之,感知地球自转。在他的大脑能够接受并融合这个新器官之后,哈比森希望能够通过改变热点运动的速度来拓展或加强他对时间的感知。比如说,如果想要拉长某个瞬间,他可以降低热点的旋转速度。通过这种方式,他甚至可以改变自己对衰老的感觉,操纵自己对时间的相对体验,活到170 岁。他解释道:“我们有视觉器官,所以可以制造视错觉,我认为如果我们有一个感知时间的器官,我们同样也可以制造时间错觉。”

    “电子人”这个说法最早出现在 20 世纪 60 年代,由美国科学家曼弗雷德·克莱因斯和内森·克莱恩提出。他们当时描述了一种设想,即增强的人类可以在外星环境中生存。现在,这种设想在哈比森的身上得以实现,在数以亿计的依靠隐形眼镜、人工耳蜗、人工心瓣膜以及其他仿生设备增强身体能力的人的身上得以实现。不管这些工具或者设备是否同人的身体融为一体,它们都帮助人们获得了额外的能力。比如,我们不用翅膀就能飞行,不用鱼鳃就能潜水,甚至还能“死而复生”,或者登陆月球。简单说,这些工具可以是增强牙齿咬碎能力和指甲撕碎食物能力的刀片,也可以是带底的鞋子,让我们在碎石路上跑得更快。实际上,我们每个人都是“电子人”,因为每个人的生活都离不开科技发明。
    但是,如果只把人类当成拥有高级工具的聪明猩猩,就不会明白人类因何而伟大,也无法理解人类在地球上的生存方式。人类发明了纷繁复杂的工具,同时也拥有语言文化、艺术作品、社会群体、基因遗传、风光景致、信仰体系等诸多工具以外的事物。我们创造出的是一个完整的人类社会,一个社会操作系统。没有它,哈比森的天线根本制造不出来,即便制造出来了,也毫无意义。正是人类赋予了科技存在的意义,推动着创新的发展。我们绝不仅仅是进化的电子人。
    我猜你不是光着身子坐在刚果的丛林中的一棵树上读这本书的,而是像我一样穿着衣服。我们衣服的原材料是来自千里之外的植物。这些植物先通过机器被纺成纱线,然后被织成布,之后被染色,再按照某地某人的设计被剪裁,由多人缝制成衣服。之后衣服会被运到别处,经由他人定价和营销,通过商店等各种渠道,最终成为我们身上的衣服,将我们的皮肤完美地保护起来,就如同动物的皮毛对动物的保护一样。或许你正坐在一把塑料椅子上,其原材料是沉积的海洋生物残骸。这些原材料由钢制工具开采矿石而得,历经爆破、精炼、组装等步骤。在造型方面,更有许多设计师团队独立设计,千年来在不断变换。
    无论你身在何处,你的脑海中都在浮现出我写的这些话,就像我在你身边对你讲述一样。这一刻,我们的思想直接相连,哪怕我在不同的时间,不同的地点,甚至是用不同的语言写下这一切,哪怕我已经不在这个世上了。

    即便聪明如你,孤单一人时,也会无以存续。可以说我们的生存完全依赖于身边无数的陌生人。正是有了这些人的辛勤工作和共同努力,才有了我们吃的午餐,穿的衣服,用的家具,住的房屋,走的道路,居住的城市、国家和更广阔的世界。而这些相互协调合作的陌生人也依赖着成千上万的其他人,无论是活着的人还是已经死去的人。但是,生活在地球上的 70 亿人之间并没有合同,也没有计划,甚至也没有共同的目标。
    几十亿人辛勤忙碌,过着看似独立实则互相依赖的生活,而这一切居然是在没有任何计划的情况下发生的。千万不要认为这太不可思议,因为还有更不可思议的事情,那就是我们的身体——从眼睛到脚趾甲,再到有意识的大脑,所有这些东西都源于一个小小的细胞,并且在几周内就可以长成。当受精卵开始生长和分裂,它可以形成大量多能干细胞。多能干细胞可分化成身体中任何类型的细胞,而分化的结果取决于细胞落脚的地点。如果一个细胞偶然到了囊胚的外胚层,那它有可能会成为脊髓中的神经细胞,而另一个细胞则可能会因为落到了其他位置,而成为一个心脏细胞。进化创造了一种机制,通过这种机制,一个简单的细胞就可以构建起一个由相互协作的细胞和器官组成的功能系统,这个系统就是人体。

    每个人都有自己的动机和欲望,然而人们的自主性在很大程度上只是一种幻觉。人类进化是一项没有方向和目标的社会工程,却创造出了地球上最成功的物种。

    今天的人类寿命更长,生活质量更高,而且是地球上数量最多的大型动物。而我们现存的近亲,也就是如今濒临灭绝的黑猩猩,仍然保持着数百万年不变的生活。人类不同于其他动物,但又与其他动物有着相同的进化过程。人类到底是什么?这个问题让我着迷,我开始着手了解人类到底为何与众不同,开始探索到底是什么样的自然力量让地球发生了改变,将猿转变成人。

    下面这个神奇的进化故事深深地吸引着我。故事的背景就是基因进化、环境进化和文化进化间的特殊关系,我将其称为人类进化的三位一体。它们互相强化,使人类与众不同——既能在不断变化的宇宙中生存,又能推动自身的变化。人类已经脱离了其他动物的进化轨迹,变得更加伟大、更加非凡。其实当我们改变了创造人类的环境时,我们就开始了最伟大的自我超越。
    让我来解释一下。
    人类是地球的产物,由地球孕育,在地球上出生。地球对人类的塑造作用经常被忽视。但不得不说,是地球使我们进化成今天的样子。为了适应地球环境,我们开始直立行走,讲有声调的语言,对流感病毒产生免疫力,并形成了文化。所以,我的故事就从“创世纪”的地理起源讲起。所有的生命都由宇宙中的物质构成,人类就是广袤宇宙的一个缩影。沿海岸线分布的石灰石悬崖里的钙,也存在于人类骨骼中,来自恒星。起源于彗星的水,在地球上形成了奔涌的河流,以及流淌在人类身体里的血液。

    人类同其他生命形式一样,都经过了生物进化的过程。随着时间的流逝,随机发生的遗传差异在族群中世世代代积累,最终带来物种演化。如果某些生命体携有更适合生存的基因,那么它们更有可能生存下来,并将这些基因传给后代。生物通过这种方式来适应环境的压力,也推动物种不断进化,开拓地球上每一处栖息地。

    我们的祖先聪慧机敏,社交能力强,适应了他们早期生活的热带雨林。而文化就是他们适应环境的方法之一。“文化”有很多含义,我在本书中所说的文化是指我们使用的工具、技术和行为中表现出来的通过学习得来的信息。人类的文化依赖于向他人学习,并把学到的东西表达出来。人类并非唯一进化出文化的物种,但人类文化比其他物种的文化要灵活许多,因为它会不断累积、不断进化。人类不断累积的文化经过一代又一代的传承,变得越来越复杂多样,能更有效地应对生活中的各种挑战。

    累积的文化进化改变了地球上生物的生存方式。人类的进化不再仅仅是因为环境和基因的变化,文化也成为影响因素。文化进化与生物进化有很多共通之处。基因进化依赖于变异、传递和生存差异,这三点也与文化进化有关。不过两者的主要差别在于,生物进化主要发生在个体层面,而对文化进化来说,群体选择要比个体选择更重要。同样,人类智慧更多地来源于集体智慧,而非个体智慧。

    我们并不是唯一一个沿着这条进化之路走下去的人类物种——后文还会谈到我们的表亲,但我们是唯一幸存下来的人种。几十万年前,人类在文化的帮助下,开始摆脱原始的生活环境,突破了物理和生物上的限制——正是这两个限制让其他物种无缘创造力。人类这种非比寻常的进化,由4个关键因素驱动,即火、语言、美和时间,我将在后面的章节中一一介绍。

    “火”部分描述我们如何为自身的能量消耗找到外部资源,突破生物极限,拓展身体能力。“语言”部分研究信息在人类成功进化中扮演的角色:语言帮助人们准确地传递并存储复杂的文化知识,进行思想交流。语言是一种社会黏合剂,用共通的故事将人类连接起来,帮助我们更好地预测未来,让我们依据社会声誉分辨出谁更值得信任。“美”部分则重点讲述人类活动的重要意义,即让我们通过共同的信仰和身份凝聚在一起。艺术表达不仅促进了文化物种形成,推动了社会之间和社会内部部落文化的形成,而且促进了资源、基因和思想之间的联结。这些联结在阻止遗传物种形成的过程中,让社会变得更加强大、联系更加紧密、技术更加先进。最后,“时间”部分讲述时间是人类客观、合理解释自然演化过程的基础。知识和好奇心的碰撞让人类比其他所有动物走得更远:我们利用科学来规范世界秩序和自己的位置,让人类遍布全球却又紧密相连。

    正是火、语言、美和时间 4 个因素的相互交织造就了人类的与众不同,解释了人类的各种行为:为什么生活在城市里的人更有创造力?为什么有宗教信仰的人不那么焦虑?为什么菲律宾说书人有更多的性生活?为什么移民患精神分裂症的风险更高?为什么欧美人和东亚人看脸的方式不同?这与人类进化相关的三种因素——基因、环境和文化相互影响。比如,你的任意两个朋友彼此可能也是朋友,这就是所谓的社交网传递性,它会影响你个人的命运和群体的表现。但是这种传递性会受环境的影响,比如与世隔绝的村庄具有更强的传递性,因为大家互相认识。更重要的是,你朋友的数量会受到你的基因的影响。这大部分归结于机缘巧合:你是谁、你出生的地点和时间可能比你将来做出的任何选择都重要。

    人类如何成了一个与众不同的物种是一个基础性的问题,而现在正是探讨这个问题的好时机。我们在群体遗传学、考古学、古生物学、人类学、心理学、生态学和社会学领域都取得了令人振奋的进展。这些进展使我们对人类历史有了新见解,从根本上改变了我们对人类物种进化过程的理解。例如,之前有人认为,通过某种认知或基因革命,所谓的行为学意义上的现代人首次出现于 2 万(或 4 万)年前,但现在这一观点面临着挑战。2007年,人类首个个体基因组排序完成。从那之后,成千上万的人解开了自己独特的基因编码。这样一来,我们能更加理解我们的集体历史,理解我们之间是如何联系的,以及我们与最亲密的人类近亲是如何联系的。考古学家使用新的年代测定技术,在最古老的艺术品和古老的技术上有了惊人的发现;古生物学家也向我们展示了人类的进化绝非教科书上描述的那样简单。

    我们正迈入一个新型合作时代:许多来自保护主义研究领域的人首次开始交流,推翻了既定的教条,公开了大量的数据、见解和经验。自然科学和社会科学的结合,帮助我们解决了一个核心悖论,即为什么我们在生物学上如此相似,在行为上却如此不同。我们以全新的眼光审视自己,认识到我们的生物、文化和环境之间存在的深层联系。
    我们会发现,文化进化让我们能解决许多与基因进化相同的适应性问题,而且解决的速度更快,不涉及物种形成。人类反复经历基因进化、环境进化和文化进化的三位一体,正在成长为一个能够决定自身命运的非凡物种。正是这一点让我们可以扩大人口规模和地理范围,从而加速我们的文化进化,使其更复杂。而文化进化又会让人类进一步扩大人口规模和地理范围。这是一个相互强化、循环往复的过程。
    今天,人类人口规模和连通性达到了前所未有的水平。与此同时,人类也使地球环境发生了巨大的变化,将创造我们的这个星球推入了全新的地质时代,即人类世。单单是物质变化的累积重量,包括道路、建筑和农田,目前就约有 30 万亿吨,这让我们生活在一个人与人的联系无限紧密的地球上。地球人口或将达到 90 亿甚至 100 亿。看看周围:人类是我们所看到的一切景象的智慧的设计师。地球上没有一块地方是不受我们影响的,我们甚至开始往太空里扔垃圾。
    我将带你们踏上一段旅程,向你们展示人类独特的属性是如何改变人类的,以及在这个过程中,这些属性是如何重构人类与自然之间的关系的。
    现在,所有人都处在一个非常特殊的临界点上。文化、生物和环境相互作用,正在高度合作的人类群体中创造一种新生物——人类正在成为一个超有机体。我们姑且称之为全能智人,简称全能人。
    这就是人类自我超越的故事。

    创世

    每种文化都有自己解释人类起源的创世神话。人类对自己的起源充满了好奇,于是编造了许多离奇的神话故事,解释类似猿如何学会说话等那些难以置信的事情。重要的是,事情的真相确实意义非凡。
    仰望星空,我们看见的并不是它们现在的样子,而是几百万年前的样子。人类正在用自己的眼睛观察过去的世界,接收人类诞生之前就有的光和图像,感知早已不复存在的美好。
    人类不仅要通过历史,也需要通过科学了解人类起源,毕竟现在的人类是由过去的人类发展而来的。这就好像一个人的酒窝可能遗传自他的曾祖母,一个国家的政治基础可能源自古时的某场战役,所以我们要回到过去,回到我们祖先的时代,才能找到驱动当今人类世界发展的各种结构、科学技术和行为的源头。
    探索到最后,我们发现,人类同太阳联系密切。我们的创世故事是一个关于物理学、化学和生物学的故事,这三者共同作用创造了某种物质,而这种物质又控制着这三者。从地球上的每一个人到地球上的一切,再到地球本身乃至宇宙中的每一个星系,都紧密地联系在一起。这种联系可以追溯到 137 亿年前的奇点上。

    第一章 开端:孕育人类的地球

    137 亿年前,宇宙大爆炸产生了足够的物质而非反物质,创造了我们今天看到的宇宙。
    宇宙大爆炸的奇点曾像量子点一样稳定。宇宙大爆炸后,它的产物以无序状态不断膨胀。在地球上,宇宙中唯一已知的生命体同熵进行斗争,试图在无序中创造有序,利用粒子能量形成复杂的物质结构。
    物质的产生需要能量。物质由原子构成,而原子是构成铁块、大象的耳朵还是热带雨林的气味,取决于质子数的不同。1 个氢原子只有 1 个核内质子,而 1 个铅原子则有 82 个核内质子。氢和铅的不同及对我们的用处主要由原子之间的能量转移方式决定。原子的能量转移方式又受到核外电子的影响。这些电子绕原子核运动,遵循量子力学的玄妙法则。
    原子间的电子运动伴随着能量的交换,这是地球上每一个化学反应的基础。这些反应可以是 DNA(脱氧核糖核酸)的复制,也可以是婴儿的咯咯笑声。我们早餐喝的粥中也含有电子,正是电子运动转换的生物能,才让我们中午有力气吃三明治。电子运动帮助原子形成化学键,构成分子。分子是所有活细胞的基本构成物质,也是构成人类的基础。
    宇宙中大约 90%的物质是氢,5%是氦(2 个质子组成的惰性元素)。氢和氦都是在宇宙大爆炸的瞬间产生的元素。恒星发光时,氢原子融合,产生人类世界中质量更大的元素,包括氧、碳和氮。这些元素在宇宙中十分罕见,却是构成人类身体的主要元素。剧烈的宇宙大爆炸带来了人类,也带来了我们珍视的元素。人们佩戴的黄金首饰,很可能是某次足以让整个宇宙随之震颤的恒星碰撞后的残骸。

    引力将星际间由氢、氦和宇宙尘构成的云(即星云)汇聚在一起,使这些物质的原子融合,释放出巨大的能量,创造出新一代恒星。太阳是人类创世故事中最重要的恒星。诞生于 46 亿年前的太阳是一个核反应堆,它在宇宙尘埃云中不断燃烧氢气。日冕层之外,大量矿物质碰撞融合,形成了不同的星球。其中,地球是太阳系由内到外的第三颗行星。地球形成之后,受到一颗巨大的小行星的撞击下,被削去很大一部分,削去的部分形成月球。受月球的影响,地球上出现潮汐变化。此外,撞击使地球的地轴倾斜,形成了四季和洋流。地球的位置、木星的引力和地球与太阳的相对位置为宇宙间最伟大的实验创造了一个坩埚。

    水分子仅占地球分子的三百万分之一,但有一点很关键,它们都集中在地表上。40 亿年前,彗星撞击地球,它带来的数种氨基酸是 DNA 的重要组成成分。它们与地球上的元素结合,促使海洋中孕育出生命,拉开了创世故事的序幕。因为纳米级别的原子质量过小,所受万有引力可忽略不计,所以占主导地位的是分子间作用力,比如静电荷的吸引与排斥。人们吃惊地发现,某些化学过程可以自我复制。单一的 DNA 分子可以进行自我复制,创造出新生命。这种奇迹是发生了一次还是多次?确切答案我们无从知晓,但可以确定的是,一个可以自我复制的细胞奇迹般地进化出了令人难以置信的多样性生命,这其中包括人类。而人类品尝了智慧果,现在能够创造自然了。

    生物的进化没有目的,也没有方向。视、走、飞的能力可能会出现在不同的生物上,也可能会消失。但复杂的生物进化需要时间。在与人类相似的生物产生之前,其他生物和环境的进化已经持续了几十亿年。最初,地球上的大气不能供生命呼吸,因为原始大气由氢气和水蒸气组成,不含氧气。20 亿年后,大气中才含有“生命之气”——氧气。这种改变要归功于蓝绿藻。它们吸收光能,进行二氧化碳同化,制造糖类有机物。在制糖的过程中,氧气作为副产物被释放到大气中。

    光合作用、呼吸作用、火山爆发、地质运动以及地球公转过程中与太阳距离的远近都会不断影响大气中的温室气体二氧化碳和“生命之气”氧气的平衡,改变地球气候,改变海洋的化学和生物结构。在地球形成伊始的 35 亿年间,地球经历了一次又一次强烈的冰川作用。最后一次冰川作用结束后,结构复杂的多细胞生命形式在地球上激增。

    生命的出现彻底改变了地球,将地球变成了一个能呼吸的、极具生命力的系统。植物进化时,其根茎加速了岩石的分解,侵蚀河道,拓宽河流。植物的光合作用产生化学能,为整个地球提供能量。动物吃掉植物,吸收化学能,释放二氧化碳。动物死后,它们的尸体形成原始岩石的沉积层。

    反过来,地球也制约着生物的繁衍,因为生物的进化受到地球地质条件、物理因素和化学因素的多重影响。在过去 5 亿年间,地球上有 5 次物种大灭绝,主要原因是火山喷发、地壳活动、行星撞击和重大气候变化事件。每一次大灭绝后的幸存者都会重整旗鼓、不断繁殖。繁殖过程中会产生基因随机突变,这些突变后的基因会传递给下一代,就像中国耳语游戏。环境迫使生物进化,生物也会选择性地适应环境带来的进化压力,这是一个双向的过程。以植物为例,随着基因的改变,植物逐渐适应了沙漠环境,又反过来把沙漠变成相对湿润的灌木丛林或旱地森林。而这种改变又会影响其他基因和物种在这里生存的可能。

    回顾历史,我们发现人类的进化似乎是必然的。但并非如此,我们人类的产生没有必然性,其他任何智慧生命的产生亦是如此。不过就是大量的大大小小的偶然事件累积在一起,经过漫长的岁月,这些偶然汇聚成了涓涓细流,带来了不可预料的结果。这也就可以解释为什么章鱼和人类这两个完全不同的物种可以共享时空。
    我们要感谢上天赐予我们最大的进化突破。6600万年前,6月下旬的某天,一颗令珠穆朗玛峰都相形见绌的巨大陨石以每秒14千米的速度(子弹速度的20倍)坠落在现在的墨西哥尤卡坦半岛。它来势汹汹、速度极快,落到地球表面时完好无损。这颗陨石对地球大气层造成了巨大压力,在它坠落到地表之前就已经压迫地面形成了巨坑。坑有约 32 千米深,直穿地幔。这次撞击形成的冲击波波及整个地球,引发了火山喷发、地震、滑坡和火灾。灾难后,即便有幸存下来的生命,它们大多也被随后天谴般的全球气候变化毁灭了。统治地球数百万年的恐龙消失了,随之产生的生物空缺由哺乳类动物的祖先填补。
    约1000 万年后,迅速的气候变化使世界变得湿润。热带雨林、棕榈树和红树林向北蔓延至英格兰和加拿大,向南至新西兰。当时的北冰洋水面平静、水流平缓,水温达到 20 多摄氏度。全球海平面上升,动植物大规模迁徙或灭绝。哺乳类动物逐渐多样,出现了许多今天常见物种的祖先,包括第一批真正的灵长类动物。约 2,000 万年前,印度洋板块和亚欧板块相互碰撞,板块交界处高高隆起,形成了雄伟的喜马拉雅山脉,青藏高原开始上升,这种上升态势一直持续到今天。板块碰撞形成的新地理情况让该处的生物和气候都发生了巨大变化。比如猿猴分化出新大陆猴和旧大陆猴,包括东南亚季风气候在内的多种新气候类型形成。同时,非洲之角下方的火山活动在非洲大陆东部撕开了一个南北大裂谷,裂谷两侧隆起高山,其间有一个海拔不断升高的山谷。这一过程破坏了地貌,改变了气候,孕育出大量进化的机会。
    人类突出的色觉或许可以追溯到这个时期,此时,已经学会觅食的人类祖先发生了基因突变,进化出额外的(第三种)视锥细胞,使它们可以分辨红色,而大多数猴子只能看见蓝色和绿色。依靠辨色能力,它们可以识别有毒植物和成熟果实。成熟果实含有更多的能量,而且消耗较少的能量便可将其消化吸收。良好的营养促进了大脑发育。有数据表明,吃果实的灵长类动物比吃植物的同类多 25%的大脑组织。
    人类进化过程中,另一个关键转折点是我们祖先的栖息地从森林转移到草原,其根源可追溯到300万年前的一次地质活动。当时,漂浮的南美大陆与北美大陆在今天的巴拿马附近冲撞在一起,这改变了洋流路线,分割了太平洋,形成了如今的大西洋和加勒比海。热带的温暖海水向北冰洋流动,到了那里水温下降,海水下沉,并向南回流,形成大洋传输带,主导了全球大部分地区的气候。这个环流形成了墨西哥湾暖流,为冰封的北极提供水分,多次带来全球冰期,甚至重置了全球降水分布。这使东非气候变得干旱,并在那里产生了全新的热带草原。
    在人类祖先逐步适应草原环境的几十万年中,气候变化也使以前的森林栖息地面积逐渐缩小。大多数时间里草原上没有果实,所以我们的祖先不得不花费大量精力咀嚼植物的根和鳞茎来获取蛋白质,而且越来越依赖群体的帮助。人类这种由可自我复制的细胞编排而成的物种,已准备好开始自我驯化。

    第二章 诞生:成为文化的物种

    直布罗陀巨岩屹立于欧洲南端,即便隔着地中海从非洲望去,这个荒凉的白色地质图腾依然清晰可见。巨岩底部有一个泪滴形裂口,里面便是戈勒姆岩洞,其内部巨大,宛如一座教堂。这里上演过怎样的故事?又是谁,在何时,在这古老的由海浪冲击形成的岩洞内出生、恋爱、工作、生活,直到死去?这个岩洞是我们祖先的近亲尼安德特人在地球上最后的家园,它们在此生活了数十万年。

    回溯到 35,000 年前:彼时的欧洲大陆还处于极寒的冰川时期,局部出现了物种灭绝,而本可以迁往气候温暖地区的一些动物却选择留了下来。因为在那样艰苦的时间里,戈勒姆岩洞着实是一个世外桃源。海平面比别处低上好几米,辽阔的狩猎平原一直延伸到海边。岩石高处会有人放哨,随时提醒下面的人注意猎物或是危险,比如狮子。岩洞前地势开阔,矮丘上碧草如茵,泉源湖波光粼粼。湖附近的湿地是鸟儿和鹿的天堂。半岛周围蛤蜊成群,燧石成丘。附近的洞穴是尼安德特人的聚居地。

    来看看尼安德特人的日常生活。岸边,孩子们在收集河中的浮木。平原上,两个女人刚刚伏击了一只漂亮的黑羽秃鹫,准备把它带回戈勒姆岩洞。岩洞的中庭有一个大壁炉,人们聚集于此,有的在聊天,有的在准备食物,有的在打磨工具、制作衣服。一个20多岁的小伙子皮肤黝黑,身材高大,正用石刀削着一根笔直的白杨树杈,削下的木屑卷被他踢进了壁炉的柴火堆中。小伙子身边一个红头发的矮胖女人正在剥蛤蜊,并把它们串在一根削尖的骨头上。弄好后,她先送给她虚弱的婶婶吃。婶婶的孩子夭折了,人们已经将孩子埋葬。
    这边在准备食物的时候,另一边,一个年长的男人,好像是个巫师,正在用打来的秃鹫制作漂亮的黑羽披肩和头饰。这些人有着丰富的精神生活,还有时间思考和创造艺术。洞穴深处是一间间小卧室,每间卧室都点着用来防御的火堆。一个特殊角落里有一块石雕,上边刻有交叉着的平行线,这种符号所代表的意义已经消失在了漫漫历史长河中。相比较来说,偏北部地区的尼安德特人创造的东西更容易理解,比如赭色的动物画、手印、鹰爪串成的项链和赭色蛤蜊壳制成的盒子。
    他们不知道,他们已经走出非洲,有着先进的文化和超强的生存本领,最后仍将走向灭亡。在短短一代人的时间里,干旱的气候将适合打猎的茂密森林变成了尼安德特人不了解的草原。幸存下来的少数人生育率也不高,婴儿总是生下来就夭折,大人们也更容易染上疾病。或许他们已经遇见了体型稍小的智人,这些人大规模地迁移,来到尼安德特人雄踞已久的地盘上建起他们的家园。这样一想,就觉得人类是如此脆弱。而又是怎样的偶然让今天坐在这里的是我们,而不是尼安德特人的子孙呢?

    要想回答“生而为人意味着什么”,我们或许首先要问,是什么让我们的生活方式,即我们的文化,有别于其他动物。人类文化其实是个特例。尽管动物有着越来越多令人着迷的行为,但没有任何一种动物的文化会像人类文化一样复杂和灵活。大多数动物都依赖天生的技能生存,而非相互学习。它们的文化不具有累积性。同人类日新月异的科技不同,几百万年来动物们使用的简单工具似乎没有任何显著的改良。

    不过,部分动物的文化确实可以在同类之间传播。这些物种必须要足够聪明,能够学习全新的行为,还要有足够的社交能力来传播文化。与人类血缘最近的黑猩猩使用的工具复杂程度最高。原本,人类与它们有共同的祖先,但是在 600 万年前二者出现了分化,走上了各自的进化道路。灵长类动物学家在非洲黑猩猩身上发现了 39 种不同的行为(大部分黑猩猩群体有 20 种),其中最复杂的是砸坚果。

    文化的累积性是指文化发展像棘轮一样,一环搭一环,根据自身情况不断进行调整,并代代累积下来。而一种文化想要具有累积性,需要达到很高的要求。一只黑猩猩可以用石头砸开坚果。另一只黑猩猩能学习这种行为(文化)。但是它不需要思考用什么样的石头砸、怎么砸,只知道拿石头砸,坚果基本能被砸开。但是,如果想要让砸坚果变得更有效率,就要考虑选择哪种类型、哪种形状的石头,甚至可能还需要自己磨石头。简言之,就是要增加步骤。黑猩猩要把每个步骤按顺序准确地记下来,然后向另一只黑猩猩展示,让对方学会正确的流程并能教会下一只黑猩猩。久而久之,随着新步骤不断增加,砸坚果的方法得到改良,坚果夹就被发明出来了。同基因进化一样,文化只能在足够精确的复制下才能进化。这就要求某一文化中成功的方法,比如选择合适的石头,必须要被长期保留下来,直到有更好的方法出现。黑猩猩们无法做到这一点,但是人类对此很在行。
    那么,一种拥有不断进化的文化的动物,它自身的进化是何时发生的呢?
    如果拿着儿时的照片站在镜子前,我们很难把照片中的自己和镜中的成年人对应起来。明明是同一个人,但是随着时间的流逝,我们的大脑和身体却发生了很多变化。
    要追溯过去,一探几万年前人类的生活,我们需要更加丰富的想象力和更强大的同理心。事实上那些人与我们也没有太大的区别。他们也需要食物、居所和友谊。面对人生的挑战,生活上的也好,技术上的也罢,他们同样需要思考解决方案。他们成功了——有些只是昙花一现,而有些,比如直立人,则延续了100多万年。我们少有机会接触到这些早已逝去的近亲祖先,但是每次接触都有实实在在的证据,比如支撑身体奔跑的股骨、容纳智慧大脑的头骨。比起这些身体化石,更让人感慨的是他们留下的遗产:亲手制造的工具和在墙上留下的标记。可见我们的祖先在很早以前就有装饰的想法了。
    其实,在大多数情况下,我们的祖先并没有留下存在的痕迹。他们用兽皮和纤维制作衣服和工具,但这些东西最后都腐烂成泥,就连他们自己的身体最后也都归还给了养育他们的大自然。但在我们的 DNA 中,在我们的性格中,在人与人之间的交往中,都有我们祖先的身影。我们对他们无比好奇,不仅因为他们跟我们有着不同的生活方式,更因为他们是我们文化的祖先。

    依据这些线索,包括古生物学家、人类学家、地质学家、气候学家在内的许多专家尝试还原地球上某个时期数十种古人类一起生活的场景。1965年,鲁道夫·扎林格绘制了著名的《进化进行曲》。从这幅画看,人类进化就是不同人科动物排队依次行进,远古人类朝着现代人的方向在进化。画中展现的是一个线性进化过程,从左到右,每一个角色都是其左侧角色的直系后代。这幅画将现代人类形象放在了进化过程的最前端,象征着我们在进化竞赛中取得了胜利。

    《进化进行曲》,鲁道夫·扎林格绘制

    这幅画将现代人类形象放在了进化过程的最前端,象征着我们在进化竞赛中取得了胜利。但是古生物学和遗传学的最新发现表明,《进化进行曲》不过是一幅卡通画,唯一接近事实的就是现代人类的诞生时间距今不太久远。《进化进行曲》中描绘的不同形象很多是生活在同一时期的不同人种,他们之间并不是继承—进化的关系,有的甚至还是混种繁衍而来。最近的发现表明,这种混种繁衍在以前很常见。在进化的某个阶段,一种特殊的文化出现了。追溯它的出现要从我们和古人类共同的过去中寻找线索。
    最早的候选人是现代人类的祖先直立人,他们出现的年代最早,大约在 180 万年前。当时,古代人种的大脑体积从 600 立方厘米增长到 1 300 立方厘米。他们有亲社会属性,极其聪慧,可以记忆多步骤的行为,使用的工具也越来越复杂,不像 300 万年前早期人科动物制造的工具那样简单。这些简单工具一人即可制作,不需要他人帮忙。直立人是非常成功的猎人,他们会生火,能够使用工具,还善于社交,足迹遍布亚非欧。他们很可能有自己的语言,甚至还会制作简易的船只横渡大海,去小岛探险。从基因上看,直立人非常多样,种群丰富,分布广泛。数十万年的时间里,他们与其他古人种混居在一起,繁衍出下一代。120 万年前,可能是气候变化的原因,直立人几乎全军覆没,全世界仅剩下18500人。在长达100多万年的时间中,我们祖先的濒危程度甚至比现在的黑猩猩和大猩猩还要严重。但也或许正是因为这种人口瓶颈,尽管人种的多样性有所减少,我们自身物种的进化反而得到了推动。

    我们不知道曾经有多少种不同的人类,换言之就是有多少“人种”。但是有证据表明,50 万年前,非洲海德堡人掌握了气候变化的规律,利用大地回春的时节,将自己的活动范围扩大到欧洲及更远的地区。但是到了 30 万年前,他们却停止进入欧洲。这可能是因为极寒的冰川时期在撒哈拉创造出了一片茫茫沙漠,隔绝了海德堡人和其他人种的交流。这种隔绝导致基因差异进一步发展,最后形成了不同的人种。也就是从那时起,非洲首次出现了解剖学意义上的现代人类,即智人。在非洲,智人发展自己的文化,同新近发现的纳莱迪人(现已灭绝)等其他人种混居在一起繁衍生息。而那些离开非洲的人种逐渐适应了欧洲北部较冷的环境,最终成为尼安德特人、丹尼索瓦人和其他只能通过遗传学才能被了解的人种。

    大约 8 万年前,第一批现代人类家庭成功走出非洲。当时,尼安德特人十分活跃,从西伯利亚到西班牙南部都有他们的活动范围。我们在人类现存的基因中还能感受到他们的存在。因为我们似乎无论在哪里遇到其他人种,都会与他们繁衍后代。包括我在内的每一位有欧洲血统的人,基因图谱中都有尼安德特人的DNA。其中有多达 20%的尼安德特人的基因组,或许曾因帮助过人类在欧洲生存下来,现在仍在代代相传。其他古人类也在现代人类的基因中留下了遗产。澳大利亚原住民携带着我们所知甚少的丹尼索瓦人的基因。还有那些还没能辨别出名字的古人类种族,也影响了世界各地其他人种的基因,包括距今两万年的非洲人种。可能是天性使然,我们的祖先总能从自己遇到的各类人种身上获得有用的适应性基因,这帮助我们的祖先将活动范围成功地扩大至全世界。

    想象一下,在那个时代,人们可以遇到那些真正不同种族的人。他们和我们一样,也在进行文化试验。我们当时都很脆弱。把生存的“鸡蛋”全都放在了文化一个“篮子”里,要与凶猛的野兽和残酷的天气斗争,人类的进化面临着巨大的风险。我们自身并没有做好应对的准备,因此,在人类历史的大部分时间里,我们的生存都岌岌可危。例如,74,000 年前,印度尼西亚托巴的火山大爆发导致全世界人类数量骤减至几千,濒临灭绝。今天,尽管世界上还有不同种类的类人猿,但存活下来的人类只有一种。

    在这场“赌博”里,人类文化赌赢了。人类的近亲全都灭绝了,仅有星星点点的记录表明他们曾在地球上生活过几十万年。因此,如果要把人类在地球上取得的成功归因于我们的文化,就要认识到,人类的辉煌不是一种必然。这一点,已经灭绝的尼安德特人就是最好的说明。他们有自己的文化。甚至跟我们相比,他们身体更壮,大脑更大,更能适应寒冷的环境,但到最后,他们还是灭绝了。为什么只有我们成功存活了下来呢?

    有运气的成分在。气候变化对草原猎人十分有利。我们或许携带了欧洲人没有免疫力的疾病。更重要的是,在尼安德特人遇上草原猎人之前,尼安德特人已经开始近亲繁衍,他们的人口总数仅是同时期智人的 1/10。据遗传学家估计,尼安德特人的进化适应度比同一时期的现代人低 40%。进化适应度是衡量一个物种生存和繁殖能力的指标。较低的进化适应度导致尼安德特人的相对人口和基因多样性水平较低。曾有人利用电脑模拟旧石器时代的人类与尼安德特人的互动情况,根据人口数量、迁徙模式和生态因素等资料,电脑演算出,尼安德特人应该是在人类到达后的12,000 年内灭绝或被完全同化的。

    进化的成功最终是通过数量来衡量的——进入欧洲的人类数量更多。但是为什么会这样?是像大家以为的那样,我们比我们的近亲更聪明吗?不排除这种可能性,但事实是,无论是大脑的大小,还是使用的工具,我们都和尼安德特人极其相似。尽管如此,我们的生理或文化中必定存在什么东西,使得人类的发展可以欣欣向荣,并使人类在异常恶劣的环境中具有更强的适应力,毕竟当时世界上多达 1/3 的土地都被冰层覆盖。

    基因库的规模和多样性为我们了解文化规模和多样性提供了一条线索。人类之间的联系越紧密,人口数量越多,就让人类整体拥有越多可利用的文化知识。相比其他人种,我们现代人的祖先可能更擅长社交和互相学习,对外部世界更加好奇。还有一点很能说明问题,那就是尽管尼安德特人已经生存了几十万年,但他们从来没有离开过他们的家园,而我们的祖先早已开始探索世界。化石记录证明,对于所有物种来说,遍及全球的分散性会让它们遇到灾难时最有可能存活下来。

    正如本书所讲,长期以来,人类之所以能够成功存活,同不断变化的生存环境、种群规模和社会结构密不可分。气候的急剧变化、人口扩张或减少都会带来人类的创新和文化活动的大爆发,当然也有可能是大幅下降。在这些经历中,我们试验、学习并教会彼此生存的技巧。我们分布在全球的各个角落,因此我们的基因有很强的适应能力。人类的生存和发展完全依赖于地球,但随着文化发展,人类开始改造地球家园,控制生育率,直到我们成为唯一能够决定自己命运的物种。
    让我们通过4个关键因素一探变化的究竟。首先,从推动文化进化的火开始。

    所有生命都需要能量来维持,并从食物中获得能量。对植物而言,太阳能为其提供能量。人类也能够利用自然形式的能量,让一切变得不同。人类之所以成为现在的人类,是因为我们可以利用其他形式的能量,从而能够摆脱环境的限制,扩展我们的身体机能。那么,人类是如何在环境、生物和文化之间建立起一种新的关系的呢?

    第三章 环境改造:重新创造我们的生态系统

    12 月的澳大利亚昆士兰州酷暑当头。我沿太平洋高速公路一路驱车而下,经过甘蔗田,穿过空旷的原始森林。黏糊的轮胎在沥青路上转动,路上热气蒸腾,单调的蝉鸣声不绝于耳。热浪猛烈地吹过平地,稀释了甘蔗田甜得发腻的味道,取而代之的是绿色粗糠柴让人沉醉的气味和桉树的刺鼻气味。从车里望出去,低矮的灌木丛如同树林一般。蜥蜴、蛇和鸟(大部分都是尸体)从我眼前飞驰而过。道路笔直,偶尔有个转弯。我就这样以稳定的每小时 80 千米的速度沿着柏油路一路向南。
    过了一会儿,我回过神后才发现路两边的绿植变黑了。我顿觉新奇,也隐约感到了一种宁静。我继续向前开,前方烟雾四起,烟笼罩着烧焦的地面。道路上有许多鸟,黑色鸦科鸟类和猛禽在高速公路上盘旋,寻找从滚烫的树丛中逃出的猎物。黑鸦、黑烟和黑灰连成一片。再往前开,烟雾更浓,车外一片漆黑,我仿佛置身异界,燃烧产生的硫黄臭气很呛鼻。明亮的火光在黑暗中跳动,阴燃的火焰愈燃愈烈,直到路的尽头变成一条舞动的火河。我担心这里可能会很危险。躲在车里的我从挡风玻璃和后视镜里看到了同样的景象:火花飞溅,浓烟四起,让人不知所措。
    于是我放慢了车速。
    隔着车窗,我看见两边的火池越来越多,火势愈演愈烈,有连成一片之势。我甚至都能听到火的声音,像一条猛龙在咆哮怒吼。一时间,高高的火墙将我包围住,吞噬着车子周围的空气。高温令光线扭曲,火龙的吼声震耳欲聋,浓烟从紧闭的车窗渗了进来。我惊慌失措。
    时间仿佛停滞了,每一秒都令人十分煎熬,周围也安静了下来。我的视线变得模糊,我的双手紧握方向盘。我猛踩油门,终于在几分钟后穿越火区。在我身后,浓烟滚滚,直冲青天,而在我前面是一片色彩斑斓的世界。我降下车窗,呼吸着桉树散发的樟脑味道,享受着绿树蓝天的美景,聆听鸟儿的鸣叫声,我的心也不再怦怦猛跳了。

    在被人类驯服的人造世界里,多数情况下大自然不会给人类造成威胁,但是火仍然保持着可怕的威力。它破坏环境、毁坏财产,是一个主要杀手。困在大火中的那几分钟给我留下了深刻印象,我感觉自己到了地狱。火是一种原始产物。
    但世界上有一个时期是没有火的。那时,地球就像它在太阳系星云中形成时一样,由炽热的液体物质组成,无法维持火的燃烧。
    在最初 10 亿年左右的时间里,地球上没有火是因为没有东西可供燃烧,也没有氧气来帮助燃烧。但是随着地球进化出了可进行光合作用的细菌,以及过了很久之后最初的森林的出现,地球才具备了火燃烧的条件。所有生命都要为其自身毁灭创造环境。
    燃烧是一种可见化学反应:氧和燃料混合,散发出光和热能。这同我们从食物中获取能量、维持生命是一样的化学反应。但在活细胞中,这种反应被称为新陈代谢,是一个缓慢的过程,而火焰的燃烧快如闪电,释放大量的能量。我们的祖先学会了取火,并征服了这股原始力量,为自己所用。人类率先利用火改造养育自己的环境,从而扩充了自己的生态位,永久地改变了生态和不可抗力之间的动态关系。
    当人类开始有意识地获取体外能量资源时,我们就超越了生物生命的范围,开启了一种新的生存状态。丰富的体外能量使一种全新的选择性适应形式成为可能,即累积性的文化进化,这种进化决定了人类的未来。我们的祖先发展出能够利用外部能量的能力,这样一来,人类文化发展的认知和社会条件不断加强。由于大脑的发育,人类更善于社交、合作和互相学习。能源推动物种的发展,我们对能源使用效率的追求将加速文化进化,甚至能改变人类基因,让所有人都成为电子人。
    所有的一切,都始于数百万年前的一场野火。

    大火吞噬了森林,破坏了栖息地,切断了食物来源,但同时也为包括草在内的新植物的生长开辟了空间,改变了其他动植物在食物链上的等级。在广阔的大草原上,大型食草动物越来越多,捕猎它们的食肉动物也越来越多。

    火能够改变一个环境中食物的密度,我们的祖先显然也发现了这一点。在进化到某一阶段的时候,他们开始利用火。早期居住在森林里的人类祖先和鸟类都发现,火灾过后很容易找到食物。随着原始人渐渐可以直立行走,他们更容易到达广阔地带,这些本来主要吃素食的原始人对肉类越来越感兴趣。有证据表明,在340 万年以前的埃塞俄比亚,尽管南方古猿的牙齿和下巴还没进化到能够正常吃肉,但他们已经开始食用牛和山羊大小的动物了。

    他们用石器宰杀动物,吃生肉,并敲碎动物的骨头吸食骨髓。咀嚼和消化生肉很困难,而煮熟的肉类(和植物)更美味、食用起来更卫生,还能让人类更有效地获取热量。这是因为火能够让食物发生化学变化,变得更容易消化。吃熟食的人会更健康,存活的时间更长,从而把基因传给下一代,把获取食物的本领传授给其他人,因而生火煮食在我们的祖先的饮食中变得越来越重要。而且,丛林大火产生的烟雾可以吸引来自远方的种群。

    久而久之,我们的祖先学会了利用野火生火,让我们与火的关系又近了一步。在澳大利亚,包括黑鸢在内的一些猛禽也有传播火的文化。有一种被原住民称为“火鹰”的鸟会从野火中衔起燃烧的树枝,然后故意在其他地方点火,以便引出草丛中的猎物。不难想象,数百万年前,我们聪明的祖先也会做同样的事情,他们把燃烧的余烬从一个营地带到另一个营地。这些火种通过人手相传的方式保留下来,传递到不同的地方。因此,人类对火越来越依赖,人与人之间的关系也就变得更为亲密。

    火是人类的保护伞。人类的祖先最开始为了安全而在树上睡

    觉,而后来火能够保护他们的后代免受食肉动物的侵袭和寒冷的

    折磨,他们便可在广阔的草原上睡觉。换句话说,火改变了人类

    的生存方式,火让世界变得更加安全,于是人类开始改变周围的

    环境。当然,我们并不是第一种改变环境的动物,但其他大多数

    动物对环境的改变都是出于本能,也就是它们的基因促使它们以

    特定的方式改变环境。比如,海狸可以筑水坝,蚂蚁可以筑复杂

    的土丘,但海狸不能筑土丘,蚂蚁也不能筑水坝。相比之下,人

    类体内并没有哪类基因决定要对某种特定的环境进行改变,相反,

    人类创造力非凡。我们祖先的基因不断进化,从而适应了由文化

    主导的全新环境。后来,我们完全靠两足行走,适合攀爬的双足

    进化成更适合跑步的平足。这种进化只有在夜间足够安全的情况

    下才可行,而火正起到了保证安全的作用。

    接下来是生火。这是人类必须学习的技能,而且是人类赖以生存的技能。正是由于生火的技能如此重要,所以每种文化里都有精心设计的神话来描述火的起源。古希腊人说火是普罗米修斯从神那里偷来的最好的礼物。普罗米修斯因盗取天火而被永世缚在山崖上,每日遭神鹰啄食肝脏。北极的育空人说乌鸦从水中央的一座火山上偷走了火。尼日利亚的埃科伊人则说火是一个小男孩从创造之神奥巴斯·奥斯奥那里偷来的,这个小男孩教人们生火,但他因为偷窃行为而受到跛足的惩罚。

    我想象中的取火非常平淡无奇。两件石器相互摩擦肯定会产生火花。这样一想,我们的祖先能生火也不足以称为一大飞跃。然而,据目前所知,只有人类能生火。目前发现的最早的人类火种来自东非大裂谷颇有考古价值的图尔卡纳遗址。尽管火种保存得不是很好,但它距今已有150万年的历史。

    取火可以很简单,钻木就可以取火。我曾在坦桑尼亚与一群哈扎比部落的猎人有过难忘的狩猎经历,在那之后,他们教我如何取火。我坐在地上,把一块又宽又平的木头紧紧夹在两脚之间,这块木头被称为灶台木。他们先是向我展示了如何在木头上磨出一个凹槽,然后给了我一根类似铅笔一样的光滑笔直的木棍。我将木棍的尖端牢牢地插在凹槽里,用手掌来回搓动木棍,让木棍不断摩擦凹槽。几分钟以后就有烟冒出来。随后将油树皮的干木屑放在凹槽里引火。猎人们手捧灶台木,将木屑吹进火里。其实钻木取火并没有看起来那么简单。我怀疑,如果没有人告诉我怎么做,我自己很难摸索出这种方法。首先要确定哪里可以找到合适的木棍和灶台木,这一点看似不起眼,其实非常重要。其中一位哈扎比人把绳子绑在木棍上来回拉动,这就形成了一个钻头,很好地保护了人的手掌。他从别处学到这个方法,又把它传授给其他人。有证据表明,在法国几个尼安德特人的聚居地有一种特别复杂的点火方式,其中用到了燃点较低的软锰矿(二氧化锰)。考古学家发现了大量的黑色小方块,他们认为这些方块混合了引火菌粉末,需要时就可以随时生火,就像我们今天用火柴一样。但无论一个种群使用哪种方法,都会一代一代地把这个方法传递下去,这些方法和生火材料一样珍贵。

    小小的火苗是区分原始人与其他动物的关键。灵长类动物的文化行为很简单,而且对于聪明的个体来说,靠自己很容易实现创新。但对于它们来说生火的步骤烦琐,操作复杂。在 100 多万年前的直立人时代,从生火到制造工具,当时的人类已经有了复杂多样的技能,但是这些方法不可能是一个人在自己的有生之年创造的。相反,这些知识之所以能够积累起来,是人们互相学习,不断练习和记忆细节的结果。人类文化建立发展起来,我们祖先的大脑已经进化到可以学习了。

    那么究竟是因为我们的大脑变得更大、更聪明了,所以能生火,还是生火让我们拥有了更大、更聪明的大脑呢?答案是二者都有。这是一个相互促进的进化过程,进化的结果要到数十万年后才能看到,其间我们的基因、文化和所处的环境都发生了适应性变化。正如希腊人所说,火赋予了人类神一般的力量,让人类凌驾于自然。古人类成为环境的建造师,利用火改善他们喂养的食草动物的生存条件,创造适合他们需求的生态系统,从而提高了生存能力。

    换句话说,我们的祖先创造的环境条件有利于他们传播文化。他们越能控制和调节自己的生存环境(及他们子孙的生存环境),代代传递文化信息的优势就越明显。这就是我们创造自己的过程。改造环境后,人类迁徙到大草原。那里能更加容易地捕猎到更大的动物,这些动物有更多的脂肪和肉,能够产生更高的热量。我们发现的最早的人类狩猎的证据大约是在 200 万年前,这标志着人类文化的一大进步,改变了我们祖先的身体结构和行为方式。数百万年来,原始人主要是素食者,因文化和环境的变化,开始食用肉食,之后他们的身体也适应了肉食。到我们祖先的时候,人类已变成了有耐力的猎手,弹跳力强,脚背拱起,臀部和骨盆收窄,臀部肌肉发达,面部宽阔扁平,S 形脊柱支撑着身体。我们的躯干和手臂变长,确保走路平稳。我们还拥有了投掷的新能力。尽管一些灵长类动物偶尔会投掷物体,但只有人类能够在投掷石头或长矛时可以兼备速度和准头,这是因为人类的肩膀和躯干可以支撑投掷动作,解剖学家估计这种进化发生在 200 万年前。

    人类体毛减少,汗腺数量大大增加,这让我们在太阳下跑步

    时,可以出汗降温,从而保持稳定的体温。体毛减少的原因可能

    是某个基因的改变,这让人类在所有灵长类动物中汗腺密度最高,

    每天能够产生数升的汗液保持体温稳定。大约在同一时期,我们

    的祖先体内出现了一种深色皮肤的基因,保护我们免受紫外线的

    伤害。人类的基因随着人类的行为发生改变,我们比草原上的其

    他动物更长寿,奔跑的耐力比它们更强,还能用投掷的方式捕猎。

    伴随着这一系列身体上的变化,人类认知、文化和社会也发

    生了转变。饮食方式发生转变,人类适应环境的能力变得更强(换

    句话说,身体进化提高了人类在环境中的生存能力)。很明显,

    我们的基因进化已经改变了轨迹:与草原上其他的狩猎者不同,

    我们的身体条件一般,没有锋利的牙齿和爪子,但文化和身体结

    构的变化让我们成为最具杀伤力的生物。即使是在 200 万年前,

    人类的狩猎工具和武器也比其他动物的更多样化。驱赶猎物时黑

    猩猩只使用棍棒,海豚只使用海绵,而人类使用的工具和武器是

    自己制造的。与其他动物不同,人类祖先使用的是一系列的工具

    而不是一件工具,而且他们会对捕杀的猎物进行处理,骨头、角

    和毛皮都另有用处。在特定的工作中使用特定的工具比保持一身

    肌肉更有效。狩猎是后天形成的文化适应,步骤烦琐,经过数千

    代人的改进,演变成了今天的全球机械化肉类生产产业。

    反过来,狩猎从根本上改变了人类社会。它带来了猎人和采集者之间的劳动分工,并且让人们在一个地方居住的时间更长。与此同时,营火成为群体生活的一部分,人们需要经常关注营火是否还在燃烧,是否需要补充木柴。这意味着,人们在只能勉强糊口的情况下,为了寻找木柴,还要频繁长途奔波,而这必然会带来额外的消耗。为了解决额外劳动力成本消耗,提高狩猎效率,人类社会出现了更大的多代群体。

    换句话说,狩猎让人类变得社会化。一次狩猎可能需要三四个人合作,如果要猎杀大象这样的大型动物,就需要一个更大的团队集体作战。一个团队想要成功,每个团队成员都必须能通过想象他人的想法和观点,来预测其他猎人和其他掠食者可能采取的行动。这要求团队成员必须要有毅力,因为这个过程可能要持续几个小时,同时还要有精湛的技巧、细致的观察和灵活的策略。人类学会了识别和跟踪动物的足迹,看懂它们的行为。每一次狩猎都需要深思熟虑,并且制订出缜密的计划:人类会在脑海中想象一个未来的场景,比如几个小时后我们会非常口渴,并告诉自己同伴。于是人们在狩猎时会用袋囊或皮囊装水。人类之所以比更强壮的动物活得更久,就是因为汗液蒸发后,人类体内仍有充足的水分供给,也因为人类可通过训练提升耐力。我们有精神策略来鼓励彼此前进,让我们即使身体疲惫,也可继续前进。我们可超越生理局限和阻碍,冲破限制我们的那堵“墙”。在人体因体力消耗或饥饿而不堪重负时,血液优先流向大脑而不是肌肉,因为当我们进化到某个阶段,敏捷的思考能力比快速行动更重要。

    狩猎是一项复杂的社会和心理活动,对体力要求高,具有一定的风险,但是与狩猎带来的更多热量相比,它消耗的体力不值一提。这种相互促进的进化过程推动着人类前进。

    合作狩猎对智力有严格要求,所以需要更大的额叶皮层,额

    叶皮层是大脑中处理社会行为、进行决策和解决问题的区域。这

    就是狮子这种唯一成群狩猎的大型猫科动物拥有高度发达的额

    叶皮层的原因。母狮的额叶皮层最大,它们在群体中活动的时间

    更长,并承担了大多数的捕猎活动。研究还发现,在海豚与渔民

    合作狩猎时,那些与渔民合作最好的海豚彼此之间的交流能力最

    强。它们彼此之间的亲密关系增加了从同伴那里学习合作狩猎技

    能的概率。只有当动物有足够的社交能力,而且有机会互相模仿

    时,新的行为才可以传播。在驯养动物之前,人类利用动物的社

    交能力来更有效地获取热量。例如,在撒哈拉以南非洲的一些部

    落,人们会依赖与小蜂鸟的伙伴关系。这种小蜂鸟会回应人类的

    呼声,并指引他们去蜂巢。到了蜂巢之后,人类可以用烟把蜜蜂

    熏出来,这样人类和小蜂鸟都能采到蜂蜜,而消耗的热量只是一

    些狩猎采集群体所消耗的热量的15%。

    不过,人类最依赖的还是人类同伴。与其他灵长类动物不同的是,人类狩猎不是只为了自己,他们会把食物带回去,分给同伴。有证据表明,200 万年前人类就会将食物带回自己的居住地。专业化提高了狩猎效率,最好的矛匠可能不是最会用矛的猎人,但制矛和用矛都有利于群体的发展,可以让群体成员捕获更多的猎物。合作和食物分享让一个群体变得更强大,让成员拥有更复杂多样的技能。尽管猎人在20多岁时身体最好,但狩猎能力要到40岁才会达到顶峰,因为对人类来说,成功更多地取决于专业知识的积累和技能的熟练程度,这些都需要时间去学习。在以狩猎采集为生的社会中,大多数猎人在 18 岁之前,都找不到足够的食物来养活自己,更不用说养活其他人了。相比之下,同样以狩猎采集为生的黑猩猩大约 5 岁时就能养活自己。即便一个人并非完全依赖群体生存,但如果哪天被赶出群体,或是群体中没有足够的食物可供分享,他挨饿的风险也会增加。群体和彼此合作对群体和个人的生存都有很大的帮助,比自力更生更胜一筹。

    人类越是能更好地利用集体生活,如照看火种、有策略地用火和合作狩猎,个人能获得的食物就越多,生活就越好,人类的基因就越有可能遗传下去。社交活动要消耗精力和时间,但它能提高人类的生存能力,因此会激发有利于发展的生物进化机制。所有灵长类动物每天都要花几个小时为彼此梳理毛发。这种身体上的交流,可以建立和维护成员之间的紧密联系,确保它们在群体中的阶层地位。梳理毛发能在动物体内释放天然麻醉剂内啡肽,让它们产生很舒服的感觉,因此会引发更多的社交行为。我们也会从社会交往中获得快乐。有一种神经回路通过释放后叶催产素或多巴胺来“奖励”社交行为,因此人们通常会想要再次寻求这样的体验。在集体活动中,尤其是在同步进行的活动中,比如音乐创作或跳舞,我们的大脑会释放出同样的“药物”,让我们想要寻求下一次刺激。社会排斥会造成伤害,它在大脑中引起的反应就像身体疼痛一样。然而,我们的祖先并没有把宝贵的白天时间花在互相梳理毛发上,而是用火来延长一天的时间,保证在天黑后还能进行社交活动。大多数哺乳动物每天的清醒时间是大约8个小时,而成年人类每天的清醒时间要长得多,可以达到16个小时甚至更长。傍晚时分是世界各地文化“社交”的开始。

    经历文化进化的人类能使用火和工具狩猎,而且颇具策略,但这一切也给环境带来了巨大的影响。东非如今只有 6 种大型食肉动物:狮子、豹子、猎豹、斑鬣狗、条纹鬣狗和野狗。200 万年前,那里的食肉动物种类曾多达 18 种,包括熊、麝猫、剑齿虎以及和熊差不多大小的水獭。我们的祖先开始狩猎之后,大型食肉动物的种类急剧减少,不仅是东非,其他地区也有类似的情况。到了约 11,000 年前的更新世,近 500 万人捕杀了约 10 亿只大型动物。即使捕杀没有致它们完全灭绝,人类也会和它们直接竞争,争夺猎物,或者是当其狩猎成功后对其进行驱赶。与大型猫科动物不同,身为杂食动物的人类,在艰苦年代总是可以依靠觅食存活。如此多的顶级食肉动物的消亡改变了东非的生态系统,通过所谓的营养级联,使小型哺乳动物和食草动物的数量激增,降低了森林覆盖率。人类取代了大型食肉动物的位置,成为地球上迄今为止最成功的捕食者。如今,大多数大型动物都忌惮投掷物,这是对人类行为的本能反应。

    人类进化的三位一体对我们居住的生态系统造成了多重影响,改变了许多动植物的进化轨迹。这进而又改变了人类自己的进化过程。食草动物数量减少,而且它们惧怕人类,导致使用长矛狩猎变得更加困难。更擅长长矛狩猎的人有了选择优势,所以历经数代,无论是从生理角度看(优秀的猎人将他优秀的基因传给后代),还是从文化进化角度看,人类都更擅长使用长矛狩猎了。这是因为,在我们的文化环境中,每个人都在练习这种技能,久而久之,自然会越做越好。

    火是人类最重要的工具,它不仅让人类能够改变环境,还帮助人类离开了至今仍束缚着很多灵长类动物的热带地区。人类比它们自由多了,“食物群”走到哪里,我们就跟到哪里,可按照自己的意愿选择安营地点,还可改变不适合居住的生态系统。直立人是人种中走遍全球的先锋,从热带地区到严寒的高纬度地区,到处都有他们的足迹。几十万年后,智人部落也进行了类似的大迁徙,在罕见的潮湿时期,这些人依靠含水层的泉水补给,冒险离开非洲。这个过程很缓慢:根据考古研究和远古DNA证据显示的时间尺度,智人平均每年移动 1 千米,先进入中东,再继续向东迁移。

    一些智人从中东一路来到澳大利亚(当时与新几内亚相连)。大约 6 万年前,人类大胆地进行了第一次海上航行,那是一次跨越 100 千米的勇敢迁徙,而起因很可能是他们看到了丛林大火产生的浓烟。因为烟就意味着火,意味着那里有被植被覆盖的土地,意味着那里可能既富饶又和平(因为远离部落竞争),这是每个移民都梦寐以求的。人类的这次非凡航行得到了丰厚的回报:第一批人类到达澳大利亚后,发现了一片无人居住的广阔土地,那里只有巨大的有袋类动物、鸟类和爬行动物。

    久而久之,我们的生活环境已被火“驯化”,以至需要人类进行定期焚烧。在澳大利亚,“烧荒”的农业耕作方式极大地改变了这片大陆的生态环境,形成了干燥森林和大草原,增加了袋鼠和其他食草有袋类动物的数量,同时促进了可食用水果、花卉和包括马铃薯在内的其他植物的生长。这种管理土地的方式确保了耐火性植物的生存,减少了不必要的“燃料”负荷。因此,澳大利亚如今频繁的大火是相对得到控制的。在非洲,通常每年会烧掉相当于美国本土面积一半大小的稀树草原。这样做的目的是保持牧场肥沃,抑制灌木丛的生长。但随着生活在非洲、欧亚草原和南美洲的人的生活方式由游牧转变为农耕,烧荒就不断减少了。1998—2015 年,全球烧荒每年减少 24%,减少面积约 70 万平方千米,但同时也导致了一些濒危的食肉动物的栖息地面积的减少。自然创造了人类,人类征服和奴役着自然,现在自然的持续发展都要依赖人类。如今,世界上大部分与火有关的事情都与人类有关。

    第四章 大脑发展:学会用火让我们更加智慧

    2018 年 3 月 11 日,星期日,在美国肯塔基州的法兰克福地区医疗中心,一位经验丰富的助产士埃米莉·戴尔如往常一样洗手,为一台普通的剖宫产手术做准备。准备好之后,她和团队的其他成员一起戴好外科手套,在产房里进行术前讨论。然后,她爬上手术台,仰面躺好,掀起了自己的病号服。

    麻醉师先对戴尔进行了麻醉,然后同事们用手术刀划开了她的肚子,但是接生孩子的是她自己。

    医生拉着戴尔的手,放到切口处。这时整个产房鸦雀无声,只剩下医疗设备的滴滴声。她小心翼翼地摸着孩子渐渐露出的头,用手托住,接着把孩子滑溜溜的身体一点一点地从自己肚子里拉了出来,动作十分娴熟。当她把粉粉嫩嫩、皱皱巴巴的孩子抱在胸前时,孩子发出了响亮的哭声,产房里的所有人都为她欢呼鼓掌。就这样,这位助产士成功地给自己接生了。

    尽管为自己接生非常了不起,但有一点不容忽视,那就是人类都需要他人帮助才能分娩,这是因为与产道宽度相比,孩子的头实在太大。人类的头之所以大,是因为在进化过程中,大部分能量都优先提供给了大脑而非躯干,以应对不断变化的文化和环境。和黑猩猩相比,人类身体弱小,但是智慧远远超过它们。通过对火的使用,人类大脑的进化已经超越了生物学的障碍。虽然我们不能独立分娩,但我们拥有足够的智慧和社交能力让自己生存下来。

    我们已经了解了人类可以用火改变环境,以及这种改变对人类生理和文化的影响。现在,让我们来看看火是如何帮助我们的大脑实现进化的。人类作为一个物种的独特之处主要在于大脑的体积。大脑的进化就像是在文化、生物和永恒的物理法则之间跳着一支复杂的舞蹈。

    一般来说,随着动物的成长,它们的大脑也会发育。这种发育和智力、社会性以及文化的发展相关。比如说,海豚的一些行为和活动与人类相似。它们会一起玩耍,照顾彼此的孩子,合作捕猎,有自己的名字(代表名字的特征口哨声),还能互相学习。但是只有大脑体积更大的动物才会表现出这种高级的社会性和丰富的文化。动物的大脑和身体大小有一定的比例,当大脑的大小超出了这一比例,它们就成为更聪明的物种。黑猩猩的大脑体积是与其同体积动物的大脑体积的 2 倍。人类大脑与身体的比例是所有灵长类动物中最高的,是正常比例的 7 倍,比黑猩猩的大脑与身体的比例还要高 3 倍。

    更大的大脑能促进人类社会性的发展,而社会性的发展又可

    以推动大脑体积的变化。一代又一代,我们的祖先越来越依赖聪

    明才智,他们的大脑体积不断变大,社会性也在不断提升。因为

    只有这样的人才能活得更长久,才能繁衍后代。遗传学家近期发

    现了一种只存在于人类体内的基因有 3 个近乎一样的副本。专家

    们认为这种基因和大脑的发育有关,正是它促进了人类祖先大脑

    体积的增长。在 300 万—400 万年前,这种基因的第一个副本出

    现了,当时正是人类祖先开始制作石器工具的时代。后来,这个

    基因又复制了两次,形成了如今现代人类所携带的基因版本。在

    几乎所有哺乳动物的进化过程中,最关键的基因——和大脑相关

    的基因——变化最小。而人类是一个例外。过去的 200 万年里,

    人类大脑 90%的基因一直在有规律地进化,进化的效果也不断加

    强。

    人类的高智商并不仅仅归功于大脑的体积,大脑中所包含的神经元数量及其联系也至关重要。人类的感知、记忆、语言和意识等高级认知功能同人类的大脑皮层有关。大脑皮层是一个只有几毫米厚的褶皱神经组织,但它展开时有 4 张 A4 纸那么大。黑猩猩的大脑皮层只有一张 A4 纸大,猴子的大脑皮层只有一张明信片那么大,而老鼠的只有一张邮票大小。大脑皮层的厚度和关键部分的大小也很重要。大脑皮层比较薄的人智商就会相对较低,那些大脑前额皮层面积更大的人则可能会拥有更多的朋友。这样看来,人类祖先更喜欢聪明且善于社交的伙伴,而非强壮好斗的人。可以说,是人类自己驯化了自己。

    但是,人类大脑体积的增加也带来了巨大的风险。出于选择

    压力,人类的大脑实现了进化,身体随之也出现了变化:臀部变

    窄,骨盆变小,人类成为两足直立行走的物种,行走耗能少、效

    率高。雌性黑猩猩直立的时候只有人类女性一半高,但它们的产

    道和人类的差不多宽。然而,黑猩猩新生儿的脑容量(大概 155

    立方厘米)还不到人类新生儿的一半。大头颅要安全顺利地通过

    窄产道,还要保证母子(女)平安,这确实是一个挑战。

    对于任何一个物种来说,新生儿的死亡都是大家不愿见到的,

    而母亲的死亡却没有受到同样的重视。对许多动物来说,母亲在

    分娩之后会死亡、被吃掉或者很快消失。但是这种情况却不会发

    生在哺乳类动物身上,尤其是灵长类动物身上。这是因为拥有文

    化的物种更多依赖技术和行为的习得,而非本能,它们需要父母

    长时间的关怀和照顾。母亲的存活对于人类长期生存至关重要。

    要解决分娩的困境,需要进一步提升人类的社会性,同时身

    体结构也要有相应的变化,其中就包括暂时缩小胎儿头部的大小,

    这是通过胎儿头骨的延迟融合实现的。在母亲分娩的时候,胎儿

    的头骨仍然是 6 块独立的骨板,可以重叠和移动,这使头部变形,从而使胎儿通过产道。此时人类新生儿大脑的大小还不到成年时期大脑的 1/3(28%)。而黑猩猩新生儿的大脑有其成年大脑的 40%。人类胎儿在出生的时候还远远没有发育完全,所以产后的前 3 个

    月又被称为“第四孕期”。为了通过骨盆,人类胎儿还进化出了

    危险的旋转动作。猿类胎儿能很容易地穿过母亲相对宽的骨盆,

    不需要旋转。它们出生的时候脸朝上,头朝着母亲。这样一来,

    它们一出生就能被母亲抱着吃奶。阿法南方古猿露西是我们的能

    够两足直立行走的祖先,生活在距今 300 万年的时代。她分娩的

    时候,胎儿需要旋转一次(45 度),所以胎儿出生的时候会面向

    母亲的大腿侧面。而现代人类胎儿必须要在母体中转两次,这就

    引发了脐带绕颈的风险,胎儿出生时脸朝母亲的尾椎骨方向。

    在这种情况下,人类出生时大脑体积小且未发育成熟,头骨

    也未发育完全。虽然人体出现了这些适应性改变,但是地球上所

    有的人类依旧需要帮助才能实现顺利分娩。我们超高的社会性需

    要庞大的大脑,因此助产必不可少。由此,女性间的友谊和合作

    就成为顺利分娩的重中之重,也是整个群体得以生存的强大保障。

    时至今日,依然如此。

    即使是在分娩之后,人类母亲也依然需要他人帮助才能保证新生儿存活。在有孩子之前,我一直认为母乳喂养是一种本能。毕竟,母乳喂养作为哺乳类动物的关键特征,应该和呼吸一样平淡无奇。后来我惊讶地发现,吃母乳对孩子来说是一项全新技能,作为母亲的我对母乳喂养也是一头雾水。如何让孩子张嘴、孩子吃奶的位置和哺乳时间都需要学习,还要花时间练习。我花了一周多的时间才能像哺乳期的黑猩猩一样,自然熟练地进行母乳喂养。无论是在哪种文化里,母亲都会在分娩后学习母乳喂养。如果母亲不能进行母乳喂养,她们的孩子会由家族或族群中的其他女性来喂养。到了现代社会,则有模仿母乳营养成分的配方奶粉作为母乳替代品。

    人类基因传递和种族生存中最重要的事情就是分娩和哺乳。

    但是这两件事情都非常困难,需要学习才能掌握,无法独立完成,

    而且对母亲和孩子来说事关生死。而从进化角度看,这些都是值

    得的,因为人类拥有了更大的大脑、更多的社会性和文化知识。

    与人类进化中的其他变化相同,分娩和哺乳的出现伴随着人类对

    火的使用。如果没有火的保护,分娩这样困难的事情就无法进行。

    因为生活在平原地区就意味着暴露,而人类新生儿不可能像瞪羚

    或其他食草动物的幼崽一样,直接跳起来逃命。人类的大脑不断

    变大,这是人体结构进化发展的必然趋势,由此也就增加了分娩

    的难度。这一切都发生在人类学会用火之后。

    随着成功地适应了相互合作,人类开始将其应用在照顾后代方面。大部分哺乳类动物的幼崽在出生后很快就能站立和奔跑,但是人类新生儿甚至连翻身都不会。由于头骨融合的推迟,人出生两年以后头骨才能变得坚硬,因此,在这两年里,需要有人照顾和保护头骨还比较柔软的婴儿。在刚出生的几年里,人类大脑

    的发育比黑猩猩快得多。这主要是因为脑细胞之间的联系在这一

    时期迅速增强,即脑白质发育迅速。虽然大脑的绝对大小和智力

    水平密切相关,但是我们文化学习中的很多部分都是通过建立脑

    细胞之间的联系实现的,而不是产生新的脑细胞。人类大脑的生

    长和发育至少会持续到 30 岁(这成就了人类非凡的神经可塑性,

    扩展了人类的学习能力。神经可塑性是指大脑会终生重组并生长

    出新的神经连接来处理新信息、适应环境或是应对损伤),所以

    即使在孩子断奶和学会走路之后,父母和部落仍然要在孩子们身

    上投入时间,提供各类资源,让他们成为有社交能力的成年人,

    在部落中找到自己的位置。

    同猿类相比,人类的孕期更长;孩子出生后,人类要花更多

    时间和精力关心、照顾孩子。不过,人类兄弟姐妹之间的年龄差

    距比猿小。人类母亲可以每隔一年生育一次,但更常见的情况是

    每隔 2—4 年生育一次。相较之下,黑猩猩每 5 年生育一次。光

    是这种差异就说明人类可以繁衍得更快,社会群体扩张得更快、

    更复杂,文化也因此更进步。

    得益于食物分享以及其他社会支持,人类母亲才能同时照顾多个孩子。食物分享依旧普遍存在于狩猎采集社会中。在这样的社会里,一位母亲可以在照顾新生儿的时候依靠族人分享的食物存活,也可以在外出采集食物的时候,让别人帮忙照顾孩子。而母猿很少会放下自己的孩子,它们需要一直自己照顾幼崽。在非洲中部一个名叫埃菲的游牧部落中,平均每个新生儿有14个人照顾,我们称之为“替代母亲”。“替代母亲”一般是家庭的直系亲属,比如父亲、姐姐和兄长、姑妈和姨妈、祖父母,还有其他姻亲。能够辨别自己和父系家庭的关系是人类独有的特征。这一重要行为拓展了我们的社会网络,有利于儿童的抚育,增加了文化学习的机会,使知识和技能在社会中自由传播,同时也丰富了性伴侣的基因库。这样可以减少近亲繁殖,同时也可以为孩子提供更多的支持和资源,比如在十几岁时去做学徒。这对姻亲们也有利,尽管他们可能和孩子没有血缘关系,但他们也可以共享下一代生存发展带来的好处。

    合作对于人类生存至关重要。实验研究显示,早在孩子 3 个月大的时候,他们就会在众多玩偶中挑选出有用的玩偶,放弃无用的。几个月之后,他们还会“惩罚”无用的玩偶。对人类幼儿这种分辨物体的早期能力的解释之一就是,人类是唯一一种由不同人来照顾孩子的灵长类动物,因此孩子需要在小时候就能分辨出谁可以信任、从谁那里可以学到东西。

    在大多数狩猎采集社会和畜牧社会中,因为母亲不是只负责照料孩子,所以孩子出生之后,她们很快会回到采集食物的岗位上。数据显示,通过采集植物及其根茎和猎杀小动物,女性能比男性带回更多热量。在许多狩猎采集部落中,比如菲律宾的阿格

    塔部落和澳大利亚西部的马尔杜原始部落,女性也是猎人。年纪

    大了之后,女性还会继续照顾他人。在哺乳类动物中,人类是除

    虎鲸和短肢领航鲸之外唯一会经历更年期的动物。其他物种的雌

    性很少能活过生育年龄。这种变化的出现是因为祖母效应。祖母

    效应是指在狩猎采集社会中,家族中年长女性的存在能增加其子

    孙的存活概率。比如在哈扎比族群中,年长的女性会比年轻的女

    性花费更多的时间和精力为家人收集食物。

    在工业社会中,父母也会依靠外界帮助来照顾孩子,比如把

    孩子送到学校这样的正式教育机构;可以到医院生孩子,那里有

    经过专业训练的医生。人们寻求外界帮助的方式正在经历大变革,

    尤其是在我们大部分人生活的城市。社交平台上有本地父母交流

    群,群里会收集各位家长的帖子,为需要的人们提供分娩中的注

    意事项以及产后恢复的建议。向陌生人求助是最近才出现的现象。

    在整个人类历史中,怀孕的女性通常都是向家庭成员和朋友寻求

    帮助。

    社会联系在直接的母子和伴侣关系的基础上不断拓展和加强,成为更加广泛的亲属和社区关系,这对人类文化的发展来说是很重要的一步。这种社会联系的发展可能来源于母亲的社会依赖性、照看孩子的集中性,以及母系成员对合作网络的追求和维持。同时,这也是人类大脑体积增加带来的直接结果。合作能力的增强有助于提高群体在干旱等困难时期的适应力,从而让我们的祖先更容易生存下来。经历几百万年后,人类祖先已经变得十分聪明,具有极强的社会性,大脑也更加发达,能够结成强大的互助联盟。

    在聪明且具有社会性的动物中,人类祖先并不是唯一一个拥

    有文化技能和文化行为的动物。随着人类文化的发展,我们周围

    的环境和身体结构发生了改变,大脑也在不断发育,但是其他动

    物没有做到这一步。它们的大脑和文化几百万年如一日。为什么

    其他猿没有进化出更大的大脑呢?

    我个人认为,最有说服力的原因是它们没有足够的能量支持

    大脑的发展。大脑会消耗大量能量。神经元需要时刻保持敏捷的

    状态,为了保持这种状态就需要维持细胞膜上的电荷,清除脑中

    的神经碎片,并产生新的神经递质。从这个角度来说,脑细胞比

    身体其他部位的细胞需要消耗更多的能量,大脑越大,需要的能

    量就越多。人类大脑只占身体重量的 2%,却消耗了超过 20%的能

    量。猿无法给更多的神经元提供能量。因为如果有更多的神经元,

    它们就需要花费长得超乎想象的时间来觅食和进食。一项研究观

    察了 17 种灵长类动物的体重、饮食和觅食习惯,并且计算出了

    它们的神经元数量。研究结果显示,如果一只黑猩猩要有和人类

    一样的大脑,那它每天就要花 7 个小时来吃东西,还要把体重控制在 26 千克左右。根据黑猩猩的实际体重,再加上每天 7 小时的进食时间,一只黑猩猩最多可以支持 320 亿个神经元(而人类有 1,000 亿个神经元)。

    随着人类文化的发展,人类的认知需求也在不断增强,这带

    来了一系列的适应性进化,从而提高了身体的能量使用效率,保

    证关键神经元能够获得足够的能量。这其中就包括大脑中出现的

    新基因,它们能够调节葡萄糖和肌酸转运蛋白(肌酸是葡萄糖过

    低时的备用能量),而我们肌肉中的基因还和灵长类动物的一样,

    这说明进化优化的是大脑而非肌肉。

    尽管这些进化促进了人类大脑性能的提升,但是大脑还是因

    能量不足而受限。生活在冰川时代的人类祖先仅维持体温,每天

    就需要至少 3 500 千卡的热量。据估计,尼安德特人(体型略大)

    每天需要 3 360—4 480 千卡的热量来维持体温,以保证冬天能

    够出去觅食。古生物学家认为,尼安德特人标志性的宽鼻脸型是

    为了实现“涡轮式呼吸”,这样可以增加呼吸量、提高呼吸效率。

    这样的进化说明,当时的生活方式需要消耗大量能量,所以就需

    要高热量的饮食。但是除去蜂蜜、水果和偶尔能吃到的肥肉,灵

    长类动物的日常饮食并不能算是高热量饮食。这就是灵长类动物

    要花大量时间进食,以及它们的大脑和文化没有进一步进化的原

    因。

    最早的原始人类,比如露西,大脑中至多有 400 亿个神经元。它们的饮食与猿相似,但是要每天进食 7 个小时来维持神经元的活动。直立人(620 亿个神经元)每天则需要 8 个小时以上的饮食摄入。在此之后的古人类,比如尼安德特人和我们,需要每天进食不少于 9 个小时,这样就会大大削减觅食、打猎、社交和其他所有文化活动的时间。事实是我们都没有时间找到足够吃 9 个小时的食物,更不要说还要花时间来吃完了,这完全是不可能的。

    是火的使用让人类存活了下来。

    我们其实可以把生命看成一个简单的化学系统,它从环境和

    能源中获取能量。所有生命,如同无生命的物质一样,都围绕这

    种关系运转。事实上,自然选择就像一股可以改善生命世界中能

    量流动的力量,就像水往低处流一样。决定动物(和植物)在自

    然界中角色不变的正是它们的能量消耗。一只猎豹时速最快能达

    到 120 千米(短途冲刺跑),但这就是极限了,因为它的速度受

    限于肌肉的能量消耗。与之相反,“阿波罗 10 号”载人飞船的

    飞行速度为每小时 4 万千米,是迄今人类最快时速(美国国家航

    空航天局的“朱诺号”木星探测器是目前速度最快的人造飞行

    器,最快时速约为 26.5 万千米)。黑猩猩没有人类聪明,就是因

    为人类大脑消耗的能量更多。我们将消耗成本转移出去,这样就

    提高了我们的脑力。

    下面让我们暂时回到宇宙大爆炸时期。大爆炸之后,万物都处于不断膨胀的过程中,整个宇宙处于无序状态。为了实现有序的状态,所有的生命都需要能量。太阳每天都会释放出巨大的能量,植物通过太阳获得能量。这种能量的密度比较低,但足够让植物通过光合作用打破空气中的强化学键,刚够产生数量较少的新植物组织,保证自己的生存、生长和繁衍。细胞数量较少的生物,能依靠光合作用生存,同时,自身蒸腾作用会带来气孔的微弱运动。食草动物通过吃植物,可以获得密度大一点的能量;食肉动物能通过吃其他动物获得密度更大的能量。

    从本质上来说,人类作为一个物种的成功,归因于我们能比

    其他物种更好地利用能量,并且能够将能量的消耗成本转移出去。

    我们没有依靠身体通过生化途径消化分解食物,而是利用我们的

    文化:我们通过物理方式加工食物或是通过发酵或腌渍的方式让

    食物更好消化。但是最重要的还是因为我们能生火做饭。

    生火需要一个初始的能量爆发——火花——来打破氧气和燃料中的强化学键,将分子重组,释放出能量。人类身体也有类似的情况。食物给予我们能量,但是需要消耗能量打破食物中的分子,形成新的化学键,提供我们需要的能量和身体组织。一般情况下,要想获得同样的营养和能量,吃植物要比吃肉类消耗更多能量。牛会花几小时来咀嚼反刍的食物,切断食物中的纤维链,然后食物才会进入它的 4 个胃进行消化分解,最后成为脂肪储存起来。我们的大脑需要高热量、高蛋白的食物,肉类和脂肪正好可以提供这些。获取它们(清洗或捕猎)、处理它们(使用工具、手和牙齿撕碎食物)和打破它们的分子结构(咀嚼、消化和代谢)都存在能量消耗,但是这些能量消耗远低于吃树叶所消耗的能量。

    烹饪过的食物更易于消化,因为火已经完成了胃的大部分消化工作。吃熟肉的效率比吃生肉的效率高了 10 倍左右,而且每千克熟食提供的热量也更多。这是因为人体能从熟食中吸收更多的能量——肉类中 40%以上的蛋白质,谷类和根茎类蔬菜中 50%以上的碳水化合物。烹饪也能让我们更好地从肉类中摄取其他营养成分,比如铁、锌和维生素 B12。这些成分都是建立和维持大脑复杂构造的必要元素。

    烹饪的出现也改变了人类的食物种类。其他大型动物很少吃难以消化的块茎或草叶,所以我们可以比较轻松地获取这些植物。我们将草籽碾碎、脱粒,获取其中可食用的蛋白质和谷物。我们把富含淀粉但硬邦邦的根茎类蔬菜煮熟,使其变成高热量且易于消化的食物。人类的消化有别于其他动物。比如狮子会将大块生肉放在胃里花几个小时去消化,而我们将火作为身体外部的胃,从而可以更快地消化食物。因为火帮助人类完成了许多消化工作,所以我们的胃就慢慢缩小了。现在的人类没法再消化太多其他灵长类动物吃的生树叶或水果。这是一场进化的博弈。因为这样一来,我们能吃的食物变少了,更容易遭遇饥荒,也无法像其他灵长类动物那样应对植物中的毒素。然而,结肠变小,能让我们将更多宝贵的能量输送给不断变大的大脑。

    如今的狩猎采集部落可以从动物制品中获得一半以上所需的能量,剩余的能量则来自采集的蔬菜。所以说烹饪能够大幅减少我们祖先花费在采集、准备和咀嚼食物上的时间。黑猩猩每天花5个小时左右咀嚼食物,而我们每天只花1个小时左右,这就让人类拥有了更多的时间。对于我们的下颌来说,无论是从物理、化学还是能量分解的角度看,烹饪过的食物吃起来都更加简单,而且我们不再需要通过撕咬来捕猎了。这就意味着人类不用保留食肉动物的下颌了,所以我们的嘴巴、嘴唇、牙齿和牙齿间隙都有适量的缩小,现在大概和松鼠猴的尺寸一样。由于我们对烹饪的文化适应,人类的下颌不像以前那么强壮,而且没有那么突出了。短肌肉只延伸到耳朵下面(其他灵长类动物的短肌肉能延伸到头顶),这让我们发声变得更简单。(最后这一点对社交很重要,虽然人类的咀嚼能力有所减弱,但是这种适应性改变却有可能在人类中得到更广泛的传播。)到了直立人的时代,我们的祖先就已经进化出了缩小的下颌、牙齿和嘴巴,这使得咀嚼生肉更加困难。直立人已经有了体积更大、对能量需求更多的大脑,需要高质量的熟食,同时他们也足够聪明,可以烹饪出熟食。

    所以,烹饪文化是驱动人类大脑生物进化的一个主要因素。熟食的能量密度更大,这让人类祖先大脑的增大超越了自然的界限,而肠道得以收缩。这种进化带来的变化会很迅速地表现出来,因为饮食的变化对人类生存有着至关重要的影响。最近一项关于达尔文雀族的研究发现,干旱过后,它们可食用的食物只有一些坚硬的种子。所以只有那些鸟喙比较坚硬的个体得以存活,它们的基因也得以延续。在下一代中,只有15%的鸟有正常的鸟喙。

    这种改变发生在1年之内,而它的影响却持续了15年。烹饪的出现不仅可以改变物种的生存方式,在人口数量极少的情况下,也可以让物种发生改变。这种现象被称为遗传漂变。在这种变化中,基因差异可能会产生非常巨大的影响,平均寿命变短,比如黑猩猩的平均寿命大概是 30 岁。在饥荒等困难时期,个体数量可能会骤降,威胁到整个种群的生存。在这种情况下,没有摄入足够热量的雌性会停经从而无法生育。它们的孩子可能胎死腹中,或因为没有母乳喂养而早夭。只有那些能在困难环境中获得营养的雌性,才能将自己的基因传递下去。烹饪使得食物更加柔软,更易消化;烹饪还能够分解食物中的毒素,杀死细菌和寄生虫。这样的食物对于断奶的幼儿和儿童来说更加安全,也更有营养。因此,烹饪能大幅提高一个孩子长大成人的概率。

    我们知道,大约 200 万—175 万年前,快速且极端的气候变化造成了巨大的环境压力。在这种环境下,微小的基因变化对生存的影响会被放大,使得某些基因特征更有可能保留下来。如果一个种群所剩生物个体较少,可能就会和其他种群结合,产生新的基因,并且有选择地传播,从而导致种群越来越多样化。换句话说,进化和新物种的形成会加速。事实上,这一现象在牛科动物等很多哺乳类动物身上都可以得到印证。人类祖先会用火,进而学会了烹饪,这对于他们来说已经是一种彻底的变革。通过烹饪,人类获得的能量翻倍,同时减少了能量流失(火减少了夜间的热量流失,还无形中保护我们免受食肉动物的攻击)。由此,我们不仅成为一种新的灵长类动物,而且还成为一个完全不同的物种。我们不再只是调整自己去适应环境,还会主动改变环境来适应自己的需求。

    随着低成本获取高热量葡萄糖方法的出现,人类大脑的体积不再受到猿饮食的限制,开始快速发展。到了 20 万年前,我们的大脑发展到了我们骨盆所允许的最大体积,但是我们大脑内的神经连接仍然在不断进化。然而,近几十年来,安全剖宫产手术的出现又带来了新的进化。以前,有些女性因产道太窄无法自然分娩,母亲和孩子都有生命危险。但是现在这类母亲也可以诞下婴儿,从而让自己的基因传递下去。这样一来,窄产道的女性越来越普遍:因产道太窄而选择剖宫产的女性数量在过去的 60 年里从 3%增至 3.6%,增长率达到 20%。未来,我们可能会像依赖他人的帮助一样依赖剖宫产手术。另一方面,在过去的 1 万年中,我们大脑的体积缩减了 10%左右,相对于我们的身体体积来说缩小了 3%—4%。有一种理论认为,现在的人类社会太过复杂,导致智商不够高的个体也能生存下来,这些人在小型部落中就无法生存。然而,大脑体积缩小在驯养动物中非常常见,所以这可能是使人类拥有超强社交能力和合作能力的一系列基因变化的一部分。值得注意的是,越来越多的高智商人士倾向于少生孩子,这也许是因为智力因素在基因库中的作用有所下降。随着我们将积累的知识储存到文献或电子设备中而非大脑中,我们也许不再需要那么聪明的大脑帮助我们生存了。

    最近流行的生食饮食最能说明人体对烹饪的依赖程度。支持者认为生食更健康,因为人类(遥远的)祖先就这么吃。但是研究人员发现,每个吃生食的人都会迅速消瘦,然后很快就重新开始吃熟食,虽然现在的加工食品所含热量比几百年前的要高很多。生食的风靡并不新奇。古罗马人就曾经喜欢一种俄罗斯套娃式的生肉宴席。他们把老鼠放进鸡里面,再把鸡放进孔雀里,然后把孔雀放进野猪里……用餐者会用热水沐浴,这是为了用体外的蒸汽把体内的东西弄熟。不出所料,这种时尚引发了严重的疾病,甚至还有死亡事件。从尤维纳利斯到老普林尼等一众公共知识分子都对这一行为嗤之以鼻。

    事实上,我们对于在身体外部处理食物这件事非常熟练。我们甚至可以不吃动物食品,而是将需要的所有能量和营养浓缩出来。然而,虽然我们能轻易地放弃肉类,但是如果要让75亿人口中的每个人都以个人的形式获得所需食物以及烹饪所需的燃料,我们的生存将会变得非常困难。其他动物一生中大部分清醒的时间都在吃东西,而火将我们从这种禁锢中解放出来,给予我们时间去发展文化。同时,火也让我们在共同的社会文化群体中更紧密地联系在一起。

    这可能和我们的生理习性背道而驰。最新的证据显示,烹饪文化的进化在生理层面上改变了整个人类。20世纪60年代,冷冻快餐和其他创新饮食的出现帮助人们将每天准备食物和做相关家务的时间从平均 4 小时减至 45 分钟。食品工业化彻底改变了我们和食物的关系、食物的来源和口味。我们不再处理生的原材料,而是直接用微波炉加热方便食品。此类方便食品中充满了廉价的鲜味剂,比如糖、盐和脂肪。长期食用这些食品会对我们的健康造成灾难性的损害。事实上,现在很难找到低糖低盐的食物,所以自童年起,我们的味觉就适应了寻找没有添加鲜味剂的食物。人类祖先很少能吃到甜食,比如蜂蜜和枣,而生理反应也显示,对人类来说,更大的威胁是饥饿,而不是肥胖。

    给自己提供食物对于人类来说是事关生存的活动,而它和分娩一样需要依靠他人的帮助,因为烹饪是一种需要学习的文化技能。然而,它对我们是有用的。烹饪文化历经了几万年的进化,如今,人类享受着迄今为止最丰富的食物种类,人类的基因也已经适应了这种变化。农耕种群的后代和以非谷物为食的狩猎采集者的后代有着不同的唾液酶和肠道菌群,前者的身体更适合消化淀粉;后者的肠道精准地适应生存环境,他们体内的微生物组每年都会根据环境发生变化。同理,喝牛奶和饮酒的种群个体体内也就有能帮助他们更好地消化这些饮品的基因。

    第五章 文化杠杆:构建一个聪明的集体大脑

    1860 年,原陆军军官、警察督察罗伯特·伯克和测量员威廉·约翰·威尔斯率领一支由 19 个人、26 头骆驼、23 匹马和 6辆马车组成的探险队从澳大利亚南海岸的墨尔本出发,从南向北,穿越整个澳大利亚,前往其北端的卡奔塔利亚湾,全程 3 250 千米。此行的目的是探索出一条贯穿整个澳大利亚的最佳电报线路。

    探险队声势浩大地从皇家公园出发,引来 15,000 人驻足围观。

    其实,早就有迹象表明这次探险只不过是道旁之筑。探险队的 6 辆马车上装了够吃两年的食物、各式各样的家具,让人匪夷所思的是竟然还有一面重达 20 吨的中国铜锣。更让人想不到的是,有一辆马车还没离开皇家公园就坏了。探险队花了 3 天时间才到达市郊,此时又有两辆马车坏了。到达库珀溪时,探险队已经卸下了大部分装备,其中包括约 230 升朗姆酒,据说这些酒是为了防止骆驼患上坏血病而准备的。库珀溪是当时欧洲人探索澳大利亚到达的最远的地方,在这里,探险队分为两组,其中伯克、威尔斯、水手查尔斯·格雷和士兵约翰·金 4 个人,带着 3 个月的食物,冒着酷暑,向北部海岸继续进发。

    他们在路上遇到了原住民。伯克相当警惕,坚决不吃他们给

    的鱼,甚至朝原住民的头顶上开枪,还命令其他人把原住民赶走。

    就这样,行走了 59 天后,他们已是步履维艰。由于缺吃少喝,

    加上沼泽地挡住了去路,他们决定返回。没过多久,他们只能靠

    吃骆驼肉续命。格雷染上了痢疾,很快就去世了。不过值得庆幸

    的是,剩下的 3 个人最终回到了库珀溪。漂泊了这么久,他们只

    希望能和其他队员重聚,却发现营地在几小时前已经被遗弃,探

    险队的其他人早已不知所踪。

    灾难继续降临在这 3 个人身上,还好他们遇到了当地的延德

    鲁万达原住民部落,原住民把自己的鱼和豆子拿了出来,还给他

    们吃一种叫恩加度的种子做的面包。然而,伯克仍然觉得延德鲁

    万达人不怀好意,开枪打伤了一名原住民,最后把所有原住民都

    赶走了。这些倒霉的探险者继续上路。他们从一种半水生蕨类植

    物中找到了更多的恩加度。起初,这 3 个人试图煮这些种子,后

    来他们看见一些原住民能用石臼把种子磨成面粉,3 个人欣喜若

    狂,也学着做。他们一连吃了一个月的恩加度面包,每天能吃两

    三千克。但奇怪的是,吃得多反而让他们越来越虚弱,还要忍受

    着排便困难的痛苦。他们在日记本里写道:“正常来说,吃的那

    些面包也不至于拉出这么多,而且好像根本没有消化,吃进去时

    什么样拉出来时基本还是那个样子。”写完这篇日记后不到一周,

    威尔斯和伯克就相继去世。剩下的约翰·金走投无路,只能向延

    德鲁万达人求助,请求他们收留自己,这才活了下来。3 个月后,一支来自墨尔本的搜救队找到了金,把他带了回去。这 3 个月的时间里,金还让一名延德鲁万达女子怀了孕。

    和许多欧洲探险家一样,伯克和威尔斯也落入了文化知识陷

    阱中。如果他们能利用原住民积累的智慧,就能学会如何用恩加

    度为身体提供营养,而不是被恩加度取了性命。恩加度不能在新

    鲜发绿的时候采集,必须要等它成熟后采集。之后还必须把它磨

    碎,这样人体才能消化。磨碎之后还要用水彻底冲洗干净,过滤

    掉维生素 B1 分解酶——这种酶会破坏人体内的维生素 B1。这 3

    个人要是肯向原住民学习,他们还会知道要把恩加度面直接放在

    灰里烤,这样可以进一步分解酶。可是,这 3 个人根本没有这些

    知识,于是便在不知不觉中毒害了自己。

    人们往往会相信在紧要关头时我们完全有能力自己生产生活必需品,比如食物、衣服和工具。毕竟,我们是地球上最聪明的动物。然而,人类之所以能走到今天,并不是因为个人的聪明才智。

    我们利用其他形式的能量,比如火,降低自身能量消耗。这样的做法使环境改变,人类身体不断进化,大脑逐渐发达。现在,我们来看看文化杠杆是如何让我们借助外部力量开展日常活动的。我们利用工具提高了身体机能,同时,利用“三个臭皮匠,顶个诸葛亮”的集体智慧,一起解决生活中的问题。通过累积性文化进化,人类用最有效的方式实现了人口数量的不断增加和对环境的利用,这一切都得益于文化杠杆。

    技术提高了人类开发地球的效率。我们的手指轻轻一点就可

    以调配大量能源。我们靠的是什么?是我们的思想吗?是,也不

    是。弱小的灵长类动物只靠体力就能夷平山顶。但是,从生火到

    做饭,人类掌握的工具和技能,以及做出的行为,光靠体力是不

    够的,还需要认知能力。只有集体智慧才能让体力与认知结合。

    毕竟,人类依靠体力就能生存下来,但要想进一步发展,就必须

    依靠集体智慧。

    为了不断地探索各种各样的文化,适应各类环境,人类没有

    选择仅仅在祖先的栖息地上生活,而是选择走出去,所以掌握所

    到之处的风土人情对人类的进化来说不可或缺。从生态位中解放

    出来也意味着我们不再能够完全自力更生:从生物学角度来讲,

    我们无法适应每一种环境,所以,我们必须依靠他人,从而获得

    生存知识。

    一个群体几代人积累下来的文化知识能够让这个群体收集信息、辨认环境、轻而易举地找到食物和住所。延德鲁万达人有能力发现身边的食物,而欧洲人却发现不了,这就好像一个欧洲人在城市里很容易就能找到咖啡馆一样。我们从婴儿时期就开始学习如何适应自己周围的环境,在这方面可谓驾轻就熟。正如相片显影液能生成独特的图像,我们的文化显影液是整个社会的行为、技术和其他文化实践,它塑造着我们个人的行为、认知、感知、个性、智力、体能等方面。

    我们的大脑确实是由文化塑造的,神经学能很好地解释这一点。最近一项研究观测了数百名人类和数百只黑猩猩大脑皮层中控制智力的褶皱。这些褶皱被称为脑沟,在个体出生后继续生长和变化,但人类和黑猩猩的脑沟有所不同。研究人员发现,黑猩猩大脑褶皱的形状和位置很大程度上由基因决定(兄弟姐妹的褶皱几乎相同),而对于人类的大脑来说,基因的作用则要小得多,环境和社会因素也发挥着重要作用。与人类相比,黑猩猩的基因很大程度上决定了它们的认知能力,所以它们的大脑发育以及学习新行为或技能的能力受到了限制。人类新生儿的大脑并没有黑猩猩的大脑发达,但人类大脑会继续发育,这样一来,外部世界的影响就更为重要。

    人类大脑非凡的可塑性推动了人类祖先智力和文化的发展,然而,这意味着如果人类要生存下去,几乎所有的东西都需要向他人学习。进行文化学习的条件有很多,首先要有一个特别大的大脑,其次要经历漫长的童年期和青春期,并在这期间认真学习,同时还要有一个强大的社会群体的支持。这些因素共同作用,最终才能成功完成文化学习。母亲是我们人生的第一位老师。我们天生就依恋母亲,从出生起就会不自觉地辨认和寻找她的声音、面孔,追随她的目光。随着我们不断长大,其他家庭成员、同龄人、长辈和值得信赖的人也会成为我们的老师。

    现在,我们习惯利用社会资源来解决生活中的问题。遇到问

    题时,我们很少尝试自己解决,而是迅速向他人寻求帮助,但黑

    猩猩却不会这样做。直接拿别人的方案来解决问题所消耗的体力

    和脑力通常比自己摸索着解决问题所消耗的要少得多。黑猩猩必

    须自己解决所有问题,也就是说,每次它们都要从零开始。而文

    化进化可以让人类做起事来不仅能采用最合适的方法,而且效率

    还更高。黑猩猩的大脑不仅小,而且不够聪明,要花费更多的精

    力解决同样的问题,这就造成了它们的认知能力很弱,无法将技

    能结合起来产生复杂的文化。

    当然,因为文化进化本身依赖有效的模仿机制,所以我们只

    能依靠集体的知识来解决我们的问题。就像基因序列的复制是生

    物进化的基础一样,模仿是文化进化的基础。如果我们模仿得不

    够精准、不够逼真,那么不同的文化实践在一个群体中留存的时

    间就不够长。无法供人模仿,也就不会有文化的积累。精准度高

    的文化传播大大延长了一个群体中不同文化变体的留存时间,这

    能让一个群体拥有更加丰富多样的文化。这是因为模仿的东西越

    精准,群体中实践的版本就越多,因而对实践进行微小修改和完

    善的机会就越多。这些变化会推动人类进化。

    通过模仿,我们创造了世界。令人难以置信的是,我们的文化解决方案、实践和我们使用的技术都不是特意设计的。我们习惯将发明与发明家联系在一起,例如闻名世界的爱迪生发明了灯泡,谷登堡发明了印刷机。但在现实中,没有任何东西是单独由一个天才发明出来的。创新和发明通常是出于偶然或是对现有技术反复改进和组合的结果,这就是达尔文提出的盲目变异和选择性保留。事实上,在累积性文化构建其复杂性的模型过程中,一个发明有多少新特性对创新的影响最小,影响最大的是能将多少现有特性组合在一起。精准的模仿确保一种实践有足够的时间在人群中传播,并和其他实践相融合,从而让文化在自然选择的过程中变得越来越复杂多样。

    然而,我们进化出这么大的大脑,主要只是为了互相模仿,这似乎有违常理。对许多专家来说,有一个一直困扰他们的问题,那就是解决问题的最佳方式到底是发明还是模仿。毕竟,如果像灵长类动物一样,直接在不断变化的环境中摸索解决问题的方法,能让我们获得第一手且最新的相关知识。

    2010 年,进化生物学家凯文·拉兰德开始通过实验来回答这个问题。他的团队设计了一场电脑竞赛。参赛者打造自己的虚拟人物,将他们放置在一个陌生的世界中,类似《虚拟人生》和《幸存者》等游戏中的世界。虚拟人物在这个世界里探索,寻求生机,胜者可以赢得 1 万英镑的奖金。100 多个团队参加了此次比赛,参赛人员包括神经科学家、计算生物学家和进化心理学家。他们为自己的虚拟人物编写了程序,使其能够在陌生的、不断变化的环境中生存。和大多数进化生物学家一样,拉兰德认为最好的生存策略是将创新和模仿相结合。

    不过,比赛的结果却让他们感到惊奇:在模拟出来的所有情形下,模仿轻而易举地打败了创新。拉兰德说:“这次竞赛的参赛者有的采用模仿的方法,有的采用创新的方法,却没有人把创新和模仿相结合。”赢得比赛的是由 2 名研究生、1 名数学家和1 名神经科学家组成的小队。他们设计的程序采用了一种模仿策略:当环境快速变化时,虚拟人物会优先模仿发生时间较近的行为,而不会模仿已经过时的行为。人类也是如此,会战略性地选择模仿他人。不同情况下,我们选择学习的对象也不同,这样我们可以一直获得最新的可靠消息。

    没有一个人能凭借个人的智慧设计出恩加度的七步处理方

    法。它需要几代人不断完善才能形成,每一次完善都被其他人频

    繁模仿传播,久而久之人们就摸索出了制作面包最好的方法,这

    种文化实践可以直接用于学习模仿。然而,即使一种文化实践经

    受住了考验,十分成功,能够代代相传,但它能在文化发展环境

    中传递给其他人,可能并不是因为这种文化实践能给人们带来一

    些实际好处,而是因为传统风俗。延德鲁万达人研磨和冲洗恩加

    度不是为了免于中毒,只是因为要遵循他们的传统。他们处理恩

    加度的时候必须使劲砸很长时间,这样的准备过程十分耗时费力,通常由勤劳的女性来完成。科学家们最近发现,文化进化产生的恩加度七步处理法大大降低了硫胺素酶引起中毒的风险。

    我们不需要理解为什么每一步实践都很重要,我们只需要学习这些步骤,这是区别人类和其他聪慧动物的关键。德国马克斯·普朗克研究所的进化心理学家迈克·托马塞洛做了一个很有说服力的实验。在这个实验中,迈克分别给一个人类幼儿和一只黑猩猩一个装有糖果的盒子,但两个实验对象都没能把糖果从盒子里拿出来。然后,他给实验对象演示了拿出糖果的步骤——一步步地推拉盒子的关卡,最后拿到糖果。在这些步骤中,他还做了一个看起来很荒谬的动作:在做最后一步之前拍了 3 次头。幼儿和黑猩猩都能模仿他的动作,最终拿到奖赏,但只有幼儿做了拍头的动作,而黑猩猩却忽略了这个动作,可能是因为它觉得这个动作和得到食物没有关系。蹒跚学步的孩子相信教她取糖果的那个人教她的每一步都有理由,所以她会全部模仿。事实上,目标越不明确,人类幼儿就越会仔细和精准地模仿,即使模仿的步骤与最终的结果毫不相关。

    模仿对人类来说意义重大。为了更好地完成模仿,我们的文化和生物机制不断进化,比如说更长的童年期、更广泛的社会群体和更好的记忆力。除了模仿,我们也会教导别人。人类母亲会教她刚出生的孩子如何做一件事。孩子模仿母亲时,母亲会在旁边悉心教导。每进行一步,她都会一遍遍示范,根据孩子的做法,再来调整自己的教法,直到孩子学会才会继续教授下一步。而其他动物不会主动教导幼崽。

    通过教学,知识能很准确地得以传播,学生学习的效率远远高于单纯模仿的效率,对于复杂的技能或有精细步骤的操作更是如此。在一项研究中,被试用不同的学习方法学习打磨石器的技术。通过比较,研究人员发现通过教学学习的效果是通过其他文

    化传播方法的效果的两倍。也许正是教学赋予了人类将知识精准

    传递下去的方法,才让累积性文化成为可能。这项打磨石器的研

    究可以解释早期的原始人类陷入 70 多万年的技术停滞,只能制

    造原始的奥杜威石器工具的原因。这是因为和奥杜威石器工具相

    比,阿舍利石器工具更为复杂,制作起来需要更多的步骤,单凭

    模仿无法进行,必须有人来教授制作的方法和步骤。所以直到大

    约 180 万年前,在直立人的大脑进化到可以通过学习制造工具时,

    阿舍利工具才出现。

    但是教学对老师来说代价很高,因此只有当学生学习宝贵知识的好处超过老师所消耗的能量时,教学才能逐渐发展。对于像黑猩猩这样聪明的动物来说,成年猩猩不值得在教学上投入,因为年轻猩猩很聪明,自己就能够学会一些生活所需的简单技能。教学是一种利他行为,蚂蚁和猫鼬等物种会放弃自己的繁殖机会,帮助其他个体繁殖,又称合作繁殖。复杂的文化内容依靠教学实现知识的准确传播,这也让教学成为一种更有效的文化传播方式。这是因为随着文化实践变得越来越复杂,知识也越来越有价值,仅仅依靠模仿来学习,不仅低效而且也不可靠。此外,在知识的复杂程度增加的同时,人们拥有的文化知识不断增多,教师的数量就慢慢增加了,所以更多的人拥有足够的知识来传授学生。在人类另一个进化反馈机制中,教学解释了文化复杂的原因,但教学同时又是复杂文化的产物。

    在我们的文化工具箱中积累起来的实践和技术,是几代人通

    过无数次模仿得来的结果。环境变化能促进生物进化,同样也会

    带来文化变异。例如,研究人员发现,在东非出现的一些复杂的

    文化特性,比如人们大规模生产锋利的黑曜石刀片,进行频繁的

    贸易往来,与大约 32 万年前发生的一系列大规模气候和环境变

    化有关。发明一个东西并不一定是因为需要,它能说明有新的选

    择压力作用于现有的技术和行为,这种新的选择压力能够改变技

    术和行为的传播速度。如果陆地上的猎物变得稀少,人们可能会

    广泛学习一种以前罕见的鱼钩制作技能,就像澳大利亚 6.5 万年

    前草原面积扩大时,磨种子的技能也随之传播开来。与其说进化

    是适者生存的结果,还不如说是淘汰劣者的过程。加工程序和操

    作技术纷繁复杂,经过几代人的实践,有些程序和技术会被渐渐

    遗忘或淘汰。剩下的那些会在社会群体中不断被模仿和使用,人

    们会慢慢熟悉和适应这些程序和技术。

    环境变化会影响人口规模,而人口规模对文化也有重要影响,因为它会改变集体智慧的发展程度。集体智慧就像一根杠杆,让个人学习变得不那么费力。所以文化杠杆越长,即包含的文化实践越多,集体的能量就能得到更高效地利用,并且加速文化进化。

    创新常常来自现有想法的结合,所以在集体智慧的基础上,再有

    几种新的想法,就可以结合产生更多的想法,从而产生巨大的影

    响。试想,3 个条目可以有 6 种不同的组合方式(如果每个条目

    只使用一次),4 个条目可以有 24 种不同的组合方式,而 10 个

    条目就有 350 多万个组合方式。大型群体拥有更高的集体智慧,

    同样,只有大型群体才拥有所需的物理能量并从中获益。因此,

    随着人口的增长,文化的多样性也会不断增加。增加到临界点时,

    文化多样性会全面爆发,形成文化大爆炸。

    最近的考古发现表明,这种爆发似乎发生在大约 4 万年前的欧洲。一些专家据此认为,现代人类文化,包括人类复杂的语言和工具都出现在那时。他们认为,大约在这个时期,人类远古祖先可能与尼安德特人交配,从而改变了基因,这迅速提高了人类祖先的认知能力,行为上的现代人由此出现。但至今也没有可以支持这种观点的有力证据。我们现在之所以能在欧洲看到大量当时的手工制品,并不是因为人类祖先与众不同。一部分原因是在过去的几个世纪中,人们对这些出土手工制品的遗址的研究要比其他地方更多,而且这些地方通常是凉爽干燥、隐蔽性强的洞穴,所以与热带地区相比,这里能更好地保存古代的物品。

    另一个原因是,4 万年前欧洲的人口、社会、环境和文化都

    发生了变革,这些变革带动了文化多样性的发展。最近,遗传学

    家发现,史前时期最大规模的人口激增发生在 4 万—5 万年前。

    与此同时,另一组遗传学家比较了 4.5 万年前欧洲和 9 万年前撒

    哈拉以南非洲的文化爆炸现象,发现这两个地区的人口密度十分

    相似。随着自然或社会环境的变化,人口数量越多、文化多样性

    越强的群体解决问题的方法就越多。这样他们适应文化实践的机

    会就越多,社会因此也会变得充满活力,他们的工具和手工制品

    及其制作方法才得以保存下来,种类也多种多样。人口越多,文

    化杠杆就越长。同理,一个群体与其他群体的联系越紧密,群体

    内部关系越和谐,群体中个体获得新的文化实践和技术的机会就

    越多。反之,小而孤立的群体也可以经历文化进化,只不过技术

    会变得更简单,种类会更少,最终他们的文化也就销声匿迹了。

    有时甚至基本的技术也会慢慢消失。由此可见,任何可以增加社

    会人口的文化实践——改善营养条件、提高生育率或降低婴儿死

    亡率,都有利于实践本身的发展。因此这些文化实践就会传播得

    更快、范围更广。这样一来,像生火这样的技术就会迅速普及。

    不论是文化技术的发展还是消失,整个社会都在传播一种思

    想,那就是群体之间的联系让技术成为可能。我现在正在电脑上

    打字,我不需要知道每一个按键是怎样用塑料制成、印上字母、

    最后装进键盘的,我也不需要知道字母是如何出现在屏幕上的。

    我只需要知道,只要我轻敲键盘,字母就会出现。但在这背后是由成千上万人组成的复杂网络,其中包括工程师、工匠、工厂工人、矿工等,没有他们,这一切都不可能实现。这就是生活在物质生活和文化生活丰富多彩的全球化社会中的意义,我不可能知道做每一件事的所有步骤,更不用说在日常生活中亲自动手了。不仅是我,其他人也做不到。一名矿工知道从什么角度击打凿子,也知道应该用凿子敲打什么样的岩石,但是他不知道他取出的石块会被加工成船体还是电子元件。正如我们从生物进化中看到如此多的生态多样性和生命复杂性一样,文化进化也建立了自己完整的系统,人类的日常实践一直在其中发挥作用。

    我把一块打火石放在手里,很难想象这块小小的石头经历了

    怎样的生命历程。事实上它是由微小海洋生物演变而来的。微小

    海洋生物把食物的能量转变成自己的骨骼,它们死去之后,骨骼

    变成了石英。数百万年后,板块运动产生了巨大的能量,把石英

    卷到悬崖之上,形成了火石。这块泪滴状的火石又经过人手的改

    造,变成了这把 4 万多年前制造出的斧头。在人类生存的自然环

    境中,人类靠自己的双手创造的东西虽原始粗劣,却能够用来工

    作。我的手和这把斧头的制造者的手差不多大小,所以我用起斧

    头很顺手。我感觉到它的重量和形状像是为人体量身打造一般,

    我自然而然地就把手指扣进凹槽里。如果有人教我如何使用斧头,

    我就能用它从刚宰杀的鹿身上挖肉,而这可能是它最后一项工作。

    手斧在当时就像现在的瑞士军刀一样,是一种必备的万能工

    具。斧头由石头打磨而成,用于砍伐、切片、钻孔、塑形、削片、

    雕刻木制工具,以及许多原本要花费更多时间的工作。换句话说,

    这是一种物质和文化的双杠杆。

    现今发现的手斧最早可以追溯到 150 多万年前。直到 20 世

    纪,狩猎采集部落中仍或多或少地用着斧头。从撒哈拉以南非洲

    到北极,斧头随处可见,要么在洞穴里,要么大量出现在悬崖下

    方工厂大小的生产基地里。人类想要生存,手斧必不可少。但是

    制作一把斧头的难度之大,有些出人意料。工匠们需要别人教他

    们怎样寻找石头,如何把石头敲下来,最后还要教他们怎样制作。

    别忘了,在这个时候,人类已普遍使用各种各样专门的石器、木

    制工具、绳子、带把手的材料、生火的火石和火绒,以及动物毛

    皮、内脏和其他动物制品了。“石器时代”这一术语通常指的是

    原始或落后的时代,但是在几十万年前,确切来说是人类出现之

    后,石器加工已经发展成为一项十分复杂的技术,需要掌握熟练

    的工艺,还要有地质学、断裂力学和岩石热性能等相关的知识。

    人类学家最近在南非发现了 50 万年前由海德堡人制造的精致的

    石矛尖。

    制作这样的组合工具需要熟悉不同的材料,而且包括木制的轴和用来固定石矛尖的绳子在内的材料还需要单独制作。如果想要固定得更加结实,还要把树脂胶(取自某些树皮)放在火中软化。制作组合工具需要很高的认知水平,其他动物很难达到这一水平,因为制作这样的工具需要调用大脑的“工作记忆”,同时回忆、处理和记忆好几部分信息。工作记忆用于处理多项任务和制定策略,早期的许多技术都需要这种脑力,例如设置捕捉动物的圈套和陷阱。设置陷阱十分消耗脑力,人们先是要想象如何才能捉到动物,然后按照想法创造出一种装置,过一会儿再来看一看有没有捉到,以此来检验这种方法是否可行。制作组合工具除了对认知能力有要求之外,还有生理上的要求。尽管人类已经学会如何制作工具并且有能力完成,但是长时间精神高度集中会让人十分劳累,搜集材料和制作工具也非常消耗体力。创新源于一次次的尝试和错误,耗费了数小时的精力之后,希望最终得到和预期一样的结果。包括人类在内的所有动物都是通过新陈代谢从食物中获得能量,所以要想得到更多的能量,就要吃更多的食物,然而寻找食物又要耗费时间和能量。但是人类一旦学会了一件事情,或者熟练掌握了一项技术,它就会成为我们的第二天性,这样人体所需的能量就会大大降低。

    制作工具时,精准的模仿能提高时间和能量使用效率。这样一来,很快就会出现各种各样复杂的技术,随即产生更多提高能量效率的装置和专业设备(如果你曾经用刀拧过螺丝,你就会知道选对工具能大幅提升工作效率)。要做到精准的模仿,不仅个人要消耗很多时间和能量,整个群体也一样。大规模群体能够抽出专门劳动力(物质杠杆),可以带来规模效益,这时消耗能量才有意义。实际上,在大规模群体中,只有拥有集体智慧(认知杠杆)的群体才有可能做到这一点。在群体规模扩大之前,通过与其他群体建立良好可靠的关系,也可以在一定程度上实现这种规模效应。通过这种方式,集体智慧汇集起来,资源和技能的交换可以降低每个群体的劳动力成本。这就是规模更大、联系更紧密的群体能发明出更先进的技术的原因所在。

    人类之所以能带来复杂技术的文化进化,是因为人类可以通

    过群体成员的认知处理能力、记忆力、知识储备和体力完成工作。

    文化进化带动的生产力远远超过人类本身能达到的。能量的使用

    效率是一种强大的选择压力,直接影响着文化进化和生物进化的

    进程。渐渐地,我们将个人的生理和生物能力与人类改造环境的

    能力分离开来。武器和食物处理工具的发明意味着我们可以抛弃

    食肉动物的大颚、牙齿和爪子,社交工具让我们可以做任何其他

    动物的生物能力无法企及的事情。从火到回形针,再到苹果手机,

    我们现在拥有的一切,都是人类能够日益熟练地高效处理能量的

    结果。

    随着科技的进步,我们的生理文化杠杆也在不断变化。人类每天摄入 2,000 千卡的食物,保证有足够的能量供身体进行 90瓦功率的活动(以人类的平均代谢率计算),然而我们所消耗的能量其实远远超过这个数字。说得更具体一些,我们每天从食物中获得的能量只能够点亮一盏 90 瓦的白炽灯。我现在正在写作,头顶有两盏这样的白炽灯,身后放着一盏台灯,前面是一台正在工作的电脑。除此之外,我的收音机开着,电暖气开着,洗衣机在洗衣服,我一天吃的大部分东西需要用烤箱烤。我的早餐粥提供的能量显然无法满足如此多的能量消耗需求。现在英国的人均家庭能量消耗是一个人代谢能力的 4 倍,美国则高达 12 倍。人类现在总共使用大约 17.5 太瓦功率的能量,这样来算的话,我们每个人都要承担 2 300 瓦的能量消耗,是我们“自然”能力的26 倍,靠我们自身的能力显然是达不到的。在做一些消耗体力还浪费时间的工作时,我们要利用其他形式的能量,从而减少自身的能量消耗。这样一来我们就会有剩余的能量、食物和时间,人

    口数量就会增多,由此产生的规模经济又会进一步提高能量和资

    源的利用效率。例如,劳动力分配可以让擅长不同领域的人发挥

    自己的价值,从而让每个人都有更多的时间和能量来加速文化实

    践的发展。我们的物质文化杠杆在效率和规模上不断进化,直到

    我们达到另一个临界点。这时,从食物采集到运输的劳动密集型

    工作,不但成本极低,还很容易完成,所以我们就能肆意地开发

    地球。人类现在使用着地球上 40%以上的原始产物,其中的能量

    都是由植物的光合作用提供的(因此也可供地球上其他生命使

    用)。

    促进能量产生或流动的新实践形式是驱动文化进化的主要动力之一。这种新形式会改善人类基因的存续情况。因为对所有动物来说,养育幼崽都需要耗费大量能量,而它们自身新陈代谢能够产生多少能量会决定它们生育能力的高低。然而最终,成功的文化进化将人类的文化存续和基因存续分离开来。有一个很有趣的现象是,一个工业化社会越富裕,人口出生率就越低。有的国家由于出生率太低,已经导致人口总数在不断下降,尽管这些国家可以提供最好的食品和医疗保障。通过文化进化,我们正在推翻生物进化的关键证据。

    我们可以利用能量改造环境、改变自身,也可以用能量将自然界的东西变成人类世界的物品。我们周围日常使用的所有东西几乎都是自己制造的,我们依靠人造的基础设施规划着社会生活中的能量流动和社交活动。我们之所以把一些东西称为人造的,是因为它们来自自然界,之后由人类二次加工,我们不也是自然界的一分子吗?人类的文化进化是生物特征的一部分,就像文化进化的产物是我们共同创造的新地球的一部分一样。

    鸟类筑巢,海狸筑坝,它们把自然界的东西重新组合,各得其所。但只有人类能利用世界的原始材料,生产出复杂多样的产品,引发物质的进化。技术通过组合而发展,社会和文化紧密相连,因此通过社交网络和技术保证,一种发现或做法可以广泛流传。人类依靠自己的智慧和灵活的头脑发现新事物,应用新事物。以泥土为例,用泥土可以做出几乎任何东西,这一点人类已经做到了。火让泥土变得持久耐用,让本身柔韧的分子层变成完全不同特性的立体物件,而且十分结实。烧制黏土不仅是人类文化的一场变革,也是材料行业的一大飞跃。

    陶器可以用来炖菜煮汤,能储存脂肪、海鲜和美酒,还能让人随身携带液体。在陶器出现之前,游牧民族只能用袋囊或皮囊来携带或储存水。所以能装血、牛奶、水、油和动物内脏的坚硬容器带来的改变是革命性的。陶器可以用来煮汤。喝汤能帮助婴儿断奶,而且汤羹营养丰富,易于消化,基本不含毒素。通过喝汤,婴儿逐渐接触到新的食品,也可能是有潜在危险的食品。比如,在锅里煮鱼汤可以防止鱼肉脂肪流失。鱼肉脂肪中含有有利于婴儿大脑发育和女性生育的 ω-3 脂肪酸。汤有利于儿童身体健康,有利于提高存活率,直接导致人口数量的增加。

    陶器的出现促进了农业发展。很难想象没有陶器的时候人们是如何储存、烹饪或发酵谷物的。有充分证据表明,世界各地陶器文化蓬勃发展的同时,农业水平也迅猛提高。储藏的食物可以被重新分配和拥有,这对奉行平等主义的狩猎采集社会的社会结构、领土和经济产生了持久的影响,为政治操纵创造了机会。

    陶器的诞生标志着人类第一次把自然材料转变成人造材料,揭示了社会和发明之间的反馈关系,因为每一种发明带来的变化都推动着社会进一步发展。在几千年的文化进化中,世界各地人民创造了纷繁复杂的陶器加工、烧制和装饰技艺,制作了各式各样的产品,包括牛奶罐、小雕像、砖块、瓦片、台灯、抽水马桶、陶瓷电子元件等。制作陶器最耗时耗力的环节是烧制,因为需要收集燃料,并让窑炉一直保持足够的温度,但好处是可以同时烧制多个罐子。这种大规模生产使其制作成本变低,所以制陶的技术很快取代了制作篮子或木箱这样的技术,因为后者很难做到大规模生产。

    随着人类群体能支配的能量越来越多,生产技术也随之发展,

    生产效率也在不断提高。随着制陶发展起来的窑炉技术,可以为

    上釉创造可控制的高温环境,冶金学很可能就是由此而来的。人

    们将岩石矿物碾碎后用于装饰,在这个过程中,可能会有小铜珠

    在火床上沉积,这些铜珠可以被打碎和熔化。发现可以从岩石中

    提炼出铜,这让人们兴奋不已。提炼的方法就是高温熔炼矿石,

    比如亮绿色的孔雀石、蓝铜矿石和硫化铜矿石。突然间,我们发

    现脚下土地里居然隐藏着新的物质,这些物质可以被制成任何东

    西,而这些被制成的东西还可以被制成其他东西,如此往复,实

    在是太不可思议了。

    为此,人们需要更多的能量:窑炉靠木炭燃烧供热、风箱供氧维持燃烧,以保证温度至少达到 1,000 摄氏度。人们制作出坚固的铜制刀片后,就可以切割骨头、木头甚至石头。伟大的埃及金字塔是奴隶们用铜凿一点点雕刻石块建成的。据估计,整个工程需要 30 万把凿子,为此开采了大约 1 万吨铜矿,在当时恶劣的条件下,矿工的寿命维持不到一年。

    公元前 3000 年,人们发现在铜中加入锡可以制成青铜,这

    是一种更坚硬的合金。青铜开辟了新的贸易路线,因为锡在地壳

    中比较稀有,所以需要从遥远的英国运输。这条贸易路线从锡的

    发源地英格兰西南端的康沃尔郡开始,沿着锡的开采路线一路到

    达阿富汗。这条路带来了商品,同时也传播了思想。这是第一个

    大规模的国际贸易网络,让新精英阶层变得非常富有。由于游牧

    民族的入侵,这条贸易路线在公元前 1200 年被迫中断,人们不

    得已开始寻找青铜的替代品。结果人们发现几乎到处都是——每

    一块岩石都含有铁,一种再普通不过的金属。从此人类进入了铁

    器时代,铁器自此再也没有离开过我们的生活。

    与冶炼铜相比,冶炼铁矿石需要的温度更高,消耗的能量更

    多。人们用古老的熔炉最多只能炼出一种多孔的海绵状物质,叫

    作熟铁,这种熟铁并不比铜强多少。熟铁经过反复捶打后可以提

    高强度,但仍然无法代替青铜。(尽管如此,到公元前 1500 年,

    铁在古埃及已经很常见了。)后来冶炼者发明了一种方法,突破

    了技术限制。他们通过在火中添加木炭来提高和控制热量,这样

    一来,一种铁和碳的合金就生成了,我们称之为钢,钢是当时最

    坚硬的金属。合金中碳的含量至关重要:1%的含碳量可以制成高

    强度的钢,4%的含碳量就会让钢变得脆弱易碎。遗憾的是,直到

    20 世纪,我们才明白这个道理,才知道为什么有些炼钢工艺行得

    通,有些却失败了。

    炼钢技术作为一种复杂而神秘的仪式代代相传下来。罗马人

    离开英国的时候,小心翼翼地把铁钉藏起来,也没有公开其他冶

    金技术,就是为了防止别人知道怎么制造不易折断的剑、渡槽和

    船只。后来,人们在苏格兰发现了一个深坑,里边埋藏着的铁钉

    和钢钉重达 7 吨,这是一个罗马军团撤退时埋下的。由于锻造钢

    铁关键技术失传,人们把钢铁神化为坚不可摧的武器,比如英国

    亚瑟王使用的神剑。

    高炉是一种冶炼设备,通过在冶炼矿石的过程中添加木炭,

    可以减少矿石中氧的含量,通过空气鼓风提供氧气支持燃烧,最

    终得到金属制品。世界各地发明的高炉多种多样,至今仍在广泛

    使用。正是因为加工出了铁这种特别又普通的金属,才让铁制工

    具创造了现代世界。铁犁耕种土地的效率更高,铁斧砍树比用石

    头更快,铁钉、铁质渡槽和桥梁让基础设施更加坚固。因为这些

    进步,城镇和城市人口的数量增加了。环境造就了人类,支撑着

    整个社会的运转。然而,为了控制更多的能量,我们改变了环境。

    冶金需要用到木炭,所以世界各地的森林被大规模砍伐,环境遭

    到破坏,给社会经济带来不良影响。

    一个人无论多么聪明,也不可能偶然间有这么一个重大发现或是自己发明出从岩石中变出钢铁的方法。每一种技术都包含诸多步骤,这些步骤是几代人学习和传承的结果。这种复杂的文化依赖一个重视教学和学习的社会,还要具有跨越地理区域的强大网络。这个社会规模要足够大,才能有劳动分工,才能有养活劳动者的食物和水源。今天的世界之所以存在,完全是因为经过了足够长的时间,让技术和社会得以进化得复杂多样,让人口和社会网络发展到足以支撑所有的能量消耗。

    生火和控制火种赋予了人类了不起的能力,可以将地球上的物质转化为人造世界的物质。掌控火种是人类历史的转折点,也是地球生命的转折点,因为它是让地球迈向新行星之路的第一步。我们永远地改变了生命体与环境之间的能量动态关系。我们之所以能做到这一点,几乎完全是因为我们有策略地互相模仿,从而共同构建了一个聪明的集体大脑。

    语言

    进化完全依赖于个体间的信息传播。这些信息被忠实地复制、储存和传播。在生物系统中,基因信息储存在 DNA 中。在人类文化进化中,必不可少的信息是文化知识,它储存在语言中。正如生物进化出了生存策略以改善其基因的繁殖过程一样,人类的文化也产生了适应性方法,帮助其传承发展。

    第六章 故事:存储累积的思想

    在海边的火光中,海浪轻轻拍打着海岸,有一个人在唱歌。

    他像是在为我歌唱,又好像不是。火光中,只看见那人来回走动

    着,时而蹲下,时而起身。他黝黑的皮肤已与黑夜融为一体,但

    是身上的油彩却熠熠生辉。当我看清跳舞之人的面貌时,不由得

    大吃一惊。他扮成神灵的样子,合着音乐的节奏,挥舞胳膊,跺

    着双脚。他眉目间神采飞扬,牙齿也闪闪发亮。他一边唱,一边

    敲击着彩绘的棍子。我们脚下的红土地,也随着他双脚的律动颤

    动了起来。另一位光彩夺目的年轻人用迪吉里杜管演奏着音乐。

    舞者的舞姿越发狂野,前后甩着头,手胡乱地抓着空气,却张弛

    有度。燃起的篝火还在噼啪作响。周围的人也都加入其中,敲打

    着木棍,手里摇晃着干豆荚。几个小时过去了,那位雍古族舞者

    还在跳着,唱着。他会一直唱下去,直到启明星在天边升起。

    歌中唱的是天地万物的故事。在梦幻时代,第一批人类遵循造物主的指引,翻山越岭,漂洋过海,来到澳大利亚。这个造物主就是我们熟知的维纳斯,也就是金星(又称启明星)。维纳斯在飞行时,唱了一首有关她一路见闻的歌曲,里边描述了她途经的地标和万物起源的创世故事。雍古族舞者的歌声余音绕梁,舞蹈活灵活现,配合着身上的彩绘,令人印象深刻。即便是闭上眼,我似乎也能看到舞者的身姿。舞者脚下律动不停,敲棍声和鼓声笃笃作响,迪吉里杜管乐声悠扬,沙滩之火闪烁不停,引人入胜的歌曲不绝于耳,给所有人都带来了难以忘怀又意义非凡的体验。事实上,这样的歌曲一直没有被人遗忘过。或许从 6 万年前人类到达澳大利亚开始,人们就开始学习、传唱这些歌曲,口口相传至今。它们就是歌径。

    歌径以口述故事的方式记载文化知识,利用共通的文化背景将人们联系在一起,以一种微妙的方式重新定义家庭或社会。澳大利亚每个原住民部落都有他们自己的歌径,包含各种各样的故事,详细记录了他们的法律条文、礼节仪式、权利义务、祖先神灵和山河风光。歌径也是澳大利亚的“活”地图,绘制了这里交错纵横的无形道路。原住民通过变化的旋律、艺术作品和舞蹈表演展现澳大利亚的地理标志、草木林海、高矮岩壑、天地生灵、气候类型和水源分布,而且这些对周遭世界的认知通常与天上的星座相关。因此,歌径可以跨越语言的障碍,在各个部落之间传唱。如果你了解歌径,就会发现,一曲终了,你可以轻易地转到下一曲上,因为歌径中的每一乐句都是歌径地图上的索引。此外,英国作家布鲁斯·查特文在他有关歌径的开创性研究中补充了另一个原因:“歌径中的乐句(还)是记忆库,指引我们找到自己与世界连接的道路。”

    这也解释了人类的故事为何如此重要,又为何能够广泛传播。因为这些口述的故事是人类集体的记忆库,它们以叙事的方式储存着人类世界的文化信息。它们还提供了一种可靠且节省力气的方法来广泛传播内容复杂、内涵丰富的文化信息。一则则故事帮助文化知识尽可能长时间地储存在人类集体记忆中,便于人类将其代代相传、不断更新。随着人类文化越来越复杂,讲故事已经不仅仅是一种重要的文化适应行为,我们的大脑在进化过程中还将其自发纳入认知环节。故事塑造了我们的思想、社会,甚至改变了我们和环境的互动。故事拯救了人类。

    6 万年前,一小队人来到了澳大利亚。他们颇具开创精神,在澳大利亚迅速繁衍生息,建立起欣欣向荣的部落,同时还学习如何与独特的自然环境相处,以便更好地生存。他们发展出烧荒农业,利用各类材料制造渔叉、猎矛等复杂的工具。旱季和雨季不断交替,各个部落为了获取水源和其他资源,迁徙十分频繁。而且每到一处,他们都详细绘制了当地的地图。故事帮助人们学习知识,回忆过去,并将自己的所学传授给他人。正如一位原住民长者解释的那样:“我们没有书本,我们的历史就刻在这片土地上。我们从祖辈身上学到了很多,他们带我们参观这些圣地,教授我们历史,通过歌曲和舞蹈给我们展示朱库尔帕信仰,也就是梦幻时代信仰。我们用舞蹈演绎故事,这些故事也融入了我们的记忆和身体中。我们也不断地丰富和发展朱库尔帕信仰。”通过歌径,朱库尔帕信仰在澳大利亚世代相传,人类在这里繁荣兴旺。

    从本质来说,讲故事更像是一种全社会参与的事业。它需要人们思想相通,愿意搁置现实,探索虚拟时空。虽然歌径让澳大利亚的原住民部落各有不同,但有一点很关键,那就是它们将这些部落连在了一起。这些关于故事、土地、人民和文化的口述地图之所以意义非凡,是因为它们不仅对保持原住民身份的独立性具有重要意义,而且还使原住民免于灭绝。

    约 2 万年前,来势凶猛的冰川时代摧毁了澳大利亚的自然环境。北半球的欧亚大陆冰盖绵延了 4 500 千米,海平面下降 20米。同时冰盖冻结了大量水分,导致全球各地雨水稀少。随着干旱越来越严重,对很多哺乳类动物来说,地球上的环境越来越不适合生存。以澳大利亚为例,在这个时期,大型有袋类动物全部灭绝,人口数量也骤降了 60%。那些设法坚持下来的原住民部落孤单地散落在广阔的澳大利亚大陆上。这种情况延续了上千年。人口数量少、种群孤立,再加上极端困苦的环境条件,使得人类基因库没有得到及时更新,甚至还有毁灭性的基因突变悄悄混入,导致人类身体素质下降。这些都给种群灭绝制造了充分的条件。

    某个种群与世界其他地区的种群隔绝了上万年,并且分化成了人数稀少的孤立群体。这些条件看似已经形成了进化的死胡同,却没有造成澳大利亚的原住民灭绝。在如此众多的大型动物都灭绝的情况下,他们是怎么存活下来的呢?

    是歌径拯救了原住民。面对极端险恶的环境,原住民不得不更加依赖专门的知识寻找所需资源,应对不同的气候条件以便生存。2 万年前冰川时代的石臼显示,当时的人们已经擅长加工处理恩加度。成年原住民臼齿化石上特殊的磨痕也表明,他们已经会加工纤维来制作渔网。这些步骤繁多、工序复杂的技艺必须要储存在集体记忆库中,代代相传。即便这些技艺不再有价值,比如当某个群体生活的地方不再有恩加度,它们仍然薪火相传。也许若干代之后,人们会在记忆中重新发现这些技艺,让它们得以存活下来。

    我们“自私的基因”只懂得拷贝自身,而歌径则从集体的角度出发,将其承载的整个族群的文化信息传递给每个人。在处境糟糕的冰川时期,歌径和其中描述的仪式帮助部落应对孤立无援的状态,而这种孤立也让歌径和那些仪式得以保存。如果一种文化中没有那么多持不同观点的人,那么文化变革的压力就会小很多。但是,因为歌径可以为所有人理解,所以部落与部落之间的联系也得以加强。部落之间进行必要的基因交换时,歌径在其中做纽带。这既可以保证基因的多样性,也可以避免种群灭绝的发生。歌径保证文化和基因库都十分健康,帮助冰川时期的原住民文化在孤立和联系之间达成平衡,这是其他大型哺乳类动物做不到的。随着气候逐渐变暖,澳大利亚越来越宜居,原住民数量激增。到 17 世纪,澳大利亚已经居住着约 100 万原住民,说着 300种语言。

    人类的活动范围逐渐扩大至全世界,经历着环境和社会带来

    的诸多挑战,正是故事将我们团结在一起,带领着我们共同面对

    挑战。随着社会变得越来越复杂,人类的故事也发生了相应的改

    变,讲述的内容从叙事者周围的环境扩大到了整个世界。在这个

    过程中,故事给予全人类精神力量,让我们坦然面对自然和社会

    环境的变革。家喻户晓的故事通常会浓缩成一句文化格言,比如,

    用“狼来了”的故事提醒大家不要撒谎,用“三思而后行”规劝

    他人谨言慎行。在过去,故事地图的应用十分广泛。有人指出荷

    马创作的《奥德赛》用诗歌的方式描绘了一幅便于记忆的地中海

    地图。同时还有证据表明,大象也可以使用故事地图。与人类相

    似,大象的大脑体积占身体体积的比例相当大。生物进化会青睐

    那些记忆力更好、更善于沟通与合作的个体。象群中的母象就像

    人类的祖母一样,即便在干旱结束很久之后,依然会记得那个能

    拯救集体的遥远水源位于何处。

    故事是一种强有力的适应生存的手段,因为它不仅帮我们跟随记忆回到过去,还让我们不耗费时间和精力就能在脑中想象未来。它就像精神世界的思想实验,可以让我们在头脑中模拟危险或困难的事件,并将得出的结论储存在脑中,供日后参考。其实,我们一直在下意识地做这些事情。我们可以想象前往两个不同水源地的路线,不需要真正走一遍,就能权衡出哪条路线才是更好的选择。

    如果有人告诉我们,“不要靠近巨石,危险”,我们或许记不真切,也很难因此幸存。但是如果有人这样告诉我们:“我表弟曾坐在巨石旁,结果被睡在那儿的狮子咬掉了脸。”我们或许就会记得更加真切,从而保住性命。故事是文化的记忆库,因为故事提供了语境这样的“基础设施”,有助于我们理解、组织、分享和储存真实的信息。

    研究表明,通过故事传递的信息比其他途径传递的信息更便于人们记忆,中间的差距有 22 倍。这是因为,在讲述故事时,大脑的多个部分都会被激活。单纯地陈述事实只能激活大脑的语言处理区域(布罗卡氏区和威尔尼克区,即赋予单词意义的区域)。但如果通过讲故事传递同样的信息,大脑中同叙事有关的区域就会被激活。假如一个故事中提到了跑或跳,大脑的运动皮质就会活跃起来。如果提到了某人的缎质上衣,大脑的感官部分就会被激活。叙事让我们的大脑产生了身临其境的感受。通过这种方式,故事讲述者可以将思想情感和价值观念灌输给听众,让他们感同身受。研究人员对讲故事的人和听众的脑部做过 CT(电子计算机断层扫描)。扫描结果显示,在讲故事的过程中,二者的大脑会产生同步反应。神经学家将这种现象描述为“听说神经耦合”。

    换句话说,随着大脑不断进化,人类可以通过故事来了解世

    界。故事因此成为一种强大的文化工具,加强了基因—文化的共

    同进化。人类的故事来源于生活。我们通过故事看清世界和自己

    的人生。许多人将人类的故事——这个不曾中断过的长篇故事—

    —归功于神的旨意。

    这其实是我们大脑复杂的预知系统为了人类的生存,在进化

    过程中产生的一桩怪事。大脑有很大一部分用于处理包括眼睛、

    耳朵、皮肤和内脏器官等身体其他部分的感官输入信息。大脑通

    过这些信息创造了我们对现实的感知、对自我的认知和对周围世

    界的了解。我们将其统称为意识。人体不断地感知信息,大脑也

    不断地更新它的预知工具,并利用预知指导我们和周围环境的互

    动,帮助我们趋利避害,繁衍生息。大脑的预知系统让我们意识

    到质量重的物体会下落,阴影中的物体看起来颜色更深,液体不

    需要咀嚼等。

    大脑将接收到的碎片信息收集起来,选择合适的故事模式,构想合适的故事情节,创造出以碎片信息为主角的故事,帮助我们理解周围发生的事情。我们看到被吃了一半的牛,再听到一声狮吼,可以轻易联想到狮子袭击了牛。有了前车之鉴,我们会修筑围栏保护牛群,以免遭受损失。如果因果关系没有那么明显,比如说牛的死亡原因不明,我们心中会有其他思量:可能是牛运气不好,可能是被村里老妇诅咒了,也可能是触怒了神灵。我们无法控制运气这种奇妙的东西,但是我们可以把下咒的老妇沉塘,或者向神灵献祭,平复他们的愤怒。做完这些之后,如果剩下的牛活了下来,那故事就可以改动了:牛能活下来是因为老妇不在了,是因为神灵对献祭的东西感到满意,是因为我们时来运转。这样,我们就向人类文化知识库里成功添加了一些信仰,这些信仰虽然有用,但也会带来不少的问题。

    人类也会无中生有,自己创作故事。因为故事让我们的生活

    变得有意义,用独特的方式回答了存在的问题。1944 年,在美国

    进行的一项研究中,34 名大学生观看了一段简短的动画。视频

    里,两个三角形和一个圆形来回滚动,一个长方形则在一边保持

    不动。当被问及他们看到了什么时,34 名学生中有 33 名都将视

    频中的图形拟人化,编了一个故事:圆形代表“焦虑和担忧”,

    小三角形代表“无辜稚子”,大三角形则代表“(人)被愤怒和

    挫折蒙蔽了双眼”。只有 1 名学生说,他看到的不过是屏幕上的

    几何图形。

    从本质上来说,我们的大脑让我们对周围的世界产生了“幻觉”。所以,只需对输入大脑的信息稍加调整,这种幻觉就会被改变。这种调整十分有效,不仅可以改变我们对外界的认知,像上文“牛之死”的故事一样,还可以影响我们的身体感受。后者是因为大脑用故事帮助我们理解和回应它从身体获得的感官体验。如果医生给了身体疼痛的病人一片药片,并告诉他,这个药片可以缓解疼痛,那么药片很可能就会有这样的效果。疼痛之所以得以缓解,可能是因为药片随着人体的新陈代谢,逐渐被人体吸收,抑制了体内的组胺分泌,还有可能是因为大脑希望药片可以起效,从而要求身体减少组胺分泌。我们给自己讲的“药和医生”的故事足以让药片产生生化反应,即使药片只是用糖做的安慰剂。

    其实,即便病人知道药是安慰剂,“药”这个字代表的强大治愈作用足以让病人相信“吃了药就可以康复”的美好故事,促使大脑产生被治愈的感觉。如果想要病人得到治疗的感觉更加强烈,可以让开“药”的人穿上白大褂、在“药”的包装中塞入用药医嘱、包装外列出药品成分(有的“药”会列出空气的化学成分)或让病人通过相关仪式求药。有时,注射安慰剂比直接服用安慰药片的效果更明显,因为人们相信,生病时打针比吃药好得快。

    安慰剂之所以有用,是因为药的故事深嵌在人们的文化“显影液”中。不过安慰剂发挥的作用因文化而异。相关实验数据可以支撑这种观点:在德国,安慰剂对溃疡的治疗效果比其邻国丹麦和荷兰高了一倍,而对降血压的效果远不如其他国家。大脑中的化学物质会受到信念的刺激,改变我们对炎症、压力等一系列致病因子的反应。有些人认为,人的生辰年同最终导致死亡的特定身体器官相关。对这个说法深信不疑的人,他们的平均死亡年龄会比不相信这种说法但患有该病的人提前四五年。这个发现令人震惊。随后,研究者又对比了同一年出生的部分美籍华裔人和美籍欧裔人的死亡率,结果证实了这个发现的真实性。部分美籍华人相信“生辰年和疾病”这个故事,所以他们将这个故事变成了现实——他们确实更容易死于相关疾病。这样一来,“生辰年和疾病”故事的可信度也随之提高。由此来看,长寿并不由基因决定,而是由相关文化故事的力量决定的。

    故事能够说服大脑来治愈疾病。这种力量在其他方面也有体

    现。历史上曾有多次报道,青少年和年轻女性会出现大规模流行

    性昏厥和癔症,且无明显病因。其中一例于 2012 年发生在阿富

    汗北部塔哈尔省省会塔卢坎市的比比哈耶尔高中。该校的女生和

    老师随后住院接受治疗。最开始人们以为病因是塔利班的毒气袭

    击,但是,上百人的血检和尿检结果都为正常。之后,世界卫生

    组织将此次事件看作一次“群体性心因性疾病”。约旦河西岸也

    曾发生过类似事件。最初,以色列和巴勒斯坦互相指责,都认为

    对方应对事件负责。但医生最后得出结论,该事件也只是一次心

    因性疾病。第三个例子发生在马萨诸塞州塞勒姆市。当地的歇斯

    底里感染(即流行性癔症)后来还引发了塞勒姆女巫审判案。以

    上事件中的受害者都处于十分恐怖的氛围中。对于她们即将面临的危险,她们的大脑用最真实的身体反应给出了回应。60%的病人在准备接受化疗时,会产生预期中的恶心,因为她们的大脑中已经有了“化疗会让人恶心”的思维定式。

    这种现象叫作“反安慰剂效应”。它与安慰剂效应相反,会

    对病人的身体情况产生负面影响。反安慰剂效应解释了诅咒和黑

    魔法为什么能够起效。有些人甚至会因诅咒而亡。据文件记载,

    大约 80 年前,在亚拉巴马州,一名男性因伏都教的诅咒而日渐

    消瘦。将死之时,他遇见了一位名叫德雷顿·多尔迪的医生。可

    他认定自己行将就木,不管多尔迪医生说什么都无法改变他的想

    法。最后,医生决定用另外一个故事破除伏都教的诅咒。多尔迪

    医生给他服下了一种很有用的催吐剂,并在其呕吐时娴熟地从自

    己的口袋中变出了一只活蜥蜴。多尔迪医生称伏都教的诅咒就是

    这只寄宿在人体内的蜥蜴,并向病人保证,既然现在蜥蜴已经吐

    出来了,那身体很快就可以恢复正常了。结果,病人真的恢复正

    常了。

    从进化的角度来看,我们的身体对内心的感受产生生理反应合情合理。如果我们处于危险之地,如果吃下了不干净的食物,呕吐和昏厥都是一种警告,让我们尽快逃走或采取相关措施。同样,如果处在安逸的环境中,我们的大脑会认为这里可以舒缓疼痛、减轻炎症。这点在儿童身上体现得很明显。对他们来说,父母的一个亲吻便可缓解他们摔破膝盖的疼痛。像这样将感官体验与现实(大脑相信的故事)结合起来,也是大脑影响现实体验的一种策略。

    为了理解世界、与世界互动,人类进化出了故事,将其作为认知世界的工具。我们做的梦是故事,我们清醒时的内心活动也是故事。我们用自己主演的故事理解世界。历史是我们的暖场表演,而广袤的宇宙是我们的舞台。很多人将人生看作“一场旅行”,我们的目标是“旅行的终点”。在人生旅行中,我们可能会“迷失”,也可能会“处于十字路口”。不论人类处于什么样的文化背景下,人们从小就会讲故事,这是人类的共性。在学会说话之前,我们用表情和手势讲故事:当我蹒跚学步的孩子给我看一只蝴蝶、兴高采烈地拍着手时,我知道,她正在给我讲故事。人在讲故事时将各种情绪带进了形形色色的故事中,这也是故事便于记忆的原因之一。

    从几十万年前山洞和岩壁上赭色的绘画便可得知,人类祖先十分喜欢讲故事。在贫瘠荒凉的地球上,人类特意留下手印和其他涂鸦。除了表示划分领地的意思,这些涂鸦还在努力传达着别的东西。它们向我诉说着,人类不但要讲自己的故事,还要让他人知道自己的故事。正如英籍日裔作家石黑一雄所言:“小说(故事)是一个人对另一个人的诉说。这是我对于小说(故事)的感受。你们也是这样想的吗?”从非洲南部到澳大利亚再到欧洲,赭色手印均有广泛分布。这是人类从历史早期甚至是语言产生之前就开始使用的讲故事手法,从未中断过。2017 年,为抗议澳大利亚新南威尔士州最高法院对杀害原住民男童罪犯的从轻判决,当地原住民在最高法院的玻璃门前印下了赭色的手印。鲜红的颜色表达着人们对正义的呼唤,也让人们回忆起最早居住在澳大利亚的人们将其用作文化工具的时代。

    坎塔布里亚位于西班牙北部巴斯克自治区的腹地,当地有一处名为萨尔瓦多卡斯蒂略的洞穴群。两条河流流经洞穴,河流之间坐落着三座山谷。这里是动物每年迁徙的必经之路,人类可以在这里狩猎。或许是这个原因,千百年来,尼安德特人都居住在萨尔瓦多卡斯蒂略洞穴中。后来,人类的祖先也住了进去。这里成了人类祖先在冰河时期的避难所。洞穴内部交错复杂,宛如迷宫。墙上到处都是非同一般的绘画作品。这些画由两个人种分别绘制而成,时间最早可追溯到 64,000 年前,但是科学家们直到最近才发现这些画,因为人们根本想不到洞穴深处的房间中还藏有这样的作品。当我参观萨尔瓦多卡斯蒂略时,我让导游把洞穴内的照明灯关掉,因为我想欣赏它最初的壮丽。

    我的眼睛在黑暗中恍惚了几秒。随后,在导游手电筒的幽幽光线中,我看见洞穴顶部出现了一头野兽的影子,形象立体,若隐若现。这影子说是野牛,但又像人,看着令人毛骨悚然。当手电筒的光照到洞穴内一根三米高的钟乳石柱时,天花板上半人半兽的影子突然变大,形状也更加扭曲,影子随着光移动,走过了整个天花板。一种混沌原始的感觉从我内心升起,这感觉中掺杂着敬畏、好奇和恐惧。这令人惊叹的画面便是史前的电影画面。

    至少在 15,000 年前,一位聪明的“动画师”就用这种画面成功

    地吸引了观众。他利用燃烧动物脂肪的石灯和石柱凸起,将光和

    影灵活地应用在岩壁的图像上。“动画师”通过移动石灯,让图

    像动了起来,赋予了它们生命。这样讲故事会将创作者的思维传

    递给观众,进而启发观众的想象力。讲故事为社会的凝聚提供了

    史无前例的机会。大家都默许了在讲故事中可以撒谎:我们愿意

    以观众的身份先进入连接现实和幻想的故事世界中,再向前走进

    幻想世界中。

    影院的多重感官体验增强了这种效果。一部分原因是影院的

    画面比例,即现代电影中使用的特写镜头对大脑认知面孔和人体

    的方式产生了巨大影响。(每秒 12 帧到 24 帧的画面让人目不暇

    接,我们根本不能理性地思考什么是真实的,什么不是,我们不

    确定自己是不是认识银幕上的人,所以通常会觉得电影中的人物

    与自己关系密切。)清晰的野牛人兽画像遍布石壁和石柱,造型

    各异,或许代表披着野牛皮的萨满巫师。通过这些画面,我们可

    以清楚地认识到,史前山洞影院的创造者十分清楚这些画面会带

    来怎样的感受。那么在这个神秘的黑暗洞穴中,他们到底创造出

    了什么样的世界?萨满教让人们产生了怎样的幻觉,能让人们为

    共同的事业和信仰联系在一起?

    我们利用想象出的神灵和魔力解释生活中难以解释的神秘

    现象。对很多人来说,现实世界和幻想世界的界线并不明确,甚

    至也没有必要区分两个世界。幻想世界中的故事会给我们带来慰

    藉。对于高度依赖社会的人类来说,神灵是我们面对险境时最后

    的依赖。比如,地震之后,信教人数就会增多。再比如,向一位

    普度众生的神灵祈祷可以减轻压力。祭祀这样的神灵也会让人安

    心,还能得到社会支持,这样的心理暗示可以说服大脑缓解身体

    的疼痛感。信教人士会更加平和地面对自己的错误,或许是因为

    各类宗教都有宿命论的影子,也有神灵负责事情的善后,这样就

    能让人们少些“事后诸葛亮”的行为,或许可以帮助我们在进化

    选择压力下生存下来。

    不过,那些依据故事产生的习俗虽然看起来不够合理,却可

    以广泛流传。这是因为这些习俗实际上于人有益。以打猎为例,

    世界各地的打猎都有仪式,包括模仿动物、只在规定区域打猎或

    者沿着看来不大可能打到猎物的方向打猎。除了仪式导向的打猎

    外,还有一种理性打猎。理性打猎是指总结成功的打猎经验,形

    成固定的打猎模式并应用到以后的打猎中。不过,研究人员在分

    析打猎的成功案例时发现,同理性打猎相比,仪式导向的打猎是

    一种更好的打猎策略。比如选择打猎地点时,理性打猎会回到以

    前捕到猎物的地方。但问题是猎物已经学会了避开这些地方。仪

    式导向的打猎则会随机挑选打猎区域,帮助猎人摆脱对某地的偏

    爱,而这种偏爱正是人类认知的致命缺点。就拿黑猩猩来说,它们没有这种偏爱,因此它们在打猎地点的选择上就更加随意。

    故事也为整个族群提供了一种保护和可持续使用自然资源的途径。所以难怪泛灵论早在狩猎采集社会就得以广泛传播,或许在语言产生之前的早期人类时代就已经出现了。泛灵论下的多数宗教故事都将自然和人类联系在一起(犹太派基督教徒凌驾于自然的观点为个例)。西伯利亚雅库特的原住民会猎杀驯鹿,但是他们相信驯鹿的体内存在灵魂,驯鹿主动放弃了自己的生命,自愿成为人的食物,等待人们捕杀。每一次猎杀驯鹿都有相应的仪式,表示人类会顺从驯鹿灵魂的旨意,并感激它给人类部落带来了礼物。

    人类的祖先在这些环境信仰体系中扮演着重要的角色。许多文化都认为祖先的灵魂栖息在动物身上或以自然界的其他形式存在。已故之人通常会继续在群体中发挥作用,维系代与代之间以及跨生命形式的联系。与死亡相关的习俗是文化故事的一部分,考古学家发现的诸多重要装饰品都用于装饰已故之人。只有文化不断传递下去,累积性的文化进化才有可能。也就是说,即便个体去世,他们曾坚持的文化实践也必须有人继续坚持,文化才能进化。如果把关于祖先的故事和过去使用的仪式归为群体故事的一部分,将会推动文化的延续,加强人与人之间的社会联系。或许这就是关于祖先的故事和过去的仪式如此广为人知的原因。从纪念碑到玛丽莲·梦露的海报,我们现在仍用实物创造文化记忆,讲述逝者的故事。

    编故事的人在世界各地都受到赞誉。阿格塔人生活在菲律宾,以狩猎采集为生。但是人类学家的调查显示,这个种群更看重讲故事的能力,看重程度是看重狩猎能力的两倍。故事讲得最好的人,家里人丁最为兴旺。

    故事将听众带入其中,让他们一起感受故事人物的喜怒哀乐,

    从而引发听众的共鸣,增进人与人之间的信任。火在人类的早期

    历史中扮演着重要的角色,它延长了一天的时间,让人们之间的

    对话充满想象力。人类学家分析了纳米比亚和博茨瓦纳现代狩猎

    采集者间的对话。他们发现猎人们白天的对话主要讨论经济、土

    地权益等世俗问题;但到了晚上,人们在篝火旁对话,80%的内

    容都是故事。我们将自己对世界的解读和自己创造的虚拟世界用

    故事、绘画、歌曲和舞蹈传递给他人,这是人们思想间的对话。

    大家共同进行的这种仪式对于加强人与人之间的联系、增进互信

    和团结起到了强有力的推动作用。从足球场上的呐喊助威到一起

    吟唱的宗教赞美诗,这些一起唱歌跳舞的活动绝不仅仅是几分钟

    的共同活动。这些活动让人与人之间的关系更加亲密,让人们好

    像成了一家人。实验证明,大家一起唱歌跳舞之后,个体之间的

    合作会更好,会向社会捐助更多的款项,打造对人人有益的社会。

    对大脑的预测系统来说,仅仅创作自己的故事是远远不够的,我们必须要确保每个人的故事同群体的故事相一致。故事能够用共同的信念将群体内部的人们凝聚在一起,同时还可以吸引外人加入群体。所以,尽管讲故事并没有给一个群体带来食物和其他有形资源,但讲故事的技能是一种人类适应进化的表现。它在逐渐促进群体的凝聚和合作,巩固社会规则,传授文化知识。人类学家发现,在阿格塔人中,故事讲得越好的群体,合作能力就越强,而且更乐于分享。阿格塔人流传的故事里,80%的内容都同合作、性别平等、平均主义、惩恶扬善等有利于群体生存的文化行为有关。如果一个群体有关合作的故事较少(相对应地,有关自然的故事可能较多),那这个群体的合作能力就会较差。

    因为故事,我们的社会更加团结,社会成员间更具有凝聚力。

    利用故事,我们传递自己的信息、他人的信息和整个世界的信息,

    并学习如何与人交往、如何共情、如何规矩行事。通过故事,我

    们可以探索世界,了解他人的想法。这可以让我们坚定信仰,坚

    持自己对事物的看法,同时也有勇气挑战这些信仰和看法。尽管

    人类讲的语言不尽相同,但当我们听到故事时,大脑会产生相似

    的反应,使人们产生更多的自我意识,更能换位思考。心理学家

    通过扫描大脑活动发现,当把同一个故事用英语、波斯语和汉语

    讲给人们听时,一旦听众明白了故事的深刻内涵,他们的脑部会

    产生相同的脑部活动激活模式。另有研究发现,阅读小说可以增

    强人们的同理心,即便大家来自不同的种族,信仰不同的宗教。

    读者越是把自己放在故事中,他们在现实生活中的同理心就越强。

    在某项研究中,如果研究人员“不小心”弄掉了笔,那些曾“高度沉浸于小说”中的人比其他人捡起笔的概率高了一倍。另一个研究则得出结论,文学小说“以自己的方式,参与了读者感受小说人物主观体验所需的心理过程”。在读小说的过程中,你会感

    受到不同的情感。这是人们在合作型社会中要掌握的重要技能。

    故事也是一种传播新观念或行为的有效途径,能让有抵触情

    绪的人更快接受,从而加快不同社会和制度的文化进化。故事具

    有集体性的特征,即分散在一个个小故事里的信息合在一起,才

    能完整地表达出集体故事里的信息。因此,故事及其包含的信息

    很难被操控和破坏。信息的分散让那些“反动”的信息得以保留,

    赋予弱势群体力量。兰代是阿富汗的一种诗歌体裁,由两行诗行

    构成。人们匿名作诗,主要讲述性爱和女性解放等在极端保守的

    阿富汗属于禁忌的故事。兰代在普什图女性之间口口相传,比如,

    “当姐妹们坐在一起,她们总是夸赞自己的兄弟/当兄弟们坐在

    一起,他们把自己的姐妹卖给他人”,或者“用你的炸弹背心拥

    抱我/但不要说我不想给你一个吻”。故事让人们可以涉足危险

    的政治或社会领域,比如会给世界带来变革的女性或奴隶解放。

    的确,书可以有非凡的影响力:乔治·奥威尔的《1984》和玛

    丽·雪莱的《弗兰肯斯坦》时至今日还在被人引用;托斯卡纳诗

    人但丁创作《神曲》(原名《喜剧》)时,选择用意大利语而非当

    时主流的拉丁语,这推动了意大利语成为民族统一语言;亚历山

    大大帝将荷马的《伊利亚特》看作自己征战的蓝图,据传大帝睡觉时也要枕着这本书。

    史诗故事帮助人们树立民族认同感。它会告诉人们他们从哪里来,到底是谁,以及如何看待邻邦。一个个故事创造了民族共同的历史,将整个社会凝聚在一起。在很多语言中,“故事”这个词的含义等同于“历史”。通过故事,我们发展出了关于民主、爱国等观念意识,并把这些观念传播了出去。人类想要将世界改变成自己心中的样子,并想让后人从中受益,童话故事便由此而诞生。文学人类学家发现,包括《美女与野兽》在内的部分欧洲童话故事,其创作时间可追溯到 6,000 年前的古印欧人时期。追溯这些故事的创作时期,可以揭示远古人类数量扩张和位置分布的特点,展现数千年来故事传播带来的非凡力量,比如“人不可貌相”就是一条永恒的真理。这也是为什么欧洲人现在仍在读希腊奴隶约 2,500 年前创作的《伊索寓言》。

    千年以来,我们好像一直在讲着同样的故事,只不过会根据听众和时代的不同更新故事的角色和细节。1872 年,当乔治·史密斯破译了古巴比伦石板上复杂的楔形文字后,世界上最早用文字记载的故事——《吉尔伽美什史诗》,便呈现在我们眼前。故事充满了浪漫主义色彩,体现了人们对冒险和永生的追求。尽管这篇史诗已有 4,000 年的历史,但里面的内容给人奇妙的似曾相识之感。在其所谓的“大洪水篇”中,苏美尔水神伊亚让一位名叫乌特纳比西丁的人放弃现世的财产,另建一艘船。伊亚还让乌特纳比西丁带上自己的妻儿、村子里的工匠、动物幼崽和食物。犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教中挪亚方舟的故事基本就是这个故事的翻版,而且肯定受到了这个故事的启发。

    事实上,当刻有《吉尔伽美什史诗》的石板还没有被人挖掘

    出来时,一位名叫安库的埃及抄写员就指出,现在大家说的东西

    都是前人说过的东西。他不无痛惜地感叹道:“如果我可以说出

    没有人说过的话就好了!如果我说的不是祖先们说过的陈词滥调

    就好了!”不过,故事的基本情节或许不多,但在情节有限的情

    况下,我们仍然编织出了无限的可能性。我们甚至不需要创作新

    故事,只需根据听众和时代的变化改编原来的故事就能得到新故

    事。我们总是可以用不同的方式、向不同的人讲述相同的故事。

    我们创作的都是我们需要的故事,这些故事反映着时代的文化背景,为我们了解文化变迁打开了窗口。最初,许多宗教故事与宣扬美好品德、规范行为无关。在最早有文字记载的多数宗教中,神灵拥有凌驾于我们的权力,过着电视剧般精彩的生活。我们通过仪式和献祭安抚他们,有时会因此得到神助。羞愧也是推动我们献祭的重要因素。在《伊利亚特》中,宙斯不在乎公平正义。当时的古希腊是以家庭为基础的父权制国家。父亲在世时,即便孩子们已经成年,他们仍无法保有自身权利。

    到了《奥德赛》时期,也就是大约 50 年后,情况有所改变。时局动荡,社会巨变,人人自危。战争和经济危机频发,阶级对立情况严重。宗族制度式微,要求个人权利和个人责任的呼声日益高涨,对强大的父权家长制形成了挑战。希腊人似乎将自己对社会公平的要求影射到了宇宙中。《奥德赛》中,宙斯的形象更具有审判性,他抱怨人类“用自己的恶行招来了不必要的麻烦”。宙斯拥有了道德观念,他就丧失了人这一属性,人们对古希腊众

    神的崇拜演变成了一种恐惧。在《伊利亚特》中并没有“敬畏神

    明”的说法,但是到了《奥德赛》中,敬畏神明是一种值得称颂

    的重要品德。人们之所以改变了对待神灵的态度,还有另外一个

    原因——空气。可能当时的人们都十分害怕空气污染(其实是瘴

    气),结果导致净化仪式盛行。在《伊利亚特》的故事中,人们只

    是象征性地进行净化仪式。仪式结束后,大家就能呼吸新鲜空气

    了。在后来的《奥德赛》中,魔鬼成为散播瘴气的罪魁祸首。俄

    狄浦斯染上了瘴气,开始四处流浪。一开始,人们觉得瘴气事不

    关己,任由它像细菌一样随机感染他人,只要不是自己就行。但

    如果不净化空气,人们就要世世代代都经历感染瘴气的痛苦。被

    感染的人也会因此感到羞愧难当,而这种情绪要到瘴气被彻底清

    除时才能释怀。从这里开始,瘴气成了罪恶的象征。罪是一种意

    念上的疾病,大家都害怕陷入其中。于是,净化仪式多了荡涤思

    想的环节,形式变得更加复杂。

    故事是一种异常强大的认知手段,因为通过故事,人类创造了诸如“罪恶”这样的观念,后来还让人类集体信服。这样的方法不断塑造人类的行为和社会,引起对死刑或堕胎等问题的讨论,从而影响人类的繁衍,决定人类的生存。由此,人类在文化上的发明推动着生物进化,比如它可以规定我们与谁共享基因是罪恶的。

    所以,讲故事其实是人类对进化的适应,它延长了我们的思

    想和发明的寿命,将文化信息完整封存起来,以便忠实地传递下

    去。但是,随着社会的不断发展,储存非故事型的资料也变得越

    来越重要,比如,谁欠了谁什么东西。从印加人的结绳记事到刮

    花的贝壳、刻痕的黏土,再到石板,非故事型资料通过这种物理

    可视的途径储存起来。上万年来,澳大利亚原住民用“信息棒”

    在广袤的大地上传递信息,内容涵盖邀请、贸易谈判和请求。这

    些约 33 厘米的木棍上刻有不同地区的人都可以理解的符号,同

    时也可作为穿越其他地区时的通行证。

    约 5,000 年前,人类发明出了一种出色、灵活的信息储存工具——文字。这是迄今为止,管理、储存和忠实传送大量信息最省时省力的方式,也是累积性文化进化的关键。

    但是,学会读写要耗费大量时间,而且要从孩子抓起。所以,只有能从中受益的社会才会接受读写。对于那些人数少、分布广、语言多样的狩猎采集族群来说,他们所面临的进化压力不足以让他们学会书写。土地、麦子、山羊和孩子的数量象征着“财产”,而财产的概念要在人类定居某地后才能发展起来。对很多农耕社会来说,作物的种类也是文化进化的关键。国家更容易对有固定收获季节的谷物征税,比如小麦和稻谷。收税可以推动一个国家的基础设施建设,使书写成为有利生存或生存必需的技能。即便是这样,只有一小部分农村人口有读写能力,而且一般是担任政府官员或宗教领袖的男性。

    使用和发展文字的社会通常是定居的部落(社会)。整个部落可以生产足量粮食来养活大量人口。在部落内部,大家开展贸易,还能控制诸多宗族,保证稳定,而避免打仗。大约在公元前3000 年,由于美索不达米亚平原上的农民种植了小麦,粮食充足下,世界上第一批人口密集的城邦出现。从宗族部落到匿名个体组成的大城邦,这种戏剧性的社会变革影响深远。文字在变革的过程中发挥着重要作用。

    人类说过的话、做过的事大多没有文字记载。一旦税收或贸易涉及的财产所有权,城市港口的货物进出情况,统治者的财富及他们多变的法则,胜利的战役等世俗之事被人们永久记录在石板上,“历史”就开始了。从早期苏美尔人的文字记录到如今的脸谱网账号,没有什么能够阻挡我们记录生活的心情。信息储存和传递方式的进化让社会规模不断变大、复杂程度不断提高,最终使社会变成文化知识的集中网络。

    文字可以传递更加复杂的数据(比如表示 4 头牛时,用符号表达取代图片表达),还可以实时传播真实的演讲内容。这两种传播不同内容的文字分别在不同的文化中发展。这一至关重要的步骤包括设立一套统一可见的符号代表语音,无数社会都已完成了这意义非凡的一步。大家还会相互借鉴彼此的符号,并最终形成自己社会的文字系统,比如古代汉字和精简版的字母表。书写系统中一个符号基本代表一个音。字母表只发明过一次,而且根据古希腊人的说法,它是普罗米修斯送给人类最伟大的礼物,其地位甚至超越了火的地位。字母表一词的英文是 alphabet,其词源是早期的闪米特语(即腓尼基语)。古希腊人在腓尼基字母的基础上创造了希腊语的字母。在希腊语字母表中,“Aα”(读作 alpha)、“Bβ”(读作 beta)和其后的字母没有任何意义,只是单纯的字母。但在腓尼基语中,第一个字母的写法是希腊语中的 A 转置到一边,该字母名为 aleph,在腓尼基语中是“公牛”的意思,该词从迦南语的“alp”演变而来。腓尼基语第二个字母的写法同希腊语中的 B 类似,象征着尖顶屋。该字母读作 beth,在腓尼基语中是“房子”的意思(如今,我们可以在巴勒斯坦的伯利恒看见这种尖顶屋子),该词则可能起源于埃及象形文字中表示“屋子”的图像。从阿拉伯语到拉丁语,腓尼基字母系统是今天使用的多种字母系统的起源。

    字母系统还在不断地进化中。英语在最近的几个世纪中已经丢失了 6 个字母,包括 ð(“eth”,发音类似 th 在单词 the 中的发音)、þ(“thorn”,发音类似 th 在单词 thing 中的发音)和 ȝ(“yogh”,发音类似 ch 在单词 loch 中的发音)。

    现在,我们的生活已经与文字密不可分,我们很难想象城镇化的大型社会没有文字会是怎样的情形。对代代生活在黑暗中的盲穴鱼来说,它们的视力逐渐成了多余的东西,最后会逐渐丧失。同理,有些文化也会失去它们的技术和实践,而且缺失的时间会持续上百年。这再次提醒我们,文化的进化没有方向,我们的发展并不一定是朝着好的方向“前进”。伴随着一系列毁灭性的侵略战争和自然灾害,古希腊进入了文化失明的“黑暗时代”。到公元前 1200 年,古希腊人生活在他们以前文明的虚墟中,不再具备读写能力。

    但我们要认识到,正是在全民多为文盲的黑暗时代,荷马或许是在仍然重要的港口城市伊兹密尔创作出了永垂不朽的诗篇。这一点非同凡响。如同音乐,诗歌创作的目的是表演。当人们表演诗歌时,诗歌中的文字、比喻、节奏和音乐性都变得生动起来。传奇的盲人诗人荷马凭记忆表演他的诗歌,听众会自行记下诗歌,然后再背给他人听。即便荷马和他同时代的大多数人目不识丁,但他们知道什么是文字。他们周围的寺庙和纪念碑废墟上刻满了文字,他们与腓尼基人等受过教育的群体通商往来。荷马本人在《伊利亚特》中也提到了文字这门艺术。诗中,一名信使带着一块折叠的青铜板,上边写着:“杀了送信人。”

    想象一下,你是一个讲故事的人,书写文字的能力在你生活的地方已经丢失,但是在其他地方仍然存在。此时,就是最合适盲人作家的时代。荷马和他同时代的人依赖另一种认知技巧——记忆力,因为没有读写能力的人记忆力更好。从他们的角度来看,他们对如今人类记忆能力下降的诧异不亚于我们对他们的时代书写能力丢失的诧异。像《奥德赛》这样的史诗遵循严格的格律,朗朗上口,便于人们背诵和即兴发挥;同时诗篇中还包含大量重复的内容,所以常见的短语能以合唱的形式穿插在史诗作品中。然而,当时的人们如果要像受过教育的人一样熟记上千诗行,需要一定的记忆技巧,就像现在伦敦出租车司机熟记各条街道名称和各种路线一样。记忆大量诗行对当时人们的大脑产生了显著的影响,使他们的大脑结构产生变化,比如海马体变大。

    希腊人发明了一套关于记忆的复杂艺术,名为“助记符号”。

    这是一种文化的习得技巧,其原理就如同澳大利亚原住民的歌径

    一样,将一个个故事用风景和星座的形式固定在人们的脑海中。

    传说,古希腊诗人西摩尼得斯受邀在一场宴会上朗诵自己的作品。

    他表演完之后便离开了会场,可他刚一离开,会场屋顶就塌了,

    里边的人无一幸存,他们的尸体也面目全非,无法识别。但是西

    摩尼得斯凭借记忆,回忆了会场大厅的情况,记起了每一位宾客

    的席位,从而确认了死者的身份以便安葬。据传,西摩尼得斯利

    用自己琢磨出的记忆技巧将记忆植入虚拟的“思维宫殿”。也就

    是说,记忆技巧利用我们在文化和生物层面共同进化出来的用故

    事记忆事物的能力,魔术般地创造出了一个空间,将需要记忆的

    内容都放了进去。之后,我们可以在这个思维宫殿里四处走动,再现某个故事。对背诵一篇公共演讲稿或一篇史诗等需要记忆大量信息的情况来说,这种方法十分适用。

    当然,这对认知能力的要求很高。读写能力可以减少我们在脑力记忆上的能量消耗,转而依赖人脑外部的集体记忆。这些集体记忆储存在图书馆中,最新的方式是储存在互联网上。

    同其他的文化习得技能一样,学习读写尽管没有改变我们的遗传规律,但改变了我们的生理结构。8 岁左右时,受过教育的人和没受过教育的人在大脑发育上就会有所不同,因为前者已为阅读“量身打造”了视觉处理系统。这些发生在大脑上的变化逐渐连通了大脑的不同区域,提升了人在物体识别和语言方面的能力,但是降低了在其他领域的认知能力,比如人脸识别能力。受教育程度高的人可以精准识别字词,就像狩猎采集者可以通过蛛丝马迹发现猎物的踪迹一样。阅读母语文字时,人类会一下子识别出文字组合,无意中就解读了文章的意思。

    即便文字或者字母的顺序不对,也不会对阅读造成太大的影响,因为脑大可自以动调顺整序。我们的大脑很擅长利用上下文语境重构写作(和演讲)文本。部分原因是熟练的成年读者不会显性阅读,即不会(像孩子们一样)读出声,他们通常高效迅速地直接从文字获取内容。就英语母语人士而言,成年人的平均阅读速度为每分钟 230 个单词,到 20 岁时,词汇量约为 42,000 个。20 岁后,一般每天学习一两个新单词。所以退休人士的词汇量要比刚毕业的大学生多得多。这样一来,依靠不断积累起来的知识,老年人可以丰富人类文化的重要资源库,使其内容多样化。

    书写这个动作本身也会调动大脑的不同区域,产生广泛的认知效果。把东西写下来不仅是将信息记了纸上,还将其存在了书写者的记忆中,因为这种行为会刺激大脑底部一组负责过滤信息和集中注意力的细胞。书写可以整理我们脑中的思绪,让朦朦胧胧的感情跃然纸上,使其可以为人理解,与人分享,让深不可测的事物也可为人所见。文本的英文“text”的词源是拉丁语的“texere”(编织),因为组织语言就像编织纺织品一样。

    受过教育的新兴市民和商人阶级将各类信息大众化,再加上印刷机的发明和廉价纸张的供应,推动了来自社会各界的作家和读者的产生。现在,从 11 岁的儿童开始,阅读已经是人类在读写社会中学习新知识的主要方法。由于文字可以得到广泛传播,所以它的影响力很大,我无须和我知道的作家一一见面,但他们的文字会出现在我的脑海中,就好像他们在我耳边喃喃低语一样。现在,人们没有必要再记那些可以快速搜索到的信息。人们需要学习的是在哪里可以获得信息,从浩如烟海的书籍中分辨出哪些有价值,就好像我们需要明白谁才是值得模仿的人一样。

    比起口头故事,书籍在保存文化信息上更加可靠,储存时间也更长,同时给累积性文化进化提供了新的机制。一方面,书籍的写作建立在作者本人的学识之上,另一方面,作者也会参考其他作家的著作。《死海古卷》中的故事可追溯到公元前 250 年,其内容同所谓的《列宁格勒抄本》中的故事基本相同。后者写于前者成书后的 1,000 年左右,由抄写员忠实地抄写前者而成。书中的故事是根据人们口头传唱了 1,000 多年的故事编写而成,时间最早可追溯到大卫王时期,当时希伯来语还没有形成文字。

    书写不仅改善了我们储存和传播信息的方式,还从根本上改

    变了我们因文化形成的集体思维模式,提升了人类处理信息的能

    力,减少了人类自身的能量消耗。这个大进步将人类社会和技术

    带向了更复杂的阶段。哲学观点、逻辑推理、抽象概念、高等数

    学的发展都得益于诸多思想家的努力。不过,思想家们需要将他

    们思考的过程写下来,最后得出相应的观点。这样,每一个观点

    都有据可循,还为新观点奠定了基础。同时,与言辞争论相比,

    人们可以用一种完全不同的方法理解、分析纸质记录的观点。因

    此,社会上的独立实体,比如政府、公共服务和以货币为基础的

    经济体,可以变得更加复杂。如此,书写的发展带来了人类组织

    体的发展。

    尽管很多人预期纸张会退出历史舞台,但目前来看,纸张的使用依然很广泛。现在,数字化的信息储存模式不再根据数字化的音素或字词发音进行分类,也不是根据用于我们书写的、数字化的字母表进行分类,而是根据二进制下 1 和 0 的排列组合,将信息储存在硅基芯片上。从这个意义上说,信息本身就像能量和物质一样有物理特性;操作、储存、传播信息需要消耗能量,而“忘记”信息——比如清空磁盘——的难度和代价都很大。在未来几十年中,我们将会利用生物进化意义上的终极信息储存系统来储存信息,那就是 DNA。现在,人们已经利用 DNA 的结构,解码了构成生命的蛋白质的遗传信息。正是这种生物系统创造出了有视觉、创造力和技术文化的人类,人类开始用自己的身体储存自己的思想。

    我们创作的故事为不断累积知识提供了一个集体记忆库,促进了文化的忠实传播,扩大了文化的传播范围,同时让社会更加紧密地团结在一起。故事减少了文化进化的能量消耗,帮助人类更好地生存下去。讲述故事和不断地使用故事成为人类意识进化的一部分。这种意识进化会塑造人类的思想、社会以及与环境的互动模式。语言宛如货币,是使用语言的人交换故事的桥梁。接下来,我们就来看看语言。

    第七章 语言:天生的交流欲望

    位于副热带地区的火山岛戈梅拉岛属于非洲的加那利群岛。这里山石耸立,怪石嶙峋,崎岖陡峭的悬崖间,是一条条深邃的山谷。岛屿上空,一首由口哨组成的优美二重唱穿云而来,方圆百里都清晰可闻。我安静地等待着。山谷中有动听的鸟鸣,还有羊群在山间行走时偶尔发出的咩咩叫声和用鼻子喷气的声音。不知过了多久,我在头顶的某处听到了一个悦耳的声音,在回复刚才的口哨声。

    以前,这里地形复杂,交通不便,所以人们就用一种古老的

    口哨语言——希尔博语交流。口哨语言帮助这里的人们克服地理

    障碍,将话语传过一座座山,传到遥远的田间地头,最远能传到

    8 千米以外的地方。就像一位老牧羊人所说,和打电话相比,使

    用希尔博语更便宜快捷,而且也不怕没有信号。现在,虽然很多

    孩子都把西班牙语作为母语,但是他们仍在戈梅拉岛上的学校学

    习希尔博语。这种语言需要含着指关节发声,或学习具体的卷舌

    技巧。它听起来很像鸟叫,所以模仿能力很强的乌鸫鸟已经能模

    仿希尔博语的对话了。

    交流是生物活着的基本特征之一。每一种生命都会通过某种

    形式的信号证明自己的存在。植物通过土壤中的真菌网络交流,

    头足类动物则依靠改变肤色交流。海豚、猿类和犬类等哺乳类动

    物能够非常熟练地和人类进行交流,以至我们一般认为它们拥有

    某种原始语言。然而,人类语言和动物语言的不同之处在于,无

    论以哪种形式呈现,要想理解人类语言都需要一定水平的理解能

    力,而这正是其他动物不具备的。黑猩猩可以学会吹口哨,但它

    们没有乐感,也没有语言表达能力。它们的交流能力和人类有着

    巨大差距。举例来说,黑猩猩只能发出 5 种基本的声音。而且和

    人类不一样的是,它们所有的叫声都依赖于语境。如果捕食者不

    出现,黑猩猩永远都不会发出“有捕食者”的警告叫声。而人类

    所发明的语言是一种真正的交流工具,规则众多又不失灵活。

    语言并不仅仅是传递信息的系统,更是人类之所以成为人类

    的根本。语言即思想。没有语言,我们就不会有内心的独白,想

    法也会杂乱无章。我们能体会到的感觉都是我们能用语言描述出

    的感觉。患有失语症(指失去语言能力,通常是中风或脑损伤的

    后遗症)的人无法跨越时间的桥梁,无法回忆过去,也无法预测

    未来。他们不能辨别事物之间的联系,更不能理解别人的观点。

    他们只能处理眼前的文字,同时还要费力应对人类最基础的思维

    过程。所以说,我言故我在。

    正如地球上的不同环境推动了基因进化一样,环境压力也引导着语言文化的进化。不同地方的人拥有不同的语言和方言,这些语言和方言受当地地理环境和声学的影响。

    在地势陡峭的地区,或在森林、海洋等环境中,远距离交流

    比较困难,所以就逐渐形成了口哨语言。与正常语言相比,口哨

    传得更远,而且也不容易吓到猎物。大约 7,000 年前,第一批从

    非洲北部的阿特拉斯山脉到达戈梅拉岛的人类将口哨语言也带

    到了这里。阿特拉斯山脉地区的柏柏尔人现在仍在使用一种名为

    塔马塞特语的口哨语言。历史上,在抵抗法国侵略时期,柏柏尔

    人利用这种语言传递秘密情报,成效显著。同样,在二战期间,

    澳大利亚军队雇用巴布亚新几内亚说沃姆语的原住民,在无线电

    中利用口哨传递消息,挫败了日军的窃听。目前,已知仍在使用

    口哨语言的族群有 70 个左右。其中包括亚马孙雨林中的狩猎采

    集族群、北极地区拥有捕鲸传统的因纽特人和希腊岛民。喜马拉

    雅山脉地区的苗族人会用口哨语在森林和耕地间交流。身处不同

    房间的苗族情侣悄悄说情话时,也会使用口哨语(因为口哨比其

    他语言更难辨别说话者的身份)。

    动物世界也存在类似情况。几十年前人们就发现,因为树木会使声音变低或失真,所以与生活在开阔地区的鸟类相比,生活在森林里的鸟类鸣叫频率更低,变化更少。生物学家最近发现,为了应对城市嘈杂的环境,城市中的一些鸟类会改变它们的叫声。和生活在安静环境中的同类相比,城市中的鸟类鸣叫频率更低,生理构造也更简单。现在,科学家们发现,人类语言中也有同样的适应性变化。一种语言中辅音的数量和辅音群在音节中的组合方法,似乎和这种语言发源地的年平均温度、降水量、植被面积、海拔高度和地表的崎岖程度等因素有关。

    东南亚等温暖湿润且植物茂密的地区的语言元音多,辅音少,

    词汇也大多由简单的音节构成。相比之下,像英语和格鲁吉亚语

    这些发源地不是雨林的语言,就会大量使用辅音。高海拔地区的

    语言中有更多词汇含有强爆破辅音。干旱的荒漠地区不容易产生

    类似汉语(普通话)和越南语这样的声调语言,其中的部分原因

    是干燥的环境会对声带运动产生不利影响,这是一种人体—环境

    —文化三位一体的适应。

    口头语言本质上是高频辅音(如 f、p 或 t)和低频元音(如

    e、o 和 u)等一系列声音的组合。密集的植物或空气中的热浪等

    环境障碍会使高频声音失真或消失,从而对语言形成选择压力。

    所以,语言差异在某种程度上就是文化适应不同环境的表现。

    人类进化的三位一体受到影响,因为这些声学上的变化也会

    导致人类基因的进化。有证据表明,非声调语言,比如欧洲的一

    些语言,在过去的 5 万多年中,一直影响着两种新型基因变异的

    传播,这两种变异与大脑的生长和发育相关。声调是指语言通过

    音高、音长和音强来传达语义。在英语这类非声调语言中,声调会改变词的音值,能帮助听众将长句子断成几部分,便于理解。而在声调语言中,声调会改变词汇或短语的真实意思。比如说,汉语(普通话)中的“/ma/”这个音,就可以指“妈”、“麻”、“马”或“骂”,具体含义根据声调而定。苗语有多达 8 个声调,分别表达不同的意义。如今,一些声调语言已经演变成了非声调语言。比如,荷马那个时代的希腊语是声调语言,然而现代希腊语却是非声调语言。

    对于声调语言来说,音素间(辅音和元音)的细微差别并不

    是很重要。所以用音乐(比如口哨)或鼓点传递信息会更加简单。

    撒哈拉以南非洲曾经聚集着众多用鼓点交流的村落,村落中的每

    名村民都懂一维的鼓点语言。利用鼓点语言,一条路上沿线的村

    庄可以接替传递消息、诗歌、通知、警告、笑话和祷告,而且传

    递范围很广。一个小时内,就可传递到 100 多千米以外,甚至更

    远的地方。在电报出现之前,其他任何地方都无法如此高效地传

    递消息。

    口哨和鼓点语言迫使说话者在大脑里把语言和旋律结合起

    来,这能帮助我们追寻语言起源的线索。大脑中处理音乐和语言

    的是同一块区域。除此之外,音乐和语言还存在其他方面的联系。

    研究发现,学习音乐能够提高读写能力。一些语言学家认为,人

    类的语言起源于一种音乐性的原始语言,比如口哨声,猿类也具

    备这种语言能力。苗族人经常用口琴复制口哨语言中的音调,形成了一种非常成熟的音乐语言。

    文化进步会影响语言使用,而语言使用又和人类的生理结构

    息息相关,因此,文化的进步可以引导人类生理结构的变化,反

    之亦然。几千年前,在人类开始发展农业之后(变软的食物使人

    类可以有较小的下颌和全新的牙齿咬合),人类的下颌发生了变

    化。语言学家认为,这意味着我们能发出“f”和“v”的音,同

    时,还推动了新语言中爆破音的出现。然而,人类最伟大的发明

    从来都不是发明出来的,而是进化出来的。文化进化促进语言产

    生的过程和它促进烹饪产生的过程如出一辙。就像每天都要做饭

    一样,我们的日常生活也离不开语言。每一个人类社会都有复杂

    的语言。使用语言是一种进化出的生物本能,虽然我们并不是天

    生就会使用语言,而是必须跟他人学习,但是说话的能力是与生

    俱来的。按照达尔文的话来说,语言是一个充满悖论的谜语——

    “一半是艺术,一半是本能”。

    语言的神经基础尚不清楚,因为人类大脑中没有“语言”中枢,不仅如此,这种能力也似乎非常模糊。从这个角度来看,语言遍布在我们大脑中,就像它遍布在文化中一样。人类出生几个月后就可以说话了。在此之前,他们并没有接受过正规的语言学习,只是听别人的对话而已。这种非凡的能力几乎每个人都具备,即便是智力比较低下的孩子。随着婴儿的成长,这种基因上的天赋也逐渐显现。出生之后,新生儿的身体又小又脆弱,尚未发育完全,需要他人长时间的细心照顾,他们体内的语言基因也需要精心地培养和开发。

    那么,人类的近亲猿类是如何开始说话的呢?一些学者认为,我们的口语是从灵长类的叫声进化而来的。另一种观点则认为口语是从猿类的手势发展而来的。不过最有可能的是,口语是这两者的结合体。直到最近,澳大利亚和北美洲的一些狩猎采集部落还在广泛使用复杂多样的符号语言。举个例子,欧洲殖民者踏上北美洲前,北美洲原住民使用平原手势符号在广袤的北美大陆上交流、讲故事、进行贸易往来。时至今日,全球的听力障碍人群依旧在使用手语。

    即使是人类发出的最无意义的声音也是口腔器官高度复杂

    的协作的结果,所以在说话之前,我们需要有意识地思考想说的

    话是否有必要,然后就会变得字字千金,睿智达意。为了发出更

    多的声音,我们的祖先在身体构造方面出现了一系列变化。首先

    是人类开始直立行走后,肋骨和横膈膜(之前用来支撑前肢)得

    到了解放,由此,我们能更好地控制呼吸,同时也打开了声道。

    另一个重要的变化是喉咙(喉头)降到了舌头后面。它降到舌头

    后面延伸出去的部分,舌头从蹄铁型的舌骨上垂下来。舌骨虽小,

    但很重要。这个变化意义非凡,让我们的声道能更好地发声,同

    时也在发声时给予舌头更多空间,舌头可以放在更多不同的位置,所以我们就能发出元音和辅音。但这种进化风险也很大,喉咙位置降低意味着我们不能再同时吞咽和呼吸,而且比其他灵长类动物更容易窒息,因为其他灵长类动物的喉咙位于鼻腔上方。人类新生儿出生时喉咙的位置比较高,就像潜水时的通气管,所以他们能一边吃奶,一边呼吸。但 3 个月左右大的时候,婴儿的喉咙位置就开始下移。喉咙的下移很有意义,猿类的高喉咙使它们无法像我们一样说话,哪怕经过训练也无法做到。

    每个声音都是气流在喉咙中成千上万次微小碰撞的结果。每

    次发声都依靠喉咙中一对薄薄的、芦苇状的肌肉——声带。在我

    们不说话时,声带会打开,辅助我们呼吸。当我们唱歌或是说话

    时,从肺部呼出的气流冲向声带,声带的边缘快速合拢,受气流

    冲击产生振动,从而发出声音。振动越剧烈,音高就越高。当女

    高音发出华丽的高音时,她的声带正以每秒 1,000 次的频率振动,

    将她肺部爆发出的一股气流转化为足以震碎玻璃的音乐。

    目前尚不清楚人类语言是何时出现的,但是我们的祖先可能和尼安德特人交流过。尼安德特人的喉头也为了说话而发生过适应性变化,他们也有所谓的语言基因,对应我们人类的 FOXP2 基因(控制语言能力发展的基因)。如果这一基因发生突变,那么人可能会在学习说话、发音、理解句子和造句方面存在障碍。

    FOXP2 基因由 740 个碱基组成,存在于许多动物体内。在进化的过程中,这个基因的人类版本和黑猩猩版本出现了两个差异碱基,这个微小的改变具有变革性的意义。我们已经了解到,和黑猩猩的基因相比,人类基因中的这个微小变化改变了其他 100 多个基因的表达。而这些被影响的基因主要与大脑的发育与机能以及软组织的形成与发育有关,因此,FOXP2 基因和人类的语言认知以及发音能力密切相关。研究人员曾经把人类的 FOXP2 基因植入老鼠体内,试验结果显示,植入这种基因的老鼠叫得比以前更频繁,叫声也更复杂,而且它们学习解谜的能力也更强。更好的交流和学习能力给人类带来了许多生存优势,所以有微小变异的 FOXP2基因很快就在整个人类种族中传播开来,人类发明的语言也随之进化。

    加拿大著名实验心理学家史蒂芬·平克提出了“语言本能”

    这一概念。具体是说,人类天生就拥有学习语法规则和上千词汇

    的能力,同时还具有强烈的交流欲望。直立行走解放了人类的双

    手,让我们用其他动物不能做的手势进行交流,其中之一就是指

    向。婴儿出生几个月后才能明白这个动作的含义。到了 12 个月

    大的时候,他们就能自己做这个动作了,由此开始了他们人生的

    第一次“对话”。指向是非常复杂、独特的人类行为,要求我们

    首先要有了解事物的好奇心,其次要对别人头脑中正在发生的事

    情有非常细致的理解。通过指东西,一个孩子可以就一些具体的

    事情进行交流。比如,想要某个东西——给我一个香蕉(命令指

    向),解释某件事或分享信息——你可以用这把椅子,又或是要

    分享某个经验——看那个气球(陈述指向)。最后一项是在思想碰撞中与他人分享观点。这起源于我们对于合作与生俱来的渴望,它是人类作为一个物种进行合作的根本方法。

    交流从眼睛开始。哪怕是对刚刚出生的婴儿来说,只要母亲

    移动眼睛就能影响他注视的方向。相比之下,猿类母亲必须要转

    动新生儿的头,才能让它们知道有要看的东西。为了更清楚地看

    到世界,人类进化出了面积很大的巩膜。我们可以在几米之外察

    觉到别人眼球哪怕 1 度的微小移动(相当于注意点周围 5 厘米范

    围内的移动,大概是从左眼到右眼的距离)。事实上,眼神交流

    是社交认知以及自我意识中非常重要的一部分,所以对于小孩子

    来说,他们很难理解,为什么看不见某人,不代表对方不在场。

    你或许曾经想过这样一个问题:为什么学龄前儿童玩捉迷藏的时

    候只蒙上眼睛?答案就是他们认为自己看不到别人,别人也就看

    不到自己。他们还认为自己听不见耳朵被遮住的人说的话,也没

    办法和嘴被捂住的人说话。

    小孩子能敏锐地察觉到人类交流的本质,同时,他们也天生就拥有通过联合注意力来学习知识的能力。这就意味着他们要经历一个发展期,在这一阶段,他们相信自我必须通过经历才能被感知到。2003 年美国有一项研究,将幼儿分成 3 组,以视频学习、音频学习和真人教学的方法分别教授普通话。结果显示只有那些真人教授的幼儿才真正学有所成。联合注意力是人类有意识学习的开始。所以幼儿无法通过视频、音频或偶尔听父母对话来学习语言,人类还没有进化到这个程度。我们需要互相交流来确认自己和他人的不同。当我们说话时,我们不像有声机器人或闹钟一样简单地发布消息,我们更期望和别人进行思想上的交流,并期望得到回应,哪怕别人只是简单示意他们听到了我们说的话。人类其他情绪性的表达,比如笑和哭,也有非常强烈的交流目的。事实上,笑声极具传染性,尤其是当我们认识的人笑的时候。

    语言作为人类进化出来的另一个重要生存技能,也依赖他人

    进行学习。在我们童年时期,有一小段学习语言的重要时期,如

    果在这一时期没有处在某种语言环境中,那么我们将永远无法像

    真正的母语者一样使用这门语言。语言学习的过程早在孩子出生

    之前就开始了:胎儿能够分辨母亲说话的声音和韵律,而且更喜

    欢母亲的声音。儿童要花费几年时间在不知不觉中掌握语法和词

    汇,还有复杂的肌肉控制和说话所需的运动。就像在文化学习的

    其他方面一样,文化环境在语言学习中也发挥着至关重要的作用:

    从一个孩子 3 岁时听到的词汇量就可以预测出他 9 岁时的学业

    成就。这种差异是由社会因素决定的,而且是显而易见的。一项

    研究显示,3 岁儿童听过的词汇量的差异最多可达 3,000 万个。

    然而,语言技能的差异并不仅仅由听过单词的多少决定。最近一项针对 4—6 岁儿童的研究显示,无论父母的收入水平和受教育程度如何,儿童听到的话轮数量可以很好地预测他们语言能力的发展。成年人主要通过模仿和重复婴儿的动作和咿咿呀呀的语言与婴儿交流,这就是幼儿父母普遍使用的妈妈语。这个看上去无关紧要的口语训练阶段却可能是人类语言发展非常重要的环节。在妈妈语中,有一种类似话轮的对话韵律:母亲以相同的

    顺序,用同样的音调和音高重复婴儿的话。婴儿 3 个月的时候,

    就可以和父母一来一往地交流了,而且只需 600 毫秒的反应时间。

    话轮比正式的语言出现得早,一些灵长类动物和鸟类也会用

    话轮交流。长臂猿就是轮流发出叫声,而类人猿只有动作上的

    “话轮”,没有语言上的话轮。存在话轮行为的物种通常都有极

    高的社会性,而且大多数都有固定配偶,它们彼此投入,去了解

    自己的配偶,了解它们的生存方式和喜好。从交配到合作,话轮

    行为在各种事情中都扮演着重要角色。对人类而言,话轮还增强

    了建立在人与人之间的对话协作本能。不管我们说什么语言,大

    多数人都会遵循话轮行为的潜在规则。除非是和孩子说话,否则

    我们很少会明确地指出某个人说得太多,占用了别人说话的时间。

    我们会用一些方法来让失衡的对话回归正轨,比如打断对话,或

    是让别人笑从而停下对话。

    如果从话轮在普通对话中的发生速度来看,嘴巴要比大脑反应快。说话者在对话时的平均反应速度为 200 毫秒,这可能是人类最快的回应速度,和眨一次眼睛的时间差不多。但是,声音从耳朵传到大脑,明白其中含义,考虑好如何回应,最后说出来,这一过程至少需要 600 毫秒。实时对话的进行依赖于人类大脑精密的预测系统。通过预测别人将要说的话,并同时准备好回应,人类最快反应速度能达到 200 毫秒。每一次话轮基本只会持续2—3 秒,所以,当一方说话的时候,另一方就必须判断出他将要说什么,以便及时做出回应。神经科学家仍然在研究人类是如何同时做到预测对方要说的话并考虑回应的,因为我们大脑的一大块区域同时参与了说话和倾听。据统计,我们每天要进行大约1,500 轮对话。

    在社交世界中遨游,意味着我们要磨炼自己的预测系统,不

    仅要探索物理世界,还要探索他人神秘莫测的思维世界。语言可

    能已经经历了很好的进化,因为它是一种无与伦比的机制,让我

    们能在更大、更复杂的社会环境中预测别人将要说的话。虽然语

    言不会取代其他感官输入,比如眼神和肢体语言的暗示会推翻我

    们对别人话语的理解,但是人与人之间的对话能增进互信,建立

    联盟,传播美誉,还能让人们更容易产生好感。话轮在这其中发

    挥着关键作用。

    在对话过程中,我们的预测系统通过一系列元素来判断加入

    对话的时机。这其中包括语法线索(比如,“如果”后面经常接

    “就”)、面部表情、音高、音调、音量、手势(把手放回膝盖)。

    把句子的重要部分放在对话的开头部分会让加入对话的时机提

    前,因为这样听者对于对话走向和内容的判断会更加自信。这就

    像接力棒的传递过程,其中会有一个临界点(持棒者抬起胳膊的时刻)。此时,听者就开始思考回应的话,等待插入对话的时机。在对话结束之后,说话者会有一个大约 500 毫秒的停顿。如果听者没有在停顿之后做出回应,那说话者就会意识到对话存在问题。

    举个例子,如果说话者说:“你想去喝杯咖啡吗?”但在之后的

    500 毫秒内没有得到回应(北欧人的反应速度会稍慢一些),那么

    说话者就会对问题进行补充或修改,从而推进对话:“或者我们

    可以这周晚些时候去?”如果是否定回答,那么之前的停顿时间

    更长。但是,在进化过程中,为了适应合作,我们更倾向于给出

    积极的回应,所以我们很难拒绝别人。影像学研究显示,我们的

    大脑会对“不”这个词产生抵触情绪。

    学习一门语言是非常复杂的事情,但婴儿很擅长。大部分儿

    童到 5 岁的时候,都可以流利地说话,掌握上万的词汇,并且能

    够非常自然地遵循母语的规则。我们说母语非常流利,不需要学

    习语法,不需要了解词源,更不需要别人教我们如何说话。这是

    一个普遍现象,以天生失聪的儿童为例,他们会自然而然地发展

    出一套手语,而且也有复杂的语法规则,和口语一样丰富多样,

    也和口语使用相同的神经通路。就像眼球不是一种发明而是一种

    进化的结果一样,语言也是文化进化无目的、无意识应对选择压

    力的结果,因此人类语言具有诸如发音简单、易学以及随环境变

    化等特点。

    语言这一极其灵活的交流系统源自事物间复杂的关系。其中

    最简单的关系就是:如果 A=B,且 A=C,那么 B=C。这看似很简

    单,但其实非常复杂,我们并非天生就能理解这些关系,必须经

    过学习。事物之间有 9 种关系,包括相对关系(上对下)、对等

    关系(一幅马的图片和一匹马对应),还有比较关系(大象比老

    鼠大)。生活中所有事情都可以套用这些关系。比如,我们学会

    了如何使用比较关系,那么在比较两个物体的大小时,就可以轻

    易判断出哪一个更大。而且还可以举一反三,将“比较”的方法

    应用于其他新的环境中。儿童 16 个月大的时候就能轻松掌握这

    项技能,虽然听起来很简单,但它是语言认知的核心内容。因为

    这些抽象化的关系可以帮助我们将其应用于其他事物上。所以,

    “球”这个字指球这个物体,虽然它的读音听上去一点也不

    “球”,而且现场也没有实物。最终,我们能够讨论抽象的概念,

    比如,踢足球和看别人踢足球哪个更好?这是人类独有的一种技

    能。许多其他物种只能理解这些关系的基本规则,但不能普遍应

    用这些规则,即使是受过大量语言训练的黑猩猩也做不到这一点。

    人类一旦学会了词语组合和关系的规则,就能用全新的方法

    组合这些文字符号,由此语言就能够像生物进化一样发展,最终

    变得多样且复杂,而字词则是语言的基因。

    我来讲个故事:
    女孩水果摘 转身 猛犸象看见女孩跑 树到达 爬 猛犸象树摇晃 女孩喊叫喊叫 爸爸跑 长矛投掷 猛犸象吼叫 倒下 爸爸石头拿起 肉切 女孩给女孩吃 吃饱 睡觉

    这是以色列历史语言学家盖伊·多伊彻创作的故事,原文没

    有英语语法(事实上是违反了英语语法规则),也没有涉及其他

    语言的语法,但是我们可以轻而易举地理解这个故事。事实上,

    无论用哪一种语言讲这个故事,结果都是一样的。多伊彻用了几

    个自然原则创作这个故事,这些原则深植于我们的认知当中。第

    一,如果某些东西出现在一起,那么就将表示这些东西的词语组

    合在一起(“女孩”和“水果”);第二,根据事情发生的顺序

    对词语进行排序;第三,使用最普通的“主宾谓”语序(研究发

    现,人类会按照主语、宾语和动作的顺序思考。只有 10%左右的

    语言会把动词放在主语前面)。所以“女孩水果摘”要比“水果

    女孩摘”或“摘水果女孩”更好理解,尽管它们都没有遵循主谓

    宾的语法规则。

    不难想象,在语言出现前,人类就已经使用这些简单的组织规则,用手势来讲故事。抽象关系的应用,让我们不再需要在事情发生的地方、在所有人都在场的情况下讲故事,我们可以用语言再现所有的故事元素。我们不需要正式的语法组织语言,只需共同掌握部分词汇(上面的故事里有 24 个英文单词),就可以讲故事,而且别人也能听懂。话说回来,现在我们说话时,25 个单词就支撑起了人类 25%的话语表达。世界上超过 2/3 的语言,常用词汇的发音都相似。

    自此,文化进化稳步提升着人类原语言的复杂性,词汇体系

    和语法规则都在不断完善,语言更清晰易懂。最近有一项研究,

    目的是让人工智能机器人像人类一样,互相说话,内容不限。结

    果显示,人工智能机器人会收集所有的语法结构,进行概括总结,

    并在之后的对话中加以应用。在这一过程中,输出的句子结构往

    往比输入的多。最终,人工智能机器人的语言中出现了人类语言

    的结构,而这仅仅是通过反复的学习和信息传输实现的。

    文字的出现带动了语法上的创新。对英语来说,在过去的5000 年间,类似“之前”(before)、“之后”(after)和“因为”(because of)的连词,让句子结构更长、更复杂。没有这些连词之前,最早的苏美尔语和其他同时代的语言都差不多,读起来枯燥无味。有了这些连词之后,从句就能够顺畅地连接在一起,不至于因为冗长而失去读者。然而,也有一些现存的语言没有表示从属关系的词汇,比如澳大利亚和北极地区的一些语言。和所有积累文化进化的结果一样,只有规模最大、联系最紧密的社会才能创造更高级版本的语言。因此,某种语言的使用者越多,该语言的语音和词汇就越多,而且也会比使用者较少的语言更快地实现多样化。

    我们会发现语言的语法化现象。名词和动词也可以做形容词

    和副词。在这种情况下,随着时间的推移,它们可能会失去原本

    的用法,使用新的意义。比如,气温“火箭式暴涨”。通过在生

    活中的运用,词汇的含义会不断发生变化。“Nice”(美好的)

    这个词来源于拉丁文,原意为无知愚蠢。13 世纪时,这个词带有

    侮辱的含义,用来形容愚蠢。随后,其含义又经历了许多变化,

    到 18 世纪为止,nice 可以理解为荒唐的、夸张的、优雅的、奇

    怪的、谦逊的、稀薄的,以及害羞的或是腼腆的。而现在,这个

    词指讨人喜欢的或善良的。然而,语境决定词语真实的含义。在

    某些圈子中,这个词是“无聊”的委婉表达。隐喻使得语言具有

    歌唱性,在最普通的交流中起着重要的作用。对于一个物种而言,

    如果每个个体都认为所有文字只表示字面上的意义,那这个物种

    中就永远不会出现抽象的概念。

    基因可以在族群间传递,词汇和语言也可以。人类思维灵活,

    可以发明语言,比如世界语和供听力障碍者使用的手语。同时,

    我们也会偶尔重新使用一些古老的语言或已经灭绝的语言,比如

    希伯来语。希伯来语以前仅用于礼拜仪式,后来,它作为以色列

    的官方语言实现了复兴,以色列人每天都会使用。类似的创造和

    重塑十分罕见,但语言一直在稳定地发生变化。就像基因和生物体本身会经历自然选择一样,语法不规则的词语承受着“规则化”的巨大压力,这也是英语中的很多不规则动词都消失了的原因。比如,印欧语的原始语言中的“drove”进化成了日耳曼语中的“drived”。

    从全球来看,年轻女性是引领语言变化和创新的主力军。有时候,男性在这方面会落后一代人。这和社会性别歧视有关:女性通常不会身处高位,所以她们说话时无须字正腔圆。同时,年轻女性非常擅长社交,所以她们说的话会被传开。而当男性试图

    吸引女性的时候,他们就会使用女性创新的语言。举个例子,气

    泡音(或“嘶哑音”)是压缩喉咙发出的声音,美国演员梅·韦

    斯特在 20 世纪 30 年代就使用这种装腔作势的声音说话。现在又

    有很多名流重新使用这种说话方式,比如美国名媛金·卡戴珊。

    而社会价值观,比如性感,也会成为一种语言特征,所以很多人

    为了表现自己的性感,也会使用卡戴珊的语言表达方式。西方年

    轻女性还带来了其他的语言变化,比如把“像”(like)作为一

    种对话中的填充词,或使用升调话语(句子中的音调升高),这

    些语言变化在社会中广泛传播。

    新洋泾浜方言是从早先语言词汇和语法的混合体中一步步进化而来的。基茨德语最初起源于德国的土耳其移民群体,但是现在的年轻德国人,包括没有土耳其血统的人,除了能说一口流利的德语外,也普遍会说基茨德语。英国年轻人现在说的“加法伊腔”,是一种混合了牙买加方言、洛杉矶说唱和伦敦南部俚语的语言(被喜剧演员阿里·G 疯狂嘲讽)。基茨德语和这种语言一样,都和说话人的身份以及他们对自己在社会中的定位紧密相连。如果使用这种语言的群体魅力非凡或非常酷,那么无论年轻人属于哪一种族或有何种社会背景,他们都会使用这种语言。

    不过,与此同时,在英国,英语口音的多样性正在逐步消失。

    14 世纪的时候,英国东南部肯特郡的人甚至听不懂东部地区诺

    福克郡人说的话。如今,越来越多的人说英国东南地区的口音,

    可能是因为很多富人都是这种口音,这就是萧伯纳在《卖花女》

    中描述的那种语言偏见。我们总是会根据交谈对象和对话情景的

    不同,调整自己的语言和口音,比如在写信的时候,我们就会用

    书面语。无论有意还是无意,这种调整都是为了吸引你的对话对

    象。受过高等教育的政治家们在给贫穷阶层做演讲时,会刻意使

    用这类人群更熟悉的“河口英语”。与之相对,《卖花女》中的

    女主角伊丽莎·杜利特尔用发音标准的英语和上层阶级交谈,试

    图以此来提高自己的身份。即使是英国女王也没能避免这种情况,

    她放弃了她坚持了数十年的优雅,不再把 “very” 发 成“veddy”,把“poor”发成“poo-er”。如果英国女王自己都不能说一口标准的“女王英语”,那么又有谁能做到呢?

    语言同身份以及文化归属感紧紧交织在一起。在受到其他因素(如种族)影响之前,小孩子们会模仿说他们母语的人说话。通过和语言习惯相似的人组成团体,年轻女性知道社会上还有人支持她们,她们就能从这个小圈子中获得力量,这也是年轻女性创造新语言的原因之一。生活中,当听到有人和你操着同样的口音,说着同样的语言时,你会自信地认为你们来自同一个地方,有着共同的社会关系,你们可能都支持某种文化价值观,捍卫某些利益。语言是集体归属感的有力标志,同时也将不同的社会团体区分开来。

    世界上没有什么地方能比新几内亚岛更能体现语言的多样性了。这里有 800 多种不同的语言,是地球上语言种类最多的地区。各个群体之间的地理屏障,比如大山、沼泽和河流,都能促进语言在孤立的环境中发生变化。所以,现在在这座岛上,有1,000 多个不同的词汇可以表示“水”。岛民们也将语言视为一种强有力的部落身份证明。为了和临近的村落区分开,一个村落集体决定把表示“不”的词从“bia”变成“bune”。为了与邻居的语言相区别,岛上的另一个群落则故意调换了所有词语的阴阳性。

    全世界都在经历着相同的进程。目前全球一共有 7,000 多种

    语言,也就是说,一种哺乳动物的语言数比哺乳类动物的种类还

    要多。语言学家已经建立起了语言树,用以追溯众多分支语言的

    共同源头,比如印欧语系产生了从英语到梵文的众多语言(不包

    括巴斯克语)。而遗传学家、考古学家和古生物学家们正在利用这一信息追溯人类的分布和多样性。

    一旦可以说话,我们就不会止步于一种语言。地球上大多数

    人都至少会两种语言,而一个人掌握的每一种语言都潜移默化地

    改变着他的大脑、性格和行为。人类语言的文化进化改变着人类

    的生物状态。

    土耳其作家艾丽芙·沙法克说:“在使用不同的语言时,我

    们是不同的人。我们受语言支配,幽默会变,肢体语言也会变。

    就我自己而言,我喜欢用土耳其语描写悲伤,用英语撰写讽刺作

    品。”

    语言塑造着人类的思维方式。在记忆引发事件的人或物方面,

    英语使用者要比日语使用者表现更好。我们用打碎花瓶这个例子

    来说明。英语中会说:“吉米打破了花瓶。”而在日语中,则不

    常提到因果关系中的行为人,所以人们会说:“花瓶碎了。”语

    言中的固有结构对于塑造我们构建现实的方式发挥着深刻作用。

    事实证明,现实和人性会因我们使用的语言产生巨大的差异。我

    们的大脑会发生变化,认知会根据大脑接收的文化输入和做出的

    回应而发生变化。

    用颜色词汇的演变举例,人类群体通常从命名浅色和深色开始,比如黑色和白色,之后出现的通常是红色(大概因为血是红色的)。英语中“红色”这个词过去还指棕色、紫色、粉色、橙色和黄色。然后出现的颜色词通常是黄色或绿色。很多群体都意识不到蓝色的存在,学习了英语之后,他们才第一次了解到蓝色这个颜色种类。许多语言都会吸收其他语言中表示蓝色的词。德语中有很多词都表示蓝色,与英语使用者和纳米比亚的辛巴族人相比,德语使用者能更好地分辨蓝色。辛巴族的语言中没有表示蓝色的词,而且他们很难分辨绿色和蓝色。然而,辛巴族拥有更多描述色调深浅的词汇,辛巴族的儿童也比欧洲人更容易分辨颜色的明暗。

    换句话说,语言这一文化发明影响着我们的认知。在某种程度上,我们如何(以及是否)学习将大脑接收的感觉输入(光的波长)变成语言,实际上决定了我们是否能够有意识地体会到这些感觉。当我们有两样除了颜色之外完全相同的东西时,我们就会创造出一个表示颜色的词。工业化社会要比狩猎采集社会有更多外形相同的事物需要被描述和选择,所以我们就需要能够区分绿色的汽车和蓝色的汽车,还要有一个更丰富的颜色词汇库。在自然环境中,选择不同颜色的东西一般意味着选择不一样的属性,等同于一个标签。某些群体,比如马来半岛的嘉海族很擅长辨别不同的气味,他们的语言中关于颜色的词汇不多,但是有大量关于气味的词汇。

    色彩认知、面部表情的解读、时间观念或方向等都是通过语言习得的文化知识,我们认为这些是人类普遍拥有的概念,而其中却也蕴含着令人惊讶的微小差异。给事物命名打开了一扇通往新认知的心灵之门,是我们了解这个世界的新方法。希伯来语具有典型的性别化特征,而芬兰语则没有,所以说希伯来语的儿童要比说芬兰语的儿童早一年知道自己的性别。

    各种语言在描述方向方面也有很大不同。英语中经常使用左右来描述方向,比如“你的左腿”,但是大约 1/3 的语言都不会这样描述方向。在澳大利亚昆士兰州的北部地区,人们使用古古·伊米德希尔语,英文中的 kangaroo(袋鼠)这个词正是源自这种语言。在这种语言中,人们用东南西北来描述位置和方向:“站在玛丽北边的男孩是我兄弟。”因为每一次交流都需要报告方位,所以说话者必须一直在脑海中辨别方向,才能说出合乎语法的句子。这就要求说话者在组织语言的方式和空间意识方面发生认知变化。如果你打算用古古·伊米德希尔讲一个故事,为了把故事讲清楚,就必须记住故事里走近你的人是从东面来还是从西面来的。因为在类似的语言中,所有动作动词都包含方向。这是一种完全不同的概念框架,非方向型语言的使用者不具备这种能力,但是我们可以学习。

    美国人类学家莱拉·博罗迪茨基就去学习了古古·伊米德希尔:
    在那个社区的第一个月,我感觉自己非常愚蠢,因为这里的每个人都能熟练地使用方向动词,但我不会,大家都很同情我。大约一周后,我一个人散步时,发现脑海中出现了一个小窗口,就像电子游戏里的一样,我就是那个俯瞰图上的小红点,当我转身时,窗口就会调整方向,朝向我面对的风景。我不由自主地惊叹,这样就简单多了。发现这一点之后,我胆怯地告诉了其他人……他们看着我说,就是这样,要不然呢?在这样的社会压力下,为了在语言社群中自如地生活,大脑就会努力创造让我能正常使用其中语言的方法。

    一个多世纪以前,人们就已经确定左脑掌管语言,具体分为两个区域:布罗卡氏区(与言语的产生以及发音有关)和威尔尼克区(与理解能力有关)。这两个区域中的任何一个区域受损都会导致语言和言语方面的障碍,甚至是失语症。然而,在过去 10年中,神经学家们发现事情其实没有那么简单:语言并不仅限于上述两个区域,也不是只存在于大脑的一侧,大脑在我们学习新的语言时会继续发育。最近的研究发现,不同类型和含义的词汇会和大脑的不同区域产生关联。神经学家的研究表明,不同语言中相同含义的词汇对应大脑中的同一片区域。

    双语人士有不同的神经通路对应两种语言,而且,不管使用哪一种语言,两个神经通路都表现活跃。因此,双语者会持续地、下意识地压抑另一种语言的使用,以便能集中精力于正在使用的语言。这一结果首次出现在 1999 年的一项试验中。这一试验要求掌握英俄双语的被试按要求操纵桌子上的物体。主试者用俄语对他们说:“把邮票贴在十字架下面。”但是,在俄语中,邮票一词是“marka”,和英语中的“marker”(马克笔)一词听起来很像。眼动结果显示,被试在听到指令做出正确选择之前,眼睛会在马克笔和邮票之间来回看一看。即使我们在学会了一种语言后并不使用它,但这种语言带来的不同神经模式似乎也会永远印刻在大脑中。加拿大有一些从中国领养的儿童,他们被领养的时候还不会说话,几年之后,通过对他们的大脑进行扫描发现,虽然完全不会说中文,但他们的大脑还是会对汉语元音产生神经识别。

    具备多语能力已经在社会、心理和生活方式方面展现出了优

    势,而且对神经健康也有一定的好处。人类大脑的进化似乎是为

    了掌握多语言,人类的远古祖先可能就具备多语能力。现代的狩

    猎采集部落普遍是多语社会。很多部落都禁止部落或氏族内部的

    通婚,所以每个孩子的父母说的都是不同的语言。澳大利亚的原

    住民仍然使用着 130 多种不同的原住民语言,多语言已经成为当

    地的一种风情。当你和原住民在当地散步聊天时,可能只是跨过

    了一条小河,但你的同伴突然就开始说另一种语言,这是因为地

    区变了,语言也就变了。其他地方也有多语的情况。以比利时为

    例,在列日市乘坐火车时,列车广播使用的第一种语言是法语,

    然后,当火车经过勒芬市时,首先以荷兰语进行广播,等到了布

    鲁塞尔,就又先用法语广播了。

    多语能力对大脑和自我意识有惊人的影响。如果你用英语问我最喜欢吃什么,我就会想象自己在伦敦,并且选出我在那里最爱吃的食物。但如果你用法语问我,我就会想象自己身在巴黎,答案也会有所不同。所以,如果你用不同的语言问我同一个非常私人的问题,我会给出不同的答案。有观点认为,每当你学会一种新的语言,就会有一种新的性格,同时,使用不同的语言也会让人有不同的行为。这一观点意义深远。

    有一项试验是分别给说英语的人和说德语的人播放一些视频,视频里的人都在动,比如一位女士走向她的车。说英语的人将注意力集中在人的动作上,往往会做出“一位女士在走路”的描述。而说德语的人看待事物则更加全面,他们还会注意到动作的目的,所以会(用德语)说:“一位女士朝她的车走去。”出现这种结果的部分原因是两种语言使用了不同的语法系统。与德语不同,英语有——ing 这个后缀,即现在分词,用来描述正在进行的动作。这就使得说英语的人不太能像说德语的人一样,在一个目的不明确的场景里注意到动作的目的。然而,对于使用英德双语的人来说,他们关注的重点是动作还是动作目标,取决于在哪个国家接受测试。如果在德国接受测试,他们就会更关注动作的目的;如果在英国接受测试,就会更关注动作本身,而这些与他们使用哪种语言无关。这一研究表明,文化和语言紧密交织在一起,共同决定着一个人的世界观。

    20 世纪 60 年代,心理语言学先驱苏珊·欧文-特里普要求掌握日英双语的女性把一些句子补充完整。研究发现,造句的结果会因为使用的语言不同而产生很大的差异。举个例子,被试需要补全句子“当我的梦想和家庭产生冲突时……”,用日语补全时,被试会写“我觉得很苦恼”,而用英语则是“我要做我想做的”。通过这个试验,欧文-特里普得出结论,人类的思维是在语言思维中产生的,对于双语者来说,每一种语言都有不同的思维模式。这个想法非同寻常,在之后的研究中也得到了证实。许多双语使用者也表示,当他们说不同的语言时,感觉自己像变了一个人。

    然而,当双语者的大脑在决定使用哪一种语言时,两种语言

    带来的不同思维模式就会不停地产生矛盾。这种情况就与大脑中

    的前扣带皮层有关。前扣带皮层负责执行控制,即让人专注于一

    项任务,排除其他任务的干扰。脑成像研究显示,当双语者使用

    一种语言时,他们的前扣带皮层会持续压抑使用另一种语言的词

    汇和语法的欲望。事实上,仅仅通过观察大脑扫描结果,就可以

    将双语者和单语者区分开。双语人群的大脑前扣带皮层中有更多

    的灰质,因为他们前扣带皮层的使用频率更高。这使得他们在从

    语言和非语言测试到理解他人意思等一系列认知和社交任务中

    都表现得更好。双语能力似乎能让我们心理健康,这一能力在文

    化和生物学层面上被保留下来或许是因为我们学习新语言很容

    易,并且能够在语言间灵活转换,同时还因为在人类历史中,使用双语的情况很普遍。

    许多语言产生的关键就在于我们天生的交流欲望,这种欲望

    来自社会驱动型的大脑,我们希望不必独自在茫茫世界中寻求生

    存,而是可以组建强大的群体,建立合作,依赖整个群体的力量。

    交谈建立并加强了人与人之间的关系,哪怕这些人和我们并不是

    亲属关系,交谈拓宽了我们的社交支持网。但是,如今全球性社

    交网络的成功也正在以惊人的速度加速语言的灭绝,每 14 天就

    有一种语言消失,因为现在世界上 80%的人口只使用 1%的语言进

    行交流。

    我们现在正在研发人工智能回应我们口头指令的功能,甚至开发和我们交谈的功能。人工智能已经充分证明了自己的能力,但是语言绝不仅仅是简单的编码信息,而且机器人也只能是非常原始的交流者。原因在于信息和含义之间存在着微妙但又深刻的差异。信息是嵌在词汇和句子里的,最重要的含义都依赖于说话者和倾听者所处的语境,即文化显影液。这就是为什么不同的人会对同一个句子做出不同的解释,为什么人工智能还不能算人类。美国诗人艾米莉·狄金森把希望描述成“希望长着羽毛,栖息在灵魂深处”;英国诗人约翰·邓恩则把希望说成“她是所有的国度,我是一切的君主”;美国诗人罗伯特·弗罗斯特看到森林中的两条小路,说:“我选择了人迹更少的一条,从此决定了我一生的道路。”这些诗句对于人类来说很好理解,但是人工智能无法像人类一样处理这些信息。顺便一提,这种情况也适用于基因信息,因为它的解码要依靠化学分子的“语境”。

    语言赋予人类无与伦比的能力,来传达无穷无尽的思想。我们用语言讲述自己的故事,这是后文要探讨的内容。

    第八章 讲述:构建人类的信任

    想象一下,如果一个孩子生于 20 世纪 70 年代,长在美国亚拉巴马州的农村,还在他妈妈和祖母开办的单班学校里度过了童年,那这个孩子的眼界可能会受限,见识不够广博。毕竟,这个孩子生活的环境是当时发展滞后的美国农村,身边能教导他的人屈指可数。

    但是年幼的吉米·威尔士却找到了摆脱这种限制的道路:读《世界百科全书》。在他 3 岁时,他的妈妈从一个旅行推销员那里买来了这套书。可以识字读书后,吉米就被这套书深深地吸引了。书中引人入胜的内容让他欲罢不能,不由自主地从一个条目转到下一个条目,就连参考文献他都读得津津有味。参考文献为他开辟了更多了解世界、获得知识的道路,吉米后来回忆称:“参考文献会让人迷失其中。”

    《世界百科全书》的内容每年都会更新,并随书附赠有关新内容的贴纸,吉米和他妈妈每年都会一起将贴纸贴在书中对应的位置。这些经历孕育了一个大胆的想法。

    40 年后,吉米·威尔士凭借期货交易,身家超过百万美元,但他没有忘记自己对百科全书的热爱。他将自己对编码的兴趣和最初的这份热爱结合了起来,准备投资建立一个网络百科全书,并召集相关学者撰写百科条目。一开始,他设计了同行审校程序层层把关,保证条目的质量,但这导致编撰过程缓慢枯燥,而且会耗费大量时间和精力。后来,威尔士新聘的哲学博士拉里·桑格提议,利用维基这种在网络上开放且可供多人协同创作的超文本系统编撰网络百科全书,这样一来,每个网络用户都可编辑条目内容。区别于自上而下的传统发布结构,维基可以利用每一位用户身上的创造力,迅速产出内容。

    2001 年,维基百科正式面世。截至本书写作时,维基百科有

    约 71,000 名活跃的条目贡献者,他们用 299 种语言撰写了 4 700

    多万个条目,以平均每秒 10 次编辑的速率更新着网站内容。维

    基百科英文版目前收纳了 560 多万个条目,大约是《大英百科全

    书》的 50 倍。不过,维基百科最为人称道的不是条目的数量,

    而是其内容的准确度。维基百科在科学报道领域的准确度和《大

    英百科全书》的准确度相差无几。《大英百科全书》聘请了包括

    诺贝尔奖得主在内的大量专家学者撰写书中的条目,维基百科则

    没有聘用任何的条目编撰者,也不要求他们有相关资质。我们大

    可不必为此感到惊讶,因为编撰维基百科的过程就是几十万年来

    社会不断积累、编辑和更新文化信息这个进程的缩影。

    维基百科让我们看到了累积性文化进化的过程。语言为这种进化提供了可能性。它能保证人类将翔实具体的文化信息忠实地传递下去,并能让信息同时传递给许多人,从而促进复杂多样的技术、社会、线上条目等其他事物的发展。除此之外,还有一点很重要,那就是语言极大地提高了教学水平。所以,语言的出现对人类先祖时代的文化进化产生了巨大的影响,或者说,语言其实就是当时文化进化的主要动力。

    从本质上来说,语言和其他所有的交流方式一样,都具有社会性。其他灵长类动物通过一对一的梳毛行为加强群体成员之间的联系,而语言的产生让人类在做其他事情的同时,还能与他人谈天说地、互相恭维,甚至可以彼此八卦,并迅速地将对话内容传播开来。语言以最高效省力的方式,帮助我们维系和加强社会成员之间的联系。语言有助于凝聚社会,帮助个人生存,并让我们同上百万人展开合作,而不是区区几十人。随着人类社会的规模越来越大,结构越来越复杂,与我们自身并无交集的人也越来越多,我们越来越依赖每个人的声誉信息,帮助我们在茫茫人海中找到值得投入精力、时间和资源与之交往的人。

    任何人都能编辑维基百科的条目,也可以创建新的条目,不过这也意味着,任何人都可以在条目中添加错误、虚假或带有偏见的信息。但是,维基人随时都做好了更正错误信息或反驳一面之词的准备,而且更正只需几秒钟。维基百科的成功完全依赖于它的声誉:首先,条目中陈述的内容都附有参考文献或信息来源,以便用户自行判断内容的可信度;其次,维基百科会根据条目编辑者的工作经验给他们排名。此外,维基百科的条目也会影响被收录人物的形象,因为条目内容一方面可以提高其知名度,另一方面则可能会曝光有损其形象的丑闻。出于对维基百科的信任,每月都有数亿人访问维基百科。通过在这个体现着集体智慧的网站上搜索,他们减少了个人记忆和研究需要消耗的能量。

    如果我们将重要和值得信任的内容传播给大众,那我们就用语言给人类的文化进化施加了极强的选择压力,因为这些声誉信息告诉了我们要模仿谁、要模仿什么、要信仰什么以及要如何行事。

    为什么要花费时间编撰维基百科条目?为什么要帮助一群

    素不相识的人?最令人信服的回答是,因为人类一直以来依靠社

    会群体生存,而包括上述做法在内的利他行为构建了社会的凝聚

    力。我们的群体越强大,在和其他群体的竞争中就能表现得越好,

    这样我们每个人的生存概率就越高。对人类基因存续十分重要的

    不是竞争,而是合作,它让我们形成了公平公正、与人为善的默

    认行为模式。而且为了促进人与人之间的合作,我们花费了大量

    精力,为这种积极的社会行为打造美誉。不同的群体有不同的道

    德准则,对人类来说则是不同的文化有不同的道德准则。尽管道德准则千差万别,但还是有共同之处。比如,我们尊重彼此的财产权,所以偷盗在任何一种文化中都是绝对不可触碰的红线。社会合作和利他行为是相互配合的两种社会工具,累积性文化进化依靠它们创造了复杂多样的社会,并利用它们管理社会。

    在过去的研究中,生物学家曾认为,人性向善的原因和影响

    其他动物进化的因素如出一辙,也就是说,人类和其他动物都相

    信,与人为善和乐于助人会直接或间接地帮助自己的亲属,从而

    保证自己基因的存续。蚂蚁等存在利他行为的动物个体之间联系

    十分紧密,由此可见,利他行为确实能够帮助动物们延续基因。

    对人类来说,无论是人口众多还是人口稀少的群体,这个道理也

    同样适用。但是,仅仅是“人与人之间存在亲属关系”这个原因,

    并不能解释为何大多数人类群体的行为本质上都是利他行为,因

    为人类群体的规模过于庞大,我们和陌生人之间的交集过多,尤

    其是人类体内还有自私的基因。在这种基因的影响下,我们很难

    相信人们会做出利他行为。

    人类之所以会进化成合作的群体或许还有一个解释,即人人

    为我,我为人人。就像在原始社会时期一样,你给我挠痒,我也

    给你挠痒。这种具有互惠性质的利他行为能很好地解释人与人之

    间为什么会有长久的联系,但没有解释为什么我们做了那么多好

    事却不留名,小到给陌生人扶门,大到无偿献血。我们也并不期

    望我们帮助过的陌生人哪天找到我们,回报我们。不过,他人会看见并模仿我们善意的举动。大脑进化出了镜像神经元,让我们能对他人的行为或经历产生共情反应,帮助大脑敏锐地接受社会暗示,促使我们从婴儿时期就能模仿他人的行为。我们可以模仿

    他人的社会行为,而且当模仿大家喜欢或尊敬的人所做的事和选

    择时,我们会收获很多快乐。换言之,随着更多的人模仿被交口

    称赞的人,这些好人实际上是在帮助整个社会变得更加美好。

    一项研究发现,当司机主动给十字路口等待通行的车让路后,

    那些被让路的司机在以后的生活中会更愿意给其他车让路,算是

    一种对当初给他们让路的司机的“回报”。善意总是会这样传递

    下去,激励每一个人成为更好的人。我们会在等待时排队,为陌

    生人扶门,咳嗽时捂嘴。这些善意的举动每天都会发生,虽然只

    是举手之劳,却能创造出一个互帮互助的社会。在这个社会里,

    不用担心门会拍到我们脸上。在数千代人的发展中,这些善意的

    行为已将我们驯化,让人类普遍学会了合作,让群体之间的凝聚

    力得以增强,最终增强了每个人的体质,从而能生存下去。会合

    作的人往往更容易成功,而自私的人家族不会兴旺,也不会家财

    万贯。

    不过,从进化的角度来看,一些利他主义的行为并没有什么意义。2018 年 3 月,在法国西南部的卡尔卡松市,一名“伊斯兰国”武装分子手持枪械,在当地超市里劫持了数名人质。警方成功说服该男子释放其他人质,只留下一位女性人质。男子威胁称,如果他的要求得不到满足,他就杀了这名女性。此时,一位名叫阿诺·贝尔特拉姆的警官做出了最高境界的利他行为,他要求用自己去替换那名女人质。最后,贝尔特拉姆警官被歹徒枪杀,那

    名女人质活了下来。贝尔特拉姆的利他行为对他基因的存续没有

    任何好处,因为女人质和他没有任何关系。但他舍生取义的伟大

    行为,鼓励着人们多做善事,使得警察机制建设得以加强。贝尔

    特拉姆的行为得到了举国上下的赞许,这不仅为他自己赢得了美

    誉,其家庭的社会地位也因此得到了提升。尽管这种极致的利他

    行为似乎和基因进化的规则相反,但从文化进化的角度来说,这

    种行为十分合理。在整个事件中,贝尔特拉姆扮演着两个角色,

    一个是社会角色——服务法国民众的警官,另一个是宗教角色—

    —天主教徒,天主教有舍己为人的教义。贝尔特拉姆的利他行为

    让他所在的群体(法国人民和天主教徒)更加强大,提升了群体

    成员的生存概率。

    随着进化过程的推进,合作逐渐成为人类的一种天赋。我们

    不再需要花费过多的时间和精力去思考与人为善的目的和做法,

    因为它慢慢变成了大家默认的行为模式。这是因为,在许多情况

    下,出于个人利益的行事对集体利益不利。数据统计显示,合作

    才能实现个人和集体的双赢,经典的思想实验“囚徒困境”可以

    对此进行解释。一个犯罪团伙的两名成员被捕,警察将他们关在

    不同的牢房里,两人无法交流。虽然知道他们有罪,但检察官在

    提审罪犯时,却因为证据不足而无法定罪。于是检察官和罪犯进行了一场交易:要么揭发对方,要么保持沉默。如果罪犯彼此背叛,即互相揭发了对方,那么他们每人各坐两年牢;但是如果只有一人揭发,另一人保持沉默,那么被揭发的一方坐三年牢,揭

    发的一方被释放;如果双方都保持沉默,那每人各坐一年牢。这

    样来看,背叛另一个人似乎是最理智的选择,但如果两个人都只

    考虑了自己的利益而选择背叛对方,那么两个人最后都会坐两年

    牢。如此一来,以个人利益行事的两人得到了最坏的结果,加起

    来总共 4 年的刑期。事实上,他们最好的选择是都保持沉默。现

    实世界中有很多这样的例子,所以合作就逐渐成为我们的默认行

    为模式。

    耶鲁大学人类合作实验室进行了一次公共物品博弈的实验

    研究。研究以游戏的形式进行,玩家(被试)被分成不同的小组,

    并且要给自己的小组捐钱,小组最终筹到的钱款将由所有组员平

    分。研究发现,如果要求玩家迅速决定捐多少钱,他们会下意识

    地捐出数量较多的钱。而且他们也知道,这类社会困境和所有合

    作一样,都是建立在相信小组中的其他人会和自己一样慷慨解囊

    的信任之上。可即便如此,他们还是会做出同样的选择。游戏中

    4 人成组,组里每个人拥有的钱数相同,小组最后收到的钱会在

    翻倍之后平分给 4 人。此时,如果大家将所有的钱都捐给小组,

    最后每个人分到的钱都会加倍。双赢!现实生活中有很多不能以

    一己之力支付的集体项目,比如建医院、挖沟渠,但是每个人都

    可以向这些项目贡献一点资金,让生活变得更好,只是每个人在贡献时都有一定的风险。从经济层面来说,人越自私,挣的钱就越多。回到游戏中来看,从个人捐款来说,如果一个玩家捐出1美元,按照游戏规则,1 美元会变成 2 美元,最后分成 4 份,这就意味着组里的人能从 1 美元中得到 50 美分的回报;但如果你捐得比他人少,自然就可以从小组的捐款中获得更多的回报。所以,一个人会尽可能少地捐款,然后从别人慷慨的捐款中受益,这是有经济原理的。如果给玩家时间思考自己要给小组捐多少钱,他们通常会否决本能驱使下做出的决定,不再慷慨大方。

    每当帮助陌生人时,我们都需要解决他们可能会借机利用我们的问题。对此,人类社会的解决办法是“胡萝卜加大棒”。从长远来看,与群体合作有利于人的生存和发展,所以对人类来说,待在群体中是符合自身利益的选择,尽管有时与他人合作会牺牲一定的个人利益。这就给了群体可以控制其成员行为的力量:是否能待在群体中并从中受益,取决于个人在合作中表现的好坏。像人类祖先生活的小规模群体,所有人的互动对象都是未来可能会相见或有交集的人,这样就产生了声誉威胁。因为不论是善举还是恶行,人们对彼此的行为都很熟悉,因此大家都十分爱惜自己的声誉,不想让声誉受损。这种爱惜让人不过激、不自私。

    群体中的合作会给所有人带来好处,从而推动大家进行更多的合作,带来更多的好处,由此形成一个良性循环。反之亦然,我们可以学坏。人想要合作的天性是由社会决定的。我们一生都在学习如何让自己更好地帮助别人和与他人合作。在公共物品博弈的游戏中,被要求快速决定的玩家大都十分慷慨,收到了可观的分红后,他们更加相信慷慨是值得的。但是,被要求思考后决定的玩家就会比较自私,捐的数额较少,导致整个小组收到的款项较少,最后的分红也不可观。如此,这类玩家就更加确信不能依赖小组。之后,研究人员进行了第二阶段的实验,他们在快速决定和思考后决定的实验小组中分别选了一些已经进行过几次博弈游戏的玩家,给了他们一笔钱,并问他们会给素昧平生之人捐多少钱。这一次,玩家的捐赠不会有任何金钱上的奖励,也就是说,他们的所作所为完全是出于善意。

    结果显示,玩家的慷慨程度存在很大差异。那些习惯合作的玩家捐赠的钱款数额是那些习惯自私的玩家的 2 倍。仅凭在合作中有或没有获利这一段短暂的经历,在没有任何奖励或惩罚机制的情况下,人们就能改变自己内在的行为准则和具体的行为。这表明,人类的思想具有极强的可塑性,文化环境对塑造人类的行为模式具有极大的影响力。所以,即便人类生来就具有做出某种行为的倾向,这种倾向也会受到影响。

    耶鲁大学人类合作实验室还测试了不同国家的人在公共物品博弈游戏中的表现,以期发现政府、家庭、教育体系和法律体系等对人类个体行为的影响。肯尼亚的公共部门腐败程度较高,美国的相对较低,所以肯尼亚玩家给小组的捐款比美国玩家的少。这表明,社会制度越公平,人们就越具有公共精神;社会制度的可靠性越低,人们就更倾向于保护自己。但是,在玩过了仅一轮合作版(快速决定)的公共物品博弈游戏之后,肯尼亚玩家再次捐出的钱数就和美国玩家的一样了。反过来也一样,美国玩家玩了一轮自私版(思考决定)的游戏之后,捐出的钱少了很多。所以,文化环境的确会影响人们的合作行为,但是我们的思想意识足够灵活,能够迅速适应其他社会环境。

    无论我们身处何种社会环境中,人类群体都不是同质个体的

    集合体,而是由复杂多样的个体组成的网络。网络的互联性会影

    响行为和信息在其中的传递。有的网络,比如一个人口稀少、位

    置偏僻的村落,其中的人紧密相连,村里的人可能认识聚会中的

    每个人;而有的网络,比如人口众多的城市,尽管其中的人们住

    得更近,但是他们不太可能认识聚会中的每个人。不同的人际网

    络,性质也有所不同,它们影响着群体整体的行为,还会影响其

    中个体的行为,这在城市和乡村中有明显的体现。社会心理学家

    正在通过调整人际网络的形态和有影响力的人在其中的位置,研

    究人际网络的作用。耶鲁大学人性实验室的尼古拉斯·克里斯塔

    基斯率领其团队进行了一项实验。该实验搭建临时的虚拟社会,

    邀请玩家进入其中体验,观察他们的互动方式以及他们会如何对

    待彼此。克里斯塔斯基会在游戏中操控人际网络,调整玩家之间

    的互动联系。“我可以让玩家对彼此十分友好,合作十分愉快。

    玩家在虚拟社会中身心健康,生活幸福,而且愿意合作,”他说,“但对同一批玩家,如果我用完全不同的方式操控他们的人际网络,他们会对彼此十分刻薄,表现得又蠢又坏,还不会合作,更别提共享信息了。”

    在虚拟社会中,克里斯塔斯基还会随机挑选彼此陌生的玩家

    组成小组,进行公共物品博弈游戏。他说:“一开始的时候,2/3

    的人都会选择合作(慷慨解囊),但一些人会利用他人的慷慨捐

    款。玩家面临的选择只有继续合作和背叛合作(自私),于是很

    多人到最后都会选择背叛合作,因为他们受够了别人一直占自己

    的便宜。”到了游戏的最后,他说:“每个人都是坏人。”后来,

    克里斯塔斯基稍微改动了一下虚拟社会游戏的规则,即每玩一轮

    公共物品博弈游戏之后,玩家可以自行选择接下来要与谁来往。

    “玩家需要进行两个选择:我是否要与邻居友善相处,我

    是否要和这个邻居待在一起。”克里斯塔斯基解释道。游戏会提

    示玩家,他们的邻居在上一轮公共物品博弈中选择了合作还是背

    叛。这个小小的改动帮他证明了人会切断自己和背叛者之间的联

    系,同合作者建立联系,这样一来,整个社会网络会自己变成一

    个亲社会型的结构,而不是不合作的结构。上述实验都揭示了人

    类如何在代代合作中形成了合作型社会。

    人类利用声誉维系社会运转。在这种机制下,行为卑劣的人会被惩罚,不与他人合作的人会被移出社交网络。而我们的意识中还会自带声誉警察,监督我们的行为。我们能对他人的行为产生共鸣,将心比心、换位思考。在最近一项实验中,被试需要选择自己或素昧平生之人接受痛苦(但无害)的电击,之后会得到一笔现金。被试拿到钱后,研究人员对其进行了脑部扫描。结果显示,同一个被试选择他人接受电击时,没有选择自己接受电击

    时开心,即便前一种情况拿到的钱更多。在我们的大脑看来,不

    义之财不如脚踏实地挣来的钱有价值。在童年时期,我们发展出

    了自我意识,它让我们可以清楚地认识自己,并根据他人对我们

    的认识和看法调整自己的行为。少数智商较高的群居动物也可以

    在一定程度上形成所谓的心智理论能力,不过它们的这种能力并

    没有人类的发展得好。但人类也不是天生就具备心智理论能力。

    在一项经典的实验中,研究人员向一位孩童展示了一个娃娃

    和两个有盖的盒子。一个成年人进入了实验室,将娃娃藏在了一

    个盒子里,随后离开了房间。第二个成年人也进来了,他将娃娃

    从原先的盒子中拿了出来,放入另一个盒子里。接着,第一个人

    回到房间,准备取出娃娃。当他向旁边一直观察着的孩童询问娃

    娃放在哪个盒子里时,孩童会指向装有娃娃的那个盒子。实验发

    现,只有当孩童到了 4 岁时,她才会意识到她对房间的认知不同

    于问她问题的成年人,也就是说,她和其他人对同一个事物有不

    同的看法。一旦孩童意识到了这种不同,她会获得巨大的社会力

    量,并借此操纵他人的想法,向其他人讲故事,这个故事可以被

    编成对她自己有利的内容。说谎需要很强的认知能力。一个人想要说谎,必须编一个虚拟的情况,然后向他人描述;同时他还要记清楚到底发生了什么事情,并能够区分谎言和现实。撒谎者首先要明白,听自己说话的人对事情的理解与自己并不相同;其次撒谎者要了解听众知道些什么,听众对事情有着怎样的理解,这会让人筋疲力尽。有理论认为,我们的大脑是从一场军备竞赛中培养出了这种说谎的能力,即马基雅维利主义式的智慧。灵长类动物专家发现,猿行骗可能性的高低与其大脑大小有关。

    对人类这样一个社会性很强的物种来说,能够操纵他人是我

    们的进化优势,也是我们这个物种独有的优势。人类逐渐成长为

    专业的操纵者,操纵能力构成人类社会中笑话、故事、政治和犯

    罪的基础。不过,整体来看,人类还是会互帮互助、与人为善,

    还是会多多体谅他人,还是会履行道德义务。在人类社会中,诚

    实守信、体谅他人和心地善良都是十分珍贵的品质,我们会将其

    转换为现实世界的经济利益。

    我们都从美好的社会中受益,因为在很多社会制度中,人们

    的利益起码有一部分是重合的。对人类祖先来说,随着群体越来

    越大,每个人需要同与自己非亲属关系的人,即对自己幸福生活

    投入较少的人,进行越来越多的合作。因此,社交技巧就越来越

    重要。处理好大量的社会关系可以让我们更有效率地生活,让我

    们合作开发、共同使用资源,在更大的基因库里找到自己的伴侣,

    从而帮助我们提高繁衍的成功率。同时,它还能扩大我们的文化资源库,帮助我们生存。

    但是,生活在大规模群体中的人,享受着大群体带来福利的

    同时,彼此间的竞争也更加激烈,承担的压力也更大,这让人们

    需要运用更高的认知水平来适应整个群体的社会环境。比如,人

    们需要缔结、保护和发展同盟,需要记得每个人的名声和他们在

    社会阶层中的地位,还需要花费时间和精力去了解哪些人值得信

    任,而这要以牺牲自我照顾、打猎和其他活动为代价。因此,在

    人类进化过程中,大脑体积的急剧增长主要发生在新皮质区绝不

    是巧合。新皮质区主要负责社会认知加工,该区的皮质皱起越多,

    语言所需的大脑连通性越强。大群体为语言的进化带来了选择压

    力,而语言的进化推动大群体进入下一阶段的进化。

    20 世纪 90 年代,英国进化人类学家罗宾·邓巴发现,在灵

    长类动物间,群体规模的大小和该物种的新皮质面积大小有着十

    分紧密的联系,也就是所谓的邓巴数。由于新皮质面积的限制,

    大多数猿的群体规模为 30 只左右,而脑容量较大的黑猩猩的社

    交圈则有 50—60 只黑猩猩。在人类进化的过程中,我们大脑的

    体积增长了 3 倍多,新皮质面积也随之扩大,帮助我们扩大了社

    交网络的规模。人类的有效社交网络规模约为 150 人,其中的社

    交关系包括信任和责任,这个数字就是邓巴数。不管是末日村庄

    和现代狩猎采集社会中每个人的平均朋友数量,还是现代社会中

    每个人圣诞贺卡的平均寄送数,抑或脸谱网用户的平均好友数,都同邓巴数十分吻合。不过,目前有迹象表明,互联网社群会将这一数字扩大至 200 以上(在我们见到的众多面孔中,大脑可以识别5000人左右)。

    对人类的近亲灵长类动物来说,梳毛极耗时间,而且在较大

    的群体中,梳毛会变得十分复杂、难以应对。人类的群体规模较

    大,社会生活复杂,为了应对这种情况,人类进化出了闲聊。确

    实,有关猩猩的研究表明,当猩猩在新环境中需要依赖另一只猩

    猩一起行动时(梳毛除外),它们仅仅放大了梳毛时所用的叫声

    进行交流。由此可见,这种“交流”在某种程度上等同于梳毛;

    同时我们还能得出结论,灵长类动物生活的群体越大,它们的叫

    声就越大。闲聊八卦对人类的作用和梳毛对猩猩的作用是一样的。

    而且人类的很多闲谈或者玩笑都是客套话,其中的内容本身并不

    重要,重要的是人们想借此寻求合作。我们谈论天气是为了建立

    和维持社会关系,让我们能够与原先没有关系的人展开合作。闲

    谈最终的目标是让我们的听众在闲谈的过程中感觉良好并喜欢

    上我们,但它是一种后天习得的技能。孩童在这方面总是做得不

    好,比如,他们会认真地回答“最近怎么样”这类寒暄性问题。

    通过闲聊,人们可以找到共同点,建立于共同点之上的聊天

    可以让人们彼此产生好感,进而分享自己的经历。如此一来,原

    本需要很多天才能完成的活动便能压缩进短暂的聊天时间里,减

    少了缔结重要社会关系所需的时间和精力。随着不断进化,人类逐渐爱上了这种聊天。与他人交流观点、分享信息会激活人类大脑的奖励中枢,让我们心情愉悦。与其他物种相比,人类的童年期很长,整体寿命也更长。在漫长的一生中,我们总会需要他人的帮助,所以,与直系亲属之外的可靠之人建立人际关系十分有用。

    在人类之间的对话中,至少 60%的内容都是关于不在场的第

    三方的八卦。我们会在聊天中了解第三方的声誉,甚至会给他们

    编排一些事情,影响他们的声誉。声誉由社会创造,既会给我们

    的行为带来深远影响,又让我们在与他人开始交往前,就能大概

    了解他人,帮助我们节省人际交往时所花的力气。一个人的行为

    往往一以贯之,他们过去的表现会是他们未来表现很好的写照。

    以贸易为例,进行贸易需要双方的高度信任。如果你准备用

    一捆精心制作的箭换取一件皮斗篷,你必须要相信得到自己箭的

    那个人能够履行他的承诺,给你带来皮斗篷(他用你的箭射中野

    牛,而这头牛的皮就是给你制作皮斗篷的原料)。在规模较小、

    联系紧密的群体中,这种以物换物相对容易实现,但随着群体规

    模逐渐扩大,它就不那么容易实现了。如果想要拥有一个好名声,

    人们必须要拥有良好的人际关系,而且自己所属的不同人际关系

    网络需要相互联通。人类的大家庭可以满足这个条件。人类是唯

    一一种通过婚姻将配偶及姻亲看作自己亲戚的灵长目动物,因此

    人类可以扩大人际关系网络。人类有语言,所以每个人有自己的名字,我们可以凭借自己或自己朋友的声誉,认识朋友的朋友、朋友的亲戚来层层扩展我们的社交网络,甚至扩展到其他群体中。邓巴数字理论提到的 150 人可以来自不同的群体,我们的社交网络也会涉及不同的群体和文化。这样一来,即使我们和朋友所属的部落或群体之间竞争激烈,我们和朋友还能以个人身份展开合作。

    我们的生存和我们基因的存续取决于我们在复杂社会中的

    地位,声誉在这样的世界中起到了非比寻常的重要作用。好的名

    声能够帮助我们在所有的人际交往中占据先机,即好的名声让我

    们更有可能得到别人的帮助,让我们的孩子更有可能得到他人的

    照料。相反,坏名声则会带来最严重的社会惩罚,被他人排斥,

    甚至导致死亡。但是,尽管我们自身在树立自己声誉的过程中起

    到很大的作用,我们却不能完全控制它,因为即便我们死了,我

    们的名声还会在众人口中流传。我们可能流芳百世,也可能遗臭

    万年。如果一个人已经听过关于某人的故事,且故事具有说服力,

    那么仅仅通过那个人的行为,很难判断此人的好坏,因为我们的

    社会学习绝大多数是基于模仿他人,而不是生成自己的新想法和

    新观点。实验表明,我们和陌生人一起玩信任游戏时,即便是玩

    了几轮之后,和他一起玩过的上一位玩家(上一位玩家和我们同

    这位陌生人玩家的游戏时长相近)的说法,依然会影响我们对这

    位陌生人的可信任程度的判断(基于游戏经验)。不过,如果我们能够亲眼看到陌生人在上一轮游戏中的表现,那么我们在下一轮和陌生人合作的概率约为 60%。如果我们同时听到了一些正面的小道消息,合作概率则会上升到 75%。但是,如果我们听到了一些不好的八卦流言,合作的概率会下降至 50%,即便这些传言同我们亲眼所见的事实相悖,即便传出八卦的人根本没玩几轮游戏,我们也依旧会选择相信这些传言。

    想要讨人喜欢的想法给我们带来了很大的压力,让我们在与

    他人意见相左时,不能大胆地表达自己的意见,让我们想被他人

    注意到并成为群体中受欢迎的一员。这就导致社交媒体上出现越

    来越多的极端观点,导致一个先前名声清白的人可能会因为一点

    小事毁了自己的声誉,甚至会导致极端狂热追随者的出现。对于

    生活在小群体中的人来说,成也八卦,败也八卦;对大群体中的

    人来说,八卦的风险会更高。古代有拉美西斯二世将每场战役都

    说成埃及的胜利,如今有很多新闻媒体和网站被屏蔽,可以说掌

    控声誉的战役已经从荒谬走向了极端。我们对通过八卦传递的社

    会信息有一种天然的依赖。对那些污蔑某人或某个群体,并想要

    借此引发社会变革的人来说,这种依赖让社会信息成为他们的武

    器。一个很经典的笑话反映了这个道理。20 世纪 30 年代,一位

    犹太人十分高兴地读着《冲锋队员》,要知道这份报纸可是反犹

    刊物,是纳粹分子的宣传阵地。他的朋友对此感到十分困惑,于

    是他向朋友解释道:“如果你读的是犹太人写的文章,那么整个

    世界看起来一片黑暗,没有希望。但你读《冲锋队员》时,就完

    全没有这种感觉!在《冲锋队员》的报道中,我们掌控了银行,掌控了国家,甚至还掌控了整个世界!”

    文化法令警告我们不要作伪证,不要说别人坏话,这被法国思想家罗兰·巴特称为“语言谋杀”。但是,对于人与人相互依存的社会而言,八卦是监管社会的必要工具。它能将做错事的人、自私自利的人和反社会的人带回正轨,保证社会中的每个人都能各司其职。八卦不好的一面体现在每个人都可能成为“施暴者”,但好的一面是每个人都可以传播八卦。一个人要想挑战他人,其身体不需要足够强壮,只需要利用八卦就可以挑战。这样一来,八卦就可以通过非暴力的方式纠正反社会行为。

    有人监管时,我们会更加注意自己的行为举止。窃贼都有一个习惯,他们在进入别人家里偷东西时,会把这家人的全家福倒扣在桌上,因为他们不想被人看见自己正在做坏事。同理,仅仅是在商店的墙上挂上一幅眼神犀利的照片,就能减少小偷入店行窃的情况发生。

    一神教中的神通常无所不知、无处不在,监视着我们的一举一动并进行终极审判,根据我们的行为决定我们是下地狱还是进天堂。犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教是一神教的三大教派,它们的祈祷书中都有一位可以看透我们思想和内心并对我们进行神圣审判的神灵。比起善行,大多数神灵对恶行更感兴趣。宗教在社会选择的压力下不断发展,其目的是管理规模不断扩大的社会。正如《荷马史诗》中描述的诸神一样,一个社会选择哪种宗教似乎在一定程度上取决于这个社会需要什么类型的监管。规模较大的社会通常会选择在人类事务和道德方面发挥积极作用的至高神,因为这类社会通常需要陌生人之间相互配合来创造财富,增加税收。事实上,信奉这类会干涉人类世界、惩罚人类的神灵可能是人类的一种适应手段,以此促进相隔较远的群体之间的大规模合作。近期,社会人类学家用一款网络游戏验证了这个想法。游戏要求有宗教信仰的个人玩家将钱在玩家自己、本地教友、远方教友和一些欧美人较少信奉的宗教的教徒之间进行分配。涉及的宗教包括佛教、基督教、印度教和包含万物有灵论及祖先崇拜等教义的宗教。研究人员发现,如果教徒信奉会惩罚恶行的神灵,那么这些教徒对相距较远的教友会更加慷慨(他们与其他人的共同点对他们本身的行为影响较小,比如彼此住得很近)。这种将神作为道德化身的做法能够帮助人们扩大合作。一个无所不知的神可帮助人们提高自己的声誉,这样或许可以弥补由于群体不断扩大带来的社会声誉较弱的缺陷。人们通常认为信教人士会比一般人心地更加善良,更乐意与他人合作,更值得信赖。不过,信教人士的这些优秀品质只在和他们价值观相同的人士的交往中才有所体现。

    羞耻和内疚是两种声誉化的情绪。随着人类的生活范围从规模较小的部落逐渐发展到较大的群体,人类文化在不断地利用这两种情绪。猿没有羞耻和内疚这两种情绪,羞耻和内疚是人类与生俱来、普遍拥有的情绪。通过羞辱他人来降低他人的自我评价,会对他人造成严重的生理和心理影响。因为人类身体对羞耻的反应和它对物理伤口的反应一样:压力荷尔蒙皮质醇飙升,炎症反应加重。如果持续时间过长,会对身体造成一定的伤害。

    许多社会将羞耻作为左右社会成员行为的主要因素,比如日本就是耻感文化的代表。在这类文化中,他人的看法比内疚感对个人行为的影响更大。而在美国等罪感文化中,人们不在乎他人的看法,不在乎是否羞耻,更多的是做到问心无愧,依靠良知规范自己的行为。社会道德水平的主要驱动因素究竟是羞耻还是内疚,主要取决于社会连接的紧密程度与八卦传播之间的关系。关系稳定且紧密的社会中,人与人之间非常熟悉,典型的代表是村民喜欢闲聊天的小村庄。在这样的村庄中,人们喜欢评价他人,常将社会差异归因于人们性格的优缺点。耻感是控制这种族群非常重要的手段,而避免耻感最好的办法就是与大多数人保持一致。但是,在城市这种个人主义色彩浓厚的社会中,人们更加注重隐私,彼此之间的联系也没有那么紧密。大家不再局限于单一的社交圈子,而是游走在多个但有重叠的圈子中。这种模式让生活在个人主义至上社会中的人不喜欢评判他人,因而耻感在保持社会道德水平方面发挥的作用会减弱很多,取而代之的是内疚感。

    当一个人被他人贬低时,他们自己也会贬低自己。大量研究已经证明,我们的自尊心取决于别人怎么看待我们。换句话说,自尊心取决于自己的声誉,而声誉本身驱动着我们的道德行为。同理,如果问心无愧,自尊心就会变强,其他人会认为我们强大的自尊心来自良好的声誉,这样一来我们的自尊心又会增强,如此形成一个良性循环。个人的道德品质推动我们采取行动,让别人对我们留下好印象,从而提升自尊心。这样的内省对认知能力要求较高,却能让我们在社交场合中操纵他人。

    几年前,一部英国纪录片讽刺了社会对艾滋病传播的态度。

    如果一位血友病患者因输血而染上了艾滋病,那么他得的就是

    “好艾滋”;而如果一个人是因为性爱或注射毒品染病,那他得

    的就是“坏艾滋”。同其他伟大的讽刺作品一样,这部纪录片深

    刻揭示了一个荒谬却现实的、有影响力的价值观体系。一项研究

    发现,如果携带艾滋病毒的男同性恋患者对社会排斥非常敏感,

    而且对感染艾滋病感到十分羞耻,那么他们的病毒载量就比其他

    艾滋病患者的要多,免疫细胞机能的下降速度也更快,最后导致

    他们的平均寿命比其他患者少两年。尴尬和羞耻这样的情绪让人

    痛苦,但是它们的存在是有原因的。它们证明人类有共情能力,

    这个能力在人进行高效的社会学习和合作中发挥着关键作用,它

    们还证明人十分重视自己所属族群中其他人的想法。如果我们想

    要在某个群体中获得归属感,那就必须要遵循这个群体的社会价

    值观。被整个社会排斥意味着死亡。因此,如果一个人不曾表现

    出羞耻和尴尬,不在意社会是否会接纳自己,那么这个人会十分

    危险,不值得信任和深交。

    正如我们所见,到目前为止,利用他人经验是获取信息的最佳方式。当我们决定要去哪家餐厅吃饭时,我们不需要尝遍所有餐厅,只需要看看大多数人的选择就行,即利用餐厅的人气(声誉)进行选择。选择一家座无虚席而非门可罗雀的餐厅吃饭肯定没问题。不过,这种想要模仿他人的强烈欲望有时会带来灾难性的后果,比如股市崩盘,但这只是个例。通常情况下,跟风会让某些无伤大雅的事物风靡一时。一般来说,社会信息(闲谈八卦)能够帮助我们找到可靠的文化信息。
    声誉告诉我们哪些人可以模仿。毕竟,如果模仿错了人,我们可能会生病或者营养不良。而且这种糟糕的行为还可能被我们的下一代模仿,导致人类的技术和文化在设计、复杂程度和多样性等层面得不到进一步的发展,变得越来越糟,最后甚至造成技术的退步和技能的失传。声誉会给文化进化施加选择压力,使其变得更有效率,因为它会帮助我们过滤掉无用的选项,突出可靠的选项。

    所有的群居动物都必须要决定自己的模仿对象,人类在这方面优势明显,而且全世界的人类似乎都在用同一个模仿模式。在婴儿期和幼儿期,我们先模仿父母,然后模仿哥哥姐姐。后来,我们开始模仿和自己相同性别、说相同语言和有相同文化背景的人。到了青少年时期,同龄人对我们的影响越来越大,我们的模仿对象逐渐变成了同龄人,而不再只是长辈。模仿对象的转变调整了我们通过模仿学习到的内容,使其与时俱进。但是,人类并不一定依据一个人在某项任务中的表现来决定是否模仿他。比如,有人曾研究学龄儿童如何选水果。结果显示,他们不会模仿比自己年龄小的孩子,而是选择模仿比自己年龄大的孩子。不过,如果要求孩子们解谜题,他们便会改变自己的模仿对象,选择和擅长解谜的孩子一样的答案,即便这个孩子年龄比自己小。这项研究在很大程度上解释了声望转移现象。

    声望是一种表现社会地位的特殊形式,只有人类才会辨别。绝大多数动物会注意到占据统治地位的优势,所以它们会想成为群体中力量最大、最有攻击性或者体格最壮硕的。当然这些特质对人类而言也很重要,比如强大的战士在哪里都受人欢迎。声望则完全是另一种情况。有声望的人是指值得其他人模仿的对象,如专家或长者。如果一个人在某一领域享有盛誉,他们的社会地位也会水涨船高,且影响力也不再只局限于自己的领域里。我们很可能会模仿他们所有的选择。声望俨然已经进化成了一种可以提升文化传播效益的方式。如果一个人在某一领域取得成功,那他可以成为意见领袖,引导大众的想法。我们想向成功人士学习,哪怕只是以某种方式和他们产生联系,觉得这样就能沾上成功人士的光,这就是人们心甘情愿买高尔夫球星的同款手表的原因。

    这可能源于人类文化技术的复杂性。比如,一名优秀的猎人需要以下几项技能:跑得快、会追踪、正确使用武器、与他人配合默契、能够击倒猛兽。模仿者可以分辨出谁是优秀的猎人,但是判断不出哪项技能让他如此优秀,所以最好的办法就是模仿他的全部行为。但是,如果我们因为一个人在某一领域的声望就去模仿他的所有行为,就可能给我们带来危险。比如,一个名人自杀了,有人可能就会模仿他的自杀行为。这样的事不是没有发生过,模仿者生前通常没有任何情绪低落或抑郁的表现,其自杀的手法和其他细节都和他们所模仿的名人一模一样。

    声望高的人影响力巨大。他们可以重塑社会关系网络,既可以让人们具有亲社会的属性,互相包容,也可以让人们不再合作,变得自私自利。戴安娜王妃拥抱艾滋病患者后,人们对艾滋病患者的态度有了极大的改变,对艾滋病毒的传播渠道有了进一步的了解。王妃一个小举动带来的影响远大于病毒学家十几年科普带来的影响。同理,如果一名政治家未能谴责种族仇恨,甚至纵容种族仇恨,其他人就会效仿他,特别是当他是国家总统时,这种行径甚至会颠覆一代人的社会道德准则,即文化显影液。
    自我价值取决于他人怎么看待我们,因此有声望的人通常相信自己不但能在某一领域成绩斐然,而且还能将这种优势延续至其他领域。许多名人的社交圈仅局限于其他名人和自己的忠实粉丝,这就导致很多名人过度自信,好像自己能成为任何一个领域的专家,一个很好的例子就是演员为资质可疑的医疗产品做代言。
    不同文化赋予人们声望的方式也不同。在狩猎采集社会中,最好的猎人拥有更多的话语权。向老人学习不无道理,不仅仅是因为他们寿命长,获得的信息更多,而且因为在狩猎采集时代,寿命长本身就是了不起的事。那时如果有人活到 65 岁,那么自然选择已经将大部分同代人淘汰了,所以活下来的长者进行的各项实践都更有价值。美国进化人类学家约瑟夫·亨里奇用人们食用红辣椒的例子清楚地解释了这个事实。想象一下,一个群体有100 人,年龄均为 20—30 岁,其中40%的人每次都会用红辣椒烹制肉类。由于辣椒可以杀菌,所以食用红辣椒可以降低食源性细菌致人死亡的概率。如果年复一年地食用辣椒可以将一个人活到65 岁的概率从 10%提升至 20%,那么该群体中寿命达到 65 岁的人中,有 57%的人是辣椒食用者。如果人们不喜欢学习年轻人做肉的方法,而是更喜欢学习年长者做肉的方法,那么他们有更大的概率习得加辣椒这个能够提高生存概率的方法。经过几代人的文化进化,做肉时加辣椒就会成为该群体准备肉类菜肴时的常规步骤。亨里奇解释道:“基于年龄进行的文化学习可以细化自然选择的步骤,不同的步骤会导致不同的死亡率。”

    在西方社会,或许是因为人们的寿命普遍偏长,再加上现代科技的飞速变化,年龄失去了原本的优势。文化变化的速度过快降低了社会学习的可信度。向他人学习可能会有风险,因为你学习的可能是已经过时的信息。尽管如此,在一些需要勤学苦练才能熟能生巧的领域,年龄依然是一个优势。对制陶高手来说,只需要几分钟就能将一件陶器拉制成坯,但是拉制的技巧则需要很长时间才能熟练掌握。
    但是对于所有文化来说,毫无意外,社会中最受人尊敬的人是那些掌握最先进知识、最乐于大方分享的人——教师。教学就是交流。为教学发明出的工具加强了人类合作型社会之间的联系,将我们通过共同的故事联系在一起。我们的群体身份都体现在了语言文字中,因此语言也成为弥合文化差异的关键工具。当我们用某个群体的特定语言与该群体中的人交流时,可以消除人与人之间的不信任,让我们融入群体中。人类作为一个物种的成功,一是因为不同亲社会族群之间的竞争,二是因为跨文化交流。我们将在后面的章节探讨这些内容。

    人类对美的思考成就了自己。人们在生活中找寻意义,而美通过它的表达给了我们目标,甚至让我们不朽。美虽是主观创造,却促进了人类进化。美推动了人类最伟大的合作,它让我们互联互通、互相交流。美创造了人类世界,就像爱默生所说:“世界的存在于灵魂而言,是为了满足对美的渴望。”

    第九章 归属感:身份认同的塑造

    卧室的角落里有一个旧衣柜,我在上面安了两个陶瓷把手,

    用来挂项链。一串串打磨过的石头、贝壳和金属珠子在阳光的照

    射下熠熠生辉。一条条相扣的银环亮光闪闪,照射在上面的阳光

    似乎都变得柔和了。由半透明的珠子——如玻璃、塑料和切割过

    的石头——串成的项链更是自带魔力,它们把阳光打散成上千种

    颜色,透过小小的心形散发出五彩缤纷的光芒,把沉闷的衣柜变

    成了闪烁的彩虹瀑布。

    孩子们痴痴地看着这一切。他们小心翼翼地拿起项链,让它

    们像缎带一样从手中倾泻而下。他们仔细检查每一颗珠子,好奇

    它们的不同之处,惊讶于它们在阳光下竟能如此清澈。他们对我

    说:“求你了妈妈,让我戴一会儿吧,一会儿就好。”我给他们一

    个一个戴上项链。他们高兴极了,昂首挺胸,踮着脚尖朝镜子走

    去。

    我的项链大都物美价廉。只有一条可以称得上值钱,那是我祖母生前留给我的传家宝。一条镶嵌着一颗漂亮的黑珍珠吊坠的金项链,它虽和我的日常风格很不搭调,但我视它为珍宝,因为它意义非凡。这条项链是我亲爱的祖父送给祖母的,之后我的祖母又把它留给了我。它承载着记忆,是一条非同寻常、完美无瑕的项链。我偶尔会戴着这条项链参加一些令我紧张的活动,脖子

    上坚实的重量和它永恒的美让我感到安心。珍珠的形成象征着应

    对生活中的挑战:沙砾进入牡蛎的贝壳之后,牡蛎体内的外套膜

    受到刺激,便分泌珍珠质,将沙砾一层一层包裹起来,最后形成

    了珍珠。想要找到珍珠并不容易,人们经常需要在异国的深海中

    潜水寻找,尤其是我戴的这颗珍珠,它的尺寸更罕见,寻找起来

    可能更加危险。这条项链由不同材质组成,汇集了各个地方手艺

    人的智慧。设计项链的人一定想象力十足,才能构思出如何将各

    个部分组合在一起,构成一个美妙、珍贵的整体。

    我的其他项链是用玻璃、塑料、木头或陶瓷珠子、贝壳、纽

    扣和其他便宜的材质串成的,但它们对我来说价值连城。它们很

    漂亮,能把我衬托得更漂亮。有些项链是纪念品,看着它们就会

    让我想起过去的美好经历。我有一条由色彩斑斓的塑料珠子串成

    的项链,那是许多年前我在新奥尔良参加狂欢节时有人扔给我的。

    这串项链让我想起了自己在 20 岁出头时,第一次独自穿越美国

    的经历。透过珠子,我回想起那次激动人心的旅程,回想起街上

    喧嚣的人群、狂热的舞蹈和音乐,回想起一些刺激危险的时刻。

    扔项链是一种沿袭了上百年的传统,起源于法国殖民时期。一般

    都是男人向女人扔项链,女人们则以美味的啤酒、妖娆的舞姿和

    一闪而过的胴体作为回报。当年,一个赤裸着上身、在阳台上跳舞的帅气男人把这串项链扔给了我。我一把接住了项链,他朝我喊:“给我看看你的胸!”我吓坏了,沿着街道跑进了一个小酒吧。酒吧里,一支三人乐队狂热地弹奏着音乐,一群人配合着音乐有节奏地扭动着身体。我在那里站了一会儿,被眼前的景象深深地吸引住了。我抓着那串珠子,沉浸在狂热的氛围中,音乐流淌过我的心田,我感觉自己不再是个未经世事的小女孩。现在,这条廉价的塑料项链是我与那时那地的那个自己的唯一联系。握着它,就仿佛握着我的过去。

    我的项链是装饰品,只有我自己或与我非常亲近的人才懂得

    它们宝贵的象征意义,这才是它们的不寻常之处。珠宝通常还有

    另一种明显的象征意义——财富和身份。佩戴珠宝可以让人知道

    佩戴者很富有,也能让人了解佩戴者的身份,如佩戴十字架表示

    某人信奉基督教,戴在无名指上的戒指表明佩戴者已婚。对我而

    言,我佩戴的珠宝也传递着关于我的生活方式、年龄、背景、社

    会阶层、性别等微妙信息。

    美好的事物会吸引我们停下脚步去打量它们。人们对美有一

    种情感上的反应,这也是一种生物学上的反应,人类文化利用和

    发展了这一点,让我们能够赋予装饰品意义和价值。我们以这种

    主观赋予的意义为媒介,通过文化认同的象征符号、社会准则和

    各类仪式,形成了有凝聚力的部落社会。社会和环境压力带来了社会准则的进化,这些准则对生物学和基因产生了巨大的影响。

    它们重塑了人类和人类社会。

    在没有遗传关联的人组成的庞大社区里,我们用美来表达归属感。美让人类创造出一系列人造表现型特征,这些特征影响着人类的进化。

    人类对美的接受能力非常强。我们到处寻找美的足迹——人

    们的脸庞、完美对称的花朵、鸟儿清脆的叫声、自创的艺术作品

    ——我们通过认出美来获得快乐。美具有安抚人心的力量:它赋

    予生活意义与目标,可以增强同理心,让人拥有团体归属感。美

    的事物能带来更多的美,因此,以花装点或种有鲜花的社区,能

    促使人们让社区变得更美。我们可以欣赏我们发现的美,也有动

    力通过美术、音乐、建筑、文学和舞蹈,在物质世界中创造我们

    自己的美的表达。事实上,我们做的大部分事情或制作的大部分

    东西都是出于对美的追求,我们设计制作的物品都是为美而生。

    我们吃饭时,遵守餐桌礼仪;说话时,音量适中,避免使用“丑

    陋”的词语;出门前,精心装扮。

    人类花费了大量的时间和精力追求美,甚至可以为艺术献身。2015年,叙利亚考古学家哈立德·阿萨德因为拒绝透露巴尔米拉古代艺术品的位置而被武装分子斩首。对于这位81岁的老人来说,这个有着2000余年历史的寺庙群里的美丽石像和石柱,值得他用生命来捍卫。

    美是一种强大的社会工具,然而它来源于主观构想,而非客

    观存在。我们对美的创造很可能源于生物学的性选择。孔雀和其

    他许多鸟类一样,会利用华丽的外表来展示自己健康的体魄。出

    于这个原因,雌性孔雀逐渐进化到喜欢羽尾最华丽的雄性孔雀。

    如果一种动物能在华而不实的事物上浪费能量,比如色彩斑斓酷

    似“眼睛”的羽尾,那就表明它有大量的能量可以浪费。人类与

    孔雀不同,无论男性还是女性都可以自己选择性伴侣。所以我们

    可以推测,人类在男性和女性的脸上都寻找美的标准,就像孔雀

    的标准是漂亮的羽毛一样,人类的脸是健康的标志,很难伪装。

    漂亮的脸要有高度对称的面部和完美的肤色。其他灵长类动物也

    “以貌取人”,和人类一样,恒河猴也更喜欢面部对称的伴侣,

    因为这样可以让后代的质量更高。

    科研人员曾根据诸多人脸数据合成了一张人脸,相比单个人

    脸,这张合成人脸对大众更有吸引力。这种偏好的进化根源可能

    是优质的基因结合之后会提高对环境的适应能力。在调查中,人

    们普遍认为“混血儿”更有吸引力,而近亲繁殖生出的孩子吸引

    力较小。生育信号也是吸引人的特征:男性的睾丸素水平越高,

    女性的雌激素水平越高,这些信号的表达就越明显。

    因此,我们对美的感知不仅仅基于一时的审美冲动。人们更喜欢年轻、健康、生育能力强、没有疾病迹象的伴侣。这些特征组合在一起,会优先激发我们的求偶欲望,让我们认为有这些特征的人更漂亮。有些人擅长发现健康、生育能力强的伴侣,这样他们就可以把自己的基因遗传给后代。经过了数千年,人类对美的认识不断提高,人类也确实变得越来越漂亮了。

    然而,人类的许多审美偏好都具有主观性,和客观的生物学

    上的健康并无太大关系。事实上,很多审美好像受时尚引领,源

    于一时的冲动。动物世界也有有趣的相似之处。20 世纪 80 年代,

    研究斑胸草雀的进化生物学家南希·伯利用不同颜色的标志环

    区分实验室不同群组的斑胸草雀。让她感到惊奇的是,她发现佩

    戴特定颜色标志环的斑胸草雀更容易找到配偶,也会花费更多的

    精力养育后代。雌性斑胸草雀更喜欢戴红色标志环的雄雀,而雄

    性斑胸草雀更喜欢戴黑色和粉色标志环的雌雀。实验室中的斑胸

    草雀在短时间内就“进化”出一套新的能吸引异性的方式,伯利

    亲眼见证了整个过程。标志环和健康毫无关系,这说明动物对美

    的认知具有随机性。也许有些特征或颜色在它们的大脑中根深蒂

    固,当这些特征或颜色出现时,它们更倾向于选择新的变化。很

    多自然界中的多样性和美好事物都源于动物自身对美的欣赏。

    这些看似随机的偏好似乎也塑造了人类的外貌。几十万年来,人类生活在不同部落的小群体中,使文化和基因差异得以积累下来。数千年来,从亚洲的斯里兰卡到北欧的瑞典,人们的外貌出现了显著差异。在小群体中,外貌特征积累的速度正发生改变。因为群体中携带这些基因的人数不够,一些基因类型可能会完全消失;而因为某个群体碰巧有许多携带者,另一些基因可能会变得异常普遍。人类有不同的发色和眼形,而每一种颜色或形状一开始很可能只有一小部分人有。后来因为当地人喜欢这样的风格,他们按照这种喜好选择自己的性伴侣,从而让这种发色和眼形保留至今。

    东亚人头发浓密、汗腺发达、门齿独特、胸部小,所有这些

    都与大约 3.5 万年前发生的 EDAR(外异蛋白 A 受体)基因突变

    有关。专家们对这种基因迅速传播的原因的看法存在分歧:有人

    认为是炎热的气候让额外的汗腺变得十分有用,也有人认为是人

    们觉得这些特征更有吸引力。拥有白皙皮肤和蓝色眼睛的人曾被

    认为具有异国情调,极具吸引力,更容易找到性伴侣,这使得这

    些特征在北欧迅速传播。在过去的 2,000 年里,英国人变得个头

    更高、头发更加金黄,拥有蓝色眼睛的概率更大。

    漂亮的面孔会激活大脑视觉皮层各个独立的部分,这些部分

    专门负责处理面孔和物体。与此同时,即使我们不思考美,大脑

    的奖赏机制和愉快中枢也会被激活。在我们欣赏美的过程中,道

    德因素也起着作用,即使人们没有明确地思考美和“善”,对美

    和“善”进行审美判断的神经活动也会发生重叠。这种反射性关

    联可能在生物学层面上激发了美的社会效应。有魅力的人在生活

    中会得到各种各样的好处。例如,人们会认为他们更聪明、更值得信赖,他们得到的报酬更高,受到的惩罚也更轻。

    脑部扫描研究显示,与厌恶和疼痛有关的前脑岛对审美有重

    要作用。这个出人意料的结果或许能解释我们对美的感知是如何

    进化的:审美过程的关键是对客体价值的评估,判断这个东西对

    我们来说是“好”还是“坏”。这种评估是主观的,取决于个人

    当时的生理状态。俗话说,“饿了糠如蜜,饱了蜜不甜”。在人

    类进化过程中,大脑的审美系统可能是为了提高我们对生物层面

    上具有重要意义的客体(包含食物和配偶)的价值判断能力而进

    化的。经过文化进化,这套审美系统会扩展到具有社会价值的事

    物上,比如绘画和音乐。大脑扫描结果显示,事实上,喜欢一块

    蛋糕和喜欢一段音乐时,大脑的反应十分相似。

    审美能力也很有可能与我们寻求事物发展规律的神经冲动

    共同进化,作为指挥注意力的认知信号辅助大脑的预测系统工作,

    告诉大脑哪里有需要发现或破译的东西。美具有激励作用,推动

    我们产生想要进一步探索的情感反应,是一种非常有力、强烈的

    好奇心形式。艺术可以激发这种本能。比如我们在欣赏凡·高的

    作品时,大脑审美中枢欣赏到了画中的美,让我们觉得这幅画不

    只是色彩的旋涡,还有着深刻的内涵。科学家在一项大脑扫描研

    究中发现,人们听一段熟悉的贝多芬作品,在听到自己最喜欢的

    部分之前,尾状核(与好奇心有关的大脑区域)就开始活动了。

    研究人员说,这表示人们期待即将听到让人心情愉悦的音乐片段,“这可以让人期待兴奋等情绪的到来,产生一种想要满足自己和获得奖励的感觉”。在这个过程中,让人感觉愉快的荷尔蒙多巴胺会激增。美以一种有力的方式帮助大脑感知哪些感觉值得感受,哪些感觉可以忽略。

    所以,在生理上,人类对美有反应;在文化上,人类把美看

    作一种视觉语言。我们把美的东西变成有价值和意义的符号。人

    类随时随地都能发现美好的事物,而不仅仅只是具有性吸引力的

    异性身体。在审美中体验到的愉悦鼓励我们花费宝贵的时间专注

    于思考,关注那些没有实际效益或对生存没有益处的事物,并把

    时间、人力和资源投入我们自己对美的表达中。其他生物都做不

    到这一点,对于大型动物来说,任何对生存没有益处的活动代价

    都很大。就算我们把矛装饰得极其漂亮,它也不会帮助我们捕获

    到更多生存所需的食物。然而,所有人类群体都会在装饰上投入

    大量时间、精力和物质资源,这说明装饰对生存有着重要作用。

    正是通过美的象征意义和其自身的意义,我们才在群体中团结一

    致,用共同的价值观、信仰、同情心和其他情感构建了合作型社

    会。

    我们整个人类社会都是建立在思想和观念的符号化之上的,这是我们与其他动物的不同之处。我们使用视觉符号表达我们创造的观念,并借此在人与人之间传播,然后代代相传。货币系统、善恶、政府这种抽象的概念要通过身体装饰、艺术、音乐、建筑、园艺或其他技能等美的载体进行表达。

    与我们血缘关系最近的灵长类动物也使用象征符号。在乌干

    达的基巴莱国家公园,研究人员深入研究了一群野生黑猩猩,发

    现幼年黑猩猩赋予了捡来的木棍特殊的含义,它们经常把木棍当

    成“宝宝”,和它们一起玩耍。有记录显示,猩猩幼崽抱着木棍,

    并将其带入白天的巢穴,但是用木棍做其他活动时,它们就不会

    这样做。研究人员还发现,一只年轻的雄性猩猩会为它的“玩偶”

    另立巢穴,而一只雌猩猩在看到它的母亲照顾生病的其他小猩猩

    时,会像“拍打婴儿的背部”一样拍打木棍。

    大约 200 万年前,我们的祖先也会照料捡来的物品。在南非远古人遗迹中,考古学家曾发现一块红碧玉岩卵石,上面有明显的“脸”的形状,这是经环境风化形成的。这块所谓的“多面卵石”,很可能是从距离远古人住所几千米之外的地方带回来的,并被视为最早的艺术品。这块人脸石在很久之前之所以有价值,不是因为它有多大用处,而是因为它背后的含义。在直立人时代,人们会刻意美化自己的物品,考古学家在印度尼西亚的爪哇岛发现了装饰性的贝壳,其年代可以追溯到 70 万年前。

    当然,人们通过象征符号进行装饰和交流的欲望,始于我们的身体。任何一种当代文化都有身体彩绘的传统,例如给嘴唇涂上口红,或是其他更加夸张的传达方式,在许多史前遗迹中都发现了用于身体装饰的黄棕色矿物染料赭石。身体装饰是一种身份象征,是一种视觉语言,表达了个人对群体的忠诚。

    生活在尼日利亚东南部的埃科伊人,在装饰的基础上发展出

    一种极其复杂的群体组织形式。按照传统,埃科伊女性的脸上和

    身体上,都有复杂的符号文身,包括用纳斯碧迪神圣语言书写的

    神秘记号。这些文身记录了爱情、战争或是神圣的元素,虽然每

    个人都能看到暴露在外面的文身,但只有狩猎豹子的克皮族群成

    员才能看懂,他们是殖民时期前的统治精英。复杂的文身费时费

    力,但像这样清晰的视觉信息只是不同文化中的人们改变身体的

    众多方式之一,他们以此重新塑造自己的外貌,以超越自然的性

    选择。我们的外貌由基因决定,但是文化用这种方式重塑了人们

    的外貌。

    人类历史上最引人注目的文化实验之一就是发明了个人装

    饰品,这是向他人传递信息的一种方式。从远古时代开始,项链

    就具有很强的象征意义,项链一来可以彰显文化身份和社会地位,

    二来可以作为可穿戴的符号。装饰品虽小巧却影响巨大,它们可

    以激发人们的活力、生育能力和创造财富的能力。在西班牙发现

    的尼安德特人佩戴的彩色贝壳珠子,可以追溯到 11.5 万年前。

    目前发现的年代最久远的人类祖先项链是在南非南端的布隆伯

    斯洞穴中找到的。这条项链上至少有 65 个小泪滴状的扁虱贝壳,

    上面有人为的穿孔痕迹和赭色装饰图案。我们能看出,7.5 万年前这条项链最后的主人和我们有着共同的偏好。如果把布隆伯斯洞穴的贝珠和我柜子上的其他项链挂在一起,它不会显得格格不入。珠宝的设计者从对称性和美学角度精心挑选珠子,这种做法得到了项链佩戴者的认可。

    串珠饰品是装饰工艺的一类,通过穿戴者和其所在群体共有

    的视觉语言传达信息,通过广泛的社会网络,这些信息为更多的

    人所理解。象征文化依赖于集体信念。在我所处的文化中,人们

    理解并接受项链是用来装饰的这一概念,但是在其他文化中,对

    项链意义的解读可能会截然不同。有些文化认为珠子的颜色有自

    身的意义:肯尼亚北部的图尔卡纳游牧民将黄色的珠子赠予未来

    的结婚对象,当地的寡妇则佩戴白色珠子。人类学家将这些共同

    的信念定义为社会规范,它们会体现在一个群体对美的共同认知

    上,会体现在群体行为中,会体现在其他方方面面。

    考古学家分析了在布隆博斯洞穴出土的许多贝壳珠子,发现随着时间的推移,时尚已经发生了惊人的变化。在洞穴地层较深的地方发现的贝珠上的磨损痕迹表明,这些贝珠是随意地串在绳子上的,它们扁平、发亮的一面靠在一起。然而,在地层较浅的地方发现的贝珠则是两两打结,发亮的一侧朝上。这个看似微乎其微的变化却是社会规范转变的最早证明。这是一种文化进化,等同于化石中的解剖学差异或手斧的改良,只是这一次证明的是新的社会适应性。通过这样的行为转变,人类发展成为种类繁多、特色鲜明并且结构复杂的小社会。

    不过,布隆伯斯洞穴出土的项链的串珠方式发生变化,是因为洞穴的早期居民改变了时尚观念,还是因为他们被另一群喜欢其他串珠方式的早期人类所替代,我们不得而知。但是,无论做何解释,这些珠子都像今天的珠宝一样,具有象征意义,也代表了一个时代的社会规范。

    衣着也是如此。人类学家认为,由于人类是直立行走的动物,

    最初用无花果叶子遮挡性器官就是一种社会规范,否则性器官就

    会一直暴露在外面。就是这样一个简单的行为,却可以让很多毫

    无关联的人簇居一处,还能避免不断的冲突。我个人认为,无花

    果叶子这样的遮羞布最初是携带婴儿的吊兜或者妇女经期时使

    用的腰布。就像我们创造或使用的其他所有东西一样,遮羞布也

    会变得具有文化意义和一定的价值,具有装饰作用,被男女都接

    受并继续使用。有了具有象征意义的穿衣标准,人的地位、性别

    和其他重要的文化信息都会通过服饰衣着显示出来,例如忠于部

    落、忠于宗教信仰。这让“你”与“我”的差异变得明显,从而

    将不同的群体分开,也加剧了部落内部的社会分化。因此,衣着

    在推动文化发展和进化方面发挥着重要作用,让每一种文化不断

    进步,运用各自的技术和专长彼此竞争。总的来说,装饰反映了

    社会规范,并用同样的故事将部落成员团结在一起,这就是装饰在文化适应性进化中的作用。

    累积性文化具有模仿性,这意味着我们会复制自己的行为和

    偏好,因此,我们会制定和遵循社会规范。穿着风格的规范可以

    不切实际,可以荒诞不经,但是人们总会想方设法在规则之内巧

    妙地应付。例如日本曾禁止平民穿着装饰华丽的丝绸和服,为了

    避开这个规定,一些女性就将华丽的图案文在身上。装饰规范和

    其他社会规范相互交织,因此当女性权利得到保障,女性地位提

    高时,其服饰也变得更加实用。自行车的发明加速了女性解放,

    推动了女性穿的裤子的出现,这在以前是难以想象的事情。

    人类不仅美化自己,美化自己制造的物品,还美化社会,试

    图通过美让物质世界和我们赖以生存的社会变得井井有条,以满

    足人类的需求。社会规范不仅约束我们的服饰,也约束我们的行

    为,其目的是既要有视觉上的美感,又要风度翩翩。社会规范源

    自群体且由群体实施,这就能够解释为什么人类可以达到如此高

    的合作水平了。社会规范不断演变,统一人们的行为和价值观念,

    减少彼此之间的利益冲突。随着人类社会的逐渐发展,内部分化

    和等级制度开始出现,避免冲突的一个策略就是让社会规范来加

    强分化,消除其他选项。例如,按照“规矩”,猎人 14 岁的儿

    子“应该”成为猎人而不是去做陶工。如此一来,整个群体就会

    串通起来保持这种分化的明确性。在社会规范披上了毋庸置疑的

    超自然法则外衣时,这种情况尤甚。仪式通常将社会各行各业毫无关联的人联系在一起,并强化社会等级制度。人们共同经历艰苦且危险的入会仪式、测试和典礼,此后便紧密联系在一起。

    社会规范还有助于解决人们在共享资源上的冲突。比如,大

    部分群体都有关于肉类的规定,包括肉的准备仪式、相关禁忌以

    及不同部位的肉与不同人群的对应。也就是说,当一群猎人带回

    了捕杀的猎物,根据规范,上等的肉要留给制作箭头的人和哺乳

    期的母亲等。这意味着肉不一定会被平均分配,但是每个人都能

    得到一些,分配的原则是确保符合整个群体的利益,从而保持群

    体的凝聚力并维护社会规范。

    在宗族本位的狩猎采集部落中,“订单”和“交付”之间存

    在“延误”,通俗来讲就是生产食物付出的努力和最终得到的实

    际食物不一定等价,但严格的社会规范避免了两者之间的冲突。

    以巴拉圭的亚契部落为例,他们依靠森林养殖甲虫。首先,他们

    必须要通过砍树来准备育虫的场所,6 个月后,他们才能从这些

    砍倒的树中收获甲虫。由于部落对财产有着严格的规范,因此,

    砍树的人会给砍倒的树系上专门的带子表明此树的归属。因纽特

    人捕鲸(一项危险但有利可图的活动)时也遵循类似的规范。被

    刺的鲸鱼不会立即死亡,几天或数周后才会被冲到岸边或浮到水

    面上,这段时间,另一个群体可能会占有它。同样地,根据规范,

    鲸鱼上岸时身上插的是谁的矛,鲸鱼就属于谁。

    社会规范极其强大,不只规定我们在公共场合的行为表现,还对私人生活提出要求,甚至对我们独处时的行为也有所规定。这听起来不可思议,但是对自慰的大量规定证明了这一点。规范是一种约束,它阻止分歧,限制创新,还可能造成个人损失。尽管规范会带来不便,但我们通常都会遵守规范。因为背离社会规范不仅会玷污个人名誉,还会影响子孙后代,在许多社会群体中,后代会承担上一辈的社会惩罚和债务。

    正如服装的时尚,社会规范和仪式其实没有实际价值。我所

    在的文化认为吃昆虫很恶心,但是其他文化却认为昆虫很美味。

    然而,正如我们将善良与视觉吸引力联系在一起,我们也将道德

    水平与社会吸引力联系在一起。人们认为遵循规范是生来就有的

    好行为,所以可以说,遵循规范的人天性良好。这样,社会规范

    通过创造共同的道德基础来增强社会凝聚力,它帮助我们理解人

    们做出某种行为的原因,从而更容易预测他人的行为。

    社会规范约束着我们的生活,但它们并不作为世界的物理属性而存在。无论你认同与否,万有引力都永恒不变;在一种文化中,谋杀可能代表罪恶滔天,而在其他文化中,这也许是被推崇的行为。这看似显而易见,然而动机、策略和信仰约束着人类世界的大部分行为,这甚至让我们忽视了一个事实,那就是这三者均是被发明的社会规范。我们毫不犹豫地接受这些规范,将它们视作人类的特有属性。

    相比男性,女性在社会中扮演的角色十分有限。这并非因为

    男性和女性有巨大的认知差异,我们都知道女性的智力水平并不

    比男性低,出现这样的情形是因为社会规范阻止女性扮演有声望

    的角色。在男性主导的社会中,限制女性的条条框框无处不在,

    以至我们误认为这些条条框框自古以来就存在。而实际上,人类

    学和遗传学数据显示,在人类进化史的很长一段时间里,性别平

    等才是常态。的确,当人类从灵长类祖先中分离出来之后,性别

    平等和配偶制成为社会结构中最重要的两个进化演变。性别平等

    为人类提供了生存优势,因为我们可以利用父母双方的人际网络

    形成更广泛的社会网络,让无血缘关系的群体成员合作更为紧密,

    从而加速思想的交流和基因的传递。统治着原始族群的很有可能

    是母权社会规范。如今,性别平等在狩猎采集部落中依旧是常态,

    这虽然并不意味着男性和女性必须扮演相同的角色,但在这些部

    落中没有性别权力失衡现象,要知道这种现象在现代社会非常普

    遍。现代狩猎采集部落中,男性和女性对群体的贡献相同,并且

    都照看孩子。男性和女性也会对周围环境和身边的人产生相同的

    影响,这有助于与无血缘关系的个体加强合作。

    人的性别由生理决定,而人的社会性别则是文化的产物,在很多情况下源于某种社会倾向。大多数艺术作品的设计都是为了满足男性的审美。父权社会规范得到世界上主要宗教的支持和认可。大多数农耕社会都利用各种规范来控制和约束女性性行为,例如遮盖女性身体和杀掉让男性“蒙羞”的女性。宗教为这些做法授权,女性通常要为维护群体的荣誉而付出代价。这就不难解释为何在印加帝国山脉的寒冰墓穴(今天秘鲁的库斯科附近)发现了女性祭品,为何妻子必须跳进丈夫的火葬柴堆殉葬,为何女儿在雅典要成为祭祀的祭品。这种对女性的文化压迫和控制深深影响着社会规范,女性要表现得十分谦卑,男性却可以嚣张跋扈。这种影响体现在方方面面,从中国古代的女性裹足习俗,到两性在健康和财富方面机遇的失衡。

    这种文化熏陶从人一出生就开始发挥作用,人们按照规范行事,就能够被社会所接纳。事实上,社会规范甚至在人出生前就开始发挥作用。研究显示,当告知孕妇胎儿性别后,她们描述胎动的方式会有所不同。如果孕妇得知胎儿是女孩,那她往往把胎动形容为“安静”“非常温柔,在肚子里滚来滚去,很少用脚踢我”;若得知是男孩,则形容为“活力十足”“拳打脚踢”“动起来犹如天崩地裂”。但如果孕妇不知道胎儿性别,她们形容的胎动则没有区别。

    许多我们认为普遍存在的观点都只不过是文化中的社会规范。自由、平等、博爱(18 世纪法国资产阶级革命时期提出的政治口号)在某些文化中是需要誓死捍卫的价值观,然而对许多社会来说,个人自由并不重要,它们追求的是心灵纯洁。再来谈一下责任感。在我所处的文化中,蓄意伤害他人或损害其财产是比意外伤害更严重的犯罪行为。然而在其他文化中,因为人们的行为动机难以判断,所以人们不会根据动机对受惩罚的程度进行评判,而是根据他们的行为后果进行评判。

    有些人把我们的行为归因于生物基础,而且不承认社会规范

    的本质,即在文化层面进化的可改变的动机和行为。这种想法很

    危险,它会让个人和群体在生活中无法获得平等的机会,而且还

    会受到伤害。(当然,你是否认为人应该被赋予平等的机会,部

    分归结于你所处的文化环境。)社会规范衍生出奴隶制度、种姓

    制度、“荣誉”杀戮以及许多其他的害人行为。然而,许多这类

    行为曾一度被认为是生物法则或是由上帝规定的,但随着社会的

    发展,这种观点有所改变,而且有时改变还极其迅速。

    某些带有偏见的社会规范,随着时间的推移会变得越来越平

    等,反之亦然。在美国,禁止通过肤色或性别来评判一个人的社

    会规范已经发生了转变,甚至总统都开始用肤色或性别来评判人。

    除了社会通过规范对人产生的影响之外,没有任何科学依据表明

    人的肤色和性别会对其自身道德或智力产生影响。这点尤为重要,

    因为强加于个人或群体的社会规范能够改变他们的行为和生理

    机能。

    不同的文化信仰不同的真理,遵守不同的规范,那么社会规范是如何产生的呢?有一种常见的误解是某位领导者提出了社会规范,或者依靠一个集中控制的媒体来规范社会成员的行为。实际上,规范是在社会中自然产生的。以给新生儿起名字为例,在一项在线实验中,匿名玩家被随机配对,两位玩家就宝宝名字达成一致后,才可以再与其他玩家进行配对。最初,看起来根本不会有哪个名字胜出,因为与前一个搭档选好的名字很快就会被

    取代,因为玩家需要与新搭档达成一致,如此往复,想要达成共

    识实在困难重重。但仅仅几轮过后,所有玩家就对同一个名字达

    成了共识。通过随机配对,规范从无到有、自然而然地出现了,

    网络连通性的变化让一个名字脱颖而出,流行起来,这个概念在

    物理学中被称为对称性破缺。无论参与者是 24 人、48 人还是 96

    人,结果都不变。这表明这种对称性破缺可以无限扩大,并可以

    解释社会规范如何能够在一个类似国家的大型群体中自然形成。

    这个实验也表明,通过调整参与者间的交流方式,可以操纵达成

    共识的过程,这与前文公共物品博弈中合作者的行为类似。社交

    网络细微的改变会让人们更容易自发地就一种社会规范达成一

    致,因为人们都有从众心理。

    但是,那些坚持个性、不愿随波逐流的人,又该怎么办呢?

    他们可能是感觉自己与主流文化格格不入的青少年,或者是想要

    标新立异的 20 多岁的年轻人,但无论是哪种情况,他们的外貌

    打扮都与社会规范相悖,要么尝试夸张的妆容,要么做个花里胡

    哨的发型,甚至连胡子的造型都不放过。但在展示了与众不同之

    后,他们发现其实上百万的同龄人都和他们的做法一样,结果是

    他们看起来几乎一模一样。这就是所谓的潮人效应。数学模型显

    示这种同步性自发行为是多数人的属性。模型显示,大多数人都会遵循现有的规范,但是少数不从众的人对当下的流行趋势的反应会有一个延迟期,在此期间他们会创造新的潮流,在经历一段过渡期后,人们开始追随这一小部分人创造的潮流,新的潮流由

    此产生。2019 年 3 月,一本科技杂志报道了这项研究,选用了一

    张头戴无檐小便帽的“时髦”年轻人的照片。编辑之后收到了一

    位愤怒的读者的来信,这名读者指责杂志在未经他允许的情况下

    使用他的照片,而后来这名读者才发现照片中的人根本不是他,

    因为“潮人们看起来都很像,甚至他们本人都说不出自己和别人

    的不同之处”。

    在遵循同一社会规范的小圈子里,社会规范将我们联系在一

    起,即使成员之间毫无血缘关系,社会规范也能帮我们找到“家

    人”。群体之间会互相竞争,一旦个人的命运与所在群体的存亡

    息息相关,那么找到自己群体的成员就显得尤为重要。毕竟,服

    务那些与我们有共同利益的人,对我们最有好处。着装、装饰、

    行为、技能和实践等社会规范都成为展现群体归属感的重要途径,

    并确保我们能得到所需要的帮助和保护。这也可以帮助我们理解

    某些群体中的极端行为,例如非洲、欧洲和南美洲的某些部落曾

    盛行的扁头,当地人为了变成扁头,会将木板绑在婴儿头部数年。

    一个社会的规范越多,执行得越严格,成员之间就越可能识别彼

    此,排除异己。

    这是部落主义的起源。我们越了解某些人所遵守的社会规范,就越能预测他们的行为,也更容易判断他们是否可以信任,能否与我们一起创造利益,这降低了人与人之间交流和互动的成本。从出生起,我们就有意识或是下意识地学习自己“部落”的规范。生活环境和长辈的教导让我们能轻而易举地对“部落文化”产生“归属感”。

    为了掩盖身份而故意遵从另一种社会规范的人很容易就能

    够被发现,例如用工人阶级的“街头”口音隐藏自己特权背景的

    政治家,伪装成“暴发户”的趋炎附势者。语言与扁头这样的外

    貌特征一样,也是极好的部落标识,因为很难作假。我们的双耳

    能敏锐地察觉不同的口音、语法错误以及外来者在措辞上与我们

    的细小差异。即使精通某种外语的人可以流利地用这门语言进行

    交流,但是依旧瞒不过母语者。移民和那些跨越部落社会规范的

    人往往面临着巨大挑战,例如萧伯纳的《卖花女》和贾维斯·考

    克尔的歌曲《普通人》中描述的故事。在欧洲,当犹太人表现出

    自己与大部分人不同时,他们得不到社会的信任,而在他们试图

    接受和遵从主流文化规范时,更难获取信任。

    个人身份与群体紧密相连的另一个结果是,如果一个人从一个群体到了另一个群体,他可能失去身份认同感,并感觉两个群体都在疏远自己,他的心理健康因此会受到影响(例如,移民患精神分裂症的概率更高)。但是人们会继续尝试成为新群体中的一员,因为群体不仅能提供保护,而且会带来经济利益。

    部落主义意味着我们对待群体内部的人与外部的人会有所不同。这种情况在人类出现之前就存在。黑猩猩的群体观念强烈,它们敌视外来者,不同群体间冲突的死亡率高达 13%。与黑猩猩不同,人类生活在更大的群体中,各种群体交融在一起,并非所

    有人之间都有血缘关系,因此,我们必须通过文化符号来确定并

    维护自己的群体身份,对群体忠诚。我们对外部群体的偏见从幼

    儿时期就形成了。对外部群体的敌意尽管不体现在对个体的抵触

    上,但会表现在对文化差异的抵触上,实际上这些都是根深蒂固

    的认知模式。通过辨别群体外人员,我们会明确自己群体的标准,

    并且巩固自己在群体内的地位。人们可以感觉到自己与群体中其

    他成员之间的联系,例如,人们的大脑会对其他成员的痛苦产生

    同情反应。然而,人们要是知道对方是群体外的一员,例如,敌

    队的粉丝,他们便会停止产生这种反应。大脑扫描显示,在我们

    观察一个我们认为是外部群体的人时,大脑的神经放电模式类似

    于我们识别物体的模式,而不是识别人的模式,因为我们从认知

    上已经将那个人视为物体。其他研究显示,荷尔蒙催产素能促生

    利他主义行为,但仅仅是在与群体内成员的相互交流中才奏效;

    当与群体外成员交流时,就算是使用同样水平的荷尔蒙催产素,

    也没有这种推动作用。

    一个部落社会合作的前提是我们可以信任无亲缘关系的人为我们谋求利益,对于群体而言,没有什么比相信一个不做实事、只知瓜分共同利益的人,或相信一个居心叵测的人更具威胁性了。人的长相越相似,所处的文化环境越相近,群体的识别符号和社会规范就越重要。北爱尔兰的天主教徒和新教徒的样貌和声音都很相似,就像卢旺达的胡图族和图西族一样,因此他们便只能依据仪式、禁忌、宗教或食物等社会规范上细小的差别,来判断一个人和自己是否属于同一个群体。在与其他群体的竞争中,我们通过故事将自己塑造成正义的一方,如英雄或受到不公平对待的受害者,从而打造我们群体的身份。这些扣人心弦的故事情节是一种非常有效的方式,让看起来相似却属于敌对群体之间的人互相残杀。

    在群体受到威胁时,成员会联合起来护卫共同的利益,这个

    时候即使是 5 岁的孩子也会表现得更加团结和慷慨。一起作战的

    群体更可能生存下来,打过仗的人都知道,当部队中的每个士兵

    都做好了为彼此牺牲的准备时,每个士兵就更有可能活下来。这

    可以解释竞争法则中激进的“忠诚证明”仪式的由来。通过和其

    他群体的竞争与冲突,这一仪式强化了亲社会的规范和制度,增

    强了社会凝聚力。这有助于解释民族主义兴起的原因。这种仪式

    的出现表明群体受到了威胁,而这作为一个反馈循环,又让一个

    民族确信他们正在遭受外来移民或相邻国家的威胁。然而,一个

    国家面临的大部分威胁来源不在外部,因为我们所处的年代十分

    和平。真正的威胁通常来源于社会内部的分裂和不平等。

    群体间冲突一直是对生命的巨大威胁。大部分狩猎采集部落会发生反复不断的冲突,死亡率达到 15%左右,与黑猩猩的死亡率相当。如今,在工业化世界中,冲突带来的死亡率很低,而过去冲突带来的死亡率一度很高,而且大部分冲突都涉及领土争端。

    胜利的群体以失败者的牺牲为代价进行扩张,寻求更多的经济利

    益,失败者的土地被占领,人民或被奴役,或流离失所,或移居

    他地。群体之间的竞争可能推动许多亲社会的规范,但只有最具

    合作能力和凝聚力的群体才能在冲突中获胜。群体内部的选择压

    力促使外交家出现,这些人能用语言和魅力化解冲突,促进合作。

    每个群体所处的环境各不相同,为生存需要掌握的技能也不同,所以出现了践行不同社会规范的人类群体。践行的社会规范不同,人们的思维模式和身体构造也有很大的不同。文化学习改变人的大脑。任何技能的实践都离不开连通神经网络的硬性条件,包括对肌肉的控制和协调、平衡能力以及对速度和距离的判断等。发展到最后,我们对这些技能的掌握到了炉火纯青的地步,身体自动就能做出反应。一旦我们能够熟练做出某种行为、某个动作或是进行思考,大脑的工作量就会显著减少,为工作记忆腾出更多的空间。那些熟练程度最高的人会成为人类中最优秀的一群人,他们在熟练实践的基础上,会对行为或过程的细节进行创新,从而突破人类的极限。无论是学习走路,还是成为钢琴家或是玩杂耍,这些过程无不体现了这一点。从小玩《精灵宝可梦》游戏的人,大脑内会有一块专门识别游戏中人物的区域。我们所处的文化环境也会影响身体构造。例如职业网球运动员惯用手一侧的身体骨骼密度会增加 20%左右;居住在高海拔地区的人,为了应对氧气稀薄的生存环境,体内会产生更多的红细胞,肺也比一般人大。这里需要明确一点,上述情况中发生的不是基因变化,而是一个人一生中的生理变化。

    有些群体利用社会规范和科技改善身体素质,提高经济收入,

    这样的群体更可能生存下来,并将其文化实践传给子孙后代。许

    多情况下,这种文化上的进化能改变人类的生理构造。比如,泰

    国西海岸有一个名为莫肯的海洋游牧民族,部落中的人发展出一

    种独特的能力,能让他们像海豚一样在水下看清东西。莫肯族的

    孩子大部分时间都会潜水寻找食物,为了适应水下的环境,他们

    的视力变得很好,是欧洲孩子的 2倍。一般人在水下,视觉会很

    模糊,因为水对光线的折射率和眼角膜对光线的折射率相同,所

    以我们无法聚焦光线。而莫肯族的孩子拥有海豹和海豚一样的视

    觉,可以适应这种折射。他们的瞳孔缩小到了人类极限,因此增

    加了眼睛看到的景深,晶状体的形状也有所改变。这些改变可以

    被视为人类为了适应文化环境在生理层面做出的改变,但它们不

    是基因的变化。人们在后天无意间习得了这些能力,这意味着任

    何孩子都能拥有这项能力,科学家通过实验证明了这个结论。他

    们训练瑞典孩子潜入水下,观看卡片上的花纹,11 个训练期后,

    这些孩子拥有了与莫肯族孩子一样敏锐的水下视力。

    然而,对另一个海洋游牧民族——印度尼西亚的巴瑶人来说,

    他们的生活方式在文化环境的影响下发生了变化,这种变化让他

    们的基因也发生了改变。遗传学家在调查巴瑶人杰出的潜水技能

    时发现,巴瑶人的 DNA 中存在一些基因变体,这些变体让他们的

    血液和器官中存有更多氧气,能控制二氧化碳含量,并将含氧血

    液的储存器——脾脏——增大了 50%。这些基因似乎是从已经灭

    绝的人类近亲丹尼索瓦人处继承而来的,而后在文化进化的压力

    下,在诸多基因中得以保留。

    文化环境深刻地改变了我们思考、行动和看待世界的方式。

    一项研究比较了西方人和东亚人的神经处理过程,结果显示文化

    塑造了我们看人的方式(西方人主要打量对方的眼睛和嘴巴,观

    察的区域呈三角形,而东亚人则集中在一点),也塑造了我们在

    背景下看事物的方式(西方人擅长将人和物与其背景分开来看,

    不擅长将二者结合起来进行观察,但在其他大部分文化中,情况

    却恰恰相反)。如果要求从“公交车”“火车”“轨道”中选出

    两个有联系的词语,西方人可能将交通工具放在一起,选出公交

    车和火车,而东亚人更可能选火车和轨道,因为它们相互依存。

    研究者认为,东亚人和西方人处理信息的方式之所以不同,是因

    为他们有不同的社会规范。西方的社会规范主要为个人主义,擅

    长处理单个事物并将信息分类。相反,东亚的社会规范更倾向于

    集体主义,他们将自身视为整体的一部分,会优先将事物和其背

    景联系在一起。换句话说,文化环境造成了人类大脑通路的差异。不过,一个人在另一种文化中生存的时间越长,新旧两种文化的差异就会越小,最后变得可以忽略不计,到下一代时,这种差异会彻底消失。

    然而,社会规范可以对人类产生长期的遗传影响,因为它限定了人们与谁繁殖后代。例如,在泰国北部的多数群体中,新婚夫妇会搬去女方家居住,当然更常见的是住在男方家。遗传学家发现,居住方式会对基因的多样性产生影响。若婚后居住在男方家庭,则家庭中女性数量增多,因此儿子从父亲那里遗传来的 Y染色体几乎没有什么多样性。若婚后居住在女方家庭,虽然人们的 Y 染色体各不相同,但是从母亲那里遗传来的 DNA 线粒体几乎一样。

    另一个鲜明的例子也能解释文化环境是如何造成生理和行

    为差异的。在经典的实验“走廊”实验中,一组男学生需要填写

    一份调查问卷(这些学生一半来自美国北部,一半来自美国南部),

    然后将填好的问卷送到走廊尽头的一张桌子上。学生穿过狭窄走

    廊时,会经过一个在文件柜前工作的大块头男人,要想过去就需

    要大块头让路。他让路的时候,会故意撞到学生,然后低声骂学

    生“混蛋”。送问卷的学生要么怒气冲天,血皮质醇和睾丸素飙

    升,要么耸耸肩,一笑而过。学生反应的差异取决于他们来自哪

    个州:大部分北方学生会淡然一笑,而不是气愤万分;而 90%的

    南方学生会愤怒不已,压力荷尔蒙上升。如果南方学生随后遇到一个目睹了这场“羞辱”的陌生人,他们会表现得很跋扈,蛮横用力地与陌生人握手,因为他们觉得在这个陌生人的眼中自己缺乏男子气概。

    美国南部的荣誉文化要求并激励男性用暴力捍卫自己的财

    产、家庭或声誉。不是很严重的轻视行为,比如直呼一个人的名

    字,在美国南部都可能导致人们大打出手。在实验的第二个阶段,

    刚刚送问卷时受到侮辱的学生在返回狭窄的走廊时,会遇到迎面

    走来的另一个人,这些学生不得不让路。先前未受到侮辱的南方

    学生会表现得彬彬有礼,在两米开外停下,站到一侧,给陌生人

    让路;北方学生会在不到两米处停下。然而,在受到侮辱之后,

    北方学生会再多走一步;而南方学生则会在差一点就会撞上对方

    的地方(两人相距不到一米)才会让步。

    我们对某一群体的刻板印象有一定的合理性。在美国,南方人被认为比北方人更友好,更懂礼貌,而北方人经常表现得很唐突粗鲁。然而,南方人比北方人更容易惩罚别人,他们会体罚孩子,并且赞成警察开枪杀人。所以从表面上来看,美国人讲着相同的语言,生活在相同的环境下,感受着相似的文化,但是人与人之间还是存在差异。这是生物差异而并非基因差异。文化环境不同,人们的大脑发育也会产生差异。“走廊”实验可以解释地区犯罪的统计数据,美国联邦调查局的数据显示,美国南方人在因受到侮辱而导致的打斗中,更有可能杀死朋友或熟人;南方腹地的谋杀率是全美其他地区的两倍。换句话说,一个人所处的文化环境会影响他的生存。

    荣誉文化一般出现在资源匮乏和政府软弱的地方。这类地区对社会规范的选择压力来自权势而非威望。从世界范围来看,存在这种情况的都是一些地处偏隅的游牧群体,这些群体中偷牲畜的盗贼很多,人与人之间缺少合作,因而暴力的名声就成为保护自己财产的必要手段。攻击一个人引以为傲的东西,由此产生的羞耻或耻辱的感觉是大部分暴力行为出现的原因。相比之下,在农业社会中,人们定居相伴,必须要相互合作、分享土地、共建灌溉水渠等公共基础设施才可以生存,这就导致农业社会重视威望而非权势。偷农作物不如偷牛划算,农民可以依靠更强大的集体行动体系来惩罚违法者,不用出于自卫而使用暴力。阻止邻居攻击自己的办法不是用攻击性的行为来对抗他们(这种情况下自己可能会受伤),而是对邻居慷慨大方,并在必要时与之合作。

    美国南部多是苏格兰和爱尔兰移民,在荒野和山地里放牧,他们实行自治,看重荣誉。尽管他们在很多地方定居,并融入当地农业和城市文化,但在他们的家乡——美国南方腹地的乡村地区——“人人为己”的荣誉文化仍然存在。相比之下,美国北部的情况恰恰相反,这里多是德国和荷兰移民,他们种植农作物,社区力量很强大。社会规范很难改变,因为人们觉得社会规范并不是发明出来的,而是从父母那里继承来的。

    归根到底,经济因素驱动大部分社会变革。欧洲贵族推崇的

    决斗荣誉文化随着中产阶层的兴起而消亡。一些解决争端的明智

    方式由此出现,让为荣誉而战的做法看起来很荒谬。随着社会制

    度变得更加强大,决斗者更容易被指控谋杀,而不是因捍卫自己

    的荣誉而受到赞扬。雅兹迪部落曾严格遵守荣誉文化,但最近,

    在“伊斯兰国”武装分子对伊拉克雅兹迪部落女子实施暴行之

    后,这种文化发生了转变。数千名被绑架和强奸的幸存者不敢回

    到村子,因为当地社会排斥失去贞操的女性。然而,当地经济和

    社会的发展需要这些女性返回伤亡惨重的村庄,这样就带来了社

    会规范的变革。村里的人给这些女性举行了“净化”仪式后便重

    新接纳了她们,这意味着她们重获自由。暴行之后,这种方式不

    仅挽回了大家的面子,而且使村子重新走上正轨。纳迪娅·穆拉

    德就是被残害的女性之一,她在这场暴行中的勇气得到了全世界

    的认可,并让她获得了 2018 年诺贝尔和平奖。

    荣誉文化正在逐渐消亡。恐吓会阻碍社会凝聚力的形成,因此倡导荣誉文化的社会往往会解体,逐渐转变为亲社会群体。像美国北部各州那样,倡导威望的文化成为主流。与此同时,随着人口变得更加多样化,人们可以接触到不同的社会规范,比如在城市里,人们更能容忍越轨者,因此越来越多的人要表达自我。接触不同的社会规范让人的思想更加开放,如果从年纪较小的时候开始接触,这种效果会更显著。研究显示,当孩子所在的学校种族更加多元时,各种族之间会有更强的凝聚力。
    部落共同的信仰形成了社会规范,并通过各类装饰来传递这些规范,这些规范反过来又影响部落的文化信仰和身份认同。例如,在北非和中东,一个人如果按照西方国家的文化规范公开同性恋身份,就会受到强烈排斥。这并不是因为两种文化中的同性恋伴侣有什么不同,而是社会表达方式完全不同。大部分阿拉伯国家有同性性行为的男性不认为自己是同性恋者;而在西方,许多人都认为自己是同性恋者。有什么样的社会规范,就会有什么样的社会装饰,因为装饰是一种身份象征。
    我们通过美创造了一种视觉语言。群体再大,这种语言也能让大家像一个小部落一样紧密合作在一起,拥有共同的身份、社会规范和集体信仰体系。大规模合作带来的能量、经济和生存优势,让我们与其他部落竞争资源。然而,人类文化的巨大悖论就是,尽管我们支持部落主义,但我们还是依靠部落间的合作关系网来交流想法、资源以及传递基因,下一章将继续探讨这些问题。

    第十章 饰品和珍宝:被创造的价值

    1492 年 1 月,一名男子骑着骡子,独自离开了西班牙科尔多瓦。他身后的这座城市曾是欧洲最繁荣的地方,而如今,繁华已如过眼云烟,消失殆尽,正如他现在的境遇:壮年不再,希望渺茫。他将自己人生中最美好的 10 年拿来追求一个疯狂的梦想,却又一次碰了壁,未能筹集到资金,这个已经年至不惑的水手只好向命运低头。

    这个人就是克里斯托弗·哥伦布,他出生在意大利热那亚一

    个纺织工人家庭。热那亚是一个国际化港口城市,周围群山环绕,

    远处是一望无尽的大海。当时,前往远一些的葡萄牙首都里斯本,

    要比去近处的意大利米兰或瑞士日内瓦等地更加便捷。哥伦布成

    年后的大多数时间都是在船上度过的,穿梭于葡萄牙和西非地区

    之间的大西洋上,做些小生意。在他那个时代,最重要的商品就

    是香料。它们来自神秘的东方,价格高昂,供不应求,催生出利

    润丰厚的欧洲香料市场。但当时通向东方的道路都在奥斯曼帝国

    把控下,香料的价格和贸易的风险都越来越高。

    因此,人们开始寻求一条前往东方的海上航线。1488 年,一名葡萄牙水手首次成功绕过非洲的最南端,到达印度洋地区,但这条线路危机四伏。对此,哥伦布有另一个想法,那就是从欧洲向西航行,直达亚洲,这样就可以避开危险的好望角。在哥伦布

    小时候,欧洲就已经有了印刷机,他得以博览群书。通过阅读研

    究,他认为地球的周长要比人们普遍认为的长度短 20%左右。然

    而,哥伦布辗转多个国家,包括葡萄牙、热那亚、威尼斯、英国,

    最后到西班牙,这些国家的统治者都不相信他关于地球周长的观

    点,拒绝给他提供探险基金。几年后,似乎是一时的心血来潮,

    西班牙国王费尔南多二世和女王伊莎贝尔一世改变了主意,派遣

    了一支皇家卫队,三艘帆船,追随这个骑着骡子的人开始航行。

    女王给哥伦布发放年度津贴,并且许诺,如果事情成功的话,他

    还能得到许多其他的奖赏,不过要取得成功似乎不太可能。

    1492 年 10 月,哥伦布登上了新大陆,这意味着美洲人民结

    束了长达一万年的与世隔绝状态(在当时,美洲地区的人口占全

    世界人口的 1/3),也意味着全球化进程的开始。这种相互依存将

    改变我们的世界。哥伦布大交换把金、银、各种矿产、新的食材、

    烟草、梅毒和火鸡带到了欧洲,进而传播到亚洲和非洲地区。而

    对美洲来说,哥伦布的航行带来了疾病、奴役、灭绝、基督教、

    牲畜、枪支和人,带来的影响如疾风一般,迅速到达美洲的每一

    个角落。美洲曾经先进的文明在几十年内被迅速摧毁,90%的原

    住民死于麻疹、天花和流感。在哥伦布的残酷统治下,仅仅在伊

    斯帕尼奥拉岛,就有超过 300 万人死去。

    对于欧洲人来说,这次航行带来的资源交易和美非两洲的奴

    隶交易降低了创新的能源成本,并为创意、技术、建筑、艺术和

    贸易的文化爆炸提供了资金支持。仅玻利维亚的赛罗里科山就出

    产了 7 万吨白银,这一产量足够支持西班牙超过两个世纪的花销。

    欧洲的精英阶层利用从美洲涌入的新财富重塑并巩固了社会阶

    层,使得基督教取代了伊斯兰教在欧洲的位置,还在当时已知的

    世界范围内加快了探索,促进了贸易、殖民和私营企业的发展。

    这其中,荷兰和英国受益颇多。两国通过控制东印度群岛,特别

    是通过控制其中香料群岛的香料贸易谋取了大量利益,因为这里

    是肉豆蔻和丁香的唯一产地。自此,世界爆发了诸多战争,出现

    了大规模的殖民行为,但同时也创造了大量的财富。

    新大陆的发现产生了全球性的影响。西方经济的发达、工业

    的繁荣和前所未有的扩张,都以扼杀不发达地区的经济发展为代

    价。这些地区深陷贫困,资源匮乏,当地文化也因此被破坏或者

    说是被刻意破坏。随着人口结构的变化,几代人积累的文化知识

    消失了。部落或四分五裂,或迁移变动,或被迫停止进行自己的

    社会仪式。有的地方,新移民取代了原住民,新的文化和语言也

    取代了原来的文化和语言。有的地方,人们因为疾病、冲突或饥

    荒死亡。时至今日,西方殖民主义早已在一代人之前就分崩瓦解

    了,现代全球化经济也已发展了几十年,但殖民时代产生的文化

    和经济影响依然根深蒂固,让人无法忽视。

    哥伦布于 1506 年在西班牙去世。他因为掠夺来的黄金而腰缠万贯,但他永远都无从知晓自己到底发现了什么,因为他一直以为自己发现的只是亚洲的一些偏远地区。

    这种全球范围的文化、环境和基因交换的根源就在于人们对

    香料的渴望。正是这种渴望,帮助欧洲的殖民帝国仅凭一己之力

    创造了政治、军事和商业网络。然而,香料的价值完全是随意虚

    构的。香料一词在英语中是“spice”,词源是拉丁语的“spec”,

    意为“外表”。香料正是因其美丽的外表才受人们追捧。香料虽

    然不能提供营养,但它色彩缤纷,芳香诱人,滋味独特,充满异

    域风情。它作为防腐剂的任何所谓好处都会被一个事实抵消,那

    就是新鲜肉类比香料更便宜、更容易买到。换句话说,胡椒、丁

    香、肉桂和肉豆蔻之所以受欢迎,是因为我们赋予了它们文化价

    值。一旦这种价值被社会大众接受,购买香料就成为一种炫耀性

    的消费,香料就成为精英阶层的标配,并且开始在全球各地进行

    交易。因为人们对美的追求狂热至极,香料贸易在当时是一项非

    常重要的全球性活动。

    美不仅是部落归属感的象征,还在人类文化中扮演着另一个重要的角色——赋予事物意义,即社会价值,而不考虑它们的存在是否有意义。我们重视各种各样的美:香料味等稀有的味道,紫色等难以染出的颜色,丝绸、宝石和金属等有光泽的材料。虽然装饰无用,但我们以此为乐。早在哥伦布大交换之前,我们的祖先就利用人类天生对于美丽的渴望降低贸易成本,建立起了能够增加文化复杂性和改善生存条件的网络。贸易在过去是一种文化杠杆,它让人类这一物种通过合作进行竞争。这种模式在全球范围内通过资源、基因和技术的交换实现传播。可以说,美促进了贸易。

    最早的人类社群就像现在的小型社会一样,在以物易物的基

    础上进行交易。尽管每个群体的强大依靠的是对自己的群体的热

    爱和对外人的敌视,但其实群体与群体之间相互依存,就像群体

    内部人与人之间相互依存一样。部落与部落为资源而合作,为共

    同抵抗其他部落而合作,为交换技术和材料而合作。贸易确实十

    分重要,基于这一点,一些人类学家甚至认为可能正是贸易驱动

    了语言的产生,因为如果没有语言,哪怕最简单的物物交换也十

    分困难。人与人之间的贸易都是出于自愿,因为大家都认为他们

    在交换中获得的收益要多于全部自己投资生产的所得,事实上也

    确实如此。诚如 19 世纪英国经济学家大卫·李嘉图所言,正如

    专业化在一个部落中意义重大一样,一个部落自身实现专业化也

    具有经济意义。

    李嘉图提出过这样一个假设:有两个国家,一个国家擅长生产食品,更擅长生产服装;另一个国家则不太擅长生产食品,更不擅长生产服装。此时你可能会想,既然第一个国家两件事情都做得很好,那就应该让它既生产食品又生产服装,从而忽略了另一个国家。事实上,李嘉图运用数学方法进行研究,结果发现,对于这两个国家来说,最高效的方法是只生产各自最擅长的产品,然后通过和另一个国家进行交易来获得其他产品。比较优势比绝对优势更重要。我们进行交易是为了提高自己的生存概率。专业化是最节省自身能量的策略,所以从蚂蚁到人类的脑细胞,整个生物系统中随处可见这一策略。如制作矛头和捕杀鲸鱼这样的专业技能的提升依赖群体之间的以物易物,这也使得文化实践和技术种类更加繁多,内容更加复杂。

    如果一个群体不会捕杀鲸鱼,但可以制作矛头,那他们就可

    以和一个需要长矛的捕鲸族群进行交易。但是如果捕鲸群体在进

    行交易时还没有鲸鱼肉,需要先获得矛头才能捕获鲸鱼进行交易,

    这又如何是好呢?这种情况就是延迟的互惠,它需要贸易双方对

    彼此信任,制作矛头的群体在交付自己制作的矛头时,肯定希望

    最终能收到鲸鱼肉。虽然技术在专业化分工的影响下会发展得更

    加迅速,摆脱群体内部社会规范和声誉因素的影响,但是技术对

    彼此的依赖性会更强。交易的复杂化是显而易见的。如果制作矛

    头的群体附近不是捕鲸的群体,而是采集红薯的群体呢?采集红

    薯的人不需要长矛,但是制作矛头的人仍然需要吃饭,此时又该

    何去何从呢?

    以物易物需要交换双方在供应、技术、偏好和时间上的一致。

    在小规模群体中,这些条件容易满足,但在大规模群体中,以物

    易物就困难了。所以当群体的规模变大,各种网络变得更加复杂

    时,依赖陌生人彼此信任的多方交易就会出现,但是这样一来,

    不仅跟踪商品动态和推进后续服务很困难,还会产生十分高昂的

    成本。无论是大自然还是贸易伙伴“欠”下的货物,如果只靠声

    誉和社会规范进行约束,延期交货的风险都会很高。声誉可能会

    误导我们对他人行为的看法和评价,而且在交易过程中,我们会

    不停地计算交易成本和风险,随着时间推移,这种心理负担会成

    为一个很大的问题,会阻碍双方之间的交易,甚至可能导致冲突。

    以令人向往的事物的形式存在的美,解决了这个问题。人类

    有收集的欲望,就像园丁鸟和喜鹊一样,人类也有收集的本能。

    从孩提时代开始,人类就开始收集东西,原因不过就是我们觉得

    这些东西好看,而我们的文化进化操控着这种冲动。到 3 岁左右

    的时候,儿童就有了强烈的占有欲,他们会抗拒别人替换自己的

    物品,哪怕是拿一模一样的东西换也不可以。当社会发展到一定

    阶段时,物品私有化规范帮助人类从装饰自己的人变成拥有装饰

    品的人。收藏品的转让和交换取代了声誉,推动着部落之间的交

    易。贸易从此欣欣向荣,蓬勃发展。

    以非洲南部的布隆伯斯洞穴中的古代贝壳项链为例。它们为什么如此特别?其中一个原因就是它们是收藏品。当人类处于生存边缘时,制作项链需要大量时间和许多技巧。正是因为制作如此耗时费力,所以寻找贝壳和制作项链一定有一个重要的选择优

    势。一个令人信服的理论就是,这些漂亮的小饰品不仅能提升一

    个部落的地位,还可以用于交换和收藏,这就是最初的货币形式。

    从非洲北部的阿尔及利亚到非洲最南端,再到以色列的诸多

    遗址,都发现了布隆伯斯洞穴中的那种穿孔贝壳项链。其历史最

    早可追溯到 12 万年前,这说明制作和佩戴这种贝壳项链是数千

    年里诸多部落共有的一种文化现象。一些发现海洋贝壳的遗址位

    于大陆腹地,所以一定是有人把贝壳带到了这些地方。由此可以

    看出,早在那个时候,沿海和内陆地区间的贸易网络已经十分活

    跃和广泛,而贝壳项链很可能是创造这些网络的契机和维系网络

    运行的动力。这些贸易网络有益于基因和文化的交流,进而加速

    了人类的文化进化。人类个体的生存依靠部落,同理,一个部落

    的生存也需要依靠其他部落。贸易网络对人类的非洲祖先至关重

    要,同样,对离我们近一些的冰河时代的澳大利亚人也同样重要。

    (虽然在生物系统中存在群体选择,但群体选择对生物生存影响

    力的大小仍充满争议,然而在文化进化中,群体选择通过声誉和

    社会规范对社会进化产生驱动作用是毋庸置疑的,这就是文化进

    化和基因进化之间的一个重要差异。)

    收藏品不菲的价值推动了制造工艺和技术的发展,同时也推动了资源贸易和开发。美成为一种重要的可交易资源,满足了文化上的需求,同时也降低了资源(食物和领土)交易成本,从而填补了我们身体上的饥饿。贵重物品可以在存在延期补偿的交易中充当抵押品,可以作为彩礼,补偿给嫁女儿的一方,或是作为

    战利品安抚敌对部落。一些收藏品还赋予社会角色以权威,比如

    王冠是首领的象征,这类收藏品一般会传给下一任接班人,但是

    它们象征的权力不变,而且篡权者可以通过在冲突中夺取这些收

    藏品以获得它们所象征的权力。拥有者死后,其收藏品可以是分

    配给继承人的财富(人类是唯一有“财富”概念的动物),也可

    以是被赋予特权和责任的头衔。这意味着我们从父母那里继承的

    不仅有生物遗传基因,还有社会文化。这两者都会影响我们的基

    因(和文化知识)延续的概率。

    当有人刻意美化某样东西时,这样东西就会被赋予重要的意

    义,哪怕我们无法解释其中的深意,也依然会承认且重视它。在

    大英博物馆的收藏品中,有一枚镀金的凯尔特人十字架胸针,发

    掘于爱尔兰的贝利卡登沼泽地区。它的历史可以追溯到 8—9 世

    纪,其特别之处在于它中间镶嵌着一颗小小的玻璃一般的宝石,

    上面用阿拉伯语刻着“以真主的名义”。当时,爱尔兰西部附近

    的港口是重要的贸易中心,很可能是某位穆斯林在这里遗落了这

    颗宝石。12 个世纪前,发现它的人根本不可能识字,更别说读懂

    阿拉伯语了,但他下意识地认为这颗宝石象征着什么,有一定的

    意义,因而具有一定的收藏价值,所以就把它镶嵌在另一个具有

    象征意义的物品中。

    在人类历史的大部分时间里,我们都居无定所,四处打猎、采集或放牧,所以随身携带的生活必需品要尽可能地少。这些少数个人物品通常是珠宝或是地毯、衣服等装饰性纺织品,它们往往都有经济价值和收藏意义。如今,图尔卡纳牧民会珍藏他们的串珠项链,蒙古牧民可能会保留纺织品和精心装饰过的蒙古包的门,因为用这些物品进行交易可以帮助他们四处迁徙,在无法预测的生活中应对突发的变化,以备不时之需。我们在交易中用有价值的收藏品作保,是因为它们具有重要的经济意义,这反过来又促进了装饰物质文化的发展。

    在多瑙河畔的德国巴伐利亚州乌尔姆地区,坐落着一个小博

    物馆,那里收藏着一尊精美的小雕像,名为“史前狮子人”。它

    的原料是一块猛犸象牙,雕刻者于 4 万年前雕刻将其完成。这座

    雕像有着穴狮的头颅(穴狮是雕刻者最惧怕的食肉动物)和人类

    的身体,是已知最古老的超自然生物形象。狮子人雕像虽然只有

    30 厘米高,却使用了极为精湛的雕刻技艺。它的姿态和面孔栩栩

    如生、惟妙惟肖,眼睛炯炯有神、目光如炬。这样一个小小的物

    件散发着强大的力量,实在令人难以置信。试验表明,一个技术

    熟练的人要花 400 多个小时才能完成这件具有象征意义的作品。

    这尊雕像身上的磨损表明,在雕刻过程中,工匠曾反反复复进行

    修改。狮子人雕像是一件很漂亮的装饰品,所以在制造它的时代里,这尊雕像一定有着重要的精神意义,可能代表一位连通人类世界和动物世界的神明。

    这个冰河时代的作品之所以有价值,并不是因为它满足了生

    物需求,而是像那些串成项链的贝壳珠子一样,通过美化,也就

    是给装饰品赋予意义而获得了价值。制作这个小雕像的群体重视

    创造开发能力,并乐于投入时间和人力来学习和实践这些能力。

    他们还制作了许多其他的装饰品,比如穿成串的北极狐牙齿和驯

    鹿鹿角,这些物品和狮子人雕像一起,被小心地存放在洞穴群的

    一个房间里。狮子人雕像的嘴里有一些有机物残留,考古学家认

    为是血液。对关系复杂的远古社会来说,狮子人雕像这个人造符

    号在集体叙事中扮演着重要角色,它将人们团结在一起,组成强

    大的部落,让他们在冰河时代严酷的自然环境中,在穴狮和人类

    竞争者的威胁下,求得一线生机。这些第一批欧洲人留下的装饰

    品和引人回味的画作刻画了一个富有创意、足智多谋的民族。他

    们不仅在人类历史上最严酷的环境中存活下来,还利用强大的贸

    易网络,实现了不同文化之间知识、技术、资源和基因的交流,

    超越了他们的近亲尼安德特人,实现了繁荣兴盛。

    在现代人类取代尼安德特人后,地球上的人口密度至少增加了 10 倍。为了提高土地承载力,人们很可能进行了财富转移,而利用收藏品进行财富转移效率更高,成功率也更高。尼安德特人也制作过一些装饰品,但我们并不清楚他们是否利用这些装饰品进行过大规模的交易。我们的祖先跨越千里,收集、购买原材料,用这些材料制造乐器、雕像、珠宝和其他具有附加价值的装饰品,并利用它们开展贸易。贸易让我们建立起更广泛的社会网络,规模更大的团体,数量更多的文化机构,增强了我们对严酷环境的适应能力。这使得我们的祖先能够跨越大陆,占据大片土地,而尼安德特人却从未冒险走出过欧亚大陆。

    狩猎采集部落通常在狩猎季节分成几个团队打猎。他们会每

    年聚在一起举办几次盛大的庆祝活动,每次活动持续一周左右。

    在这些活动中,不同部落和文化的手工艺品制作者和专业猎人会

    相互交流,并借此机会交换肉类、分享故事和其他资源,还会交

    流想法,分享技术和各种工具,检验舞蹈、音乐和制作装饰品的

    成果,逐渐发展成贸易往来关系。在准备活动的过程中,如今的

    狩猎采集部落,比如西卡拉哈里沙漠的昆族,会花费大量时间来

    准备和制作可以交易的收藏品,比如鸵鸟蛋壳珠宝。这是对群体

    时间和精力的宝贵投资。昆族人用这些收藏品购买的东西之一就

    是进入另一个群体领地狩猎和采集食物的权利。收藏品就是昆族

    人的未雨绸缪之举,它们就像是昆族人为自己购买的一份保险,

    帮助他们度过困难时期,求得生存。

    非洲部落的祖先用收藏品来扩张领地或迁移。贸易推动远古部落进行迁移,因为它可以转移环境风险。如果一个部落领地内的水源干涸导致猎物匮乏,那该部落就有可能与另一个远一些的部落进行贸易以获取食物。迁移是一种适应手段,让人类在不断

    变化的环境和社会条件中得以生存。但是,在迁移过程中,贸然

    进入另一个部落的领地是很危险的事情。正是在这一点上,我们

    祖先的行为与其他灵长类动物有着天壤之别。例如,黑猩猩对自

    己群体之外的所有同类都怀有敌意,它们会攻击任何入侵自己领

    地的动物,并且主要通过攻击和杀戮邻居实现领地的扩张。人类

    也会武力抢夺领地,但是人类通常使用外交等手段,让整个部落

    安全地穿过其他部落,或者和别人共享领地,或通过贸易购得领

    地。当人类部落被武力征服时,失败的一方并不一定总是被屠杀,

    他们可能会被迫进贡,也可能沦为奴隶,被迫效忠于胜利方,遵

    循胜利者的规则,而胜利者则从中获得劳动力和资源。

    人类群体间的互动往往是合作而非敌对,其原因之一是人类

    之间的亲缘关系,这使得相邻群体之间更容易开展贸易或移民。

    我们包含姻亲的大家庭经常跨越群体界限。人类通常不会攻击和

    消灭邻居,主要是因为和邻居做生意可以获得很多好处。因此,

    我们制定了群体间互动交流的社会策略。通过友好的语言、提供

    代表通行权的收藏品和其他表示善意的信号,我们可以接近一个

    陌生的群体,而且不会受到伤害。大多数群体都有欢迎陌生人的

    社会规范。如果来访者受到热情款待,他们就会觉得这是一个慷

    慨大方、举止礼貌、富足的部落,这样就能确保部落拥有良好的

    声誉,部落领导者拥有一定的威望。这为往来贸易铺平了道路,

    也为思想传播打下了基础。这样做的好处在贸易集团中表现得最为明显,像欧盟这样的贸易集团就让竞争性冲突的成本与和平合作相比显得毫无吸引力。

    当其他灵长类动物的活动都还局限于热带森林时,人类的贸

    易网络却跨越了部落之间的障碍,使得人类自身和人类思想的流

    动不再受地理因素的限制,促进了文化多样性和复杂性的发展,

    也改变了环境和基因。通过绘制现代人类基因标记的出现和频率,

    我们能够绘制出古代人类走出非洲后在世界各地迁徙的时间和

    路线图。最可能的路径是从现在的吉布提穿越曼德海峡到达也门

    附近。其中一些人沿着海岸迅速到达印度,并在大约 65,000 年

    前到达了东南亚和澳大利亚。与此同时,另一群人从阿拉伯半岛

    出发,穿过中东,横跨亚洲中南部,向亚洲内陆迁移。从那里开

    始,人类各部落开始在北半球进行殖民活动,在大约 8 万年前到

    达中国,大约 4 万年前到达欧洲地区。最终,在末次冰盛期,也

    就是大约 2 万年前,当时海平面比现在低 90 米左右,一小群亚

    洲猎人走进了冰封的东亚北极区,通过一座冰川大陆桥来到了美

    洲。他们又花了 5,000 年到达了北美洲南部没有冰封的地区,不

    到 1,000 年之后,他们到达了南美洲的最南端。这样一来,原本

    居住在热带地区的类人猿就占领了地球上除南极洲以外的所有

    大陆。

    在人类漫长的进化史中,人类大部分时间都生活在更新世时期,恶劣的生存环境使得人类种群的数量一直维持在一个较低的水平,还限制了分散群体之间的贸易往来。群体规模较小的非洲探险者的后代之间存在的差异恰好说明了这一点。因此,当藏族

    人的祖先首次在高原上定居时,他们就已经克服了大多数胎盘哺

    乳动物基因中的海拔限制,他们体内有一种基因,能够帮助孕妇

    应对血氧较低的情况。在藏区,如果女性携有这一基因,那她们

    存活下来的孩子数量是没有这一基因的女性的孩子数量的两倍

    多,这表现出一种很强的自然选择性。在大约 11,000 年前,第

    一次有人定居在安第斯山脉的高海拔地区,这里的人们经历了不

    同的基因适应,血液中的血红蛋白浓度升高,改善了其浓缩氧气

    的方式。人类的皮肤颜色由几个不同的基因控制,通常随纬度的

    变化而变化(纬度越低,黑色素的流失越少),因为不同纬度的

    太阳光照强度不同。不同的皮肤颜色是人类祖先迁移行为的外在

    证据。黑色素可以抵御紫外线,但也限制了人体必需的维生素 D

    (可通过皮肤与阳光反应产生)的数量。不过,我们熟悉的浅肤

    色欧洲人出现的时间比较晚。根据对西班牙狩猎采集者基因的分

    析可知,7,000 年前的欧洲人还是深色皮肤和头发。

    欧洲人除了皮肤白皙、有诸多语言外,还拥有许多其他特质,这些都归功于一个非凡的民族,那就是颜那亚人。颜那亚人建立了世界上第一个横跨大陆的贸易网。大约 5500 年前,颜那亚人作为第一批牧民,沿着欧亚大草原上的黑海和里海向北迁徙,随行带着优质的商品,还有他们自己的商品运输系统。颜那亚人的转变始于由捕猎野马转向驯养野马,马可以帮助他们驮东西,还可以拉战车。随后,车轮的发明使他们在运送货物时走得更远、更快。当他们所生活的草原遭遇干旱时,他们就出发去寻找更好的牧场和新的贸易机会,其中一些人搭上马车前往中欧和北欧,另一些人则冒险向东进入亚洲。

    对于当时的欧洲农民来说,颜那亚人是一道不同寻常的风景

    线,因为他们从未见过这样的人:深色的瞳孔,白皙的皮肤,戴

    着青铜首饰,像战士一样骑着马,拉着轮式马车。颜那亚人所说

    的语言属于印欧语系,他们还拥有先进的金属加工技术,能够制

    作用于收藏和装饰的珠宝,以及图案复杂的钟形陶器,被称为比

    克陶器。这些艺术品因其时尚的造型而拥有广泛的市场,从斯堪

    的纳维亚半岛到摩纳哥,多地的考古发掘都出土过这类艺术品。

    根据最近的一项分析报告显示,颜那亚人会吸食大麻,并且完成

    了欧亚大陆上的第一桩大麻贸易。

    颜那亚人在畜牧业方面非常成功,他们会驯养一些野生动物,

    比如野牛、山羊和绵羊,让它们成为温顺的牲畜,为人类提供食

    物、皮革、血液和奶制品。许多牧民都会从动物身上采集血液,

    因为活体动物的血液能够有效提供热量和蛋白质,但是颜那亚人

    可能是第一个从牲畜身上挤奶的族群。许多比克陶器罐里都能检

    测到牛奶残留,这是当时人们制作酸奶、凝乳和奶酪的证据,草原上的游牧民族至今也有这种习惯。这种文化改变了他们的基因。

    虽然哺乳动物在婴儿时期依赖乳汁生存,但他们在断奶之后,

    身体就会停止产生能够消化乳制品中的乳糖的基因,所以在远祖

    时,哺乳动物成年之后就不能再喝乳制品了。酸奶和硬奶酪的乳

    糖含量很少,所以它们不难消化。但是颜那亚人用未经加工的牛

    奶进行了试验,他们的基因对此做出了反应。大约 9,000 年前,

    颜那亚人的基因出现了突变,自此,颜那亚年龄较大的儿童和成

    年人也能消化牛奶。那些遗传了乳糖耐受基因的人可以从牛奶里

    的糖分、蛋白质、脂肪和其他营养物质中受益,而没有这种基因

    的人则会因为喝牛奶而变得十分虚弱。像乳糖耐受基因这类可以

    改善人体营养状况的基因变化会在人群中快速传播。因为这些基

    因,一部分人的身体会更加健康,生育能力更强,他们的孩子更

    有可能存活。这样一来,这些变化后的有利基因更有可能传递下

    去。人们捕捉到一头野牛,引导它进化,最终将它驯化为家养的

    奶牛。人类开始喝牛奶,人体基因逐渐适应牛奶。这就是一种文

    化—环境—基因三位一体的进化。

    在短短几个世纪中,颜那亚人就彻底变革了欧洲的社会、文化和基因,带领农民迅速从石器时代进入青铜器时代。乳糖耐受能力对以往营养不良和发育不良的农民来说,是一个极大的生存优势。如今,欧洲西北部有大约 98%的成年人可以正常饮用牛奶。浅色的皮肤也是当时农民的优势之一,因为他们很难获取动物肝脏或其他能提供维生素 D 的食物,而浅色皮肤能促进身体产生维生素 D。在人口较少的群体中,无论多么微小的基因优势都能帮

    助基因不断扩散。同样,颜那亚这个先进部落的社会规范、制度

    和技术也会被其他群体模仿和采用。这就是先进部落的信仰体系、

    珠宝、艺术、技术和制度大范围传播的方式。每一个部落在这些

    方面都留下了自己的痕迹,最后融合成了一个皮肤白皙、乳糖耐

    受的民族。他们的语言是一种全新的原始日耳曼语(即包含农业

    用语的印欧语系语言)。他们会种植作物、驯养牲畜、生产奶制

    品,还发明了石器时代新的陶器工艺——绳纹陶器。这种陶器的

    风格让人们回想起颜那亚人装饰的木棺,多由女陶工制作,主要

    用来喝啤酒。

    颜那亚人之所以对人类社会具有如此巨大的变革意义,一方

    面是因为他们形成了一个由移动群体组成的网络,另一方面是因

    为他们拥有强大的贸易能力。颜那亚人利用这个网络在各个大陆

    之间进行交流,而且他们还用马车这种更快捷的交通工具运输食

    物和水。他们踏上欧洲大陆可谓是占尽了“天时”,当时瘟疫肆

    虐,生灵涂炭。这群带着狗牙和狼牙项链的颜那亚男性,纵马如

    暴风般横扫欧洲大陆,四处殖民。原住民中的男性被俘虏、屠杀

    或驱逐——DNA 证据显示,这些农民最后逃到了现在意大利的撒

    丁岛——而女性则或是被强奸,或是成为这些高大健壮的外来者

    的伴侣。最终,欧洲大陆原始基因库中大约 90%的部分被颜那亚

    人消灭,包括如今西班牙和葡萄牙地区的所有男性。

    颜那亚人作为青铜器时代的牧民,可以算是全球化的先驱。他们在广袤的欧亚大陆上交换食物,交流知识、金属加工技术和文化技能。其中一些物品具有实用价值,例如金属工具,但是更多的只是纯粹的装饰品。这些精美的装饰品流通广泛,推动了规模更大、效率更高的经济体系的产生。颜那亚人和他们临近的部落共同创造的贸易路线在贸易中发挥着重要作用,在诸如琥珀、丝绸和香料等价格不菲的收藏品的交换中更是如此。几千年后,这条贸易之路成为丝绸之路的一部分。

    在全球人口只有 500 万的时候,颜那亚人就实现了基因和文化的革命。在丝绸之路的鼎盛时期,全球共有 3.6 亿人口,人口越多,就越具有文化多样性和遗传多样性。各条贸易之路组成了一个复杂的网络,不再仅仅是简单地输出和引进文化,而是相互传播新思想、新技术和新信仰,从而加速了文化进化。

    可以说,丝绸之路的雏形早在欧亚大草原上的人发明捕捉和

    驯养野马的方法前就出现了。大约 7500 年前,中国的工匠们就

    开始饲养一种非常小的动物:桑蚕。几个世纪后,他们培育出了

    一种体积更大、繁殖更快、产卵更多、产丝量更高的桑蚕品种。

    人工培育的蚕蛾无法飞翔,它们完全依靠人类喂养桑叶进行繁殖。

    这种蚕蛾在幼虫和成虫阶段都是可食用的,但真正价值连城的是

    无比美丽的蚕丝,也就是成虫蜕变过程中形成的茧。蚕丝可以纺

    成丝绸,丝绸以光亮美丽、强韧耐用、质量上乘而著称,当然也价格不菲,曾经一度和货币地位相当。一匹丝绸可以是部落之间用于交换的和平礼物,也可以用来支付士兵和其他工人的工资。人类引导野生物种实现的进化是一种人为的生态变化,这种变化

    并没有产生直接的生物效益,但是我们赋予了它们一种文化价值。

    由一只不起眼的虫子“演变”而来的丝绸,是当时中国最有

    价值的商品。不仅如此,丝绸还改变了全世界。从埃及到罗马,

    人们都十分渴望这种精美的布料,于是他们派遣间谍,试图破解

    这种布料的制作秘密。到公元 2 世纪时,颜那亚人古老的贸易之

    路已经扩展成为连接太平洋和地中海的一个巨大网络,覆盖方圆

    6,000 多千米的地区,其影响延绵几个世纪。这条贸易之路连接

    着不同文化之间的经济和智慧,连接着曾经与世隔绝的人群,发

    挥着至关重要的作用。从佛教和伊斯兰教的传播到香料、宝石、

    金属和陶瓷的交易,都紧紧围绕着丝绸之路,但丝绸之路也传播

    了可怕的黑死病。由于干旱,中亚地区的旱獭和沙鼠四窜,它们

    身上的跳蚤带有鼠疫杆菌,沿途经过的商队感染了这种细菌。到

    1345 年,鼠疫已经蔓延到了黑海的港口,并从这里向君士坦丁

    堡、中东、埃及和地中海地区传播。当时的惨状简直无法想象,

    欧洲有将近 2/3 的人丧生,其中伦敦有一半的人口死亡,英国东

    安格利亚部分地区 7/10 的人口因此命丧黄泉,从诺维奇到佛罗

    伦萨,昔日繁华的城市陷入一片荒芜,宛如世界末日。

    这无疑是过往世界秩序的终结。传染病和战争会破坏交流网络,迫使人们摆脱“安全”的做事方式,建立新的联系。不同以往的人、思想和技术都会被优先考虑,从而形成新的网络。黑死病之后,社会的重组推动了奥斯曼帝国的崛起。这样一来,欧洲商人通过丝绸之路进行贸易的成本和风险都明显提高,但也正如前文所说,这催生了美洲大陆的发现。

    最终,丝绸的秘密还是被泄露了。但究竟是一位嫁给于阗国的中国公主把桑蚕和桑树种藏在头巾里偷带了出来,还是两个拜占庭僧侣用竹竿把蚕卵偷运了出来,我们就无从得知了。从此以后,虽然中国仍然保持着丝绸主要出口国的身份,但失去了丝绸生产的垄断地位。丝绸促进了相距千里、隔山望海的部落之间的文化和基因交流。

    如今,基因、人群、文化和技术都在进行规模巨大的融合,其多样性和复杂性在很大程度上归功于美,即人类为物品创造价值的偏好。这种价值并不是生活必需品的价值,而是我们内心渴望的价值。贸易带来的利益促使我们与拥有不同社会规范、基因和技术的部落进行合作。如此一来,贸易扩大了人们的交流网络,提升了集体智慧,鼓励人们探索自然环境以寻找有价值的原材料。一个部落选择和发展的技术和行为会受到其他群体带来的新选择压力的影响,所以贸易推动了文化进化。这是一个元选择的过程,它会增加文化的复杂性和多样性。有时候,新的思想和技术跟随资源和收藏品进行传播和交流。有时候,人类自身通过迁移或其他方式成为交流沟通过程的一分子,文化也由此产生变化。我们可以用种群遗传学来观察文化中的差异,但是无论如何,历史证明,增加群体和社会交流沟通网络的数量能增加文化的复杂性。

    社交网络带来了协同效应,使那些已经形成内部组织关系的

    群体能够做到临时聚集起来的群体无法做到的事情。哥伦布之所

    以能促成影响深远的文化交流,是因为他本身就处在一个有组织

    的国际贸易网络中。纵观人类历史,先进的技术往往出现在贸易

    网络强大且广泛,以及气候条件适宜的地方。而在不满足这一条

    件时,文化就会失去其复杂性,有时甚至会消失上千年。这就解

    释了为什么同一区域考古发现中会存在文化差异,而造成这些差

    异的原因并不在于物品保存得是否良好。

    在族群相互孤立的地区,文化(和基因)的复杂性会不断降低,最终导致整个族群濒临灭绝,或是在生存线上挣扎。澳大利亚的塔斯马尼亚原住民部落就是一个典型例子。当欧洲人到达塔斯马尼亚岛时,这里已经与澳大利亚大陆分离了至少一万年。岛上的族群规模较小,彼此孤立,生活十分困苦。他们掌握的技术已经非常简化,只有 24 种不同的工具,包括工艺粗糙、漏水严重的小船。他们不再捕鱼。而且,据说因为文化和经济的孤立,他们还失去了生火的能力。塔斯马尼亚人的工具甚至比 4 万年前欧洲人使用的还要粗糙,当然,更无法与他们离开澳大利亚大陆之前使用的工具相提并论。与之相比,生活在塔斯马尼亚岛对面巴斯海峡另一边的原住民就完全不同。他们说着帕马-恩永甘语系的语言,拥有数百种复杂且部件繁多的工具、船只、专业服装,还有各种各样用来捕鱼、捕鸟和捕捉其他动物的网和长矛。塔斯马尼亚人的孤立状态深刻影响了他们的集体智慧,也就是说,他们的文化“被”简化了。

    加拿大的爱斯基摩人也有过类似的经历。他们作为一个已经

    适应了北极环境的部落,足智多谋,拥有高超的捕猎驯鹿的技能,

    工具的专业程度令人惊叹。大约 6,000 年前,部落中的一小部分

    人克服了恶劣环境的影响,跨越冰雪和海洋,从西伯利亚来到了

    北美洲。之后的 4,000 年里,他们在加拿大南部避寒,气候温暖

    的时候就向更远的地方迁移,成功度过了导致人口大量减少的寒

    冷期,最终在北极的气候变化中幸存。这些古爱斯基摩人的部落

    规模小,整体人口可能从未超过 3,000 人。尽管他们和社会高度

    复杂的美洲印第安原住民一起生活在加拿大南部,但爱斯基摩人

    利用社会规范,刻意在文化和基因上自我孤立。所以,在美洲原

    住民中并没有发现古爱斯基摩人的 DNA。随着时间的推移,爱斯

    基摩人的生存遇到了危机。由于近亲繁殖,他们的身体日益虚弱,

    文化形式也趋于简单,社会和技术的复杂性已不复存在。可以说,

    生活在加拿大南部的爱斯基摩人已经退化了。后来新的一群爱斯基摩人——所谓的极北人,又名新爱斯基摩人,从西伯利亚来到加拿大南部。虽然从基因层面来说,他们和古爱斯基摩人是相同的人,但是文化之间的差异已经十分明显。会捕鲸的极北人生活

    在组织严密的大村庄里,并且为拥有狗拉的雪橇和带筋的弓这样

    先进的技术而自豪。但是,古爱斯基摩人则生活在规模为 20—30

    人左右的小村庄里,用不规整的石刀狩猎。没有证据表明这两个

    族群之间存在冲突,但是古爱斯基摩人很快就灭绝了。他们也许

    是在资源争夺中被淘汰,被迫退到了北极地区的边缘,又或许是

    因为疾病而灭绝。不管怎样,事实是因为缺乏与其他族群的贸易,

    古爱斯基摩人永远消失了。

    虽说生活在地理位置偏僻地区的人更加脆弱,但仅仅一个对

    外联系的网络就能够为当地文化的存续提供一线生机。19 世纪

    20 年代,生活在遥远的格陵兰岛极地地区的因纽特人(时间上离

    我们更近的族群)遭遇了一场传染病。疾病夺去了很多知识渊博

    的高龄猎人的生命,整个族群由此失去了制造重要且复杂工具的

    能力。没有专业的捕鱼长矛(鱼叉)、弓和箭,也不会制造冰屋和

    皮艇,这里的因纽特人被困在了格陵兰岛上,孤立无援,无法获

    取必需的食物。在这种情况下,格陵兰岛上因纽特人的人口持续

    减少。1862 年,一群从巴芬岛来的因纽特人到达格陵兰岛,解救

    了这里的因纽特人。双方在一次狩猎中相遇,巴芬岛因纽特人还

    教授格陵兰岛因纽特人基本的文化知识。格陵兰岛因纽特人学会

    了巴芬岛因纽特人的所有技术,重获狩猎和迁移的能力。从那时

    起,格陵兰岛因纽特人利用新学习的知识,制作船体更宽的巴芬岛风格皮艇。几十年之后,随着人口的不断增加,以及岛上其他因纽特族群之间联系频率的增加,他们制作的皮艇风格开始回归格陵兰岛因纽特人线条更流畅、造型更美观的风格。

    文化进化并不总是推动文化进步,这个观点可能有点奇怪,

    但是生物进化也是如此。比如,据达尔文观察,即使大部分藤壶

    都进化得越来越复杂,但一些藤壶还是在基因上进化出了相对简

    单的形式。对于人类的文化进化来说,人口规模和连通程度是重

    中之重。人类学家的调查显示,一个群体的人口越多,它拥有的

    技术种类就越多,技术也更复杂。一项研究比较了太平洋各个岛

    屿的人口规模、连通程度、捕鱼工具数量和工具精密程度。马勒

    库拉岛上约有 1,000 人,拥有 12 种不同的捕鱼工具;夏威夷岛

    上居住着超过 100 万相互联系的居民,有超过 70 种精密的捕鱼

    工具。

    放眼世界,存活下来的族群都拥有足够多样的基因,保证身

    体健康,同时还都有一个规模足够庞大的社会网络,保证文化学

    习的复杂性。一个族群的规模越大,就越有集体智慧,因为族群

    内会有更多思想的碰撞,“不经意间”就会形成更多的创新。以

    羽毛箭的发明为例,假设一个人只靠自己,要活 1,000 次才会有

    一次想出给箭装上羽毛的主意。那么,10 人小组中的一个人在一

    生中想出这个发明的概率是 1%。也就是说,一个 10 人小组要经

    历 100 代(2 500 年)才能想出这个主意。当小组里有 1,000 个人时,他们在一代人之内创造出这个发明的概率是 63%,平均花费 40 年时间。对于 10,000 人的小组来说,在一代人的时间里就会有人想出这个发明。更为重要的是,从文化学习角度来说,人口越多,意味着教师就越多。约瑟夫·亨里奇设计了一项试验,让一位学生向 5 位不同的教师学习图像编辑或打结,让另一些学生只向一位教师学习,然后让他们把学到的技能传授给下一位参与者,如此往复。在这两项任务中,和 5 位教师学习的人在总共10 代被试的试验过程中提高了他们的技能,然而,只和一位老师学习的学生在此过程中却失去了已学到的技能。通过观察群组的规模,其他科学家也发现了类似的结果,即小规模的群组无法长时间保留完成复杂任务或改进简单任务的能力,而大型群组却可以随着时间推移同时推动这两种能力的发展。

    除了群体规模的大小,影响资源可用性和群体流动性(人们

    是否可以轻松迁移到更好的环境)的环境因素对文化复杂程度的

    发展也发挥着重要作用。干旱歉收、火山爆发和海啸都会导致文

    化被破坏、人口减少,有时还会带来黑暗时代。但是这些情况也

    会改变人们的联系方式,推动人口流动和技术发展,从而引发社

    会变革,加速文化进化。现代人类是一个会模仿的物种,而不是

    从零开始创新的物种,所以,如果有一天我们失去了文化的复杂

    性,那我们只要接触拥有先进技术的人,就可以相对快速地恢复

    文化的复杂性(就像格陵兰岛的因纽特人)。通过技术交流,通

    过代代向其他部落学习,文化可以从中迅速受益。比如,美国原住民平原印第安人几乎在一夜之间就习得了驯马技术,由此改变了他们的水牛狩猎文明。

    贸易网络以及在其中传播的资源、基因和文化都受到运输技

    术发展的影响。颜那亚人的成功是因为他们驯养了马匹、建造了

    马车,就好像哥伦布拥有帆船一样。当罗马人在帝国内建立起四

    通八达的交通网络时,他们的贸易和创新立即实现了飞速发展,

    直至 2,000 年后的今天,交通网络产生的影响依然清晰可见,建

    在罗马道路沿线的城镇依旧富裕,当地人掌握着更加精密复杂的

    技术。在贸易集散地,文化总是更多样、更复杂。

    随着交际网络和社群规模不断扩大,而且越来越复杂,贸易

    也在不断发展,黄金、丝绸和贝壳等收藏品成为必不可少的东西,

    人们用这些东西记录债务。随着生意规模的扩大,人们需要跟别

    人借贷,这样一来债务就增加了。在北美地区,当地原住民的货

    币叫作贝壳串珠,就是串成项链的贝壳珠。当荷兰殖民者来到北

    美占领了新英格兰时,他们接受了这种贝壳货币,并从当地的英

    美银行里贷了一大笔贝壳珠串。1637—1661 年,贝壳串珠成为新

    英格兰的法定货币,贸易也因此蓬勃发展。欧洲商人还以不法手

    段获得贝壳货币,并操纵殖民地市场,比如,他们将数十亿货贝

    投入西非的贝宁共和国,以换取大量的奴隶劳工。随着时间的推

    移,中东和欧洲地区的国家制定了贝壳货币的制式规范,货币的标准尺寸比美观性更为重要,硬币的诞生也经历了同样的步骤。

    对于拥有国际化贸易网络的复杂经济体而言,这种货币形式存在一些问题。很多国家曾将黄金或其他贵金属作为货币,购买商品和服务时,需计算出与其价值相等的金属量用以支付。在这种情况下,人们必须随身携带真金白银和一些贵金属碎块。再考虑到金属的纯度问题,用贵金属作为货币就更不方便了。黄金在其自然状态下,经常和银子以及其他金属混在一起,很容易被看作有意为之的掺假。阿基米德著名的浮力原理,即计算物体的密度,成功解决了贵金属的纯度问题。但是如果将其应用于交易,则既耗时又复杂。所以,真正解决这个问题的方法就是铸造用作交易货币的硬币,国家以官方名义发行硬币,并保证硬币的价值。硬币的出现加速了贸易发展,简化了贸易过程。历史上的第一批硬币大约在同一时间出现在土耳其和中国。硬币一经发明,便大获成功,带来了大笔的财富。土耳其吕底亚王国的克洛伊索斯国王设定了世界上第一个黄金纯度标准。当时,炼金术师克服了难题,成功地把黄金中的银子分离出来。黄金被制成硬币,并且上面压印了一头狮子的形象。硬币不仅很快成为日常生活中最重要的批量生产的商品,并且给使用硬币的国家带来了转型。

    继硬币之后,货币的下一步发展确实具有革命意义。它将人类对金本位的信任延伸到了本来毫无价值的东西上。使用纸币需要人们的观念和信仰实现巨大飞跃,并且要接受一个事实,即虽然纸张本身没有价值,也不美观,但国家财政赋予了它相当于黄金的价值。这就要求举国上下不仅要对纸币的价值深信不疑,还要相信保持货币价值不变的相关执行机构具有稳定性。世界上第一张纸币由桑树皮制成,在中国发行。尽管它在中国及其附近地区传播迅速,但是在此之后的 1,000 年间,纸币都没有传到欧洲地区。纸币的问题之一是容易被伪造,更严重的问题是使用纸币带来的通货膨胀。在古代中国,官府承诺纸币可以在任何时候兑换成等价的硬币,即圆形方孔钱,也就是当时的“现金”,所以人们能够保持对纸币的信任。但是到 15 世纪时,明朝统治者发行过多纸币,导致纸币价值暴跌,通货膨胀极其严重。之后,纸币在中国被淘汰,几百年后才恢复使用。不过,纸币着实是好东西,不可能被永远抛弃,我们也无法想象没有纸币的现代经济会是什么样子。
    我有一只漂亮的玻璃碗,用来存放出国旅行剩下的各国货币。以前每次出国前,我都会翻看自己的收藏,看看有没有用得上的硬币。我的藏品里有法国的法郎、南斯拉夫的第纳尔、厄瓜多尔的苏克雷、德国的马克等。但目前来看,这些大部分硬币和纸币都已成为陈旧的纪念品,毫无用处和价值。当国家解体,政权更迭,货币就会消失或被替代。不过,在过去 15 年里,我没有再翻动那只布满灰尘的碗,主要原因是,在大多数西方国家,硬币和纸币已经被新兴技术所取代,货币完全丧失了民族性和物质性。信用卡、电子转账和加密数字货币的出现,使得人们仅仅按一个按钮或刷一张卡就能实现国际转账。贸易不再需要面对面交换漂亮的收藏品,而是要依靠通信和声誉。如今,我们可以通过互联网和从未谋面的大型跨国企业或是陌生人进行交易。

    1996 年,皮埃尔·奥米迪亚厌倦了自己解决拍卖网站Auction Web 上的买卖纠纷,所以他引入了一个公开的反馈评分系统——用户可以给出+1,–1 和 0(中立)的评价,还可以留下评论。这种在线信誉系统一经推出便取得成功。当年的这个拍卖网站就是如今每年收益超过 20 亿美元的 eBay(美国线上拍卖及购物网站)。在线信誉评分系统被各类经营者广泛使用,为陌生的交易者架起信任的桥梁。电子转账和信用卡交易可以追踪,且有担保和保险的支持,这些成为不同国家和文化间陌生人顺利交易的“润滑剂”。如今,我们能在世界范围内从几乎任何人手中买到需要的东西,但我们依然像自己远古的祖先一样,依赖声誉和我们赋予收藏品的价值来进行交易。
    “求合作、不争斗”的决定使得人类开始与亲友之外的群体进行合作。一开始,是以物易物的交换,后来演变成了通过有形的藏品交换债务。现在,我们已经把许多和金融债务相关的工作外包给了社会机构,让它们帮我们记录谁欠了谁什么东西,帮我们分辨谁是可以放心交易的对象。现如今,贸易简单了许多,但是交易使用的货币不再具有内在价值,我们需要一种新的集体信念来引导贸易往来。然而,用收藏品对生物上无用(即不能养活我们)的材料进行估价、完成交易,可能是人类在观念和信仰上实现的最大飞跃。

    第十一章 建造者:我们物种的纪念碑

    切尔卡瑟州位于乌克兰中部,两条河流在该州的一个村庄附近交汇。1965 年,村里的一位农民正在挖地下室。挖着挖着,他感觉自己的铁锹碰上了一个十分坚硬的东西,根本挖不动。定睛一看,原来这个障碍物是猛犸象巨大的下颚骨。农民试图把下颚骨挖出来,但却发现,它与另一具猛犸象的下颚骨交错在一起。不知如何是好的农民找来了有关专家。后来,专家们在这里挖掘出了 150 具猛犸象的骨头,它们相互交错,有规律地组合在一起,形成了 4 座宏伟的建筑。这些建筑大约在 20,000 年前建成,当时木材十分稀少,人们也很难找到可容身的洞穴。

    这 4 座建筑的建造者是一个吃苦耐劳的狩猎采集部落。生活在艰苦的北寒之地,他们在建造过程中克服了坚硬的冰层、暴风雪等险恶的自然条件,成功建造了这 4 座规模宏大的绝美建筑。如今,这些建筑历经沧海桑田,依然屹立不倒,成为人类世界最早出现建筑的证明。

    这 4 座建筑构造复杂,需要精良巧妙的设计和施工才能建设完成。每座建筑的地基宽约 4 米,由一个完整的猛犸象下颚骨倒置而成,十分坚实;门廊和屋顶则由大约 36 根巨大的象牙做支撑,有些象牙甚至还连着头骨;不同长度的象牙用一个象牙制成的空管连接在一起。如此一来,房屋会异常结实。框架建成后,人们在外边覆上一层兽皮。直到 19 世纪,西伯利亚沿海的猎人还在使用类似的方法建造棚屋,只不过他们用的是鲸鱼的皮和骨头。

    每一座这样的建筑都需要整个猛犸象群的骨头才能搭建完

    成,但这并不意味着人们猎杀了整个象群,因为一些象骨上明显

    有食肉动物啃咬过的痕迹。即便如此,要想将 100 多千克的头骨

    运送至任何一个地方,都需要一定规模的组织和人们之间的相互

    合作。显然,这几座建筑对它们所属的族群来说举足轻重,所以

    族群才会投入大量时间和资源进行细致规划,利用大批人力建造

    它。猛犸象骨本身就是一种价值连城的材料,不仅仅是因为它的

    尺寸巨大,而且有证据表明,它和现在的象牙一样具有珍贵的收

    藏价值。

    这些建筑内部宝藏颇多,令人着迷,有来自 500 千米之外的琥珀饰品和贝壳类化石,还有来自一面赭色鼓的碎片。这面鼓是世界上最早的打击乐器之一,鼓身由猛犸象的头骨做成,鼓槌由动物身上的长骨制成。从鼓的磨损情况能看出,它大概被用于仪式或者其他社交场合中。专家们还在这里挖掘出世界上最古老的地图,它刻在猛犸象的獠牙上。这张地图不仅从俯视的角度绘制了房屋本身的位置,还标注了附近河流的相对位置,房屋周围或许是一片森林。房屋对居住者来说意义非凡,因为它为人们在旷野中开辟了一处家园。

    人们用猛犸象骨建造房屋,起初是为了抵御寒冷和狂风。这

    些骨屋是文化适应的一种表现,让从热带进化而来的类人猿可以

    在严酷的极寒环境中生存下来。人们需要通力合作才能建造骨屋。

    建成之后,每个屋子至多可容纳 100 人。它们的外观、规模和设

    计给考古学家留下了深刻印象。考古学家指出,这些建筑还有一

    定的宗教或社会意义。现在,人们已经发现了大量类似的骨屋,

    它们往往四五个聚在一起,形成小“村落”。这些骨屋的建造者,

    要么是之前提到的那 4 座骨屋的建造者,要么是其他部落中学会

    了这种建造技术的人。再往西走,这种过分坚实的建筑就没有必

    要了,因为西边的山洞和周围凸起的岩石能为人类提供遮风避雨

    的场所。

    人类利用美来形成个人和族群的身份特征,随后赋予物体以

    价值和意义。人类也用美设计和定义环境。首先,我们寄情于自

    然界中的地理结构,比如一座山峰、一处洞穴,然后我们创造出

    纪念碑和固定居所,以托付我们的情感。人类既是建造者也是创

    造者,建造了各类象征性建筑、家宅和花园,给这些建筑赋予了

    全新的意义。我们从大自然中获得材料,重新打造这些材料,精心设计各类建筑,创造出一个全新的人类世界。由此,人类便改

    变了自己作为自然生态系统一部分的生存方式。我们还利用与其

    他物种全然不同的合作方式,在世界各地搭建起紧密的人际网络,

    交换彼此的基因、技术和行为方式,实现真正的人际网络全球化。

    建一个“家”的想法可以追溯到几十万年前。人们在法国西

    南部的布吕尼屈厄洞穴发现了尼安德特人在 17.6 万年前留下的

    建筑——环形矮墙。矮墙位于洞穴深处,由石笋碎片精心堆砌而

    成,是目前已知最早的、由人类全新设计的建筑物。它们可能是

    洞穴内部的隔断,以此在洞穴中打造舒适的居住环境。但根据洞

    穴里用火的痕迹判断,这些矮墙也可能用于举行仪式或有其他用

    处。建造住处的过程中,我们的祖先会对天然形成的洞穴及其内

    部的岩石进行一番装饰,还会利用手头的资源建造自己的住处。

    在洞穴遗迹中,考古学家发现了木制隔断和单坡棚顶建筑残骸,

    其作用很可能是隔绝寒冷和潮湿。他们还发现了人类祖先用穴狮

    的皮做棚顶的证据。

    我们通常认为狩猎采集部落四处流浪、居无定所,或者很大程度上是这样。但实际上,大部分的狩猎采集部落都有自己相对固定的居所,多则可能几代人都定居在一个地方,少则几个月居住在同一个地方。在此期间,他们的居住地还是举办节日宴会和宗教仪式的地方,同时也是贸易往来的中心。早期的住所都是营帐的样子,多由棕榈树、普通的木材或竹子等植物制成。在西欧,研究人员发现了越来越多的远古时期半固定式露天营地遗迹。这些营地似乎是规模较小的猎人族群在夏天时的歇脚地。这些猎人会在冬天时加入更大的族群,共同生活在洞穴中避寒。法国的塞纳河畔有一处名为潘色旺的营地遗址,其历史可追溯到约 15,000年前。研究人员对这个营地进行了极为细致的研究,成果颇丰。他们在这里发现了 5 顶用驯鹿鹿皮做的帐篷,小规模的猎人族群会在夏天使用这种帐篷。虽然帐篷的地基没有保留下来,但是工匠们在帐篷内敲砸的燧石却得以保留,根据燧石的外观可以推测出帐篷的部分外观形状。

    洞穴等固定式建筑曾是人类祖先上万年以来的家园,展现了

    人类丰富多彩的半定居式生活。洞穴中藏有丰富的艺术作品,包

    括尼安德特人于 65,000 年前留下的绘画作品和绘制图案时用到

    的模板,以及苏拉威西岛上的人类于 35,000 多年前绘制的栩栩

    如生的作品。这些作品数量之繁多、内容之详尽让人惊讶不已。

    从苏拉威西岛手印的大小判断,这些作品可能大多出自女性之手,

    它们让洞穴内部变得十分美丽。在把“房子”转化为“家”的过

    程中,人类采伐树木,围捕大型动物,不断地改造周围的环境,

    最后创造出各式各样的人工景观。人类会在心理和生理上对“家”

    这个环境产生反应。在家时,我们会感到安心舒适。从外面回家

    后,人体的肾上腺素水平、葡萄糖耐性、新陈代谢和呼吸都会发

    生显著的变化。家用微妙的方式,潜移默化地刺激和影响着人类

    的睡眠模式、脂肪沉积和其他方方面面的生理情况。

    我们的祖先曾围着篝火讲述了诸多故事,大家因故事而凝聚

    在一起,相互合作,共同面对生存挑战。其中一类故事是关于超

    自然力量的神秘故事。它们通常和祖先有关,给天空、岩石、湖

    泊和山川等自然界中的标志性景象赋予精神力量。直到现在,万

    物有灵论文化依旧崇拜自然界重要的地标,并从中汲取力量。长

    期信奉基督教或伊斯兰教的族群仍然追随着自古流传下来的信

    仰,他们相信形状奇怪的岩石、完美的锥形火山或者漂亮的动物

    (比如美洲豹)蕴藏的神秘力量。一旦这些物体被赋予的意义为

    族群接受,人们就会将它们作为装饰元素,用于各类仪式中,如

    澳大利亚原住民会在乌鲁鲁巨石(俗称艾尔斯岩石)一带的岩壁

    上作画或是穿上有美洲豹元素的衣服。

    后来,人类就开始建造自己的纪念碑。这一过程很大程度上

    将人(及其文化符号)与自然区分开来。哥贝可利山丘位于土耳

    其东南部,当地人称其为大腹山。大约 12,000 年前,曾有一个

    狩猎采集族群生活于此,并建造了可能是世界上最早的巨石建筑。

    数量众多、体积庞大的石柱排列为圆环形状,矗立在山丘之上。

    这些石柱高约 5 米,顶部呈长方形,远看像 T 字形。石柱大多经

    过精细的雕琢,刻着造型生动逼真的秃鹫、狐狸、狮子和蝎子等

    图案。石柱上雕刻的每一种动物都有重要的文化内涵,这些用于

    装饰的石雕有里程碑式的意义。在这里,美不再是私人拥有且可

    以交易的收藏品,而是变成了某个集体共同拥有、可以团结族群

    的人造地标,抑或某个埋葬已逝之人的地方。

    由于过度农垦和气候变化,现在哥贝可利山丘附近的土地已

    变成一片荒芜贫瘠的褐土。可这里曾经也是富庶的人间天堂,人

    们追随动物的脚步,不远万里从黎凡特和非洲迁徙到此。当时,

    这里绿意盈盈,种植着野生大麦和小麦,潺潺的河水吸引了大鹅

    和候鸟,水果树、坚果树比比皆是,食草动物成群结队聚集于此。

    山丘上平均每根都重达 7 吨的石柱绝不是由一群漫步于此

    的人临时起意信手开凿和建造的。它们是当地的狩猎采集者以前

    所未有的合作规模,努力了几个世纪的结果。石柱上的诸多装饰

    元素让这个工程充满象征意义。工程庞大的规模,意味着这个工

    程需要上百人一起完成,而这些人要由某个族群提供集体食宿。

    后来,随着石柱修建的规模逐渐扩大,声名远播之下,越来越多

    的游牧部落加入建设中。有的部落则将这里视为圣地,来这里朝

    圣。由此一来,哥贝可利山丘就成为朝圣者、商人和移居者寻找

    机会的目的地。山丘附近如雨后春笋般涌现出诸多村落,年复一

    年地为这里日益增长的人口提供食物和其他资源。

    大约一万年前,人们想要创造美的欲望,即创造一个巨大的象征集体意识的物体的欲望,促成了世界上第一批永久居所的出现。定居的生活改变了人类的文化进化,因为定居生活不但影响了人类族群内部和族群之间的互动(即人际网络的形态),而且影响了人类与生态系统其他部分的互动。

    人类一旦永久地定居在某地,就会对当地资源造成极大的压

    力,因为人们会不断消耗最容易获取的食物,待其消耗殆尽,就

    只能依赖不太容易获得的食物。人类要付出更多的努力、做更多

    的准备才能找到这样的食物。为了满足大量人口的食物需求,人

    类从游牧民转化为村民,开始圈养绵羊和山羊,开垦荒地,种植

    谷物和水果,同时剔除那些果实少、味道差的植物。科学家利用

    放射性碳测定年代技术,在距离哥贝可利山丘约 32 千米的史前

    村庄遗址中发现了世界上最早的农业活动痕迹和最古老的家用

    小麦品种。这个村庄建于哥贝可利石阵形成之后的 500 年。

    在此之后的数千年来,人们不断收集和播撒野生植物的种子,

    逐渐改变它们的进化方式,直到新的驯化物种产生。史前时期,

    人们培养出宜咀嚼、能发酵的谷物,开始酿酒,这让人类的基因

    得以进化——人类可以消化酒精了。酿出酒后,人们对谷物有了

    更多的了解,比如说,有的谷物可储存在定居的村子中。储存谷

    物这个想法本身就极具变革性,选择储存谷物则带来了更伟大的

    实验。人们开始有意识地种植那些脂肪含量高、易脱壳的作物。

    正如我们祖先的祖先将狼驯化成狗一样,我们的祖先也开始驯化

    草。他们改变了草的基因和进化方式,使它们从随风飘散、落地

    生根、自然生长的物种进化成可由人用镰刀收割的物种。新的作

    物品种个头大、蛋白质丰富的种子,可以被碾碎制成面粉,然后

    烤成面包供人食用。这一过程意义重大,在世界各地都得到了广

    泛传播。直到今天,我们仍然认为“和他人分享一块面包”是件大事。

    人类内心对美充满渴望,并希望利用有一定意义的实物,在

    视觉上直观地表达自我。对美的渴望带领着人类从蛮荒的部落文

    明走向原始的物物交换时代,进入稳定的农业文明时期。在人类

    经历的每个历史阶段,环境人口容量都有显著提升。到了农业文

    明时期,人类从土地中可获得的卡路里是狩猎采集时代的 5 倍。

    狩猎采集时代,人类族群的规模较小,当时,人们每消耗完一处

    资源,便会离开去寻找下一个住处。随着物物交换的兴起,人与

    人之间的联系日益密切,人们可以用其他地方的资源补充自己家

    园短缺的资源,这使得我们祖先的族群人口数量得以显著增加。

    人们在某地永久定居下来之后,很快便依赖农业生存,这让所在

    地的环境人口容量进一步提升。所以,尽管新石器时代早期人类

    数量并不多,但还是超过了他们定居之地的狩猎采集族群。农业

    在人类发展过程中意义重大。分布在全球的几大文明都独立进化

    出了农业文明,并迅速将其传播到其他地方。我们人为建造的世

    界根本离不开农业。

    我们的祖先或许在很早的时候就开始建立纪念碑了,只不过有的纪念碑还未被发掘,有的已被岁月埋没。博茨瓦纳有一处犀牛洞,距今已有 7 万年的历史。洞穴中有一块刻了几百个圆洞的大石板,人们会将自己精心制作的矛头在大石板前烧掉或砸烂。

    上文提到的哥贝可利石阵需要大量的人力在相当长的时间内才能完成,也就是说,如果当时的环境不适宜大量人口生存,那么类似石阵这样的大规模工程根本无法建成。但地球在上一个冰期时,空气中的二氧化碳含量非常少,仅有 0.018%,或许是有史以来的最低水平。这就导致地球上的光合作用效率很低,植物长势并不喜人,植被总量只有如今的一半多。稀薄的植被无法支撑牧群长久地在一个地方生存,2 万年前的游牧民族无法大规模地定居在某处,他们想从牧民发展到农民也就无从谈起。冰河时期根本无法发展农业,而只有农业才能支撑大量定居人口的发展,从而支撑哥贝可利石阵等大型建筑的建设。

    约 11,000 年前,地球上的环境发生了很大的变化。新的海

    水环流模式让空气中二氧化碳的浓度不断升高,生态系统也随之

    活跃起来。在此之后 3,000 年的时间里,大气中的二氧化碳浓度

    上升至 0.025%,植物的生产力得到显著提升,这有助于土壤储存

    氮和水,使土壤变得肥沃。野生谷物、水果和其他对人类生存有

    帮助的作物得以大量生长,狩猎采集族群中的人类无须再为了食

    物跋山涉水,牧群也能在一个地方停留更长时间,人们所需的各

    类资源都有了相对稳定的供给。如此一来,他们便可以合作完成

    大型纪念碑。就这样,人类一小步又一小步地前进,从居无定所

    的原始人变成城邦里的公民,变成帝国的建造者。美改变了人类

    和人类世界,但是美带来的文化变革只有在自然环境发生变化时

    才有可能发生。

    人类进入农业文明,开始居有定所的生活后,生活方式的转

    变带来了进一步的环境进化。人类驯化野外动物,使其成为新的

    家畜,驯化野生植物,使其成为栽培植物。5,000 年前,我们已

    经驯化了今天人类所需的各种家畜和作物。人体每天所需热量的

    60%仅来自 3 种作物:小麦、玉米和大米。这种环境——文化进

    化还带来了人类基因适应性的变化,我们的身体可以吸收谷物的

    营养,抵御因人口密集带来的疾病。5,000 年前的人类与尼安德

    特人的基因非常不同,现代人的基因与 5,000 年前的人类也有很

    大不同,而且不同程度远超前者。在这 5,000 年里,也就是 150

    代人的时间里,正向选择的发生率是人类以往任何一个进化阶段

    的 100 倍。人类进化之所以加速,一是因为饮食和流行病的改变,

    二是因为人口数量增加。现在人类体内约 7%的基因都在这一时

    期发生了改变。

    但农耕,尤其是早期的农耕,是一种不稳定的生活方式。许

    多人食不果腹,挣扎在生死线的边缘。野生动植物早晚会被定居

    下来的人类消耗殆尽,一旦作物收成不好,人类迁徙到新的牧场

    也会更加困难。土耳其的安纳托利亚半岛上有一处遗迹,其年代

    可追溯到 8,000 到 9 100 年前。考古发现表明,尽管当时当地人

    口出现显著增长(主要体现在人口出生率上升),但由于他们平

    时饮食以淀粉为主,蛋白质含量较低,越来越多的人出现骨感染

    和蛀牙。农业的扩张开始带来社会的崩塌。

    农业的兴起不仅导致了健康问题的发生,而且导致社会福利

    发生了变化,由此出现的许多不公平现象至今仍然存在。规模宏

    大的恰塔霍裕克遗址位于土耳其中部,这里曾是早期人类的定居

    点之一,8,000 年前就已经发展成一座城市。在这里,数百栋泥

    砖单人房鳞次栉比,人们从屋顶进入屋内。遗址中的种种遗迹表

    明,这里是一个非常平等的社会,社会控制力强,制度森严,禁

    止财富积累。不过到了 6,500 年前,这种情况似乎发生了改变。

    各家各户之间越发不平等,社会对离经叛道的成员的惩罚也越来

    越重。遗迹出土的头骨中,6,500 年前及以后的头骨上出现了殴

    打痕迹,虽已愈合,但仍清晰可辨。

    也就是在这个时候,性别等级开始出现。其中一个原因可能

    是,与女性相比,男性上半身的力气更大,犁起地来更方便,而

    这意味着男性掌握了食物的支配权。一旦男性可以支配如此关键

    的资源,他们就能控制很多其他资源。1970 年,丹麦经济学家埃

    斯特·博塞拉普在其著作中指出,因为各个社会的农业技术不尽

    相同,所以女性在不同社会中所处的地位也有所不同。有的社会

    是迁徙农业,多使用锄头和挖掘棒等手持工具,需要投入大量人

    力进行耕作,因此女性也能积极参与农耕;而有的社会则用犁翻

    土,这需要更多的资本投入,而且犁的使用或控制拉犁的动物都

    需要人有很强的上肢力量、握力和爆发力。再加上用犁耕地无法

    与照看孩子兼顾,因此,犁耕农业社会中的男性会专门从事田地

    间的农业劳作,而女性则专门在家中做家务。久而久之,这种劳动分工就形成了一种社会规范,好像女性“天生”就应该待在家中做家务一样。现在,经济发展早已超越了农耕时代,但是这种社会规范还在影响女性参与就业等家庭以外的活动。非洲地区的人原先多依赖锄头或轮耕生存,中东地区的人则更习惯于用犁。研究表明,非洲地区的男女平等程度要高于中东地区。撒哈拉以南非洲也发生了类似的变化,随着越来越多的人养牛,那里也从母系社会向父系社会转变,而母系社会仅存在于舌蝇严重阻碍牲畜耕种的地方。由此可见,环境压力会影响文化的发展。

    在中国开展的一项调查研究表明,耕种的作物类型会影响其他社会规范。种稻子需要构造复杂的灌溉系统,这个灌溉系统会涉及多个农场,要求人们展开通力合作;种小麦则不需要人们展开较强的合作,因为小麦的生长更多依赖降水。于是稻米种植者会更有集体意识,而小麦种植者更具有个体意识,即所谓的“西式思维”。

    不过,不论使用哪类耕种工具,随着我们的祖先逐渐择地定居,开始种植谷物(农田是每个地区生产热量最多的地方),社会规范也逐渐转向父权制。以前,女性的平均寿命不超过 28 岁,新生儿的死亡率高达 75%。那时,为了部落的发展,女性需要不停地生养哺育孩子。由于每次迁徙只能带一个新生儿,游牧部落的人们会控制生育孩子的间隔,而农业社会中女性则每年都会生育。由于儿童也可以耕地放牧,出于经济上的考虑,丈夫开始有意识地操纵妻子的生育。同时,丈夫也会监控妻子的性行为,以保证自己抚养的孩子确系己出,并在积累了一定资源后,确定他们的继承人。以往的部落还会互送女子进行联姻,这让送出去的年轻女子失去了家人的支持,同时也意味着和男性亲属建立联盟更有价值,因为他们一生都不会远离部落。居有定所的农业社会导致父系战士部落逐渐占据上风,而没有形成战士阶层的平等族群则日渐式微。一旦爆发战争,男性俘虏统统被杀,而女性和儿童则成为奴隶。总而言之,女性和儿童成了男性的财产。

    定居农业还带来了其他巨大的社会影响。首先,为了建设大

    型公共设施,如保护部落的城垛,定居农业社会更依赖非亲属间

    的合作。一旦人们在一片土地上种了庄稼,有了财产,他们就需

    要保护这片土地免遭其他部落侵害。规模化的农业发展支撑着城

    市和村庄的发展,而农业的发展需要挖掘灌溉渠道,修筑防御性

    堤坝和沟渠等大规模土木工程,此类工程的实施需要人们进行整

    体规划,有序组织和管理,并建立完善的等级结构和制度。如此

    一来,社交网络和人在其中的位置就会发生改变,从而影响人类

    的生活。

    狩猎采集时代,人们从自然环境中获得自己需要的东西。对

    当时的人们来说,生产有盈余并不是一件值得称颂的事,花时间

    找来的东西吃不完,不但浪费食物,而且还显得十分愚蠢。但到

    了定居农业时代,经济生活中诞生了全新的概念——税收。税收帮助人们更好地进行公共设施建设,促进人口增长;完善的公共设施和不断上升的人口数量又可以增加税收。对每块田地上的作物征收税款其实很简单,因为作物的成熟时间都有规律可循,而且农作物可用于储存和交易,有时甚至还会发挥货币的作用。如果一个族群出现了税收制度且人丁兴旺,该族群就会出现精英阶层,这个阶层会掌控国家,用作物盈余和税款收入资助基础设施、军队和城墙等的建设。

    以木薯等块茎类植物为主要作物的地区不易形成城邦或国

    家,因为木薯等作物通常埋在地下,且收获时间不定,对这类作

    物征税并不容易。农业是一种劳动力高度密集型产业,一旦国家

    的发展依赖农业,依赖生产力水平和税收时,劳动力就会像粮食

    一样重要,因此精英阶层会毫不留情地管理和控制劳动力资源。

    当人的寿命因疾病和营养不良而大幅降低时,精英阶层会选择发

    动战争,奴役其他部落的族人,或用“劳务抵债”的方式控制农

    民,以保证自己部落的劳动力充足。还有一些国家会用“关税”

    供养穷人,这样既能保证这部分人对国家的忠诚,又可以防止骚

    乱。比如,古罗马会向战败城邦征税。征收来的税款可以当作罗

    马贫穷市民的救济金,这样这部分市民就不用缴税。当时,罗马

    城有 200 万人,很多人都没有工作。为了避免暴徒等危险分子的

    出现,古罗马实施“面包与马戏”的政策,即市民可以领到免费

    的食物,进行免费的娱乐活动。

    农业给人类的社会经济生活带来了巨大变化。农业帮助人类在艰苦的环境中生存下去,人们开始在大型项目上投入时间和精力,相信丰收和回报都会到来,尽管这需要漫长的等待。美在其中发挥着举足轻重的作用。纪念碑是人们心中希望的具象表现,代表着一种可以让有缺点的普通人依赖的巨大力量。由此,我们逐渐形成了国家的概念,这个概念本身就是一座纪念碑。我们将自己的价值观嵌入国家中,一个个独立的个体在其中形成统一的族群身份。

    那些规模巨大、引人注目的纪念碑是由最无可救药的一群人

    建成的。从常识上看,如果这群人能把建造纪念碑的时间和精力

    用于养活自己,他们会过得更好,不过这种想法低估了建造纪念

    碑的意义和价值。纪念碑能让人们团结在一起,互相合作。复活

    节岛上的标志性雕像就是一个很好的例子。这座小岛位于遥远的

    南太平洋东部,当地人称其为拉帕努伊岛,岛上有人类早期用于

    纪念的雕像——摩艾石像,这些石像无声地诉说着一场悲剧。复

    活节岛距离智利本土 3,000 多千米,曾是地球上最后一片没有人

    类永久居住的荒地。但在 1 300 多年前,聪明的波利尼西亚人掌

    握了海洋的秘密(就像非洲中南部卡拉哈里沙漠中的布须曼人掌

    握了热带草原的秘密一样),乘坐双壳独木舟,漂洋过海来到了

    这里。波利尼西亚人利用自己文化中传承下来的一系列技能,如

    识别不同的海浪,分析海洋上漂浮的碎片、云层形状和天气的情

    况,往返于新西兰和斐济之间的贸易点,甚至还能到达更远的地方。

    但到了 16 世纪,拉帕努伊岛上的居民却失去了航海方面的技能,陷入了一片水深火热之中。再加上不断累积的环境压力降低了农业产量,绝望之下,岛上的居民雕刻了上百座摩艾石像。在他们看来,摩艾能够庇护自己,给予自己力量,让所有人团结一心。这一次,人类为了生存,主动选择了文化进化。摩艾石像最高可达 21 米,上面刻有花纹。要想将石像所用的巨石从采石场运回部落,需要人们大量砍伐岛上的森林,制成圆木,方便滚动运输。但是大量伐木导致水土流失、干旱加剧,最终引发了岛上的饥荒,人口也急剧减少。部落和部落之间爆发了战争,他们将敌对部落的石像推倒,杀死敌人并把他们吃掉充饥。我们可以象当时骂人的狠话很可能是“你妈的肉就在我的牙缝里”。也就在这时,波利尼西亚人不再崇拜摩艾石像,转而崇拜海鸟,并自称“鸟人”。这是一个很特别的例子,一个文化在没有外界影响下改变了宗教信仰。春天,崇拜海鸟的岛民会举行盛大的祭祀盛典,祈求获得岛上稀缺的自然资源。拉帕伊努岛的例子告诉我们,文化进化带来了环境变化,而环境变化又带来了进一步的文化进化。

    规模较大的族群要想继续发展,需要建立新的社会机制或完善原有的社会机制。声誉机制固然重要,但声誉机制的背后还有等级结构和大族群内部的小族群。族群的规模一旦扩大,等级结构和内部小族群就会自然而然地形成,依靠规模效应,更多的人就能够得到食物。与北美的农业社会相比,亚欧大陆上的农业社会更不平等,这可能是因为亚欧大陆的农业社会驯化了马和牛等型动物充当劳动力,促进了经济的迅速发展,让亚欧大陆在能源和资源上更占优势。不过,资源引发的竞争让亚欧大陆农业社会的不平等现象进一步加剧。族群中的等级制度已经深深融入用于凝聚人心的族群故事中,社会规范、装饰用的各类肖像又进一步巩固了等级制度,使得挑战当权者或正统派变得越来越困难。纪念碑和符号艺术都体现了这些社会规范。掌握大量财富的人经常被视作神或是与神十分接近的人,因为他们不仅拥有土地和食物,还掌控着普通人的生计。同理,穷人会被认为不够虔诚、不够善良、不够负责。贫穷是他们应得的下场,他们还要对慷慨施舍的富人表达感谢。

    现在,在几乎所有的社会中,一个人的社会地位在他出生时

    就已经确定了。一个举世闻名的例子就是印度的种姓制度。种姓

    制度下的印度社会规矩森严,通过印度人基因组中表现出来的近

    亲繁殖便可见一斑。虽然印度已经废除了种姓制度,但其影响在

    印度依然根深蒂固。英国也是类似的情况。父母的社会经济地位

    很大程度上决定了孩子未来的职业和收入。当父母将孩子送进精

    英学校时,他们支付的不只是高昂的学费,还有社会选择的成本。

    精英学校可以被视为精英网络中心,这些孩子中的很大一部分将

    来会担任政商界领袖或影响社会发展的意见领袖,他们会一直处于社会层级的顶端。社会层级的另一端就是底层阶级,他们地位低下、为人不齿。法国也存在这样的等级制度,卡果人处于社会的最低等级,上百年来,他们只能聚居在破败的贫民窟。

    人类天生想要公平,所以在规模较大的族群中,人们总觉得

    存在不平等。忙碌的工蜂并不渴望成为雄蜂或蜂后,而人类却总

    是渴望在生活中获得美丽、幸福、价值,最好还能有权力。人类

    群体中,个人自由和集体利益之间的关系总是十分紧张。百万年

    来,人类社会一直在努力防止社会中受到不公平对待的人们进行

    反抗。孔子通过研究个人价值和自我表达,想要创造一个更加公

    平、幸福的社会。他认为,管理社会就像管理一个大家族,每个

    人都应该在其位、谋其事。王的权力是由上天授予的,且要通过

    父系传承;社会治理无须用恐吓威胁的方式进行,而是为政以德,

    维系人与人之间的关系,互敬互信,互尊互爱。孔子还认为,人

    们要在日常生活中践行良好的品德,这样才能形成一个和谐的社

    会。以上这些理念可以总结为,社会中要存在一种组织,它可以

    控制每个人的行为和他们所属的小族群。这种实践哲学构成了世

    界上很多著名教育理念的基础,从苏格拉底到耶稣的观点中,我

    们都能看见它的影子。它还教育人们要维护和谐的人际关系,从

    而将失控的社会拉回正轨。从集体角度来看,维护人与人之间的

    关系就是让我们设身处地为他人着想,这种善良让我们获得了人

    性。而且历史已经证明,无论在哪个时代,这样的说法都成立。

    人类社会向农业社会的转变对自然环境产生了深远影响。狩

    猎采集时代转瞬即逝,随着漫长的农业社会的到来,人类先前与

    大自然的关系也发生了根本性的改变。定居下来的人们从河床中

    挖取泥土建造房屋,修建排水系统,改变河道,砍伐森林,过度

    放牧,最后导致水土流失。新石器时代,人们开创了大规模改变

    环境的先河,将大片的森林、湿地和草地变成我们如今熟悉的农

    业用地,种植单一的农作物,将自然景观变为人造景观。某块地

    一旦被开垦为农田,土壤中的硝酸盐和磷酸盐等营养物质很快就

    会被消耗殆尽,且很难再生。所以,为了耕作,人们要补充土壤

    中的营养物质。当时最有效的方法便是将树木和其他植被砍倒并

    焚烧,焚烧后形成的草木灰烬变成肥料,用于耕种。这种农业生

    产方式被称为刀耕火种,它很快就改变了欧洲的自然景观,后来

    人们还将自己和牲畜的粪便用作土地肥料。与此同时,人们还建

    造了第一个人工“洞穴”——面积巨大的长屋,可以同时容纳好

    几个家庭。“洞穴”如雨后春笋般在 8,000 年前的欧洲涌现。

    人类祖先对环境的改造从根本上改变了他们对大自然的看法,也改变了他们和自然界的关系。大部分的狩猎采集族群认为自己是生态系统的一部分,在这种文化下,他们进化出了对应的行为、技术和社会规范。比如,目前所知,狩猎采集族群在每年的某个时间段或在某个地区会限制人们打猎。这些社会规范出现可能就是为了避免不可持续的资源获取方式,从而保证自己的生存。但是,一旦人类开始驯化动植物,不再将自己和动植物摆在平等的位置,人与自然之间的关系就发生了转变。当人类不再用动物和自然构造代表神灵,而是选择用人类自己建造的纪念碑和人类形象来象征神灵时,我们也改变了自然与人类的等级地位。当我们建造坚固的建筑抵挡雨雪风霜,当我们改变河道调整水流方向,我们便建造了一个与自然界越发不同的人类世界。我们创造了一个没有寒冷、没有潮湿、没有泥泞、没有危险的环境,幸运地摆脱了自然环境带来的不便。同时,我们鼓励大家去自然界

    中获取所需的资源,如人工改良的作物品种、可以负重的动物和

    其他物质资源。最近一项研究对比了美国芝加哥城市里的孩子和

    美国原住民梅诺米尼人的孩子与动物玩具的互动方式,探索了人

    与自然关系的转变。实验中,梅诺米尼的一位长老说,让孩子们

    脱离生态环境只与动物玩具玩耍是毫无意义的。研究人员遂对研

    究进行了调整,将孩子们放置在了一个立体的,有真实树木、草

    坪和岩石的环境中。研究发现,城市里的孩子在玩耍过程中会赋

    予动物玩具以人的属性,而梅诺米尼人的孩子则将自己想象为动

    物。

    一旦我们开始建造自己的世界,我们就开始认为人是独立于自然的,并认为人类凌驾于自然,自然只有在为我们提供有价值的物品时才能体现它的价值。这对自然环境和无数动物的进化轨迹都产生了深远影响。

    我们知道农业技术传播广泛,但直到最近,我们还不清楚它

    的传播模式。它是像货物一样被交换到了世界各地,还是随着迁

    徙的人类到达了世界各地呢?中间经历了什么?现在,基因分析

    给了我们一个更加明确的答案,似乎这两种传播模式都曾发生过。

    在新月沃地,农业技术的传播似乎按照第一种模式进行,随着工

    具和黑曜石之类的收藏品在当地农民之间传播。而从 DNA 证据可

    知,在 7000—9000 年前,一小部分当地农民从安纳托利亚半

    岛移居到气候更加寒冷、环境更加恶劣的欧洲,将他们的线纹陶

    文化、全新的种子收集和播种技术、酿酒技术和畜牧业也一并带

    到了欧洲。当地另一部分农民从黎凡特出发,来到了东非。其中

    一个证据就是,目前 1/3 的索马里人的 DNA 来自以前在黎凡特地

    区生存的人类。

    到达了欧洲的安纳托利亚农民,开始与当地的狩猎采集族群融合。他们将大麦和黑麦等作物带到了欧洲北部,这绝对不是一件小事,因为大麦和黑麦在中东进化了几百万年,已经习惯了干湿季的变化,但被人类带到欧洲后,它们要生长在刚刚“解冻”没多久的欧洲北部地区。也正是这些经验丰富、乐于实践的农民建造了巨石阵等气势宏伟的建筑。当时的建筑工人食用的正是在这里生产的第一批农产品,还会时不时补充些野生食物,如野猪和野牛(家养牛的祖先,现已灭绝)。

    颜那亚人进入欧洲后,欧洲原先的农业文化和游牧文化逐渐被强有力的新社会规范和新观念同化。新的社会规范强调财产和土地所有权,新观念则指在个人和家庭之间转移财产。这些社会规范在一定程度上造成了欧洲各族群之间存在的微小的基因差异,甚至英国内部也存在这样的差异。一份精细的英国人 DNA 图谱显示了英国内部族群间的不同。有的族群祖祖辈辈定居一隅,在那里结婚生子、繁衍后代;有的族群祖先则可以追溯至移民英国的诸多外族人中。毫不意外,奥克尼群岛人与英国其他地方的人存在基因差异,前者身上有十分明显的挪威维京人的基因。在英国其他地方,看似随意划分的地界两边也存在着基因差异。以德文郡和康沃尔郡为例,936 年,英格兰国王阿瑟尔斯坦用泰玛河划分了两郡边界,而几个世纪之后,两郡的人口在基因上呈现了巨大差异。其他地方也有这样的例子,北威尔士地区的人类祖先可以追溯到第一批英国居民——凯尔特人,当地文化也主要受凯尔特文化影响,但是北威尔士人与同样受凯尔特文化影响的爱尔兰人和苏格兰人的基因之间并无联系。各种文化发展出来的实践技能,有时像货物一样在人们之间交换,有时被强加给他人,有时因人类的迁徙和融合而传播。人类基因学研究取得的新进展,再加上古 DNA、考古学、古生物学和语言学的研究,开始让我们能更全面地了解文化进化是怎样发生的。我们可以根据当地基因库的改变判断盎格鲁-撒克逊人进入英国后定居在了哪些村庄。罗马人、维京人、诺曼人曾入侵英国,改变了英国的文化,但他们在英国人的 DNA 中却没有留下任何痕迹。

    欧洲其他地方的人口遗传也显示出了类似的特征。遗传学家

    开展了一项涉及 3,000 人的调查研究,研究显示,“欧洲的地理

    地图从二维角度能很好地反映欧洲人的基因差异”。但有一点值

    得注意,那就是从全人类的角度来看,不论是康沃尔人还是德文

    郡人之间,斯里兰卡人还是瑞典人之间,不同族群的基因之间看

    得见或看不见的差异,都只是现代人类这一物种在基因遗传上的

    微小差异。现在,人类个体之间十分相似,至少比两只黑猩猩的

    相似程度高。这是因为在 20 多万年前,现代人类作为一个相对

    较小的族群出现在世界上,后来,由于建立了贸易网络,现代人

    类又经历了多次种群崩溃(或遗传瓶颈)和迁徙繁衍。现在,任

    意两个人类个体之间的 DNA 碱基对差异仅为 0.1%,这表明,与

    类人猿相比,人类的基因并没有太多多样性。

    如果我们把人类按照所处的大陆划分,那么不同大陆的人之

    间的基因差异可占全人类基因差异的 90%,而同一大陆的人之间

    的差异只占 10%。原因之一就是人类之间有血缘关系,不过这种

    血缘关系无须从远古祖先时期寻找,在最近几代人里就能找到。

    要想找到我们与他人的血缘关系,无须追溯双方的族谱,也无须

    追溯很久远的年代。想象一下,我们每个人有两位父母,4 位祖

    父祖母,8 位曾祖父曾祖母,16 位高祖父高祖母。这样推算下去,

    如果我们每个人都往前追溯 40 代,即大概 1,000 年的时间,那么我们的祖先数量就大概是 1 万亿,远远超过了当时的人口总数,这是因为我们将每个人族谱中共同的祖先也算了进去。如果往前数几代人,我们会发现自己的祖先扮演了越来越多的角色,我们父亲叔祖母的叔祖母也可能是某人的表亲的表亲,也有可能是我们爱人的表亲的表亲。统计学家约瑟夫·张发现,在几代人的范围内,人与人之间的族谱就会产生关联,这是一种时间层面的“六度分隔”。

    任何有欧洲血统的人都算得上是查理曼大帝的后裔。事实上,

    1,000 年前的欧洲人中 80%的人都是今天欧洲人的祖先,当然是

    有后代的那 80%。我们最晚只需回到 3,000 年前,就可以找到今

    天地球上所有人共同的祖先。所以,我们不仅是先知的后代,也

    是先哲孔子的后代,甚至还是古埃及纳芙蒂蒂王后的后代。同理

    可得,如果我的孩子一代代地繁衍下去,终有一天,我也会是地

    球上人类共同的祖先。

    人类家庭之间的紧密联系让我们的基因有了相似性,基因的

    相似性意味着我们每个人都是混血儿,也意味着人类不存在不同

    的种族。不同人之间确实会存在基因差异,但是与文化差异的影

    响比起来,它们对人类行为乃至生理的影响微乎其微。通常情况

    下,环境、文化和基因等条件的结合会带来新物种,还会影响新

    物种“新”在何处。太平洋岛国居民的祖先需要长时间在食物稀

    缺的海洋中航行,为了适应这种文化压力,他们身体的新陈代谢机制在基因上发生了变化。现在,尽管岛国居民的文化环境已经发生了变化,不再出海,不会面临食物稀缺的情况,但他们仍然保持着久坐不动的生活习惯,以高热量的进口食品为主要食物,加上他们体内的基因变体,太平洋岛国居民已成为世界上最胖的人群,糖尿病患病率极高。其实,人体内有多种基因负责新陈代谢,但生活方式才是导致肥胖问题的元凶。斐济和波利尼西亚的肥胖问题主要是因为文化的影响,基因发挥的作用很小。

    即便是身高这种 80%都靠遗传决定的身体特征,生活在贫困

    地区的营养不良的人和营养良好的人之间也存在很大差异。在战

    争和饥饿中长大的父母,身高通常不及他们营养良好的孩子。由

    于过去 200 年的经济增长,荷兰人的平均身高增长了 20 厘米。

    在印度,女孩和非长男的个头普遍较矮小,长男通常是一家孩子

    中最为高大的,这是因为受当地文化的影响,长男一般会获得最

    好的营养。

    但是,在南太平洋的平格拉普岛,基因对人类却有着巨大的

    影响。1780 年的一场火山爆发几乎消灭了岛上所有的人,只有 20

    人幸存了下来。这座岛屿相对封闭的地理位置,再加上不鼓励与

    外族人通婚的社会规范,使得基因突变在人口中不断累积。现在,

    由于近亲繁殖,平格拉普岛上 10%的人出现了基因突变,患有全

    色盲症,只能看见黑色和白色。白天,全色盲症确实是个问题,

    但是到了晚上,全色盲症者的夜视能力要比一般人强,这使得他们擅长夜间捕鱼,也解释了为什么这种基因能够保留并传递下去。

    在狩猎采集时代,族群规模小,相对孤立,族群与族群之间

    的基因和文化差异相对明显。一般来说,一旦发展了农业,先前

    形成的基因和文化差异就会减少,因为人们生活的村庄不断扩大,

    人口流动性不断增加。但巴布亚新几内亚却有些特殊,尽管当地

    已有农业,但是当地人之间的基因差异仍十分明显。欧洲、东亚

    和撒哈拉以南非洲则与巴布亚新几内亚十分不同,原因很可能是

    这些地区先后经历了青铜器时代和铁器时代。在炼铜和冶铁技术

    的带动下,贸易网络得以形成和扩张,人们开始四处经商,并改

    变了当地的文化。时间一长,一个基因更相似的地域得以形成。

    相比之下,巴布亚新几内亚的基因和语言的多样性程度仍保持了

    颜那亚人将印欧语系和金属加工技术带到欧洲之前的水平。现在,

    欧洲狩猎采集时代留下的语言遗产仅剩了一种——巴斯克语。

    地理条件和自然环境对人类之间的混居、经商和文化传播都有巨大的影响。亚欧大陆面积广阔,但海拔都不是很高,相同的纬度下气候条件相似,这就为同一种农业绵延数千千米打下了基础。当亚欧大陆的居民到达北美时,他们可以在北美大陆上栽种同样的作物,放养同样的牲畜,南非和澳大利亚也是同理。但是,在非洲南部和北部、拉丁美洲的热带地区和非热带地区之间就无法这样做,而是需要改良原先的农业技术,从而适应当地的农业发展。从运输方面来说,欧洲水系发达,文化传播也更加容易。而非洲内部和南美洲虽有河流,但这些河流不适合航行,再加上山脉等其他天然屏障,文化传播受到了严重阻碍。

    人体对疾病的抵抗力是影响人类基因混合的一个更加微妙

    但又十分重要的因素。它具有部分可遗传性,并极受环境的影响。

    随着定居农业的兴起,人口逐渐密集,与人或动物密切接触就会

    染上的一般传染病开始在各个社群之间传播,而幸存下来的人会

    将抗病基因传递下去。肆虐欧洲和亚洲的瘟疫改变了人类发展的

    历史进程,推翻了一个又一个帝国的统治,开启了人类文化的新

    篇章。灾难性的瘟疫和天花还留下了很有意思的“后遗症”:从

    这些疾病中存活下来的欧洲人后裔,体内可能携带了抵抗艾滋病

    毒的基因。长期的疾病肆虐还使欧洲人迅速征服了澳大利亚大陆

    和美洲大陆,因为当地的原住民对欧洲人带去的天花、麻疹和流

    感毫无抵抗力,这也改变了世界地缘政治和文化版图。

    与此同时,欧洲人还在试图征服非洲和亚洲雨林地区,寻找

    黄金、钻石和象牙等有价值的收藏品,但他们却被疟疾等当地的

    疾病打败了。这两个地方的人普遍能够抵抗疟疾,但他们也是遗

    传性镰刀型细胞贫血症的高发人群。镰刀型细胞贫血症患者的血

    红蛋白为奇怪的镰刀状,寄生虫无法在这种蛋白中生存,进而无

    法传播疟疾。但血红蛋白的镰刀形状也让体内的血液无法运输充

    足的氧气,导致当地人的体质较差。山药种植为可以传播疟疾的

    蚊子创造了一个完美的繁殖环境,对于有山药种植历史的非洲人来说,镰刀型细胞贫血症的发病率较高,疟疾的致死率较低。人类在改变环境的同时,也在改变人类自己的基因。

    人类族群之间的基因差异正在缩小,这并不是因为我们的基

    因不再进化,而是因为不同族群的融合程度比以往更甚。各族群

    过去“老死不相往来”的状态被族群之间的交往、通婚、迁徙和

    贸易打破。虽然各族群都严令禁止通婚,但基因证据表明,通婚

    一直都存在,而且马的驯化和轮式交通工具的出现加速了族群间

    的通婚。比如,直到 19 世纪,欧洲人仍然和近亲结婚,但自行

    车的出现让相距较远的人们有机会通婚,从而大幅减少了近亲结

    婚的情况。“一战”之前,法国自行车销量达 400 万辆,这对法

    国社会产生了巨大影响。法国人与血亲结婚的情况减少,全国人

    的平均身高也有了显著提升。英国也出现了同样的情况。

    人类纪念碑的终极形式是城市。它是由人类一手打造起来的

    景观,其设计和建造表达了当地文化和人民的愿望。城市重新定

    义了地球的美,即使在太空中也能看到人类创造的景观。城市的

    建造是为了展示美、传递价值,因而牺牲了它的部分功能。城市

    生动形象地代表着生活在其中的市民。2019 年 4 月,巴黎圣母

    院险些被一场大火付之一炬,这一事件立刻在世界各地引起了强

    烈反响。巴黎圣母院的大火让当地的基督教徒失去了礼拜的地方,

    让宽敞的避难所化为乌有,让当地的旅游业遭受重创,但这都不足以体现这场大火的悲剧性。人类的存在既是基因遗传的结果,也是文化传承的结果,历经百余年风雨的巴黎圣母院正是人类文化的见证。面对熊熊大火,悲痛的人类其实是在哀悼自己失去了

    组成人类这个物种不可或缺的一部分。大火发生后,人们在短短

    几天里已经募集了数十万欧元用于巴黎圣母院的修复工作。

    在将城市改造为自己居住地的过程中,我们也在加速人类的

    文化进化。就像丝绸之路和大西洋是思想、技术和基因交流的重

    要网络一样,城市在跨文化的商业往来中也发挥着类似的作用。

    城市宛如文化工厂,吸引着来自不同民族的人聚居到一起,推动

    着大家进行互动。贸易网络的逐渐形成和技术的不断发展吸引着

    越来越多的人聚集到城市中。人口的增长又进一步加速了技术和

    创新的发展,形成一个良性循环。自从罗马人离开英国,伦敦人

    就失去了建造木结构的技术。但是到了 13 世纪,伦敦人从欧洲

    其他地区的商人那里重新学习了这种技术,伦敦街头因此出现了

    众多多层建筑,人口密度也由此上升。13 世纪末期,伦敦齐普赛

    街出现了三层高外加小阁楼的联排别墅。

    同其他社会网络一样,城市间也需要合作,联合起来的城市

    比孤立的城市更具影响力。如果一个城市的人口增加一倍,那它

    的创造就会提升 115%。城市无法孤立地存在,城市中的商人、外

    交官和工匠搭建贸易网络,从其他地方带来全新的资源和思想观

    念,支撑着城市的发展。新思想在街道、咖啡厅、大学校园、城市机构中慢慢孕育出来,一步步走到今天。它们不但发展成了种

    类繁多的技术、艺术和文化实践,还利用自身强大的影响力,让

    人们在几个世纪后还能看见它们的影子。约 400 年前,夏阿

    姆·姆布尔·恩贡格担任西非库巴人的首领。这位极富魅力的领

    袖打造了和平的库巴王国(位于如今刚果民主共和国的中南部),

    将诸多民族部落联合在一起,形成了一个结构完善、规模巨大的

    城邦制国家。这里有非常现代化的政治制度,包括宪法、民选的

    政府部门、陪审团、公共设施、公共服务以及社会支持。库巴王

    国很快就成为创新之国,繁荣富庶,以艺术作品闻名天下。19 世

    纪末,第一批欧洲人到达这里时,他们难以相信库巴王国能自己

    形成这些欧洲人所熟知的政治制度。他们觉得,库巴人以前肯定

    和欧洲人有过接触。后来,库巴王国沦为比利时的殖民地,其民

    族多样性受到了毁灭性打击,但是库巴王国留下了自己的遗产,

    并顽强地传到了今天,活在库巴王国后裔的 DNA 中。同该地区的

    其他民族相比,库巴王国后裔的遗传基因更具有多样性,他们也

    有多个民族的特征。

    公民的相对匿名性减轻了人们遵循社会规范时的声誉压力,

    这种匿名性再加上小群体的力量,让公民更有能力创造全新的社

    会规范,包括从性别差异到音乐时尚等方方面面。装饰是重塑社

    会规范的关键。以随处可见的陶土瓦为例,数千年以来,陶土瓦

    一直被用来装饰地面、墙面和屋顶。从家庭装饰到田园风光再到

    宗教故事,装饰在不同领域有不同的表现形式,象征着一个社会在不同阶段的思想观念。由于装饰反映了社会规范,它们还可以代表(和塑造)群体身份。668 年,朝鲜半岛进入统一新罗时代。为了彰显国力,政府开始进行大规模的建设,在当时的首都金城,也就是如今的韩国庆州市,政府细致规划了 18 万间新屋的建设。新屋屋顶用昂贵的瓦片取代原先的茅草,抵抗恶劣天气和火灾。屋脊尽头的瓦片上绘有以龙为主题的各式图案,这很快成为统一新罗时代力量的象征,一直沿用至今。就这样,小小的瓦片成了国家的纪念碑。

    城市是人类创造美、征服自然的愿望的最好写照。人类在美

    化住所、利用建筑传递意义上花费了大量精力。从乌尔城的塔庙

    到冰岛首都雷克雅未克的哈尔帕音乐厅与会议中心,人类利用各

    类珍贵的材料以及宝贵的人力和时间,将摸索出来的生存经验用

    在建筑及其装饰上。建筑存在的时间往往会超越人类肉身存在的

    时间,甚至基因存在的时间。

    人类建造城市,形成易于生存的环境,又在文化的压力下,

    不断改变城市的形态和人类生存的环境。城市反过来也改变了人

    类的身体构造、文化进化和自然界的遗传进化。为了适应城市环

    境,鸟类进化出了更响亮的叫声,而且为了适应人类的喂食,它

    们还进化出了更长的鸟喙,就连全身的羽毛都有所变化。200 年

    前,洞穴蛾首次进入欧洲,现在它们已进化成衣蛾,其食物来源

    是城市家庭中的装潢陈设。人类自身也受到了城市生活的极大影响。在营养不良、人口密集的地区,疾病极易肆虐,基础设施不足也会让疾病带来的问题更加严峻。比如,无论是古罗马还是现代美国密歇根州弗林特市,疾病以及铅等有毒金属都可以通过排

    水管道进入人体。如今,城市中的大气污染导致心血管疾病和呼

    吸道疾病高发,每年造成约 900 万人死亡。这里有必要说明,即

    便文化进化产生了更先进的科技和社会制度,也使人口数量越来

    越多,但它并不一定能改善大部分人的生活,也不一定能延长大

    部分人的寿命。罗马帝国时代的文化进化十分伟大,却对其子民

    的健康造成了致命打击。罗马帝国占领英国期间,英国男性的平

    均股骨长度有所下降,而在罗马帝国撤离英国后,这一长度迅速

    增长。“罗马人取得的进步其实是一个茧,将自己束缚在其中,

    并造成了令人困惑的生态后果。”罗马帝国之所以会出现文化发

    展和健康水平成反比的情况,主要原因是越来越多的人生活在城

    市中,但城市的卫生条件较差,而且帝国形成的新网络传播了疾

    病。考古学家现在可以根据肠道蠕虫的传播路线来确认罗马帝国

    的扩张情况。

    在人群密集的地方,卫生一直是个大问题。城市生活会显著缩短市民的寿命,这种情况直到最近才有所好转。城市居民的死亡率奇高,只能依靠不断的外来移民才能维持城市的人口数量。1861 年,英国利物浦市出生的男性平均寿命为 26 岁,而德文郡奥克汉顿镇的男性平均寿命则为 56 岁。当时人们相信,保持干净最好的办法就是穿一件可以清洗的亚麻衬衫,因为人们觉得洗澡可能会染上瘟疫或其他会致死的疾病。从 15 世纪到 19 世纪末期,欧洲人在整整 5 个世纪里都尽量避免洗澡。但是,由于霍乱的肆虐和 1858 年夏天的伦敦大恶臭事件,人们开始愿意保持身体的洁净。再加上细菌理论的出现和政府在公共卫生上的投资,洗澡和保持身体洁净变得简单起来。于是,社会规范也随之发生改变,一个人是否具有魅力的标准多了“是否干净卫生”一项。保持干净卫生变得十分重要,人们发明了浴室、厕所、排污系统等一整套工业系统,用于去除人口密集地区会产生的味道,帮助人们打造干净卫生的环境。

    从狩猎采集的原始生活转向依赖农业的城市生活,人类实现了文化转向。这加剧了社会的阶级分化,使得整个社会的生活方式仅对一小部分精英有利,大部分人群的饮食结构和健康状况都受到了严重影响,也使生态系统发生了诸多变化。贸易给西欧带去了财富和思想,但也带去了黑死病。黑死病使西欧的人口数量锐减,自然环境随之发生了巨大的变化。人口减少后,人类的农业活动也随之减少,森林得以恢复,污染减少,平均温度也明显下降。(美洲也出现了同样的情况,大量原住民死于欧洲殖民者带去的传染病,人口锐减,当地的平均气温也有所下降。)在英格兰和威尔士地区,黑死病导致食物产量下跌,农业和社会都发生了巨大变革。原先开放的公共土地被人圈了起来,农民有了更多的权益,甚至拥有了土地的所有权,这激励着农民进行创新和投资。先前,耕地都会有一段休耕期,让土地能够恢复养分,此时牲畜会来耕地上吃草。而在土地被圈起来后,农民使用作物轮耕的方法,密集耕种土地。收割完小麦等浅根系作物后,人们会种下甘蓝等深根系块茎作物,最后种下三叶草等豆科类作物,恢复土壤中的氮含量。以前,人们几乎不会考虑种植根茎类蔬菜,因为种在公共土地里的这种蔬菜很可能会被别人家的牲畜吃掉。农业技术方面,荷兰出现了可调节式无轮犁车(类似中国发明的曲辕犁),有了这种工具,一两头牛就可以耕完原先 6 到 8 头牛才能耕完的松软潮湿的土地,排出沼泽和湿地中的水分。农业总产值激增,成为世界上产值最高的生产方式,多余的农业产品可以在庞大的贸易网络中进行交易。农业产值的飙升还促进了人口增长,形成了全新的劳动力,推动了工业革命的发生和现代世界的建造。

    现在,生活在城市的人类仍在不断进化。精神分裂症等精神疾病、问题行为、哮喘等免疫系统疾病的多发,都与人类不断增大的压力有关。城市中的人也有可能产生表观遗传,即基因序列无变化,但是基因功能发生了可遗传的变化。如果孕妇居住在生活压力大、污染严重的城市,胎儿的大脑、新陈代谢系统和免疫系统更容易受到负面影响,并可能会代代传递下去,这就是文化—基因—环境(人类进化三位一体)相互作用的结果。但是,除去健康风险,城市对人类还是具有十足的吸引力。城市象征着人类部落的扩大,代表着金钱和文化财富带来的诸多益处。

    互联网就像一座虚拟的城市,它会产生类似城市一样的文化影响,因为它能扩大人们的社交网络。史蒂夫·乔布斯曾经将电脑比作思想的自行车。现在,越来越多的人通过网络结识陌生人。一个数学模型估算出,线上人际网络大幅提升了不同种族之间的结婚率,大幅降低了离婚率(因为伴侣之间会更加契合)。在美国,自从在线约会网站出现,跨种族婚姻的发生率激增。人类大规模的迁徙、入侵、逃离、奋斗、探险、漂泊、殖民、奴隶贸易,为躲避战乱或为寻找工作和更好的未来而背井离乡,再加上现在的互联网,种种因素促成了近几个世纪,特别是最近 1,000 年的基因大融合。不过,这也带来了一些问题,比如北半球缺乏维生素 D 的黑人数量有所增加。但是我们正在向一个新的局面发展:人们肉眼可见的差别将不再影响族群内部或外部的偏见和吸引力。换句话说,基于所谓的“种族”区分人类的说法将成为无稽之谈。

    动物被寻找食物和伴侣的生理冲动所支配,人类被某种意义和目的所驱动。我们可以在探索美的过程中发现这些目的和意义,也可以在追求知识的道路上找到它们,下一章将会详细讲述这个问题。

    时间

    我们如何了解自己知道什么?我们现在的身体和文化都是我们祖先的身体和文化不断进化的产物,而我们质疑自己的存在,想知道自己是谁,处于空间和时间的何处。我们有自己的故事,这些故事让我们知晓过去、畅想未来。但我们被现实的想法——客观真理困扰着,于是我们追寻着真理。终其一生,我们都在试图抓住无形的时间,标记时间,甚至控制时间。我们观察、预测、估量、推理发生在人类身上的种种谜团,以此破解未来的奥秘。如此,我们重新创造了世界,也重新创造了身处其中的自己。

    第十二章 计时器:创造时间认知

    1962 年,一位年轻的法国地质学家米歇尔·西弗雷选择在阿尔卑斯山深处的一个洞穴里独自待了两个月。他想要研究人类身体是否需要外界的刺激(比如阳光)来维持自然节奏,或者说,人类身体中是否存在某种计时系统。西弗雷说:“我决定像动物一样生活,不戴手表,不知道时间。”

    西弗雷的实验是一场艰辛的耐力测验。他选择了一个满是冰雪的洞穴,这个洞穴和外界仅靠一条长 45 米的 S 形险峻通道连接,要想顺利通行,是很艰难的。西弗雷仅是带着所有的装备到达这个洞穴就历经风险,如果在这个过程中受伤,他基本不可能获救。但这位 23 岁的年轻人坚持要一个人进行这项实验。第一个月,他告诉大家,不管情况如何,都不要救他。在洞中漫长的9 个星期里,他一直仔细地记录着自己的生理体征、吃过的所有东西以及心理状态。在此期间,他的两位同伴一直驻扎在山体上方的洞穴入口处,并且和西弗雷保持单线电话联系。每当西弗雷起床,他就给两位同伴打电话,同伴们会记录下当时的时间。

    在对昼夜毫无概念的情况下,西弗雷的身体很快调整了睡眠

    时间。尽管西弗雷努力在精神上适应新的环境,但是他在这个潮

    湿冰冷的“家”里越发痛苦不适。后来,他回忆起这段经历时说

    道:“我的设备不够好,脚总是湿的,体温最低降到了 34 摄氏度。

    很多时候我都在思考自己的未来。”

    当时,西弗雷精神上十分孤独,肉体上饱受痛苦。他变得食

    欲不振,每天只吃些面包和奶酪。很快,他对自己带去的两张唱

    片也失去了兴趣。他唯一的乐趣就是自己的宠物——在洞里抓到

    的一只蜘蛛。那么他对时间的概念发生了什么变化呢?实验的第

    二天早上,西弗雷的时间已经比实际时间慢了两个小时。第十天

    的时候,他的时间已经昼夜颠倒。西弗雷在日记中记录了同伴令

    人愉快的问好,他觉得同伴接电话时是早上,而且他们已经醒来

    很长时间了。但实际上,西弗雷是在午夜时分打的电话,而且十

    分规律。每次和同伴打电话的时候,西弗雷会测量自己的脉搏,

    在两分钟内从 1 数到 120。然而,洞穴外的同伴发现,西弗雷的

    两分钟实际上持续了 5 分钟。

    西弗雷忍耐着孤独的生活,谨慎地分配自己带的奶酪(这是

    他最喜欢的食物),以便能坚持完成实验。可是按照他的计算,

    在距离实验结束还有 24 天的时候,外面的同伴突然告诉他实验

    结束了。两位同伴宣布两个月时间已到,他们要下去接西弗雷。

    这表明西弗雷在洞中对时间的估算和实际时间完全脱节。一共 63

    天的时间,他“丢失”了 1/3 左右。一些他自己记录的 10-15 分钟的小憩,其实是 8 个小时的睡眠。因为无从知晓昼夜更替,时间对西弗雷来说变慢了。但对他的身体来说,时间没有变慢。尽管西弗雷觉得很困惑,但是他体内的 DNA 让他的身体在漆黑的地下保持着和地面上一样的运行时间表。

    我们都是时间的产物。我们在一个空间和时间交织的宇宙中

    进化,我们的身体适应了地球的运转。人类所有的细胞中都含有

    时钟基因,它们就像机械表里的齿轮一样,是基因表达的振荡器。

    这些计时器调节着我们的基因、激素、心率、大脑活动、情绪和

    身体机能。上午 10 点左右,我们的肠道最活跃;下午 2 点,身

    体的协调性最好,对疼痛的忍耐度最高;下午 5 点,我们的身体

    处于最佳状态,肌肉力量最强,灵活性最好,心肺功能最佳;晚

    上 8 点,我们对酒精的耐受力最强;9 点,睡眠激素开始上升;

    凌晨两三点,我们会进入深度睡眠状态。凌晨四五点,我们的体

    温达到最低值。从月经期到妊娠期,女性的身体遵从着生物钟,

    极具规律性。

    虽然我们的身体进化出了计时能力,但我们的有意识的头脑却没有,而人类文化的发展依赖于有意识的决策。时间的流逝和太阳系的周期影响着我们文化的方方面面。因此,人类必须进化出能跨越时间的认知工具,还要发明出能追踪时间的文化工具。只有通过掌控时间,我们才能创造出精细复杂、顺序严谨的技术以及层级分明的社会结构和语言(词序和语句结构决定意义)。尽管时间是一个抽象虚构的概念,但我们的祖先学会了信仰它、操纵它,人类成了最高级的精神时空旅行者,既能回放过去的片段(即使是我们从未经历过的事件),又能设想未来。

    目前来看,人类是唯一明白性和生育之间关系的动物。我们

    清楚一次性行为会在 9 个月之后产生结果,因此,我们能够追溯

    自己的亲缘关系,从而扩大我们的人际网络。人类也明白死亡的

    必然性——人必有一死。也许正是因为感知到时间流逝的不可逆

    性,再加上我们对过去的认知和对未来的预知,人类有了追求生

    活目标的欲望。对人类来说,生活不仅仅是为了生存,我们渴望

    了解万事万物的客观真理。对于生育原因和死亡必然性的认识能

    够长期持续地推动人类文化进化。人类掌控了时间,这意味着人

    类拥有了历史,并且能够从一个全新的视角理解文化和环境长久

    不断的变迁。我们能够在这种广阔深远的背景下理解生命、文化

    工具和实践,我们拥有了更多有价值的集体文化知识可供借鉴。

    我们的身体能够进行有规律的进食和睡眠,这不仅让我们的

    生物循环和地球的转动联系在一起,还让大脑对时间的感知和宇

    宙的普遍时间始终相契合。为了将自己固定在身边的物理世界中,

    人类需要让自己由文化驱动的生活适应客观现实,所以我们从时

    间的校准开始,理性地研究时间,这让人类进入一个全新的轨道。

    西弗雷的试验表明,人类在清醒和睡眠之间存在一个周期性循环,其时长是 24 小时 31 分钟。自此,人类开启了生物钟领域的研究。我们的身体主要依靠大脑下丘脑内部持续振荡的神经元进行自动计时。神经元通常根据阳光来校对时间,让我们的生物钟循环周期保持在 24 个小时。

    另一方面,我们的大脑需要后天学习如何感知时间。婴儿没

    有时间的概念,所以他们完全生活在自己视线范围的世界里,而

    且需要几个月才能明白物体具有存续性,也就是说,即使某样东

    西不在自己的视线范围内,他们也知道这个东西依然存在,能够

    再次被看到。然而,我们确实天生就能感知时间的间隔,比如,

    婴儿可以分辨 20 秒和 40 秒的差别,他们甚至在出生前就能感知

    韵律,这能帮助他们学习语言。但是婴儿没有时间概念,所以他

    们无法把自己的经历和实际的事情联系起来,也无法回想过去、

    畅想未来。尽管刚出生的孩子有学习能力,但他们没有长期记忆,

    要到三四岁时才能“穿越时空”,在精神上逃避到另一个事件的

    情景中,想象自己遇到这件事情时的情绪。这意味着人类可以对

    未发生的事情进行预测或产生恐惧的情绪,有助于人类管理自己

    的情绪。在精神层面进行时间旅行让我们能够未雨绸缪,这一能

    力对于人类来说具有变革性的意义。

    人类用记忆“穿越时空”,正是这一点让我们拥有累积性文化,能够记录我们庞大社会族群的发展历史。面对问题时,我们回忆过去,想想以往在相似情景下的解决方法,无须创新,重复以前的方法就可以解决问题。还有一点也很重要,那就是记忆能让我们想象未来。要想象未来,我们大脑中的预测系统需要依赖

    一种复杂的记忆类型,即情景记忆,这种记忆可能只有人类拥有。

    大部分的记忆类型都是长时间地记忆某些东西,例如学习新技能

    和记忆常识,记住“法国首都是巴黎”。而情景记忆能让我们回

    溯过去、展望未来,进入某一个特定事件,还能让我们的记忆个

    性化,并将自己置身于事件的场景中,这样一来,我们就能以一

    种微妙的方式从过往的经历中学习经验,将不同的情绪线索纳入

    信息分析中,帮助我们在未来相似的情景中做出更好的选择。这

    种进化而来的认知能力赋予了人类一种重要的生存优势:我们能

    够快速适应多种环境变化,还能够预测未来的变化,比如季节性

    事件和食物的获得。

    和语言类似,情景记忆依靠的是大脑不同区域之间的认知联

    系。大脑扫描结果显示,当一个人创建或回忆一个情景记忆时,

    大脑中会出现一个独特的活跃网络。猿类不具备这种能力,但至

    少在 160 万年前,我们的祖先就拥有了这个能力。古人类学家发

    现,当时人类使用的石质工具会被带到距离工具生产地很远的地

    方,这说明制作工具的人类已经可以预见到未来可能要使用这些

    工具。其他灵长类动物没有提前计划的能力,因为它们无法模拟

    还未发生的情景,所以当食物有剩余时,即便过往的经验告诉它

    们自己之后会再度饥饿,它们还是会在吃饱后立即把食物丢掉。像松鼠这样会储存食物的动物依靠的是本能而非有意识的决策。

    我们对时间的体验是由思维、记忆、情绪,以及时间在某处与空间相连的想法主动创造出来的。这种对时间的生理感觉就是“思维时间”,它是我们对现实的体验的核心。对大多数人来说,时间如江河一般流逝:我们站在河流中间,身后是已经发生的事实,面前是模糊不定的未来。在过去几十年中,一系列有趣的试验已经表明,情绪、畏惧、年龄、孤独、体温、排斥心理和注意力都会影响我们对时间流逝速度的感知。

    我们需要根据客观的真实时间来校准自己的思维时间,以便

    理解这个世界以及我们在其中的位置。我们祖先的生存活动,包

    括寻找居住地、狩猎、农耕和旅行,都高度依赖时令和季节,人

    类的文化日历就此出现。仪式、典礼和盛宴的出现,一方面是为

    了纪念特别吉利的事件,另一方面是为了应对社会极度脆弱的时

    期,比如冬天白昼最短的时候。反过来说,为了将这些文化活动

    和自然时钟对应起来,时间记录就显得很重要了。

    我们祖先使用的最可靠的钟表是天空中的星体。他们绘制星图,在星体的运转中寻找规律。尽管天空中的天体彻夜旋转,并随着时节循环往复,但它们之间的相对位置保持不变(以地球为观测点),而且每年都以同样的顺序升起落下。人们在小石块、骨片或鹿角片上制作轻便的小月历,以便在持续数周的狩猎以及季节性的迁移等长途旅行中携带。法国多尔多涅地区的塔杜瓦尔河流域有一个洞穴,里面有很多壁画,人们在这里发现了一小块刻有图案的鹰骨,其历史可以追溯至 3 万年前。鹰骨上有刻痕和凹痕,表示的是月亮 14 天盈亏变化的周期,包括运行轨道、新月和月牙。在德国阿赫河谷的一个洞穴中,人们发现了一件历史更为久远的文物,它是一块 38,000 年前的猛犸象牙板,上面刻着一个动作像猫的人类形象,这个人双手举起,双腿开立,腰间别着一把剑。专家认为这个图像符合猎户座的样子,象牙板两侧和背面有 86 处清晰的刻痕,可能与生育有关。

    在法国拉斯科史前洞穴群中发现的规模宏大的天文地图令世人瞩目。其中包括一幅有 17,000 年历史的月面图,上面用圆点和正方形描绘了月球这颗地球卫星 29 天的完整周期变化。在这些圆点上面,还有一行圆点。这行圆点一共 13 个,代表弦月,也就是从昴星团在冬天升起的第 1 天往后算 13 天,这段时间通常是马的繁殖期,比较容易被人捕猎。此外,这座洞穴中记录其他重要自然现象的精美壁画中都穿插着星座图。绘制这些详尽的宇宙地图的是那个年代的科学家,他们通过观测自然客观现象来理解世界。拉斯科洞穴就是一座绘满星图的史前天文馆。
    考古学家们再次观察了史前洞穴中的壁画后发现,星体地图遍布欧洲,那时的人们对宇宙进行了数学和科学观测。狩猎采集族群发展出了一系列空间导航和时间记录技术,比如绘制夜空中的星体地图、用表示影子长度的折线图记录太阳的运行轨迹,从而制造出越来越精细的天文时钟。巨石阵过去可能也是一座追踪太阳、月亮和星星运动的天文台。每到夏至,巨石阵的主轴线都和日出的方向一致。建造巨石阵的人们一定是知识渊博的天文学家、数学家和建筑家,只有这样,才能解释巨石的位置为何如此精确。越过爱尔兰海,在博因河谷有一座历史更悠久的墓穴——纽格莱奇墓,它展现了当时人们对天文学的掌握程度。这座墓穴用了 2,000 块左右的石英石板材,这些板材是从 80 千米以外的地方开采然后运到墓穴这里的。大多数时候,位于地下深处的纽格莱奇墓及其 20 米长的通道都是漆黑一片。但每当到了冬至的日出时,一束阳光就会穿过墓穴主入口上方的一处小洞(类似于“车顶箱”),照亮墓室。这座墓穴堪称一座意义重大的纪念碑,它的设计师一定非常了解太阳在不同时间的角度、位置和运行情况。

    这样的大型建筑是群策群力的产物。修建它们需要花费相当多的时间和精力,还需要建造者能够敏锐地感知天文现象,拥有丰富的知识储备以及精准的预测能力,而这一切都需要几代人的努力才能做到。建造这些建筑的人认为,与他们希望获得的知识相比,这些投入都是值得的,因此从肯尼亚到澳大利亚,都可以见到这类建筑的踪影。

    掌握天文知识是人类适应文化和环境的表现。这类知识帮助我们的祖先应对变幻的季节,预测在何时何地获得食物。天文观测的结果蕴含在故事和歌曲中,比如代代相传的歌径。澳大利亚维多利亚州西部的维尔盖亚原住民中有这样一个传说。一次严重的旱灾过后,饿殍遍野,一位名叫玛宾克里克的女性离开部落,为大家寻找食物。很久之后,她发现了一个蚁穴,挖出了几千个富含营养的蚂蚁幼虫,她的族人因此熬过了冬季。玛宾克里克去世之后,化作了天空中的大角星。如今,每当大角星升起,就意味着到了可以大量捕食蚂蚁幼虫的时节。

    澳大利亚的其他原住民部落用故事描述日食、月食的过程,

    记录行星与恒星不同的运行方式,解释月亮与潮汐之间的关系。

    一些具体的星座,比如昴星团等,在世界各地的文化中都占有重

    要地位。昴星团地位如此之高,是因为它是一个独特的参照点:

    昴星团的 7 颗明星紧密相连,而且每年都在相同的时间升起。因

    此,7 在人们心中成为一个吉利的数字。因为昴星团每年都会在

    丰收季节出现,所以在美洲,玛雅人和印加人将丰收富足与昴星

    团联系起来,并且建造了天文台日夜观测昴星团的动向。美国新

    墨西哥州的祖尼人将昴星团视为“种子之星”,因为昴星团出现

    的时候正是播种的时节。北非的柏柏尔人认为昴星团的出现标志

    着季节的冷热交替。古希腊人则认为昴星团出现时,他们就可以

    出海,在地中海上安全地航行。

    天文学在航海领域也是不可或缺的文化工具。很多动物都进化出了生理机制,利用月光或磁场感应在大海中遨游而不迷失方向,而人类在海上的航行则几乎完全依靠我们在文化层面进化出的一种能力——在大脑中绘制地图的能力。这些地图根据地理景观的细节和天空中星体的运动轨迹绘制而成,可能会蕴藏在故事中,通过故事进行传播。波利尼西亚人进化出了一种独特的技能,他们的大脑中有一个“星星罗盘”,可以记忆大约 220 颗星星的运动轨迹。他们能记住星星的升降顺序,并且记录星星的运动速度、方向和时间。这种能力让波利尼西亚人成为专业的水手,他们在夜晚绘制出星路图,根据星路图在浩瀚的太平洋上乘风破浪、勇往直前。

    以自然周期和自然事件为基准,我们可以校准自己的神经时钟,还可以观测和预测事件模式。如此一来,我们就能够通过自己和他人的生活探索整个星球,进行短期旅行。时间给了我们祖先一个参考网格,一种标记自己在空间中位置的语言,这种语言切实有用:它允许我们相见,讨论过去,计划未来。这样一来,我们对时间的利用降低了生活中的熵值,即减轻了生活的混乱程度,降低了风险发生的可能性,还能减少生活中能量的消耗。例如,我们离开生物丰富的热带地区、进入有季节变化的高纬度地区,这时我们需要储备食物以度过食物短缺时期,从而保证自己能够存活下来。许多动物通过基因进化获得储备食物的能力,但对于人类来说,文化进化让我们能够更快地适应食物的季节性变化。

    我们的时间概念逐渐进化,帮助我们组织建设社会群体。我们对于时间概念的使用并不依赖主观意识,而是依赖各个部落间达成一致的客观规范,这些规范都有可衡量的标准。随着社群规模不断变大,复杂程度不断提升,人类需要越来越精确的日历,时间设定也成为一门重要的专业技术。在各种文化中,天文专家都享有极高的声望,受到高度追捧。人们称颂他们预测未来的能力,例如成功预测丰收的到来,类似的称颂后来也扩展到了其他领域。天文专家通常被视为魔法师一般的存在,不仅能预测未来,还能改变未来。

    与此同时,时间标准化的压力越来越大。千年以来,就一天

    何时开始、何时结束,一年有几个月,一天有几个小时这些问题,

    人们几乎从未达成一致。天体周期的问题在于,月运周期的天数

    和一年中月运周期的次数都不是漂亮的整数,甚至都不是整数。

    如果以月运周期计算,一个月有 29.5306 天,一个太阳年平均天

    数为 365.2422 天,两者相除就得到了一年有 12.3683 个月,显

    然这些数字并不令人满意。世界各地的天文学家竭尽所能解决时

    间的计算问题,希望能制作出一份方便普通大众、神职人员和政

    府员工使用的日历,而且这份日历要能精准地标注一年的时间。

    古罗马人把新年日期从 3 月移至 1 月,之后,其他历法也模仿了这一改动,比如英国在 1752 年将 1 月 1 日定为新年,但也仅使用了一年。在耶稣受难 4 个世纪之后,信仰基督教的古罗马帝国重置了历法。他们估算出耶稣生日的日期,并据此设定日历(因为当时还没有数字 0 的概念,所以公元 1 世纪紧跟在公元前1 世纪之后)。时间是相对的,却被视作一种可以量化的资源:1752 年 9 月 2 日,英格兰宣布,为了和欧洲大部分国家保持一致,英格兰将会更新历法。新历法中,即将到来的 9 月 3 日将变为 9 月 14 日。因为调整历法而“丢失”的日子,伦敦和英国西部的布里斯托尔曾经爆发过骚乱。现在,全球普遍使用格里高利历。然而,不同社会中,每个月包含的星期数也不尽相同,比如1792 年大革命后的法国就尝试过 1 星期 10 天的历法。

    在体验和精准测量同一客观天体时间的同时,人类也使用各

    种各样的方式解析社会时间,这是一件颇具启发性的事情。这说

    明,虽然我们的知识随着科学的发展而丰富,但我们阐释和使用

    信息的方式依旧取决于文化规范和社会政治需求。儒略历由数学

    家、天文学家和哲学家共同创立,罗马人自公元前 45 年就开始

    使用这一历法。它标志着欧洲人的时间观念从周期性转变为线性。

    这个转变意义深远,自此开始,时间的测量开始与天体周期分离

    开来,并且为数学等其他抽象思维的发展奠定了基础。

    第一个将时间概念应用于生活的是古罗马人,应用方式和现在西方工业社会一样。当时,日晷已经非常精密复杂,而且无论是在公共场所还是私人场合都能见到。大约公元前 3 世纪时,罗马著名喜剧作家普劳图斯曾经这样咒骂过:“天知道是谁在这里放了日晷,把我的日子分成一块一块!”而到了公元前 1 世纪时,罗马建筑家维特鲁威能列出 13 种不同的日晷。

    然而,因为日晷只在日升月起之间工作,所以日晷所指示的

    小时时长会因季节不同而不同。古罗马人继承了古巴比伦人 1 天

    24 小时的时间制度。古巴比伦人使用的是 60 进制,和如今使用

    的 10 进制相比,60 进制的数字可以被 2、3、4、5、6 和 12 整

    除。但是罗马人假设白天和夜晚各占 12 个小时,那就意味着在

    当时的罗马,夏天的 1 小时实际是 75 分钟,冬天的 1 小时则是

    45 分钟。重力时钟的出现可以在某些情况下解决这一问题,古罗

    马法庭使用滴漏控制每位律师发言的时间,正是这一举措引起了

    法庭和政治辩论的复兴。

    测量时间的技术不断发展,保证了整个社会与客观可测量的

    宇宙节奏同步运行。对过去的人类来说,计时还有益于生存,比

    如计时能提醒人们获取食物。不过现在,计时完全被主观的社会

    规范操控。以前,为了确定复活节的日期,基督教的神职人员在

    天文学领域投入了极大的精力,因为这一日期的计算非常复杂,

    需要先计算二至点和二分点的日期。基督教历法中包含政治元素,

    这些政治元素揭示了人类与时间的复杂关系,以及我们是如何通

    过阐释时间来建立人类的文化规范的。复活节是基督教一年中最

    重要的节日,由异教徒的春季庆典演变而来,人们自 2 世纪才开始庆祝这一节日。基督教徒认为,耶稣是在犹太教的逾越节(即耶稣受难日)3 天之后复活的。在犹太历中,逾越节是尼散月的第 15 天(即 4 月左右),这一天和春天的第一个满月日期相对应。但是因为犹太历中有一个闰月而非闰日,所以每年逾越节所在的月份都不一样。基督教徒希望把复活节设在基督教的圣日(星期日),还想确保自己的新宗教能和犹太教区别开来,保证基督教的复活节永远不会和逾越节重合。这听起来可能很奇怪,尤其考虑到逾越节是完整的复活节由来故事的一部分,但这就是宗教政治。最终,基督教徒决定将复活节定在春分后第一次满月之后的第一个星期日。如果满月的日期刚好是星期日,复活节日期就顺延到下一个星期日。要想确定每年春分的日期,需要一个复杂的天文学和数学运算系统模拟月球、太阳等星体的运动,所以基督教的神职人员才会几世纪如一日地领导并支持天文学的观测研究。基督教使用的历法仍与太阳和月球的运动有关,也就是与季节同步,但同时也会根据月相庆祝一些节日。

    精确的计时方法、历法和年历对伊斯兰教也意义重大,因为

    穆斯林每天要做 5 次礼拜,每一次都有具体的时间,而且必须朝

    向圣城麦加的方向。这推动了中世纪时期伊斯兰帝国天文学的发

    展,在这一时期,星盘是帝国最重要的科学仪器之一,需要不断

    改进。作为一种多功能仪器,星盘通过角度和梯度测量天空中星

    体的位置,除此之外,它还可以用于计算时间、测量土地、在航

    海时计算纬度。

    最终,擒纵装置于 14 世纪问世。从此,时间不再和天体的

    各种运动息息相关。擒纵装置是一种通过落锤拉动产生旋转,从

    而保持自身稳定运动的装置。该装置仅凭一个轮子便可控制一个

    齿轮组,并会在整点的时候敲钟(英语中“钟表”一词来源于法

    语中的“钟”)。对我来说,钟表里擒纵装置的滴答声就是时间

    流动的声音。机械表的发明意味着 1 个小时的长度不再由日晷测

    定,不再随季节变化。

    英国韦尔斯有一座修建于 14 世纪的美丽的机械钟。钟表上

    的装饰图案展现了当时人们以地球为中心的宇宙观,罗列了朔望

    月的周期以及月相变化,其中还特别突出了 3、6、9、12 这几个

    数字。随着大型公共时钟的修建,时间成为一种贵重的商品。人

    们可以听到时间的流逝,时间越是精确,我们对时间的掌控就越

    全面。时间实现了全新的量化发展,这种发展也扩展到了其他领

    域。比如,度量衡的精密度有所提高,新的货币标准出现,复式

    记账、透视画法和复调音乐也都变得更为精确。在当时的西欧,

    人类对于世界的态度已经发生了改变,开始用数字认识事物并进

    行分类,这逐渐成为一种社会规范,这种规范不仅流行开来,而

    且带有强迫性。从此,人们认为“浪费”时间的行为不仅愚蠢,更是一种罪过。

    规模更大、更复杂的社会帮助人类掌握时间,但也正是对时间的掌握使社会更大、更复杂,因为掌握时间让贸易变得简单,消除了人类互动中的不确定性(“浪费的”时间),从而降低了成本。随着国家变得越来越复杂,时间越来越全面地支配着人类生活的方方面面。

    人们对时间产生了新的认知,那就是时间可以以分钟为单位

    进行标记,甚至还可以以秒为单位。这种认知彻底改变了社会,

    将我们的世界变成了一个计划性更强的世界。时钟成为广场、工

    作场所和家庭中不可或缺的物品,人们也开始随身携带怀表。衡

    量业务时间的标准不再是一个人用了多长时间完成一项任务,而

    是用了多少工时。时钟出现之前,人们总是日出而作,日落而息,

    工作时间主要视自己的需求而定。后来,机器、工业作坊和织机

    决定了生产的速度,人们会给这些工具设定相同的开启和关闭时

    间,工人们打卡上班、打卡下班,时间由此成为金钱。人们不再

    是度过时间,而是花费时间。对时间的严格把控改变了人们的生

    活方式,了解时间也变得至关重要。时间本身不再与自然周期有

    太多的联系。就像浪漫主义者在他们的诗歌等艺术作品中抱怨的

    一样,人类已经将时间和自然分离,把它设置成了工作的节奏。

    人类发明出的时间改变了我们的生活环境,使之成为由时间决定的环境,而这也改变了人类的文化和生物构造。当自然世界给我们带来更多的外部线索和刺激时,我们很有可能可以再一次从更符合身体波动周期的角度出发,了解我们自己的自然韵律。普劳图斯两千年前的抱怨揭示出一个道理:一旦时间开始占有一个人,时间也就改变了他的生活方式。年幼的孩子像动物一样,在没有时间概念的世界里漫无目的地漂流。他们可能会在游戏中忘记时间,要想从游戏中出来,只能依靠他们自己生理上的饥饿和疲惫。当孩子们学习社会规范,了解了文化意义上的时间如何与真实客观的时间相对应时,他们的思维时间也会发生改变。在一些文化中,即使对成年人来说,时间也是相对轻松缓慢的;然而在工业化社会里,闲暇会让人产生负罪感。在一些英语国家,时间主宰人们的生活并被精确校准,“时间”一词比其他任何名词使用的频率都高;而亚马孙雨林的阿莫达瓦人使用的语言中则没有关于时间、月份或是年份的词。

    1972 年以来,人们遵循一个公认的时间标准,但文化时间还

    保持着多样性。20 世纪 90 年代,社会心理学家罗伯特·莱文就

    全球 31 个国家人们的生活节奏进行了比较研究,主要观察了人

    们的行走速度、时钟精准度以及办事效率(对比了人们在邮局买

    一张邮票花费的时间)。结果证实,世界不同地区在按照完全不

    同的生活节奏和时区运行。生活节奏最快的国家,经济也最强大;

    城市的生活节奏比农村的快;高纬度地区国家的生活节奏比热带

    地区国家的快。莱文注意到,生活在大洋洲新几内亚西部高地地

    区的卡保库人不会连续工作 2 天,非洲南部的昆族人每周只工作

    2.5 天,每天 6 小时左右。在世界上的许多地方,人们并不急着

    赶时间。公交车不会按时刻表运行,而是满员才发车。在印度,

    一个人可以选择放弃工作,进行一次苦旅,寻求精神的启迪和神秘的参悟,社会也认可这种行为,苦旅途中,人们会随身携带食物。但在西方社会中,这种人则可能因为流浪而被捕。西方人会怀疑和否定无法有效利用时间的人,工人们也会花很多精力让自己看起来很忙。欧洲文化中有很多骷髅头的形象,它们时刻提醒着人们时间的宝贵,因为人只能活一次。

    20 世纪 20 年代,美国贝尔实验室的无线电工程师们发现了

    一个现象:给石英晶体施加电流时,晶体膨胀和收缩的时间长短

    相同。石英器件和摆钟部件不同,不会受到大气湿度、温度或运

    动的影响,如果将石英器件应用在手表上,可以将手表计时的准

    确度提高好几个数量级。很快,计时精确、价格便宜的新型石英

    手表就占领了市场。石英表的精确度揭示出,由太阳、地球和月

    亮运行决定的天数并不像我们以前认为的那样精确,因为每天的

    时长会受到潮汐引力、地球熔核的运动,甚至风的类型的影响而

    发生波动。从 20 世纪 60 年代开始,随着原子钟的出现,每一天

    时长的差异变得更加明显。原子钟里面的电子以准确的节奏跳动,

    显示的时间可以精确到纳秒级,比石英表的微秒级还要精确1,000 倍。

    原子钟的使用让一天的时长不再是地球自转一周的时间,而是 86,400 原子秒。人类文化发明的时间依赖宇宙物理学,遵循地球生物学设定的时间:为了配合地球轨道的变化,全世界的原子钟时间每年都要重置,以保证原子时间和太阳系的时间相差无几。每年,国际地球自转和参考系服务中心都会决定是否要增加1“闰秒”,根据地球自转速度波动而损失的时间的多少而定。如果不增加闰秒,几十年后,人类以原子时间为基础的国际时间将与地球时间有明显的不同。

    我们将生物时间和文化时间分离开来,让我们的家庭和城市

    充满了人造光。人类彻底与自然界的晨昏周期分离,动物和植物

    也因此混淆了自然作息,动物在黄昏歌唱,植物则不分季节地开

    花。最终的结果就是我们的生物时间和卫星向智能手机发送的原

    子时间出现了匹配错位的情况。我们会工作到深夜,会在天不亮

    时起床。在高纬度地区生活和工作的人们,冬天里甚至可能有好

    几个星期都见不到太阳。许多人一直生活在“时差”中,这不仅

    影响我们的健康,比如罹患癌症和抑郁症的人数不断增加,还会

    影响我们与自然世界的关系。

    随着旅行时间和交流时间的大幅缩短,曾经分隔族群、阻碍

    进化的地理距离也急剧缩小。生活在这个速度更快的世界里,拥

    有一个精确运行的时钟,让我们得以从一个新的视角看待时间。

    人类开始将自己放在自宇宙大爆炸开始算起的宇宙时间中,并由

    此出发来理解人类自身。从推算地球形成的年代,到探索我们祖

    先与地球上所有生命的亲缘关系,每一次新的发现都在更新我们

    对自己的认知,动摇我们的社会身份和文化信仰。1837 年,达尔文在描述自己关于万世以来生命进化的理论时,在笔记本上写下“我认为……”,并在下面画出了进化树图。一个多世纪之后,生物学家弗朗西斯·克里克以物理化学家罗莎琳德·富兰克林的 X 射线衍射图为基础,用铅笔绘制出了 DNA 分子的双螺旋结构。这个结构是一种简单而美丽的“生命本质”,它在不同的生命形式之间传递基因信息。就像岩石中沉积层的条纹标志着地质年代一样,DNA 是人类生命本身的基因时钟。
    1895 年,英国小说家赫伯特·乔治·威尔斯出版了中篇小说《时间机器》,比爱因斯坦提出狭义相对论早了 10 年。这是人类第一次尝试在数学层面完全掌控时间。讽刺的是,尽管我们对时间有了诸多新的了解,但想象我们死后的世界并规划人类的未来,与以往一样困难。这也许是生物学认知的失败,当然也是文化的失败。

    第十三章 理性:发明科学的关键

    在希腊海岸帕纳索斯山脚下的岩石上,有一条神圣裂缝,这里供奉的德尔斐神庙至少有 3 500 年的历史了。按照宙斯的说法,这条裂缝通向地球的脐窝,即地球的中心。关于德尔斐地质裂缝众说纷纭,有一种说法称这里是太阳神阿波罗杀死巨蟒皮同的地方。巨蟒被扔入裂缝之后,腐烂的尸体散发出诱人的甜美气味。

    据说,有一天,一位名叫科雷塔斯的牧羊人发现他的一只山羊跌跌撞撞地走向德尔斐裂缝,动作十分奇怪。科雷塔斯很好奇,也跟着走过去。进入裂缝之后,他感觉自己被一种神圣的力量附了体,可以看到过去和未来。他感觉自己仿佛插上了时间的翅膀,可以自由地飞翔,从更广阔的视角审视世界。

    科雷塔斯的故事很快流传开来,德尔斐裂缝因此声名远扬,许多人慕名前来参观。他们想体验浑身抽搐、精神恍惚又十分兴奋的感觉,据说有些人太过疯狂,直接跳进裂缝,再也没有回来。德尔斐神庙曾是大地之神盖娅的神庙,当地村民会选出一名单身的年轻女子作为神使,获取神谕并将神谕告知众人。后来,太阳神阿波罗成为神庙的主人,神使代表所有神发布指令。神谕出现的时间会根据天文星座的运行提前确定。时间计算好之后,在接受神谕的现场,年轻的神使会深入裂缝,吸入神兽巨蟒散发出的甜蜜气味。然后她会进入一种恍惚状态,开始狂呼乱叫,而人们则会怀着敬畏和崇敬的心情记录下她说的话。
    神使能看到未来,并且具有超凡的预测能力,这一点吸引着那些别无选择只能活在当下的凡人。几个世纪以来,神使都有着巨大的影响力,帝王们会向她们请教各种事情,小到爱情,大到战争。她们的预言会改变命运,决定生死。可以说神使是无所不知的。

    神使是一股强有力的进化动力,推动人们对未来的预测。我

    们的预测的准确度越高,我们及后代的生存概率就越大。由于无

    法真正做到穿越时空,所以人类就运用其他手段预测未来,例如,

    我们利用声誉信息来引领社会生活。但是在自然环境中探索前进

    需要新的认知方式,想要更好地预测世界,就需要通过探索我们

    所生活的世界的运行方式,通过观察和测量来更好地理解它。好

    奇心让我们不受主观观念的束缚,理性地审视世界,在客观事实

    中寻求真理。好奇心还引导我们进行实验和创新,从这个意义上

    说,是好奇心使我们成为科学家、探险家和工程师。

    科学是建立在预测未来和检验理论之上的,由此衍生出的知识让我们能够做出更准确和多样的预测,并加速科技的进步。这样的文化进化往往与我们的观念相冲突。它利用人类特有的批判性思维、推理和理性思考的能力,给问题找到新的解决方案,而不是一味模仿别人的想法和做法。文化进化将人类的文化变得复杂,并主导供人学习的社会规范。现在,大部分人都相信,理性思维可以让他们做出更有利于未来发展的决定。但是,我们选择遵循的神谕却不可能总是理性的。

    知识是文化进化的实质,也是文化进化的单位。它在人与人

    之间代代相传和复制,在这个过程中会出现一些小小的变化,这

    些变化可能会带来生存优势,被社会中更多人接受。随着时间的

    推移,这些变化会推动适应能力的提升,这就是文化进化,过程

    类似于基因进化中的突变。然而,在人类进化过程中,充满智慧

    的精心设计也发挥了重要的作用,个人经过深思熟虑后的创新会

    显著地推动文化变革的速度。天才凭借一己之力突然创造出令人

    震撼的发明,这样的事情在很大程度上就是天方夜谭,人类其实

    是在文化的摇篮里进行创新,也就是说大部分的创新总是基于他

    人的见解,在现存事物中发现新的联系。这样的突破,并不是因

    为人们选择复制错误而实现的所谓创新,而是实实在在的原创发

    明的结果,文化创新因此实现了质的飞跃,而不仅仅是数量的增

    加。有目的的创新发明加速了文化复杂性的进程。

    动物普遍喜爱创新,这与它们不断增大的脑容积有关。很多

    生物学家尝试观察动物新的行为方式,这样的例子不计其数。例

    如,有生物学家发现英国的鸣禽知道啄碎奶瓶上的箔盖可以吃到

    奶油,还发现了能在屋顶上滑雪的乌鸦。与通过缓慢的进化来改

    变固有行为相比,创新能够帮助动物们更快地适应环境。一项研

    究发现,在人类将鸟类带到新环境之后,具有创新精神的鸟类存

    活下来的概率明显更大。我们的祖先频繁地迁徙到世界各地,所

    以他们必须拥有创新能力才能生存下来。

    主动开展反复试验可能是最原始的认识世界的方式。毕竟,

    我们与世界接触得越多,作为预测系统的大脑就有更好的预测能

    力,从而提高我们的存活概率。婴儿和小孩通过碰触、品尝和观

    察物体来探索周边的环境,他们会发现两个物体碰撞可以产生加

    速度,比如用脚去踢球,还会发现冰比水冷。但是人类经过文化

    进化的大脑会优先考虑模仿式的社会学习而不是创新,因为模仿

    已有的成功案例或者根据他人的经验来进行预测,要比局限于个

    人有限的思考更有效。创新是一种高风险策略,失败率极高,所

    以相对来说人们较少运用。曾有一项分析运用在线编程竞赛来研

    究文化是如何在现实环境中进化的。研究结果发现,绝大多数的

    文化进步是通过模仿最好的解决方案并进行不断调整实现的,只

    有极少数的文化进步是通过创新得到的。基于他人方案的调整与

    完全自主创新的比例为 16∶1。

    尽管文化创新发生的次数相对较少,但它至关重要,因为如

    果没有创新,只专注于模仿和改进现有的行之有效的解决方案,

    久而久之,文化多样性就会减少。这会让社会缺乏足够的适应性

    解决方案,在面对环境快速改变等危机时就会束手无策。创新和

    模仿两种文化进化过程为集体智慧注入了一系列可能性,拓展了

    集体智慧的功能。对现有事物的刻意改变是构成人类累积性文化

    的重要因素,这种改变也要面对同样的选择压力,通常最好的解

    决方法会被精准复制并在人群中广泛传播。

    虽然创新的步子比模仿大,但与通过模仿取得的进步一样,

    创新也是建立在集体知识基础之上的。发明了轮子之后,人们就

    更容易想象出陶工的轮盘、马车、战车、手推车、齿轮和水车。

    技术发明更是如此,因为它依赖于物理和生物学的规律,会随着

    科学知识的不断积累而加速发展。这表明,对世界的理性理解是

    基于实验和客观测量的。随着这种知识文化的发展,创新也在不

    断前行。在累积性文化进化的过程中,充满智慧的设计就像棘轮

    的工作原理一样,只有文化多样性达到一定程度,创新才可能发

    生。一旦知道了这一点,社会就会加速进步。

    以数学为例,零的发明推动了数学的发展。第一个有关书面数学的证据来自 5,000 年前美索不达米亚的苏美尔人,他们发展了数字和测量,以及乘法口诀和几何学,巴比伦人和希腊人在此基础上进行了扩展,并不断取得进步。7 世纪时人们发明了数字零,这之后开始使用零作为十进制占位符,用阿拉伯数字区分1,000 和 10,000 变得很容易。更复杂的数学变得可行,简单的财务会计等许多实践也都发展起来。零还允许小数点的存在,让数字无限精确,这让牛顿等善于思考的人发展出新的物理定律。(教条主义的基督徒认为,既然上帝代表一切,那么零就是撒旦,他们 1,000 年来一直试图将零驱逐出欧洲,但没有成功。)

    在过去的十几个世纪里,天文学家、哲学家、数学家和工程

    师用自己的方式,探索不同的认识和理解世界的方法,这让他们

    能够更加准确地预测未来。这些预测是经得住考验的,因为他们

    预测时不依靠权威的断言,也不人云亦云、盲从盲信,而是基于

    客观的测量与计算。

    这与其他领域的文化进化有所不同。对世界的主观认识没有

    所谓的逻辑等级,你说新娘应该穿白色婚纱,而我说白色是葬礼

    时穿的,新娘应该穿红色礼服,这纯粹是选择相信哪种观点的问

    题,只能说明不同文化中的民俗不同。不过,东西方提出的重力

    科学并没什么不同,没有所谓的“西方”科学,只有纯粹的科学。

    但这并不意味着以前我们在故事和其他文化事件中找到的象征

    意义失去作用了。现在,仍然有许多科学无法解答的问题,需要

    我们不断地通过故事和其他文化解读方式寻求解释,例如什么是

    生命的意义,以及什么是意识。一些人认为,科学不能回答这些

    问题;另一些人认为,科学终将有一天会从理性的角度回答这些问题。然而,大多数接受和使用科学论据的人仍然会从超自然的角度看待一些事情,并能轻松地将两种角度结合起来看问题。

    目前所知,人类第一个能与神使等超自然预言家相媲美的科学家是泰勒斯,他生活在2600年前的古希腊。泰勒斯年轻的时候在古埃及和古巴比伦学习,回国后,他改革了纯数学领域,提出数学定律必须得到证明才能被称为真的观点。泰勒斯还对尼罗河洪水和地震等自然现象做出了理性解释,这些解释让那些将自然现象归咎于愤怒神灵的故事站不住脚。正是泰勒斯基于客观事实对农业进行的预测让他变得富有。通过研究爱奥尼亚米利都地区的气象模式,泰勒斯能够准确预测下一季的收成。有一年冬天,他通过计算预测橄榄会大丰收,随即他就付了一小笔定金租下了米利都所有的橄榄压榨设备,为丰收季节做准备。等到来年夏天,种植橄榄的人意识到即将会迎来大丰收的时候,才发现泰勒斯已经租下了所有的压榨设备,泰勒斯通过租赁设备赚得盆满钵满。

    知识和创新在社会中的传播很大程度上会受到社会规范的影响,有的社会规范会压制调查研究,有的则鼓励调查研究。对古希腊人来说,哲学思维,探索和质疑,通过辩论和观察获取知识,这些已经融入他们的智识生活之中。宗教故事因新思想和新发现而充满活力,它们让文化变得包容和理性。不过,哲学和科学探究却成了基督教教义的牺牲品。

    耶稣去世后,理性的衰落始于圣保罗。保罗是一个狂热的犹太人,皈依基督教之前,他迫害基督教徒。皈依之后,他宣扬,希腊哲学家被他们自己的质疑蒙蔽了双眼,会直接下地狱。到了4 世纪时,在狄奥多西一世的统治下,《圣经》成为判定一切事物的最终标准,如果质疑《圣经》,那就是异教徒。罗马也从一个相对开放、包容和多元的文明社会,变成了等级森严、受规则束缚的集权社会。无论是《圣经》、盖伦、希波克拉底的医学著作还是托勒密的天文学,都能体现出这一点。西方世界从一个信仰多种宗教的哲学理性世界,变成了只有一种宗教贯彻始终的死板世界。在这个世界中,人们不仅会明确拒绝科学和理性思想,还信奉教条主义,经常残忍地惩罚那些不愿意服从的人,这是西方世界的一大标志性转变。

    希帕蒂亚是希腊杰出的数学家、天文学家和哲学家,是古亚

    历山大时期最后一批伟大的思想家之一。她是当时少有的女学者,

    却不幸遭到了迫害。希帕蒂亚积极传播柏拉图和亚里士多德的观

    点,教授数学和天文学课程,包括指导学生如何设计星盘。她是

    一位颇受尊敬的知识分子,虽与一位著名的基督徒有过一段关系,

    但她本人不是基督徒。415 年,希帕蒂亚和往常一样乘马车去讲

    学,读经人皮特带领基督教狂热分子把她从马车上拉下来,拖进

    了教堂。他们把希帕蒂亚剥得一丝不挂,然后用瓦片割她的皮肉,

    将她残忍杀害。希帕蒂亚死后,暴徒们仍不罢手,肢解了她的尸

    体,扔进火里焚烧。希帕蒂亚的死只是因为她孜孜不倦的求知精

    神。

    宗教的不包容程度越高,社会的创造力和技术创新力就越低。

    由于社会规范变得更倾向于忠实的复制而非创新思维,集体文化

    也随之萎缩。在更为包容的古典时期,人们重视学习,富裕的上

    层阶级和从事贸易的中产阶级都受过教育,这些人组成了一个庞

    大而活跃的网络。从 5 世纪起,西罗马帝国开始衰败。教会之外,

    人们的文化水平直线下降,中世纪早期的欧洲变成了一个封建社

    会。神职人员只靠古代手稿混沌度日,不再进行科学研究。由于

    缺乏科技创新,这一时代又被称为黑暗时代。各种交流的网络不

    复存在,文化在很多方面不再进化,逐渐失去了多样性。在这个

    如此黑暗的时代里,由于人口锐减,群体孤立,再加上限制信息

    流动的社会规范和制度,人们的思考方式受到了禁锢,导致文化

    进化的速度减缓。

    然而,在遥远的东方,社会规范却大不相同。无论男女都很

    重视读写能力,伊斯兰学者将古希腊和古罗马的教学方法运用于

    科学和医学方面,并引入了波斯和印度的传统。到 8 世纪,在阿

    拔斯王朝的统治下,巴格达成为全球的学习中心。当时的巴格达

    拥有 200 万人口,地处欧亚非三洲的交界处,受到各种文化、思

    想和经历的影响。正是这种地理上的连通性、对各种思想的开放

    包容以及对学习的重视,让这个历史上的伊斯兰黄金时代成为科

    学的堡垒。以至于在此后的 700 年间,国际上一直使用阿拉伯语

    作为科学语言。

    当人们意识到不同观点之间存在一定的联系时,创新通常就

    出现了,此外,标准化的广泛应用也推动了社会创新。比如,使

    用通用的阿拉伯语意味着知识可以更加广泛地传播,知识的传播

    带来了更多的“原来是这样”的顿悟与惊叹。在巴格达,阿拉伯

    人从中国战俘那里学会了如何造纸,这种纸比其他地方使用的纸

    草或羊皮纸更便宜,而且能够更快捷地传播信息。纸的出现,再

    加上更为简单的新书写系统,使信息逐渐变得大众化,人们仅靠

    写书和卖书就可以谋生。在波斯裔阿拉伯人哈里发艾卜·加法尔

    -马蒙的赞助下,人们启动了一个收集世界知识的宏大项目。这

    个项目欢迎其他文化的学者加入其中,同时资助阿拉伯使者前往

    世界各地收集文献和手稿。那个时候,给战败国提出的投降条件

    不是索要黄金,而是要求敌国把他们图书馆中的书交出来,从中

    可见知识和信息在当时的价值。随后,这些书被翻译成阿拉伯文,

    保存于智慧宫中,用于研究学习。智慧宫和 1,000 年前被破坏的

    古亚历山大图书馆的作用基本相同。这样的举措使得大量古代知

    识得以保留,否则这些知识将永远消失在历史长河中。全球性的

    传播可以保护物种,让其免于灭绝,让小种群恢复遗传多样性;

    同样,图书馆、修道院和实践社区的建立能够保护文化,不让其

    消失。

    欧洲用了 1000 年的时间才摆脱了狄奥多西王朝统治的影响。古代思想家的思想重获新生,很多先进的思想从伊斯兰国家传到了信奉基督教的欧洲国家,从此欧洲进入了科学和探索的复兴时代。教会领导并控制西方早期的科学探索,但这种情况在 15世纪中期发生了变化,约翰内斯·谷登堡发明了活字印刷,再加上欧洲开始使用纸,印刷术得以普及。印刷术的出现,让信息以标准文本的形式传播开来,欧洲各地的人们可以阅读相同的东西,可以更容易地进行比较和相互参照。后来,从事印刷和出版的威尼斯人阿图斯·曼纽修斯发明了更小、更便宜的 8 开大小的纸张,信息的传播范围由此变得更为广泛。文字印刷的普及开启了一系列对社会规范的全面改革,鼓励人们进行探索、实验和调查。“敢于求知”成为自然哲学家的座右铭,好奇心也从愚昧的象征变成了值得称赞的求知欲望。15 世纪后期,学者们纷纷怀疑旧书中的内容是否都是真理,并认为获得知识最可靠的方式来自直接经验:亲身实践。17 世纪 60 年代,人们开始广泛使用“事实”这个词。

    多运用理性思维会让人越来越擅长思考。在人类发展进程中,

    通过社会交往,我们不仅获得了关于世界的各种事实,知道如何

    看待它们,还逐渐建立起了让“事实继承”成为可能的认知过程。

    也就是说,文化学习本身就是一种文化传承。随着社会规范的发

    展,许多机构诞生了,从而创造出了一个更大的集体大脑,也让

    每个人变得更加聪明。决定文化产物先进程度的不是这个文化中

    的人天生有多聪明,而是要看他们是否会社交。这就是为什么把来自不同文化的人聚集在一起的大学可以促进思想交流和技术创新。

    科学逻辑推理是一种认知处理工具,是观察和理解世界的一

    种方式。在理性思维文化环境中成长起来的人所使用的认知工具,

    能引导他们科学地探索知识和寻求解释。这些行为可以看作他们

    大脑发生的生物变化,是文化发展的结果。在这个过程中,理性

    的想法被赋予了权威。这些人更有可能质疑现状,因此他们的文

    化会加速科技变革以及社会变革。

    读写能力和时间观念这样的认知工具也有助于技术进步。在

    能培养读写能力的社会里,孩子们可以更好地依据他人的观点或

    者通过改进他人的观点形成自己的观点。不同的思维方式会在生

    物学层面上塑造大脑的认知途径,这有时会涉及认知妥协。高等

    数学以更复杂的方式处理数字和符号,涉及许多方程式,因此用

    数学语言和格式把解题思路写下来的数学逐渐发展了起来,但这

    种计算方法在求和时比珠算要慢。珠算用于加减法运算已经近

    5,000 年了,进行连加运算时,经过珠算训练并使用算盘的人要

    比使用计算器的人快。在世界上一些经常使用算盘的地方,那些

    大脑中已经形成虚拟算盘的成年人的心算速度,比依赖语言认知

    (用词汇表达数字)的西方大学生快。

    我们经常忽视科学探索的物质条件,但人类是实实在在的存在,绝不是脱离肉体,存于知识领域的抽象思想。我们的身体给大脑传递信息,它们相互配合,共同进化。通过感官与大自然打交道是我们了解世界的第一步。众所周知,牛顿和达尔文等精英科学家引领人类文化向理性和科学进化,但这种进化依赖的基础却是这些科学家对于最基本的数据、仪器和测量的痴迷。过去 500年里,大量的科学发现不仅应归功于工匠、机械师和工程师,还应归功于哲学家和思想家。事实上,欧洲之所以能引领启蒙运动,其中一个原因就是许多欧洲思想家具有实用主义思维。许多推动英国科学和工业革命的重要人物并没有上过牛津或剑桥大学,他们只是普通的手艺人或工匠。例如,解决海上经度测定问题的约翰·哈里森是一位自学成才的木匠和钟表匠,而发明改良蒸汽机的詹姆斯·瓦特是一位仪器制造工人。

    科学、技术、金融和其他领域相互促进,共同发展,加快了

    人们对新知识的探索速度,但这些都离不开国家、机构和社会规

    范的支持。科学实际上可以看作一个长期的公共产品项目,需要

    赞助人的支持,这些赞助人包括希望获得二至点更准确数据的宗

    教机构,需要改进收成预测模式的企业以及需要计算税收的政府

    机构。虽然科学概念需要一段时间才能被本领域的科学家接受,

    然后再被大众接受,但在科学探索中出现的工具和技术会被人们

    更快地采用,并可能对其他领域产生变革性的影响。科学是需要

    协作的,时间及其他度量方式的标准化是建立共识的重要过程,

    它带来了技术系统的稳定性,让全球贸易和思想交流及零部件交

    换成为可能。因此,标准化是加速技术进化的文化杠杆。

    科学的原理就是推翻现有理论。托勒密为了让大家相信他的

    地球中心宇宙模型,尝试使用了各种复杂的几何手段,但都没有

    取得满意的结果。即使是这样,在有另一个理论能够成功挑战托

    勒密的理论之前,托勒密的模型依旧是当时科学家们拥有的最好

    的宇宙模型。然而,关于世界如何运转的客观探索和最新发现并

    没有突然照亮集体无知的黑暗。科学理论很难与主观解释区分开

    来,人们通过模仿别人来获得自己的信仰。大多数人不会盲目拒

    绝接受新事物,其实我们并不真正相信那些反科学的故事和宗教

    故事。当我们认识到地球是太阳系的中心时,这种宇宙模式就成

    了我们宗教和文化故事的一部分。当科学证明地球不是太阳系的

    中心,只是太阳系一颗普通的行星时,科学范式发生了转变,也

    从根本上动摇了我们的身份。地球是上帝创造出来,是放置在宇

    宙中心的一颗特殊星球,这个故事不得不重写。随着时间的推移,

    大多数人开始相信最新的发现,宗教故事也发生了变化,或者说

    信徒们直接无视了之前的故事。

    观念的改变可能需要几个世纪的时间,当新观念与我们的经验相悖时,需要的时间则更多。从我的角度来看,地球是静止不动的,太阳位于地球的东边,以弧线的轨迹绕着地球转,一天结束时就正好转到了西边。后来,我不得不承认这是个错误的观点。在理性层面,我相信日心说,但在感性层面,还是无法割舍之前的想法,因为人们直观的感觉就是太阳随着人们的生活移动。随着科学的解释逐渐变得更加复杂,感性的观点变得与理性的事实更加不符。我从数学的角度理解了量子力学、重力和磁力的基础内容,但直观上完全不能理解。这些都是生活中的基本概念,但是我对这些知识的理解和接受与我对其他形式的文化知识的理解和接受有很大不同。当然让人更加担忧的是,研究显示,大多数人通常都不能理解数值极大的数字之间的关系,例如不知道如何在一条数轴上让百万、十亿和万亿这些数字等距排列,而理解这些数字的关系对人们如何看待政府政策有着重要的影响。人们之所以不理解,原因之一就是我们日常生活中都不太会在数值如此大的领域里处理事情,所以我们对大数的直观理解不如我们对20 以下数字的理解。

    存在决定意识。人类大脑逐渐进化,构建了一个基于自身感知的现实世界,这种感知依赖人类的生理机能、文化经验和周边环境的综合作用。两个人感知现实的方式可以完全不同,大脑必须平衡我们的经验知识和客观知识,并做出相应的判断。

    视觉错觉说明大脑很容易误解眼睛接收到的感官信息,我们到的其实是一个改编版的现实。但即便知道是视觉错觉在作祟,我们依然坚信自己看到的才是事实。2015 年,美国新闻网站Buzzfeed 的一名记者在网上发了一张条纹连衣裙的照片,配文是:“朋友们快来帮帮我,这条连衣裙是白金色还是蓝黑色?我和朋友争论不下,我们快疯了。”几个小时之内,成千上万的人就裙子的颜色展开了激烈的讨论,社交网络充斥着愤怒的回复,因为他们不能接受别人对世界的认知与自己的不同。对人类来说,没有什么比现实更神圣的事情了,我们的内在想法、身处的外部世界和自己的身体三者之间的关系是个人意识的基础。只有把控好现实,我们才能远离疯狂。

    过去对视觉现象和其他奇怪现象没有科学解释,那时这些现

    象都是上帝存在于世间的证据。最近,科学家在德尔斐进行地质

    勘查时,发现了两条隐藏的断层线,正好穿过德尔斐的下方。这

    些地质裂缝中散发的神经性致幻气体,包括具有甜味的乙烯,只

    需轻微的剂量就能让人产生飘飘然的感觉(高剂量会产生麻醉的

    感觉),这些气体很有可能就是神使产生幻觉的原因。随着我们

    越来越了解大脑神经受体,越来越了解大脑是如何加工视觉数据

    “创造”现实的,我们能够越发清楚地理解不同的化学物质是如

    何改变人们对现实和宗教的理解与认知的。

    很多时候,我们对世界的认知并没有经过大脑的深思熟虑,而是大脑在下意识的状态下根据接收到的有限信息形成的对现实的认识。神经科学家安东尼奥·达马西奥描述了人们在决策过程中的“躯体加工”,即大脑的腹内侧前额叶皮质发出血压改变或心率增加等身体信号,来标记大脑产生的无意识决策(基于过去的经验),大脑会先处理这些信号,做出直觉决策,然后再进行有意识的推理。在分辨连衣裙颜色的那个案例中,有一些证据表明,如果一个人大部分时间待在室外的自然光环境下,那么他更偏向于白金色;而如果一个人经常待在室内,那么他就更有可能认为裙子是蓝黑色的。这就是知觉恒常性。婴儿要到大约 4 个月的时候才会发展出知觉恒常性,并且能看到对的颜色。然而,人类大脑现在学会了克服客观不同,达成主观一致。

    人类的生理机能在文化环境的影响下左右着人类对现实的

    认知,这会进一步影响我们的政治选择、信仰和行为。一个社会

    群体会通过阻止或谴责其他群体信仰的传播,或通过大力宣传本

    群体支持的观点,来进一步巩固自己群体的信仰系统。社交媒体

    就是这种所谓的泡沫效应的典型表现。我们究竟是相信基于经验

    的现实还是基于客观的现实呢?毕竟,一个群体认为百分之百正

    确的事情,对于另一个群体来说,可能会是疯狂和邪恶的,例如

    当今的持枪权、堕胎权、同性婚姻和几十年前的全职太太、国家

    兵役或者颅相学。我们通过常识了解世界,但是这些常识一次又

    一次地蒙蔽了我们寻找现实的双眼。我们错把直觉感知当成了事

    实,不相信我们无法触摸和感知的过程和现象,例如我们穷尽一

    生都不会看见的人类漫长进化过程,以及人类难以感知和想象的

    亚原子领域的量子力学。

    亚里士多德形容人类是“理性动物”,但我们经常表现出不理性的一面。最近,人们揭露出一些上市公司不使用卫星图像和地质知识等最新的科学技术,反而依赖水脉占卜探测的方法来检测漏水点。科学家们对此感到十分生气,他们难以想象,21 世纪的人类还在使用这种中世纪的愚昧技术,作为消费者的普通民众也无疑会因为给这种白痴公司花钱而感觉到耻辱。但是这也说明,在我们通过文化学习到的解决方案中,客观理性的方案和故事传说中的方案并非泾渭分明。

    批判性思维是人类在文化发展中形成的认知工具,帮助我们

    理性地分析形势,从而形成合理的信仰和判断。但问题是,理性

    的解释并不总是能够轻易得到,它需要进行复杂的计算和数据分

    析。所以,在面对复杂情况需要快速做出决定的时候,我们通常

    会根据直觉行事,部分原因是这样做对认知的要求较低,因此也

    就更省力。2002 年诺贝尔经济学奖获得者丹尼尔·卡尼曼描述

    了两种思考方式。一个是“快思考”,即无意识地、依靠直觉不

    费力地思考;另一个是“慢思考”,即有意识地、依靠分析费力

    地思考。他解释说,即使我们认为自己所做的大部分决定是理性

    的,但事实是,大多数时候我们的思考方式是“快思考”。

    从进化的角度来看,快思考和慢思考有一定意义。在许多生死存亡关头,人们需要快速做出决定(如果你遇到狮子,还得停下来想一想如何跑过它,那么你已经死了),这种直觉决策通常是无意识的,根据模式识别、环境线索以及其他有些实用价值的偏见做出的。集体存活也需要快思考,如果一个消防员或者战士在冲过去救援同伴之前还要考虑自身安全,他可能会因为风险大而放弃救援;但如果他选择冲过去救人并且成功了的话,那么更多人就能够存活下来。如果让熟练掌握运动技能的运动员或是熟练掌握其他技能的人在做每一个动作前,都有意识地进行思考和判断,那么他们的发挥就会受限。情绪是有用的,毕竟恐惧驱使我们快速应对风险,愤怒会促进我们交流,让威胁变得可信,内疚阻止我们做出有违社会规范和危害群体团结的事情等。在一项研究中,研究人员要求学生两人一组,商量如何分配他们的资金。一些学生被安排听一些让人生气的音乐,所以在进入实验室的时候他们身上带着更多的怒气,而结果是生气的学生最终带着更多的钱离开了。

    尽管文化进化产生的规范让人类可以进行理性思考并做出合理的决策,但生物进化没有跟上,所以人类的认知还是会受情感的牵动。但问题的关键不在于做决定的时候我们的情感凌驾于理性,而是人们头脑中的偏见。即使是专家也会有偏见,这意味着如果他们犯错误,代价就会更大。在一些组织中,成员们坚信自己不是种族主义者,也没有性别歧视思想,自己是凭借技能而非运气获得了如今的职位。而事实上,这样的组织里种族主义、性别歧视和撞大运的情况却无处不在。

    我们做出的决策会受到自身生理和周围社会环境的影响。以恐惧对心理和生理造成的影响为例,研究表明,投票时表现得越保守的人,其大脑恐惧中枢杏仁体就越大。在一项研究中,一个三四岁的孩子在实验室研究中表现得越恐惧,其 20 年后的政治

    态度就越保守。恐惧的影响立竿见影。在另一项研究中,自由派

    人士在遭受人身威胁时,他们的政治和社会态度会暂时变得保守。

    保守派政客和竞选团队就利用了这种心理,他们把移民比作细菌,

    直击人们内心深处抵御污染和疾病的本能,引发投票者对于移民

    问题的恐慌,从而为自己拉选票。这种比喻提出之后,在 H1N1 流

    感流行期间的一项研究中,研究人员提醒人们要注意流感病毒带

    来的危险,然后再询问他们对移民的态度,最后询问他们是否接

    种了流感疫苗。没有接种流感疫苗的人更有可能反对移民政策。

    但在一项后续研究中,研究人员在提醒人们流感有危险后,立即

    给人们提供了洗手液,移民偏见就消失了。让人们感到安全会让

    他们在投票时更加宽容。在研究人员要求人们想象自己百害不侵

    时,支持共和党的选民对堕胎和移民等社会问题的态度明显变得

    更加宽容,理性中充满了感情。这也暗示了文化的复杂性,从艺

    术作品到专利申请的几项研究中可以看出,一个社会越保守、规

    范越严格,它的创造力就越低,产生的创新就越少。社会越宽容

    开明,技术进步越快。

    有时候,凭感觉而不凭理性做决定可以产生更好的结果,因为通过排除大脑预测系统中的干扰,我们非理性的认知偏见通常能很有效地做出与情感有关的复杂决策。例如,统计模型很容易出错,因为它们是不完整的,且带有内在偏见,它们是建立在与复杂的现实世界相矛盾的完美数学情境下的。因此,许多金融模型未能预测到 2008 年金融危机。大多数决策带来的社会影响也是决策过程中要考虑的重要因素。比如,银行业内部人士虽然对即将到来的危机感到焦虑,但他们依然会选择保持沉默,不发表批判现实的理性观点,以避免造成社会恐慌。在支持者占大多数的情况下,违背多数人意见投反对票的人就会受到排斥,因为他们违背了社会常规。因此,在这种情况下,人们会明智地选择忽略理性的证据,而根据感性思维做决定,因为和寻求一个客观正确的答案比起来,社会凝聚力和维持现有的社会网络更能激发我们的积极性。

    部族文化比事实更能影响人们看待世界的方式。以人为的气

    候变化为例,全球科学界几乎在这一点上达成了共识,但美国人

    之间却对这一问题产生了让人意想不到的分歧。民主党人和共和

    党人受教育程度越高,在气候变化问题上的分歧就越大。有大约

    25%高中毕业的共和党人非常担心气候变化,但仅有 8%受过大学

    教育的共和党人有同样的担心。乍一听,这似乎不合常理,因为

    受教育程度高的人似乎更应该能意识到气候变化带来的影响。但

    在舆论界,气候变化不是一个科学问题,而是一个政治问题。气

    候变化是一门相对较新的科学,技术复杂,所以许多美国人采纳

    了他们的“部族首领”,也就是政治精英的观点。共和党的政治

    精英们缺乏科学头脑,虽然受过良好教育的共和党人可能会更多

    地接触有关气候变化的科学信息,但他们同样也更了解党派利益,而且研究表明后者更重要。正如乔纳森·斯威夫特在 1720 年指出的那样,“理性思考永远无法纠正错误的观点,因为它从来不曾让人们获得错误观点”。人类获取知识和巩固信仰的主要途径是精准地模仿他人,而不是利用现有的依据和自己的判断进行发明创造,因此我们很容易因为模仿对象的不可靠而受到影响。更糟糕的是,通过文化进化,我们已经学会了重视对科学问题的理性解释而不是主观解释,会不由自主地相信我们复制模仿的观点是合理的,因此要改变这些观点就非常困难了。

    通常,在实际决策时,理性思考的主要作用并不是做出决策,

    而是要证明这些决策是合理的。心理学家认为,人类主要还是依

    靠盲目的直觉做选择,理性仅仅是在做出决策之后证明决策无误。

    这可能是因为,尽管我们的潜意识会存在认知偏差,但是与逻辑

    思维相比,它更具理性。在做决策的过程中,几乎没人能够完全

    区分主观推断和客观推断,但人工智能却能做到。人工智能合乎

    逻辑,但是只能在算法规定好的范围内进行客观推理。很多决策

    都具有主观性,其背后有一定的原因。讲究证据的科学基于可测

    量的结果帮助我们进行决策,但是社会规范,即整个社会的价值

    观念,却决定着我们的最终行为。尽管从统计学来看,持枪权和

    枪击犯罪之间的联系是毫无争议的,然而在美国,每次发生大规

    模枪击事件后,少数有权势的人就会两手一摊,装腔作势地思考

    到底该如何避免这样的事件再次发生。

    生物学家认为,所有灵长类动物中,只有人类能够接受错误信息或与已有信息相悖的信息。这意味着,其他灵长类动物无法想象世界的状态与它们当前的现实不符,也无法想象其他个体以不同的方式思考世界。然而,人类却知道世界上存在着自己不知道的事情,也知道其他人会有不同的观点。仅依据这一点,我们往往断定自己是理智的,而与我们意见相左的人是不理智的。更为稳妥的做法是,我们应当认为即便是和我们意见不同的人,也同样理智,只是彼此之间有不同的目标、背景、信仰和偏好罢了。
    过去,人们普遍认为,科学告诉我们世界本来的面目,而我们的主观想法告诉我们要如何理解世界。但后来,科学也逐渐开始解释我们的主观反应,例如情绪是如何产生的,要如何控制它,记忆是怎么形成的,为何可以编造记忆等。随着我们越来越多地了解人类思维的运作方式,开发出越来越人性化的人工智能,我们能否通过揭开意识中主观部分的神秘面纱,最终达到纯理性选择的地步呢?或许有这个可能。
    目前,我们发明的最强大的超级计算机“顶峰”,能够在 1秒钟内完成 20 千万亿次计算,这一运算量需要人类大脑花费 630亿年的时间才能完成。现在,“顶峰”主要用于天气预测。

    第十四章 全能人:人类的未来

    公元 12019 年,美国得克萨斯州,你在黎明时分徒步进入深

    山,开始了朝圣之旅。走着走着,在一块岩石上发现了一处隐藏

    的入口。入口处有两道门,第一道由玉制成,门框为不锈钢材质,

    第二道则是铁门。这两道门组成了一个简易气阀,隔绝灰尘,同

    时防止野生动物闯入其中。你转动门上的圆把手,门开了。进去

    之后,你将身后的门牢牢锁上,进入了一条隧道中,眼前一片漆

    黑。你不断向前走,最后发现,地面上似乎有一些微弱的光。你

    四处寻找着光源,然后发现,在这条宽约 4 米、长约 150 米的垂

    直隧道的尽头,似乎有一个小光点。你登上旋转的楼梯,沿着隧

    道壁,朝着头顶的光点,一圈又一圈地向上爬。最后,在一片光

    明中,你登上了山顶,看到了这趟旅程的终点——由太阳提供动

    力的山顶之钟。钟响了,你是第一个听到钟声的人类,因为这座

    钟在一万年前建成后,就再也没有响过。

    时间一个是相对的概念。各个板块漂移的速度和我们指甲生长的速度差不多。我们用事物发生的速度来衡量时间的快慢,而人类累积性的文化进化正在加速时间的流逝。过去,几千万年才可被称作一个地质时期;现在,几十年就有可能产生新的地质年代。过去,从一座城市到另一座城市需要数天之久,现在只需几

    个小时就能结束旅程,人与人之间的联系甚至只需要 1 秒钟。物

    种灭绝的速度是“自然”灭绝的1000倍。全球人口翻了一番。

    在行星时间的心跳中,人类已经走了很远。5 万年前,1,000

    亿个生命之前,现代人类的祖先只是诸多人种中的一种。现在,

    我们是地球上唯一的人类。文化复杂性的进一步发展需要时间,

    将现有的技术与社会体系传承下去也需要时间,而在大部分时间

    里,人类都受到了更新世时期恶劣自然环境的限制。研究表明,

    在环境恶劣、食物匮乏的时期,一个族群在文化上就会更加保守,

    创新的频率有所下降;族群成员在逻辑判断、创造性思维等方面

    也表现逊色,在做选择时,更依赖情绪而非理性思考。人类 95%

    的时间都是在这样的生存条件下度过的。但是,就像我们现在看

    到的那样,即便是在上个冰川期最冷的时期,人类文化依旧具有

    惊人的复杂性。同一项研究还发现,当食物充裕时,族群成员的

    认知能力会显著提升。11,000 年前,自然环境变得十分宜居,地

    球进入了气候稳定温和的全新世时期。其他人种此时已无福消受,

    只有现代人类一路繁荣兴旺至今。在全新世时期,人类可利用的

    资源持续增加,我们祖先的人口因此得以增长,贸易网络得以扩

    张,这都促进了文化复杂性和多样性的发展。

    人类在与自然打交道的过程中使用的任何一种提高效率的

    方法,换句话说,任何能够提升能量流动效率的改进方法,都可

    以提高我们的生存概率,加速文化进化。以社会复杂性为例,社

    会复杂性受制于社会能利用多少资源。所以,当一个社会的可利

    用资源主要是人力和牲畜时,国家的活动要么是战争,要么与食

    物和安全有关。不过历史上也有一些著名的例外,比如罗马帝国,

    其 900 多年的繁荣主要依靠的是奴隶。随着水车等新型能源工具

    的出现,各个国家开始发展贸易,从贸易中获得的财富比从战争

    中获得的财富要多得多。煤炭的使用使官僚机构不断增多,政府

    随之变得更复杂。其他复杂的系统也逐渐出现,彼此相辅相成。

    由此一来,现代工业社会便在复杂的能源分配系统中诞生了。

    这是因为能源的可利用程度和它的成本成正比。如果利用能

    源实现的创新成本过高,这些新方法就无法继续发展进而形成一

    个更为复杂的体系。然而在人类历史大多数的时间里,能源都十

    分昂贵。以照明为例,1800 年时,每人每年平均使用 1,100 流明

    时;200 年后,这个数字上涨到 1 300 万,是原先的 11,800 倍。

    这一切要归功于成本的降低。1800 年,一位工人辛苦劳作 60 个

    小时产出的微弱烛光(蜡烛由羊脂制成),如果供一人每天使用

    2 小时 26 分钟,可以使用一整年。同样的劳动力能产出 54 分钟

    的白炽灯光亮。但看看成本的差异:2006 年,英国 100 万流明时

    人造光的成本仅为 2.67 英镑;而在 14 世纪,这一成本为 35,000

    英镑。

    随着经济规模的不断扩大、技术的不断革新和其他提高效率

    的方法的使用,能源变得越来越便宜,经济得以加速发展。在更

    新世时期,全球经济产值每 25 万年翻一番;在全新世时期,得

    益于农业的发展,全球经济产值每 900 年翻一番;自 1950 年开

    始,全球经济产值每 15 年翻一番。经济发展的同时,人口数量

    也从 150 年前的 10 亿飙升到 77 亿。那么,新增的庞大人类群体

    居住在哪里呢?答案是大部分人都聚集在高效的城市系统中,目

    前占地球陆地表面 3%的城市中居住着 75%的人类。城市化正在将

    人类网络的密集度提升到前所未有的程度,由此产生了新的社会

    特性,例如文化和基因的融合,精心设计的医疗保健系统,以及

    首次出现的人口增长放缓现象。增长放缓的原因可能是人类自愿

    限制家庭规模,但最主要的还是人们想要更多的资源。如今,在

    伦敦出生的婴儿存活到成年的概率比以往任何时候都要高,有的

    甚至能活到百岁。她可以在联系最密集、规模最大的人类族群中

    学习,可以读书认字,知晓车轮、弹簧、杠杆是何物,理解分数、

    进化、金钱、民主、感染控制、观察视角等概念。她还会接触到

    目前最伟大的认知和科技工具。这意味着今天的人类比以往任何

    时候都更能有效地解决问题。最近几十年,人类进入了“大加速

    发展期”。人类活动的加速发展带来了人口数量、全球化程度和

    科技创新日新月异的发展。

    在本书中,我向大家介绍了人类如何通过“基因—环境—文化”三位一体的发展获得了进化的成功,以及人类是如何成为一个能够主宰自己命运的非凡物种的。现在,我们所有人都处于一个非常特殊的时刻。人类正在变为一个超级有机体,我们姑且称之为全能智人,简称全能人。

    为了更好地了解全能人,我们先深入土壤,认识一种构造极

    其简单且十分古老的单细胞有机体——黏菌。它大概出现在 6 亿

    年前,遍布在全球各地的土壤中,和其他单细胞一样生存于世。

    有时,成千上万的黏菌会聚集在一起,它们的黏液会组成一个外

    壳,里边包裹着一个新形成的有机体。这个有机体可以蠕动爬行,

    有脉搏,会长出触须,甚至可以走出迷宫。科学家将这些黏菌的

    聚集形式描述为“社会”,因为每一个黏菌都在朝着同一个目标

    努力,有时甚至不惜牺牲自己的生命。如果黏菌所在的土壤缺少

    食物,黏菌会合成一根卷须,爬到阳光下。在那里,一部分黏菌

    会牺牲自己,将它们的身体转化为坚硬的纤维素,在地上形成茎。

    剩下的黏菌则会顺着茎向上爬,在茎的顶端等待路过的动物。有

    动物经过时,它们会附着在这些动物身上,到达新的土壤,继续

    生存下去。

    人类的大脑有点像黏菌,不过人类的大脑既不能独立存在,也不可以自己移动。独立的大脑细胞(即神经元)本身并没有感知能力。但当 1,000 亿个神经元同时联网共同感知时,大脑感知到的东西远远超过这 1,000 亿个神经元单独工作的效果。不过直到现在我们也没有弄清楚,思想、人格或行为是如何在神经网络中扎根生长的,我们也不清楚神经元在其中是如何发挥作用的。不过意识就是从这些最普通的“建筑材料”中诞生的。全能人大脑所拥有的智慧、创造性和社会性,可以和全体人类大脑通过相

    互连接和沟通建立起来的网络式积累相媲美,而全体人类大脑还

    包括给我们留下文化和智慧遗产的祖先的大脑及电脑程序等人

    造大脑。全能人的全球帝国由跨国公司控制。我们通过全球社交

    平台进行交流,用美元进行交易结算。我们用的是同一个互联网,

    在各个城市都能吃到意大利面、比萨和米饭,买牛仔裤,喝可乐,

    嚼口香糖,听流行音乐。全能人通过联合国发挥全球政治权威和

    司法系统的作用,通过世界贸易组织管理国家之间的商品贸易,

    通过世界卫生组织管理医疗卫生,虽然这些机构的办事效率很低。

    对很多人来说,当他们面对这样的全球网络时,家庭、部落和国

    家的概念都缩小了。人们逐渐将自己看作地球公民而不是某一国

    的公民。

    到目前为止,不同文化背景的人之间并没有显著的生理差异,

    但未来情况可能会有所变化。未来几十年里,那些不属于超个体

    的人可能会发现自己在文化、技术,甚至是身体和认知方面,都

    与社会格格不入。举例来说,描述一个人时,我们将越来越频繁

    地假定这个人寿命比较长,交流能力比较强,不满足这个条件的

    人将属于一个不同的人类种族,甚至有可能是一个亚种。如今,

    石器时代人类和现代都市人之间的文化差异类似于卡拉哈里野

    狗和巴黎贵宾犬之间的差异(不过人和狗不同,来自任何地方的人都可以成为“文化表型”)。但这并不意味着一种文化会比其他文化优越或“进化层级更高”。依赖复杂技术的生活不一定比狩猎采集社会的生活方式更快乐或更有意义(许多人会认为恰恰

    相反)。然而,像狩猎采集这样的社会被逐渐淘汰,取而代之的

    是人口密度极高的工业社会,因为这样的社会能源使用效率更高。

    随着全能人越来越同质化,我们应该牢记保持文化和生物多样性

    的重要性,因为这是一种生存适应。在过去,它能提供我们需要

    的东西,而当我们进入未知领域时,它可能会成为无价之宝。这

    意味着我们要保护所有人类的权利以及人类的居住地,使其不受

    自身掠夺成性的超个体的影响。

    全能人也表现出了强大的物理存在性。人类个体和社群未来

    会对居住地或周边环境产生影响,而我们的超个体对地球的改变

    之大已经超过了地球过去 46 亿年中经历的任何事情。地球正进

    入另一个地质时代,而这一次是我们改变了地球。地质学家将这

    个新时代称为人类世,他们认为人类已经成为一种地球物理力量,

    这种力量和撞击地球的小行星,或是体积庞大的火山不相上下。

    影响人类进化的自然环境已经被人类自己彻底改变了。

    只用了短短一代人的时间,人类就成为非凡的全球性力量,而且这一力量丝毫没有减弱的迹象。地球上 2/5 的土地用于农耕,3/4 的淡水资源掌控在人类手中,地球上不再有“无人之境”,我们甚至可以决定大气的温度。人类,已经从非洲稀树草原上一种濒临灭绝的弱小灵长类动物,成长为地球上数量最多的大型动物,数量位居第二的则是我们培育出的供我们食用、使用的其他动物。我们对自然世界贪婪的掠夺已经导致森林遭受了大规模的砍伐,大量物种惨遭灭绝,生态系统严重崩坏。其他哺乳类动物需要花数百万年(是人类存在时长的 10 倍以上),才能恢复被人类破坏的进化多样性。我们还制造了大量的垃圾,这些垃圾需要

    几个世纪才能被彻底降解。当我们从海洋中捕食野生鱼类时,我

    们也吃下了它们体内人类自己丢弃的塑料垃圾。地球上不再有无

    穷无尽的自然美景,所到之处,皆有人迹。未来的几代人将会直

    面人类世产生的后果,也就是说,人类已经殖民了自己的未来。

    文化进化让全能人能够极大地改变包括人类自己在内的所

    有物种的命运。然而,人类的个体生活更多地由人类在全能人

    “连接体”(即我们的集体智慧网络)中的位置决定,而不是由

    人类生理或基因决定。想象一下,现在有一位来自西方发达国家

    的白人男性,出身显赫,家庭富足;还有一位来自南半球发展中

    国家的深肤色难民,身无分文,无权无势。他们将会在同一座城

    市里过着截然不同的生活。他们的智商、身心健康程度、政治信

    仰、患病情况、子女数量、未来财富和预期寿命都和他们在“连

    接体”中的位置紧密相关。这些差异会通过文化传承“复制给”

    他们的后代,至少是下一代。当黏菌结合在一起组成新的有机体

    时,位于中心位置的黏菌会得到很好的保护,而位于外部的黏菌

    则很容易受到攻击。

    人类进化的三位一体,即基因—环境—文化,都与社会网络

    形成的方法有关,这也决定了人类社会的运作方式。全能人时代

    的来临,表明自由并非如想象般美好。然而我们依旧渴望自由,

    因为虽然全能人整体统治着我们,但每个人都可以通过社会网络

    影响他人,因此,也会对全能人整体产生影响。最值得注意的是,

    不同于黏菌的超个体,人类的超个体由数十亿个不相关的个体组

    成。全能人是自然进化过程中独一无二的产物。

    从进化角度来看,生命的意义在于基因的延续。我们的祖先

    利用文化发展出了一种成功传承基因的方式,得益于此,如今我

    们主宰着地球上所有的生命。然而,我们的文化目标——自我决

    定,已经超越了人类的生物学界限。我们有权选择自己的基因,

    决定别人的生死,甚至还能消灭整个物种。如果人类想生存下去,

    那么文化进化就必须迈出下一步,从群体存活走向全球人口存活,

    即全能人的存活。

    作为地球上的一个物种,人类的自我意识日益增强。也许人类世给我们最大的教训就是:文化进化的规则同样适用于自然环境的生物进化。也就是说,如果想看到生态的多样性和复杂性,我们就需要保持生物的种群数量和连通性。虽然全能人拥有的巨大网络在技术复杂性和文化多样性上带来了越来越多的回报,但这一切都是以破坏环境为代价的。地球资源并不是取之不竭的,全能人已经使用了地球原始净资源的 1/4。这种不可持续的资源使用方式会让我们得到的回报越来越少。然而,如果依靠个人力量减少淡水浪费或减少碳足迹,那么所产生的影响几乎可以忽略不计。虽然人类可以在一定程度上控制全能人,但目前看来,我们无法应对地球在人类世时期向人类发出的挑战,而且被人类改变的地球也一定会对全能人产生巨大的影响。

    人类世很可能和从更新世到全新世的地质转变一样,具有文

    化变革性。不过上一次的转变花费了数千年,而这一次会在几十

    年内就完成转变。在我们子女生活的时代,海平面会上升,这可

    能会毁灭人类世界,甚至会摧毁人类文明。过去,气温仅仅升高

    1 摄氏度左右就对古罗马文明和玛雅文明产生了巨大的影响。在

    人类世,气温也有一定幅度的升高,由此产生了战争、地区动荡

    和数百万难民。我们的文化需要以前所未有的方式适应我们正在

    创造的新世界。

    人类的生理机能已经发生了变化:西方男性的精子数量已经

    减少了一半以上;不仅超过 1/3 的成年人被肥胖困扰,而且出现

    了一些导致营养不良的新方式。令人诧异的是,现在人们致力于

    研究如何减少食物中的卡路里含量,但这与我们过去几十万年中

    孜孜不倦追求的进化正好相反。

    在科技和社会规范的推动下,人类不断进化,例如,我们的前额在变大,身高在变高,近视的发病率也在大幅上升。这些变化发生得很缓慢,因为生物层面的进化比文化层面的进化慢。然而,接种疫苗以及在试管授精的过程中使用直接破解 DNA 工具的做法,正在帮助人类加快基因进化。2012 年,人类发明了一种最新的基因编辑技术 CRISPR。它就像一把分子剪刀,能把特定的基因剪掉,然后插入其他的基因组片段。CRISPR 可以快速、简单、精准地编辑生命“蓝图”,拥有巨大的发展潜力。现在,人类有能力创造新的生命形式,从新的作物品种到新的人类,每一次转换一个基因。如今,我们已经有可能消除引发严重疾病的基因。总有一天,我们有可能战胜死神。与此同时,利用遗传和生物特性,再加上实验室培养的细胞、组织和器官,针对不同病人的个性化治疗正在逐步发展。

    随着我们不断用人造肢体提升身体能力,类似内尔·哈比森这样的电子人将越来越常见。未来,纳米机器人会监测人体血液和器官的情况,还会根据健康状况,为我们提供靶向药物。人类将越来越成为一件“设计品”。

    随着全能人的发展,机械组件在这个超个体中的占比将不断

    增加。如今,我们已经和 900 万机器人共享地球,同时,随着我

    们将大脑的能量需求,甚至大脑本身外包出去,我们的集体智慧

    中也包含了人工智能。人类严重依赖机械记忆和机械处理,人类

    每年的数据足迹已达 40 千兆字节,或约 5 泽字节,这是一个难

    以想象的二进制数字。随着文化进化,我们有了更多的“拐杖”

    帮助我们减轻认知活动的负担,但这些先进的信息处理技术和丰富的社会资源有可能让我们变得更笨。几千年前,苏格拉底曾担心书写技能会削弱年轻人的记忆能力。事实证明,苏格拉底是正确的。死记硬背没有多大必要,我们在其他方面有更好的表现,比如处理抽象信息,因为我们从小就浸泡在工业化世界中,所以从小就具备了归纳、用符号思考和分类的能力。在过去的 80 年里,人类的平均智商提高了 30(即弗林效应),但认路的技能退化了。

    人工智能可能是人类大脑不断渴求预测能力的最高表现形

    式。就预测能力而言,人为设计的计算程序难逢敌手。在许多重

    复性的任务中,计算机程序已经呈现出远远优于人类的特点。人

    类使用机器的目标是让其独立执行任务、做出决策,这让人工智

    能可以完美胜任涉及大量信息采集的工作,在这个过程中统计结

    果比主观判断更为重要。与人类相比,机器往往更快、更精确,

    因为人类需要较长时间来记忆或查找信息,而且容易产生偏见、

    疲劳和厌倦等情绪。

    但是人工智能出错时会发生什么呢?目前,人类社会规范允许人类犯错误,却期望机器决策始终百分之百正确。人工智能决策失误的例子已不在少数,由于出现编码错误或者数据偏差,人工智能也会像人类一样犯错误,却无须为此埋单。另一个则是隐私问题,为优化人工智能,我们需要提供最全面的数据集,而这些数据本质上来说就是我们的声誉信息。现在个人信息正逐渐被一些跨国公司控制,并可能会反过来被用来针对我们。基因组检测公司收集了大量的个人数据,家谱数据库已经可以识别 60%的美国人,即使有些人之前没有做过检测。大数据集让全能人成为一名非常高效的星球玩家,但如果我们的声誉得不到保障,就会面临个人悲剧和更大的社会不公等风险。如今国家可以前所未有的方式潜入公民的私人生活。有的国家开发出信用评分体系来监督人们的行为,通过行为和友好关系等数据来为个人的“社会信用”排序。分数低的人会被列入黑名单,从而影响买飞机票、找工作和贷款。

    这些都是人工智能正在面临的真实而重要的问题,但如果能

    有效管理,这些问题都可以控制。人工智能是一个希望与威胁共

    存的综合体,可以肯定的是,它并不会取代人类,因为即使是最

    先进的机器人也比不上人类的卓越、灵活多变和多才多艺。尽管

    人工智能在计算和模拟数据方面能力出众,令人印象深刻,但这

    并不意味着它已经达到人类智力的顶峰。实际上,如果一个人只

    拥有上述能力却缺乏常识或社会意识,他会被诊断为认知障碍。

    然而,人类做的工作会越来越多地被机器取代,这是毫无疑问的。

    因为机器效率更高,并且正如我们所见,能源使用效率是驱动文

    化进化的根本动力。问题是,人类与机器人不同,人类要从工作

    中获得使命感、认同感和价值感。如果没有社会规划,人类可能

    无法以稳定且人道的方式过渡到下一个经济时代。

    我着手写本书的时候,对人类进化的故事有一个模糊的理解,

    我认为从猿人进化到现代人,我们从最初的悲惨困苦的猿一步一

    步变成了享受现代世界的舒适便利的公民。令人吃惊的是,尽管

    科技发展了数千年,但直到最近几个世纪,人类福利才有了真正

    的改善。现在的情况比以往任何时候都要好:1500 年,英国伦敦

    人与印度德里人一样艰难度日;1950 年,葡萄牙的儿童死亡率为

    史上最高,至今都没有国家超越;19 世纪至今,普通民众的健康

    得到显著改善,这要归功于农业和医药方面的科技发展。放眼整

    个人类历史,如今,我们拥有人类历史上最安全、最充足、最实

    惠的食品供应。

    尽管世界上仍有战争,但死于战争的人口比例已经有所下降。(这未必是因为战争不再那么残暴,而是因为人口总数有所增长,其他灵长类动物也有过类似经历。)全能人降低了全球战争爆发的可能性,核威胁是一部分原因,但主要是因为人类在经济、贸易、家庭和文化实践中相互联系、相互依存。尽管对人类来说,全能人的世界是一个更安全、更美好的世界,但人类的持续发展是历史必然。

    我在新闻中看到,我们与之斗争了上千年的社会问题依然存在,例如部落主义以及个人利益和集体利益之间亘古不变的紧张关系。我看到英国试图进行历史上最伟大的和平合作,却因党派之争而分裂;我看到法西斯主义在自由民主国家的兴起;我看到美国总统对其他性别和种族的公民发表充满仇恨的言论;我看到数百万人因为战争和暴力逃离非洲、亚洲和中东;我看到全球在预防环境灾难方面的不作为。尽管我们取得了科技进步,但在社会生活的很多方面都有所倒退,让大型多元文化社会和谐共处的有效准则正在分崩离析。群体之间的不平等意味着利益不一致,他们认为彼此属于不同的阵营,这就导致合作时会产生冲突。尽管人类科技越来越精进,但我们似乎无法避免重蹈覆辙,让错误不再重演,这一切就仿佛人类的文化算法有缺陷一样。

    的确,悲观和绝望有很多缘由,但在很大程度上是视角问题。我们只能生活在自己的时代,因此社会和政治生活的细枝末节对我们来说却是史诗般的大戏。然而,从人类文化进化的角度看,渺小的人类只是变革海洋中的微波,也许还没来得及实现人权的改善,就又倒退回种族不平等的黑暗时代了。我想知道这些高峰和低谷是否是更伟大的进步的一部分。我们可能正奔向某个更宏伟、更美好的时代。在黑暗时代,要牢记人类的诸多善举和个人勇气,正是这样的勇气让我们在短时间内实现了社会的巨大变革。许多曾经难以想象的事情现在都变为现实,如废除奴隶制、尊重女性权利和建立全民医疗卫生体系等。在先驱者的引领下,数百万人的生活发生了改变。全能人是一股强大的力量,因为它集合了数十亿个卓越的人类个体。全球 1/4 以上的人口是儿童,他们仍需要获取文化知识来应对人类未来的重大挑战。他们将开发新的技术,制定新的社会规范,并以新的方式解读社会,与自然界互动。但是,这些孩子只有在善良、合作、包容的环境中成长,他们自身巨大的人类潜能才能被发掘出来,因为即使我们作为全能人的一部分在全球范围内运作,我们的实际生活范围仍然是只有数百人的社区。只有承认、接纳与我们在地球上共同生活的所有人,才能创造一个美好宜居的人类世。
    作为一个物种,人类在遗传、文化进化和环境适应与改造上都达到了史无前例的高度,几乎地球上所有人之间都存在联系。如今的我们是被困在短暂阶段的个体,但同时也是联通的数据流、记忆库和意见领袖,是更伟大的人类的一部分。我们当下做的每一个决定都注定影响深远,关乎我们能否成为未来人的好祖先。因此,做决定时我们要放眼未来,把未来数十亿人的福祉考虑在内,因为这些人将生活在我们亲手为他们创造的世界中。几个世纪前,北美原住民易洛魁族的首领创造了“七代管理”这一概念,要求人们考虑每个决定对自己的子孙后代,即未来 7 代人产生的影响。在地球属于我们的这宝贵的几十年里,我们在享受祖先开辟的花园时,也绝不能从后代那里偷走树荫。

    思绪至此,夜空中有一颗永恒的流星划过我的窗前,它就是国际空间站,我们永久占据的外太空家园,人类是地球上唯一能做到这一点的生命形式。人类通过几十万年的合作,实现了最不可思议的奇迹。我们是如此非同寻常,集体文化的迭代将我们带去未知的领域,这给我们带来了新的问题,但我们希望它也能带给我们解决方案。毕竟,除了我们自己,没有人可以拯救我们。

  • 焦长权:“部门型”项目管理模式——中央对地方专项资金的分配与管理机制研究

    本文节选自《部门型”项目管理模式——中央对地方专项资金的分配与管理机制研究》,原载《中国研究》第29期。

    中央与地方:财政事权与支出责任

    分税制改革后,中央和地方间逐渐形成了一个极其复杂庞大的财政转移支付体系。但是,由于中国财政转移支付体系是通过渐进性的方式建立起来,尤其是专项转移支付基本都是根据中央政策“一事一议”不断累积起来,具有典型的“打补丁”特征。因此,在分税制改革近20年后,中国虽然已经建立了一个庞大复杂的转移支付体系,但其内部的各种弊病也不断显现,尤其是专项转移支付受到了社会各界的批评。为此,党的十八大后,中央对财政转移支付体系进行了一系列改革,其中的关键是中央和地方财政事权和支出责任改革。

    中央和地方财政事权和支出责任改革涉及财政支出的所有领域,各领域具体情况千差万别,为此中央采取了分领域分别制定具体方案的办法,这首先在基本公共服务领域取得了进展。改革将涉及人民群众基本生活和发展需要、现有管理体制和政策比较清晰、由中央与地方共同承担支出责任、以人员或家庭为补助对象或分配依据、需要优先和重点保障的主要基本公共服务事项,首先纳入中央与地方共同财政事权范围。目前暂定为八大类18项:一是义务教育,包括公用经费保障、免费提供教科书、家庭经济困难学生生活补助、贫困地区学生营养膳食补助4项;二是学生资助,包括中等职业教育国家助学金、中等职业教育免学费补助、普通高中教育国家助学金、普通高中教育免学杂费补助4项;三是基本就业服务,包括基本公共就业服务1项;四是基本养老保险,包括城乡居民基本养老保险补助1项;五是基本医疗保障,包括城乡居民基本医疗保险补助、医疗救助2项;六是基本卫生计生,包括基本公共卫生服务、计划生育扶助保障2项;七是基本生活救助,包括困难群众救助、受灾人员救助、残疾人服务3项;八是基本住房保障,包括城乡保障性安居工程1项。

    18项基本公共服务,被改革确立为典型的中央和地方共同财政事权和支出责任,在支出上由中央与地方按比例分担。具体分担方式如下:

    一是中等职业教育国家助学金、中等职业教育免学费补助、普通高中教育国家助学金、普通高中教育免学杂费补助、城乡居民基本医疗保险补助、基本公共卫生服务、计划生育扶助保障7个事项,实行中央分档分担办法。具体而言:第一档包括内蒙古、广西、重庆、四川、贵州、云南、西藏、陕西、甘肃、青海、宁夏、新疆12个省(区、市),中央分担80%;第二档包括河北、山西、吉林、黑龙江、安徽、江西、河南、湖北、湖南、海南10个省,中央分担60%;第三档包括辽宁、福建、山东3个省,中央分担50%;第四档包括天津、江苏、浙江、广东4个省(市)和大连、宁波、厦门、青岛、深圳5个计划单列市,中央分担30%;第五档包括北京、上海2个直辖市,中央分担10%。

    二是义务教育公用经费保障等6个按比例分担、按项目分担或按标准定额补助的事项,暂按现行政策执行。具体如下:义务教育公用经费保障,中央与地方按比例分担支出责任,第一档为8:2,第二档为6:4,其他为5:5。家庭经济困难学生生活补助,中央与地方按比例分担支出责任,各地区均为5:5,对人口较少民族寄宿生增加安排生活补助所需经费,由中央财政承担。城乡居民基本养老保险补助,中央确定的基础养老金标准部分,中央与地方按比例分担支出责任,中央对第一档和第二档承担全部支出责任,其他为5:5。免费提供教科书,免费提供国家规定课程教科书和免费为小学一年级新生提供正版学生字典所需经费,由中央财政承担;免费提供地方课程教科书所需经费,由地方财政承担。贫困地区学生营养膳食补助,国家试点所需经费,由中央财政承担;地方试点所需经费,由地方财政统筹安排,中央财政给予生均定额奖补。受灾人员救助,对遭受重特大自然灾害的省份,中央财政按规定的补助标准给予适当补助,灾害救助所需其余资金由地方财政承担。

    三是基本公共就业服务、医疗救助、困难群众救助、残疾人服务、城乡保障性安居工程5个事项,中央分担比例主要依据地方财力状况、保障对象数量等因素确定。

    以上改革方案,对十三五时期国家基本公共服务领域的中央和地方财政事权和支出责任进行了初步明确,尤其是对18项民生领域基本公共服务进行了详细规定。国家发改委最新发布的《国家基本公共服务标准(2021年版)》,则对十四五时期国家各项基本公共服务的服务标准、支出责任等进行了明确,进一步规范了中央和地方间在基本公共服务领域中的财政事权和支出责任划分,为完善这一领域的财政转移支付体制奠定了重要基础。

    根据中央的上述划分方案,各省也制定了本省基本公共服务领域省与市县共同财政事权和支出责任划分改革方案,核心就是要明确各项基本公共服务在省内各层级政府间的支出责任。在此基础上,市、县级政府还制定了本辖区的相关方案,由于相关支出责任已经基本明确,市县级方案更主要聚焦于更细致的组织实施方案。

    至此,我们简略勾勒了国家以18项基本公共服务为重点,开展中央和地方共同财政事权和支出责任改革的基本做法,它涉及中央、省、市、县等各个层级,并覆盖了诸多政府部门,是改革中央和地方关系,尤其是规范中央和地方间转移支付的关键环节。这18项基本公共服务,代表了国家公共支出在民生和公共服务领域的典型特点,即大量支出最终都按照一定标准补助到了个人和家庭,因此只要明确了各层级政府的分担比例,就很容易通过公式精确的预算和分配,并最终落实到政策主体。

    除基本公共服务领域外,过去几年,中央先后在诸多不同领域展开了财政事权和支出责任改革,比如先后发布了教育、医疗卫生等领域的具体改革方案。根据前财政部部长楼继伟的介绍,十八大以后,截止2018年4月,党中央、国务院出台的重要文件中,涉及政府间事权和支出责任划分的共50件,涵盖经济体制、生态环保、市场监管、民生保障、政法、国防、外交等多个领域。其中,15件明确界定了相关领域中央和地方的事权和支出责任范围,包括人民防空、金融监管、环保监察、司法管辖、内贸流通、优抚安置、外交、外援、海域海岛管理等方面。但总体而言,我国中央和地方间财政事权与支出责任改革仍然还有很长路要走,许多改革文件方案并未实现像基本公共服务领域那样明确划分财政事权与支出责任,不少方案以“按照中央和地方事权划分,明确各级政府支出责任”的原则表述代替了具体划分。

    专项转移支付的分配方式

    在前述财政事权和支出责任划分框架下,中央和地方间财政转移支付体系也要同步改革。基本原则和要求是:属于中央事权的,原则上应通过中央本级支出安排,由中央直接实施;随着中央委托事权和支出责任的上收,应提高中央直接履行事权安排支出的比重,减少委托地方实施的专项转移支付。属于中央地方共同事权的,中央分担部分通过专项转移支付委托地方实施。属于地方事权的,由地方承担支出责任,中央主要通过一般性转移支付给予支持;少量的引导类、救济类、应急类事务通过专项转移支付予以支持,以实现特定政策目标。

    2019年开始,财政部在转移支付预决算中,将中央和地方共同事权转移支付作为一个新的类别列入一般性转移支付中,资金规模占转移支付总量的43%。其实,共同事权转移支付也是一种典型的具有明确资金用途和支出标准的专项资金,和美国等西方国家在社会性支出中采取的专项转移支付非常相似。在中国,由于一段时期内专项转移支付的设立、分配和管理不规范,引来了社会各界的大量批评,使中央在政策上尽力压缩专项转移支付,才有了共同事权转移支付这一类别,它本质上只是专项转移支付的一种新形式。在中央大规模压缩、整合和规范专项转移支付的情况下,传统专项转移支付的规模大大缩小,2019年占转移支付总额的比重仅10%。但是,一般性转移支付中仍然有大量资金具有明确的指定用途。比如,2019年,一般性转移支付中真正没有指定用途,地方政府可统筹安排的均衡性转移支付只有15632亿元,占转移支付总量的比重仅21%。

    可见,即使在中央极力压缩专项转移支付的情况下,具有明确指定用途的资金仍然占转移支付的绝对主体,他们本质上都是专项转移支付。为何如此?主要原因在于:一方面,中国社会经济发展高度不平衡,同时又是一个特别强调全体人民逐渐实现共同富裕的社会主义国家。因此,这客观要求中央政府承担大量的宏观经济稳定、社会再分配等职能,而且随着社会经济发展,这些职能日益丰富和凸显。另一方面,与世界其他国家相比,中国中央政府的组织规模显著偏小,中央政府公务员占全国公务员总量的比重处于极低水平。这客观上造成中央政府没有能力直接组织实施许多事项和履行职能,只能将不少职能委托给地方政府行使,为了确保地方政府在履行这些职能时严格体现中央政策意图,又不得不采取专项转移支付的形式。

    目前,我国的大量中央和地方共同事权,及由此产生的共同事权转移支付,本质上都与此相关。这就必然导致两个密切相关的结果:一是中央政府本级支出占全部财政支出比重极低,近年已经下降到15%左右,这在全世界也是极低水平,这表明中央政府直接履行和实施的事权规模很小。二是中央和地方各级政府职能高度同构,“上下一般粗”。所谓“上下一般粗”是指除国防、外交等明显中央政府职能外,中央和地方各级政府在职能上高度同构,各自的主要职能事权划分不清晰,同一事权多层级政府共同参与,共同事权泛滥、行政效率偏低,背后的重要原因之一是中央政府缺乏直接履行大量事权的组织能力。因此,本质上讲,大量中央和地方共同事权实际上是中央事权委托给地方行使,共同事权转移支付只是专项转移支付的一种新形式。

    可见,分税制以来,尤其是进入新世纪后,专项转移支付在中国财政转移支付体系中的普遍采用,就不简单是政策选择的结果,而是有更深层的结构性原因。正是因此,虽然十八大以来中央一直尝试以各种方式规范整合专项转移支付,但专项转移支付仍然是财政转移支付的主体。更深层来看,既然在目前中央和地方关系中,专项转移支付的大规模存在有其内在必然性,因此与其仅仅从政策选择上对专项转移支付展开批评,或者仅仅从形式上对其进行更名换姓式的表面整治,还不如深入探讨如何对专项转移支付展开更为规范化的分配管理,这是更加实质性的问题。

    根据资金性质和具体用途,中国专项转移支付在自上而下分配过程中,一般采取因素法、项目法,以及因素与项目法相结合等分配方法。所谓因素法,就是在分配专项转移支付过程中根据各种客观因素并制定权重,设计一个分配公式,并据此对各地区分配专项转移支付。

    在具体执行中,专项转移支付在不同层级政府中也可能采取不同分配方式,典型的有以下几种组合:(1)“中央因素法、地方项目法”模式。即中央财政采用因素法确定各省专项资金规模,地方政府则需要通过项目法将资金落实到具体项目并组织实施,这里运用项目法的地方政府,既可能是省级政府,也可能是更低层级的地市级基层政府。(2)“中央因素法、地方因素法”模式。即中央和地方均采取因素法层层向下分配资金。(3)“中央因素法、地方自主”模式。即中央采取因素法分配确定各省资金规模,各省相关部门自行安排地方分配方法。

    “因素法”分配,本质上是一种资金指标分配方式。即中央主管部门并不负责将财政资金明确分配到可组织实施的具体项目,他们只负责资金指标的分配,将财政资金切块分配下去,由地方政府部门负责分配到具体项目。形象的看,专项转移支付在地方和基层由资金指标到具体项目的转化,就像一束聚焦的灯光突然散射出去一般,每个县市每年获得的数百项资金指标都会在基层细化为成千上万的具体项目。比如,一个典型的例子就是,中西部农村低保项目,项目资金基本都主要来自于中央财政转移支付,但中央部门向下分配时都是按照一定因素分配资金指标,这一直要分配到乡村两级基层政府和组织,才能最终确立到具体项目对象。

    因素法也是发达国家分配专项转移支付的主要方法。比如,美国是没有一般性转移支付的国家,他的许多专项转移支付具有一定的均衡性功能(尤其是直接对公民的转移支付项目),但他的大部分专项转移支付都采取因素法来分配。在联邦政府对州和地方政府的财政补助中,有三分之二是以现金或实物的形式发放给了符合条件的个人。运用公式性的因素法分配转移支付,基本成了现代转移支付体制最主要的共同特征,即无论是专项转移支付还是一般性转移支付,中央政府都倾向于用事先确立的公式向地方政府分配财政资金。

    专项转移支付采取项目法分配的,主要是对“用于国家重大工程、跨地区跨流域的投资项目以及外部性强的重点项目”。按照项目法分配的项目都要求实行项目库管理,明确项目申报主体、申报范围和申报条件,规范项目申报流程,发挥专业组织和专家的作用,完善监督制衡机制。学界通常对项目制所连带的申请申报、评估评审、监督检查等一系列复杂程序的批评,最典型的就表现在以项目法分配专项转移支付的过程中。项目法分配具有典型的“一事一议”特征,需要上下级政府以及不同部门间反复的协商论证,经常还伴随着一定的竞争性特征。因此,项目法分配经常导致项目预算分配周期漫长,资金支出进度和效率偏低,也容易滋生寻租腐败,是改革和完善专项转移支付分配过程的重点和难点。

    专项转移支付的不同分配方式具有不同的特征。“因素法”的优点是分配依据客观变量,结果相对公平,行政成本较低,行政效率较高,资金预算安排周期短,一般能够在预算批复后很快下拨给下级政府;其缺陷是资金针对性不强,资金拨付方对接收方的控制权较弱。“项目法”则相反,上级政府对项目资金具有很强的控制权,资金针对性也更强,但分配过程中的主观性和“寻租空间”更大,行政成本更高,行政效率较低,预算安排周期长。

    实际上,专项转移支付具体采用什么分配方式,主要与财政资金的支出功能有关。总体来看,对于教育、医疗、社会保障等典型的民生支出,其中很大部分最终会直接补助到个人或家庭,在西方国家称为“权利性支出”,因此比较容易用因素法展开分配。比如,以18项基本公共服务为代表的公共服务支出,由于具有明确的支出标准,最终很大部分也是补助到个人和家庭,因此就能够顺利用因素法在各级政府间分担。与之相反,基础设施建设、产业政策发展等经济事务支出,基本都得用项目法分配,尤其是“国家重大工程、跨地区跨流域的投资项目以及外部性强的重点项目”,必然按项目法分配。

    国家公共支出结构则与经济发展阶段密切相关。诸多经济史家的研究一致发现:在工业化和城市化的早中期阶段,国家公共支出必须履行大量公共投资职能,在基础设施建设(交通、道路等)等方面投入大量资本,当经济发展进入成熟阶段后,公共支出的主要方向才会转向教育、医疗、社保等社会服务领域。中国当前仍然处于从中高收入国家迈向高收入国家的关键阶段,国家工业化、城镇化过程中还有大量基础设施、产业政策短板需要弥补,因此公共支出中仍然会有较大量的经济事务支出,而典型西方发达国家公共支出则以社会保障等社会性支出为主体,只有极少量的经济事务支出。同时,即使是教育、医疗、社会保障等社会性支出领域,目前在中国也有不小比例是基础设施建设等资本性支出,而不同于这一领域通常的维持型支出(工资福利、办公经费等)。改革开放以来,虽然中国公共支出中经济事务支出比例逐渐下降,民生和公共服务支出比重逐渐上升,但目前仍然是一个经济事务与民生支出的“双强格局”,经济事务支出仍然占据重要位置,这在短期内还不会发生根本性的变化。

    因此,专项转移支付的分配方法才是最根本的,而这又与公共支出结构密切有关。当前,从中国专项转移支付的构成来看,它也基本是一个经济事务和民生支出的“双强格局”,近年来民生支出扮演的角色越来越重要。公共支出结构的逐渐变化,尤其是专项转移支付支出结构的变化,给进一步规范完善转移支付提供了可能,我国之所以在分税制改革20多年后才系统性地清晰划分和界定中央和地方财政事权与支出责任,也与中国公共支出结构的这一演变历程直接相关。

    “部门型”项目管理模式

    那么,自上而下的专项资金的分配具体如何实现?这就涉及专项资金的管理模式问题。实际上,无论是中央还是地方各层级政府设立的诸多项目,包括专项转移支付、非转移性项目支出、以及地方本级部门预算中的项目支出等,都是由不同政府部门来主要负责分配管理,进而形成了一种“部门型”项目管理模式。自上而下的专项资金,在资金分配和管理过程中,长时期是在各层级政府部门内部相对封闭运行,一直要到最终组织实施的层级,才在该层级政府的统筹下,由主管部门和基层政府协调组织实施。

    以中央对地方专项转移支付为例。在资金管理分配过程中,由于大多数专项转移支付都涉及到一些领域非常专业的知识和信息,财政部没有能力单独完成相关信息收集和核实评审,因此各类专项转移支付都根据业务性质划归到了不同政府部门主管。财政部和这些部门互相配合,共同完成资金分配和管理。比如,2013年,中央对地方专项转移支付多达220项,资金管理涉及56个部门;2014年,中央对地方专项转移支付共133个,实际执行中安排明细专项362个,审计署抽查的343个明细专项有43个部门参与分配。总体而言,绝大多数专项转移支付都是财政部门和主管部门共同管理的“共管资金”,只有极少数是由财政部门单独管理。

    因此,凡是参与主管中央对地方专项转移支付资金的中央部门,它实质上都拥有两类专项资金:一是中央本级部门预算中的项目支出,二是主管分配的专项转移支付。发改委等具有二次预算分配权的单位,在资金分配上的自主性更大,一方面,财政部将中央基础设施建设资金整体切块给发改委,由它进行二次分配,它就具有了“小财政部”的特征;另一方面,中央对地方专项转移支付中的基础设施建设资金,也归口到发改委管理,它在项目分配上也具有很大的决定权,这属于一种特殊性质的“共管资金”。

    从专项转移支付的设立申报审批过程来看。中央专项转移支付,都承载了一些重要政策目标,因此它一般由国务院根据相关重要社会经济发展战略和政策设立,再由相关部门代表中央负责具体管理,财政部和其他政府部门无权自行设立专项转移支付。尤其是近年来中央大大加强了对专项转移支付的规范整合,原则上不再新设专项转移支付,确因经济社会发展需要新设立的专项,要求有明确的政策依据和政策目标,并需报国务院批准。专项转移支付的申报审批,一般按照以下程序:(1)一般由中央主管部门发布申报通知或年度立项指南;(2)地方和基层相应政府部门组织项目申报,将相关申报材料汇总报送中央主管部门;(3)中央主管部门单独或会同财政部门对申报项目展开资料审核、项目评审等工作,确立资金分配方案;(4)中央主管部门会同财政部门联合下达项目计划和资金指标。

    因此,自上而下的专项转移支付,就类似于在封闭管道中流动的水流,中央政府一次性给各条管道注入了大量资金,资金达到省级后,省级部门有可能会取出少量资金在本级直接支出,但大部分资金则会由省级部门进一步细化分流导入到各个县、市主管部门的资金渠道。省级部门在向下细分专项转移支付时,会加上自身的政策意图,即根据自身的政策偏好和资金管理要求,将资金细分到县市一级政府部门。不仅如此,省级政府一般还会在这个过程进行一轮注资,结果省级部门向下下达的专项转移支付,除了中央对省级下达的部分外,还包括省级财政另外增加的对市、县的专项转移支付。这既包括省级政府按照要求对中央某些专项转移支付的地方配套,也包括省级政府根据本省工作计划另外设立的专项转移支付。

    与专项转移支付不同,在中央本级部门预算的项目支出分配过程中,政府部门会发挥更大的主导作用,因此又被称为“部门资金”。之所以如此,是因为这些项目支出的分配,专业性和政策性一般比专项转移支付更强,而且由于本身就属于中央部门支出,因此会更直接清晰的体现部门政策意图。近年来,随着中央对专项转移支付合并整合,以及进一步改革和规范中央与地方间财政事权和支出责任,中央专项转移支付也大幅指向了民生领域,“因素法”分配的比重明显扩大,因此专项转移支付分配中的规范性显著增强,主管部门的随意性明显减弱。但是,中央本级部门预算的项目支出,在具体项目确定和分配过程中,政策性和专业性都很强,基本都是“一事一议”的项目法,因此政府部门的主导性还是非常明显。

    中央部门预算中的项目支出,有些项目会由中央部门直接组织实施,但也有不少项目会在地方省市区具体组织实施。在这个过程中,很多时候就需要通过与专项转移支付相似的程序展开项目申报评审,而且这些项目基本都是“国家重大工程、跨地区跨流域的投资项目以及外部性强的重点项目”,因此评审过程更加严谨复杂。但在项目确立以后,项目在地方的组织实施管理过程,则与专项转移支付基本一致。正是这种相似性,使一些项目到底该列为中央本级项目支出,还是确定为中央对地方专项转移支付,就不容易明确区分。

    实际上,在中央对地方财政转移支付的改革完善过程中,如何明确区分中央部门直接项目支出和中央对地方专项转移支付,一直是一个难点。在目前的中央和地方间财政体制下,中央对地方专项转移支付有以下几种情况。(1)中央财政事权,中央安排专项转移支付委托地方行使;(2)中央和地方共同财政事权,中央分担部分通过专项转移支付委托地方实施;(3)地方财政事权,中央为实现特定目标,安排少量的引导类、救济类、应急类专项转移支付予以支持。前文已指出,目前共同事权转移支付成了中央与地方间专项转移支付的主体部分。

    那么,在财政预算管理过程中,如何明确区分一些事项到底是中央对地方专项转移支付还是中央部门直接项目支出呢?其关键在于区分这一项目支出是由中央直接组织实施,还是委托给地方组织实施。

    中央明确要求:属于中央事权的,原则上应通过中央本级支出安排,由中央直接实施;随着中央委托事权和支出责任的上收,应提高中央直接履行事权安排支出的比重,相应减少委托地方实施的专项转移支付;属于中央地方共同事权的,中央分担部分通过专项转移支付委托地方实施。但是,在实际预算管理过程中,仍然会时不时出现将二者部分混淆的情况。比如,2019年,在预算执行过程中,中央对地方专项转移支付中有基建支出等6个大项出现了实施主体发生变化,部分资金由对地方转移支付转列为中央本级支出,其中基建支出涉及金额约60亿元;可再生能源发展专项资金由地方实施的只占预算的66.7%,其余部分基本都转为由中央本级直接组织实施。同时,2019年共有农田建设补助资金等7个大项的共同财政事权转移支付中有部分资金被转列为中央本级支出。虽然这种预算执行中实施主体调整涉及的资金规模并不算大,但仍然反映出如何明确区分中央本级支出与对地方专项转移支付的难点。

    比专项转移支付转为中央本级支出要更为隐蔽的,是中央本级支出直接或间接的委托给地方政府组织实施。这种情况有直接明确的案例,比如,2019年中央对地方专项转移支付中的工业转型升级资金,在实际执行中就超出预算约10亿元,其原因就在于部分资金由中央本级明确转为对地方转移支付,即实施主体由中央部门委托给了地方政府。但这更多是间接隐蔽的,即这些财政资金从预决算上都是中央本级项目支出,但在具体组织实施中,却变相委托给了地方组织实施。这种情况非常隐蔽,很难清晰揭示出来,但应该说在中国政府运行中并不少见。背后的本质问题仍然是,本来应该由中央政府直接履行和组织实施的中央事权,在财政预算上也将财政资金明确给了有关部门,但由于相关部门组织规模不足等原因无法直接组织实施项目,进而不得不将项目委托给地方组织实施。在这种情况下,中央部门的直接项目支出,和中央对地方专项转移支付已经没有实质差异,本质上成了中央事权委托地方执行。

    对地方政府而言,无论是中央专项转移支付,还是中央部门直接项目支出,都是上级政府对本地的项目支持,也都需要地方政府向中央和上级进行争取。在专项转移支付中则主要争取项目法分配的项目,因素法分配的项目有些因素也与地方政府履职的积极性或绩效相关。对中央部门直接项目支出,也需要争取更多中央直接项目落地到本辖区;尤其是一些重大基础设施建设,经常由中央部门直接组织实施,但对地方发展而言却是命脉工程,因此地方尤其重视。

    中央对地方专项资金,主要就包括专项转移支付和中央部门预算中的项目支出两大块。同样,省级政府对县市级政府的项目资金,也主要由这两块组成,其具体分配管理机制,也与中央到省级之间类似。从实践来看,这些专项资金,都由相关主管部门负责管理分配,并在上下级相应部门之间相对封闭的运行,一直到其最终的组织实施部门。这就是学界所说的项目制这一国家治理体制的主要形态,即在中央和地方、上级和下级间的政府部门中相对封闭运行,最终汇聚到基层政府统筹实施的各类项目。

    这种以部门为主要管理和运行单位的项目制,可以称之为“部门型”项目管理模式。西方国家曾经采用过的项目预算(或计划-项目预算)是以跨部门的项目为中心,尝试彻底重构政府的治理模式;而中国的项目支出预算,则仍然是以政府部门为基础,是在政府部门统筹管理分配的项目制,因此可以称为“部门型”项目管理模式。

    项目制之所以采用“部门型”项目管理模式,主要是为了确保专项资金的使用方向和资金安全。由于项目资金要经过多层级政府才能最终达到项目落点或实施主体,为防止各层级政府雁过拔毛或腾挪转移,中央就直接刚性确定了资金用途和流通渠道,这无论在中央部门直接项目支出还是中央对地方专项转移支付中都是如此。这种层层规范化、程序化和相对封闭化的部门管理,是一种典型的理性化、技术化治理模式,国家希望通过这种方式,实现中央和上级政府的政策意图,并确保资金运行安全。

    “部门型”项目管理模式的影响

    项目制所采用的“部门型”项目管理模式,也蕴藏着诸多内生的不足,最典型的包括以下两方面。

    一是财政资金的“部门化”和“碎片化”。这种相对封闭的“部门型”项目管理模式,不可避免的导致财政资金的“部门化”和“碎片化”。具体实践中,不仅同一类型和用途的专项资金被切割到许多主管部门分别掌握,就是在同一个部门内部,一项专项资金也被分割成了很多细小专项分别由不同二级部门掌握,一直要细化和明确到主管部门内的基层行政单位,中央、省级部门就明确到了处(室),地市级细化到科(室),县级则分割到股(室)。这就是中央政府部门专项资金管理过程中反复出现的“司处化”和“碎片化”问题。

    党的十八大以来,中央对专项转移支付改革的一个重点,就是整合规范专项转移支付的“碎片化”问题。改革要求将“目标接近、资金投入方向类同、资金管理方式相近的项目予以整合,严格控制同一方向或领域的专项数量”;同时在资金管理中,特别强调“每一个专项转移支付都有且只有一个资金管理办法,对一个专项有多个资金管理办法的,要进行整合归并,不得变相增设专项”;“资金管理办法要明确政策目标、部门职责分工、资金补助对象、资金使用范围、资金分配办法等内容,逐步达到分配主体统一、分配办法一致、申报审批程序唯一等要求”。之所以如此要求,就是原来专项转移支付管理分配中,出现了大量的“大项套小项”,即一个大的专项转移支付,在实际执行中被主管部门再次分割成了诸多明细专项,由部门内部不同二级单位负责管理,导致一个大的专项转移支付,出现了不同的分配主体、不同分配办法、不同申报审批程序等情况,这实际上是变相增设专项。

    但是,从实践来看,项目整合仍然面临很大挑战。以2014年为例,虽然中央在专项转移支付项目上由2013年的220个压减到了133个,完成了政府工作报告提出的减少1/3专项转移支付项目的目标。但是实际执行中却又安排明细专项362个,审计署抽查的343个明细专项有43个部门参与分配,涉及123个司局、209个处室。其中,农业部就参与分配4个大项(共18个子项),“公共卫生服务补助”专项则细分为21个明细专项,其中卫计委疾病预防控制局有10个处参与13个明细专项的分配。显然,实际执行中并未有效实现专项整合的目标,专项资金的“碎片化”“司处化”问题仍然严重。

    实际上,这是精密理性科层制的科层分工逻辑的必然结果,它一方面强调明确具体的科层分工,因此要将专项资金细分到部门内的基层行政单位才能明确权责关系。因此一个专项转移支付被划归政府部门主管后,一定要落实到部门内的最基层行政单元。同时,在这个过程中还需要处理和面对政府部门内部各部门间微妙的权责平衡,如果一项专项转移支付数额巨大,若在一个中央部门中完全由一个二级部门掌握,则形成了各部门间权力-资源的严重不平衡,为平衡部门内部的权责关系,则几乎必然将大专项在部门内部切分为小专项,由不同二级部门分别管理,结果就造成了“大项套小项”。但是,从功能和用途来看,这又要求同一用途的专项资金不能过度细分,它既不利于专项转移支付的分配管理,也不利于项目在地方和基层的组织实施。

    财政资金的“部门化”和“碎片化”也明显冲击了各级政府财政预算分配权的统一。从专项转移支付的分配管理来看,虽然是财政部门和业务部门共同管理,但由于专项转移支付涉及类型和领域繁多,财政部门缺乏相关领域的专业信息和业务知识,因此业务部门在这个过程中就拥有了很大的控制权。尤其是,除部分民生支出外,目前专项转移支付中仍然有大量资金需通过“项目法”分配,这进一步扩大了业务部门对资金的分配管理权限。若是主要采用“因素法”分配,业务部门只需要负责收集审核相关客观性因素指标信息,再汇总到财政部门统一完成资金拨付。若是采用“项目法”分配,则需要依赖业务部门组织复杂的项目申报评审,实际上是赋予了业务部门二次预算分配权,像发改委等本来就拥有二次预算分配权的单位就更甚,这直接冲击了各级政府财政部门预算分配权的统一。

    二是财政支出进度慢和效率低。中国大规模的自上而下的专项转移支付,在主管部门层层规范化、程序化的管理过程中,在很大程度上造成了支出进度缓慢和效率低下。在很长时间内,由于大规模专项转移支付主要依赖项目法分配,审批权也集中在中央部门,导致年初预算时大量专项转移支付无法明确到具体地区和项目,需要等年中预算执行时进行细化分配。结果,大量专项转移支付资金都堆积到下半年才能拨付支出,甚至造成大规模的资金结转结余。专项转移支付到达地方政府后,也还需要再经过层层审批分配,进而在各层级政府中长时间“滞留”,导致其最终到达基层政府的时间太晚,严重影响资金支出进度和效率。

    最近几年,中央一方面要求各层级政府要加快专项资金审批和拨付进度,减少资金在中间层级政府的“滞留”时间。中央明确指出:除据实结算等特殊项目可以分期下达预算或者先预付后结算外,中央对地方一般性转移支付在全国人大批准预算后30日内下达,专项转移支付在90日内下达。省级政府接到中央转移支付后,应在30日内正式下达到本行政区域县级以上各级政府。但实际上,中央财政资金达到地方各层级政府后,往往还是难以按照规定时间快速下达。为此,自2020年起,中央又推出了项目资金的“直达”模式,即中央下达的部分专项资金直达到县、市基层政府,以提高资金支出进度和效率。中央“直达”资金按照“中央切块、省级细化、备案同意、快速直达”的管理和分配机制,重点用于保民生、保就业、保市场主体方面,2020年资金规模达1.7万亿,2021年达到了2.8万亿。截至2021年5月,中央下达直达资金2.579万亿元,下达比例92.1%;省级财政已分配下达2.362万亿元,达到了中央财政下达的91.6%。其中,按照有关规定,省本级使用了0.869万亿元,下达市县1.493万亿元,市县财政接到上面直达资金指标后,已将1.428万亿元分配到资金使用单位,达到省级下达的95.6%。显然,财政直达资金机制确实有效提高了资金支出进度和效率,但是它能使用的范围仍然有限,主要还是限于那些能够直接补助到个人、家庭和企业的支出项目。其他大量专项转移支付,仍然面临着支出进度和支出效率的考验。

    但是,需要特别指出的是,项目制这种“部门型”项目管理模式的一些弊病,在一定程度上具有内生性和结构性,我们不能期待简单通过政策改革来毕其功于一役。比如,中国的公共支出结构,就在很大程度上影响专项转移支付的分配管理方式,但它却是由中国社会经济发展模式和发展阶段决定的,不可能在短期内随政策改革而发生根本性的变化。又如,中国中央和地方政府的组织规模也是由新中国成立后长期历史演变所形成的,中央政府组织规模偏小的结构特征也很难在短期内发生大的变化。一旦深入到这些结构性层面,就提醒我们既要充分认识到项目制及其管理模式的弊病,也要对相关制度变革和结构变迁保持必要的历史耐心。

    结论与讨论

    分税制改革后,国家财政汲取效率明显上升,中央政府财政能力显著增强。在世纪之交,两方面因素共同作用,推动了项目制的形成。一方面,中央大力推动了公共预算体制改革,各级政府形成了以部门预算为基础、项目支出为核心的公共预算体制,这直接推动了各级政府公共支出的“项目化”。另一方面,随着中央财政能力实质强化,中央在平衡区域发展差异、引导地方政策导向等方面发挥的主导作用日益强化,专项转移支付成了一个最主要的政策工具。中央专项转移支付和各级政府的部门预算体制互相组合形塑,形成了项目制这一新型国家治理体制。

    可见,项目制是在分税制改革后,尤其是新世纪以来二十多年的国家治理变迁中逐渐形成的,它不是简单的国家政策选择的结果,而是由中央和地方关系等诸多结构性因素塑造的。首先,中国作为一个广土众民的国家,其社会经济发展存在严重的不平衡问题,这在区域、城乡和人群间都有多方面表现。新中国成立以来七十多年的治理理念和实践,又赋予了共同富裕以特殊的正当性,因此中央政府在中国承担着巨大的均衡地区、城乡和人群间发展差距的责任,即不可避免的要承担大量的再分配职能。其次,由于中国中央政府组织规模偏小,中央本级直接支出占比也很小,大量中央事权、中央和地方共同事权,不得不直接或间接委托给地方政府具体执行。这些委托事权或共同事权,在执行中还必须体现中央政策意图,这使得大规模专项转移支付就基本不可避免,同时还产生了部分中央直接项目支出变相委托给地方执行的情况。再者,中国从计划经济向市场经济转型后,一直到目前为止,中国公共支出结构仍然是一个民生支出和经济事务支出的“双强格局”,经济事务支出规模大,使得公共支出的预算难度大大增加,尤其是中央到地方转移支付中的经济事务支出,预算和分配难度更大,进而使项目法成了专项转移支付分配中的一个重要方法,这也是滋生项目制诸种弊端的关键因素之一。

    项目制采用了一种“部门型”项目管理模式,这是在中央对地方大规模转移支付实施20余年,以及国家公共预算改革推行20余年的过程中,逐步摸索形成的。党的十八大以后,中央以厘清中央和地方间财政事权和支出责任划分为核心,进一步从理论和制度上对财政转移支付体制进行了改革完善,但并未有意推翻和改变已有的“部门型”项目管理模式,而是进一步完善规范了这一模式。总体来看,“部门型”项目管理模式虽然在后续改革过程中可能还会进一步调整,但其基本框架、核心精神应该说已经基本定型。

    当前,从国家治理的角度看,自上而下的专项资金是项目制的一个关键部分,也是“部门型”项目管理模式的典型代表。在这种管理模式下,项目根据中央和上级政府的政策意图,在自上而下的部门内部相对封闭的流动和管理,一直到项目组织实施的基层政府。中央试图通过规范化、技术化的项目管理模式,将自身的政策意图跨层级的传递到地方和基层,甚至直接对接到最终的项目主体,大量直接补助到个人和家庭的民生支出就是典型例子。这种从中央跨越多个中间层级政府,直接将政策意图传递和明确到基层甚至最终政策目标群体的做法,明显超越了中国多层级政府结构中下管一级的常态治理模式,确实在一定程度上重新塑造了中央和地方间关系。同时为了确保上述政策意图的实现,中央强化了专项资金在各层级政府部门流动和管理过程中的监控,以防止资金跑冒滴漏,最大限度确保资金安全。也正是因为专项资金要“艰难”地越过多层级政府,要不断承载中央到地方各层级政府相关主体的多种意图,这就必然造成了专项资金分配和支出过程中的碎片化和低效率。

    但是,自上而下的项目制形态,在通过漫长的相对封闭运行越过多个中间层级后,它的最终组织实施,还得依赖地方和基层政府的统筹协调。也就是说,它还得必须通过基层政府与地方社会相结合,并与基层政府自身的公共预算相融汇,最终由地方和基层政府对这些上级各条线下达的多样化项目进行重新排列组合和落地实施。在项目制的组织实施过程中,已经形成了“以县为主”的格局,县级政府扮演着枢纽性的角色。因此,如何从政府内部,深入分析和揭示项目制在县级政府内部的重新排列组合过程和机制,是项目制研究亟需解决的难点。

  • 周嬉皮:体制内的公务员二代:县城里“精英圈层”的内循环

      县城里的“内循环”

      要说什么人最爱公务员,无疑是县城人。

      县城只有两种工作,安稳吃财政饭和吊儿郎当打普通工。中国1301个县城,有支柱产业支撑的寥寥无几,提供的多元化岗位也屈指可数。因此,公务员、事业单位、国企、教师、银行职员等安稳工作扛起了县城保留人才的大旗。

      县城虽小,但各类科局俱全,使得县城公务员成为了全国最庞大的公务员群体,印证了司马迁的名言“县集而郡,郡集而天下”。县城公务员则更是成为众星捧月般的存在。

      而回到县城考公的人群大概有两类人:一类是从村镇到县城的跨越;一类是返乡“世袭爵位”。在体制内,前者较大概率是熬资历;后者是公开的秘密“捷径”,通过上一代编织的关系网运作,起步就比没背景的快。

      总之,在县城这个讲究关系、人情的江湖里,关系决定成败。北上广深通用的规则、能力、才华等等,在这里一切靠后。县城的精英家庭,都会努力让孩子吃财政饭。  

      1. 工作一年就借调到了县政府

      陈真大三那年暑假,在某个深夜,他的父亲突然找他促膝长谈,非常庄重询问了他对工作的想法:想从事什么职业,想在什么地方定居。

      如果倒回18岁,陈真幻想过在大城市发展。但在外读了三年大学后,他非常坚定要返回家乡。留在县城,房子和车子随时都能解决;但去超一线城市发展,只是房子就会掏空父母的口袋。

      最重要的是,留在家乡,父母伸伸手,就能帮他铺平下半生的职业道路,能让他比其他人少熬几年的资质。

      陈真父母的职业在县城职业鄙视链顶端,几十年工作下来,打声招呼就能在县城办事顺风顺水。陈真家住当地别墅“富人区”。别墅群汇集了县城的精英家庭,有各个单位的干部、有县城垄断生意人、还有外地创业族。总之,要融入这个城市的精英层,房价就是入场券。

      陈真的大学和专业都不优秀,他在省内二本末流院校读财务管理专业。如果进企业,只能是普通财务,晋升通道比较狭窄。父亲建议他考县城乡镇公务员。家乡的乡镇公务员,每年有二十几个名额,陈真考上的难度系数小,以后的仕途之路家里也能帮衬帮衬。

      “要说读书考名校,我没什么天赋,从小也不爱学习,成绩一直不好,就是被拿来当反面教材的‘别人家孩子’。但是从小受父母影响,擅长应付各种人情往来”,陈真觉得体制内是非常不错的归宿,自信笑容溢上脸庞。

      县城公务员体系中,晋升快的部门有县委办、县府办和组织部,再就是乡镇公务员。

      于普通乡镇公务员而言,晋升通道是乡镇公务员-乡镇副科(副镇长)-乡镇党委委员-副书记-镇长-书记-县城局长-退休。但事实上,到副镇长之后就得熬资历,镇长已是大部分乡镇公务员的金字塔尖,往高的县级单位转的更是少数。

      陈真就是少数派。从考上乡镇时起,他就做好了向“县级”迈进的准备。工作一年后,他就和家里提出借调的想法。在父母关系打通下,成功借调去了县政府。而同批次进入单位的同事,目前还都驻守在原单位。陈真现在已经在县政府工作两年了。

      在体制内混迹快三年的陈真,体制的外显迹象也逐渐明显。发型从之前的锡纸烫变成现在的大背头;穿搭从之前的高街风格变成现在的中山装,公文包不离身;谈吐也从之前的校园八卦到现在张嘴就是国家大事。

      陈真周围的“县城精英圈层”朋友,大学后的选择都和他出奇一致。

      这些朋友的父母职业是医生、教师,或是体制内的党员干部,都处于小县城职业鄙视链的最顶端,就连退休金都比年轻人工资高。他们的下一辈,大部分是普通本科毕业,只不过,大家都默契地选择毕业回家在,银行、事业单位、学校,和本地国企舒服地“端铁饭碗”。

      但另一边,那些在县城没有根基的同学,有的远离县城,跳槽3-4次了还没找到一个满意工作;有的留在县城,做点小买卖;甚至有的考上职校,现在在县城开挖掘机,巧合的话,还能碰到陈真负责的项目。

      经过了几年的磨练,又有家里的帮衬,陈真的未来是可预见的光明。

      在小县城,“上学-工作-婚姻-生孩子”这条传输链的速度极其之快,接下来要考虑的就是婚姻。

      对于陈真这一群人而言,家里最喜欢干的事情就是相亲。“县城的圈子很小,之前没对象的时候,逢年过节就各单位的叔叔阿姨来我家拜年,总有些人想帮我介绍对象。”陈真说当时微信都加了一堆。

      于有些人而言,在体制内除了家里安排的相亲,自己很难有途径去解决个人问题。而陈真家庭条件好、爱打篮球、会弹吉他、是相亲市场的香饽饽。  

      刚确定工作岗位没多久后,父母就特地为他和当地某局长的女儿组了个饭局。在父母的撮合下,现在在已经在一起快3年了。双方父母都很满意对方,随着年龄的增长,父母提起结婚的频率逐渐增加。  

      2. “以后劳烦领导多照顾照顾新人”

      周洁是家中独女,2016年填高考志愿时家里就把大学范围限死在省内,并向她灌输未来工作也要在省内的观念,能回家里县城是最好的选择。

      2020年周洁大学毕业,为了在省会有购房资格,她在省内最大的美妆公司做了两年电商运营,交了两年社保。公司资源好,时常能接触头部主播,她自己看来,这是一份“光鲜亮丽”的工作。只不过由于时常要加班到凌晨,在她父母看来,却是个不稳定的“辛苦活”。

      她父母时时刻刻给她洗脑体制内的优越。

      周洁记得,为了让她回家,爸妈最常对她说的话是,“朝九晚五多好,你想买房我们帮你买,不会有什么经济压力,就回来自己过过小日子就可以”。所以,拿到购房资格后立马离职,努力复习一段时间后上岸了县城的乡镇公务员。 

      县城范围小,人口少,属于熟人社会。即使家族中没有直接对应的单位领导,通过熟人关系,也能让进体制内的后辈更加舒适。周洁的家族关系网庞大,“某个叔叔在某某所,另一个伯伯在某某局”之类的关系比较多。总之,这种情况下,就默认了“前辈铺路,后代乘凉”。

      虽然乡镇公务员是大家眼中最眼热的职业,但实际上也有高低之分。县城每个乡镇情况千差万别,晋升空间和办公环境差的不是一丁半点。有的办公环境和县城无异,有的光是从县城到单位的路程都要驾车一个小时。

      周洁父母和她的体制内亲戚们,自然不会让她去落后的乡镇“受委屈”。

      这场“仗”,从周洁收到上岸消息后就开始了。周洁还没反应过来,她的父母酒准备好了礼物和好酒,带上了体制内“有说话分量”的亲戚,办了好几次饭局邀请单位领导一起吃饭。

      在饭桌上,周洁笨拙地举着装着茶的酒杯,跟在父亲身后打圈陪笑,一遍又一遍重复着“以后还要多麻烦各位领导多照顾照顾”。诚意和关系,县里办事的万金油;双管到位,周洁最终得偿所愿。

      在县城里,公务员是“面子”的指向标。

      即便周洁只是个乡镇公务员,但在周洁和周洁老家村里的人看来,这是权力和安稳的象征。老家村里的人开始找周洁维系关系,希望周洁以后多多帮忙。当别人问起周洁的工作时,周洁父母也会自豪地说出女儿是公务员。

      乡镇公务员是在单位报道后按需定岗,同周洁一批进单位的有5个。周洁定岗在的岗位,虽然是个比较辛苦的差事,但前途光明。在单位时常得到领导的关照,属于机会的第一梯队候选人。领导经常安排周洁参加培训,意味着领导对周洁有重点培养的意向。  

      县城很多“体二代”的发展路径都类似。先让孩子进入体制环境,先解决“有没有”的问题,而乡镇公务员因为工作环境相对差,不如县城公务员“体面”,也就成为众多“体二代”的优先选择。而在之后的晋升路上,有关系支撑的家庭,父母会再利用熟人社会的关系帮助孩子尽量解决“好不好”的问题。

      周洁的路径也是如此。工作过程中,每次和家里倒单位的苦水时,家里时常有一句鼓励的话:“这几年你先好好干,服务期满,再想办法帮你调到更好的单位。”

      因为县城提供不了多样化、更丰富的就业岗位,所以在县城除了吃财政饭的是高学历者,其他领域打工人高学历者少而又少。所以,即使在不同乡镇工作,周洁的朋友圈和陈真的高度重叠。  

      3. “世袭”的财政饭,县城内循环

      往县城里一看,你大概率会发现同一个职位,一二线城市和县城截然不同的情形。

      大城里政府大院,985/211的硕士研究生埋头写材料;放眼至县城,普通科员常常自带“某某领导孩子”的标签。北上广深的银行玻璃间,装了不少英美澳的金融海归;小城里的普通柜员,可能是父母花了六位数打点的“关系户”。

      县城是一个关系网络编织成的社会,所以混在县城,最重要的是关系。而关系中确定性最高的,便是“世袭”。在县城内,体制父母的孩子也还是在体制内、从医父母孩子也在医院、生意父母孩子也在生意场上,形成了相对稳定的职业“内循环”。

      有前瞻的“县城精英”父母,从孩子高考填志愿起便落子开棋,谋划孩子的城市和专业选择。学历是敲门砖,无需比拼距离和排行。省内普通二本和省外211,前者往往才是他们的先手干预。

      临近孩子毕业即布局。父母会通过自己的人脉和圈子让孩子继承自己的衣钵,并为孩子在后续发展中提供全力支持。

      北大社会学博士冯军旗就读期间,在河南省新野县挂职了两年。期间通过走访与调查完成了《中县干部》这一篇博士论文。在文中总结出在县城运行的潜规则:“年龄是个宝,能力做参考,关系最重要。”

      而关系主要有血亲、姻亲、干亲、同乡、同事、同学、战友等等。除了血亲是自然的连接纽带,也是最强的连接纽带外,其它都是社会性的连接纽带,都需要编织和维持。运作的方式就包括喝酒、打牌和送礼。

      喝酒是编织关系网的最重要方式。酒场不仅是关系建立的桥梁,还是八卦信息的流动地,办事的润滑剂。几杯酒下肚,从陌生到熟悉,甚至开始小心翼翼称兄道弟,局中人便是自己人。

      喝完酒尽兴后,打牌必不可少。打牌赢不赢钱,一是靠技术;二是靠手气。而领导赢不赢钱,主要看各位小兵们愿不愿意输钱。而逢年过节,想和领导打好关系的干部也总是在去找领导的路上。

      冯军旗博士在论文中也总结出了部分县城关系网。他们通过各种关系运作方式,形成大大小小的“政治家族”,在后辈就业时,也就能提供一定的帮助。

    《中县干部》举例关系网的原文摘选

      干部子女如果想在大城市就业,最重要的途径就是接受高等教育,形成学历优势。而如果学历一般,孤身一人在大城市漂泊也不是很多干部家庭认为的最优选择,此时有关系有根底的人就会千方百计地回到县城,就再次巩固了政治家族的根基。

      县城关系网的运作,让县城职业形成了相对静态的社会形态。

      4. 结语

      只要将定位回归县城,县城精英二代比普通小镇青年先行一步。

      尤其强调关系的县城,核心信息的传递、交流逐渐呈现静态、固化的形态,一个个小的“政治家族”更快地获取信息,更迅速链接资源形成干预,成为县城隐形的职业壁垒。

      小镇青年没有一定关系根底,即使是985研究生也很难在没有裙带联结的小县城混出一片天地,甚至,薪酬回报并不会比本科生高。

      所以,很多没有根基的高学历学生并不会选择回到县城,他们往往都在相对公平的城市创造属于自己的价值。

      从某种角度而言,他们并不是不想回到家乡,不想守在父母身边;而是县城没有足够多元化的岗位,体制内又无法享受到县城公平。曾经的家乡也因为越来越高的壁垒而成为回不去的地方。

  • 香港 曾章成:我一生只有一位老师,名字叫泥土

    曾章成 Johnson Tsang,1960年出生于香港,专业制作陶艺、陶瓷雕塑。

    他做过服务员炸薯片、烫衣工人、冷气学徒、跟车工人,后为了家庭生计走上了警察的道路。
    在当警察期间会定期安排上训练班,在训练结束后,曾章成会到香港艺术中心转转。“那一刻,我好像进入了真正属于我的世界。”

    “ 曾几何时,我以为是自己在塑造泥土,反过来,其实是泥土塑造了我。”

  • WELLS WILLIAMS《The Middle Kingdom》24-26

    CHAPTER XXIV.  THE TAIPING REBELLION

    The war, which was brought to an end by the treaty of JS anking, left the imperial government astonished and crippled, but not paralyzed or dejected. It had, moreover, the effect of arousing it from the old notions of absolutism and security; and though the actual heads of bureaus at Peking were unable, from their secluded position and imperfect education, to ascertain and appreciate the real nature of the contest, the maritime officials could see that its results were likely to be lasting and serious. A few thoughtful men among them, as Ilipu, Seu Kiyu, Iviying and his colleagues, understood better than their superiors at the capital that the advent of the ‘ Western Ocean people ‘ at the five open ports introduced a permanent influence upon the Black-haired race. They could not, of course, estimate what this influence would become, but a sense of its power and vitality had the effect of preventing them from petty opposition in carrying out the treaty stipulations. With the major part of the officials, on the other hand, life-long prejudice, joined to utter ignorance as to the numbers, position, and resources of foreign nations, led them to withdraw from even such a measure of intercourse with consular and diplomatic officials as they could easily have held. The tone of official society was opposed to having any personal relations with their foreign colleagues, and after the old Emperor Taukwang had passed off the stage in 1850, his son showed—even eight years after the peace—that promotion was incompatible with cultivating a closer acquaintance with them.

    It is not surprising that this reaction took on the form of doing as little as possible, and that its stringency was increased ill reality by the device of making the governor-general at Canton the only channel of correspondence with foreign ministers.

    This magnate was surrounded in that city by ^subordinates whose training had been inimical to extending intercourse with foreigners, because they had reaped the advantages of the old system in their monopoly of the trade. The intendants at the other open ports were directed to refer difficult (piestions relating to foreigners to this high functionary, but as they wero more disposed to let such disputes settle themselves, if possible, few cases were ever sent to him. The animus of the whole governing class gradually assumed a settled determination to keep aloof from those who had humbled them in the e^’es of their subjects, and yet give no handle to these potent outsiders to repeat their descent on the coast. It was a poor policy in every point of view, only serving to hasten the evils they dreaded.

    SIR JOHN DAVIS AND KITING, 577

    Sir John Davis was appointed governor of Hongkong in 1844, and during four years’ service so soon after the war saw much of this proud and foolish spirit. His two volumes, published in 1852 (China during the AVan and since the Peace), contain a digest of the official records and acts of the Chinese government which is highly instructive. It is remarkable that lie should show so much surprise at the mendacity, ill-will, and weakness of the officers in these reports to their master, or at the Emperor’s persistency in wreaking his wrath on those whose poltroonery had done him so much harm. A residence of nearly thirty years in the country should have developed, in his case, an intimate acquaintance with native ideas of honor and mercy, and shown him how little of either are practised in time of war.

    If he blames the Chinese leaders for their ignorance and silly mistakes in its conduct, one can readily see that they never had an opportunity to learn the truth about their enemies. Their struggle against the impossible was not altogether in vain, therefore, if it prepared them for accepting the inevitable. Had Sir John manifested a little sympathy for their plight in such an unequal contest, and shown more humanity for their sufferings under the evils which afflicted them, his opinion of the best remedies would have carried much weiirht. As an instance of the result of Ills own training in the East India Company’s school, he remarks respecting the imperial edicts against opium, that they fell into disuse, and that the subject had never been revived since the war ; adding, ” But at no time was the traffic deserving the full load of infamy with which many were disposed to heap it, for at most it only supplied the poison, which the Chinese were not obliged to take. The worst effect, perhaps, was the piracy it engendered, for this has told against the honest trade.” ‘ In his first interview with Kiying, in May, 1844, he proposed that the Chinese government should legalize the opium trade, for ” such a wise and salutary measure would remove all chances of unpleasant occurrences between the two governments; it might provide an ample revenue for the Emperor, and check to the same extent the consumption of a commodity which was at present absolutely untaxed.’” He, however, brought it more directly to his notice the next year in consequence of the revival of smuggling at Whampoa to as great a degree as in 1839, and the opium vessels all left the Reach.

    Kiying was entirely indisposed to move, or even aid, in this matter, which he knew would be distasteful to the Emperor, other than by a truly Chinese device—that the oflScials of both nations should let it go on by nnitual connivance. Sir John naively remarks on this : ” The only thing wanting was that the Emperor should publicly sanction what he had once publicly condemned. . . . The trade, however, was practically tolerated, and to us this made a great difference. The Chinese government was not sufficiently honest to make a public avowal of this change in its system, but the position in which Great Britain stood became materially altered. China had distinctly declined a conventional arrangement for the remedy of the evil, and expressed a desire that we should not bring the existing abuse to its notice.” ^ With two such men in command, of course nothing was ever done by either side to restrain the evils growing out of this contraband and demoralizing trade, until another war and new treaties changed the national relations.

    ‘ Chimi chning tits War, etc., Vol. I., p. 19.Ubid., Vol. li., p. 44.3/6j«., Vol. n., p. 303.

    At Canton the long-cherished dislike to foreigners was fomented by demagogues and idlers. These worked upon the fears of the people In- telling them that their lands were to be taken to build warehouses upon ; and this rumor was so far believed that it soon became unsafe for foreigners to venture far into the suburbs. In December, 1847, not long after the arrangement with Sir John Davis respecting an entrance into Canton city was made, six Englishmen were attacked by a mob at Hwang-chuh-ki while on a ramble, and all killed, some of them with reiined cruelty. Kiying took immediate measures—extremely creditable to his sense of what he owed to justice and maintenance of peace—to pnnisli these villagers. A mimber of men whom their fellows indicated as leaders in the outrage were arrested ; the prisoners were tried at Canton by the regular courts. Four were presently decapitated in the sight of a military deputation sent from Hongkong, and two others by orders from Peking. This well-timed justice secured the safety of foreigners peaceably going about the city and environs ; but it was creditjly stated afterward that there were numerous placards already posted in that region informing the people that foreigners would perhaps be coming thither to select sites for themselves. These unfortunate Englishmen, indeed, would perhaps have been allowed to return home, if they had been able to speak to the villagers and explain their object.

    DISPOSITION OF CHINESE TOWARD FOREIGNERS. ^70

    This incident makes it proper to notice a common misapprehension abroad in respect to the influence of the treaties which had been signed with China upon the people themselves. It was inferred that as soon as the three treaties with England, France, and America had been ratified, the great body of educated Chinese at least would inquire and learn what were their provisions, and a natural curiosity would be manifested to know something about the peoples of those lands. Nothing could be more likely—nothing was farther from the reality, No efforts were ever made by the imperial officers at the capital or in the provinces to promulgate these national compacts, whose original and ratified copies were never even transmitted to Peking. Consequently, the existence and nature of these Iiaoo yoh, or ‘peace contracts,’ had to be continually taught to the natives, who on their part did not usually feel themselves under much obligation to obey them. In China, as elsewhere, just laws never execute themselves, and it is hardly surprising that not an officer of the Emperor should go out of his way to enforce their distasteful stipulations.

    It was therefore uphill work to see that the treaties did not become a dead letter, and all the hardest part of this labor fell to the lot of the British consuls. They alone stood forth among foreign officials as invested with some power of their own ; and being generally able to use the Chinese language, they came into personal relations with the local officers, and thus began the only effectual mode through which the treaties could become agencies for breaking down the hoary wall of prejudice, ignorance, and contempt which had so long kept China out of the pale of progress. In doing this, no fixed course could be laid down ; though the constant tendency of the consuls was to encroach on the power of the mandarins, these latter were generally able to recur to the treaties, and thus learn the necessity and benefits of adherence to them. Their education was a colossal undertaking, and considering the enormous difficulties, its progress has been as rapid as was consistent with the welfare of themselves or their subjects. In this progress they bear the greatest share of the burden ; its responsibilities and costs, its risks and results, almost wholly come upon them, while foreign nations, with the immense undefined rights of exterritoriality on their side, are interested on-lookers, ready to take advantage of every fauxpas to compel them to conform to their interpretation of the treaties. Very little consideration is given to their ignorance of international law, to their full belief in the power of China, or to their consequent disinclination to accept the new order of things so suddenly forced on them. On the other hand, no one who knows all the features of this period will withhold the praise due to the British authorities in China for their conduct in relations with its functionaries ; it might fairly be added that the improved state of international intercourse is mostly due to them.

    The condition of the Empire at the close of the war was most discouraging to its rulers, who had not dreamed of receiving so crushing a defeat. It is creditable to them that they honorably paid up the $21,000,000 exacted of them by the British, who of course restored Chusan at the stipulated time.

    The name of II. Montgomery Martin, tlien treasurer of Hongkong colony, must be awarded due mention as being the only Queen’s official who endeavored to resist its surrender, on the plea of its great benefit to her eastern empire and influence.

    Sir John Davis speaks of the “political and military considerations” which gave importance to it ; but the proposal of Mr. Martin was promptly rejected by his superiors, and the whole archipelago has since been neglected. At the four northern ports opened by treaty, with the exception of Fuhchau, trade began without difficulty. This city having entirely escaped the ravages of the war, its proud gentry influenced the citizens against foreigners and their trade ; the first European residents there met with some ill-usage, but this bitter feeling gradually wore off as the parties became better known.

    At Canton the case was aggravated by the prejudices of race and the turbulence of the unemployed braves who had flocked into it on the invitation and inducements of Commissioner Lin to enlist against the English. They had been disbanded by Kiying, but had not returned to their homes ; their lawlessness increased till it threatened the supremacy of the provincial government, and required the strongest measures of repression.

    The disorders spread rather than diminished under an impoverished

    treasury and ill-paid soldiery, and prepared the way for

    the rebellion which during the next twenty years tasked the utmost

    resources’ of the nation. The ignorance of one part of its

    people of what was taking place in another province—which

    during the foreign war so greatly crippled the Emperor’s efforts

    to interest his subjects in this struggle—hete did much to preserve them from unitino; against him to his overthrow. It was

    plain to every candid observer that however weak, unprincipled,

    and tyrannical the Manchu rulers might be, they were as efficient

    sovereigns as the people could produce, and no substituted sway

    could possibly’ elevate and purify them until higher principles of

    social and political life had been adopted by the nation at large.

    CAUSES OF THE TAI-PIXG IXSURRECTIOIS”. 58T

    The protracted convulsion, known abroad as the Tai-ping Rebellion, owed much of its duration as well to the exposure of the government’s internal rottenness as to its weakness against foreign nations ; hut many other causes were at work. The body of the Chinese people are well aware that their rulers are no better than themselves in morals, honesty, or patriotism ; but they are all ready to ascribe the evils they suffer from robbers, taxation, exactions, and unjust sentences to those in authority.

    The rulers are conscious that their countrymen consider it honorable

    to evade taxes, defy the police when they can safely do so,

    and oppose rather than aid in the maintenance of law and order.

    There is no basis of what in Christian lands is regarded as the

    foundation of social order and just government—the power of

    conscience and amenableness to law ; nevertheless, from the

    habits of obedience taught in the family and in the schoolroom,

    the people have attained a good degree of security for themselves

    and show much regard to just rulers. The most serious

    evils and sufferings in Chinese society are caused by its disorderly

    members, not its rapacious rulers ; and both can only be

    removed and reformed by the reception of a higher code which

    raises the standard of action from expediency to obligation.

    In giving an account of the rise and overthrow of the Tai-pin Rebellion, it will be necessary to limit the narrative to the most important religious, political, and military events connected with it up to its suppression in ISGT. The phrase ” Tai-ping Rebellion ” is wholly of foreign manufacture ; at Peking and everywhere among those loyal to the government the insurgents were styled Changmaozei or ‘Long-haired rebels,’ while on their side, by a whimsical resemblance to English slang, the imperialists were dubbed imj)s. When the chiefs assumed to be aiming at independence in 1850, in order to identify their followers with their cause they took the term Ping Chao, or ‘Peace Dynasty,’ as the style of their sway, to distinguish it from the Qing Chao, or ‘ Pure Dynasty,’ of the Manchus. Each of them prefixed the adjective Da (or Tai, in Cantonese), ‘ Great,’ as is the Chinese custom with regard to dynasties and nations ; thus the name Tai-ping became known to foreigners. The leader took the style Tien-teh^ or ‘Heavenly Virtue,’ for his reign, thereby indicating his aim in seeking the throne, his own personal name, Hong Xiuquan, was regarded as too sacred to be used by his followers. The banners and edicts used at Nanjing and in his army bore the inscription, Tian-fu, Tian-xiong, Tian-wang Tai-ping Tian-guo, or ‘ Heavenly Father, Heavenly Elder Brother, Heavenly King of the Great Peace [Dynasty] of the Heavenly Kingdom ‘ (i.e., China).

    The incidents of this man’s early life and education were ascertained in 1854, from his relative Hung Jin, by the Rev. Theodore Hamberg, whose narrative’ bears the marks of a trustworthy recital. Hung Siu-tsuen was the youngest son of Hung Jang, a well-to-do farmer living in Plwa hien, a district situated on the North Eiver, about thirty miles from Canton city, in a small village of which he was the headman. The family was from Kiaying prefecture, on the borders of Kiangsi, and the whole village was regarded as belonging to the Hakkas, or Squatters, and had little intercourse with the Pun-tis, or Indigenes, on that account. Siu-tsuen was born in 1813, and at the usual age of seven entered school, where he showed remarkable aptitude for study. His family being too poor to spare his services long, he had to struggle and deny himself, as many a poor aspirant for fame in all lands has done, in order to fit himself to enter the regular examinations. In 1826 his name appeared on the list of candidates in Hwa hien, but Hung Jin says : ” Though his name was always among the first upon the board at the district examinations, yet he never succeeded in attaining the degree of Siu-tsai.” In 1833 he was at Canton at the triennial examination, when he met with the native evangelist Liang A-fah, who was distributing and selling a number of his own writings near the Kung yuen to the candidates as they went in and out of the hall. Attracted by the venerable aspect of this man, he accepted a set of his tracts called Quan Shi Liang Yan, or ‘ Good Words to Exhort the Age.’ He took them home with him, but threw them aside when he found that they advocated Christianity, then a proscribed doctrine.

    ‘ Visions of Hun(j Siu-tshuen and Orifjin. oftlie Kwang-si Insurrectioii, Hongkong, 1854. Mr. W. Sargent in the North American Review for July, 1854,Vol. LXXIX., p. 158.

    THE LIFE OF HONG XIU-QUAN 583

    In 1837 he was again in the provincial tripos, where his repeated disappointment and discontent aggravated an illness that seized him. On reaching his home he took to his bed and prepared for death, having had several visions foretokening his decease, he called his parents to his bedside and thus addressed them: “My days are counted and my life will soon be closed. O my parents ! how badly have I returned the favor of your love to me ; I shall never attain a name that shall reflect lustre on you.”

    After uttering these words he shut his eyes and lost all strength and command over his body, and became unconscious of what was going on around him. His outward senses were inactive, his body appeared as dead, but his soul was acted upon by a peculiar eneigy, seeing and remembering things of a very extraordinary nature.

    At first, when his eyes were closed he saw a dragon, a tiger,

    and a cock enter the room ; a great number of men placing

    upon instruments then approached, bearing a beautiful sedanchair

    in which they invited him to be seated. Kot knowing

    wdiat to make of this honor, he was carried away to a luminous

    and beautiful place wherein a multitude of fine men and women

    saluted him on arrival with expressions of joy. On leaving the

    sedan an old woman took him down to a river, saying : ” Thou

    dirty man, why hast thou kept company with yonder people and

    defiled thyself ? I must now wash thee clean.” After the

    washing was over he entered a large building in company with

    a crowd of old and virtuous men, some of whom were the ancient

    sages. Here they opened his body, took out the heart and other

    organs, and replaced them by new ones of a red color ; this

    done, the wound closed without leaving a scar. The whole

    assembly then went on to another larger hall, whose splendor

    was beyond description, in which an aged man, with a golden

    beard and dressed in black robes, sat on the liighest place. Seeing

    Siu-tsuen, he began to shed tears and said : ” All human

    beings in the world are produced and sustained by me ; they eat

    my food and wear my clothing, but not one among them has a

    heart to remember and venerate me ; what is worse, they take

    my gifts and therewith worship demons ; they purposely rebel

    against me and arouse my anger. Do thou not imitate them.”

    Hereupon he gave him a sword to destroy the demons, a seal to overcome the evil spirits, and a sweet yellow fruit to eat. Sintsueii

    received them, and straightway began to exhort his venerable

    companions to perform their duties to their master. After

    doing so even to tears, the high personage led him to a spot

    whence he could behold the world below, and discern theliorrible

    depravity and vice of its inhabitants. The sight was too awful to

    be endured, and words were inadequate to describe it. So he

    awoke from his trance, and had vigor enough to rise and dress

    himself and go to his father. Making a bow, Siu-tsuen said : “The venerable old man above has commanded that all men shall turn to me, and that all treasures shall ilow to me.” This sickness continued about forty days, and the visions were multiplied.

    ]Ie often met with a man in them whom he called his elder brother, who instructed him how to act and assisted him in going after and killing evil spirits. lie became more and more possessed with the idea, as his health returned, that he had been commissioned to be Emperor of China ; and one day his father found a slip on which was written ” The Heavenly King of Great Heason, the Sovereign King Tsuen.”” As time wore on, this lofty idea seems to have more and more developed his mind to a soberness and purity which overawed and attracted him. ]S’othing is said about his utterances while the war with England was progressing, but he must have known its progress and results. His cataleptic fits and visions seem not to have returned, and he pursued his avocation as a school teacher until about 1843, having meanwhile failed in another trial to obtain his degree at Canton. In that year his wife’s brother asked to take away the nine tracts of Liang A-fah to see what they contained ; when he returned them to Siu-tsuen he urged him to road them too.

    HIS HKLIEF IN HIS DIVINE CALLING. 585

    They consisted of sixty-eight short chapters upon common topics, selected from the Bible, and not exactly fitted to give him, in his excited state and total ignorance of western books and religion, a fair notion of Christianity. As he read them he saw, as he thought, the true meaning of his visions. The venerable old man was no other than God the Father, and his guide was Jesus Christ, who had assisted him in slaying the demons. “These books are certainly sent purposely by heaven to me to confirm the truth of my former experience. If I had received them without having gone through the sickness, I should not have dared to believe in them, and by myself to oppose the customs of the whole world. If I had merely been sick, but not also received the books, I should have had no further evidence as to the truth of my visions, which might also have been considered as mere products of a diseased imagination.”

    This sounds reasonable, and commends itself as wholly unlike the ravings of a madnuin. Nevertheless, while it would be unwise for us to closely criticise this narrative in its details, and assert that Siu-tsuen’s pretensions were all hypocritical, we must bear in mind the fact that he had certaiidy, neither at this time nor ever afterward, a clear conception of the true nature of Christianity, judging from his writings and edicts.

    The nature of sin, and the dominion of God’s law upon the sinner ; the need of atonement from the stain and effects of sin ; Christ’s mediatorial sacrifice ; were subjects on which he could not possibly have received full instruction from these fragmentary essays. In after days his conviction of his own divine calling to rule over China, seems to have blinded his understanding to the spiritual nature of the Christian church.

    His individual penchant was insufficient to resist or mould the

    subordinates who accepted his mission for their own ends. But

    lie was not a tool in their hands at any time, and his personal

    influence permeated the ignorant mass of reckless men around

    him to an extraordinary degree, while his skill in turning some

    of the doctrines and requirements of the Bible as the ground

    and proofs of his own authority indicated original genius, since

    the results were far beyond the reach of a cunning impostor.

    From first to last, beginning with poverty, obscurity, and weakness in II wa, continuing with distinction, power, and royalty at Nanking and throughout its five adjacent provinces, and ending with defeat, desertion, and death in his own palace, Hung never wavered or abated one jot of his claim to supreme rule on earth. When his end was reported at Peking in August, 1864, thirty-one years after his receiving Liang A-falTs tracts, the imperial rescript sadly said : ” Words cannot convey any idea of the misery and dedolation lio caused ; the measure of his iniquity was full, and the wrath of both gods and men was roused against him.”

    N^ A career so full of exceptional interest and notable incidents

    cannot, of course, be minutely described in this sketch. xVfter

    Hung’s examination of the tracts which had lain unnoticed in

    his hands for ten years, followed by his conviction of the real

    meaning of his visions in 1837, he began to proclaim his mission

    and exhort those around him to accept Christianity. Hung

    Jin (who furnished Mr. llamberg with his statements) and a

    fellow-student, Fung Vun-shan, were his first converts; they

    agreed to put away all idols and the Confucian tablet out of

    their schools, and then baptized or washed themselves in a

    brook near by, as a sign of their purification and faith in Jesus.

    As they had no portion of the Sacred Scriptures to guide them,

    they were at a loss to understand many things spoken of by

    Liang A-fah, but his expositions of the events and doctrines

    occurring in them were deeply pondered and accepted. The

    Mosaic account of creation and the flood, destruction of Sodom,

    sermon on the Mount, and nature of the final judgment, were

    given in them, as well as a full relation of Christ’s life and

    death ; and these prepared the neophytes to receive the Bible

    M’hen they got it. Jhit the same desire to find proof of his

    own calling led Siu-tsuen to fix on fanciful renderings of certain

    texts, and, after the maimer of commentators in other lands,

    to extract meanings never intended. A favorite conceit, among

    others, was to assume that wherever the character tsaen, ^,

    meaning ‘ whole,’ ‘ altogether,’ occurred in a verse, it meant

    himself, and as it forms a part of the Chinese phrase for al-

    Qiilghtij, he thus had strong reasons (as he thought) for his

    course. The phrase Tien kwoh, denoting the ‘ Kingdom of

    Heaven ‘ in (Jhrisfs preaching, they applied to China, With

    such preconceived views it is not w^onderful that the brethren

    were all able to fortify themselves in their opinions by the

    strongest arguments. All those discourses in the series relating

    to repentance, faith, and man’s depravity were apparently

    entirely overlooked by them.

    HIS C0:N VERSION AM) EARLY ADHERENTS. 587

    The strange notions, unaffected earnestness, moral conduct, and new ideas about God and happiness of these men soon began to attract people to them, some to dispute and cavil, others to accept and worship with them. Their scholars, one and all, deserted

    them as soon as the Confucian tablet was removed from

    the schoolroom, and they were left penniless and unemployed,

    sometimes subjected to beatings and obloc^uy for embracing an

    outlandish religion, and other times ridiculed for forsaking their

    ancestral halls. The nundjer of their adherents was too few to

    detain them at home, and in May, 1844, Siu-tsuen, Yun-shan,

    and two associates resolved to visit a distant relative who lived

    near the MiaoZu in Kwangsi, and get their living along the road by peddling ink-stones and pencils. They reached the adjoining district, Tsingj’uen, where they preached two months and baptized several persons ; some time after Hung Jin took a school there, and remained several years, baptizing over fifty converts. Siu-tsuen and Yun-shan came to the confines of the Miaotsz’ in Sinchau fu in three months, preaching the existence

    of the true God and of redemption by his Son, and after many

    vicissitudes reached their relative’s house in Kwei hien among

    the mountains. Here they tarried all summer, and their earnest

    zeal in spreading the doctrines which they evidently had found

    so cheering to their own hearts, arrested the attention of these

    I’ude mountaineers, and many of them professed their faith in

    Christ. Siu-tsuen returned home in the winter, and was disappointed

    in not finding his colleague Yun-shan there as well as the other two, nor could he give any account of his course.

    It appeared afterward that Yun-shan had met some acquaintances on his road, and became so much interested in preaching to them at Thistle-mount that he remained there two years, teaching school and gathering churches.

    Siu-tsuen continued to teach and preach the truth as he had

    learned it from the books in his hands. In 1846 he heard of I.

    J. Roberts, the American missionary, living at Canton, and the

    next spring received an invitation to come there and study. He

    and Hung Jin did so ; the former remained with Mr. Roberts about two months, giving him a narrative of his own visions, conversion, and preaching, at the same time learning the nature and extent of foreign mission work in that city. He made a visit home with two native Christians, who had been sent to llwa to learn more about him. They seem to have obtained good reports of his character; but others in Mr. Roberts’ employ were afraid of his influence if he should enter their church, and therefore intrigued to have him refused admission just then.

    IMr. Tl(A)erts appears to have acted discreetly according to the

    light he had respecting the applicant’s integrity, and would no

    doubt have baptized him had not the latter soon after left

    Canton, where he had no means of support. At this time

    the i^olitical distui-bances in Kwangtung seem to have greatly

    influenced Siu-tsuen’s course, and Mhen he reached home he

    made a second visit to his relative, and thence went to Thistlemoimt

    to rejoin Fung Ynn-shan. Hung Jin states that before

    this date he had expressed disloyal sentiments against the Manchus,

    but these are so common among the Cantonese that they

    attracted no notice. On secini; Yun-shan and meeting the two

    thousand converts he luid gathered, it is pretty certain that

    hopes of a successful resistance must have revived in his breast.

    A woman among them also began to relate some visions she had seen ten years before, foretelling the advent of a man who should teach them how to worship God. The number of converts rapidly increased in three prefectures adjacent to the liivcr ^ uh ill the eastern part of Kwangsi, and no serious hindrance was met with from the officials, though there were not wanting enemies, by one of whom Yun shan was accused and then thrown into prison. However, the prefect and district magistrate to whom the case was referred, fiiuling no sutlicient cause for punishment, liberated him; though the new sectaries had made themselves somewhat obnoxious to the idolaters by their iconoclasm —so hard is it to learn patience and toleration in any country. In very many villages in that region the ^-^Shaiigti hwui^ or ‘ Associations for worshipping God,’ began to be recognized, but they do not seem to have quoted the toleration edict obtained in 1844 in favor of Christianity, as that only spoke of the Tun-ehu kiao, or Catholics. The worship of Shangdi is a peculiar function of the Emperor, as has been already explained ; and it is not surprising to 1)C told by Hung Jin that tlic new sect was reiiarded as ti’casonable.

    ORGANIZATION OF THE SIIANGTI IIWUI. ^89

    111 1848 Sill tsueii’s father died trusting in the new faith and

    directing that no Buddhist services be lield at his funeral ; the

    whole family had l)y this time become its followers, and when

    the son and Yun-shan met them soon after, they began to discuss

    their future. The believers in Kwangsi were left to take

    care of themselves during the whole winter, and appear to liavo

    gone on witli their usual meetings without hindranceo In June,

    1849, the two leaders left Uwa for Kwangsi, assisted by tlio

    faitliful, and found much to encourage them in their secret

    plans in the general unit}’ which pervaded the association.

    Some members had been favored with visions, others had become exhorters, denouncing those who behaved contrary to the doctrines; others essayed to cure diseases. Siu-tsuen was immediately acknowledged by all as their leader; he set himself to introduce and maintain a rigid discipline, forbade the use of opium and spirits, introduced the observance of the Sabbath, and regulated the worship of God. No hint of calling in the aid of a foreign teacher to direct them in their new services appears to have been suggested by any member, nor even of sending to Canton to engage the services of a native convert, though Liang A-fah was still living then. The whole year was thus passed at Thistle-mount, and the nucleus of the future force thoroughly imbued with the ideas of their leader, who had, by June, 1850, gathered around him his own relatives and chosen his lieutenants.’

    ‘ The insurgents cut off the tail, allowed their hair to grow, and decided that all who joined the insurrectional movement should leave off the chinig and the Tartar tunic, and should wear the robe open in the front, which their ancestors had worn in the time of the Mings. —Callerv and Yvan, llixiory of the Jimarycctiou in China, translated by John Oxeuford, p. 61. London, 1853.

    The existence of such a large body of people, acting together under the orders of one man, whose aspirations and teachings had gradually filled their minds with new ideas, could not remain unnoticed by the authorities. The governor-general lived at Canton, and received his information through local magistrates and prefects, whose policy was rather to understate the truth. But Sii Kwang-tsin felt that he was not fitted for the coming struggle. His place was therefore filled by the appointment of Lin, then living in Fuhchau, who started to fulfil his new ehai’ge, but died in October, as he entered the province.

    Governor Sii Avas obliged to leave Canton on duty, but he never

    met the enemy nor returned to his post. The po})ulac’e of the

    city made themselves merry over his violent conduct toward a

    poor paper-image maker near the landing, who had just set out

    to di-y some effigies dressed in high ofiicial costume, each one

    lacking a head. Su chose to regard this proceeding as an intentional

    insult, as the artisan must have known that he was to

    pass by that way, and ordered him to be bambooed and his ettigies

    destroyed to neutralize the bad omen. The Peking government

    had just sent three Manchus to superintend operations in

    Kwangsi ; their predecessors, Li and Chau, with the provincial

    governor, Clung, were all degraded, but these new imperial

    officials did no better, nor did those on the spot expect that

    they would succeed. Tahungah was the ruffian who had executed

    one hundred and eighty British prisoners in Formosa

    nine years before ; and Saishangah was the prime minister of

    the young Emperor llienfung, as worthless as he was depraved.

    Cruntai, who had long been in command of the Manchu garrison

    at Canton, was also sent, in May, 1851, to check the growing

    power of the insurgents. They were well posted in Wusiuen

    hien, near the junction of two rivers, and this chieftain

    naively expresses his surprise in his report to the Emperor that

    the rebels should occupy an important })Ost which he had just

    decided to fortify. However, his official rei)oit ‘ explains the

    reasons for the imperial reverses better than anything wliich

    had hitherto appeared. Corruption, venality, idleness, opiumsmoking,

    and peculation had made the whole army a mass of

    rottenness ; no one can wonder that the Tai-pings marched

    without dan<»;er throufrh the land to their ij-oal at Xankiuii;.

    A year previous to this date, however, the conflict had been

    begun by the followers of Siu-tsuen. In tlieir zeal against idolatry

    they had destroyed tem])les and irritated the people, which

    ei-e long aroused a S])irit of distrust and emnity ; this was further

    increased by the long-standing feud and mutual hatred

    * Chinese Reposikn’y, Vol. XX. , p. 493.

    COMMENCEMENT OF THE IJEVOLT. 591

    between the j>un-iis and h<(kk-as (natives and squatters) wlileh

    j-an through society. 8iu-tsuen and his chiefs were mostly of

    the latter class, and whenever villages were attacked and the

    hakkas worsted, they moved over to Thistle-mount and professed

    to worship Shangti with Siu-tsuen. In this way the

    whole population had become more or less split up into parties.

    When a body of imperial soldiers sent to artest him and Yunshan

    were driven off, they availed themselves of the enthusiasm

    of their followers to gather them and occupy Lienchu, a lai-ge

    market-town in Kwei hien. This proceeding attracted to their

    banner all the needy and discontented spirits in that region, but

    their own partisans were now able to regulate and employ all

    who came, requiring a close adherence to their religious tenets

    and worship. This town of Lienchu w^s soon fortified, and the

    order of a camp began to appear among its possessors, wdio, however, spared the townspeople. The drilling of the force, now increased to many thousands, commenced ; its vitality was soon tested when it was deemed best to cross the river and advance on Taitsun in order to obtain more room. The imperialists were hoodwinked by a simple device, and when they found their enemy had marched off, their attack on the rear was repulsed

    with much loss. Like all their class, they turned their

    wrath on the peaceful inhabitants of Lienchu, killing and burning

    till almost nothing was left. This needless cruelty recoiled

    on themselves, and all the members of the Shangti /iwui, loyal

    and disaffected alike, felt that their very name carried sedition

    in it, and they must join Siu-tsuen’s standard or give up their

    faith. lie had induced some recent comers belonging to the

    Triad Society to put their money into the military chest and

    to submit to his rules. One of his religious teachers had been

    detected embezzling the funds while on their way to the commissariat, but the public trial and execution of the man had

    served both as a warning and an encouragement to the different

    classes who witnessed the affair. Most of the Triad chiefs, however,

    were afraid of such discipline, and drew off to the imperialists

    with the greater number of their followers. The defection

    furnished Siu-tsuen an opportunity to make known his settled

    opposition to this fraternity, and that every man joining his party must leave it. At this time the discipline and good order exhibited in the eneaiiipment at Taitsiin nnist have struck the people around it with surprise and admiration, if the meagre accounts we have received are at all trustworthy.

    About one jeai- elapsed between the contiict near Lienchu

    and the capture of Yung-ngaii chau, u city on the liiver j\Iei in

    Pingloh pi’efecture. During this period Siu-tsuen had become

    more and more possessed with the idea of liis divine mission

    from the Tieti-fu, or ‘ Heavenly Father,’ as God was now

    connnonly called, and the Tien-Jiiung, or ‘ Ileaveidy Elder

    Brother,’ as he termed Jesus Christ. He began to seclude

    himself from the gaze of his followers, and deliver to them

    such revelations as he received for the management of the force

    committed to him to clear the land of all idolatry and 0})pression,

    and cheer the hearts of those pledged to the gloiious

    cause. This course was destructive of all those peculiar tenets

    which Christianity teaches, and, so far as can be learned, neither

    lie nor Yun-shan any longer prominently set forth the doctrines

    of salvation by repentance and faith in Christ, as they had done

    in their first journey among the INIiaotsz’, but held their followers

    together by fanaticism and the hope of final triumph. In

    its main features, his course was copied from that of IMoses and

    Aaron when they withdrew into the tal)ernacle, and it was

    easy to impress upon his ujiinstructed followers the repetition

    in his person of the same mode of making known the will of

    Heaven. An adequate reason can also be found in this scheme

    why he never called in the aid of foreign missionaries to teach

    his followers the truth as it is in Christ Jesus, knowing full

    well that none of them w^onld lend any conntenance to such delusion.

    As early as April, 1849, when still in Kwei hien, he began to promulge his decrees in the form of revelations received from the Heavenly Father and Elder Brother, when one or the other came down into the world to tell him what course lie should pursue. In March, 1853, just before capturing Nanking, he issued a book of ” Celestial Decrees,” containing a series of these revelations, from which the I’eal nature of his character can be learned. Two extracts will be sufficient to

    (piote:

    CHAKACTEU OF THE TIEN-WANd’s ATJTHOKITY. 593

    The Heavenly Father addressed the multitude, saying, O my children ! Do

    you know your Heavenly Father and your Celestial Elder Brother ? To which

    they all replied, We know our Heavenly Father and Celestial Elder Brother.

    The Heavenly Father then said, Do you know your Lord, and truly ‘i To

    which they all replied, We know our Lord right well. The Heavenly Father

    said, I have sent your Lord down into the world to l)ecome the Celestial King

    (Tkn-icniuj) ; every word lie litters is a celestial command ; you must be obedient

    ; you must truly assist your Lord and regard your King ; you must not

    dare to act disorderly, nor to be disrespectful. If you do not regard your Lord and King, every one of you will be involved in difficulty.’

    It is only from these official documents that we can learn the real political and religions tenets of the revolutionists now intrenched at Yung-ngan, and soon to burst forth in fury upon their country. It was in vain to expect gospel ligs from such a bramble bush.

    Another extract exhibits their jugglery still more clearly. It is dated December 1), 1S51, and contains the proceedings and sentence in the case of Chan Sih-nang, mIio had been detected holdins intercourse with General Saishan^ah at Taitsun. Four of the kings were that day consulting upon some weighty matters, when suddenly the Heavenly Father came down among them and secretly told them to instantly arrest Chan and two others and bring them to Yang, the Eastern King, while he returned to heaven. They did so, and reported the matter to the Tian Wang, but none of them had any evidence to proceed upon.

    ” Happily, how^ever, the Heavenly Father gave himself the

    trouble to appear once more,” and ordered two of the royal cousins

    to go and inform the several princes of his presence. They

    all attended at court and entreated the Ileavenlv Kino; to

    accompany them. Hereupon, his Majesty, guarded by the

    princes and body-guards, together with a host of officials, advanced

    into the presence of the Heavenly Father. They all

    kneeled down and asked, ” Is the Heavenly Father come down ?

    He replied, addressing the Tien-wang, ” Siu-tsuen, I am going

    to take this matter in hand to-day ; a mere mortal would find

    it a hard task. One Chan has been holdins; collusive commu-

    ‘ This decree bears the date April 19, 1851, at Tung-hiang, a village nea<

    Wusiuen.

    iiication with the enemy yesterday, and has returned to court,

    intending to carry into effect a very serious revolt. Go and

    bring him liere.” The culprit soon came, and the examination

    is reported in full. In answer to tlie question, ” Who is it that

    is now speaking to you ? ” he replied, ” The Heavenly Father,

    the Supreme Lord and Great God (Shangti) is addressing me.”

    He said soon after, ” I am aware that the Heavenly Father is

    omnipotent, omniscient, and omnipresent/’ By a series of

    questions his guilt was proved, and he and his accomplices, with

    his wife and son, were all put to death as a warning to traitors,

    in presence of a large concourse, to whom they confessed the

    justice of their fate.

    When in possession of Nanking, Hung Siu-tsuen was formally

    proclaimed by his army to be Emperor of China, and assumed

    the style and insignia of royalty. Five leading chiefs were

    appointed to their several corps as South, East, West, North,

    and Assistant Kings ; Fung Yun-shan w’as the Southern King.

    Who among them were the efficient disciplinarians and leading

    minds in carrying on their plan cannot be now ascertained, so

    complete was the secrecy which enveloped the whole movement

    from first to last as to the personnel of the force. Dr. Medhurst’s

    translations of their orders, tenets, laws, revelations, and textbooks

    furnish the most authentic sources for estimating its

    character, but they fail to describe its living agents. In so

    large an army, composed of the most heterogeneous elements,

    it cannot be expected that there would be at any time nnicli

    knowledge of the sacred Scriptures, on which its leaders based

    their assumed powers derived from the ‘ Heavenly Father and

    Elder Brother ;

    ‘ but there certainly was a remarkable degree

    of sobriety and discipline among them during the first few

    years of their existence. A most perplexing question, which

    increased in its urgency and difficulty as soon as opposition

    drove the rebel general to intrench himself at Liencliu, was

    temporarily arranged by forming a separate cMcaiu])inent for

    the women, and placing over them officers of their own sex to

    see that discipline was maintained. In doing this he allowed

    the married people as great facilities for the care of their children

    as was possible under the conditions of army life; but

    THE REBEL ADVANCE TO THE YANGTSZ\ 505

    diiriu*^ their progress through the land in 1852 and 1853, much

    suffering must have been endured.

    In 1852 the state and size of the army in Yung-ngan fully

    authorized the leaders of the I’evolt to march northward. Several

    engagements had given their men confidence in each other

    as thev saw the imperialists put to flight ; defeats had furthermore

    shown that their persevering enemy entertained no idea

    of sparing even one of them if captured. The want of provisions

    durino- their fiv^e months’ sieo;e within its walls further

    trained them to a certain degree of patient endurance ; when,

    therefore, they broke through the besieging force in three divisions

    on the night of April T, 1852, they were animated by

    success and hope to possess themselves of the Empire. Marching

    north they now attacked Kweilin, the provincial capital,

    May 15tli, but having no cannon fit to besiege a walled city of

    that size, crossed the border and captured Tau in Hunan, which

    gave them access to the Iliver Siang and means of transportation.

    Their course was thenceforth an easy conquest of the

    towns along its valley. Kweiyang chau, Chin chau, Tunghing,

    ISTganjin, and others were taken and evacuated, one after the

    other, until they reached the capital of this province, September

    18th. Chano-sha and Siangtan together form one immense city,

    and its defenders fully understood their peril, and the probability

    of entire destruction if they allowed it to be captured.

    For eighty days the Tai-pings exerted themselves in vain to

    obtain possession, losing, however, very few men, and doing no

    great harm to their enemy, who kept beyond reach. December

    1st they raised the siege, and by the 13tli reached Yohchau on

    the Yangtsz ‘, which was taken without a struggle. Ten days

    after, replenished and encouraged by the spoil found in Yohchau,

    they occupied Hanyang and Wuchang, the capital of

    Ilupeli province, lying on the other side of the river. Its garrison

    was unable to escape, and many eoldiers were destroyed.

    Hwangchau and Kiukiang, two prefect cities lower down, were

    captured January 12th and February 18th, while Nganking,

    the capital of i^ganhwui, fell a week later. Nothing seemed

    able to resist the advance of the insurgents, and on March

    8th they encamped before Nanking. It was garrisoned by Mancbus and Chinese, who, however, made no better defence than their comrades in other cities ; in ten days its walls were breached, and all the defenders found iii>i(lc put to death, including Luh, the governor-general of the province. Chiidciang and Yangchau soon were dragged to the same fate, thus depriving the imperialists of their control of the (irand Canal.

    This I’apid progress through the land since leaving Yung-ngan eleven months previously had spread consternation among the demoralized officers and soldiers of the Emperor, mIio, on his part, Avas as weak and ignorant as any of his subordinates.

    The march of the insurgents showed the ntter hollowness of the imperial troops, the incapacity of their most trusted leaders, and the little interest taken by the great body of the nation in the conflict. Many causes which might adequately c.\}»lain this extraordinary success cannot now be ascertained, but a national dislike of the Mancbus on the part of the Chinese lay at the bottom of their coldness. They felt, too, that a government wdiich could not protect them against a few thousand foreign troops might as well give place to a native one. The insurgents had perhaps not more than ten thousand adherents, including women and children, when they left Yung-ngan ;’but these went forth in the full conviction of the heavenly commission of their leader to destroy idolatry, set up the worship of the true God, and inaugurate the kingdom of heaven hi the person of the “Heavenly King.”‘ The term SJuDujti was known by every schoolboy to be the name of the God worshipped at Peking by the Emperor in his right as Son of Heaven, and the successor of the ancient sovereigns mentioned in the Ska King ,’ accordingly, when the insurgents set up the worship of the true God as they had been able to learn it from Gutzlaff’s revised version of the Bible, their countrymen immediately recognized the challenge. It was an attack on the religious as well as political position of Taukwang; whoever maintained his side in the gage of battle, with him were undoubtedly the powers above. The progress of the new banner from Yuiig-ngan to banking was like that of a fiery cross, and the sufferings of the people, except in a few large cities, were really more owing to the savage itnperialists than to the Taipings.

    ‘ Though one of their officers told Mr. Meadows, at Nanking, that the force was about three thousand.

    SOUIICKS OI- rilKHl STKENGTir. 597

    The latter grew in strength as they advanced, owing to indiscriminate slaughter on the part of their enemies of unoffending natives, and at last reached their goal with not much less than eighty thousand men.

    Their position was now accessible to foreigners—who had

    been watching their rise and progress under great disadvantages

    in arriving at the truth—and they were soon visited by them

    in steamers. The first to do so was Governor Bonham in

    II. M. S. Ilermes, accompanied by T. T. Meadows, one of the

    most competent linguists in China, who published the result of

    liis inquii-ies. The visitors were at first received with incredidity,

    but this soon gave way to eager curiosity to learn the real

    nature of their religious views and practices. The insurgents

    themselves were even inore ignorant of foreigners than were

    these of the rebels, so that the interest could not fail to be reciprocal,

    nor could either party desire to come into collision with the other.

    About two months after the cities of Nanjing, Chinkiang, and Yangzhou had been taken, garrisoned, and put in a state of defence by their inhabitants, working under the direction of Tai-ping officers, the leaders felt so much confidence in their cause, their troops, and their ability, that they despatched a division to capture Peking. Xo particulars of its size or composition are given, but its course and achievements are recorded in the Peking Gazette. The force landed not far from Kwacliau, where it defeated a body of Manchus, and then proceeded to Liuho and Fungyang fu without finding serious opposition.

    Crossing the province of Xganhwui, they entered that of Honan, and in one month from landing the troops laid siege to Kaifeng, the provincial capital, June 19th. Three days later they were repulsed, and their leaders crossed the Yellow River to Hwaiking fu, about a hundred miles west of Kaifung. For two months they were baffled by an unusual resistance on the part of the imperialists, and were compelled to leave it and go west into Shansi, where they took Pingyang fu and flanked the enemy by turning east and north-east till they crossed the Liiuniing pass and got into Chihli. It was their design to have gone down the River “Wei to Lintsing chau on the Grand Canal, but they were compelled to make a detour of some hundreds of miles to reacli this last place. In doing so they ascended the steep defiles leading from the basin of the Yellow River to the plateau in South Shansi. This march was accomplished in the month of September, and on October9th the prefect city of Shinchau in Chihlf, only two hundred

    miles from Peking, was taken. Their army remained at Shinchau

    for a fortnight, when they marched across the plain northeasterly

    to Tsinghai hien, on the Grand Canal. Here they

    intrenched themselves on October 2Sth, but twenty miles south

    of Tientsin. A detachment sent to attack that city was repulsed,

    and the whole body were blockaded on Xovember 3d by

    the Manchu force, wliicli had followed it from Ilwaiking, and

    other corps ordered from the north to intercept its progress

    toward the capital. In six months this insurgent force had

    traversed four provinces, taken twenty-six cities, subsisted themselves

    on the enemy, and defeated every body of impei’ialists

    sent against thenio The men who performed this remarkable

    march of fully one thousand five hundred miles in the face of

    such odds, would have accomplished even greater deeds under

    better training. Considering all things, it is quite equal to

    General Sherman’s march to the sea in 1861: ; yet so little is

    known of the details of this feat, that we are not even cei’tain

    of its leader’s name—whether Lin Fung-tsiang, spoken of by

    the Gazette as a ‘ Pretended Minister,’ or some other general,

    was in command.

    . It is rather hard to understand why the Tai-pings intrenched

    themselves so near to Tientsin, but the officials of that city, in

    1858, ascribed it to the fact that water covered the plain, preventing

    all operations against the town. Perhaps their want

    of siege guns, and the cavalry now brought from Mongolia, decided

    the leaders to intrench themselves at Tsinghai and send

    to Nanking for reinforcements. The Tai-ping Wang immediately

    despatched an auxiliary force, which also crossed Kganliwui

    to Funghien on the north bank of the Yellow lliver ; this

    THE EXPEDITION AGAINST PEKING. 599

    place was captured March IT, 1854, “after taking city after

    city,” as the Emperor llieiifung expressed it. The ice was gone

    when the army reached Liiitsiiig cliau, April 12th, and that

    city was taken by a tierce assault against the combined resistance

    of its garrison and the imperialists outside, after the insur’-‘

    ciit auxiliary was attacked in force. The other body had

    left Tsinghai in February, starved out rather than driven away,

    and gone to the district town of Ilien, which they left March

    KUh for Fauching, and probably rejoined their comrades somewhere

    between that and Lintsing. They were about a hundred

    miles apart, and the intervening region was no doubt forcibly

    drained of its supplies. This joint army remained in possession

    of their depots as long as they saw lit, and ti-eated the inhabitants

    reasonably well, among whom there were no Manchus,

    The inability to understand each other s speech kept the people

    of this district from mixing with the southerners, and, combined

    with the impossibility of keeping open the road to Nanking,

    decided the Tai-pings to return. This they did in March, 1855,

    by re-entering IS^ganhwui and rejoining the main body whereever

    ordered ; but no details are known of their movements for

    nearly a year before that date. Peking and the Great Pure

    dynasty were saved, however ; while the failure of Hung Siutsuen

    to risk all on such an enterprise proved his ignorance of

    the real point of this contest. lie never was able to undertake

    a second campaign, and his followers soon degenerated into

    banditti.

    The possession of Nanking, Chinkiang, and Kwachau, with

    the large flotilla along the Yangtsz’ River west to Ichang in

    Hupeh, a distance of over six hundred miles, had entirely sundered

    the Emperor’s authority over the seven south-eastern provinces.

    The country on each side for fifty or one hundred and

    fifty miles was visited by the insurgents’ troops merely for supplies.

    Their boats penetrated to Nanchang in Kiangsi, went

    up the Piver Siang even beyond Changsha in Ilunan, ravaged

    one town after another in quest of provisions and reinforcements,

    which were either taken to Nanking or used to support

    the crews ; but nowhere did the leaders set up anything like a

    government, nowhere did they secure those who submitted or pursued their avocations quietly any protection against imperialist

    or other foes. As a revohition involving a reorganizatioTi of the Chinese nation on Christian principles, and a well-defined assertion of the rights and duties of rulers and subjects, it had failed entirely within a year after the possession of Kanking.

    There was no hope that any of the leaders in the movement would develop the ability to initiate the establishment of a consistent and suitable control, since not one of them was endowed either with the experience necessaiy to introduce provisional government over concpiei’ed communities, or with that tact calculated to impress their inhabitants with enduring confidence in them. All their prisoners were compelled to work or fight in their service, and were willing to earn their food and clothes ; while in obeying such orders, and going through such religious ceremonies as were told them, they of course had not much to complain of ; but this conduct did not imply hatred of the mandarins or an abjuiation of Buddhism.

    During the three years after JS’anking had V)een occupied, the people in the Vangtsz* valley had suffered much from the conflict. Both armies lived on the land, and tlu; danger of resisting the demands for food, clothes, and animals was nearly equaled by that of j(,)ining the contending forces ; in either case beggary or loss of life was sure to be the end. As an instance of by no means unexamjilcd suffering, the populous mart of Hankow and its environs was taken by assault six different times during the thirty months ending in May, 1855, and finally was left literally a heap of ruins. In country places the imperialists were, of the two parties, perhaps the more terrible scourge, but as the region became impoverished each side vied with the other in exhausting the people. The Tai-pings were gradually circumscribed to the region around Kaiiking and Nganking by the slow approaches of the government troops, and in 1800 seemed to be near their end. The interest which had been aroused at Shanghai in 1853, upon hearing of their Christian tenets and organization, had been satisfied in the various visits of foreign functioiuiries to Xanking, the intercourse with the leaders and men, perusal of their books, and observation of their policy.

    FAILURE OF THE ENTERPRISE. 601

    One inherent defect in the enterprise, when viewed in its political bearing, ere long showed itself. Nothing could induce Iluiii”: Siu-tsuen to lead his men to the north and risk all ill an attack on Peking. His own conviction of his divine mission had been most cordially received by his generals and the entire b(xly of followers which left Yung-ngan in 1852; but their faith was not accepted by the enormous additit>ns made to the Tai-pings as they advanced to Nanking, and gradually the original force became so diluted that it was inade<juate to restrain and inspirit their auxiliaries. Moreover, the Tien-wang had never seriously worked out any conception of the radical changes in his system of government, which it would be absolutely necessary to inaugurate under a Christian code of laws.

    Having had no knowledge of any western kingdom, he probably regarded them all as conformed to the rules and examples given in the Bible ; perhaps, too, he trusted that the ” Heavenly Father and Elder Brother ” would reveal the proper course of action when the time came. The great body of literati would naturally be indisposed to even examine the claims of a western religion which placed Shangdi above all other gods, and allowed no images in worship, no ritual in temples, and no adoration to ancestors, to Confucius, or to the heavenly bodies. But if this patriotic call to throw off the Manchu yoke had been fortified by a well-devised system of public examinations for office—modified to suit the new order of things by introducing more practical subjects than those found in the classics—and had been put into practice, it is hard to suppose that the intellectual classes would not gradually have ranged themselves on the side of this rising power. The unnecessary cruelty and slaughter practised toward the Manchu garrisons and troops carried more dread into the hearts of the population than stimulus to co-operate with such ruthless revolutionists. The latter had weakened their prospects by destroying confidence in their moderation, justice, and ability to carry out their aim to establish a new sway. There was a large foundation of national aspirations and real dislike to the present dynasty, on which the Tien-wang could have safely reckoned for help and sympathy. But he was far from equal to the exigency of his opportunity. The doubts of his countrymen as to his coiiipeteney were proved by the ^iitisfaction and relief felt when his movement collapsed.

    When the remnants of the two corps which returned from the north in 1855 were incorporated into the forces holding the Grand Canal and the Liang Kiang province, their outposts hardly extended along the Great Eiver beyond Chinkiang on the east and Xganking on the west. In that year dissensions sprung up among the leaders themselves inside of Nanking, which ended in the execution of Yang, the Eastern King, the next year ; a tierce struggle maintained by Wei, the Northern King, on behalf of the Tien-wang, upheld his supremacy, but at a loss of his best general. Another man of note, Shi Dakai, the Assistant King, losing faith in the whole undertaking, managed to withdraw with a large following westward, and reached Sz’chuen. The early friend of Hong Xiuquan, Feng Yunshan, known as the Southern King, disappeared about the same time. Humors of these conflicts reached Shanghai in such a contradictory form that it was impossible to learn all their causes.

    (3ne source of sti’ife arose by Yang assuming to be the Holy

    Ghost. Ileceiving communications from the Heavenly Father

    and Elder Brother, he thus placed himself above the Tien-wang, and, it is said by Wilson,’ ” required him to humble himself and receive forty lashes” for some misdemeanors complained of by the Comforter. The notices of this man which have reached us show that he early took a prominent part in the movement, and perhaps manipulated ”descents of the Heavenly Father,” like the one referred to above as mentioned in the ” Book of Declarations ” in the case of Chan Sih-nang.” Many proclamations were issued in his name (»n the progress to Naidving, which set forth the principles under which the Heavenly Dynasty were trying to conquer. Incentives addressed to the patriotic feelings of the Chinese were mixed up with their obligations to worship Shangdi, now made known to them as the Great God, our Heavenly Father, and security promised to all who submitted.

    ‘ Tfie, ** ?Jrer-Vict<>rums Army,”^ Lt.-Col. Gordon’s Chinrxr Citmpaiqn, p. 43.

    ‘.T. Milton Mackie, Life of Tni-pinfi-Wang, Chief of the Chinese Insurrection^Chap. XXXIV., New York, 1857.

    DISSENSIONS AMONG THE TAI-PING LEADERS. 603

    In one sent forth by liini when nearing Nanking, he thus summarizes the rules which guided the Tai-pings:

    I, the General, in obedience to the royal commands, have put in motion the troops for the punishment of the oppressor, and in everyplace to which I have come the enemy, at the first report, have dispersed like scattered rubbish. As soon as a city has been captured, I have put to death the rapacious mandarins and corrupt magistrates therein, but have not injured a single individual of the people, so that all of you may take care of your families and attend to your business without alarm and trei^idation. I have heard, however, that numbers or lawless vagabonds are in the villages, who previous to the arrival of our troops take advantage of the disturbed state of the country to defile mens’ wives and daughters, and burner plunder the property of honest people. . . .

    I have therefore especially sent a great officer, named Yiien, with some hundreds of soldiers, to go through the villages, and as soon as he finds these vagabonds he is commissioned forthwith to decapitate them ; while if the honest inhabitants stick up the word shun [‘ obedient ‘J over their doors, they will have nothing to fear.

    ‘Such manifestoes could not reassure the timid population of the valley of the Yangtsz’, and the carnage of the unresisting JVLanchus inXanking, Chinkiang, and elsewhere indicated a ruthless license among the followers of the Tien-wang, which made them feel that their success carried with it no promise of melioration.

    In addition, as the vast spoil obtained from these cities and towns up to 1S50 was consumed, the outlook of the rebels was most discouraging. Among their forces, the disheartened, the sick, and the wounded, with the captived and desperate, soon died, deserted, or skulked, and their places Avere filled by forced

    levies. Under these circumstances the dissensions within the

    court at Xanking imperilled the whole cause, and showed the

    incapacity of its leaders in face of their great aim. Yang had

    sunk into a sensual, unscrupulous faction leader who could no

    longer he endured ; by October, 1856, he and all his adherents,

    to the number of twenty thousand, were utterly cut off by Wei.

    But this latter king speedily met with a like fate. Shih, the

    Assistant King, was at this time in the province of Kiangsi. It

    had become a life struggle with Siu-tsuen, and his removal of the

    four kings resulted in leaving him without any real military

    chief on whose loyalty he could depend. The rumors which

    ‘Lindley, Tai-ping Tien-kwoh, \ol. I., p. 94. reached Shanghai in 1856 of the fierce conflict in the city were probably exaggerated by the desire prevalent in that region that the parties would go on, like the Midianites in Gideon’s time, beatinir down each other till they ended the matter.

    The success of the Tai-pings had encouraged discontented leaders in other parts of China to set up their standards of revolt. The progress of Shih Ta-kai in Sz’chuen and Kweichau engaged the utmost efforts of the provincial rulers to restore peace. In Kwangtung a powerful band invested the city, but the operations of Governor Yeh, after the departure of Sii Kwang-tsun in 185i, were well supported by the gentry. By the middle of 1855 the rising was quenched in blood. The destruction of Fatshan, Shauking, and other large towns, had shown that the sole object of the rebels was plunder, though it was thought at first that they were Tai-pings. The executions in Canton during fourteen months np to August, 1856, were nearly a hundred thousand men ; but the loss of life on both sides must be reckoned by millions. A band of Cantonese desperadoes seized the city of Shanghai in September, 1853, killing the district magistrate and some other officials. They retained possession till the Chinese New Year, January 27, 1854, leaving the city amid flames and carnage, when many of the leaders escaped in foreign vessels.’ None of these men were affiliated with the Tai-pings.

    Jn Formosa and Hainan, as well as in Yunnan and Kansuh, the provincial authorities had hard work with their local contingents to maintain the Emperor’s authority. This wretched prince was himself fast bound under the sway of Suhshun and his miserable coterie, devising moans to rej>lcnish his coffers by issuing iron and paper money, and proposing counters cut out of jade stone to take the place of bullion. The national history, however, had many notices of precisely such disastrous epochs in former times, and the nation’s faith in itself was not really weakened.

    THE REBEL SORTIE FROM NANKING. 605

    By 1857 the imperialists had begun to draw close lines about ‘No foreigners here or elsewhere in China were injured designedly during all this insurrection.

    the rebels, when they were nearly restricted to the river banks between Nganking and Nanking, both of which cities were blockaded. Two years later the insurgent capital was beleaguered,

    but in its siege the loyalists trusted almost wholly to

    the effects of want and disease, which at last reached such an

    extreme degree (up to 18G0) that it was said human flesh was

    sold on the butchers’ stalls of Xanking. Their ammunition was

    nearly expended, their numbers were reduced, and their men

    apparently desirous to disperse ; but the indomitable spirit of the

    leader never quailed. He had appointed eleven other ((‘(okj, or generals,

    called Chung TFan^ (‘ Loyal King ‘j, Ylng Wang (‘Heroic

    King’), Kan TH/vi^ (‘ Shield King’), Ting Wang (‘Listening

    King ‘), etc., whose abilities were cpiite equal to the old ones.

    As the siege progressed events assumed daily a more threatening

    aspect. Chang Kwo-liang and Ilo Chun, two imperialist generals,

    invested the city more and more closely, driving the insurgents

    to extremity in every direction. The efforts of these men

    were, however, not aggressive in conseqnence of the war then

    waging with the British and French on the Pei ho. This encouraged

    the beleaguered garrison to a desperate effort to free themselves,

    and on May G, 18G0, a well-concerted attack on the

    armies which had for years been intrenched behind outworks

    about the city scattered them in utter disorder. A small body

    of Tai-pings managed to get out toward the north of Kiangsu,

    near the Yellow Kiver. Another body had already (in March)

    carried Hangchau by assault by springing a mine ; as many as

    seventy thousand inhabitants, including the Manchu garrison,

    perished here during the week the city remained in possession of

    the rebels. On their return to Nanking the joint force carried all before it, and the needed guns and annnunition fell into their hands. The loyalist soldiers also turned against their old officers, but the larger part had been killed or dispei’sed. Chinkiang and Changchau were captured, and Ilo Kwei-tsing, the governor-general, fled in the most dastardly manner to Suchaii, without an effort to retrieve his overthrow. Some resistance was made at Wnsih on the Grand Canal, but Ilo Chnn was so paralyzed by the onslaught that he killed himself, and Sucliau fell into the hands of Chung Wang with no resistance whatever.

    It was, nevertheless, burned and pillaged by the cowardly imperialists before they left it, Ho Kwei-tsiug setting the large suburbs on tire to uncover the solid walls. This destruction was so unnecessary that the citizens welcomed the Tai-pings, for they would at least leave them their houses. AVith Suchau and Ilangchau in their hands, the Kan Wang and Chung Wang had control of the great watercourses in the two provinces, and their desire now was to obtain foreign steamers to use in regaining niasteiy of the Yangzi River. The loss of their first leaders was by this time admirably supplied to the insurgents by these two men, who had had a wider experience than the TianWang himself, while their extraordinary success in dispersing their enemies had been to them all an assurance of divine protection and approval.

    The populous and fertile region of Kiangnan and Chehkiang was wholly in their hands by June, 1800, so far as any organized Mancliu force could resist them. The destruction of life, property, and industry within the three months since their sally from Nanking had been unparalleled probably since the Conquest, more than two centuries before, and revived the stories told of the ruthless acts of Attila and Tamerlane. Shanghai was threatened in August by a force of less than twenty thousand men led by the Chung Wang, and it would have been captured if it had not been protected by British and French troops. Many villages in the district were destroyed, but the flotilla approaching from Sungkiang recoiled from a collision with foreigners, and the insurgents all retired before September. They, however,

    could now be supplied with nnmitions of war, and even began

    to enlist foreigners to help them drill and light. It was an

    anomalous condition of things, possible only in China, that

    while the allied force was marching upon Peking to extort a

    treaty, the same force was encircling the walls of Shanghai, burning its suburbs to destroy all cover, and aiding its rulers to preserve it to Ilienfung— all in order to conquer a trade. It was then the moment for the Tai-pings to have moved rapidly upon Chihli and tried the gage of battle before the metropolis, as soon as possible after Lord Elgin had withdrawn. But they had now very few left to them of the kind of troops which threatened the capital in 1853-54, and could not depend on recruits from Kiangnan in the hour of adversity.

    FOREKiN AID AGAINST THE REBELS. ”><)7

    At this juncture the imperialists began to look toward foreigners for aid in restoring their prestige and power by employing skill and weapons not to be found among themselves.

    An American adventurer, Frederick G. Ward, of Salem, Mass., proposed to the Intendant Wu to recapture Sungkiaiig from the Tai-pings ; he was repulsed on his first attempt at the head of about a hundred foreigners, but succeeded on the second, and the imperialists straightway occupied the city. This success, added to the high pay, stimulated many others to join him, and General Ward ere long was able to organize a larger body of soldiers, to which the name of Cliang-shing Mun, or ‘ Ever-victorious force,’ was given by the Chinese ; it ultimately proved to be well applied. Its composition was heterogeneous, but the energy, tact, and discipline of the leader, under the impulse of an actual struggle with a powerful foe, soon moulded it into something like a manageable corps, able to serve as a nucleus for training a native army. Foreigners generally looked down upon the undertaking, and many of the allied naval and military officers regarded it with doubt and dislike. It had to prove its character by works, but the successive defeats of the insurgents during the year 1862 in Kiangsu and Chehkiang, clearly demonstrated the might of its trained men over ten times their number of undisciplined braves.

    But we must retrace our steps somewhat. In 1860 the possession of the best parts of Kiangsu and Chehkiang led the Tian Wang to plan the relief of Nganking by advancing on Hankow with four separ’ate corps. They were under the leadership of the Chung Wang, and, so far as the details can be gathered, manifested a practical generalship hardly to be expected.

    The Ying Wang was to move through Ng-anhwui from Lucliau westerly to Ilwangchau ; the Attendant King (Shih) was to leave Kiangsi and co-operate with the Chung Wang by reaching the Yangtsz’ as near Hankow as possible, and a smaller force under the Tu AVang was to recover Ilukau at the mouth of Poyang Lake and ascend the Great River in boats. The area through which this campaign was to be carried on may be understood when we learn that the Chung Wang’s march of five hundred miles was over the two ranges of mountains on the frontiers of Kiangsi, and that of the Ying Wang two hundred miles through the plains of Xganhwui. This last king did actually take his force of about eighty thousand men two hundred miles to II wangchau (fifty miles below Hankow) in eleven days, but none of his colleagues came to his aid. The experience of eight years had quite changed the elements of the contest.

    The people now generally realized that neither life, property, nor government was secured under the Tai-pings ; the imperialists had learned how to obtain the co-operation of the patriotic gentry, and the rank and file of the Tai-pings were by this date mostly conquered natives of the same region, as no recruits had ever come from Kwangsi. Moreover, the region was impoverished, and this involved greater privations to all parties. Yet the Chung AVang went from AVuhu south-west to Kwangsin, crossed the water-shed into Kiangsi, defeated a force at Kienchang, crossed the River Kan near Linkiang, and marched north-west to AVuning hien on the River Siu. Here he heard of the defeat of Tu AVang, and the non-arrival of Shih’s force ; and, lest he should be hemmed in himself, as the failure of the campaign was evident, he led his army back across the province to Kwangsin by September, 1861. The particulars of this last great exploit of the Tai-pings are so imperfectly known, that it is impossible to judge of it as a military movement accomplished under enormous difficulties ; but the Loyal King must have been a strategist of no mean rank. In November, 1861, Nganking succumbed to the imperialists. Its defenders and the citizens endured untold sufferings at the last, while its victors had an empty shell ; but the river Avas theirs down to Nanking, On his return east, Chung AVang moved into Chehkiang and overran all the northern half of that province, his men inflicting untold horrors upon the inhabitants, whom they killed, burned, and robbed as they listed.

    THE ” EVER-VICTOKIOUS FORCE.” 609

    Ningpo was taken December 9th and held till May 10th, when it was recaptured by the allies; foreign trade had not been interrupted during this period, and the city suffered less than many others. In September the Tai-pings were driven out of the valley of the Yung River, but the death of General Ward at Tsz’ki deprived the imperialists of an able leader. The career of this man had been a strange one, but his success in training his men was endorsed by honorable dealing with the mandarins, who had reported well of him at Peking. He was buried at Sungkiang, where a shrine was erected to his memory, and incense is burned before him to this day.

    It was difficult to find a successor, but the command rather devolved on his second, an American named Bui-gevine, who was confirmed by the Chinese, but proved to be incapable. He was superseded by Holland and Cooke, Englishmen, and in April, 1863, the entire command was placed under Colonel Peter Gordon, of the British army. During the interval between May, 1860, wdien Ward took Sungkiang, and April 6, 1863, when Gordon took Fushau, the best manner of combining native and foreign troops M’as gradually developed as they became more and more acquainted with each other and learned to respect discipline as an earnest of success. Such a motley force has seldom if ever been seen, and the enormous preponderance of Chinese troops would have perhaps been an element of danger had they been left idle for a long time.

    The bravery of the Ever-victorious force in the presence of the enemy had gradually won the confidence of the allies, as well as the Chinese officials, in whose pay it was ; and when it operated in connection with the French and British contingent in driving the Tai-pings out of jS^ingpo prefecture, the real worth of Ward’s drill was made manifest. The recapture of that city by Captain Dew’s skilful and brave attack in reply to their unprovoked firing at H. M. S. Encounter, brought out the bravery of all nationalities, as well as restored the safety of the port. An extract from Captain Dew’s report will exhibit the dreadful results to the common people of this civil war:

    I had known Ningbo in its palmy days, when it boasted itself one of the first commercial cities of the Empire; but now, on this 11th of May, one might have fancied that an angel of destruction had been at work in the city as in the suburbs. All the latter, with their wealthy hongs and thousands of houses, lay levelled ; while in the city itself, once the home of half a million of people, no trace or vestige of an inhabitant could be seen. Truly it was a city of the dead. The rich and beautiful furniture of the houses had become firewood, or was removed to the walls for the use of soldiers. The canals were filled with dead bodies and stagnant filth. The stonework of bridges and pavements had been nplifted to strengthen walls and form barricades in the streets ; and in temples once the pride of their Buddhist priests, the chaotic remains of gorgeous idols and war gods lay strewn about—their lopped limbs showing that they had become the sport of those Christian Tai-pings whose chief, the Tien-wang. eight years before at Nanking, had asked Sii George Bonham if the Virgin Mary had a pretty sister for him, the King of Heaven, to marry ! It has been my good fortune since to assist at the wresting o; many cities from these Tai-pings, and in them all I found, as at Ningbo, that the same devilish hands had been at work—the people expelled from their houses and their cities ruined.’

    Yet so speedy was the revival from the ruins, that we are told that in one month houses had been refurnished and shops opened ; their owners had mostly fled across the river into the foreign settlement. A larger force was now organized

    —MM. Le Brethon and (iiquel behig in charge of a Franco-Chinese regiment—and an advance made on Yiiyau, which was retaken, and one thousand drilled Chinese left to defend it.

    Tsz’ki, Funghwa, and Sluuigyii were also cleared of rebels, and during the month of March they evacuated the prefect city of Shauhing, never again to return to this fertile valley. Their inroad had been an unmitigated scourge, for they had now given up all pretense of Christianity, and had not the least idea of instituting a regular government ; to plunder, kill, and destroy was their only business. Their sense of danger from the liatred of the people whom they had so grievously maltreated led them at this time to defend the walled cities with a reckless bravery that made their capture more difficult and dangerous. This was shown in the siege of Shauhing fu, within whose walls about forty thousand Tai-pings were well led by the Shi Wang. The possession of cannon enabled them to reply to the balls thrown by Captain Dew’s artillery, while despair lent energy to their resistance ; so that the attack turned into a regular siege of a montlrs duration, when, food and amnumition being exhausted, they retreated en mas.se to llangchau.

    > A. Wilson, The ” Ecer-Vidorious Armi/,” p. U)2, London, 18G8.

    SUCCESSES OF THE FORCE UNDER GOItDON. 611

    While this success relieved the greater part of Chehkiang from the scourge, the failure of the Ever-victorious force to retake Taitsang and Fuslian, under Holland and Brennan, had discouraged Governor Li, who had now come into power, he applied to General Stavely, who, with a full appreciation of the exigencies of the case, and concurrence of Sir Frederick Bruce, aided iti reorganizing Ward’s force and placing Colonel Gordon over it with adequate powers. There were live or six infantry regiments of about five hundred men each, and a battery of artillery; at times it numbered five thousand men. The commissioned officers were all foreigners, and their national rivalries were sometimes a source of trouble ; the non commissioned officers were Chinese, many of them repentant rebels or seafaring men from Canton and Fuhkien, promoted for good conduct. The uniform was a mixture of native and foreign dress, which at first led to the men being ridiculed as ‘ Imitation Foreign Devils ; ‘ after victory, however, had elevated their esprit du corps, they became quite proud of the costume.

    In respect to camp equipage, arms, commissariat and ordnance departments, and means of transport, the natives soon made themselves familiar with all details; while necessity helped their foreign officers rapidly to pick up their language. It is recorded, to the credit of this motle}^ force, that ” there was very little crime and consequently very little punishment; . . . as drunkenness was unknown, the services of the provost-marshal rarely came into use, except after a capture, when the desire for loot was a temptation to absence from the ranks.”‘

    In addition, the force had a fiotilla of four small steamers, aided by a variety of native boats to the number of fifty to seventy-five. The plain is so intersected by canals that the troops could be easier moved by water than land, and these boats enabled it to carry out surprises which disconcerted the rebels. Wilson well remarks concerning Gordon’s force : ” Its success was owing to its compactness, its completeness, the quickness of its movements, its possession of steamers and good artillery, the bravery of its officers, the confidence of its men, the inability of the rebels to move large bodies of troops with nqudity, tlio nature of the country^ the almost intuitive perception of the leader in adapting his operations to the nature of the country, and his untiring energy in carrying them out.*”

    ‘ Wilson, ibid, p. 133.

    The details of this singular troop are worth telling with more minuteness than spaee here allows, for its management will no doubt form a precedent in the future ; hut the good its remarkable chief effected in restoring peace to Kiangsu calls for that recognition which skill, tact, and high moral purpose ever deserve. Being formally put in command on March 24, 18G3, he promptly reinstated the foreign officers belonging to the force, paid their dues, and within a few days was in readiness to march upon Fnshan, a town on the Yangtsz’ above Panshan.

    The fall of this place on April Gth led to the ca}>tu]”e of (“hanzu,

    when preparations wei-e made for besieging Taitsang fu, where

    an army of ten thousand rebels, aided by foreign adventurers,

    presented a formidable imdertaking for his force of two thousand

    eight hundred men, although supported by a large body

    of imperialists. In its capture (May 2d) the killed and wounded

    numbered one hundred and sixty-two officers and men ; the

    boot}- obtained was so large that Colonel Gordon led his men

    back to Sungkiang, in order to reorganize them after this experience

    of their conduct. Finding that their former license

    in appropriating the loot thus obtained tended to demoralize

    them all, he accepted the resignations of some of the discontented

    officers, and adopted stringent measures to bring the

    others to render military obedience. Consequently, when he

    started for Iviunshan with about three thousand men, he had

    liis force in a much better condition. This city occupied an

    important position between Shanghai, Chanzu, Taitsang, and

    other large towns on the east, and Suchau on the Avest. The

    rebels had set up a cannon foundry within its M-alls, and from

    it obtained supplies for the last-named city, with which it -was

    connected by a causeway. By means of the armed steamer

    Ilyson, Colonel Gordon was able to bi-ing up through one of

    the canals a comj^any of three hundred and fifty men and field

    artillery, cutting the causeway and pursuing its defenders, some

    ‘ Ibul, p. 138.

    ENVIRONMENT OF SUCIIAU. 613

    into the town and some toward Sncliau, almost to its veiy

    gates. On the return of the steamer in the night, the commander

    found the imperialists engaged M’ith the garrison in a

    sharp contest, in which the foreigners then aided, and completely

    routed the rebel body of nearly eight thousand men.

    Fully four thousand of them were killed outright, and others were drowned or cut off by the exasperated peasantry before the day was over. This was on May 30th. The captured town was made headquarters by its victors, as a more eligible location than Sungkiang, though against the wishes of the native office’s, who desired to go back there with their booty. The loss of men, material, and position to the rebels was very great, and Colonel Gordon could now safely turn his whole thoughts to the capture of Suchau.

    This city is like Venice in its approaches by canals ; owing to its location it was deemed best, before attempting its capture, to reduce certain towns in the vicinity, from which it derived supplies, so that the Chung “Wang should not be able to co-operate with its garrison. The district towns of AVukiang and Kahpu were both taken in July with comparatively little loss. This rapid reduction of many strong stockades, stone forts, and walled towns, with the panic exhibited by the men, proved how useless to the rebels the foreigners in their service had been in rendering them really formidable enemies, and how incapable the wangs had been to appreciate the nature and need of discipline.

    After these places had been occupied. Colonel Gordon found his position beset with so many unexpected annoyances, both from his rather turbulent and incongruous troops as well as from the Chinese authorities, that he went to Shanghai on August 8th for the purpose of resigning the command. Arriving here, however, he ascertained that Burgevine had just gone over to the Tai-pings with about three hundred foreigners, and was then in Suchau. The power of moral principle, which guided the career of the one, was then seen in luminous contrast to its lack as shown in the other of these soldiers of fortune. To his lasting credit Colonel Gordon decided to return at once to Kiunshan, and, in face of the ingratitude of the Chinese and iealousy of his officers, to stand by the imperialist cause. he uraduallv restored his influence over officers ai\(l men. ascertained that Burgevine’s position in the Tai-ping army did not allow him freedom enough to render his presence dangerous to their foes, and began to act aggressively against ISuchau by taking Patachiau on its southern side in September, Emissaries from the foreigners in the city now reported considerable dissatisfaction with their position, and Colonel Gordon was able to arrange in a short time their withdrawal without much danger to themselves. It is said that Burgevine even then proposed to him to join their forces, seize Suchau, and as soon as possible march on Peking Avith a large army, and do to the Manchus what the Manchus had done, two hundred and twenty years before, to the Mings, (\jlonel Gordon’s own loyalty was somewhat suspected by the imperialist leaders, but his integrity carried him safely through all these temptations to swerve from his duty.

    As soon as these niercenaries among the rebels were out of the

    way, operations against Suchau were prosecuted with vigor, so

    that by Xovember 19th the entire city was invested and carefully

    cut off from comnnmication with the north. The city

    being now hard pushed, the besieging force prepared for anight

    attack upon a breach previously made in the stockade near the

    north-east gate. It was well planned, but the Muh Wang, /rtc^/Ai

    j)rince2)s among the Tai-ping chiefs in courage and devotion,

    liaving been informed of it, opened such a destructive fire that

    the Ever-victorious force was defeated with a loss of about two

    hundred officers and men killed and wounded. On the next

    morning, however (November 2Sth), it was reported that the

    cowardly leaders in the city were plotting against the Muh

    Wang—the only loyal one among their number—^and were talking

    of capitulating, using the British chief as their intermediary.

    This rumor proved, indeed, to be so far true, that after some

    further successful operations on the part of Gordon’s division,

    the Wangs made overtures to General Ghing, himself a foi-mcr

    rebel commander, but long since returned to the impei’ial cause

    and now the chief over its forces in Kiangsu. The Muh Wang

    was publicly assassinated on December 2d by his comrades,

    SURRENDER AXD EXECUTION OF ITS GENERALS. 615

    and on tlie 5th tlie negotiations liad proceeded so far that interviews

    were held. Colonel Gordon had withdrawn his troops a

    short distance to save the city from pillage, hut did not succeed

    in obtaining a donation of two months’ pay for their late bravery

    from the parsimonious Li. IJe therefore proposed to lay down

    his command at tliree o’clock i’.m., and meanwhile went into tlie

    city to interview the Na Wang, who told him that everything was

    proceeding in a satisfactory manner. Upon learning this he

    repaired to the house of the nun-dered Muh Wang in order to

    get his corpse decently buried, but failed, as no one in the place

    would lend him the smallest assistance. While he was thus occupied,

    the rebel wangs and officers had settled as to the terms

    they would accept ; and on reaching his own force, Gordon found

    General Ching there with a donation of one month’s pay, which

    his men refused.

    The next morning he returned into the city and was told by

    Ching that the rebel leaders had all been pardoned, and would

    deliver up the city at noon ; they were preparing then to go out.

    Colonel Gordon shortly after started to return to his own camp

    and met the imperialists coming into the east gate in a tumultuous

    manner, prepared for slaughter and pillage. He therefore

    went back to the Xa Wang’s house to guard it, but found

    the establishment already quite gutted ; he, however, met the

    Wang’s uncle and went with him to protect the females of the

    family at the latter’s residence. Here he was detained by

    several hundred armed rebels, who would neither let him go

    nor send a message by his interpreter till the next morning

    (December Ttli), when they permitted him to leave for his

    boat, then waiting at the south gate ; narrowly escaping, on his

    way thither, an attack from the imperialists, he reached his

    Ijodyguard at daybreak, and with them was able to pi-event

    any more soldiers entei’ing the city. His preservation amid such

    conflicting forces was providential, but his indignation was great

    M-hen he learned that Governor Li had beheaded the eight rebel leaders the day before. It seems that they had demanded conditions quite inadmissible in respect to the control of the thirty thousand men under their orders, and were cut off for their insolent contumacy. Another account, published a* Shanghai in 1871, states that nearly twenty chiefs were exe cuted, and about two thousand privates.

    As Colonel Gordon felttliat his good name was compromised

    by this cruelty, he threw up his command until he could confer

    with his superiors. On the 2*Jth a reply came to Li llungchang

    from Prince Kung, highly praising all who had been

    engaged in taking Suchau, and ordering him to send the leader

    of the Ever-victorious force a medal and ten thousand taels—

    both of w Inch he declined. The posture of affairs soon became

    embarrassing to all pai’tics. The rebellion was not suppressed ;

    the cities in rebel hands would soon gather the desperate men

    escaped from Suchau ; Colonel Gordon alone could lead his

    troops to victory ; and all his past bi-avery and skill might be

    lost. He therefore resumed his command, and presently recommenced operations by leading his men against Ihing hien, west of Suchau.

    Concerning this wretched business of the Suchau slaughter,

    much was said both in the foreign commimities in China and

    later in England. Mr. Wilson, in his book compiled largely

    from Colonel Gordon’s notes on this campaign, discusses the

    question with as great fairness as precision, and concludes—as

    must every well-wisher of China with him—that it was in every

    way fortunate, both for his reputation and the cause to which

    he had lent himself, that this heroic man returned to his thankless

    task. Summing up the arguments of the Chinese and the

    various attendant circumstances that brought about this execution,

    Mr. Wilson points to Li’s not nnnatural desire after revenge

    for his brother’s murder by the rebels before Taitsang;

    to the army still under control of the wangs ; to the almost

    absolute certainty of massacre of those imperialists who had

    already entered the city should he refuse compliance with their

    demands ; as also to the impossibility of arresting these chiefs

    without an alarm of treachery spreading among their troops

    within the walls, and thus giving them time to close the gates,

    cutting off the imperial soldiers inside the city from those who

    were without. ” Li was in a very ditficult and critical position,”

    he says, ” which imperatively demanded sudden, unprcmedilated

    action ; and though, no doubt, it would have been more

    COLONEL OORDON’S FURTHER OPERATIONS. 617

    honorable for liiin to have made the wangs prisoners, he cannot

    in tlie circumstances be with justice severely censui-ed for haviuij;

    ordered the Tai-ping chiefs who were in liis power, but who

    detied his authoi’ity, to be innuediately killed. It is also certain

    that Colonel Gordon need not liave been in a hui-ry to consider

    himself as at all responsible for this almost necessary act,

    because in a letter to him (among his correspondence relating

    to these affairs) from the Futai [Li], dated November 2, 18G3,

    I find the following noteworthy passage, wliich shows that the

    governor did not wish Gordon to interfere at all in regard to

    the capitulation of the Suchau chiefs :

    ‘ With respect to Moh Wang and other rebel leaders’ proposal, I am quite satisfied that you have determined in no way to interfere. Let Ching look after their treacherous and cunning management.’” ‘

    On reaching thing, the dreadful effects of the struggle going on around Gordon’s force were seen, and more than reconciled him to do all he could to bring it to an end. Utter destitution prevailed in and out of the town; people were feeding on dead bodies, and ready to perish from exposure while waiting for a comrade to die. The town of Liyang was surrendered on his approach, and its iidiabitants, twenty thousand in number, supplied with a little food. From this place to Kintan proved to be a slow and irksome march, owing to the shallow water in the canal and the bad weather. On March 21st an attack was made on this strong post by breaching the walls; but it resulted in a defeat, the loss of more than a hundred officers and men, and a severe wound which Colonel Gordon received in his leg— oddly enough the oidy injury he sustained, though frequently compelled to lead his men in person to a charge. Next day he retired, in order, to Liyang, but hearing that the son of the Chung Wang had retaken Fushan he started with a thousand men and some artillery for Wusih, which the rebels had left.

    ‘Wilson, The ” Eccr-Victorioiis Army,” p. 204.

    The operations in this region during the next few weeks conclusively proved the desperate condition of the rebels, but a hopeless cause seemed often but to increase their bravery in defending what strongholds were left them. At the same time a body of Franco-Chinese was operating, in connection with Gen^eral Ching on the south of Suchau, against Kiahing fn, a large city on the (4rand Canal, held by the Ting Wang. This position was taken and its defenders put to the sword on March 20th, but with the very serious loss of General Ching, one of the ablest generals in the Chinese army. Ilangchau, the capital of Chehkiang, capitulated the next day, and this was soon followed by the reduction of the entire province and dispersion of the rebels among the hills.

    Colonel Gordon had recovered from his wound so as to lead an attack on Waisu April Cth, which town fell on the 11th, when most of its defenders were killed by the peasantry as they attempted to escape. His force was also much weakened, and needed to be recruited. With about three thousand in all, he now went to aid Governor Li in reducing Chaiigchau fu, and invested it on the 25th. The entire besieging force numbered over ten thousand ; and as the rebels were twice as many, on the Mhole well provided, and knew that no mercy would be shown, their resistance was stubborn. Several attacks were repulsed with no small loss to Gordon’s force, so that slower methods of approach were resorted to till a general assault was planned on May 11th, when it succumbed. Only fifteen hundred rebels were slain, and the greater part of the prisoners were allowed to go home, the Xwangsi men alone being executed. With this capture ended the operations of the Evervictorious force and its brave leader. Nanking was now the only strong place held by the Tai-pings, and there was nothing for that army to do there, as Tsang Kwoh-fan, the generalissimo of the imperial armies, had ample means for its capture.

    THE EVHU-VICTOllIOns FOUCE DIS;BANDED. 619

    Colonel Gordon, therefore, in conjunction with Governor Li, dissolved this notable division ; the latter rewarded its officers and men with liberal gratuities, and sent the natives home. During its existence of about four years down to June 1, 1804, nearly fifty places had been taken (twenty-three of them by Gordon), and its higher discipline had served to elevate the morale of the imperialists who operated with them. It perhaps owed its greatest triumph to the high-toned uprightness of its Christian chief, which impressed all who served with him. The Emperor conferred on liinitlie bigliest iiiilitarj- rank of t’l-tuJi, or

    ‘ Captain-General,’ and a yellow jacket {ina-k(ca) and other uniforms,

    to indicate the sense of his achievements. Sir Fredei’ick

    Bruce admirably summed up his character in a letter to Earl

    Russell when sending the imperial rescript:

    Hongkong, July 12, 1864.

    My Lord,

    I enclose a translation of a despatch from Prince Kung containing the decree

    published by the Emperor, acknowledging the services of Lieutenant-

    Colonel Gordon, R. E., and requesting that her Majesty’s government be

    pleased to recognize them. This stej) has been spontaneously taken. Lieutenant-

    Colonel Gordon well deserves her Majesty’s favor ; for, independently

    of the skill and courage he has shown, his disinterestedness lias elevated our

    national character in the eyes of the Clnuese. Not only has he refused any

    pecuniary reward, but he has spent more than his pay in contributing to the

    comfort of the officers who served under him, and in assuaging the distress of

    the starving population whom he relieved from the yoke of their oppressors.

    Indeed, tlie feeling that impelled him to resume operations after the fall of

    Suchow was one of the purest humanity. He sought to save the people of

    the districts that had been recovered from a repetition of the misery entailed

    uijon them b/this cruel civil war. I have, etc.,

    F. W. A. Bruce.

    The foreign merchants at Shanghai expressed their sense of

    his conduct in a letter dated November 24th, written on the

    ev^e of liis retui-n to England, in which they truly remark : ” In

    a position of unecpialled difficulty, and surrounded by complications

    of every possible nature, you have succeeded in offering

    to the eyes of the Chinese nation, no less by your loyal and

    disinterested line of action than by your conspicuous gallantry

    and talent for organization and command, the example of a

    foreign officer serving the government of this country with

    honorable tidelity and undeviating self-respect/’ ‘

    ‘ ” The rapidity with which the long-descended hostility of the Chinese government became exchanged for relations of at least outward friendship, must be ascribed altogether to the existence of the Tai-ping Rebellion, without whose pressure as an auxiliary we might have crushed, but never conciliated the distrustful statesmen at Peking.”—Fraser^s Magazine, Vol. LXXL,p. 145,February, 18G5.

    Such men are not only the choice jewels of their own nation(and England may justly be proud to reckon this son among her worthies), but leave beliiiul them an example, as in the case of Colonel Gordon, which elevates (1n-istianity itself in theeyes of the Chinese, and will remain a legacy for good to them through coming years.’

    After the dissolution of the Ever-victorious force, its leader visited Nganking and Nanking to see the governor-general, Tsiing Kwoh-fan, and his brother, mIio were directing operations against the rebels, in order to propose some improvements in their future employment of foreign soldiers and military appliances. They listened with respect, and took notes of important suggestions—knowing at the same time that their subordinates were uiuible to comprehend or adojit many such innovations. The work before’ Ts’anking indicated the industry of its besiegers in the miles of walls connecting one hundred and forty mud forts in their circumvallations. and in various mines leading under the city walls. The Tai-pings at that

    date seldom appeared on the walls, and had recently sent out

    thi’ee thousand women and children to be fed by their enemies,

    proof enough of their distressed condition. The only general

    capable of relieving the Tien “Wang was the Chung Wang,

    whose army remained on the southern districts of Kiangsu,

    while he himself was in the city with the Ivan “Wang (Hung Jin), now the trusted agent of his half-brother. All egress from the doomed city was stopped by flune 1st, when the explosion of mines and bursting of shells forewarned its deluded defenders of their fate. Of the last days of their leader no

    authentic account has been given, and the declaration of the

    Chung Wang in his autobiography, that he poisoned himself

    on June 30th, ” owing to liis anxiety and troul)le of mind,” is

    probably true. His body was buried behind his palace by one

    of his wives, and afterward dug up by the imperialists.

    On Julv 19, 1804, the wall was breaclied hy the explosion of

    forty thousand pounds of powder in a mine, and the Chung

    Wang, faithful to the last, defended until midnight the Tien

    Wang’s family from the imperialists. lie and the Kan Wang

    ‘Compare further Col. C. C. Chesney’s Essays on Modern Military Biograpliy

    (from the Fjliithnnjh Rcdeir), pp. 1G3-213, London, 1874.

    FALL OF NANKING. 621

    then escorted Hung Fu-tien—a lad of sixteen, who had succeeded to the throne of Great Peace three weeks before—with a thousand followers, a short distance beyond the city. The three leaders now became separated, but all were ultimately captured and executed. The Chung AVang, during his captivity before death, wrote an account of his own life, which fully maintains the high estimate previously formed of his character from his public acts.’ lie was the solitary ornament of the whole movement during the fourteen years of its independent existence, and his enemies would have done well to have spared

    him. More than seven thousand Tai-pings were put to death

    in Xanking, the total number found there l)eing hardly over

    twenty thousand, of whom probably very few Mere southern

    Chinese —this element having gradually disappeared.

    After the recaptui-e of Xanking, two small bodies of rebels

    remained in Chehkiang. The largest of them, under the Tow

    Wang, held Iluchau fu, and made a despei’ate resistance until

    a large force, provided with artillery, compelled them to evacuate.

    During this siege the sanguinary conduct of the Taipings

    showed the natural result of their reckless course since

    their last escape from Xanking; the narrative of an escaped

    Irishman, who had been compelled to serve them in Iluchau

    for some months, is terrible enough : ” All offences received

    one puinshment—death. I saw one hundred and sixty men

    beheaded, as I understood, for absence from parade ; two boys

    were beheaded for smoking ; all prisoners of war were executed ;

    spies, or people accused as such, were tied with their hands behind

    their backs to a stake, brushwood put around them, and

    they burned to death.” The rebel force nundjered nearly a

    hundred thousand men, and tlieir vigorous defence was continued

    for a fortnight, till on August 14th their last stockade

    was carried by the imperialists, and about half their number

    made good tlieir escape to the neighboring hills, leavijig the

    usual scene of desolation behind them. This body undertook

    to march south through the hilly regions between Kiangsi and

    ‘ Tlie Autohiofp’dphy of tlie Chung- Wang, translated from the Chinese b^

    W. T. Lay, Shanghai, 1865.

    Clielikiaiig. The best disciplined portion was led by the Shi

    Wan*’, who had joined it witli his men from the former province,

    and arranged an attack on Kwangsin, near wliich they

    were defeated. The remainder managed to march across tlio

    intervening districts south-westerly to the city of Changchau,

    near Amoy, where they intrenched themselves till the next

    spring, subsisting on the supplies found in it and the neighborhood.

    The Shi Wang and Kan Wang then left it April 16th,

    in two bodies, unable to resist the disciplined force of eight

    thousand men brought from the north. Feeling that their

    days were numbered, the}’ seem to have scrupled at nothing to

    show their savagery—as, for example, when they slaughtered

    sixteen hundred imperialists who had surrendered on a promise

    of safe-conduct. No mercy was therefore shown them by the

    iidiabitants ; at Clumping in Kwangtung they even cut down

    their growing rice in order to prevent the rebels using it. The

    last straggling relics of the Tai-ping Heavenly King’s adherents

    were thus gradually destroyed, and his ill-advised enterprise

    brought to an end.

    Fifteen years had elapsed since he had set up his standard of

    revolt in Kwangsi, and now there was nothing to show as a return

    for the awful cariuige and misery that had ensued from his

    efforts. No new ideas concerning God or his redemption for

    mankind had been set forth or illustrated by the teachings or practices of the Tai-ping leader or any of his followers, nor did they ever take any practical measures to call in foreign aid to assist in developing even the Christianity they professed. True the Kan Wang called Mr. Roberts to Nanking, but instead of consulting with him as to the establishment of schools, opening chapels, preparing books, or organizing any kind of religious or benevolent work to further the welfare of his adherents, the Tien AVang did not even grant an interview to the missionary, who, on his part, was glad to escape with his life to Shanghai.

    If this rebellion practically exhibited no religious truth to the educated mind of China, it was not for lack of jniblications setting forth the beliefs its leaders had drawn from the Bible, or for laws sanctioned by severe peiuilties, both of which were scattered throuirh the land. Dj-. Medhurst’s careful translations

    END OF TIIK TAI-1’IN(J IlEBELLION. 6^^’

    of these tracts has preserved them, so that the entire disregard

    manifested hj the new sect of tlieir plainest injunctions may he

    at once seen.’ Tlie strong expectations of the friends of China

    for its regeneration through the success of Ilung Siu-tsuen,

    would not have heen indulged if they liad hetter known the

    inner workings of liis own mind and the flagitious conduct of

    liis lieutenants.

    In his political aspirations the Tien Wang entertained no new

    principle of govermnent, for he knew nothing of other lands,

    their jurispi’udence or their polity, and wisely enough held his

    followers to such legislation as they were familiar with. They

    all probably expected to alter affairs to their liking when they

    liad settled in Peking. But if this mysterious iconoclast had

    really any ideas above those of an enthusiast like Thomas Miinzer

    and the Anabaptists in the early days of the Reformation

    whose course and end offers many parallels to his own—he

    must have lamented his folly as he reviewed its results to his

    country. The once peaceful and populous parts of the nine

    great provinces through which his hordes passed have hardly

    yet begun to be restored to their previous condition. Ruined

    cities, desolated towns, and heaps of rubbish still mark their

    course from Kwangsi to Tientsin, a distance of two thousand

    miles, the efforts at restoration only making the conti’ast more

    apparent. Their presence was an unmitigated scourge, attended

    by nothing but disaster from begimiing to end, without the

    least effort on their part to rebuild what had been destroyed, to

    protect what was left, or to repay what had been stolen. Wild

    beasts roamed at large over the land after their departure, and

    made their dens in the deserted towns ; the pheasant’s whirr resounded

    where the hum of busy populations had ceased, and

    weeds or jungle covered the ground once tilled with ])atient industry.

    Besides millions upon millions of taels irrecoverably

    lost and destroyed, and the misery, sickness, and starvation

    ‘ Pamphlets issued hy the Chinese Tnsnnients at JVan-Kinfj ; to whicJi is added

    a histwy of the Kwangsi liehellion, etc., etc., compiled by W. H. Medhurst,

    Senr., Shanghai, IS”):}. Coinjjare II. J. Forrest in Joirrntd iV. C Br. R. A.

    Soc, No. IV., December, 18G7, pp. 1«7 ff. The China Mail for February 2,1854. which were endured by the survivors, it has heon estimated by foreigners living at Shanghai that, during- the whole period from 1851 to 1905, fully twenty millions of human beings were destroyed in connection with the TaiPing Rebellion.’

    V ‘ The most complete authorities on this conflict are files of the North China lliruld (Slianghai) and the Vhina Mail (Hongkong) during the years from 1853 to 1869 ; a careful summary of these has been made by M. Cordier in his Bibliotheat Sinica, pp. 273-281, wliich will be useful alone to those who can gain access to these newspapers. The number of articles on various phases of the rebellion contained in English and American magazines is exceedingly numerous, and can be readily found by reference to Poole’s Index. Among these compare especially the London Qudrterly, Vol. 112, for October, 1862; Fmser^s Magnzine, Vol. 71, February, 1865 ; Blarktrood’s, Vol. 100, pp. 604 and 683 ; W.Sargent in the North Antcrican Revieir, Vol. 7v’), July, 1854, p. 158. See also the various Blue Books relating to China ; Capt. Fishbourne, Inijiremons of China and the Present Berohttion, London, 1855; Gallery and Yvan, LTnsnrrertion en Chine, Paris, 1853—translated into English, London, 1853; Charles Macfarlane, The Chinese Berohttion, London, 1853 ; T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and their Behellions, London, 1856 ; J. M. Mackie, Life of Tai-piny Wang,N. Y., 1857; Commander Lindesay Brine, Narrative of the Rise and Progress of the Taeping Rebellion in China, London, 1862; “Lin-le,” Ti-Ping Tienkifoh,the History of the Ti-Ping Berolution, London, 1866— a rather untrustworthy record ; Sir T. F. Wade in the Shanghai Miscellany^ No. I. ; Richthofan, Letter on the l^rotince of Shensi.

    CHAPTER XXV. THE SECOND WAR BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND CHINA

    The particulars given in the last chapter respecting the TaiPing Rebellion did not include those details coiniected with foreign intercourse during the same period which have had such important results on the Chinese people and government.

    It is a notable index of the vigor and self-poise of both, that

    during those thirteen terrible years, the mass of inhabitants in

    the ten eastern provinces never lost confidence in their own

    government or its ability to subdue the rebels ; while the leading

    officers at Peking and in all those provinces at no time expressed

    doubt as to the loyalty of their countrymen when left

    free to act. The narrative of foreign intercourse is now resumed

    from the year 1849, when the British authorities waived

    the right of insisting upon their admission into the city of

    Canton according to the terms of the convention with Iviying

    in 1847. The conduct of the Cantonese, in view of the forcible

    entrance of English troops into their city, is an interesting

    exhibition of their manner of arousino; enthusiasm and raisino’

    funds and volunteers to cope with an emergency. The series

    of papers found in Vol. XVIII. of the Chinese Re2)Ository well

    illustrates the curious mixture of a sense of wrong and deep concern

    in public affairs, combined with profound ignorance and

    inaptitude as to the best means for attaining their object.

    A candid examination of the real meaning of the Chinese

    texts of the four earlier treaties makes clear the fact that there

    were some grounds for their refusal ; but more attractive than

    this appears the study of an address from the gentry of Canton,

    sent upon the same occasion, to Governor Bonham at Hongkong,

    dissuading him from attempting the entry. Their conduct was naturally legarded by the British as seditious, and of these many urged their authorities to vindicate the national honor and force a way over the walls into the city. The practice of an unwonted approach toward self-government which this popular movement in defence of their metropolis gave the citizens, was of real service to them in the year 1855, when it was beleaguered by the rebels, since they had learned how to use

    their powers and resources. One result of their fancied victory

    over the British at this time was the erection of six stone j)ailau,

    or honorary portals, in various parts of the city and suburbs,

    on each of which was engraved the sentence, ” Reverently

    to commemorate glory conferred,” together with a copy of

    the edict ordering their establishment, and a list of the w^ards

    and villages which furnished soldiers during their time of need.’

    The outcome of the working of treaty provisions between

    foreigners and natives at the five opened ports during the ten

    years up to 1853, had been as satisfactory to both sides

    as could have been reasonably expected. The influx of foreigners

    had more than doubled their numbers ; and as almost

    none of them could talk the Chinese language, it happened that

    natives of Canton became their brokers and compradores

    rather more by reason of speaking pl(/eon-Migllsh than by their

    wealth or capacity. The vicious plan of marking off a separate

    plat of land for the residence of foreigners at each port was

    adopted, and their development tended to build up concessions,

    or settlements, which were to be governed by the various nationalities.

    In doing this the local authorities vacated their

    rights over their own territory, and these settlements have since

    become the germs of foreign cities, if not colonies. The British

    and French consuls at Shanghai claimed territorial jurisdiction

    over all who settled within the limits of their allotted districts,

    and carried this assumption so far as to exercise authority

    over the natives against their own rulers. The British erelong

    gave up this pernicious system, which had no legal basis by

    treaty or conquest, and yielded the entire internal management

    ‘ The one placed near the southern gate became a target for the British gunners

    in October, 1856, its demolition, most unfortunately, involving the de

    Ptruction and burning of uiiilionii of Chinese books iu the shops on that street

    INFLUENCE OF TREATIES ON THE CHINESE. 627

    of all consular communities to those foreigners which composed

    them. There were not enougli residents elsewliere to raise this

    question of local government to any importance, but the progress

    of the Tai-piiigs and the rapid growth of Shangliai as a

    centre of trade for the Yangtsz’ basin, compelled the preparation

    and adoption of a set of land regulations in order to institute

    some means of governing the thousands of foreigners who

    had flocked thither. George Balfour, the first British consul

    in that port, had sanctioned a seiies of rules in 1845, which

    purported to be drawn up by the tautal, or intendant of circuit,

    and which worked well enough in peaceful times.

    In the year 1853, however, the civil war altered the conditions,

    when certain Cantonese rebels captured Shanghai and

    killed some of its magistrates, driving others into the British

    settlement, to which ground the custom-house was shortly afterward

    removed. The collector of the port, AVu Kien-chang, had

    formerly been a hong merchant at Canton, and he willingl}^

    entered into an arrangement for putting the collection of foreign

    duties into the hands of a commission until order was restored.

    The presence there of the British, American, and

    French ministers facilitated this arrangement. Their respective

    consuls, R. Alcock, R. C. Murphy, and B, Edan, accordingly

    met Wu on June 29, 1854, and agreed to a set of custom-

    house rules which in reality transferred the collection of

    duties into the hands of foreigners. The first rule contains the

    reason for this remarkable step in advance of all former positions,

    and has served to perpetuate the employment of foreigners

    at all the open ports, and maintain the foreign inspectorate

    :

    Rule I.—The chief difficulty experienced by the superintendent of customs

    having consisted in the impossibility of obtaining custom-house officials

    with the necessary qualifications as to probity, vigilance, and knowledge of

    foreign languages, required for the enforcement of a close observance of treaty

    and custom-house regulations, the only adequate remedy appears to be in the

    introduction of a foreign element into the custom-house establishment, in the

    persons of foreigners carefully selected and apjjointed by the tantai, who

    shall supply tlie deficiency complained of, and give him efficient and trustworthy

    instruments wherewith to work.’

    ‘ McLane’s Cornnpondcixr, 1858. Senate Ex. Doc, No. iJ8, p. 154.

    628 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    In. carrying out the new arrangement, each consul nominated

    one man to the intendant, viz., T. F. Wade for the British, L.

    Carr for the American, and Arthur Smith for the French

    member of the board of inspectoi-s, who togetlier were to talce

    charo-c of the new department. The chief responsibility for its

    oro-anization fell on Mi-. Wade, inasmuch as he alone of this

    number was familiar with the Chinese language, and possessed

    other qualifications fitting him for the post. He, however, resigned

    within a year, and the intendant appointed II. X. Lay,

    a clerk in the British consulate, who completed the service organization.

    This proceeding shows the readiness with which

    the Chinese will shirk their own duties and functions in government

    employ, and illustrates as well many peculiar traits in

    their character.

    The city of Shanghai had been in possession of a Cantonese

    chief, Liu Tsz’-tsai, and his rabble since September T, 1853, and

    the position of foreigners at that port in the presence of such a

    body of outlaws developed new points of international law. If

    the foreignei’s had all been of one nationalitv the consul would

    probably have assumed temporary control of the city and j^ort

    to assui’e their safety ; but in this case a naval force under each

    flag lying in the river guaranteed ample protection of life and

    property. As soon as the city was occupied the difficulty of

    restraining the disorderly elements, as well among foreigners

    as nativ^es, became painfully apparent to their rulers. Foreign

    rowdies eagerly purchased the plunder brought to them and

    supplied arms and other things in return—a line of conduct

    very naturally irritating to the officials in charge of the siege

    and inclining them at once toward coercive measures.

    The fact that the French settlement adjoined the moat on

    the north side of the city made its authorities desirous to dislodge

    the brigands, which they essayed to do January 6, 1855,

    b}’ joining the imperialists in breaking the walls ; they were

    repulsed, however, with a loss of fifteen men killed and thii’tyseven

    wounded, out of a rank and file numbering two hundred

    and fifty. Another joint attack, undertaken a month later, was

    likewise unsuccessful, though the attempt seems to have frightened

    the force within the walls, since on the night of February

    WORK or THE REBELS AT SirANGIIAI AND AMOY. 629

    JOtli tliej retired, leaving the })lace in ruins. A like cordiality

    was nevertheless not always maintained between native and foreign

    soldiers, for in the previous year (April 4, 1854) occurred a

    collision with the imperialists, in consequence of their near approach

    to the foreign quarter, in which over three hundred Chinese

    soldiers were killed by the foreigners who landed to resist

    them. This untoward rencontre did not, however, interrupt

    amicable relations with the intendant, and was followed by consular

    notifications that whoever entered the service of the combatants

    in or out of the city would forfeit all protection.

    These notices were nevertheless soon disrefrarded as the struggle

    went on, for the temptation to enjoy a lawless life was too

    strong for hundreds of sailors then found in that port. It was

    an anomalous state of affairs, and the exigency led to some acts

    of violence by consuls in control of men-of-war.

    The city of Anioy had been captured by insurgents on May

    IS, 1852, but no contravention occurred ; the number of foreigners

    residing at this port was small, while the opposite island

    of Kulang su afforded a refuge beyond the range of missiles.

    The city was regained by the imperialists before a jear had

    passed. The districts north of Canton, whence Hung Siu-tsuen

    and many of his adherents originated, began the same year to

    send forth their bands of robbers to pillage the province. These

    gangs had really no affinity with the Tai-pings, either in doctrine

    or plans, and none of them succeeded in gaining even a

    temporary success. When the booty was expended they usually

    quarrelled, and the impei-ialists destroyed them in detail. Every

    part of the province was at one time or another the scene of

    savage conflict between tliese contestants, and it was soon shown

    that no regenerating principle was involved on either side. The

    confidence of the educated and wealthy classes in the just cause

    and final success of their rulers was shown in raising men and

    money for the public service and organizing bodies of local

    police ; but the want of a sagacious leader to plan and execute,

    so that all this mateiial and action should not be frittered away,

    was painfully apparent.

    In the capture of banking by Tai-pings, the restless leaders

    of sedition in Kwangtung saw their opportunity, and gathered

    630 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    their bands of freebooters in tlic southern prefectures. In June,

    185-i, the district town of Tungkvvan neur the JJogue was taken,

    the ricli manufacturing mart of Fuhshan (or Fat-slian) near

    Canton fell a month later, followed by that of Shuntch, Sanf-

    hui, and other lesser places, throwing the southern part of the

    province into a state of anarchy. The theory of the Chinese

    govermnent, that if the capital is preserved the whole province

    is loyal, and its officers can use its revenue, enabled Governor-

    General Yell to concert measures to repress these disorders.

    The City of Hams was environed during August by large bttdies

    of insurgents, whose wants were supplied from Fuhshan. In

    this crisis about one thousand five hundred houses abutting

    outside the city walls Mere destroyed, and the ward police

    strengthened for the better protection of their neighborlioods

    against incendiaries. In all these proceedings the foreigners

    at Canton were ne\er consulted or referred to by the ofiicials,

    l)ut their merchant steamers kept the Pearl River open to the

    sea, while their men-of-war lying off the factories proved a

    safeguard to the crowded city. The rebels had occupied a post

    near Whampoa, and their gunboats prowled through every

    creek in the delta, burning, destroying, capturing, and murdering

    without resti-aint. They would be followed by a band of

    imperialists, whose excesses were sometimes even more dreadful

    than those of their enemies. So terrible was the plight of

    the ^\•retched countrymen that the headmen of ninety-six villages

    near Fuhshan formed a league and armed their people

    to keep soldiers from either side from entering their precincts.

    In September, at a general meeting of the gentry of Canton,

    a pi-oposal to save the city by asking foreign aid was approved

    by Yell, but liappily the project failed of fulfilment and only

    resulted in showing them how nmch better was a reliance upon

    their own resources. The news of this discussion led Chin Uienliang,

    the rebel leader near Whampoa,. to circulate proposals

    aniong the foreigners asking them to help him in capturing the

    city and promising as rewai’d a portion of the island of Ilonan.

    The condition of the peo])le at this time was sad and desperate

    indeed, and their only remedy was to arm in self-defence, in

    doing which they found out how small a ]>ro})ortion of the inTHE

    INSUKRECTION IN KWANGTUNG. 631

    habitants was disloyal. Ko quarter was given on either side.

    and the carnage was appalling Avhenever victory remained with

    the imperialists. During this year the emigration to California

    and Australia became larger than ever before, while the coolie

    trade waxed flonrishing, owing to the multitudes thi’own out of

    employment who wci-e eager in accepting the offers of the

    brokers to depart from the country and escape the evils they

    saw everj’where about them. The terrors of famine, fighting,

    and plundering paralyzed all industry and trade, and enal)led

    one to better understand similar scenes described by ancient historians

    as occurring in Western Asia.

    The exhaustion and desperation consequent on these events

    had almost demoralized society in and around Canton, which

    was overcrowded M’ith refugees, raising food to famine prices.

    It was creditable to these poor and sickly people that their influx

    produced no other fear than that of a higher rate of living—

    none of pestilence or plunder, even in the extremity of

    their sufferings. In Fuhshan, fifteen miles away, no one was

    safe. The rebels had depleted its resources, killed its gentry,

    and oppressed the townsfolk until a quarrel broke out in their

    camp, and they departed about the season of Christmas, leaving

    the whole a smoking ruin. One of the insurgent practices consisted

    in driving great numbers of people into squares and there

    shooting them down by cannon placed in the approaching streets,

    while the houses around them were burning. The flames could

    be seen for two or three days from Canton, and it was estimated

    that during this conflict fully two hundred thousand human

    beings perished. The town was the manufacturing centre for the

    foreign trade, where silks, satins, shawls, paper, fire-crackers,

    pottery, and other staples were made, and their workmen resided.

    After this dreadful act the insui-gents grew more and more desperate,

    feeling that they could not hold out much longer for

    want of booty and supplies to keep their men together. By

    March the force of fifteen thousand men inside the city was

    ready, and on the 6th it went quietly down to attack the fort

    below Whampoa. The onset and resistance were most determined

    ; before the position succumbed, some twenty-five thou-,

    sand men must have perished by battle or flood ; the rebel

    632 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    leader escaped toward lliangslmu. The insurrection was, however,

    scotched, and its victoi-s celebrated their triumph three

    days later in the city to a grateful and applauding concourse.

    When the city of Shanking, west of Canton, was retaken in

    May, its victors boasted that thirty thousand rebels were drowned

    or beheaded.

    Notwithstanding these reverses the insurgents did not yet disappear,

    but maintained themselves along the watercourses in

    lai’ge flotillas during many months. The Portuguese and British

    also fitted out expeditions to pursue the pirates, as the same men

    were now called, desti’oying them and their haunts at Kulan

    Lantao, and elsewhere. In rooting out these land and sea

    brigands, the merciless character of the people was made manifest

    ; every one convicted of rebellion was straightway executed

    by the authorities. At Canton, where prisoners were received

    from all such districts, the executions were on a terribly huge

    scale, as many as seven or eight hundred persons being beheaded

    in a single day. A count taken at the city gate whence they

    all issued on their way to the field of blood near the river, revealed

    the fact that fully eighty thousand were thus executed

    in the year 1855. This did not include thousands who connnitted

    suicide in places provided for them near their homes, from

    which their relatives could take their bodies to the family tomb.

    As might be expected, other thousands left the province for the

    north, or escaped into distant lands as coolies and emigrants.

    I’ublic attention abroad was at this time so engrossed with

    the greater rebellion going on along the Yangtsz’ Tliver that the

    liorrors of that in Kwangtung were overlooked. There were

    many foreigners at Whampoa and Hongkong who sided with

    the leading brigands, reported their successes in the newspapers,

    and supplied them with munitions of war. The inefiiciency of

    a foreign consul to restrain his countrymen thus flagrantly violating

    all their treaty obligations toward China, showed most

    conclusively how easy it is for the stronger party in such cases

    to demand their rights, and shirk their duties if it suits their

    convenience.

    During the year 1856 affaii’S between the Chinese government

    and foreign powers became more and more hampered, while

    flELATIUNS BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CHINA. 633

    all attempts to ai’rangc difficulties as tliey arose wore defeated

    by the obstinate refusal of Yeh Ming-chin, the governor-general

    at Canton, to meet any foreign minister. He intrenched himself

    behind the city gates, and would do nothing. Sir John

    iiowring, the British plenipotentiary and governor of Jlongkong,

    had most reason to be dissatisfied with this conduct, inasmuch

    as there were many questions which could have been easily

    ari’anged in a personal interview. It was ascertained from some

    documents ‘ afterward found in Yeh’s office that this seclusion was

    a })art of the system devised at Peking to maintain a complete

    isolation and keep the dreaded foreigners at a distance. Ko

    coui’se could be more likely to bring upon tlie government the

    evils it feared, and at the same time show more conclusively the

    ignorant and inapt cliaracter of those who carried it on. This

    state of things could not long continue when such powerful

    agencies were at work along the coast to disorganize legal trade

    and thwart the utmost efforts of all officials to resti-ain the

    reckless conduct of their subjects. The ten years now elapsed

    since the opening of the five ports had involved the Chinese in

    more complications, miseries, and disasters than had been known

    since the Mancliu conquest ; nevertheless, neither rebellion nor

    foreign comjdications seem to have impi’essed their lessons upon

    the proud bureaucracy in Peking, which was as unwilling to

    remedy as unable to appreciate the real nature of the difficulties

    that beset the country.

    In the struggle between nations, as between individuals, the

    agony and weakness of one side becomes the opportunity of the

    other ; and these conditions were now open to the British, who

    speedily found their excuse for further demands. In order to

    develop the trade of the free port of Hongkong, its laws encouraged

    all classes of shipping to resort thither, by removing

    all charges on vessels and granting licenses, with but few and

    unimportant restrictions, to Chinese craft to cany on trade

    inider the British flag. This freedom had developed an enormous

    snuiggling trade, especially in opium, which the Chinese

    revenue service was unable to restrain or unwilling to legalize.

    ^ Blue Book, 1857.

    634 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    These boats cruised wlierever they might tiiid a trade to invite

    or reward them, wholly indifferent to their own government,

    which could exercise no adequate control over them, and kept

    from the last excesses only on account of the risk of losing

    their cargoes. To the evils of smuggling were added the worse

    acts and dangers of kidnapping natives to supply baracoons at

    Macao. The Poi’tuguese had many of these lorchas to carry on

    their commerce, and gradually a set of desperate men had so

    far engrossed them in acts of daring and pillage that honest

    native trade about any part of the coast south of Shanghai

    became almost impossible except undei” their con vo3\ The two

    free ports of Macao and Hongkong naturally became their resorts,

    where they all took on the aspect of legitimate traders,

    which, indeed, most of them were—save under great temptations.

    It was not surprising that Chinese rulers should confound

    these two classes of vessels, nor, from the traders’ side, was it a

    wonder that their crews should use the flag which gave them

    the greatest protection when beyond foreign inspection and

    jurisdiction. Few nations have ever been subjected to such

    continuous and prolonged irritation in respect to its connnercial

    regulations as was the Canton government from those two

    alien communities during the ten years ending with 1850 ; few

    nations, on the other hand, have acted more unwisely in exertions

    toward peace and the removal of such difficulties than

    did the unspeakable Governor-General Yeh. That the inevitable

    collision between the Chinese and British was now at hand,

    follows almost as a matter of course, when to our knowledge

    of the commissioner’s character we add Mr. Justin McCarthy’s

    very appropriate estimate of the two Englishmen in whose

    hands well-nigh all British affairs in China were vested : ” Mr.

    Consul Parkes,” says he, ” was fussy. Sir John Bowring was

    a man of considerable ability, but . . . full of self-conceit,

    and without any very clear idea of political principles on the

    large scale.”

    Early in the morning of October 8th, two boat-loads of

    ‘ A Uintonj uf Our Own Times, Chap. XXX.

    THE CASE OF THE LOltCllA AKUOW. 635

    Chinese sailors, Avith their ofiicers, put off from a large war-junk,

    boarded the lorcha Arrow lying’ at anchor in the river before

    Canton, pinioned and carried away twelve of the fourteen natives

    who composed her crew, and added to this unexpected

    ” act of violence,” as Mr. Tarkes stated it, ” the significant insult

    of hauling down the Iji’itish ensign.” One Kennedy, a

    young Irishman who is described as a very respectable man of

    his class, was master of the lorcha, but chanced at the time to

    be on another boat lying in the innnediate neighborhood of his

    own, and could in consequence offer no resistance. It is probable,

    judging from testimony given at the British consulate, that

    the hauling down of the flag was a mere bit of wantonness on

    the part of the junk’s oflicer upon his finding that no foreigner

    was (ni board, and the offence might readily have been followed

    by an apology had the command of negotiations been in any

    other hands than those of Yeh. The Arrow was owned by a

    Chinese, Fong A-ming, her nominal master being engaged by

    Mr. Block, the Danish consul at Hongkong; his vessel was not,

    however, entitled to protection, inasmuch as her British register

    had expired by its own limitation eleven days before the

    episode in Canton lliver, and the lorcha was already forfeited

    to the crown.’ Her papers were then at the consulate, and it

    was contended by Mr. Parkes that under Clause X. of the

    ordinance she retained a right to protection ; a mere quibble,

    since the cause refers to the vessel when upon a voyage, and the

    Arrow had confessedly remained about the ports of Macao and

    Canton during a month.

    Consul Parkes, aftei’ ascertaining the facts connected with

    this high-handed outrage, pushed off to the war-junk—which

    remained the while quietly at anchor—to claim the captured

    sailors and ” explain to the officers, if it were possible that they

    had acted in error, the gi’oss insult and violation of national

    ‘ Sir John Bowring indeed conceded that ” the Arrow had no right to hoist

    the British flag,” but alleged that the Chinese had no knowledge of the expiry

    of the license, and that this ignorance deprived them of the legal value of

    the truth. He quoted, moreover. Article IX. of the Supplementary Treaty,

    requiring tliat ‘• all Chinese malfaisants in British ships shall be claimed

    throui’h the British authorities.”

    636 I’HE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    rights which tlicy had coininitted.” ‘ Tliis was in vain. ^Viiiuiig

    the men was a notorious pirate, he was told, and tlieir orders

    wei’e tliat the suspected crew should be sent to the governor

    for examination. Veh stoutly upheld the act of his subordinate,

    and affii’med that the lorcha had no right to fly the British

    flag, disclaiming, however, any intention of molesting lawful

    traders under the emblem. Katui-ally enough, he would

    not yield the right of jurisdiction over his own subjects, and in

    doing this was asserting precisely what Great Britain and every

    other nation on the globe knew to be the first privilege of an independent

    government. The case was not unlike that much-discussed

    affair of the American Commodore AVilkes, who boarded

    the Trent in 1863 and captured Mason and Slidell—performing

    a right-enough action, but in a wrong and hasty fashion.

    In his reply to Mr. Parkes, Yeh declares that he has held an

    examination of the sailors and finds that three of them M’ere

    implicated in a piracy of the preceding month on St. John’s

    Island, that the officei’s had good reasons for seizing these men,

    that the remaining nine shall ])e sent back to their vessel ; which

    he straightway does, but they are as promptly returned l)y the

    consul because the entire crew is not given up. Sir John Bowring

    now demands, through his representative at Canton (1), ” an

    apology for what has taken place, and an assurance that the

    British flag shall in future be respected ; ” (2) ” that all proceedings

    against Chinese offenders on board British vessels

    must take place according to the conditions of the treaty ; ” “

    in case of refusal the consul is to concert with the naval autliorities

    the measures necessary for enforcing redress. This

    threat extracted from the governor-general a promise that

    ” hereafter Chinese officers will on no account, without i-eason,

    seize and take into custody the people belonging to foreign

    lorchas;” adding very properly, “but when Chinese subjects

    build for themselves vessels, foreigners should not sell registers

    to them, for if this be done, it will occasion confusion between

    native and foreign ships, and render it difficult to distinguish

    ^ Blue Book: Papers relatinri to tlie Proceedings of her Majesty^s Naval Forces

    at Canton, p. 1.

    ‘Blue Book, Ibid., p. 13.

    OPENING or HOSTILITIES. 637

    between them.” ‘ Twelve days afterwuiU (Octoljer 22d) the

    entire crew were returned, but once more refused by Mr.

    Parkes, ostensibly because the apology was not sent with them

    —and this the connnissioner coukl not offer either in justice to

    his government or to the cause of truth.

    Ensconced behind, the walls of Canton city, Yeh resolved to

    stand firm on his rights as he understood them, even should the

    doing so involve the lives and property of thousands of his

    countrymen. To all foreigners in Chiua this affair was intinuitely

    connected with most important possibilities and consequences:

    the inviolability of national flags, protection to

    every one whom they covered, personal intercourse with Chinese

    officers, maintenance of treaty rights. In upholding these

    the British drew to their side the good wishes of all intelligent

    observers for their success in arms, however unhappy their excuse

    for a resort to such means might be. One more word

    from Mr. McCarthy before leaving the initial episode of this

    war. ” The truth is,” he sums up, ” that there has seldom been

    so flagrant and so inexcusable an example of high-handed lawlessness

    in the dealings of a strong with a weak nation,” ^ but

    like many another conflict where strength and justice have been

    ranged on opposite sides, the latter was speedily pushed to the

    wall. The incident of the Arrow” appeared a trifling one ; nevertheless

    on so slight a hinge turned the future welfare and

    progress of the Chinese people in their intercourse with other

    nations, a hinge which, opening outward, unclosed the door for

    all parties to learn the truth respecting the countries of each,

    and, in the end, agree upon the only grounds on which a beneficial

    and intelligent intercourse could be maintained.

    It is hardly necessary to recount in detail the steps by which

    Governor Bowring and Admiral Seymour vainly attempted to

    bring Yeh to their terms. ” Acknowledge that you are in the

    wrong,” was their ultimatum, ” by merely sending the three

    ‘Ibid.., p. 15.

    ‘^ Ifixtory of Our (hen Times, Vol. III., Chap. XXX. Lord Elgin in his journal

    refers frankly enough to ” that wretched question of the Arrow, which is

    a scandal to us, and is so considered, I have reason to know, hy all except the

    few who are personally compromised.”

    Letters and Journcds of Lord EJlgin,

    edited by T. Walrond, p. 209.

    638 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    bUspects to the consulate, and ask that tliey be returned on

    cliarge of piracy.” The long-continued national policy of exclusion

    could not, however, be so easily ovei’thrown ; its reduction

    must be by force. The seizure of a military junk was the

    lirst act of the British, then the capture of the liarrier forts,

    followed by that of all others on the south of Canton, and lastly

    breaching the city wall opposite Yeh’s yamun. This was entered

    by Adnural Seymour with a snudl party of marines.

    Sir John Bowring had already nuide the demand that the city

    gates should be opened to them in accordance with the agreement

    entered into ten years before between Governor Davis

    and Kiying, and expresses his gratification to the consul that now

    one great object of hostile action had been satisfactorily accomplished—

    an object whicli Mi’. Parkes declares was clearly based

    on treaty rights. However, they did not see Yeh, who resorted

    to all manner of petty annoyances, the evils of which mostly fell

    on his own people, without in the least advancing his cause.

    On Xovember 15th, to the complications with the English

    was added a quarrel with the Americans, whose boats had

    been twice fired into and one man killed by the Chinese officers

    in command of the Barrier forts. Commodore J. Armstrong

    had under his connnand the San Jacinto, Poi-tsmouth, and Levant,

    then lying at Whampoa. He ordered the two latter to go

    as near to these forts as possible, and directed Captain A. H.

    Foote of the Portsmouth to destroy them all. Foote accordingly

    organized a large force and attacked them on the 16th,

    20th, and 21st, till they were reduced and occupied. The resistance

    of the Chinese on this occasion was unusually brave

    and ])rolonged, the admirable position of the forts enabling

    each of them to lend assistance to the others. On the part of

    the Americans, seven were killed and twenty-two wounded ;

    perhaps three hundred Cliinese were put hors de comhat ; the

    guns in the forts (one hundred and seventy-six in all) were destroyed,

    and the sea-walls demolished with powder found in

    the magazines.’ This skirmish is the only passage of arms ever

    ‘ One brass gun of eight-inch calibre was twenty-two feet five inches long ;

    the entire armament of these forts was superior in equipment to anything

    before seen in China.

    COLLISION WITH THE AMKltlCANS. 639

    engaged in by American and Chinese forces— one whieli ^cli

    seemed to ix-gard as of slight moment, and for wliich he cared

    neither to apologize nor sympathize, llis unexampled indifference

    in referring to the affair less than two days after the

    demolishment of his forts ‘ was met by an equal frankness on

    the part of Dr. Parker, who at once resumed correspondence

    •witli the commissioner, and, content with the practical lesson

    just administered, said no more about ” apologies and guarantees.”‘

    This episode is interesting chiefly as an example of the

    American course regarding an insult to the national flag, as contrasted

    with the English dealing with an injury not very different

    either in nature or degree.

    Relations between Great Britain and China continued in this

    constrained position until the opening of another year, the conflict

    now being almost wholly restiicted to unimportant collisions

    with village braves on land and voluminous discussions

    with the governor-general on paper. In Xovember the French

    minister withdrew his legation from Canton, there being by

    that time neither French citizens nor interests to watch over.

    Principal among the events during this interval was the burning

    of the foreign factories by order of Yeh, Decend^er 14th.

    They were fired in the night and were entirely consumed with

    all their contents, as well, too, as the contiguous poi’tion of the

    suburbs. The offer of thirty taels head-money for every Englishman

    killed or captured resulted in a few endeavors on the part

    of natives, whereby they kidnapped or slew two or three seamen

    when separated from their ships. These attempts at

    guerilla warfare were so promptly met and rewarded on the

    part of the English, by wholesale punishment of offending

    villages, as to cause little annoyance after the lesson of certain

    retribution had been taken to heart by the Chinese. More important

    than all these was a dastardly attempt, on January 11,

    ‘ ” There is no matter of strife between our respective nations. Henceforth

    let the fashion of the flag which American ships employ be ck^arly defined,

    and inform me what it is beforehand. This will be the verification of the

    friendly relations which exist between the two countries.”—Hoppin, Life of

    Admiral Foote, pp. 110-140. CorrcKpondenrc of McLdue and Parker, Senate

    Document No. 2^, December 20, 1858, pp. lOlo’ff. lUue Book, p. 137.

    640 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    1857, to poison the foreigners at Hongkong, by putting arsenic

    in the bread supplied from a Chinese baker. This, it was afterward

    asce]”tained, was at the instigation of certain officials on

    the mainland, but fortunately even here their villany was

    foiled, owing to the overdose Contained in the dough. It

    ought to be stated, in passing, that such acts are not common

    in China, and, in this case, that the baker’s employers were proven

    entirely innocent.

    Duriner much of this time Canton had been reminded of the

    presence of the British force by intermittent bombarding of the

    city from guns in Dutch Folly Fort. Sir John Bowring had

    demanded an interview wdth Yeh in Xovember, but received a

    prompt refusal, followed by a still more vigorous carrying on of

    the war in his peculiar fashion, and by raising the price on

    English heads. Admiral Seymour had now less reason for remaining

    within the Bogue, as all trade was at an end. Hundreds

    of foreigners had already been thrown out of employment,

    their property destroyed, their plans broken np, and in a

    few instances their lives lost in consequence of tliis quarrel.

    After holding an intrenched position around the church and

    ])arracks of the factories for the s])ace of a month, the uselessness

    of this effort when sustained by so paltry a force seems tf

    have moved the admiral (January 14, 1S5T) to retire from

    Canton, falling back npon Macao Fort nntil reinforcements

    should arrive from India. Before leaving the site of the factories,

    however, he burned down the warehouses of those native

    merchants in the vicinity, their inmates having previously

    beeu warned to leave them. These buildings and their contents

    were private pi’operty, and the intrenched position in the factory

    garden was not endangered by their reniaining. The

    leaders of the British operations had hitherto professed to spare

    private property ; and even if the performance was meant as a

    })arting menace to the governor-general—” to show him,” as

    ]Mr. Parkes remarked, ” that we can burn too “—it Avas one of

    the few acts, on their side, which has left a stigma npon the

    English name in China. The hostile proceedings of the Chinese

    authorities had been both petty and nseless, but as Admiral

    Seymour’s force was inadequate to take and hold Canton,

    PUBLIC SENTIMENT IN ENGLAND. 641

    a more serious cannonading of the imperial quarters might have

    been a more honorable method of taking retribution for outrages,

    and better calculated than this cuunter-incendiarism to increase

    respect for British arms and civilization.

    The news of these operations in China excited great interest

    and speculation in Europe, inasmuch as all its nations were more

    or less interested in the China trade. Parliament was the scene

    of animated argument as to the policy of Sir John Bowring and

    his colleagues ; the moral, commercial, and political features of

    British intercourse with China were discussed most thoroughly

    in all their bearings, the arguments of both parties in the debate

    being drawn from the same despatches. One remarkable

    series of papers was presented to the House of Lords in February,

    1857, entitled Coi’vespoiulence resjpecting Insults in China,

    “containing the particulars of twenty-eight outrages committed

    by the Chinese upon British and other foreigners between the

    years 1812 and 1856.” This publication M’as intended apparently

    to show how impracticable the Chinese authorities were

    in all their intercourse with foreigners, and its contents became

    to members of the House so many arguments for placing this

    intereourse on a better basis at the imperial court. To those

    who had watched since 1812 the results of treaty stipulations

    upon the people of China and their rulers, it was plain that no

    satisfactory political intercourse could be hoped for so long as

    the governor-general at Canton had the power of concealing

    and misrepresenting to his government everything that happened

    between foreign representatives and himself. Xevertheless

    such a series of papers was but one side of the insults

    endured. As long as the British government upheld the

    opium trade, and did nothing to restrain smuggling and the

    awful atrocities of the coolie traffic at MaccO, which were tilling

    the ears of all the world with their sho ‘king tales, these

    few ” outrages •’ seem very petty if put forward as a defence

    of Lord Palmerston’s going to war on account of the lorcha

    Arrow.

    In the vote upon the question of employing force in China,

    the better sense of Parliament protested against the policy

    which had directed recent events ; but the Premier knew his

    642 THE MIDDLE KIXGDOM.

    fouiitiynien, and in forty days from the dissolution (March

    21st) England returned him a House of Commons strongly

    in his favor. He now decided to complete what had been

    wanting in the treaty of Nanking, and obtain a residence for

    a l>ritish n)inister at Peking. The governments of France,

    liussia, and the United States wei’e invited to co-operate with

    England so far as they deemed proper, and their united interests

    were those of Christendom, Xo well-wisher to China

    could j)atiently look forward to a continuation of the past tantalizing

    senjblance of official intercourse at Canton, and the

    Aaried experience of twelve years at other ports proved that the

    Chinese people did not sympathize in this policy. The French

    Emperor had a special grievance against II. I. M. Ilienfung, on

    account of the judicial murder of Pere Chapdelaine, a missionary

    in Kwangsi province, who had been tortured and beheaded

    at Si-lin hien on February 20, 1856, by order of the

    district magistrate. This outrage was in direct violation of

    the rescript of ISII, and some atonement and apology were

    justly demanded. How totally unconscious of all these discussions

    and plans were Hienfung and his counsellors at Peking,

    may be guessed from their blind fright during subsequent

    events, Mdiile their inability to devise a course of action corresponded

    to their childish ignorance of their position and

    duties.

    A j^owerful though nnspoken reflection among these rulers

    }iiust not here be overlooked as a secret motive in deciding

    many of their short-sighted counsels. Pemembering the way

    in Avhich their ancestors had captured the Empire over two centuries

    before, they felt that great risk was run in admitting the

    barbarians to the capital now, since the same game would probably

    be ])layed over again. The visits of foreign ministers to

    the insurgents at Xanking, and their readiness at Canton to

    quarrel about so trifling a point as pulling down a flag and carrying

    off a few natives under its protection, all indicated, in

    their opinion, nothing shoi’t of conquest and spoliation. With

    such tremendous ])ower ari-ayed against so weak an adversary,

    they knew well enough what would ensue. Their miserable

    policy of isolation liad left them more helpless in their ignoBOMBARDMENT

    AND CAPTURE OF CANTON. 643

    ranee than diminislied in their resources, and thoy had to })ay

    dearly for their instruction.

    Tlie appointments of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros as plenipotentiaries

    for Great Britain and France were most foi’tunate

    as a selection of eminent diplomatists and clear-headed men.

    The two ambassadors entered into most cordial relations as

    soon as the land and sea forces placed at their disposal arrived

    on the Chinese coast. Lord Elgin reached Hongkong in July,

    but learning the state of affairs in that region, and that no advances

    had been made from Peking to settle the dispute, concluded

    to take the Shannon to Calcutta, to the assistance of Lord

    Canning against the mutineers ; from this place he proposed

    to proceed in the cold weather, when the force detailed for China

    would all be ready. Returning to Hongkong by September

    20th, he was obliged to tarry yet another mouth before the last

    of his reinforcements, or those of the French, had joined him.

    By the end of November the American minister, W. B. Reed,

    in the fi-igate Minr.esota, and the Russian admiral, Count

    Poutiatine, in the gunboat Amerika, had likewise come.

    Early in December, after a refusal on the part of Yeh of their

    ultimatum, the allied forces advanced up the Canton River. An

    extract from one of Lord Elgin’s private letters illustrates admirably

    the spirit in which he entered upon the work he had been

    chosen to do. ” December 22d.—On the afternoon of the 20th

    I got into a gunboat with Commodore Elliot, and went a short

    way up toward the Barrier forts, w^iicli were last winter destroyed

    by the Americans. When we reached this point, all

    was so quiet that we determined to go on, and we actually

    steamed past the city of Canton, along the whole front, within

    pistol-shot of the town. A line of English men-of-war are now

    anchored there in front of the town. I never felt so ashamed

    of mj’self in my life, and Elliot remarked that the trip seemed

    to have made me sad. There we were, accumulating the means

    of destruction under the very eyes and \vithin the reach of a

    population of about one million people, against whom these

    means of destruction were to be employed !

    ‘ Yes,’ I said to

    Elliot, ‘ I am sad, because, when I look at that town, I feel that

    I am earning for myself a place in the Litany, immediately

    644 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    after “plague, pestilence, and famine.”‘ I believe, however,

    that, as far as 1 am concerned, it Mas impossible for me to do

    otherwise than as I have done. . . . AVhen we steamed up

    to Canton and saw the rich alluvial banks covered with the luxurious

    evidences of nnrivalled industry and natural fertility

    combined—beyond them barren uplands sprinkled Avith a soil

    of reddish tint which gave them the appearance of heather

    slopes in the Highlands, and beyond these again the White

    Cloud mountain range standing out bold and blue in the clear

    sunshine—I thought bitterly of those who, for the most selfish

    objects, are trampling under foot this ancient civilization.”

    On the 2Ttli the British and French, about six thousand in

    all, landed on the east bank a short distance below the walls.

    During the whole of the following day a furious bombardment

    was opened upon the city from tlie ships, driving thousands of

    the frightened natives into the western sul)ur])S and destroying

    considerable portions of the town. By three o’clock of the 20th

    the city was in the hands of the foreigners—almost exactly the

    two hundred and seventh anniversary of its capture and entire

    reduction by the Manclnis (November, 1()50). The A’ictory was

    not a brilliant one, since scarcely any one could be found witli

    whom to fight ; tln-ee or four forts to l)e entei’ed, the wall scaled,

    a loss of one hundred and ten in killed and wounded to the victors,

    perhaps five times as numy to the vanquished—this was alL

    Immediately upon their entry within the hitherto forbidden

    city the chiefs were forced to turn their energy upon their own

    troops and prevent them fi-om bullying and looting the helpless

    Chinese.

    Governor-General Yeh was, after some little search, found

    and captured while attempting an escape from his yamun,° and

    within twenty-four hours the lieutenant-governor, Tartar general,

    and all others in high authority came into possession of the

    invaders. Yeh was carried forthwith on board II. B. M. S.

    Inflexible, a wise step which deprived him of further power of

    ‘ Letters and JoitrnaU, p. 212.

    ‘ Some very cnrions documents were found among his archives ilhistrating

    the character both of tlie man and his government. See Oliphant, Elr/i>i\>t Mis’

    mn to China, Vol. I., Chap. VIII. Reed’s Correspondence, 1858, pp. 443-488.

    TUE CITY OF CANTON AND ADJACENT ISLANDS.

    646 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    resistance and misrepresentation, and left the plenipotentiaries

    free to arrange some method of temporary government for the

    city. This was a difficult problem, ciiietiy owing to the lack of

    competent interpreters, but rendered mure so by the natural irritation

    of the conquered people at the losses they had sustained,

    the flight of the local officers, and the alarming extent of robbery

    by natives, somewhat countenanced by foreign soldiers.

    The skill and tact of Lord Elgin were never better shown than

    in the construction out of such incongruous materials of a mixed

    government whose subsequent easy working abundantly proved

    the master mind of the builder.’ The two Manchus, Governor

    Pihkwei and the connnandant of the garrison-—called also the

    Tartar general—were now brought forward to assist in saving

    tlieir capital from destruction and to form with the allies a joint

    tribunal. Pihkwei became legally (by Yeh’s capture) the governor-

    general of the Liang Kwang, and his functions in that

    capacity were not interfered with ; those of his colleague had

    always been restricted within the city walls. On January 9tli

    they were installed by Lord Elgin and Baron Gros with all possible

    ceremony as rulers of the city, under the surveillance of

    three foreigners. Colonel Ilolloway and Consul Harry Parkes

    for the British, and Captain Martineau for the French. This

    commission had its headquarters in the same extensive yanmn

    with Pihkwei, in whom happily were combined some estimable

    qualities for managing the difficult post he filled. The orderly

    habits of the literati and traders in and around Canton afforded

    a guaranty that no seditious proceedings would be countenanced

    against this joint authority if it gave them the security they had

    asked from the allies. A force of marines and the Fifty-ninth

    Regiment were quartered on Pagoda Hill, on the north side of

    the city, and ere long the commandant’s yaniun was cleared of

    its rubbish and put in order for the commission, leaving the

    other for Pihkwei. The allied chiefs deemed it wisest to attempt

    to govern as little in detail as possible, and their commissioners

    found enough to do in adjusting complaints brought by

    ‘ “You may imagine,” he writes, “what it Is to undertake to govern seme

    millions of people when we have in nil two or three people who understand

    the language ! I never had so difficult a matter to arrange.

    JOINT GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY. 647

    the Chinese against their own men. The Cantonese did not fail

    to contrast the considerate treatment they received irunx their

    foreign captors with the carnage and utter ruin which would

    have followed the occupation of the city by the Tai-pings or

    other insurgents, and during the whole period quietly submitted.

    The greater part of the responsible labor came upon Mr. Parkes,

    because of liis ability to talk Chinese, but before many mouths

    he had taught many natives how to assist in carrying out the

    necessary details. He showed much skill in circumventing the

    designs of the discontented officials at Fuhshan, giving Pihkwei

    all the native criminals to judge, restraining the thievery or

    cruelty of the foreign police, and sending out proclamations for

    the guidance and admonition of the people.’

    The kindness shown by Lord Elgin after the capture of Canton

    infused itself into the minds of those working with and

    under him, and the newly installed governor soon recovered his

    composure as he found himself in possession of his own dignities

    and power. The local and provincial officers under liim

    kept themselves at Fuhshan, now recovering from its destruction

    of three years before. By the end of January affairs were

    put in order, the blockade was taken off the port, foreign merchants

    returned and settled in the warehouses still unharmed

    on llonam, while the native dealers reopened their shops in the

    vicinity.^ Sixteen months had elapsed since the affair of the

    Arrow, and every one felt that a new day had begun to dawn

    on the relations of China with other lands.” Among the papers

    ‘ Blue Book: Lord Elginls Correspondence, July 15, 1859, Despatches Nos. 88,

    94, 108, and 128. Oliphant, ^^//w/’.v ^fimon to China, Vol. I., p. 170.

    ” Oddly enough, among the most earnest appeals for the restoration of commerce

    came one from Fihkwei himself, who wrote to Lord Elgin : “The

    eagerness with which merchants will devote themselves to gain, ii: the trade

    be now thrown well open, will increase manifold the good understanding between

    our nations, and the step will thus, at the same time, enhance your

    excellency’s reputation.”

    Bine Bonk, January 24, 1858.

    ^ The letters of G. W. Cooke, the Times’ correspondent (London, Routledge,

    1858), contain a fairly complete accoiint of the proceedings of the allies at

    Canton ; his conversations with Governor-General Yeh on the way to Calcutta

    are less valuable Compare an article in the Revue des Devr Monde;’. {V JTiillet.

    1859), by C. Lavallee, Un Historiograplie de la Presse anglaise dans la guerre d«

    Chiiui.

    648 THK MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    taken in Yeh’s yamuu were the ratilied copies of the treaties

    between Cliiua and Great Uritriu, France, and the United kStatt l^

    carefully preserved there, it was said, by directions from Peking,

    m order to serve for reference in case of dispute as to the text.

    It was, however, one of the indexes proving the desire of the

    Emperor to keep liiniself aloof from pergonal contact with

    foreigners.

    The allied chiefs, early in the month of February, proposed

    to their American and llussian coadjutors to join them in

    laying their demands before the Peking Court, and affording

    it one more opportunity to amicably settle the pending difficulties

    by sending an officer to Shanghai with full powers

    for that end. Both Russians and Americans were cordially in

    miison with the allies, and their several despatches addressed

    to Yii, the first member of the J^ul JC/i, or “Inner Council,’

    at Peking, were taken up to Shanghai and thence to Suchau,

    where Ho Ivwei-tsing received and forwarded them before the

    end of February. These four letters simultaneously sent to

    the secluded court at Peking contained nothing which could

    alarm its members ; but such was the ignorance of the highest

    officers there, that they knew not M’hat to do—ostrich-like,

    hiding their heads from the approaching danger, simply declining

    to answer any tmpleasant communication, hoping

    thereby to put far off the evil day. Their isolation would remain

    if left to themselves, and to have sent Kiying again to

    the south would only have cherished their stupid pride and

    worked their subjects ultimate injury. Their old-time policy

    of absolute non-intercourse lay like some great frigate sunk

    athwart the mouth of a river ; the obstacle once removed,

    nothing remained to prevent the vast and populous regions

    beyond the barrier from an active and profitable communion

    with the whole world. They could no longer be left in statu

    quo, and few can find fault with the plan proposed to solve their

    difficulties—a })lan which brought the four most powerful nations

    of Christendom in joint consent to set themselves on a

    fair and advantageous footing with the most ancient and populous

    nation of Asia. To those who admit the direct government

    of tiie Almighty lluler in ordering the policy of nations in accord

    ADVANCE OF THE ALLIES TOWARD PEKING. 640

    with His wise plans, this simultaneous approach to Peking will

    always be deemed as one of the waymarks f human progress.

    The letfc”; o presented to tlie Emperor ‘ form in their topics

    and toie a pleasant . >ntrast to the connnunications in past

    years. That of the ll’issian minister was peculiar in bringing

    forwaid the desH’ableness of llowing he profession of (Christianity

    to all natives desirous of embracing it ; but this point

    was made the subject of an address by the British missionaries

    at Xingpo and Shanghai to Lord Elgin, Avliose reply was a

    happy exposition of the dangers and difficulties connected with

    the toleration of Christianity by a government ignorant of its

    precepts. The imperial replies to these advances were, as

    everyone expected, in the strain of non 2)0ssumus. Lord Elgin

    returned his copy to Ho Kwei-tsing at Suchau, and enclosed

    therewith another despatch to Yii, in which he announced his

    intention to proceed to Taku, Mhere he would aw^ait the arrival

    of a commissioner qualified to treat upon the points in dispute.

    The force designed to accompany the allied chiefs was gathering

    at Sha glial, and by t.^.e miv, die vi April most of the ships

    and transports had anchored off the Pci ho, together with the

    American frigates Minnesota and Mississippi and the Russian

    gunboat Amerika, having the legations of those nations on

    board. Xothing could be more dreary than the aspect of the

    rendezvous at this season. The ships were obliged to anchor

    about eight miles from shore, which M’as level, and would have

    been invisible if it had not been for the forts at the entrance of

    the river. The dim, hazy horizon was lurid with the rays of

    the sun shiniiii; throu<:;h the dust that came in clouds from the

    plains of Mongolia and Chihli. Th^ turbid waters were often

    lashed into foam by the conflicting forces of tides and winds

    which acted on it from every quarter, and kept the gulf in a

    turmoil. Xo native boats ventured out to traffic, as would have

    been the case in the south, and the only signs of life were the

    gunboats and launches running in and out of the river, or the

    barges passing from ship to ship. Added to other discommodi-

    ‘ These are all given in the correspondence of IVlr. Reed, printed hy the

    Senate—Despatch No. 9, Ex. Dociuiteitt No. 30, March 13, IbGU, pp. 122-183.

    650 THE MIDDLE KIXGDOM.

    ties, were occasional blasts of hut air which swept over the

    water, charged with fine dust that settled on the decks and rigffin’^

    and insinuated itself into the dress and faces in an uncomfortable

    manner.

    As usual the Chinese had done nothing. The increasing

    number and size of the ships which were anchored off the Pei ho

    luid, however, been duly reported at Peking, and the llussian

    admiral had received a reply to his announcement of arrival.

    On April 23d communications were addressed by the four

    ministers to Yu-ching at Peking, and on the 20th replies came

    from Tan Ting-siang, governor-general of Chihli, informing

    them that he, with Tsunglun and Wu, had been deputed to

    ” receive their complaints and investigate and manage.”‘ The

    governor-general was not empowered to settle upon the terras

    of a treaty, but he desired to have a personal conference to

    learn what was demanded. Upon the day appointed the Russian

    and American ministers met Tan at the Taku forts (April

    30th) at separate hours, when they learned that he had not

    been invested with ” full powers,”‘ like those granted to Kiying

    and tlipu in 18-12, but had authority to discuss all matters preparatory

    to signing a ti-eaty. The truth was that they were

    (juitc ignorant of the important questions raised at Canton ; but

    while willing to discuss them, they were equally set on keeping

    the foreigners away from the capital. Here the allied chiefs

    and their two colleagues took issue. The former held out for

    commissioners to be sent with full powers ; but the latter deeming

    that the governor-general had adequate authority, accordingly

    presented him with the main points of their demands and

    afterward with the drafts of their treaties. The negotiations

    were delayed by the difficulties of the entrance, but they afforded

    a needed instruction to these conceited and ignorant

    men, who were thus enabled at their leisure to prepare for the

    struggle. Not only were the officers themselves brought face

    to face with their dreaded visitors, and made to perceive the

    folly of resisting the armaments at their connuand, but with

    the democratic habits usual in Chinese courts, the hundreds of

    attendants present at the conferences heard all that passed.

    Ere the non-belligerent powers had completed their negoCAPTURE

    OF THE TAKU FORTS. 651

    tiations, tlie allies turned over theirs into the liands of the

    two admirals, MM. Seymour and liigault de Genouilly. These

    advanced up the river on May 20th, forcing the slight boom

    across the stream, and capturing all the forts on both banks,

    with all their stores. Comparatively few Chinese were killed,

    and their defence of the forts was creditable to their courage

    and skill. All the troops fled or w^ere driven from their

    intrenched camps as far as Taku town, and the other defences,

    stockades, and fire-rafts having been destroyed, the

    gunboats proceeded to Tientsin. The losses by shot on the

    part of the Allies were unhappily doubled bj^ the explosion

    of a powder magazine in a fort as a party of Frenchmen entered.

    The news that the foreigners had forced the defences

    at the mouth of the Pel ho was soon spread thi-ough the towns

    along its banks, and myriads of unarmed people flocked to the

    shore to see the gun-boats, whose smoke and masts towering

    above the low land indicated their presence to the amazed inliabitants.

    A house having been prepared at Tientsin for the allied

    chiefs, Lord Elgin and Baron Gros reached the city at daylight

    on May 30th, followed by the other two ministers, all of them

    having come np during the night without mishap or oppo

    siti(m. The inhabitants of the city were highly excited at

    the presence of the vessels and those of whom they had lieard

    fiuch dreadful stories, but their curiosity and fear kept them

    quiet and civil, and they wei-e content with lining the shores in

    dense crowds, to gaze and talk. The general ignorance of each

    other’s lanOsuaOse did not prevent a constant intercourse with IT

    the citizens, all the more agreeable after the confinement on

    board ship. One old man was found managing a ferry-boat,

    who remembered Lord Amherst’s visit in 1816. After his inquiries

    as to the meaning of the flags on board the ships had

    been answered, he exclaimed, “How easily you and we could

    get along if you but understood our language “—to which the

    crowd around reechoed their hearty assent.

    Two higher commissioners now appeared on the scene of action,

    Kweiliang and llwashana, who superseded the discomfited

    Tan, Tsunglun, and Wu, and presented their cards as

    652 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    having been invested with full powers to treat. Negotiations

    were opened witli them, and thus, after months of delay, tlie

    plan which Yeli had so foolishly adhered to at Canton in October,

    to refuse all personal discussion, was accomplished at

    Tientsin under far more promising circumstances. The Chinese

    were obliged to accept almost any terms offered them, for

    negotiations carried on under such conditions were hardly those

    of free agents. The high commissioners were ignorant beyond

    conception of the gravity of their position and the results

    which were to flow from these treaties, whose provisions, linked

    into one compact by the favored nation clause, were, in fact, to

    form the future magna charta between almost the two halves

    of the human race. It was true that the Chinese commissioners

    were not altogether their own masters in making them, but

    owing to their perverse seclusion, they had foolishly shut themselves

    out from the opportunity of learning their rights. They

    had, of course, no desire to learn what they knew nothing

    about, and there was no alternative other than the display of

    force to break down the barriers which pride alone made

    strong. They had some grounds for fear, from their recent

    occupation of Canton, that the British wished for more territory

    than Hongkong ; and the frequent visits of the national vessels

    of Great Britain, the United States, and France to the insur-

    “•ents at Xankini;; indicated serious results in the future, for the

    latter owed all their religious fanaticism to foreign inspiration.

    To the persistent smuggling of opium along the whole coast

    shice the treaties negotiated by Kiying sixteen years before,

    and the many social and financial evils entailed thereby, were

    now added the atrocities of the coolie trade in Kwangtung province.

    Yet the reserve of the officials upon these and other

    topics on which they might be expected to have expressed their

    views or remonstrances, was only equalled by the politeness and

    freedom with which they met their enemies in consultation.

    Never again in the history of nations can functionaries to

    whom were confided the settlement of questions of so great

    moment, be brought together in such honest ignorance of the

    other’s intentions, fears, and wishes. It was high time for

    each of the five powers, now face to face, to have the way

    THE ALLIES AT TIENTSIN—APPEARANCE OF KIYING. t53

    opened for the removal of this ignorance and a better understanding

    substituted.

    Tlie despatches of Lord Elgin and Mr. Reed contain translations

    of many reports and memorials which were found in

    Yeh’s yamun at Canton, and give one a good idea of the sort

    of information furnished to the Emperor by his highest officers.

    It is a wrong view of these papers to regard their extraordinary

    misstatements as altogether designed to deceive the court and

    screen the ill-success of the writers, for they had had no more

    facilities to investigate the real condition of foreign lands and

    the policy of their rulers than had the poor boy Caspar Ilauser

    to learn about his neighbors.

    One untoward event occurred durino; the negotiations. Tliis

    was the sudden arrival of Kiying (June 8th) and his effort to

    force himself into the company of the plenipotentiaries. Since

    his departure from Canton in IS-iT he had filled the premiership

    before the death of the late Emperor Taukwang, after

    which he had been deprived of all power and most of his

    honors. He seemed to have tried to recover them by making

    large promises at court respecting his influence over the harhariatis

    / but when he reached Tientsin he was without credentials

    enabling him to participate, and acted as if his misfortunes

    had in a measure unsettled his reason. The British minister

    was suspicious of his designs, and sent his two secretaries,

    on the 9th, to learn what they could of or from him. These

    gentletnen plainly pointed out to the old man the difficulties in

    the way of settling the present troubles in any other manner

    than by acceding to the demands of Lord Elgin. Kiying had,

    however, put himself in a serious dilemma. Finding very soon

    that he was powerless to change the course of events and get the

    steamers away from Tientsin (as he no doubt had promised to

    do, and thus prove his influence), he returned to Peking on the

    12th, though he had announced the reception of his full powers

    only the day before. His colleagues were not sorry to have

    him depart, but nothing definite was learned of his fate until

    at the end of three weeks, when the Emperor’s rescript ordering

    him to connnit suicide was received. His case was deemed

    of sufficient importance to call for a summation of the principal features in order to prove the righteousness of Iiis sentence, and manifest the Emperor’s extreme desire to be at once just and gracious in his decree. Kiying’s case is rather an unusual one auiung Chinese officials, but the real reasons for his fall are probably not all stated; his prominence abroad, arising from his connection with the ]Sanking treaty, was no criterion of his influence at home or of the loss to the government by his death.’

    Soon after his departure the impertinence of a native crowd

    to a party of British officers while walking through the city,

    lent some strength to the belief that Kiying’s counsel had been

    warlike, and that a coup^ similar to the one made at Canton in

    1841 by Yihshan, had been suggested, and the destruction of

    all the foreigners in Tientsin was hoped for as its result. Their

    relations with the citizens thus far had been amicable on the

    whole, and the interruption in this desirable state of things was

    very brief. Negotiations continued, therefore, but with an

    undercurrent of doubt as to details on some important points

    among the foreign envoys. Lord Elgin had the greatest responsibility,

    indeed, and the task before him was difficult and delicate,

    but he failed in drawing to himself his colleagues and

    learning their views. They hardly knew w^iat to do, for none

    of them wished to thwart his desires for complete and honorable

    intercourse with the central government, though the

    manner of reaching this end might admit of discussion. This

    he never invited. The position of the American and Russian

    envoys, pledged to their instructions not to fight, and having

    the feeling that their nations were to obtain the atlvantages resulting

    from the hostilities of the allies, was not a pleasant one; but it could have been made so, and he himself relieved of his main anxiety as to the result, by an interview. In contrast

    ‘ Oliphant’s Mission of Lord Elgin to China and Japan, pp. 2B8-253 (American edition), N. Y., 1860. It is interesting to note, before leaving this episode,

    u Frenchman’s opinion of the character of this statesman: ” Kiying a

    ote de 1842 a. 1844 le grand nugociateur de la Chine. Les ministres ctrangers ont vautu son habilete, sa finesse, ses fa(^ons aimables et courtoises.

    Son nom sjmbolisait line politiqne nonvelle, bienveillante ponr les ctrangers, tolerante, liberale ; il representait nne sorto de ‘eune Chine.”—M. C. Lavalleo

    in the Eenie des Deux Mondrs, If) Dc’c. IHni), p. (502. The same article contains an interesting account of the first e.\])edilion up the Pei ho and its results.

    iSai ijilii -“eN -r- IMPE^RIS’-. CCN1MIS3I0NER .

    LORD Elgin’s perplexities. 65^

    with Lord Elgin’s general bearing toward those around him, as detailed in his correspondence, his biographer gives an extract from a private letter written the day after signing his treat^, which describes his perplexities:
    June 29th.—1 have not written for some days, but they have been busy ones. We went on lighting and bullying, and getting the poor commissioners to concede one point after another, till Friday the 2″)th, when we had reason to believe that all was settled, and that the signature was to take place the following day. On Friday afternoon, however, Baron Gros came to me with a message from the Russian and American ministers to induce me to recede from two of my demands—1, a resident minister at Feking, and, 2, permission to our people to trade in the interior of China ; because, as they said, the Chinese plenipotentiaries had told them that they had received a decree from the Emperor stating that they should infallibly lose their heads if they gave way on these points.

    The resident minister at Peking I consider far the most important matter gained by the treaty ; the power to trade in the interior hardly less so. I had at stake not only these important points in my treaty, for which I had fought so hard, but I know not what behind. For the Chinese are such fools that it was impossible to tell, if we gave way on one point, whether they would not raise difficulties on every other. I sent for the admiral; gave him a hint that there was a great opportunity for England ; that all the powers were deserting me on a point which they had aH, in their original applications to Peking, demanded, and which they all intended to claim if I got it ; that, therefore, we had it in our power to claim our place of priority in the East by obtaining this when others would not insist on it. Would he back me V This was the forenoon of Saturday, 2Gth, and the treaty was to be signed in the evening.

    I may mention, as a proof of the state of people’s minds, that Admiral Seynour told me that the French admiral had urged him to dine with him, assuring him that no treaty would be signed that day ! I sent Frederick to the imperial commissioners to tell them that I was indignant beyond all expression at their having attempted to communicate with me through third parties ; that I was ready to sign at once the treaty as it stood ; but that if they delayed or retreated, I should consider negotiations at an end, go to Peking and demand a great deal more, etc. Frederick executed this most difficult task admirably, and at six r.M. I signed the treaty of Tientsin. I am now anxiously awaiting some communication from Peking. Till the Emperor accepts the treaty I shall hardly feel safe. Please God he may ratify without delay ! I am sure that I express the wish just as much in the interest of China as in our own. Though I have been forced to act almost brutally, I am China’s friend in all this.’

    ‘ Walrond’s Life and Letters of Lord EUjin , p. 252.

    The importance of these two provisos was not exaggerated in his mind, but lie might have seen that the difficulties with his colleagues were increased by his own reticence.

    However much a different course might have liariuouized these discordant views, the pressure on the city of Tientsin was too near and severe upon the Chinese, and they yielded from fear of worse consequences when no other arguments coukl have induced them. It was not Lord Elgin alone who felt very sensibly, on that occasion, ” the painfulness of the position of a negotiator who has to treat with persons who yield nothing tu reason and everything to fear, and who are at the same time profoundly ignorant of the subjects under discussion and of their own real interests.” Looked at in any point of view, this period of negotiation at Tientsin in 1858 was a remarkable

    epoch. The sole great power of paganism was being bound by

    the obligations of a treaty extorted from its monarch by a

    handful of men in possession of the entrance to its capital. As

    one of the British officers pithily stated it, two powers had China

    by the throat, while the other two stood by to egg them on, so

    that all could share the spoil. Yet the past sixteen years had

    proven most conclusively that, unless this pressure was exerted,

    the imperial government would make no advance, admit no

    opening for learning its real position among the nations of the

    world, but mulishly cherish its ignorance, its isolation, its conceit,

    and its folly, until these causes had worked out the ruin so

    fondly hoped to be avoided. Even the necessity of coming

    into personal official relations with the foreign consuls to promote

    the maintenance of good order between their subjects had

    been hampered or neutralized by the Chinese authorities at all

    the ports ; and there was no hope of introducing a better state

    of things until foreign ministers were received at Peking. Happily, Lord Elgin then saw the question in all its bearings, and no one ever proved to be a truer friend to China than did he in forcing it upon her. He had little idea, probably, of one^’.iOtive for their resistance, namely, the fear of the ManZu rulers, already referred to, that in admitting the enemy to the capital they would be as summarily ejected as had been their predecessors in 1644.

    TIIK TREATIES SIGNED AND RATIFIED. 60?

    However, by the first week in July the four treaties had been signed and ratified by Hienfung, and all the vessels had left the Pei ho, which itself was no doubt the greatest proof to his Majesty that they were valid compacts ; for if the tables had been turned he would not have let them oif so easily, and perhaps wondered that Tientsin had not been ransomed at the same rate that Elliot had spared Canton in 1841. It is difficult to fully appreciate the crass ignorance and singular perversity of the men in whose hands the sway of the Chinese people were now lodc-ed. lie who is unwillinci: to acknowledge the overruling hand of God in this remarkable meeting of nations, would find it very difficult to acknowledge it anywhere in human history.

    The revision of the tariff had been deferred for a future discussion among those qualified for the work. Five Chinese commissioners reached Shanghai early in October for this and other purposes, of whom Kweiliang and Ilwashana were two. In this part of the negotiations the controlling power was properly left in the hands of the British, for their trade was worth more than all others combined. They used this power most selfishly, and fastened on the weak and distracted Empire a veritable remora, which has gone on sucking its resources without compunction or cessation. By making the tariff an integral part of the treaty, they theoretically made every infraction a casus Ijelli, and as no provision was left for revision, it was virtually rendered impossible, since the original four powers could not again be brought to unite on its readjustment with a view to the rights of China. While particular provision was made in it for preventing the importation of salt and the implements and munitions of war, the trade in opium was legalized at a lower rate than was paid on tea and silk entering England, and the brand of itmnorality and smuggling was removed from its diffusion throughout China. The weakness and isnoranee of the Chinese were such as laid them open to the power and craft of other nations, but the inherent wrong of the principle of ex-territorial ity was never more unjustly applied than in breaking down the moral sense of a people by forcing them to legalize this druc;. The evils of smug-o-lino: it were insufferable, but a heavy duty was desirable as a check and stigma upon the traffic. The solution to a statesman in Lord Elgin’s position was exceedingly difficult in relation to this point, and he perhaps took the safest course under the existing circumstances, but it has proved to be fraught with evils to the Chinese.

    One who now reads his biography and learns his nice sense of right and equity in national affairs, will not be surprised to see his doubts as to the best course to take where all were so many moves in the dark.

    The war which arose about the Arrow was now virtually closed, but many things remained to be enforced in can-ying out the treaty stipulations or restraining the irritation they produced. The vastness of the Empire sundered its inhabitants so widely that each felt the troubles it endured only when they came near; but to all of them the obligations of treaty were of the most shadowy nature. It would require years of patient instruction to educate the mass of natives up to the idea that these obligations affected them as individuals. One means of this instruction, which subsequent years have shown to be both practical and profitable, was the extension and reorganization of the administration of the customs under foreign supervision. Its short service at Shanghai had proved it to be easy and safe of operation, and the increased fidelity everywhere in collecting the duties gratified the central and provincial governments exceedingly.

    It was a startling proof of the degrading effects of the opium and smuggling trade upon the honor of the foreign merchants that they generally resisted the transfer of collecting duties from native to foreign hands, and endeavored in a thousand ways to thwart and ridicule the altered system. This feeling, however, disappeared with the incoming of a new set of merchants, and the Chinese government has, since the first, found no difficulty in utilizing the skill, knowledge, and power of their employes, not only in fiscal departments, but where ever they felt the need of such qualifications. Beginning at Shanghai, when the local officers were helpless against their own subjects, mandarins and people alike desired the advantages of an honestly collected tariff to be extended to every port opened for foreign trade.

    CLOSING INCIDENTS OF THE WAR, 659

    The changes formulated in the treaties of Tientsin could receive their accomplishment only after patient efforts on the part of ministers, consuls, and collectors to carry them into effect with due regard to the position of the native rulers. In order to open the way into the country, Lord Elgin visited Hankow in four ships in November, after he had signed the tariff. The rebels in possession of Naidving and other towns, being unapprised of his character, fired at him from some of their forts, for which “they were pounded pretty severely in return.” But a few words afterward proved more effectual than many shots, and no further altercation occurred. The voyage to and return from Hankow occupied seven weeks, and inaugurated a commerce and intercourse which has resulted in much good to the natives by making them rapidly acquainted with foreigners. The right of China to the exclusive navigation of her internal waters was summarily set aside by making Hankow a seaport; on the other hand, the government derived many advantages in the moral assistance given her at the time against the rebels by having them restrained, and, up to the present day, in the stimulus given to internal trade and rapid intercourse between the peoples of remote districts.

    The year 1858 was fraught with great events, involving the welfare of the people of China and Japan and their future position and progress. Much against their will they had been forced into political relations with Europe and America, and in a measure deprived of their independence under the guise of treaties which erected an {77vperiiim in iinpeiHO in their borders.

    Their rulers, ignorant of the real meaning of these principles of ex-territoriality, were tied down to observe them, and found themselves within a few years humbled before those of their own subjects who had begun to look to foreigners for protection.

    The perplexity of the Chinese commissioners at Shanghai in this new position was exhibited in a despatch addressed on November 1, 1858, to the three envoys. In it they discuss the right of foreigners who have no treaties to go into the interior, and insist upon the absolute necessity of restraining them, which their own mercantile consuls could not and would not do. ” Being unacquainted,” they wrote, ” with the usages of foreign nations in this respect, and unwilling of ourselves to lav down preventive regulations respecting issuing passports, \\g desire first to receive the result of your deliberations before we act ill the premises/’ They then proceed tu show how necessary it will be for the future peace between contiicting interests and nationalities that consuls should not be merchants, for” some of those of your respective nations have formerly and often acted in a manner calculated to impede and mar the harmony that existed between their nations and our own; wilfully disregarding everything but their own opinions, they have carried out their own high-handed measures to the ruin of all cordial feeling.”” The writers had no idea how this despatch was an argument and a proof of the need of strong measures to drag them out of their stupid ignorance and childish desires for isolation, and compel them to understand their duties.

    The education then begun was the only means through which to raise the Chinese rulers and people to a higher plane of civilization and liberty. One document like this carries in itself enouo;li to show how ignorant were its writers and their coleso leagues of their own duties, and how hopeless was the prospect of their emergiiiii; voluntarilv from their seclusion. The treaties bound them down to keep the peace, while they opened the channels through which the people could learn whatever was true and useful, without fear of punishment or reproach. The toleration of Christianity, the residence of foreign ministers at Peking, and the freedom to travel through the land were three avenues heretofore closed against the welfare and progress of China which the treaties opened, and through which she has already made more real advances than ever before in her history.’

    ‘ For full details on these important negotiations, see the Blue Book presented to Parliament July 15, IS”)!), containing Lord Elgin’s correspondence; f’. <?. Senate Krerutice Document No. 30, read March i;}, IHGO, containing correspondence of Messrs. Reed, Williams, and Ward, from June, 1857, to September 17, 1859; Oliphant’s Mmioii of Lord Elrjin to China and Japan, London and New York, ISfiO ; Lieutenant-Colonel Fisher, Pers<onal Narrative of Three Years’ Serrire in (lldna, London, 1S(>:}; le Marquis de Moges, liaron. Groups EndxtHny to China and Japan, 1800; Walrond’s Letterx and JoiirnaU of James, Earl of Elfjin, London, 1872; Lieut. J. D. Johnston, China and Japan, Philadelphia, 18C0 ; North American Reriew, Vol. XC, p. 125; BlackwoocPii Magazine. Vols. LXXXVL, p. G47, LXXXVIL, pp. 430, 535, audLXXXIX., p. 37a

    SENTIMENT OF CHINESE TOWARD THE ALLIES. 661

    By the end of December, 1858, the four envoys had left China, as well as most of the small force under their control. Koneof them had reached Peking, so that the Emperor was relieved of his fear that he would be carried off as was his commissioner, Yeh, from Canton; he had, moreover, another year of grace to learn what he ought to do to carry out the treaties. lie was also relieved by the refusal of the allies to join their quarrel with the efforts of the Tai-pings and march together to the conquest of the Empire. In Canton the presence of the allies had been an irritation chiefly to the provincial officers, who busied themselves in stimulating large bodies of braves in its vicinity to assassinate and rob individual foreigners near or in the city, keeping up in this manner a lasting feeling of discontent. Several skirmishes took place, and a large district within the city near the British quarters on Kwanyin Shan Avas burned over to insure protection against sudden attacks.

    The new governor-general, Hwang, had formed a league of the gentry and braves, which chiefly exhibited their power in harassing their own countrymen. He was removed in disgrace at Lord Elgin’s request, and all these puny and useless attacks brought to an end.

    An incident which occurred near Canton about fifteen months after the city had been captured, strikingly shows the character of the people: ” February 11th.—On the 8th a body of troops about one thousand strong started on an expedition which was to take three days. I accompanied, or rather preceded them on the first day’s march, about twelve miles from Canton. We rode through a very pretty country, passing by the village of Shek-tsing, where there was a fight a fortnight ago. The people were very respectful, and apparently not alarmed by our visit. At the place where the troops were to encamp for the night a cattle fair was in progress, and our arrival did not seem to interrupt the proceedings. February 13th.—The military expedition was entirely successful. The troops were everywhere received as friends. Considering what has been of yore the state of feeling in this province toward us, I think this almost the most remarkable thing which has happened since I came here. Would it have happened if I had given way to those uiio wished me to carry tire and swoni through all the country villages ? ” ‘

    These same villages furnished thousands of volunteers in May, 1841, to attack Sir Hugh Gough’s army, and had been engaged in a desperate struggle with their countrymen only three years before, so that this change was owing neither to cowardice nor Bulkiness. It had been brought about chiefly through considerate treatment of the people by the British gari-ison in Canton, by honest payment for supplies, and by regard for the traffic and local government of the city ; the citizens consequently had no complaint to make or revenge to satisfy. Those who from infancy had been brought up to call every foreigner ^fan-lm^ei^ or ‘ foreign devil,’ now slowly appreciated the fact that they had been mistaken—nor were the misconceptions all on their side. During the three years the city was occupied, public opinion there underwent an entire change ; and the Cantonese are now as courteous as they before were ill-mannered.

    At this season of rebellion and foreign war under which China was now suffering, the province of Kwangtung had a special cause for just irritation against all foreigners in the coolie trade. The headquarters of this trade were at Macao, and by 1860 it had become nearly the only business carried on there.

    ‘ Walrond’s Letters and Joxi,rnals of Lord Elgin, p. 308.

    ATROCITIES OF THE COOLIE TRADE. 663

    The population of the colony is perhaps seventy-odd thousand, of whom less than five thousand wear a foreign dress. Traffic and industry are mostly carried on by Chinese, who do all the work. When the trade of hiring Chinese as contract laborers to go to Cuba, Peru, and elsewhere began, there was no difficulty in obtaining men willing to try their fortunes abroad. As rumors of gold diggings open to their labors in California were spread abri)ad and confirmed by returning miners, the coolie ships were readily filled by men whose ignorance of outer lands made them easily believe that they were bound to El Dorado, whatever country they shipped for. The inducement for hiring them was the low rate of wages ($4 a month) at which they were willing to sell their labor, and the profits derived from introducing them into westeirn tropical regions. The temptations of this business became so great that within ten years the demand had far exceeded the supply. Seldom has the unscrupulous character of trade, where its operations are left free from the restraints either of competent authority or of morality, been more sadly exhibited than in the conduct of the agents who filled these coolie ships. The details of the manner in which natives of all classes, scholars, travelers, laborers, peddlers, and artisans, were kidnapped in town and country and sent to Macao, were seldom known, because the victims were unable to make themselves heard. When the rebels at Fuhshan were defeated in 1855, thousands of their followers were glad to save their lives by shipping as coolies, but this lasted only a short time.

    The allied commissioners in charge of Canton took cognizance of these outrages, and upon the representations of Governor-General Lao took vigorous measures for breaking up the trade at Wham]x»a.’ The United States minister, lion. J. E. “Ward, lent his aid in February, 1860, by allowing the Chinese authorities to take three hundred and seventeen men out of the American ship Messenger in order to ascertain whether any of them were detained on board against their will. Every one of them declined to go back to the ship, but it was not proved how many had been beguiled away on false pretences—the usual mode of kidnapping. The report of the commission sent to Cuba a dozen ^-ears later asserts, as the result of careful inquiries, that the majority of the coolies in Cuba ” were decoyed abroad, not legitimately induced to emigrate.”

    The Portuguese rulers of Macao “were unwilling to make thorough investigation into the facts about this business until after the return of the commission sent to Cuba in 1873, whose report disclosed the inevitable evils and wrongs inherent in the traffic. Urged by the British government, they finally (in 1875) closed the barracoons, and thus put an end to it. During the twenty-five years of its existence about five hundred thousand coolies were taken away.

    ‘ Compare Lieutenant-Colonel Fisher, Pfrsomd Nan-ative of Three Years^ Serrke in China, pp. 260-342, where the matter is pretty thoroughly discussed and Lao’s proclamations given in detail.

    To return to the war : throughout the winter no event of note occurred in any part of China, but the imperial government was busily employed in fortifying the mouth of the Pei ho to prevent the entrance of the allies. They demolished the old forts to rebuild new ones of materials gathered on the spot, and constructed somewhat after the manner laid down in foreign authorities on fortification. These books had been translated for them by natives trained in mission schools. Notwithstanding all that Kweiliang and llwashana may have assured them to the contrary, the Emperor and his officers could not divest

    themselves of their fears of serious reprisals, if not of conquest,

    should they pennit the allied gunboats to anchor a second

    time at Tientsin and their embassies to enter the capital. The

    two commissioners awaited at Shanghai the arrival of the British,

    French, and American plenipotentiaries, for the purpose of

    urging them to exchange the ratifications in that city. Nevertheless,

    since Peking was expressly appointed in the first two

    treaties as the place for signing them, Mr. Bruce and M. Bourboulon,

    the English and French ministers, determined to insist

    upon this detail. The poor commissioners, on the other hand,

    knowing more than they dared to tell of the hostile preparations

    going on, steadily declined the offer of a passage to Taku.

    KEPULSE OF THE ALLIES BEFORE TAKU. 665

    Mr. Ward was not tied down to any place or time for exchanging the American treaty, but decided to do so at the same place with his colleagues. The three ministers remained in the south to exchange views and allow the British gunboats to collect off Taku before their arrival, when they all joined them on June 20th. The appearance of the forts was entirely different from last year, and confirmed the reports of the great efforts making to prevent foreigners reaching the capital in large numbers. The river was found to be barred by an elaborate boom of timber and chains; but though no soldiers were in sight on the battlements, it was evident that a collision was intended. The reconnoissance had been carefully made from the ITth to the 2tl:th, and the riiiuese gcnierul, S;nig-k()-lin-siii, felt confident of his ability to hold his own against the shi])s inside of the bar. All official intercourse was refused with Admiral Hope, though he had stated his purpose clearly, because, as was alleged, these forts and men were merely gathered by the conniion people to defend themselves against pirates.

    In order to discover the real state of feeling toward a neutral, Commodore Tatnall took Mr. AVard, in the United States chartered steamer Toeywan, into the river on the 24th, and proceeded toward a jetty near the fort. The steamer ran aground when about half a mile short of it; the minister then sent his interpreters to the jetty, where they were met by a dozen or more miserably dressed fellows who had come from the fort for that purpose. On learning the errand of the foreigners, one or two of the men spoke up in a way which showed that they were officers—probably disguised as coolies—telling the deputation

    that the passage to Tientsin by the Pei ho had been barred, but

    that the governor-general, Ilangfuh, was then at Pehtang, a

    place about ten miles up the coast, where he was ready to receive

    the American minister. They added that they had no

    authority to take any letter or card for him ; that they knew

    very well the nationality of the Toeywan, which would not be

    harmed if she did not attempt to break through the boom laid

    just above the jetty ; and, lastly, that they were not at all empowered

    to aid or advise the Americans in getting up to Pehtang.

    The whole episode was a ridiculous ruse on the part of the Chinese to hide their design of forcibly preventing the ministers from ascending the river; but by so undignified a behavior the general commandino; the works forfeited whatever moral advantage might otherwise have remained on his side. After Admiral Hope had commenced his operations against the barriers, Ilangfuh did indeed send a letter to the British minister—then lying nine miles off the shore—informing him of the arrangements made at Pehtang to take the allied envoys from thence to the capital. These arrangements certainly violated no article of the treaties, nor any promise made to the foreigners, though they neutralized entirely the journey to Peking upon which the British government had determined to send its plenipotentiary.

    One may learn from the letters of Mr. Bruce to Lord Malmesbury(of July 5th and 13th) many details of the impertinent reception accorded to Admiral Hope’s messengers by the rabble and soldiers near the Taku forts, all proving plainly enough their hostile intentions. But the minister overlooks what we, in retracing the history of these years, cannot too attentively keep in mind, namely, the ever-present fear of trickery and foul play with their unknown engines of war which the Emperors counsellors momentarily dreaded from their foreign adversaries.

    On the other hand, what could be done with a government which would never condescend to appreciate its own weakness, would never speak or act the truth, would never treat any other nation as an equal ? These and other despatches from the Blue Book afford a key to the policies of both parties in this remarkable contest, and convince the impartial student of the necessity of personal contact and acquaintance before it was possible to reach a lasting understanding between the holders of so widely separated views.

    During the night of the 23d, after the Toeywan had floated at high water, the British advanced and blew up the first boom, leaving, however, the second and stronger obstruction untouched.

    The attempt to ascend the river in force was commenced by the allies in the following afternoon, when the forts opened fire upon them and by evening had sunk or silenced almost every vessel. In this Hect thirteen small ii’unboats were enji-ased, one of the largest among them, a French craft, carrying six hundred men ; besides these were some six hundred nuirines and engineers

    designed to serve as an escort upon the journey to the

    capital. This guard was now landed in the mud before the

    forts and an attempt made to carry the works by escalade, but

    the effort failed, and by daylight the men were all once more

    afloat. From the gunboats twenty-five men were killed and

    ninety-thi-ee wounded ; the loss among tlie marines was naturally

    heavier—sixty-four killed and two hundred and fifty-two

    wounded, while of the boats four were sunk.’

    Throughout this action the American vessel Toeywan remained inside of the Ijar, being a non-combatant. The gallant energy of Commodore Tatnall, who in the thick of the fight passed through the fleet to visit the British admiral lying

    ‘ One of these afterward lloated of itself and was preserved.

    Upper North Fort

    PLAN OF THE MOUTH OF THE PEI-HO.

    Sheicing the Defences

    and illustrative of the Attack o/25!» June, 1859

    wounded in the Plover, well-nigh cost him his life; a shot from the Chinese guns tore into the stern of his harge, killing the coxswain, and narrowly missed sinking the boat with all on board. Tatnall’s declaration, in extenuation of his technical violation of international law by towing boat-loads of British marines into action, that ” blood is thicker than water,” has indissolubly associated his name with this battle of the Pei ho.’

    The American minister was present as a spectator at this repulse before the Taku forts, but this could not be properly considered as a reason for not making further attempts to reach Peking. He accordingly, though not without some difficulty, notified the governor-general at Pehtang of his arrival, and four days later a pilot was sent off and the Toeywan taken up to Pehtang. Mr. Ward, in his report to Washington, expresses his belief that he would not be allowed to reach Peking, while the Chinese had no other intenti(jn than to escort him there and bring him safely back. On July Sth boats were sent to conduct his party to the place of meeting, which they reached through a line of soldiers in uniform placed along the sides of the streets, and were ushered into a large hall amid a crowd of officials. The recent encounter at Taku was discussed in a sensible manner, without apparent anxiety or bravado, and then the arrangements for taking the whole party of twenty to Peking were made known. Among other topics of inquiry brought forward was the cost of such vessels as had been sunk in the Pei ho by their guns—as if the officials had been estimating the probable expense of their victory when the English brought in their usual bill of damages. But the offer of Commodore Tatnall to place his surgeons at the disposal of the Chinese, to aid in treating the wounded men at the forts, was declined.

    ‘ Lieutenant-Colonel Fisher’s Personal Nmrative of Three Tears” Service in China, Chaps. XIII. and XIV.

    MIJ. WAKD’s visit to PEKING. 660

    Everything being made ready by July 20th, the American minister set out under the escort of Chunghow, now first brought into contact with foreigners. About forty miles of flat, saltish plain was crossed, until the party reached Pelitsang, on the Pei ho, where were lying the boats prepared for their reception. As they proceeded up the river the inhabitants flocked to the banks to behold the dreaded foreigners, but no expressions of vaunting or hostility were heard among the myriads who now gazed for the first time upon them. The

    vast crowd at Tungchau, when the twenty Americans landed,

    comprised apparently the whole population of that city ; clad in

    white summer garments, and preserving a most remarkable

    stillness and decorum as they lined the river banks and highway,

    this silent, gazing multitude produced upon the strangers

    an effect incomparably weird. The day was oppressively hot,

    and many preferred the carts to the mules provided for the

    trip to Peking, where they all arrived on the 2Ttli. A ridiculous

    rumor, illustrated by appropriate pictures, respecting this

    journey was circulated in Paris about a fortnight afterward,

    stating that Mr. Ward and his party were conducted from the

    coast in an innriense ” box or travelling chamber, drawn overland

    by oxen,” and then put ” on a raft to be towed up the river and

    Imperial Canal as far as the gate of the capital. They were

    well treated, and were taken back to the coast in the same

    manner.” This jeux (Tesjyi’it ju-obably expressed the popular

    sentiment in France of what was expected from the Chinese,

    and has ever since been associated with it.

    On announcing his arrival, a meeting was arranged for the 30th between Mr. Ward and Kweiliang and Ilwashana, at which all the time was occupied in discussing the question of the manner of audience. The minister had the advantage in this interesting colloquy, for he had come up at the invitation of the governor-general, had no directions from the President upon the matter, was quite indifferent as to the result of the conference, and had no presents to be rejected as Lord Amherst’s were in 181G. The nature of the hotow and the reasons for requiring it of all who had audience of the Emperor were fully discussed at several interviews in the most amicable and courteous manner. The Chinese were anxious to bring about an audience, and went so far as to waive the ketou or knocking head, from the first, and proposed instead that the envoy should bend one knee as he approached the sovereign. This was even less of an obeisance than English courtiers paid their Queen, and might have been accepted without difficulty—if any eouiproinise were possible—had not one of the party previously declared the religious nature of the ceremony by saying, ” If we do not kneel before the Emperor, we do not show him any respect; it is that or nothing, and is the same reverence which we pay the gods.” Kweiliang further said that he himself would willingly burn incense before the President of the United States if asked to do so.’

    During their whole national history the Chinese rulers and

    people had accepted this ceremony as the inseparable prerogative

    of the Son of Heaven ; and as this discussion in their capital

    was in the hearing of a great crowd of officials, who, doubtless,

    were prompt enough in circulating among the populace a

    report of the disagreement, one may appreciate the feelings of

    the latter when the American embassy was allowed quietly to

    leave the city without enterhig into the “Great Interior” to

    behold the Dragon’s Face. Foreigners have been so ready in

    China to ridicule or depi’eciate whatever partakes of resistance

    to their notions (unless it be backed up by force to make it respected),

    that this remarkable discussion on a vital point in Chinese

    etiquette and theology was generally regarded as silly verbiage

    on their part or ascribed to the effect of fear on the part

    of the Americans. As the time and phice for exchanging ratifications

    were not mentioned in the treaty, there was no insuperable

    difficulty in adjourning the ceremony to another place; yet it seemed a grotesque ending to the four days’ discussion for Kweiliang to seriously ask the minister for what purpose he had come to Peking, he himself being quite at a loss to understand the reason. Mr. Ward replied that it was to deliver the letter from the President, and to exchange the ratifications. It would have been better if he had held him to the promise made by the governor-general at Pehtang to do so in Peking. However, the return trip was concluded by the exchange of ratifications on August 15th at Pehtang, and the departure of the frigate for Shanghai soon after.

    ‘ See Ward’s despatches, pp. 594-617, U. 8. Senate Executue Document No. 30, read Marcli 1;5, 1800; American Eclectic Magazine, New York, Vol. 51, April and May, 18G1 •, North China Br. Ji. A. Society, Vol. I., No. 3, 1859.

    LORD ELGIX AND BARON GROS RETURN TO CHINA 671

    The mortification of having been repulsed at Taku was not concealed by the British public or press, when they ascribed it to the too hasty landing at sunset on a mud flat over which there was no pathway or footing. There certainly was no treachery on the part of the Chinese, as Mr. Swinhoe declares in his JVorf/i China Ca//tj>ai^n, for they plaiidy told what they would do if the passage were attempted.’ Yet it was a grievous disappointment to find that the exchange of ratifications had been interrupted from any cause; and though it will probably always be a debatable point whether it was right for the allied envoys to refuse the offered means of reaching Peking by way of Pehtang, there was no debate now as to the necessity of hastening to the capital at once.

    ‘ Though they told many lies as well. These charges against the Chinese were reiterated until they were believed by all the world; but in the effort to find a good reason for proceeding to Peking in order to exchange the ratifications, it was not needful to say that the forts fired upon the British ships without notice. Mr. Bruce’s despatches to Lord Malmesbury (of Jul}’ i;]th), together with the eufilosures and translations of native documents, discuss this question with much good sense.

    The British and French governments moved immediately in the matter, and M’isely decided to place the settlement of the question in the same hands that had carried it thus far. In April, 1860, Earl Kussell wrote to Lord Elgin that ” Her Majesty resolved to employ every means calculated to establish peace with the Emperor of China, and had determined to call upon him again to give his valuable services to promote this important object.” The indispensable conditions were three, viz., an apology for the attack on the allied forces at the Pei ho ; the ratification and execution of the treaty ; and payment for the expenses incurred by the allies. Lord Elgin’s colleague was Baron Gros, and the two were ready to leave Europe in April. They were supported in making their demands by an army of about ten thousand British troops of all arms, gathered from England, Cape Colony, and Lidia, and nearly seven thousand French sent from France. Their respective naval forces were not largely added to, but the requisite transports increased the fleets to more than two hundred vessels in all, of which thirty-three

    were French. The latter had small iron gunboats, fitted to carry one gun, brought from home hi fifteen pieces each; when screwed together each boat had three compartments, made water-tight with layers of vulcanized rubber at the joinings^

    The British forces gathered at Talien-wan Bay on the southeastern side of Prince llegent’s Sword, and the French at Chifu on the coast of Shantung. The plenipotentiaries had arrived iu July of this year and found the imperial government maintaining its old attitude of conciliation and undue assumption.

    On March 8th the foreigners^ terms had been made known by Mr. Bruce, and a reply shortly afterward transmitted to him through Ho Kwei-tsing at Shanghai. In it the lurking fear of reprisals, so largely actuating its conduct, appears from the conclusion, when the council says : ” If Mr. Bruce will come north without vessels of war and with but a moderate retinue, and will wait at Pehtang to exchange the treaties, China will not take him to task for what has gone by. But if he be resolved to bring up a number of war-vessels, and if he persist in proceeding by way of Taku, this will show that his true purpose is not the exchange of treaties.” ‘ After such a declaration there was but one way left by which to prove to the Emperor how thoroughly in earnest were the allies in their intention of exchanging the treaties. The last bulwark of Chinese seclusion was now to be broken down—never more, we may hope, to be erected against the advancing influences of a more enlightened civilization.

    ‘ Wolseley’s Narrative, p. 14. Fislier’s C/nmi, Chap. XXIII.

    LANDING OF THE ALLIES AT PEIITANG. 673

    After the usual delays incident to moving large bodies of troops with their various equipages, the combined forces left their anchorages on July 26th, presenting with their long lines of ships a grand sight as they went up the smooth waters of the Gulf of Pechele toward the mouth of the Pehtang River. This assemblage was many times larger than the armaments sent to the same region in the two previous years, and the experiences of those years had prepared both parties to regard this third attempt to reach the Court of Cambaluc as decisive of their future relations. The forces found much inconvenience in effecting a landing at Pehtang, where the beach at low tide extends over miles of ooze and sticky mud, but met no forcible opposition. The towns in this region are among the most repulsive-looking on the whole Chinese coast. In consequence of

    the saline soil no trees or grass are to be seen on the wide

    plain ; the only green things being a few fruit trees near the

    Jiouses, or scattering patches of salsola and similar plants. The

    houses are built of mud and chopped straw ; their walls rest on

    layers of sorghum stalks spread on the foundation to intercept

    the saline influences, while the thatched roofs also contain

    much mud. These soon present a scanty covering of grass,

    which, speedily withering in the hot sun, imparts to the dwelling a still more forlorn aspect. Cheerless enough on a bright day, the appearance of one of these hamlets in wet weather—with mud streaming from the roofs, the streets reeking with noisome filth, through which loaded carts and half-naked men wend dolefully their way—is certainly melancholy beyond any description.

    The allies were on shore by the evening of August 2d, and

    in a most pitiable plight in their own eyes. The men had been

    obliged to wade through the mud left by the retiring tide to

    reach solid ground, and then cross a moat that received the

    drainings of the town, a reeking mass much worse, of course,

    than the other. Xo fresh water was to be had, and the time

    which elapsed before the men could be supplied from the boats

    Avas spent in putting themselves up for the night, Avet, dirty,

    and hungry as they were. In the morning it was found that

    the few forts which they were to attack were merely for show,

    and soon the town was occupied by the ti’oops, their generals

    taking the temples for quarters. In less than three days every

    house in it had been pillaged, and whatever was worthless for

    plunder was destroyed as useless, ” the few natives that still

    lingered by their uinisurped domiciles,” adds Mr. Swinhoe,

    ” quietly watching with the eye of despair the destruction of

    all the property they possessed in the world, and the ruin of

    their hopes perhaps forever.” Even the poor wretches who

    were trying to cany off their goods in packs were stopped and

    stripped by the prowling soldiers.

    Ill less than a fortnight the entire force had been brought

    ashore without accident or opposition. There were men, tents,

    guns, horses, provisions, animals, stores, ammunition, baggage, —everything, in short, which an army now needs and which

    steam easily brings to it. Besides these, two thousand live

    hundred Cantonese coolies, each of whom is estimated by

    Colonel Wolseley, with supreme candoi’, to have been of more

    general value than any three baggage animals. They were

    working constantly for ten days, carrying water, landing stores,

    and performing the toil devolving on camp followers, for which

    this author magnanimously praises them by saying: “They

    were easily fed, and when properly treated most manageable.”

    On August 12th the forces were ready to move on the Taku

    forts lying about five miles distant across the plain, now rendered

    miry by the constant rains. A single causeway three

    miles long, flanked by deep ditches, traversed it, and along this

    progress, especially for the heavy artillery, was exceedingly

    slow. Upon their passage of this road the Chinese general,

    Sangkolinsin, yielded the only vantage-ground where he could

    have encountered his enemy with hope of success. This ignorant

    blunder on the part of so energetic a commander seems all

    the more unaccountatle, since a week previously the Chinese

    cavalry had been nnich emboldened by some slight successes

    over a reconnoitring party of the allies, and ” approached our

    outposts with wonderful courage, a few even advancing to within

    a few hundred yards, brandishing the swords and making grotesque

    gesticulations.”

    At last the allies were ready to advance to the attack of the

    Chinese. The Mongol horsemen commenced the engagement

    by rushing fearlessly forward in several irregular lines of

    skirmishers, and bravely received the shot from the Armstrong

    guns, until they charged with a loud, M’ild yell the Sikh cavalry,

    with whom they engaged in close conflict. But ” in less than

    a minute the Tartai’s had turned and were flying for their lives

    before our well-armed irregulars supported b}^ two squadrons

    of the finest dragoons in the British army ; the ])ursuit lasted

    for five miles, and was then only ended by our horses being

    pumped out. Had they been in good working order the vq

    CAPTURE OF SINIIO AXD THE TAKU FOKTS. 675

    suits would have been far more satisfactory, and the worthy tax-payers at home would have had the pleasure of gloating over the account of an immense Mst of slain enemies.”‘

    TliQ allied infantry had already reached the intrenched canjp, near the village of Sinho, and the ” beautifully precise practice” of the Armstrongs, together with the accurate rifled guns of the French, were brilliantly successful in knocking over the Chinese who served their gingalls at the ranges of fourteen hundred or a thousand yards.

    The reader cannot desire further particulars of this unequal

    contest as described by Colonel (now Lord) Garnet “Wolsele^-.

    The various forces of the Chinese M-ere entirely routed by the

    allies ; the plain was speckled for miles l)y native corpses, while

    the care of wounded men called out the sympathies and skill of

    their conquerors. The village of Sirdio was plundered, and its

    inhabitants fled, glad to escape with their lives.^ The next

    morning an advance was made by the entire force upon the five

    forts and intrenched camps at Tangku, three miles ofF, from

    which the imperialists were dislodged with considerable loss on

    their part, the rest retreating across the Pei ho toward Taku.

    Tangku town was occupied by the foreigners, who took under

    their care everybody left in it, and relieved the wounded and

    starving while preparing for the intended attack on the forts.

    This kindness, and the consequent increased acquaintance arising

    between the contending parties in obtaining supplies, did much

    to remove their ignorance and contempt of each other—a result

    far more desirable and useful than the capture of forts and

    prisoners.

    ‘Wolseley, NniTatiir, p. 108.

    ‘ A great collection of official documents disclosing the views of the court upon the struggle was found iu the yamun.

    ” Lieutenant-Colonel Fisher, Personal Narrative, pp. 404-409.

    The French having already- encamped on the further bank of the Pei ho, each army commenced the building of a bridge ^ across the stream, completing the structure so speedily that by the morning of August 21st the whole attackingforce was in position. The twenty-three pieces of artillery now began to fire upon the north fort, from which the Chinese replied with all the alacrity they could, although taken thus in rear. About six o’clock, when the fire waxed hotter and hotter, and the troops were anxiously looking for the signal to advance, ” a tall black pillar, as if by magic, shot up from the midst of the nearest fort, and then bursting like a rocket after it had obtained

    a great height, was soon lost in the vast shower of earth and

    wood into which it resolved itself—a loud, bursting, booming

    sound marking the moment of its short existence.” But the

    fire from the fort only ceased for a minute or two, and the

    gunners served their pieces most manfully, though sometimes

    unprotected in any way from the crushing shell fire opposed to

    them. The attack Ijegan about seven o’clock, nearly four thousand

    men all told forming the advance. A gallant defence was

    made to a still bi-aver onset, but the victoiy naturally fell to

    the disciplined forces of the allies, who had j^ossessed themselves

    of all the defences before noon. A few guns taken from

    the ships destroyed June 25, 1850, were now recovered l)y the

    British, but otherwise the fort contained nothing of Aalue. The

    loss of life on both sides was coni]):iratively slight. The Jh-itish

    had seventeen killed and one hundred and eighty-three wounded ; the French, one hundred and thirty casualties in all; the Chinese lay dead in heaps in the fort, and their total loss probably exceeded two thousand. The interior testified in every part the noble manner in which it had been defended, even after the disastrous explosion had crippled the resources and discouraged the enthusiasm of its garrison. From this position the allies moved on the other n(n-thern fort with their artillery, under a continual fire from its Avails ; but before the guns could open upon it, many white; flags appeared on the parapets; messengei’S were ere long seen to leave the gi’cat southern fort. They were all given up before sunset, and the famous Taku foi’ts, Avhieh had last year witnessed the discomfiture of the allies, now saw them enter as conquerors’—” the tarnished honor of our arms was <i;loriouslv vindicated.”

    ‘ When tlio allied generals came to carefully examine the construction of the walls, casemates, and internal arrangements, with the preparation made outside to hinder the enemy, they declared them to be absolutely impregnabW from seaward if defended as well as the north fort had been.

    THE ADVANCE TO TIENTSIN. 077

    Lord Elgin M-as quietly resting in Tangkn, and refused to jeceive their surrender, or even to hold intercourse with Hangfnh, the governor-general of Chihli, then in command, but turned him over to the commander of the forces. The path heing now open for the troops to march upon Tientsin, the gunboats were sent forward to see that the river was clear. On the ^.^th the two ])loiiipotentiaries wei-e again housed at Tientsin,

    accompanied by naval and land forces amply strong to take

    them to Peking. Xo opposition M’as, howevei”, experienced in

    i-eaching that city, while the pleasing contrast in the surface of

    this country with that of the dreary flats near Pehtang and

    Taku refreshed the men as much as the abundant supplies and

    })eacefulness of the people aided them. Such remarkable contrasts

    in China illustrate the inert character of this extraordinary

    people; and further, also lead one to incpiire what is the

    reason for their loyalty to a government which fails so completely

    in protecting them from their enemies. Mr. Swihhoe

    records’ a conversation held with a M’ell-to-do Chinese, in which

    this inquiry receives a partial answer in the peaceful education

    of a race M’hicli lias no alternative.

    ‘ North China Campairjn, pp. 158-161.

    His intrenchments at Sinho and Tangku being demolished, his vaunted defences upon the liver razed, his enemies’ ships in possession of Tientsin, nothing now remained for Sangkolinsiii save to move his entire army nearer Peking, and there again meeting the invaders, endeavor to preserve the capital from capture. He would not there be able to shift the odium of defeat on the difficulties of the river defences, while the moral effect would be incomparably greater if he were vanquislied near the palace. The aged Jvweiliang, the father-in-law of Prince Kung, was again directed to repair to Tientsin, where he arrived about August 2Sth. He and two others (all of them Manchus) endeavored to negotiate a peace so as to prevent the allies from advancing on Peking with their armies. Finding that they were trifling, Lord Elgin stopped the palaver, and started for Tungchau on September Stli, the British taking the left bank and the French keeping the southern. jS^ear Yangtsun a new cummission of higher rank reported itself, but it was rejected, and the army continued on its M’ay. Further on, at Ilosi-wu and Matau, signs of serious strife began to appear, but the commissioners assured their negotiators, Messrs. Wade and Parkes, that

    everything was or would be ready at Tungchau to conclude the

    convention. Affairs were becoming critical in the matter of

    supplies and transport, for Sangkolinsin’s army prevented the

    people from safely bringing animals and making sales. The commissariat,

    therefore, was obliged to seize what could be found

    to feed the advancing force, and this involved ransacking most

    of the towns and handets lying near the river between Hosi-wu

    and Tungchau. The progress of the force was, therefore, much

    slower than below Tientsin, though the possession of sixty or

    eighty small boats helped to bring on the amnumition and

    other supplies.

    On September 1ith the interpreters, Messrs.AYade and Parkes,

    reached Tungchau, in order to meet Prince I and his colleague

    to discuss the terms for stoj^ping the army and exchanging

    the ratifications. This interview was marked with apparent

    sincerity, and resulted in an order for the army to move forward

    to a place designated near the town of Changkia-wan,

    about three leagues from Tungchau, \vhere the troops were to

    encamp. The camp broke up from IIosi-wu early on the 17th

    to carry this arrangement into effect. Mr. Parkes was again sent

    forward to Tungchau (twentj^ -five miles), accompanied by an escort

    of twenty-six Sikh and other soldiers, to inform the imperial

    connnissioners, and finally arrange terms. The ground pointed

    out was reached, and seemed to be well suited for the j^ui-pose.

    At Changkia-wan the party met an ofiicer at the head of some

    cavalry, who challenged them, but allowed all to go on to Tungchau.

    Mr. Parkes soon met another high official in charge of a

    guard, who treated them with marked courtesy, informing

    them that he had been the general at Sinlio, and let them proceed.

    They were received at Tungchau and conducted through

    the town to a temple by a messenger sent from the prince. At

    one o’clock the discussions began, but instead of entering into

    the details of carrying out the agreement, difficulties were made

    OCCUKRENCES AT TUNGCIIAU. 679

    about Lord Elgin’s delivering his letter of credence to the Emperor.

    The whole afternoon was consumed in this debate,

    which probably was grounded not a little on the recent decision

    of Ilienfung to leave the capital for his summer palace at

    Jeh-ho while the way was yet clear. At eventide the commissioners

    waived the settlement of the audience, and soon agreed

    to all the other points relating to the encampment near Changkia-

    wan. In the morning Mr. Parkes, Colonel Walker, and

    eleven others, leaving the rest of their party in the temple to

    await the arrival of the plenipotentiaries the next day, departed

    to view the designated encampment. Their journey was somewhat

    eventful. As they reached Changkia-wan they met bodies

    of Chinese infantry going south, but no notice was taken of

    them, and the foreigners rode on to reach the appointed spot.

    In doing so they came across a body of a thousand dismounted

    liorsemen concealed in a dry watercourse, or nullah, evidently

    placed there in ambush ; while riding along in front no interruption

    was made to their progress. Further on, in a small

    village, they detected a large force hidden behind the houses

    and in gardens, but still no hindrance to their advance was interposed

    by these men. A short distance ahead they came upon

    a masked battery of twelve guns just placed in position, from

    which they were driven away. It was now phiin that Sangkolinsin

    Avas preparing an ainbushment for the allied forces to

    enter, feeling confident, no doubt, of his success.

    Mr. Loch, who accompained Mr. Parkes thus far, was now

    designated to force his way through the Chinese troops, so as to

    meet the allied generals and tell them the state of things. Sir

    Hope Grant had already noticed some bodies of men on his

    flanks, and was preparing for them when he learned the truth ;

    but in order to give Mr. Parkes and the others a chance to escape

    from Tungchau, he agreed to delay two hours before opening

    upon the enemy. Mr. Loch accordingly started, in company

    with Captain Brabazon and two horsemeu,to return to Tungchau.

    They reached it in a few hours and found their friends, unconscious

    of the danger, wandering through the town. Mr. Parkes

    had learned something of it, and called on Prince I at his

    quarters to claim protection ; this dignitary was in a state of much excitement, and said that ” mitil the question of delivering the letter of credence was settled there coiikl \)c no peace ; there must be war.” On returning to their temple the foreigners immediately started off in a body, but some of their horses were jaded, and the country was filled with moving bodies of troops.

    When about five miles wei”e gone over they came on a brigade

    of matchlock men, and ere long an officer of rank stopped them

    from going further, but offered to accompany two of them to

    obtain from the general a pass allowing the whole party to ride

    around the Chinese army on their way back. Mr. Parkes and

    Mr. Loch and a Sikh accordingly M’ent with him, and he bravely

    looked after their safety. Meanwhile the battle had alreadybcgun,

    as the booming cannon intimated. They had advanced only a

    few rods when the trio found themselves in the midst of a large

    body of infantry, some of whom seized their bridles, but their

    guide rushed in, striking i-ight and left, and thus cleared the

    way. Ten rods in the rear they met the Chinese general, to

    whom Mr. Parkes addressed himself, pointing to the flag of

    truce and asking for a pass for the whole party to return to the

    P>ritish armv. 8aii<rkolinsin ” irave a derisive lau<2;h, and broke

    out into a torrent of abuse, lie accused Parkes of being the

    cause of all the troubles and difficulties that had arisen. Not

    content with attempting to impose conditions which would have

    been derogatory to the dignity of the Empei’or to accept, he

    had now brought the allied armies down to attack the imperial

    forces.” This is only a part of his excited conversation with Mi”.

    Parkes, as reported by Mr. Loch. They were now imprisoned,

    and ordered to l)e taken in an open cart with two French prisoners

    to Tungehau, and delivered over to Prince I. The others,

    twenty-three in all, had also been made prisoners where they

    were waiting, and ere long conducted to Tungehau in charge

    of a guard.

    The five in the cart reached Tungehau after Prince I had

    left his temple, and were therefore hurried on to Peking after

    him, but on the way were turned off near Pa-li-kiau {i.e.,

    ‘ Eight Lt Bridge’) and taken to the quai’ters of Jinlin, a general

    then in command of the Peking gendarmerie, fie ques’

    IMPKISONMENT OF PARKES AND LOCH. 681

    tioned Mr. Parkes upon the strength of the allied foi’ces, until

    the latter ended this catechising under the torture of kneeling

    with the arms twisted behind him, by pretending to faint.

    In the aftei-noon, MJiile again undergoing examination by some

    officials formerly with Prince 1, they were suddenly interru})

    ted b}’ a commotion, and everybody ran off, leaving them

    alone. Soon a number of soldiers rushed in and bound their

    arms, while they were led away to be beheaded in an outer

    court. But just as they crossed the yard a mandarin hurried

    forward, and seizing liold of the soldier, then waving his

    sword over Mr. Loch, rescued them both and hurried them into a cart, where the other three prisoners lay, upon which they immediately started for Peking by the great stone road. The torture and jolting of this ride over the rough causeway were increased by their weariness, hunger, and cramped position, and when they got out of the cart at the Iling Pu, in Peking, they were utterly prostrated. Kevertheless, their misery during the ride of ten miles was transient and light compared with what awaited them inside of the Board of Punishments.

    They were there separated, heavily pinioned, and put with the native prisoners. Mr. Loch justly commends these wretched men for their sympathy, and mentions many little acts of kindness to him in dividing their cakes and giving him a special bench to sit on during the ten days he was quartered with them. Tie was then tai:en to the room with Mr. Parkes, and they were soon driven away to a temple in the northern part of the city, whore rooms had been fitted up for them. As to the party of twenty-three English and thirteen Frenchmen left by Parkes at his capture, they had been taken to Yuan-ming Yuan under a strong guard.

    Meanwhile the allied army had come up to the Chinese

    forces. These, about twenty thousand men in all, had been

    posted with considerable skill betvreen Changkia-wan and the

    Pei ho, showing a front of nearly four miles, nuich of which

    w^as intrenched and presenting a succession of batteries. The

    battle on the 18th died away as the allies reached that town, having driven Sangkolinsin’s troops toward Peking, captured eighty guns, and burned all his camps. The loss of life was much less among his men than at the Taku fort, for here none of them were chained to their guns, and were able to escape when their position was untenable. Changkia-wan was thoroughly pillaged that night by those who could get at it, especially the poor natives who followed the army.

    On the 21st the Chinese forces made another stand near the

    Eight Li Bridge over the Canal, from which the French dislodged

    them without much difficulty. The British came up on

    their flanks and drove them in upon their centre, which of

    course soon resulted in a general dispersion. The artillery

    opened up at long range ; the cavalry riding in upon the

    Chinese horsemen, easily scattered them, often burning the

    separate camps before returning. The contest at the bridge

    was the most serious, and their loss here was estimated at three

    hundred ; on the whole field it probably did not exceed five

    hundred, for neither their cavalry nor infantry often presented

    a solid front. The entire losses of the allies were less than

    fifty killed and wounded. Nothing intei’posed now between

    them and Peking, but they delayed to move until October

    3d, when their entire force had come up, siege guns and

    commissary stoi-es included. Full knowledge had been obtained

    of the environs of Peking, and iiegotiations had been

    going on respecting the return of the prisoners as a preliminary

    to the close of hostilities. These were now conducted with

    Prince Ivung, the next youiiger brother of the Emperor, who

    was himself by this time safe at Jeh-ho.

    TILLAGE OF YUEN-MINU YUEN. G88

    On October Gtli Lord Elgin and the generals M-ere settled in the spacious quarters of the Hwang s//, a lamasaiy near the northwest gate of Peking, and their army occupied much of the open spaces between it and the city. On that day, the outposts of the French army and some of the British cavalry reached the great cantonment of Hai-tien (where the Manchu garrison of Peking was quartered) and the palace of Yuan-ming Yuan near by. This was soon pillaged under circumstances and in a barbarously wasteful manner which will reflect lasting obloquy upon General Montaubon, who, more than any other person, could have interposed to save the hnniense and precious collection of objects illustrating Chinese art, architecture, and literature. Lord Elgin’s journal gives his view of this act in a few words:
    October 7th, 5 o’clock r. M. —I have just returned from the Summer Palace.

    It is really a line thing, like an English park—numberless buildings

    with handsome rooms, filled with Chinese curios, handsome clocks, bronzes,

    etc. But alas ! such a scene of desolation. The French general came up,

    full of protestations. He had prevented looting in order that all the plunder

    might be divided between the armies, etc. There was not a room that I saw

    m which half the things had not been taken away or broken to pieces. I

    tried to get a regiment of ours sent to guard the place, and then sell the things

    by auction ; but it is difficult to get things done by system in such a case, so

    some of the officers are left [there], who are to fill two or three carts with

    treasures, which are to be sold. Plundering and devastating a place like this

    is bad enough, but the waste and breakage are much worse. Out of a million

    pounds’ worth of property, I daresay fifty thousand pounds will not be realized.

    French soldiers were destroying in every way the most beautiful silks,

    breaking the jade ornaments and porcelain, etc. War is a hateful business.

    The more one sees of it the more one detests it.

    Mr. Swinhoe’s account of one room in this palace has now a historical interest—but his description must be condensed:
    Facing the gate (he says) stood the grand reception hall, well adorned outside, and netted with copper wire under the fretted eaves to keep off the birds.

    Entering it we found ourselves on a marble floor in front of the Emperor’s

    ebony throne ; tliis was adorned with carved dragons in various attitudes ; its

    floor was covered with light red cloth, and three low series of steps led up to

    it, on the central and widest of which his subjects made the kotow. The left

    side of the hall was adorned with a picture representing the grounds of the

    palace, and the side tables contained books in yellow binding and ornaments.

    There was somehow an air of reverence throughout this simple but neat hall.

    On an audience day the Emperor here seated himself attired in a yellow robe

    wrought with dragons in gold thread, his head surmounted with a spherical

    crown of gold and precious stones with pearl drops suspended around b}’ light

    gold chains. Eunuchs and ministers in court costume kneel on each side in

    long lines, and the guard and musicians are arranged in the outer court. The

    name of the person to be introduced is called out, and as he approaches the

    band strikes up. He draws near the ” Dragon’s Seat” and kneels before the

    central steji, removes his hat, placing it on the throne floor with the peacock’s

    feather toward the imperial donor. His Ma’esty moves his hand and down

    goes the head, striking on the step three times three. The head is then raised,

    but with downcast eyes the man hears the behests of his great master. Wheii

    ‘ Elgin’s Letters^ p. 361.

    the voice ceases, again the hciul niukes t\w nine knocks, thus acknowledging the sovereign right, and the man withdraws. How different the scene now, adds Mr. Swinhoe. The hall filled with crowds of a foreign soldiery, and the throne floor covered with the Celestial Emperor’s choicest curios, destined as gifts for two far more worthy monarchs. ” See here,” said General Montaubon, pointing to them, ” I have had a few of the most brilliant things selected to be divided between the Queen of Great Britain and the Emperor of the French.” ‘

    On the following day—October Sth—the coniuiaiulers were

    greatly relieved by the return of Parkes, Loch, d’Escayrac de

    Lauture, and five soldiers ; the first two of these gentlemen had

    been comparatively well treated after their terrible experiences

    within the lling Pu. A few days later botli armies were horrified

    by the appearance in camp of eleven wretched men—all who

    had survived from the party of French and English made prisoners

    near Tungchau ; Anderson, Bowlby, de Xornian, and

    others had succumbed to the dreadful tortures caused by the

    cords which bound them. The coffined bodies were all brought

    to camp within a few days, hardly recognizable from the effects

    of lime thrown upon them. On the 16th occurred the impressive

    ceremony of theii* interment in the Russian cemetery near

    Peking, Lord Elgin, Sir Hope (Jrant, Parkes, and Loch being

    chief mourners, while a deputation from every regiment in the

    allied armies followed in the train.

    Two days after this Lord Elgin ordered the destruction of the

    palace of Yuen-ming Yuen ; a sudden though deliberate act.

    Feeling prul)ably that such a decision would be closely criticised

    by those wlio were far removed in time and place from the exciting

    scenes around him, he took occasion to review his position

    in a long despatch. It was impossible in his situation to learn

    whether the responsibility for the capture and savage treatment

    of these men rested with the same Chinese officials.’ This

    ‘ Swinhoe, JVorth China Campairin, pp. 294 fF. —the most detailed and interesting

    account of this palace and its destruction. Compare M. C. Lavalloe in

    the Reciie den Deux MowUs for August 1, 18(io. Other French writers on this

    war are Lieutenant de vaisseau Pallu, lirhitioit (U I’expeditMn de Cliiiic, Paris,

    1803; le Cornte d’Escayrac de Lauture, Memoirex sur hi Ch/’nc, Paris, 18(54;

    Sinnebaldo de Mas, Iai Ghiiie et les ptmsances chretiennes, 18()1.

    •’ I’robably not. The prisoners were in the hands of lictors wliosc habit it

    was to torture in the hope of extorting money on their own account. The

    DESTRUCTION OF THE SUMMER PALACE. 685

    much, nevcrtlieless, was })laiii—that the Chinese were full^

    aware of the obligations of a tlag of truce, inasmuch as they

    had ah’eady often av’ailed themselves of its privileges. Lord

    Elgin makes the Emperor personallj responsible for the crimes

    which had been committed, but specifies Sungkolinsin as the

    real culprit, lie then says

    :

    I had reason to bolieve that it was an act which was calcnlated to produce a

    greater effect in China and on the Emperor than persons who look on from

    a distance may suppose. It was the Emperor’s favorite residence, and its

    destruction could not fail to be a blow to his pride as well as to his feelings.

    To this place he brought our hapless countrymen, in order that they might

    undergo their severest tortures within its precincts. Here have been found

    the horses and accoutrements of the troopers seized, the decorations torn from

    the breast of a gallant French officer, and other effects belonging to the

    prisoners. As almost all the valuables had ah-eady been taken from the

    palace, the army would go there, not to pillage, but to mark, by a solemn act

    of retribution, the horror and indignation with which we were inspired by the

    perpetration of a great crime. Tlie punishment was one which would fall,

    not on the people, who may be comparatively innocent, but exclusively on the

    Emperor, whose direct personal responsibility for the crime committed is establislied,

    not only by the treatment of the prisoners at Ynen-ming Yuen,

    but also by the edict in which he offered a pecuniary reward for the

    heads of the foreigners.

    ‘The work of destruction left hardly a trace of the palace of the ” Round-bright Garden ;” indeed, the provocation for this act was great. The despatch refers only to the palace where Hienfung spent most of his time, and it is probable that Lord Elgin intended to burn that alone. He gave no orders for the destruction of the buildings on Wan-shao shan, Yuh-tsien shau, the Imperial Park near Pih-yun sz’, and other places five to ten miles distant. All of these residences or villas had been erected or enlarged by former Emperors of the present dynasty ; none have since been rebuilt. It is, nevertheless, easy to gather from Colonel Wolseley’s record that his lordship’s satisfaction in this candid spirit of Loch’s narrative is wanting in the more colored accounts of Wolseley and Swinlioe, written in the flush of victory. The charges they make against Prince I of treachery toward Mr. Parkes are not borne out ; the deaths of Captain Brabazon and the Abb; de Luc seem to have been by order of Pao, and not from SSngkolinsin. Compare an article in the Rente den Deux Mondcn (If) juillet, 18G5) by C. Lavallue, UExpedition anglo-francaise en Chine ‘ Elyin”s Letters and Journals, p. 300. ” retribution”‘ was not greatly impaired by its over-zealous performance on the part of the troops. In addition to the loss of the palaces, the Chinese had to pay £100,000 as indemnity to be given to the prisoners and their families, before the victors would consent to sign the convocation.

    On the 13tli the ultimatum had been accepted by Prince

    Kung, who about two hours before noon opened the An-ting or

    northeast gate of Peking, wdiich commanded the whole city.

    Arrangements were gradually completed for the grand entry of

    the plenipotentiaries into Peking. The L’l Pu, or Board of

    Rites, was selected as the place for exchanging the ratifications

    of the treaty of Tientsin and signing the convention, while the

    fa^ or palace of Prince I, had been chosen for Lord Elgin’s residence

    in the city. On October 24th the latter was escorted to

    both these places by many officers, together with a body of four

    hundred infantry and one hundred cavalry, while in all the streets

    leading to them were guards placed. The wdiole city was out to

    witness the unusual parade. The procession passed slowly through

    the wide avenues, the music of the band heralding i’ts approach to

    the dignitaries anxiously awaiting the arrival. The utmost care

    had been taken that no excuse should be ever after brought ft»rward

    that the Emperor had not assented to tlie two documents

    signed that day ; but much besides Mas done to show Prince

    Kung and liis officers that they were in the presence of their

    conquerors.’

    The following day Baron Gros signed his convention and exchanged

    the ratifications of the French treaty under similar

    fornuilities. The principal points in the l>ritish convention of

    nine articles were—the payment of eight million taels ; the permission

    given by imperial sanction for the emigration at will of

    Ciiinese subjects as contract laborers or otherwise ; the cession

    of Kowlung to the crown as part of the colony of Hongkong.

    Without delaying for additional connnent, the insertion here

    of a poi’tion of Lord John Uusseirs despatch to Eord Elgin will

    ‘ The frontispiece of this volume is intended to represent this ceremony.

    Its interest lies chielly iu the fact that it is from the work of one of the ablest

    painters in the capital, and represents from a native’s staud-poiut one of the most remarkable and important events in the history of modern China.

    THE TREATIES SIGNED AT PEKING. 687

    not be uninteresting in connection witli these treaties. His

    lordship’s document reads like the balance-sheet of a London

    merchant at the termination of some successful adventure:

    “The Convention is entirely satisfactory to Her Majesty’s

    Government, it records the reparation made by the Emperor

    of China for his disregard in the previous year of his treaty

    engagements ; it sets Her Majesty’s government free from an

    implied engagement not to insist m all particulars on the fulfilment

    of those engagements ; it imposes upon China a fine

    in the shape of an augmented rate of indemnity ; it affords an

    additional opening for British trade ; it places on a recognized

    footing the emigration of Chinese coolies, whose services are so

    important to Her Majesty’s colonial possessions ; it relieves Her

    Majesty’s colony of Hongkong from a source of previous

    annoyance.”

    ‘The French convention of ten articles contained like demands

    and rewards, but instead of a slice of territor}^, the sixth

    provided that Koman Catholic Christians should be indemnified

    for ” all such churches, schools, cemeteries, lands, and buildings

    as were owned on former occasions by persecuted Christians,

    and the money handed to the French representative at Peking

    for transmission to the Christians in the localities concerned.”

    The fulfilment of this article required over ten years ; and as

    the injuries had been done in some cases as far back as the reign

    of Louis XHL, great irritation was aroused in the minds of the

    natives who had for generations been quietly in possession of

    lands which they had purchased.^

    ‘”The practical result was not very great,” concludes Mr. McCarthy.

    •’ Perhaps the most important gain to Europe was the knowledge that Peking

    was by no means so large a city as we had all imagined it to be. . . . There

    is some comfort in knowing that so much blood was not spilt wholly in vain.”

    —A History of Our (km Times, Chap. XLII., Vol. III.

    ^’An instance is mentioned in No. IV. of the Journal of the N. C. Br. R. A.Soc, 18G7, pp. 21-33, where a Roman Catholic church at Hangchau, which had been confiscated by the Emperor Yungcliing (about 1730), was changed into a temple dedicated to 7Y(7i JLto, the Queen of Heaven, “to serve th« double purpose of extirpating a religion of false gossip and obduracy, and of making an offering to a spirit who really has a beneficial influence over humaa destinies.”

    The i:;reat objects of tlie expedition wei’e now attnined, and

    foi-ei*;n nations conld congi-atulate tl)eniselves n)M»n liaving settled

    their representatives in tlie Chinese caj)ital on terms of

    equality. Two /^«, or palaces, were immediately occupied by

    those from Great Britain and France. Subsecjuently, the niiii’

    isters from other countries have grouped themselves around

    these, and a foreign (piarter has gradually grown up in the

    south-eastern part of the city. The chief agents in this im])ortant

    opening, Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, were well fitted by

    their urbanity, phiUiuthropy, and moderation for the delicate

    task assigned them. Tlie terrified officials and citizens in

    Peking had expected the worst consequences on the capture of

    their city, but besides the destruction of Yuen-ming Yuen, their

    capital and national unity escaped uninjured.

    It was probably a great aid to the policy adopted by Prince

    Kung and his colleagues that the Emperor and his court had

    fied to Jeh-ho, for their influence, as the sequel proved, would

    have opposed any pacification. It was still more important for

    all future co-operation that he never came back at all, and thus

    the real guidance of affaii’s fell into better hands.

    The 24:th day of October saw the ending of the seclusion of

    the Chinese from their fellow-men ; the contest honestly enough

    begun in 1839 by Lin, to rescue his country from the curse of

    opium, was in a manner completed on that day by the admission

    of those regenerating influences which could alone effectually remove that evil. The intermediate twenty years had done much to prepare the Chinese for this concluding act ; and the honorable manner in which they fulfilled their promises and payments will stand as a lasting monument to, their national credit.

    The retirement of the allies from Peking was accomplished

    without impediment from the Chinese army under Sangkolinsin

    ; the money disbursed for boats, carts, supplies, fuel, etc.,

    as the troops went down the river, compensating many natives

    for their losses. By the end of November all had embarked

    except the garrisons left at Tientsin and Taku, which latter

    were removed as soon as the portion of the indemnity involving

    their occupation was paid up. The effectual and salutary work

    OBJECTS OF tup: WAR AC(‘0Mri>I8IIEU. 689

    ing of tlio treaty stipulations for the niutual welfare of all parties

    deiieiided on the di})loiiiatic and consular oflEicers left in the

    capital and open ports. The British fijoverninent alone was

    adequately supplied in this respect, and their consulates hecaine

    the expositors to the local rulers of the manner in wliieli tlie

    treaties were to be interpreted and enforced. The great mass

    of natives knew almost nothing of their provisions, and looked

    upon the struggle chiefly as one between their sovereign and

    the foreigners. The defeat of the latter was in remoter districts

    declared proven by their retirement from Peking ; but

    along the coasts and up the Yangtsz’ the actual sight of steamers

    and contact with foreigners who could talk with them and

    explain the new state of things, really did more than anything

    else to show them that these strangers were by no means overcome.

    What was thus achieved to enlighten the people near

    the trading marts only required time and contact to spread into

    distant regions of the interior. As for the citizens of Peking,

    they met only those foreigners who could talk with them, for

    that city was not open to trade ; and thus one prolific source of

    misunderstanding was removed. The death of the Emperor

    Ilienfung (August 17, 1861) relieved them, too, from any attempt

    he might have made, in his irritation on returning to the Forbidden

    City and seeing his ruined palaces, to vent his wrath on the

    few foreigners then living near him. Christian missionaries

    also began their work in 1861, and thus thousands, who had had

    only vague ideas about the ” barbarians,” could easily learn the

    truth concerning them. Most fortunately, then, circumstances

    were from the first favorable for forming an intelligent public

    opinion in the capital.

    CHAPTER XXVI. NARRATIVES OF RECENT EVENTS IN CHINA

    Twelve months elapsed before the political atmosphere of China was disturbed by any break or change in its condition—a period of qniet which the government sorely needed for an appreciation of its relations with the foreigners who had forced their way into the capital. His Majesty Ilienfung having ascended the Dragon Throne on high, left the Empire in the

    hands of his only son, a child six years old ; whether thixxigh

    incapacity or disease, the debauched sovereign had long before

    his death allowed his courtiers to engross the reins of goveriv

    ment, and these now formed a cotei’ie which at Jeh-lio was ajipowerful.

    At his death the administration i-csted in the hands

    of a council of eight, whose nominal head was Tsai-yuen, Prince

    1, a member of the imj)erial family belonging to the same generation

    with the infant Emperor. The design of this cabal was to

    at once assume the absolute power of a regency, to retain possession

    of the young Emperor’s person at Jeh-ho, to make way

    in secret with his mother and the Empress-dowager, and lastly

    to arrest and destroy his father’s three brothers ; these initiatory

    steps to sovereignty being accomplished, nothing would

    interrupt their complete mastery of the government.

    But in Prince Kung,’ the Emperor’s oldest surviving brother.

    ‘ Kung Tsin-waiig, ‘Prince Respect’—called by the people Wu-ako, ‘Fifth

    Elder Rrother ‘—is the sixth son of Tauk’.vang, and was born about 1S;!1.

    ‘Ihree older brothers died young ; Ilienfung, the fourth, succeeded his father,

    wliile the fifth, being adopted into a branch of the Emperor Kiaking’s faujily,

    was dropped out of Tankwang’s household, leaving Princa Kung. in 18G1 ‘«>

    be the first prince during the minority of Tungchi. His persona’, name, Tih-hii.

    is never employed by those outside his immediate family. He has : roni

    mendable record for an Asiatic statesman trained in habits Ol autocratic .1151.

    mand The background in the i)ortrait ou the opposite page is a bit of ”oxm

    work in the Foreign Office at Peking.

    PRINCE KUNG. THE COUP D’ETAT OF PKINCE KUNG. 691

    the conspirators found an opponent of no ordinary ability, to

    whose astuteness in outwitting their machinations (as may he

    safely affirmed in view of events which followed) is doubtless

    owing the continuance of the present reigning family. The

    prince was in concealment during the autumn of 1860, when

    his brother fled to Jeh-ho, but appearing when the capital was

    surrendered to the allies, he bore the brunt of that impleasant

    task, signing the treaties, and undertook almost alone the management

    of affairs with foreigners while the government was

    recovering from its paralysis of defeat. It was a happy augury

    for the continuance of peace and friendly intercourse that to a

    man so well fitted by temperament for liis difficult position

    should be joined the able and experienced statesman Kweiliang

    ;

    though too old to take an active part in the settlement of the

    succession, this skilful diplomatist lent the greatest aid to his

    son-in-law by giving advice and a much needed support to the

    Empresses-dowager at this critical period.

    Hastily quitting Jeh-ho with the boy—who had been proclaimed

    Emperor under the reign-name of Ki-tsiang, ‘ Lucky

    Omen ‘—the two Empresses availed themselves of their right to

    join the first prince, and repaired to Peking. Once settled in

    the Forbidden City they were able to impart to Prince Kung

    the magnitude of the plot against them, and concert measures

    witli leading members of the impei’ial clan for the general

    safety. The arrest and trial of the traitors was promptly carried

    out ; by a decree of December 2, 1861, Prince 1 and his

    principal coadjutor, Prince Chin, were allowed to commit

    suicide, while their powerful and clever colleague, Suhshun, was

    executed in the market-place, to the unfeigned delight of the

    populace. This conspirator in his machinations and gross assumptions

    had acted like a veritable Tigellinus, and earned for

    himself a hatred and contempt which even members of the war

    party could not conceal. Others of this unsuccessful clique

    were disgraced or banished, but the punishments were not

    numerous or barbarous. The reign-name was now changed

    from Ki-tsiang to Timg-chi, or ‘ Union Rule,’ to mark the successful

    demolition of this conspiracy, while Prince Kung (now

    but thirty years old), the shrewd perpetrator of the couj? cPetat,

    692 THE CUDDLE KINGDOM.

    was \)roc]’dimed T-e/ung-ivamj, or ‘licgeiit I’liiicc,’ mid with the

    Empresses constituted the regency during the iniiK^rity.’

    Considerini>- all the circumstances of this ijalace intriijue, the

    rank of its leading members, and its successful suppression hy

    tlie operation of legal methods alone, it may well deserve the

    attention of those interested in the political and historical

    development of China as an admirable instance of both the

    strength and weakness of her paternal government. To the

    ordinary outlays of the Empire were superadded the innuense

    burdens of a foreign invasion just concluded and a terrible

    struggle with domestic enemies; yet neither the Regent nor his

    colleagues appear during this period of stress to have lost a

    particle of their contidence in the loyalty of the people ; through

    loss and gain, failure of material or resource, treachery in palace

    or camp, abuse or assistance frozn foreigners, this faith in one

    another failed not. The face of China in 1865 was perhaps as

    wi-etchcd as that of Central Europe after the peace of AVest»

    phalia; indeed a more general desolation could hardly be imagined.

    Xevertheless the rapidity with which its iidiabitants not

    only resumed their occupations as best they could but rebuilt

    dwellings and reorganized trade, startled even their habitual

    disparagers into praise and testified to the marvellous recuperative

    powers of this much-despised civilization.

    Pleased with the excellent results of the introduction of

    western drill and ai-ms into their military service, as against

    the Tai-pings, certain of the mandarins at the south proposed

    utilizing foreign war-vessels to the same end. To this scheme

    as at first suggested there was not, perhaps, much to say either

    in its behalf or otherwise. Their purpose was to purchase three

    or four gun and despatch boats, man them with as many scores

    of native seamen, and impart to these the necessary instruction

    by placing them under foreign ofiicers. Mr. Horatio X. Lay

    liad in 1850 proposed the use of armed revenue vessels in the

    customs service, a very similar suggestion. But innocent as

    were these conce])ti()ns, they assumed the gravest proportions

    Wounud N. C. Br. R. A. S., December, 1864, pp. 110-114. Dr. Rennie,

    J’ekiitr/ (iiul the Pekinfjese, Vol. II., passim—an interesting contemporary recorcj

    of this event.

    THE LAY-OSBORNE FLOTILLA. 693

    when in 1861 Mr. Lay was allowed to visit England and there contract

    for the construction of a steam fleet and secure a number

    of British naval officers for three years” service.’ The Peking

    authorities were still laboring under the disadvantages of their

    ignorance, and nothing can illustrate better than this remarkable

    enterprise the good influence which Sir Frederick Bruce had

    acquired in their counsels, and their willingness to follow his

    sufforestions. Their secluded life in Pekinii; had pi’evented thera

    from learning many things in respect to the conduct of affairs

    in their new relations, but they could hardly have had a better

    counsellor than he. The instructions from Prince Ivung sent to

    Mr. Lay in England described the kind of officers and hands

    which the vessels were to carry ; they were to be men able and

    willing to teach ignorant sailors the practice of navigation, the

    management of machinery, and the use of guns of every kind.

    Instead of these he contracted for ei<:;ht gunboats of different

    sizes, one or two of them powerful vessels, able to carry two

    hundred and more men ; they arrived in China early in 1863

    under the command of Capt. Sherard Osborne, H. X. Mr.

    Lay’s disappointment was great and undisguised when, on reachinn;

    Pekingr in June, he found that Prince Kung and his advisers

    were totally unprepared for such a fleet, and unwilling to

    endorse the engagements he had entered into with the Queen’s

    officers ; nor were the funds for their current expenses provided.

    His ideas of his own position were soon modified, for he found

    that the vessels must necessarily be placed under the direction

    of the provincial authorities in operations against the rebels.

    One of the articles in the agreement with Captain Osborne stipulated

    that he should receive all his orders on those matters from

    the Foreign Office through Mr. Lay, and would follow his own

    choice in obeying others. Mr. Lay says himself that he was

    “ambitious of obtaining the position of middle-man between

    China and the foreign powers, because I thought I saw a way of

    solving the problem of placing pacific relations with China upon

    a sure footing. . . . My position was that of a foreigner engaged

    by the Chinese government to perform certain work for

    • Blue Bool; China, No. 2 (1864), p. 7.

    694 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    them, not under them. I need scarcely observe, in passing,

    that the notion of a gentleman acting under aw Asiatic barbarian

    is preposterous.” ‘ Ideas like these quite unfitted him for working

    with the Chinese, either under orfor them, lie could not

    understand that the former days of coercion and bullying had

    passed awa}’, and that time must be allowed for them to graduallv

    learn in their own way how to rise in the scale of nations,

    and adopt such improvements as they pleased.

    In his perplexity and chagrin, he began to blame the British

    minister for lukewarmness in supporting his schemes, and to

    weary the members of the Tsung-li Yamun by his demands.

    The controversy continued to grow warmer after Captain

    Osborne’s arrival at Peking in September, where he first learned

    its real nature. Finally, in October, Prince Kung refused to

    ratify Mr. Lay’s agreement made in England, very properly

    remarking upon the obnoxious article which required the commander

    of the flotilla to act only under orders from Peking.

    Happily for China, the dissolution of the force was decided on.

    The ships were to be sent back, for it was impossible to prevent

    the native officials from selling them after they had full

    control, and persons were already looking at them for their own

    lawless designs. At this juncture Sir F. Bruce came to the relief

    of the Chinese, and took the ships off their hands on

    account of the British government, paying back from the indemnity

    fund due to England all claims for wages, salary, and

    other expenses to officers and men till their arrival in London.

    This settlement involved an outlay of about $525,000, but the

    total cost of the vessels, crews, and outfit from first to last was

    not nnu’h less than a million sterling. The Peking government

    had, therefore, by this arrangement escaped a serious

    imbroglicj with the provincial governors and generals—one

    which would have soon neutralized all responsibility, and perchance,

    even at that late date, entailed the success of the

    Tai-pings.

    Mr. Lay, blinded by his own egotism and ambition, ascribes

    his failure to the negligence, treachery, ignorance, and ill-will

    ‘ Our Interests in China : A Letter to Earl Russell, p. 19.

    COLLAPSE OF THE SCHEME. 695

    of Sir F. Bruce, whose performances in these lines are fully

    detailed in his Letter to Earl RusselV of November 26, 1864.

    This statement of wliat occurred in relation to the Lay-Osborne

    flotilla exhibits the difficulties in the progress of Asiatic nations

    in the path of what we call civilization^ and the ideas which

    such men have as to the way in which they are to be forced

    into this desirable condition. This extraordinary paper is an

    instructive exhibition of British interference in tlie administration

    of Asiatic countries, and how totally alien ” the spirit of

    trade and progress” is to the independence and elevation of a

    pagan people when it alone is the chief agency depended on.

    In no case, nor under the best control, could Mr. Lay’s plan

    liave worked real benefit to China ; but carried out under the

    domineering leadership of such a man, the scheme would have

    not only been humiliating in the last degree to those whom it

    was designed to assist, but would have inevitably resulted in

    the restoration of the conservative party to power and another

    profitless struggle with the foreigners.

    Upon the dismissal of Mr. Lay the management of the Lnperial

    Maritime Customs was placed in the hands of Robert Hart,

    Esq., who for a period of two years had given proof of his discretion

    in this position, and (in the words of Mr. Burlingame)

    had ” by his tact and ability w^on the regard of every one.”

    Already the imperial officers began to appreciate the immense

    material advantages of a regular income from the open ports,

    especially in the practical help it furnished toward the expenses

    of the dviui’ i-ebellion. The contact of native and foreisrn

    rule in the same territory necessarily involved much assumption

    of power and friction of authority growing out of the undefined

    limits of the laws of ex-territorial ity ; but the legitimate working

    of treaty provisions—the prompt reference of grievances

    from complainant to consul, from the consul to his minister at

    Peking—served to enlighten court and country as to the gen-

    ^ Our Interests in China, by H. X. Lay, C.B., London, 1864, pp. 66. See

    also correspondence in Blue Gjok, and letter of Sir F. Bruce, of November 19,

    1863. U. S. Diplomatic Coi^respond^iwe for 1864, Part III., pp. 348-378 ; and

    for 1865, Part I., p. 670. A. Wilson, The ” Erer- Victorious Army,” pp. 260-

    266. Fraser’s Magazine, February, 1865, p. 147.

    696 TIIIO MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    eral honesty of their quoiulaiii enemies, in a fashion whicli

    neither preaching nor fighting conld ever have accomplished.’

    In the year 1866 the arsenals at Fnhchau, Nanking, and Shangliai

    were reorganized and made to inclnde schools for naval and

    military instruction as well as engine and gun works ; the value

    of such works was promptly nndei’stood by the Chinese, and

    has been already the source of a creditable navy.”

    The retirement of the Hon. Anson Bnrlingame from the position

    of United States minister in November, 1867, furnished to

    the Chinese government both an admirable agent and opportunitv

    for an initial step in establishing diplomatic intercourse

    M-ith the treaty powers. Into the hands of this gentleman was

    placed the charge of a general mission to those governments,

    there being added two co-ordinate Chinese ministers, an English

    and French secretary, and six students from the Tung-wiin

    Kwan at Peking. The three ministers were appointed Imperial

    Envoys and furnished with a letter of credence to eleven

    governments. The party left Shanghai February- 25, 1868,

    for San Francisco, which ])ort they reached about a month

    later. Few persons can now appreciate the excitement and

    discussion in China and elsewhere caused by this first diplomatic

    effort of the imperial government to take its place among

    the family of nations. Mr. Bnrlingame, naturally hopeful and

    enthusiastic, described his mission as an earnest of future peaceful

    relations with the Middle Kingdom. AVherever he went he

    elevated the estimate held of that ancient land by his hearers,

    and urged the European courts to l)ut wait in patience until its

    backward people might be pi-epared for the changes it wished

    to adopt. Those changes and improvements were only to be

    ‘ The trial and condemnation of an American, who was hung at Shanghai in

    1804 for the murder of two Chinese, tended to repress lawlessness on the part

    of foreigners and assure the native rulers of theirearnest co-operation in bringing

    tlic guilty to punishment. Tlie enlightened and friendly action of Prince

    Kiing in issuing a proclamation, at re(iuest of Mr. Burlinganie, against allowing

    any American Confederate cruisers to enter Chinese waters, was warmly appreciated

    by this and the other treaty powers as an interesting testimonial of

    tlie genuine friendsliip which was already disarming fear.

    ‘Compare Captain Bridge, 77w; Warlike Power of China, iu Franer^s Magazine,

    Vol. 90, pp. 778 ir.

    THE BI^RLINGAME MISSION. 697

    adopted when China liad become convinced of their need and

    practicability ; but many of Mr. Bnrlingame’s hearers were

    botli more eager and more ambitions than he, regarding the

    introduction of raih’oads, telegraphs, and steamers as opening

    an enormous field for their own innnediate activity and gain.

    The consequent indignation among foreign merchants in China and at hojue upon learning the extent of his exaggeration was universal ; the British merchants especially representing in strong terms the evil consequences of such ” baseless expectations.”

    The different points of view of the two parties will account for their opposite opinions. On the one side, the merchants were vexed that their hopes of a general trade arising all over China, as a result of the treaties of Tientsin, were likely to be disappointed, owing to the increasing attention of native traders in their own internal and external commerce to the exclusion of foreigners ; while on the other, Mr. Burlingame laid great stress on those things which the Chinese government desired

    and intended to do as they became more and more qualified

    to act for themselves, through the agencies and institutions

    which they were inaugm-ating. The merchants seemed to

    think that nothing had as yet been accomplished in the direction

    of ” progress,” inasmuch as their personal expectations of an

    instant and lucrative trade were not realized ; in reply to Mr.

    Burlingame’s ” enthusiastic fictions,” they called for “tangible

    evidence of the existence of this spirit M’hich he celebrates so

    loudly—some tittle of proof to support his sweeping theory.” ‘

    Without dw^elling further upon these discussions, it pertains

    to the present narrative to briefly point out the two salient

    features of China’s initial attempt to knock at the doors of

    ‘ See the letters to the Daily News of J. Barr Robertson, of Shanghai, which have been taken as a fairly characteristic specimen of the mercantile and political view. An article by the same gentleman in the Wedminster Revkic for January, 1870, is rather calmer in language. Other data and opinions may be gathered from a work filling 890 pages, by the late J. von Gumpach, entitled The Biirlinf/ir/ne Miaxion : A Political Disrlostire, etc., 1872. Compare also the English newspapers issued in Shanghai and Hongkong in 1867-70; Bntish ParUamentay Papers ; U. S. Ex. Doc., Foreign IMitions, 1868-71; Harper’s Monthly Maaazine, Vol. XXXVII., p. 592; The Galaxy, Vol. VI., p. 613-

    Other nations. Of these the first may be described as wholly

    sentimental ; but it was the healthy sentiment of justice and

    good feeling towai’d a distant and unknown community, which

    Mr. Burlingame’s tact and ability called forth in behalf of his

    clients’ cause from their recent conquerors. Dui’ing the years

    1SG8 and 1869 he spoke for the right and privilege of the

    Chinese to manage their om’ii affairs, and in America, England,

    France, Prussia, and other countries had already created a more

    healthy feeling of forbearance toward them, when his sudden

    death at St. Petei-sburg (February, 1870) cut short the complete

    achievement of his mission.’

    ‘ His colleagues, Chi-kaiig and Sun Kia-kii, afterward visited Italy, Spain, and other countries, returning to China within the same year. Neither of them was, however, brought forward at the capital as an adviser in relation to foreign ailairs.

    ITS TKEATY BETWEEN CHINA AND AMERICA. 699

    In the United States the passage of this embassy might have made but a transient impression had it not negotiated a treaty of eight articles (July 28, 1868), regarded as an integral part of the Reed, treaty of ten years previous. This, the second feature of the mission, has been attended with consequences whose influence does not yet appear to have ceased. Owing to the surprise of the Chinese government, which had given no express instructions as to treaty-making, the Foreign Office was somewhat tardy in ratifying this compact. This was, however, done in the following year. Its fifth article provides that the contracting powers “cordially recognize the inherent and inalienable right of man to change his home and allegiance, and also the nuitual advantage of the free migration and emigration of their citizens and subjects respectively from the one country to the other for the purposes of curiosity, or trade, or as permanent residents. The high contracting parties therefore join in reprobating any other than an entirely voluntary emigration for these purposes.” At this time the British and French ministers had recently agreed to a convention with Prince Kung respecting the conduct of the coolie trade in accordance with the stipulations made at Peking in October, 1860. The draft of those regulations had been submitted to the American as well as all other foreign legations, but only the Spanish treaty contained an article allowing the engagement of Chinese laborej’s in their own country for service abroad. This traffic had become so infamous

    from the cruelties and wrongs perpetrated on the coolies,

    both in China before they embarked and in Cuba and Peru

    after they had landed, that the American Congress had already

    passed laws against it ; and this article was drawn up almost

    wholly with reference to that trade, and to show the abhorrence

    with which it was regarded. Chinese immigrants had come

    to San Francisco to the number of Hfty-three thousand since

    1855, and had been harshly treated by the miners and others in their common struggle for gold ; the Burlingame treaty simply acknowledged their right to immigrate like other foreigners.’

    Meantime at Peking the foreign ambassadors were in the way

    of learniny; that in their relations with the government to which

    they were accredited they had to deal with men of acute minds,

    whose prejudices and conservatism only needed enlightening to

    bring them quite upon a level with any other body of intelligent

    diplomatists. It was indeed a crucial period with Prince

    Kung and his coadjutors of the Tsung-li Yamun—Wansiang,

    Tung Sinn, Tan Ting-siang, llung-ki—who were placed between

    the two great pressures of a warped and bigoted nuiltitude of

    literati wedded to the old regime and the ministers of the outside

    powers, themselves dwelling complacently in the imperial

    city and representing armies and navies which had been found

    invincible. Tlie pride of the ” Celestial ” was necessarily

    brought low, but the situation was accepted, on the whole,

    both wisely and cautiously ; the good fortune of having men of

    the kindness and honor of Bruce, Ylangali, P>erthemy, and Burlingame as heads of the four chief legations, can hardly be exaggerated in its encouraging and healthful effects upon the impression taking root in the minds of Chinese officers.

    At this juncture occurred the massacre at Tientsin of twenty

    ‘ But notwithstanding its acceptance of their “inalienable right ” to freely change their residence, the clamor against this admission was afterward so great among the people on the Pacific coast that a special embassy of three commissioners was sent to Peking in 1880, which relegated the right of admitting Chinese as immigrants into American territory entirely to Congress.

    French and Eussiaus and destruction ui’ the French consuhite

    L’Uthedral, and uj’phanage, by a niub on June 21, l:?i7U, attended

    by circumstances of great atrocity. The event was a severe

    blow as well to the anxious mandarins at the capital as to

    every honest friend of the new order of things thioughout the

    Empire. The Peking authorities were slow at lirst in opening

    an investigation, but testified to their earnestness and righteous

    indignation at the enormity in disposing troops about the capital

    and summarily examining the criminals, so that by the end

    of a month every fear of a general emeute had vanished.

    The causes which led to this outbreak appear to have been

    almost wholly local, taking their rise in the year 1861, w’hen

    the French occupied as their consvdate a temple in Tientsin,

    where in former times the citizens nsed to promenade ; this and

    other unpopular acts kept the natives at enmity with them.

    A more especial account of the most important of these is contained in Mr. Low’s despatch of June 27th: ”At many of the principal places in China open to foreign residence, the Sisters of Charity have established institutions, each of which appears to combine in itself a foundling lu)spital and orphan asylum. Finding that the Chinese were averse to placing children in their charge, the managers of these institutions offered a certain sum per head for all the children })l;iced under their control given to them, it being understood that a child once in their asylum no parent, relative, or guardian could claim or exercise

    any control over it. It has been for some time asserted

    by the Chinese, and believed by most of the non-Catholic foreigners

    residing here, that the system of paying bounties induced

    the kidnapping of children for these institutions for the

    sake of the reward. It is also asserted that the priests or Sisters,

    or both, have been in the habit of holding out inducements

    to have children brought to them in the last staii^es of illness,

    for the purpose of being baptized in aiilealo /jwrtis. In

    this way many children have been taken to these establishments

    in the last stages of disease, baptized there, and soon

    after taken away dead. All these acts, together M’ith the

    secrecy and seclusion which ap]’)ear to be a part and parcel of

    the regulations which govern institutions of this character

    THE TIENTSIN MASSACRE. 701

    everywhere, have created suspicions in the minds of tlie Chinese,

    and these suspicions have engendered an intense hatred

    agahist tlie Sisters on tlie pai-t of all the common ])e(»ple who

    live anywhere near a mission ; and any rumor concei’ning tlie

    Sisters or their acts, however improbable or absuixl, found thousands

    of willing and honest believers among the ignorant and

    superstitious people. Some time about the end of May or be«

    ginning of June an epidemic prevailed at the Sisters’ institution

    at Tientsin, and a considerable number of the children died.

    In some way the report got abroad that the Sisters were killing

    the children to get their eyes and hearts for the purpose of

    manufacturing some sort of a medical specific much sought

    after in Europe and connnanding a fabulous price. This report

    spread from one to another, and soon the belief became

    general. Crowds of people assembled from time to time near

    the mission buildings, demanding the liberation of the children,

    and on one occasion they became so noisy that the Sisters, fearing

    violence from the mob, consented that an examination

    should be made by a connnittee of five. The consul, hearing

    of the disturbance, made his appearance about this time, and

    although the connnittee had been selected and were then in the

    building, he stopped the whole proceeding and drove away the

    committee Nvith angry w^ords. Subsequently the district magistrate

    took a man who had been industriously spreading the reports,

    who said he could ])oint out the persons who were guilty

    of acts of sorcery and o^her crimes, to question him in the presence

    of the Sisters, and when confronted by them admitted that

    all his stories were without foundation and false. The day

    prior to the outbreak the district magistrate {ch’iJilen) called

    upon the French consul, and stated that unless permission be

    given for a thorough examination of the Sisters’ establishment,

    it was difficult to foretell the result. The consul, construing

    the language into a threat, replied that the magistrate being inferior

    in rank to the consul, no negotiation could take place

    between them for the purpose indicated or any other.”’

    ‘ Foreign Relations of the United States, 1870, p. 355. A private letter quoted in the Westminster Review for April, 1871, says : ” Even then (on the I9th) I think the riot could have been prevented if the consul had earnestly joined

    This very unwise answer turned the popuLir rage against the

    French consuLate as well as the cathedi-al and orphanage, and

    the 21st saw a surging multitude assembled in their vicinity

    ready for any violence. M. Foutanier, the Frent-h ct)nsul, now

    thoroughly alarmed, hurried off to the yannm of Chuughow (the

    superintendent of customs), while stones Hew about the building

    he was quitting. For the rest, this poor man’s fate is involved

    in uncertainty. Eeaching Chunghow’s office in a ” state of excitement

    bordering upon insanity,” he failed, either by persuasion

    or menace, in getting that dignitary to promise the impossible—

    to quell at once the angry }nob. The officials, indeed, by this

    time were as helpless as he, and coidd only urge his renuiining

    in the compound until the streets were clear. But the Frenchman

    and his clerk heeded nothing ; how they were cut down in

    the way, after firing into the angry mob, hoM* the rampant populace

    now attacked and pillaged the three or four French l)uildino-

    s, how the defenceless Sisters were butchered in their orphanaire

    after sufferini^; nameless barbarities, and how the frenzied

    host left the burning ruins to glut their passions upon the

    neighboring houses, has come to the wt)rld solely on Chinese

    authoi-ity, and nnist renuiin always in the obscurity resulting

    from greatly contiicting testimony. The children of the orphanage,

    however, were taken off, and tht)ugh attenq^ts upon

    some of the Protestant buildings were made, nothing serious

    resulted. Among the saddest casualties of this bloody day was

    the death of a Russian, his young bride, and a friend, who in

    esca|)ing toward the foreign settlement of Tsz’-chuh-lin, two

    miles away, were mistaken for Frenchmen and pronq^tly hacked

    to pieces on the road. The total number of victims in the

    massacre amounted to twenty foreigners and as many more

    Chinese servants, acolytes, and others.

    To the joint note of the seven foreign ministers in ‘Peking, calling* for immediate and vigorous measures in the face of this terrible news, Prince Kung replied (on the 25th) that in vindication of the honor and justice of the inq3erial government toward with the local authorities in raakinq a full inquiry, with a number of the gentry, inside of the infirmary and church, to show them again that the rumors of foul deeds therein were groundless.”

    ACTION OF THE PEKING GOVEllNMENT. 703

    foreigners, Tsang Ivvvoli-faii (governor-general of the province)

    and Cliunghow luiJ already been directed to do everything

    in their power to suppress tlie spirit of riot and arrest lawless

    men. An imperial edict was issued for the appiehension

    of Chau, Chang, and Lin, the intendant, prefect, and magistrate

    of Tientsin, for their remissness and complicity in the riot.

    The fact that no foreign armed vessel was there on the 21st

    doubtless had its weight with these officials in carrying ont

    their plans at the moment. They now saw that they had pursued

    their ill-will too far, and that retribution was sure to follow

    for their atrocities. Exaggerated reports of their doings had

    rapidly gone over the world, and as the extent and strength of

    the disaffection in other provinces could not be ascertained, the

    inference was made that all foreigners in China were in tmminent

    jeopardy, and that the people had at last risen in their streno;th to aid their sovereii^n to drive them out of the land.

    When the storm had passed over, and those in authority had examined the criminals and given such justice as they could, the opinions of the best informed observers as to the immediate causes were found to be sustained.

    In a few weeks the naval forces of the leading powers had assembled at Tientsin. The French charge d’affairs, Count E-ochechouart, took the lead and demanded the execution of the prefect and magistrate for having instigated the riot. The Chinese refused to do this until a trial had proved their guilt

    liaving, perhaps, in some measure recovered their composure

    upon learning of the commencement of hostilities between

    France and Germany, The imperial government was unable

    itself to coerce the turbulent populace of Tientsin, for it had no

    troops who could be depended on to punish the rioters, with

    whom the soldiers sympathized. The extravagant statements

    and demands continually put forth in the Shanghai and Hongkong

    newspapers tended to irritate and disconcert those high

    officials, who w^ere already at their wits’ end and were anxious

    to prevent a worse disaster. The foreigners seemed to think

    that they could utter hard charges indiscriminately against the

    Chinese rulers and people, who on their part were not to say a

    word. Minister Low, in his despatch of August 24th, when

    speaking of tlie thousands of fans sold at Tientsin containing

    luc-turco of the riot and murdering of foreigners, sajs : ”These

    fans are made to suit the taste of the people, and the fact that

    such engravings Mill cause a better sale for the fans is a conclusive

    argument that there is no sentiment of regret or sorrow

    among the people over the result of the riot. There is, undoubtedly,

    greater unanimity of opinion in Tientsin in favor of

    the rioters than in Ireland among the peasantry in favor of one

    of their number who shoots his landlord. If this feelinij in

    Ireland is strong enough to baffle all attempts of the English

    government to bring to justice by the ordinary forms of laM’ a

    peasant accused of injuring the person or property of his landlord,

    is it surprising that this feeble central government should

    find it difficult to ascertain and punish the rioters in a city of

    four hundred thousand inhabitants, all of whom either aided

    in the massacre or sympathized with the rioters?”‘

    The judicial investigations in Tientsin were conducted in a

    dilatory manner, but the above indicates some of the difficulties

    in the way of the presiding judges. However, on October 5th

    and 10th II. I. Majesty’s decrees were made known to the foreign

    ministers, stating that the prefect and magistrate had been

    banished to Manchuria, twenty criminals who had killed the

    foreigners sentenced to death, and twenty-one others actively

    aiding in the riot banished. On the morning of October I8th

    sixteen were decapitated in the presence of the foreign consuls

    and others assembled as witnesses. This closing act of the

    tragedy, as a condign punishment of guilt, was, however, unfortunate

    ; it was made rather an occasion of showinic to the

    people that the sufferers had the sympathy of their rulers, while

    many foreigners looked upon the execution as a ghastly farce

    ” a cold-blooded nuu’der.” Many believed that the sixteen men

    M-ere purchased victims; the proofs were ample, however, of

    the complicity of all ; indeed, some of them gloried in what they

    Iiad done, and were escorted by admiring friends to the block.”

    ^Foreifin Jirlntiov!^ of the UnHed StatcK- China, 1871, p. 380.

    ‘ As an instance of some of the bitter sentiment rampant upon this occasion,

    may he quoted tlie open proposition of a British missionary, who insisted that

    one-half of the city of Tieutsiu be razed by a detachment of foreign troops of

    PUNISHMENT OF THE RIOTERS. 705

    It is a pal})al)le exaggeration of the power or desires of a

    Chinese official to affirm that he is capable of buying up candidates

    for ini mediate execution.

    As to the remaining four condemned culprits, M. Ylangali, the

    Tvussian minister, judiciously refused to accept their deaths as a

    proper satisfaction foi- the murder of the three Ilussians until satisfied

    personally of their direct complicity in the deed. A careful

    examination of their case having been made before the consulgeneral

    of the Czar at Tientsin, revealed the fact that only two

    were guilt v of the actual crime ; the minister consented then

    that the punishment of the other two should be commuted to

    banishment. The sum of Tls. 400,000 was paid to the French

    for loss of life and property ; in addition to this the loss done

    to Protestant mission premises was also made good. Chunghow

    was appointed imperial commissioner to proceed to France

    and present to that government a formal apology for the affair.

    This mission left Peking early in 1871 and returned the following

    year. The American missionaries who had in August been

    frightened away from their post in Tangchau’ by the warnings

    and threats of certain evil disposed persons, were taken back from

    their asylum in Chifu two months later in the U. S. S. Benicia,

    and publicly received by the prefect. This was the only instance

    throughout the Empire, connected with the riot of June,

    in which foreigners were interfered with, and here grave doubts

    exist as to the i-eality of danger and need of flight from Tangchau.

    In estimating the conduct of the Chinese in dealing with this

    eruption, the foreign press habitually spoke of them as if they

    were unwilling to grant any redress or take any measures for

    the future safety of those living among their sul)jects. Little

    consideration was made for the enormous difficulties of their

    position. They had been reared in ignorance of the multiplied

    questions and responsibilities involved in the recent treaties

    with other nations ; and though the foreign ministers were

    various nationalities, and that a pillar be erected upon the open space thus

    made, with a suitable inscription as to the occasion and authors of the monument.

    ‘ On the promontory of Shantung.

    really acting most kindly toward them in forcing them to can-v

    out every plain treaty obligation, the fair-minded observer can

    find small excuse for the harsh criticism, not to add abuse,

    which was hurled at everything said or done by Prince Kung

    and his colleagues in their peril and perplexity. The writers in

    newspapers seemed to look upon China as an appanage of

    Europe—one Englishman even going so far as to urge the most

    reckless employment of force to compel her rulers to give up

    the three odious officials to be dealt with and publicly executed.

    Another says that the execution of the sixteen criminals could

    “hardly be viewed as other than cold-blooded murder while

    those men are shielded from the demands of justice.” Yet

    these writers forgot that all the treaties required that ” Chinese

    subjects guilty of criminal acts toward foreigners shall be arrested

    and punished by the Chinese authorities according to

    the laws of China ;” and each nation obliged itself to try and

    punish its own criminals. Chunghow was the object of much

    abuse because he had not prevented or put down the mob,

    though he was merely a revenue officer and had neither territorial

    nor military jurisdiction at Tientsin. Even the members

    of the Tsung-li Yamun were freely charged with complicity

    in the tragedy, if not knowledge or approval. In short, the

    whole history of the riot—its causes, growth, culmination, results,

    and repression—combine as many of the serious obstacles

    in the way of harmonizing Chinese and European civilizations

    as anything which ever occurred.’

    ‘ The records of this event are widely scattered in the local papers published in China and in diplomatic correspondence. See the ^fi’ssio^l(l)•l/ Recorder November, 1870, and January, 1871 ; Jouriuil of N. C. Bnntch of li. A. Soc, No. VI., pp. 18()-1!)0; Eiliiihiir(]h Iier/nr, Jannary, 1871; ]\'(!<tiitiii!itcr Reriew, April, 1871, Art. VI. ; T/te Tiod^in Massacre, kc, by Geo. Thin, M.D., Edinburgh, 1870; Foreitpi Relations of the United States for 1870 and 1871 ; Ij^gation to China ; ParUamentanj Elite Book, 1871 ; H. Blerzy, Les affaires de Chine en 1871, Revue des Deu.r Mondes, 1 juillet, 1871 ; North China Daily News and North China lTer(dd for 1870. One of the most carefully prepared and interesting accounts of the massacre is contained in Baron Iliibner’s Rani’hie Jionnd the World, translated by Lady Herbert, New York, 1875, pp. 526-573.

    KULES SUGGESTED FOR CONTROL OF MISSIONARIES. 707

    As a natural sequence to the judicial proceedings which terminated the Tientsin tragedy, came the inquiry of the imperial counsel into what was briefly summed upas the “missionary question.” More than ten years had now elapsed since the general repeal of all pre-existing edicts against Christianity in the Empire, and the officials were already concerned as to the movements and rumors respecting the new sect which had come to their ears since that time. Accordingly in February, 1871, after an earnest study of the matter from their stand-point, the Foreign Office sent to the various legations the following note and memorandum:

    TuNGCiii, 9th year, 12th moon, 24th day.

    Sir : In relation to the missionary question, the members of the Foreign

    Office are apprehensive lest in their efforts to manage the various points connected

    with it they .shall interrupt the good relations existing between this

    and other governments, and have therefore drawn up several rules upon the

    subject. These arc now enclosed, witli an explanatory minute, for your examination,

    and we hope that you will take them into careful consideration.

    With compliments, cards of Wansiang.

    Shan Kwei-fan.

    The rules proposed (1) that only the children of native Christians be received into Komish asylums ; (2) that ” in order to exhibit the reserve and strict propriety of Christianity,” no Chinese females should enter the chapels nor foreign women propagate the doctrines ; (3) that missionaries should confine themselves to their proper calling, and that they ” ought not to be permitted to set up an independent style and authority ;” (4) that they should not interfere in trials of their native converts when brought into criminal courts ; (5) that passports given to missionaries should not be transferred, but returned to the Chinese authorities when no longer required, “nor should they avail themselves of the passport to secretly go elsewhere,” as the French ofttimes did ; (6) that the missionaries should never receive men of bad character into the church, nor retain

    those of notoriously evil characters ; moreover that quarterly reports

    of the converts be handed in to the provincial officers, as

    did the Buddhist and Taoist houses ; (7) that missionaries

    should not use official seals, nor write official despatches to the

    local authorities, nor otherwise act as if they were officials

    instead of commoners. The last rule complained of the unreasonable demands of the Rouiisli missionaries for lands and houses to be restored to them in accordance with the Peking convention ; it proposed that no more be restored, and that lantis bought for erecting churches be held in the name of the native church members.

    This state paper was remarkable as being the first in which

    the Chinese government had expressed its desire for a satisfactory

    discussion and decision of the difficult questions involved

    in Christian missions, and the quasi independence allowed their

    foreign agents by the treaties. The public sentiment among

    foreigners in China was that these good people had a right to

    do everything not expressly prohibited by treaty until their

    own consular officers notified them to the contrary. The un

    authorized conduct of Romish missionaries in two western

    provinces had already given rise to riots, in which Frenchmen

    had been killed. In such judicial proceedings as that described

    by Abbe Hue in his interesting travels are seen the high-handed

    perversion of justice denounced in the seventh section of this

    paper.’ The writers of these rules were hardly aware of the

    serious import of the questions they had grappled, still less of

    the ignorance they exhibited in their handling of them. All

    the strictures referred exclusively to the Roman Catholics, for

    Protestant missionaries were hardly known to the Chinese

    magistrates, no complaints having been entered against them.

    Most of the foreign ministers long delayed their answers to this

    minute, so that no personal discussion ever took place between

    the parties most interested. The straightforward and eai’iiest reply of Mr. Low, the United States envoy (dated March 20th), carefully went over all the main points, and gave Wansiang

    and Shan Kwei-fan a clear idea of what they might expect from

    other ministers, together Avith manv “‘ood sut^y-estions as to their

    own duties. Nothing practical ever came of the paper, but the

    discussions it caused throughout the country showed the interest

    felt in the whole matter.” A few Protestant missionaries

    themselves indulged in harsh sti-ictures on the native officials,

    ‘ Travels in tJie Chinese Empire, Vol. I., Chap. VI.

    ‘ Forciyn Relations of the United States, 1871, pp. 99-111 ; also for 1872, pp 118-130 and 137-138. Missionary Recorder, Vols. III. and IV. passim.

    THEIR RECEPTION BY FOREIGNERS. 709

    one going the length of saving tliat he “looked upon the document

    rather as an excuse offered beforehand for premeditated

    outrages than as an indication of measures being taken to prevent

    them.” However, no evil results ever came to the converts

    or their teachers from the discussion of the minute, and

    its diffusion gave many i-eaders their first information on the

    whole subject. Differences of opinion led to a comparison of

    facts, and the small number of grievances reported upheld the

    conclusion that the Chinese officials and literati had been, on the

    whole, extremely moderate, considering their limited opportunities

    to examine the question and the irritation aroused by the

    demands and hauteur of the Romish missionaries. The unjust

    manner in which they possessed themselves of the ground

    within the city of Canton on which the governor-general’s yamun

    once stood had made a deep impression on the citizens;

    and when their cathedral, towering above all the temples and

    ofiices of the metropolis, was located upon this site, their indignation

    knew no bounds.

    The year 1873 saw the conclusion of the Mohammedan insurrection

    in the north-western provinces, the exact extent of

    which has never been perfectly made known. The capture of

    Suhchau (near the Kiayii Pass in Kansuh) by the imperial

    troops under General Tso Tsung-tang brought to an end all organized

    rebellion in China Proper.’ As is customary, the central

    government threw the responsibility of promoting the

    peace of the provinces upon their governors, and the welldisposed

    among the people were usually sure of protection.

    The foreign administration of the import customs turned a

    large and certain revenue into the hands of the Peking officials,

    and their development of the defences of the coast in buildingforts,

    launching war steamers, and making war material at the

    new arsenals, indicated their fears of foreign reprisals and

    their unwisdom in deeming such outlays effectual. The same

    money spent in making good wagon roads, working iron, coal,

    and other mines, deepening navigable watercourses, and intro-

    ‘ Foreign Relations of the United States., 1874^ p. 350. Peking Gazette, December 28, 1873. ciuc’ing fimall steamers on them, would have brought more substantial returns. But these were achievements which the future alone coukl accomplish, and the people must be somewhat taught and prepared for them before any permanent advances would ensue.’

    On October 16, 1872, occurred the marriage of the Emperor Tungchi to Aluteli, a Manchu lady. The ceremonies attending her selection, betrothal, and espousal were elaborate and complete in every particular. Such an event had only once before taken place during the Manchu dynasty—when Kanghi was a minor, in 1674—all the other emperors having been

    married during their fathers’ reigns. The occasion, therefore,

    excited great attention, while the attendant expenses were

    enormous ; but all passed off without the least disturbance and

    apparently to general satisfaction. The two Empresses-dowager

    controlled the details, the most important of which were announced

    to the Empire in a series of edicts prepared by members

    of the Li P\i^ or Board of Bites, containing directions for

    every motion of the two principal actors, as well as for those

    who joined the ceremonies during the occasion till the 21st of

    the montli.^

    The young Emperor entered into the spirit of the preparations

    with great interest, and on the day before sending the

    bride her phoenix robes and diadem he ordered three princes to

    offer sacrifice and burn incense on the altar to heaven, ” these

    informing heaven that he was about to marry Aluteh, the wise,

    virtuous, and accomplished daughter of Chung, duke and

    member of the llanlin.” Another prince informed mother

    earth, and a third announced it to the imperial ancestors, in

    their special temple. During the weeks preceding and following

    the happy day, all courts throughout the land were closed

    and a general jail delivery promulgated.

    ‘ Compare a rather enthnsiastic article by Captain A. G. Bridge, The Bciiral vf the Warhke Poirer of China, Fmnrfs Mitfiozinp ior imw, 1879, p. 778.

    * A translation of these papers was made at Shanghai, not long after, by Miss L. M. Fay, an American lady, and furnishes an interesting and authentic account of the whole wedding.

    MARRIAGE OF THE EMPEROR TUNOCIII, 711

    Many of the ceremonies and processions in Peking were not public, for considerations of state and security deuianded great care.’ On the 19tli the wedding was thus announced to the foreign ministers by II. I. Majesty, through Prince Kung : “We having with pious veneration succeeded to the vast dominion founded by Our ancestors, and enjoying in its fuhiess the glorious lot to which We have been destined, have chosen one

    virtuous and modest to be the mistress of Our imperial home.

    Upon October 15th, We, by patent, installed Aluteh, daughter

    of Chung Chi, a sJu-tslany in the Ilanliu College, as Empress.

    This from the Emperor.” The court had not as yet outgrown

    its exclusiveness further than this step of announcing the marriage

    and its completion ; and to those best acquainted with the

    etiquette observed for centuries, even this seemed to be a good

    deal in advance of former times. The great counsellors of

    state soon arranged for closing the regency which had existed

    since 1861. The Emperor Tungchi, though born on April 27,

    1856, was called seventeen at his marriage. The Empressesdowager

    accordingly announced on October 22d that he

    would attain his majority at the next Chinese new year, and be

    inaugurated with all the usual ceremonies. One of his special

    imperial functions, that of offering sacrifices to heaven at the

    winter solstice, would be performed by him in person—a ceremony

    which had been intermitted since December, 1859.

    ‘ For a report of what could be watched of this ceremony, see William Simpson, Meeting (lie Sun, Chap. XV. The bridal procession came off during the night, when a bright moonlight enabled him to see it pass, without molestation, from the shop where he was hidden. This chiaroscuro sort of panorama rather suited the ideas of the people, and was submitted to by the Pekingese crowd without a murmur. Compare K. Bismark in the Galaxy, Vol. XIX., p. 182; CornMl Magazine, Vol. XXVII., p. 83.

    Accordingly, on February 23, 1873, he issued a decree through the Board of Rites, as follows : ” A¥e are the humble recipient of a decree from their Majesties the two Empresses, declaring it to be their pleasure that We, being now of full age, should in person assume the superintendence of business, and in concert with Our officers in the capital and in the provinces, attend to the work of good government. In respectful obedience to the commands of their Majesties, We do in person enter upon the important duty assigned to L s on the 26th day of the 1st moon of the 12th year of the reign Tungclii.”

    This announceineTit was on the same day connnunicated to the

    ministers of Itussia, Germany, tlie United States, Great Britain,

    and France. They returned a collective note the following

    morning, and asked Prince Ivnng to ” take his Imperial Majesty’s

    orders with reference to their reception.”” This intimation

    could not have been nnexpected to him and his colleagues, but

    with their nsual habit of putting off the inevitaljle, they began

    to make excuses. .Vfter deferring the consultation with the envoi’s

    a fortnight on the plea of AVansiang’s illness, they met

    at the Russian legation on March 11th. The question of

    the I’ofoir was the crucial point, as it had Ijeen in 1859 between

    1\ weiliang and Mr. Ward. Then the conrt was willing to accept

    a sort of curtsey instead of a prostration when the American

    minister apjjroached the throne. Xow the court had put the

    strongest argument into the hands of foreign ministers by

    sending the Burlini^-ame mission to their courts, and the ritjhts

    of independent nations could not be waived or implicated by

    the least sign of inferiority. The conference was amicable and

    the matter fully ventilated. The demands n])on the Chinese

    were summarized by the ministers : That a pei-sonal audience

    with the Emperor was proper and needful ; that it should not

    be unnecessarily delayed ; and that they would not kneel before

    him, nor perform any other ceremony derogatory to their

    own dignity or that of their nationalities. These points were

    maintained as their united decision in the weary series of conferences,

    correspondence, and delays which ensued during the

    next four months in Peking. The prince and his colleagues,

    by their discussion of the point, had aroused the resistance of

    the great body of literati and conservative officials in the Empire,

    who had grown u]^ in the belief that its unity and prosperity

    were involved in the [)erf()rnuince of the kotow. The

    discussion in July, 185!), when the Emjieror Ilienfung could

    safely decline to admit Mr. Ward to an audience without it, had

    exhausted their ai’gunu’iits ; but his son had come to the throne

    under the new influences, which were rapidly breaking down

    all those old ideas and safeguards. The prince had, moreover,

    DISCUSSION OF THE AUDIENCE QUESTION. 7J3

    ieariied tiiat the foreign ministers were not very strongly sup^

    ported by tlieir own governments, none of whom intended to

    make the audience question a casus helli, or even a reason for

    withdrawing their legations from Peking. Perhaps the Yannni

    thought that the departure of the Ilussian and German ministers

    would leave the other three less inclined to persist in their

    demand, if serious consequences were likely to result.

    The American minister clearly states the pith of the matter

    in his despatch of March S-ith in his closing words : ” I attach

    importance to the proper settlement of the audience question

    at the earliest time possible. To demand it, and urge compliance

    with the demand, is a duty every western nation owes

    to its own dignity and to the welfare of its citizens and subjects

    residing here ; it is also a kindness to this government to try

    through this moans to improve relations, and thus prevent, or

    at least postpone, what are now likely at any time to occur—hostile collisions, with their dreadful consequences.” ‘ This

    alternative was not a fanciful one, and this canse of chronic

    dispute and irritation between China and other nations during

    many centuries was removed chiefly through the patient pereistance

    of Mr. Low in this discussion. His despatches contain

    every fact and argument of importance in perhaps the most

    serious controversy ever brought before China. One cannot

    but sympathize with Prince Ivung and his colleagues in their

    dilennna, and to this embarrassment Mr. Low gives due weight.

    The Chinese ofhcials took a month to discuss the points

    among themselves, and signs of yielding were apparent both

    in the note of Prince Kung of April IGth and the memorandum

    of the 29th brought forward at an interview with the

    legations. Much of the same ground was gone over again ; a

    vacation ensued, then another protocol on May 15tli appeared,

    followed by notes on the 20th and 29th from both sides,

    all tending to the desired conclusion. At last the audience

    question was settled on June 29th by the Emperor first

    ‘ Forenjn EelatioriH nfllip United Sfiitrs, 1873, p. 160. See also the despatches

    of that year, and compare Pauthier’s ITixUrfrc flea TiiiatioiiH Politique (fe la Cliine, Paris, 1858. Narrative of the American Embassy’s visit to Peking, N. a Br. R. As. Sv., Vol. I, 1859.

    receiving Soyeshima, the ambassador from Japan, by himself; and immediately afterward the five ministers of Russia, the United States, (ireat Britain, J”ranee, and Holland, accompanied only by Mr. Carl Bismarck, the German secretary, who interpreted for them.’ Mr, Low’s despatch of July 10th, giving the details of the ceremonies and the previous discussion in settling them, with the difficulty the prince and others had in swallowing

    the bitter pill, is very valuable as a description of the finale

    of this last struggle of Chinese seclusion to resist the incoming

    wave of w’estern power. The wall of their separation was at

    last broken down. They were really stronger and wiser than

    ever, and every nation interested felt a relief that the days of

    proud assumption were ended. The young Emperor held only

    three more audiences during his short reign of nineteen months ;

    and in all these discussions he seems to have taken no active

    part, nor did he oppose the conclusion. His ignorance of the

    whole question made his opinion a matter of small moment.

    Among other advantages resulting to all parties by the settlement

    of this question was the right adjustment of the Chinese

    government in its relations with other courts. This acknowledgment

    of their equality as independent nations did not in anywise

    interfere with the obeisance of native ofiicials when approaching

    their sovereign ; but it smoothed the way for future

    diplomatic relations. Xo western power could maintain an

    envoy near the TTtrmvjt’i at Peking with the least self-respect

    if he were not allowed to see this potentate unless by prostrating

    himself. While none of the great nations would deem a mere

    matter of ceremony a sufficient pretext for resorting to war

    since war itself often fails to convince—a long, continuance of

    this state of affairs must inevitably have led to complications

    the more unpleasant to diplomatists because sure to be oft-recurring.

    It was probably owing to the personal influence of Prince Kung and Wansiang, the two most enlightened statesmen of this period, that a further insistance upon the kotow was not made, and preparations thus arranged for reciprocal courtesies when Chinese ambassadors appeared at foreign courts.

    ‘ Compare the lUustrated London News for June 23, 1873.

    THE AUDIENCE GRANTED—COOLIE TKADE STOPPED. 715

    But against what tremendous odds of superstition and national

    prejudice these two otiicials were pitted in this curious contest

    those who liave never lived in the Empire can liardly appreciate.’

    The years 1873 and IST-i were marked by the abolition of

    the coolie trade at Macao, which since its rise in IS-iS had been

    attended with many atrocities on land and sea. During these

    twenty-five years attempts had been made to conduct the trade

    with some regard for the rights of the laborers, but experience

    had shown that to do this was practically impossible if the

    business were to be made remunerative. Driven from Hongkong

    and Whampoa, the agents of this traffic had long found

    shelter in the Portuguese harbor of Macao, from which semiindependent

    port they could despatch Chinese crimps on kidnapping

    excursions for their nefarious trade. When at last the

    governor closed this haven to its continuance, the Spaniards and

    Peruvians were the only nationalities whom the action affected ;

    but Spain, falling back on her treaty of 1864, insisted that the

    coolie trade be allowed. The Yanmn was advised not to admit

    this privilege until the harsh treatment of the laborers in Cuba

    had been inquired into. This was done in 1873, by means of a

    commission composed of three foreigners and two Chinese, who

    made as thorough an inquiry as the Cuban authorities would

    permit and reported the results in 1874. Since the dreadful

    disclosures which transpired in their report the trade has never

    revived. Peru, indeed, sent M. Garcia as its envoy to Peking to negotiate a treaty and obtain the right of engaging laborers,

    but tills o-entleinan met with no success whatever. The Chinese iieirotiations on this occasion showed the <rood resulti? of their freer intercourse with foreigners in the improved character of their arguments for maintaining their rights.” Tlic Lamentable condition of Chinese laborers in Peru was fully enough proved, inasmuch as their appeal for relief to their home government had been before the Yannm since 18GS, but it could do nothing effectual to help them.

    ‘ Of Wansiang’s personal history little is known. He was a Mancliu, and a man of uncommonly prepossessing manner, being perhaps most highly esteemed of all the officials who came in contact with the foreign legations. At the termination of hostilities and the organization of the Tsung-li Yamun in 1861, he came prominently forward as a most efficient and sagacious adviser of the government. We have already in this narrative had occasion to note the influence of his name in the settlement of the Lay-Osborne flotilla and in the missionary question, the satisfactory conclusion of which was a meet tribute to his talents and judgment. He died at an advanced age in 1875, at the head of the administration. In his death the Chinese government lost an unselfish patriot and a keen observer of those things which were for the best interests of his country.

    The Japanese government undertook in this year to try the

    issue of war with the Chinese in order to settle its demand of

    redress for the murder, in 18T1, of some fifty-four Lewchewan

    sailors by savages on the eastern coast of Formosa. Japan

    had recently deposed the native authorities in Shudi, and being

    hard pressed for some employment of the feudal retainers of

    the retired daimios, undertook to redress Lewchewan grievances

    by occupying the southern part of Formosa, asserting that

    it did not belong to Cliina because she either -vvould not or

    could not govern its savage inhabitants. This view of the divided

    ownership of the island was promptly rejected by the foreign

    ministers resident at Tokio, but the officials were persuaded

    that all they had to do was to occupy the whole southern

    district, and the Chinese could not drive them out when once

    their intrenchments were completed.

    The Mikado accordingly gathered his forces in Kiusiu during

    the years 18T3-T-4-, placing them under the command of (ieneral

    Saigo, and engaging (qualified foreign military men to assist.

    The expedition was called a High Commission, accompanied by

    a force sufficient for its protection, sent to aboriginal Formosa to

    inquii-e into the murder of fifty-four Japanese subjects, and

    take steps to prevent the recurrence of such ati’ocities. A pi-oclamation

    was issued April IT, 1874, and another May 19th,

    stating that General Saigo was directed to call to an account

    the persons guilty of outrages on Japanese subjects. As he

    knew that Chiiui was not prepared to resist his landing at

    Liang-kiao, his chief business was to provide means to house

    ‘ Foreign Relations of tJie United Stntcn, 1874, pp. 198-232. Westminster

    lievietr, Vol. lUO, p. 75. Customs Hqjort on Cabau Coolie Trade, 1870.

    JAPANESE EXPEDITION TO FORMOSA. 717

    and feed tlie soldiers under his command. Tlie Japanese authorities

    do not appear very creditably in this affair. JSo sooner

    did they discover the wild and barren nature of this unknown

    region than they seemed fain to beat an incontinent and hasty

    retreat, nor did the troops landed there stand upon the order of

    their going. They had in some measure been misled by the fallacious

    arguments of Gen. Charles Le Gendre, formerly United

    States consul at Amoy, who had travelled through these districts

    in 18G5 ; the enormous cost which they had already incurred

    made them hesitate about proceeding further, though they had

    announced their intention of retaining possession of the territorj’.

    The aborigines having tied south after the first rencontre, the

    Japanese leader employed his men as best he could in opening

    roads through the jungle and erecting houses.

    Meanwhile the Peking authorities were making ^^reparations

    for the coming struggle, and though they moved slowly they

    were much in earnest to protect their territory. General Shin

    Paochin having been invested with full powers to direct operations

    against the Japanese forces, began at once to draw together

    men and vessels in Fuhchau and Amoy. The Japanese consuls

    at Amoy and Shanghai were allowed to remain at their posts;

    and during the year two envoys arrived at Peking to treat

    with the Court. Their discussions soon narrowed down to a

    demand on the Japanese ministers, Yanagiwara and Okubo, to

    withdraw from Formosa before treating with them upon the

    outrages there ; which was met by a refusal on the ground that

    the Emperor had voided his sovereignty by having for three

    years taken no steps to punish his subjects, notwithstanding the

    repeated requests made to this end. The Chinese proved that

    the Japanese had violated their ti-eaty, and acted in an underhand

    manner in certain negotiations w^ith their envoy, Soyeshima,

    the preceding year ; but this continued sparring was mere

    child’s play. The probabilities were strong against any settlement,

    when the parties were induced to arrange their quarrel

    by the intervention and wise counsel of Sir T. F. Wade, the

    British minister. The Japanese accepted five hundred thousand

    taels for their outlays in Formosa for roads, hotises, and

    defences ; agreeing thereupon to retire and leave the further punishment of the aborigines to the Chinese authorities. The two envoys left Peking, and this attempt at war was happily frustrated.’

    The history of this affair was exceedingly instructive to those who saw the risks to their best interests which both these nations were running in an unnecessary appeal to force. Never, perhaps, has the resort to arbitration been more happy, when to the difficulty of keeping out of a quarrel which so many fortune seekers were ready to encourage was added the fact that both nations had been eagerly developing their land and marine forces by adopting foreign arms, drill, ships, and defences; every friend felt the uselessness of a disastrous conflict at this

    time and willingly strove to prevent any such result. The civilization

    of all parts of Foi-mosa has since rapidly advanced by

    the extension of tea and sugar culture, the establishment of

    Christian missions, and the better treatment of the native

    tribes. A single incident at this time illustrated the undefined

    position of the parties in this dispute. This was the arrival

    in Peking, after Okubo’s departure, of a large embassy of Lewcliewans

    to make their homage to the Emperor Tungchi. The

    Japanese charge d’affaires was denied admittance to the Lewchewan

    hotel, and the Yamun refused to dismiss the embassy,

    but gave it an audience, as was the usage in former days—probably

    the last in their history. The experience acquired by these

    three natioTis in their quarrel concerning Formosa has not prevented

    considerable bitterness aljout their rights to Lewchew.

    No sooner had the Chinese government escaped from the

    Japanese imbroglio by the payment of half a million taels than

    it foiuid itself involved in another and more troublesome question

    with the British. This arose from the persistent attempts

    of the latter to open a trade through Burmah, along the Irrawadi

    River, with Yunnan and other south-western parts of

    China. The Indian government had sent or encouraged explorers

    to go through the little known regions lying between

    ‘ h Ahorif/inal Formosa a part of tJie Chinese Empire? with eight maps,

    folio, Shangliai, 1874, pp. 20. Foirign Relations of the United States for 1873

    and 1.S74—( liina and Japan, passim. 71ie Japan Herald aud North China

    Herald for those years record all the leading events.

    MAJOR SLADEN’S MISSION TO YUNNAN. 719

    tlie Brahmaputra and Lantsang rivers, but no ti-ade could be

    developed in so wild and thinly settled a region. During the

    Tai-ping Rebellion the Emperor’s authority in Yunnan had

    been practically in abeyance, and over the western half of the

    province it had been superseded by a revolt of the Panthays, a

    Mohammedan tribe long settled in that region. These sectaries

    date their origin from the Tang dynasty, and had been generally

    unmolested by the Chinese so long as they obeyed the

    laws. During the Mongol sway their numbers increased so that

    they began to participate in the government, while ever since

    they have enjoyed more or less the control of affairs.’ The

    differences in faith and practice, however, aided in keeping them

    distinct ; and in Yunnan their numbers were recruited by settlers

    from Ivansuh and Koko-nor, so tliat they were led to

    throw off the Chinese rule altogether.

    They began about the year 1855 to defend themselves against

    the imperialists, captured Tali in 1857, pushing their arms

    as far eastward as the provincial capital Yunnan fu, which was

    seized and held for a brief period ; but in 1867 they proclaimed

    Tu Win-siu as their Imam, and located their capital in Tali.

    With affairs in this condition law and order speedily vanished,

    life and property were sacrificed, and general misrule furnished

    the lawless with an opportunity to burn, kill, and destroy until

    the land became a desert. The Panthays, as the Burmese

    called the insurrectionists, turned their hopes westward for

    succor, and to this end endeavored to keep open the trade with

    Burmah and India, but under the circumstances it could not

    flourish. The British in those countries were, however, quite

    ready to countenance, if not aid, the new ruler at Tali, as soon

    as his power was sufficiently consolidated to keep open the roads

    and protect traders.

    In 1868 a party was ordered to proceed to this city and ” discover

    the cause of the cessation of trade formerly existing by

    these routes, the exact position held by the Kakhyens, Shans, and

    Panthays Avith reference to that traflic, and their disposition or

    ‘ Compare Dr. Anderson, From Mandalay to Momien, p. 323. Du Halde,

    Hutoire, Tome I., p. 199. Grosier, China, Vol. IV., p. 270. Gamier, Voyaye

    d’Explaration, Tome I. Cooper, Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce.

    otherwise to resuscitate it.” This party, iininberiiii;- a hnmlred

    in all, was in charge of Major Sladen, assisted by live qualitied

    men, and guarded by an escort of fifty armed police ; its object

    embraced diplomacy, engineering, natural science, and commerce.

    Their steamer reached IJliamo January 22, ISOS, and

    the party began their travels early in March, arriving after nuicli

    delay at Momcin (or Tuiig-yueh chau), a town on the Taping

    River, one hundred and thirty-five miles from Bhanio and about

    five thousand feet above the sea. Another forced delaj- of near] ,•

    two months convinced them of the impossibility of their getting

    to Tali (nearly as far again) ; in face of the determined opposition,

    therefore, both of the hill tribes and Chinese traders. Major

    Sladen was fain to retire in safety to Bhamo. The retreat of

    this anomalous expedition could be officially ascribed to the

    weakness of the Panthay rulers, the wild region traversed, and

    its yet wilder inhabitants. But to what principles of justice or

    equity can we attribute the action of the British in retaining

    their minister at the capital of an Empire Avhile sending a

    peaceful mission to a rebel in arms at its boundaries ? This

    impertinence seems thinly veiled by dubbing the expedition one

    of inquiry concerning trade ; no trade did or could exist with

    an ill-assorted rabble of wild mountaineers; when these had

    been duly subjected an expedition for purposes of science would

    meet with as ready assistance from the authorities as did that

    of the Frenchman, Lieutenant Garnier, then exploring eastern

    Yunnan. This disregard of the courtesies and i-ights of independent

    nations refiects as little credit upon the powerful luition

    which used her strength thus unfairly as does her similar attempt

    of negotiating with another rebel, Yakub Beg in Ili.

    Major Sladen’s mission, owing to the admirable qualities of

    its leader, made so fair an impression upon the natives along

    his route that upon his return in 1873 his progress was materially

    assisted, instead of retarded, by them as far as Momcin.

    In the years intervening the Imam at Tali, with about forty

    thousand of his followers, had been hemmed in by the Chinese

    forces under the leadership of Li Sieh-tai, or Brigadier Li. The

    Mohannnedans felt their weakness against such odds, and the

    80-called Sultan Suleiman sent his son Hassan to London to

    SECOND BRITISH MISSION TO YUNNAX. 721

    implore recognition and aid from tlie British government ; but

    before lie returned his father had killed himself and the victorious

    Chinese had massacred most of their opponents and regained

    possession of the whole province in 1873. Its western

    half had been virtually inde])endent since 1855, during which

    period the wretchedness of the inhabitants had greatly reduced

    their numbers and resources.

    Trade soon revived. The British appointed an agent to reside

    at Bhamo and learn its amount and character. In 1874 an ex

    pedition—this time provided with Chinese passports—was

    planned to make the trip across China from Burmah to Hankow,

    as Lieutenant Garnierhad done from Saigon. The Chinese

    traders in Burmah set themselves to circumvent it, for its success

    boded disaster to them, as they better knew the resources

    of their competitors. The British plan was to send an accredited

    agent across the country from Hankow to Bhamo, there to

    meet a party under charge of Col. Horace Browne, which was

    to “thoroughly examine the capabilities of the country beyond

    Momein.” As only six years had passed since Sladen’s party

    had reached that town on its way to the Panthays at Tali, there

    had perhaps been hardly time to remove all suspicion among

    the local officials about the objects of this new move. One

    of the consular clerks, Augustus R. Margary, was furnished

    with necessary passports and instructions from her Majesty’s

    legation to go to Bhamo and act as Colonel Browne’s guide and

    interpreter. His journals testify that no better choice could have

    been made, and all who knew him were hopeful of the success

    of this young man.” He left Hankow September 2d and reached

    Bhamo January 17th without molestation or accident, having

    been received with respect by all Chinese officials, whom the

    governor-general of Yunnan had required thus to act. While

    the party in Bhamo prepared the equipment for its journey, Dr.

    Anderson observes that the Chinese ” watched its movements

    with a secret feeling that the objects contemplated were somewhat

    beyond the peaceful pursuits of commerce and scientific inquiry.’”

    ‘ Journals of A. R. Margary, edited by Sir R. Alcock, London, 1877.

    – The report was also circulated that the party was going to lay down a rail road.

    Mr. Margary intimated that lie thought there were intrigues

    going on at Manwyne adverse to the advance of the mission ; but

    Brigadier Li, who treated liim there with great honor, did every

    thing to promote his journey to Bhamo.

    The arrangements as to routes and escorts were at last completed

    so far as to allow the party iinally to leave Bhamo

    February 3, 1875 ; it numbered nearly fifty persons in all, together

    with a Burmese guard of one hundred and iifty. The rivalries and

    deceptions of the Ivakhyen tribes proved to be worse than in 1868,

    and progress was slower from the difficulty of providing animals

    for transport. By the 18th it had crossed the frontier, and the

    next morning Mr, Margary left, with five Chinese, for Manwyne,

    to arrange there for its reception by Brigadier Li. Increased

    dissensions among the tribes as to escort, transport, and pay

    led Colonel Browne to push on after him with a guard so as to

    reach that town and find some competent authority to aid his

    expedition. Many signs of serious opposition had by this time

    manifested themselves ; and when he was preparing to start

    from Seray on the 23d, large bodies of armed men were seen

    on the opposite hills coming to attack the British. A Burmese

    messenger also arrived from Manwyne with letters giving an

    account of the horrid murder of Mr. Margary and his attendants

    by the treacherous officials there on the 20th, The Chinese

    soldiers or robbers were in a manner repulsed by the

    bravery of Browne’s escort and by firing the jungle, but the expedition

    was in face of too powerful an opposition to contemplate

    advancing after such disasters. The return to Bhamo was

    soon made, and the earnest efforts of the Burmese officers there

    to recover everything beloi^ging to the British proved their

    lionesty.

    The disappointment at this rebuff was exceeded by the general

    indignation at tlie treachery which marked the murder. It

    was soon known’ that J^i Sieh-tai was not at Manwyne at tlie

    time, though the real actors in tlie tragedy l)el()nged to his ainiy,

    and must have made him cognizant of the (IcmhI.’

    ‘ MiDiihild]! to Momien : A Narratm’ of Tiro Krjmh’t/ous toWfufcrii (‘fii)ia,

    by T)i .lolm Anderson, contains a most satisfactory narrative of tlu’se attempts;

    the writer’s ojjinion is of the highest value.

    MURDER OF MARGARY AT MANWYNE. 7:^3

    When news of this disaster reached London and Peking, the

    British minister was directed to deinand an investigation of tlie

    facts connected with the outrage in presence of a British

    officer in Yunnan, the issue by the Yaniun of fresh passports

    for a new mission, and an indemnity. After montlis of dehiy

    and correspondence with the Yamun Sir Thomas Wade, the

    British minister, was able to make np his commission and despatcli

    it from Hankow, November 5th, for Yunnan fu. It consisted

    of the Hon. T. G. Grosvenor, second secretary of the

    legation, and Messrs. Davenport and Baber of the consular

    ser\”ice, all of them well fitted by previous training for attaining

    the objects of their expedition. The journey was performed

    in company with a Chinese escort, without danger or

    interference, the city of Yunnan being reached in March. The

    gentlemen found the provinces through which they travelled

    perfectly at peace, and the Emperor’s authority everywhere

    acknowledged—a fact extremely creditable to the Chinese after

    more than twenty years of civil war.

    The Chinese appointed to condnct the inquiry into the

    murder, in connection with Mr. Grosvenor, was Li Han-chang,

    governor-general at Wuchang and brother of Li Ilung-chang.

    He Avas long in making the journey, but the two began their

    proceedings, having Sieh IIwan, an old member of the Yamun

    in 1864, as aid. Those who had any experience or acquaintance

    with similar joint commissions in China anticipated but

    one result from it—an entire failure in proving or punishing

    the guilty parties ; while those who wish to see their character

    should read Mr. Grosvenor’s various reports ‘ to learn how slow

    are the advances of the Chinese in truth-telling. Nevertheless,

    such an investigation had some prospective benefit in that the

    trouble which the British made on account of the taking of one

    life warned the officials to exercise the greatest caution in

    future. In this preventive aspect, the mission doubtless accomplished

    more than can be estimated. Mr. Baber is sure that

    Margary was killed (and his opinion is entitled to great respect)

    by the discontented Chinese trainbands then around Manwyne—

    ‘ Rue Book—China, No. 1 (1876) and No. 3 (1877).

    a lawless set, who were afterward hunted to death.’ Tlie

    weight of evidence obtained at Yunnan fu went to prove that

    the repulse of the British party was countenanced, if not

    planned, by the governor-general, and carried into effect w^ith

    the cognizance of Brigadier Li. Amid so much ii-reconcilable

    evidence, the inference that the officers, ch icily by so doing, intended

    to prevent the extension of trade by the British, offers

    the niost adequate explanation. When the impoverished condition

    of Southwestern China is remembered, the question

    arises, Why should the Indian government strive to open a trade

    where industry and population have been so destroyed ? But

    the expectation that thereby a greater market would be found

    for its opium in all Western China is a sufficient reason, perhaps,

    for undertaking so costly an experiment.

    Xo sooner had Sir Thomas Wade learned of Margary’s

    death than he impressed upon the Chinese government the

    necessity for unremitting and vigorous measures toward the

    arrest and punishment of the guilty. In addition to what has

    been already stated concerning this reparation, he brought forward

    some other matters affecting the intercoui-se between the

    two countries. They were long and painfully debated, and

    those agreed on were embodied in a convention wdiich was

    signed l)y himself and Li Ilung-chang, on the part of Great

    Britain and China, September 13, 1870. The correspondence

    relating to this convention is given, with its text, in the Parliamentary

    Bhie Books,” and is worth perusal by all Avho M-ish to

    learn the workings of the Chinese government.

    The Yunnan case was settled by inmiediate payment of two

    hundred thousand taels (.^280,000), which included all claims

    of British merchants on the Chinese government; by posting

    an imperial proclamation in the cities and towns throughout

    the Empire ; by sending an envoy bearing a letter of regret to

    Queen Victoria for what had occurred in Yunnan ; and by

    ‘ Blue Book—CMna, No. 3, 1878. Beport of Mr. Baher on the route follovxd

    Inj Mr. (rrosveno7’^s luvmion between Tali fit, and Moinein. Reprinted, with his

    other interesting travels and researches in Western Cliina, in Supplementary

    Papers, Vol. I., Part 1, 1882, of Roi/. fM)f/. Sor., London.

    ^Bluc Book— China, No. 1 (1876) and No. 3 (1877).

    THE CTIIFTT CONVENTION. 725

    stationing Untisli officers at Tali or elsewhere in that province

    to “observe the conditions of trade.” The proclamation’ was

    posted very widely (three thonsand copies in Kiangsu province

    alone), and through it the people learned that the safety of all

    foreigners travelling through their countrj^ was guaranteed by the

    Emperor. Other matters agreed upon in this convention were

    the manner of official intercourse between native and foreign

    officers at Peking and the ports, so that perfect equality might

    be shown ; the better administration of justice in criminal cases between their respective subjects, every such case being tried by the official of the defendant’s nationality, while the plaintiffs official could always be present to watch proceedings; the extension of trade by opening four new ports as consular stations, and six on the Yangtsz’ River for landing goods, with other regulations as to opium, transit, and U-km taxes on goods; and lastly, the appointment of a joint commission to establish some system that should enable the Chinese government to protect its revenue without prejudice to the junk trade of Hongkong.

    This final article might well have been omitted. The concessions

    and advantages in it accrued to the British, and through

    them also measurably to other nationalities. But while the

    Chinese under the circumstances had no right to complain

    of paying heavily for Margary’s life, it was manifestly unfair

    to cripple their commerce by sheltering Hongkong smugglers

    under promise of a commission which could never honestly

    agree. In order to better understand the British minister’s

    views regarding the political and commercial bearing of his

    convention, the reader is referred to his labored minute of July

    ‘ Blue R)ok—Chm<i, No. 3 (1877). “^ Ihid , pp. 111-147.

    1-1, 1877,’ in which the fruits of thirty-five years of official experience in China impart much value to his opinions. The singular mixture of advice, patronizing decisions, and varied knowledge running through the M^hole i-ender the paper extremely interesting. The Chinese historian of the next century will read with wonder the implied responsibility of the British minister for the conduct of the Empire in its foreign management, and the enormous development of the principle of ex-ter ritorialitv so as to cover almost every action of every British subject. He may also be instructed by this proof of the ignorance and fears of the former rulers, as well as their conceit

    and hesitation in view of their wants and backwardness to cope

    with the advancing age. lie must acknowledge, too, that the

    sharj) and prolonged discussion of eighteen months between Sir

    Thomas and the Yamun was one of the most protitable exercises

    in political science the high officers of Peking ever had allowed

    them.

    Since the convention of Chifu the progress of China at home

    and abroad has been the best evidence of an improved administration.

    The reign of Hienfung ended in 1861, with the prestige,

    resources, and peace of the realm he had so miserably

    governed reduced to their lowest ebb. During the twelve years

    of his son’s nominal regime, the face of affairs had quite changed

    for the better. Peace and regular government had been for the

    most part resumed throughout the Eighteen Provinces, and even

    to the extreme western frontier of Ivashgar and Kuldja. The

    people were returning to their desolated villages, while their

    rulers did what they could to promote agriculture and trade.

    The young Emperor gave small promise of beconung a wise or

    efficient ruler ; and when he died (January 12, 1875) it was felt

    that an effigy only had passed away, and no change would ensue

    in the administration. In the question of selecting his inheritor

    were involved some curious features of Chinese customs. It

    is a rule that the succession to the Lung-wei, or ‘ Dragon’s

    Seat,’ cannot pass to the preceding generation, since this would

    involve the worship of a lower or younger generation by an

    older one. The line of Jlienfung died out in his childless son ;

    the eldest of his brothers had, as we have seen, been made posthumous

    heir of an uncle in 1854, consequently his son, Pu-lun,

    was ineligible. The elevation of Prince Kung’s son Tsai-ching

    to be Emperor was in the highest degree inexpedient, as this

    would necessitate the retirement of his father from active participation

    in the govermnent, arising from their relationship of

    father and s(mi. The next eligible candidate, Tsai-tien, a child

    of Prince Chun—the seventh son of Taukwang—born August 15j

    ACCESSION OF THE EMPEROR K^\’ANGS^j. 727

    1871, was unanimously chosen by the Empresses dowager and assembled princes of the Manchu Imperial Clan. His parents were brother and sister of those of his predecessors, while the same regency had been reappointed, so that his tender age involved neither difficulty nor alteration during the minority.

    He took the reign-name of Kwang-sl’i., or ‘ Illustrious Succession,’

    having reference to the disturbance in the regular descent.

    By this arrangement the same general set of officials

    was continued on the government, and the risk to its peaceful

    working from the freaks of Tungchi avoided.’

    A most notable event during the last decade has been the recovery of the vast regions of the Tarim Valley to the imperial sway. Their loss took place during the early part of the Tai-ping Rebellion, beginning in Kansuh, where the discontented Moslem population, aided by the reckless and seditious of all clans, arose and drove out the governmental minions even to the eastern side of Shensi. Of this extended revolt little is known in the west save the name of its figure-head and leading character under whose mastery it culminated and succumbed.

    The famous Yakub Beg, whom the jealous attentions of both

    England and Russia had united in raising to the rank of a hero,

    commenced his militarv career as lieutenant of Buzuro; khan,

    a son of the notable Jehangir, kojeh of Ivokand. By the

    year 1866 the energetic lieutenant had made way with his licentious

    and cowardly chief, and possessed himself of a large part

    of Western Kashgaria ; then, turning his attention to the rebellious

    Dunganis north of him, a series of vigorous campaigns

    ended in leaving him undisputed ruler of all Tien- Shan Nan

    Lu. These conquests over, hordes of neighboring rebels nmst

    now be recognized as fatal errors in the policy of Yakub. The

    Atalik Gliazi, or ‘ Champion Father’ as he was now called,

    had not only attracted the distrust of Russia—manifested in

    their taking of Kuldja from the Dunganis before his approach

    was possible—but in annihilating other Moslem insurrectionists,

    ‘ The Eastern Empress-dowager, the legal widow of Hienfung, whose only

    child, a daughter, died early in 1875, followed her to the grave in 1881, leaving

    the regency with her coadjutor, the Empress An, aided by Prince Kung had constituted himself an avenger of Chinese wrongs, and prepared the way of his own enemies whenever the terrible day of reckoning should come.

    The attempt on the part of China to restore its prestige in a

    territory where every hand was tm-ned against her seemed

    indeed liopeless. Her exhausted resources, her constant fear

    of tlie foreigners within lier gates, her suspicions of Russia,

    the immense distances to be traversed, seemed to unite every

    factor against her success. Nevertlieless, by 1871 symptoms of

    disorganization began ah-eady to appear among tlie rebels, wliile

    in the wishes of the common people for a strong power to insure

    order and encourage trade Tso Tsung-tang, the Chinese

    general, found both assistance and men.

    A moment’s attention to the relations l)etwecn the Chinese

    and Mohammedans of this region will throw much light on

    their contest. Since their conquest by Kienlung, the inhabitants

    of Eastern Turkestan had enjoyed an unexampled period of

    tranquillity and prosperous trade. The Chinese, known as

    Kitai, settled in their cities and brought a degree of wealth

    and civilization far ahead of anything previously known, wliile

    the rulers, or ambans, joined to their duties as administrators of

    justice a fostering care of trade routes and methods for developing

    the country. They have at all times been celebrated for

    irrigating their provinces, and now reproduced their wonderful

    canals (says Boulger) ” even in this outlying dependency.

    Eastern Turkestan is one of the worst-watered regions in the

    world. In fact there is only a belt of fertile country around

    the Yarkand lliver, stretching away eastward along the slopes

    of the Tien Shan as far as Ilanii. The few snudl rivers which

    are traced here and there across the map are during many

    months of the year dried up, and even the Yai’kand then

    becomes an insignificant stream. To remedy this, and to

    husband the supply as much as possible, the Chinese sunk dikes

    in all directions. By this means the cultivated country was

    slowly but sui-ely spi’cad over a great extent of territory, and

    the vicinity of the three cities of Kashgar, Yangi llissar, and

    Yarkand ])e(‘ame known as the garden of Asia. Corn and fruit

    grew in abundance, and from Yarkand to the south of the Tien

    TAKUB BEG AND THE REVOLT IX TURKESTAN. 729

    Shan the traveller could pass through one endless orchard. On all sides he saw nothing but plenty and content, peaceful hamlets and smiling inhabitants. These were the outcome of a Chinese domination.” ‘

    In addition to the fields and rivers, mines were worked, mountain passes cut and kept in repair, and the internal government of tribes placed on an equable basis. As to the precise manner in which discontent and rebellion crept into this apparently happy territory, it must always remain a matter of conjecture. The customs of its inhabitants have for ages been based on the tribal principle to such an extent that they found it impossible to assimilate with the Chinese and their methodical government, even though for their advantage to do so. The repeated failures of the United States to introduce a certain degree of civilization among the Indians present an analogous case. Uneasiness among the natives caused by agents from Kokand and Tashkend was speedily followed by larger demands from turbulent Mussulmans, who saw in Chinese moderation an evidence of weakness and decline. Jehangir’s rebellion not unjustly incensed a government which had devoted more than half a century to the building up of a shattered State, and was punished with merciless rigor. Oppression from the Chinese met by resistance, equitable rule alternating with weakness and injustice, trade impeded by illegal imports, ambitious Usbeck chiefs exciting their tribes to rise against their conquerors—these and similar causes had been at work to prevent all permanent progress in Turkestan.

    ‘ Life of Yakoob Beg, London, 1878, p. 59. See also R. B. Shaw, Visiti to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar, London, 1871, Chaps. II. and III.

    During the lowest ebb of JSIanchu authority in the Empire, when foreigners and Tai-pings were straining the utmost resources of the government in the East, a small village of Kansuh was the scene of a sudden riot. When after two days couriers brought word that the disturbance was quelled with some loss of life, the authorities began to suppose that the affair had already been forgotten; but it proved to be the fuse that lighted an outbreak scarcely smaller than the other civil war within the provinces.’ The Dunganis had arisen and spreaa the infection of revolt wherever they existed—over hirge districts «^tf Slieiisi, but principally toward the west, to Turfan, Ivuche. and Aksu—continuing the weary story of surprise, slaughter,

    and barbarity even to the city of Knldja.’ Allying with

    themselves the Tarantchi, a sort of fellah class which the Chinese

    had imported into the regions from Kashgar, the victorious

    rebels established one of those ephemeral governments over the

    Tien Shan and its adjoining valleys that have so frequently

    arisen in the history of Central Asia. Under their rule ti’avel

    beyond the Kia^’ii Pass was of course impossible, while trade

    diminished throughout the conntry, and Russia, as we have seen,

    wrested Knldja from Abul Oghlan in order to secnre her own

    borders. The first sei’ious check received by this confederation

    Avas its virtnal overthrow, when Yakub advanced npon Aksu

    and from thence cleared the great road eastward to Tnrfan.

    Tso’s first labor, then, was to clear Shensi and Kansuh of the

    rebels, in which his progress was marked by admirable foresight

    and energy in disposition of men, arrangement of conrier

    service, and use of modern arms. Establishing himself by 1876

    in Barknl and Ilami as headcpiarters, by the following spring

    he was prepared for a concerted movement from the north

    (Gutchen and Urumtsi) and east (Pidshan) npon ‘^’akub l>eg at

    Turfan. The redoubtable chieftain was finally caught by the

    tardy but certain power which he had long despised with impunity,

    and driven backward through the towns of Toksnn and llarashar to Tvorla, where he died or was murdered, May, 1877.

    ‘ *’ It is impossible not to connect this event in some degree with that unaccountable revival among Mohammedans, which has produced so many important events during the last thirty years, and of which we are now witnessing some of the most striking results. “—Boulger. Life of Yakooh li’f/, p. 95.

    “^ Which fell in January, 18C0, after the Chinese governor had destroyed himself and his citadel by gunpowder.

    THE REBELLION SUPPUESSED. 731

    During this and the following years the governor-general succeeded in reinstating the authority which had been in abeyance nearly a score of years. His army under two able generals advanced along the parallel roads north and south of the Tien Shan, punishing the rebels without mercy, while ” the Moham-niedaiis who submitted themselves were perm’.lfc<\ to revert to their peaceful avocations.” ‘ When upon the desert the troops were provisioned from Russian territory, but during the early years of the campaign it appears that the soldiers were made to till the ground as well as construct fortifications. The history of the advance of this ” agricultural army ” would, if thoroughly known, constitute one of the most remarkable military achievements in the annals of any modern country.^

    With the fall of Kashgar (December 17, 1877) the reconquest was practically completed, though Yarkand and the neighboring towns held out some months longer, at the end of which the chiefs of the Moslem movement had either fled to Ferghana or succumbed in the light. The Chinese now turned their attention to the occupation of Kuldja, and sent Chunghow in December, 1878, to St. Petersburg upon a mission relating to its restoration. The envoy needed, indeed, but to remind the Czar of Russian promises made in Peking in 1871 concerning the prompt retrocession of the occupied territory when China should have reasserted her authority in those regions; but neither European nor Oriental diplomats seemed to regard the city “held in trust for China by the Russian government” as in the least likely to return to the dominion of the Huangdi, while many were persuaded that Russia would resort to arras before surrendering one of the most prosperous of her possessions in order to keep a rash promise.^

    ‘ Peking Gazette.

    « The Spectator, April 13, 1878, Pall Mall Gazette, June, 1878, and London Times, November, 1878. Boiilger, Life of Yalvol) Bn/, Chaps. XII. -XIV.

    ^ For an excellent illustration of the prevailing sentiment on this question, even after Chunghow’s embassy, see Mr. D. C. Boulger in tVaner’s Magazine fcr August, 1680, p. 104.

    Chunghow—whose capacity had been in some degree tested in the Tientsin riot—was hardly the best choice for envoy even among the still ignorant officers at Peking, inasmuch as to the seemingly apparent defect of an unusually Boeotian temperament was added a profound ignorance of any European language, of modern methods of diplomacy, and of the topography of the territory in question. It is almost needless to add that such an enil)assy was ill-prepared to cope with the astute diplo niatists of an eager court, or that it speedily fell a prey to the designs upon it. A treaty of eighteen articles was signed at Livadia yielding a portion of the Kuldja district to China, Russia retaining, however, the fruitful valley of the Tekes river, all the more important strategic strongholds and passes in the Tian Shan, and the city of Yarkand ; China, moreover, to pay as indenmity five million rubles for the cost of occupying Kuldja.

    Other important concessions, such as a trade route from Hankow through Suhchau to Kuldja and Siberia, the opening to Russian caravans of thirty-six frontier stations, the modification of the Kashgarian frontier, the arming of Muscovite merchants, and the navigation of the Songari River, were apparently added to this compact according as the Russians increased their experience of the “gullability” of these remarkable ambassadors.

    Even officers of the Czar’s army, in referring afterward to this treaty, were prone to add to their remarks some measure of apology. When in January, 1880, Chunghow returned home with the unwise and humiliating document in his possession, he could not have felt wholly certain of a triumphant reception. Nevertheless it is not likely that the luckless ambassador contemplated being at once deprived by imperial edict of all his offices and turned over to a board for trial and punishment. Statesmen of both parties joined in denouncing him, Li Hongzhang and Tso alike presenting memorials to the same effect, while a flood of petitions more or less fierce poured upon the

    govei’ument from mandarins of all ranks. On the 2Sth the

    returned envoy was cashiered for having signed away territory

    and promised indemnity without special authorization, and in

    punisliment was sentenced to decapitation. The actoi’s in this

    movement, which upon the manifestation of such prompt and

    furious measures assumed the phase of an intrigue of the war

    party, were Tso and Prince Chung, who seized upon the popular

    wrath as an opportune moment for a master stroke against

    Prince Kung.

    NEGOTIATIONS RESPECTING THE CESSION OF KULDJA. 733

    With the appearance of danger such as this the party in power recoiled at once from its angry position, depreciated the highly bellicose tone of court officials, and accepted the good offices of the foreign ministers who j(»ine(l in protesting against the unworthy treatment of Chunghow and the monstrous barbarity of his sentence. Possibly the temperance (»f Russia’s attitude in demanding the uncoiuiitiunal pardon of ( liunghow before consenting to receive a second ambassador—the Marquis Tsang, minister to Enghmd, aheady appointed—materially aided in quieting the storm. Fortunately, tuo, amid the rumors of a resort to arms and manifest preparations of the palace discontents to force an issue, Colonel Gordon visited the capital, and in a communication to Governor Li pointed out the folly of attempting a foreign conflict and the peculiar dangers in overwhelming, by courting a certain defeat, the great benefits which nnist come to the Chinese army by its gradual reorganization

    upon modern methods. “Potentially,” said this unpalatable

    but honest critic, “you are perhaps invincible, but the outcome

    of this premature war will show you to be vulnerable at a thousand

    points.” Counsels such as these carried unusual weight

    as coming from a man whom all parties in China respected and

    admired ; there can be little doubt that it sensibly decreased

    the war feeling, and possibly proN^ented the country from rushing

    to certain disaster.

    Chunghow was accordingly reprieved, and in June of this

    year set free. The intelligence and experience of Tsang’

    proved an acceptable contrast to his ^predecessor’s unguarded

    conduct, and resulted in an agreement (May 15th) on the part of

    the Czar’s negotiators to recede nearly the whole of the contested

    district, excepting a narrow strip upon its western edge

    for purposes of colonization or retreat for those inhabitants of

    III who preferred to remain under Russian control.’ In return

    ‘ Upon his return to China the marquis published his diary, some portions of which have found their way into the China Review (Vol. XI., p. 135) and are extremely interesting as the outspoken opinion of an appreciative and enlightened Chinese gentleman.

    ‘-‘ Precisely the extent of this strip depends upon the exact definition of the boundary here under Taukwang. The present line is laid down in that portion of the new treaty quoted in Volume I., p. 218 ; the territory forms approximately a wedge whose a])ex is in the Ala Tau Mountains, and whose base, about three degrees south of this point, lies against the crest of the Tian Shan.

    It meets the old boundary at the Muzart (or Muz-daban) Pass. Since the treaty

    “for military expenses incurred by Ilnssia in lu>](Iing and pro

    teeting Ili on belialf of China since the year 1871, and in satisfaction

    of all claims by Russian merchants for losses previonsiy

    suffered by pillage within Chinese territory, and by Russians

    who have suffered outrage,” the Chinese agreed to pay nine

    million roubles. This appears to have been less repugnant to

    oriental diplomacy than live millions in acknowledgment of

    getting back their borrowed property. As for the other points,

    the treaty does not seem to have been greatly altered, save in

    the Songari River and other more vexatious clauses. This treaty

    was ratified August 19, 1881.

    From domestic wars and political complications, the influences

    of which have hai’dly as yet disappeared fi’om our morning

    newspapers, our attention must be turned to the yet sadder

    spectacle of famine and pestilence. The occasional notices of a

    great scarcity of food in Xorthwestern China which drifted into

    the news items of western countries may still remain within the

    memory of many; those, however, who live under the ascendancy

    of occidental institutions can with difficulty appreciate,from

    any mere description of this scourge, its immense influence as a

    factor in removing somewhat the suspicions of the ignorant and

    apathetic Chinese against their fellow-men in other lands. The

    sympathies and chai’ities of the Chi-istian world, as called forth

    by this terrible visitation, were more effectual in making acceptable

    the distasteful presence of foreigners within their cities

    than had been the miited influence of two wars and a halfcentury

    of trade, diplonuicy, and social intercourse.

    The Great Famine of 1878 was in some measure foretold

    over Sliansi and Shensi by the decreasinir rainfall of the four

    ])revious years. The peculiar nature of this loess-covered

    region, and its absolute dependence for fertility upon a sufficient

    supply of moisture, has been pointed out in another chapter

    of this woj-k. Here, then, and in Shantung the missionaries

    of all denomiiuitions were called upon to organize methods

    strenuous efforts have been made by the officers of both nationalities stationed

    tliere to entice the U.sbeck, Kirghis, and Diinganis of the region to settle per

    manently on their side of the boundary.

    THE GEEAT FAMINE OF 1878. 735

    of relief as early as the summer of 1877. By the opening of

    the following spring a central committee in Shanghai and their

    agents in Chifu and Tientsin—all Protestant and Roman Catholic

    missionaries—had put forth so great energy in their Avelldirected

    efforts as to gain the zealous co-operation of Li Iluugchang,

    governor-general of Cliihli, and active countenance of

    the rulers and gentry in otlier provinces. “At the beginning

    of their labors,” writes the secretary of the committee, ” the

    distributors were received with a degree of prejudice and suspicion

    which utterly frustrated any attempt to prosecute the

    work. They were supposed to have sinister objects in view,

    and not only was their charity refused, but they were even in

    innninent danger of their lives. It required the utmost carefulness

    on their part to carry on their operations with any degree

    of success. They were urged to act in a way that contemplated

    the speedy exhaustion of their funds and their evacuation of

    the pla-ce. So far as we can ascertain, however, the distributors

    conducted themselves in a most connnendable manner,

    and after a time at least bore dow^n the ill-will and aspersions

    of all classes, changing their sentiments and feelings of doubt

    and distrust into those of the deepest gratitude and respect, so

    that they are now regarded as the very saviours of the people.” ‘

    After the experience of some weeks in the destitute regions,

    it was found that only the strictest adherence to a business system

    of distribution could be attended with any mitigation of the

    evil. Tickets representing certain amounts of money were given

    to the houses of each community which appeared on the catalogues

    of needy families furnished by village elders. Food being

    plenty in the south, the means of transportation and storage

    during distribution constituted the chief labor of those concerned

    in this work. When brought to the starving settlements,

    grain was promptly doled out in exchange for the tickets, and

    to the lasting credit of the Chinese character it must here be noticed

    that not a single raid upon the provisions or resort to force

    in any way has been recorded of these famished multitudes.

    ‘ Rev. W. Muirliead, in Report of the China Famine Relief Fund, Shanghai, 1879, p. 4.

    That good-will, affection, an] gratitude should take the place

    of the old mistrust under these conditions was niOst natural.’

    Xevertheless the terrors of their experiences in this awful time

    were hardly lightened by this cheering aspect of the curse.

    Misery and desolation such as this overwhehned every other

    sentiment save that of compassion. The visitor was often met

    hy the solitary remnant of a large household, to hear from him

    a harrowing recital of suffering and death, fitted to shock the

    most callous of humanity. Again, he would come upon the

    corpse of one recently fallen in the vain effort to walk to a

    neighboring town, and about it a lazy pack of wolves squatting

    —gorged and stupid from the fulness of many ghastly meals.

    At other times a silent dwelling might be found giving shelter

    only to the cadaverous bodies of its former inmates ; or anon a

    ruined house would tell M’here the timbers had been plucked

    out and sold for a little bread. Of the last extreme of famine,

    caimibalism, which cropped out here and there, but which in

    most cases met with instant punishment when discovered, it is

    hardly necessary to add notice or description. The remarkable

    patience under suffering exhibited by the people made their

    relief compai’utively easy, though the despair which had rendered

    them insensible to excitement or violence often prevented their

    recuperation from the fever and plague which laid hold upon their

    weakened bodies even after plenty had returned to the land.

    In their report the connnittee at Shanghai acknowledge

    Tls. 204,560 as having passed through their hands, while about

    as much more may safely be said to have been otherwise expended

    by foreigners for the relief of the sufferers.” The

    Chinese government furnished food and supplies amounting to

    ‘ A notable exception to this universal sentiment of kindliness was exhibited

    among the officials and gentry of Kaifung, the capital of Honan, in which city

    foreigners were to the last forbidden to remain, or even to carry on their work in the environs.

    FOREIGlSr EFFOETS TOWARD ITS RELIEF. 737

    ‘•’ About $22,070 were subscribed in the United States—which does not include, however, the donation from the Pacific slope. An effort was made to Induce Congress to return on this occasion the surplus of the Chinese indemnity fund, amounting to nearly $()()(),()()(), but upon this the Committee on Foreign Affairs rcportiul adversely, alleging among other reasons that all the starving people would be dead before the machinery of both nations would admit of this money being exchanged for food I

    more than Tls. 2,000,000, while rich natives contributed very

    lai-gely in their own districts. Sixty-nine foreigners were personally

    engaged upon the work of (listributi(jn in the four

    afflicted provinces, of whom Messrs. Ilall, Hodge, Barradale,

    and AVhiting died in consequence of exposure and overwork.’

    Upon the mortality connected with this frightful visitation

    there exist hut the vaguest figures. ” The destruction as a

    whole is stated to be from nine and a half to thirteen millions,”

    observes the JA^mH^ alreiidy quoted, and its proofs in support

    of this statement are as trustworthy as any that can be compiled.

    Xo famine is recorded in the history of any land which equalled

    this in death-rate. The area at the base of the Tibetan and

    Mongolian highlands will always be subject to great vicissitudes

    of heat and moisture,’ and the future, like the past, cannot but

    suffer from these frightful droughts unless a careful attention

    to the climatic influence of trees and irrigation mitigate in some

    degree the dreadful comings of these plagues.

    The Chinese plenipotentiary in London, T\ woh Sung-tao, gave

    utterance to the sincere sentiments of his government in saying:

    The noble philanthropy wliich heard, In a far-distant country, the cry of

    suffering and hastened to its assistance, is too signal a recognition of the common

    brotherhood of humanity ever to be forgotten, and is all the more worthy

    to be remembered because it is not a passing response to a generous emotion,

    but a continued effort, persevered in until, in sending the welcome rain.

    Heaven gave the assuring promise of returning plenty, and the sign that the

    brotherly succor was no longer required. Coming from Englishmen residing

    in all parts of the world, this spontaneous act of generosity made a deep impression

    on the government and people of China, which cannot but have the

    effect of more closely cementing the friendly relations which now so happily

    exist between China and Great Britain. But the hands that gave also assumed

    the arduous duty of administering the relief ; and here I would not forget to

    offer my grateful thanks and condolence to the families of those, and they are

    not a few, who nobly fell in distributing the fund.’*

    Mr. Whiting was honored by the governor of Shansi with a public funeral

    in Taiyuen, the provincial oaiiital.

    » P. 7.

    ^ Mr. A. Hosi.i in the X 0. Br. E. A. P!. JoHvniil, Vol. XIII., 1878, has

    translated the native lists of more than eight hundred famines and droughts

    occurring in the Yangtsz’ basin and northward on the Plateau during a thousand

    years ending a.d. 1643.

    * Letter of October 14, 1878, to Lord Salisbury.

    One who has been acquainted with Chinese affairs for the last

    fifty years can better than younger persons appreciate from this

    letter the vast stride wliieh has been made by (^hina since the

    withdrawal of the East India Company’s factory in 1834. The

    Empire had then been closed for more than a century, and its

    inhal)itants liad been taught to believe that all mankind outside of

    its b()un(hiries were little better than i<!;norant savaijes. Their

    rulers had maintained that ” barbarians could only be ruled by

    misrule,” and in their honest efforts to keep them fi-om entering

    the gates of the Celestial Empire in order that the people might

    not become contaminated, had faithfully though ineffectually

    endeavored to fulfil the first duty of every government. We

    have seen how small was their success when dealing with the

    iniquitous opium traffic ; no amount of moral or ethical principle

    in the cause which he represented could make up to Connnissioner

    Lin for his ignorance and stiff-neckedness in pushing his

    injudicious methods of reforming this abuse. Had he succeeded

    as he and his imperial master had ])lamied, they would have

    sealed their country against the only possible remedies for those

    evils they were striving to remove—free intercourse, commercial,

    intellectual, and political, with their fellow-men.

    The story of Cliina’s rapid progress from semi-barbarism

    toward her appropriate position among nations is now fully

    known to any whose interests have directed their attention

    thither. It cannot be denied that the advance has been hampered

    by the mass of superstitions, assumptions, and weaknesses

    through which every such stride to reformation nnist push forward

    ; nor is it strange that interested foreigners from their vantage-

    ground of a more perfect civilization should at times bemoan

    the wearisome course and manifold errors of this regeneration.

    Nevertheless, liopeful signs abound on every side ; against a

    few errors may be balanced a multitude of genuine successes,

    and the fact that these latter have come about deliberately

    assures us that they are permanent. In the hands of statesmen

    as far-sighted and ])atriotic as those who now control the government,

    there is little cause to apprehend retrograde steps or a return

    to the exclusive policy of (yonnnissioners Lin and Yeh. As

    for the conservative spirit which yet characterizes the present

    THE CHINESE EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION. 739

    regime, in this will be found the safeguard against extravagant

    and premature adoption of western machines, institutions,

    nietliods, dress, and the thousand adjuncts of modern European

    life which, if too rapidly applied to an effete and backward

    civilization, push it rather into bankruptcy and overthrow than

    out into a new existence.

    Before closing these volumes, and as an illustration of these

    observations, it remains to notice the so-called Chinese Education

    Commission—a highly lauded project which is still fresh

    in the minds of many Americans. Soon after the Tientsin

    riot and Chunghow’s mission of apology, Yung Wing, a

    Chinese graduate of Yale College, proposed to Li Ilung-chang

    and others in authority a plan of utilizing certain surplus

    moneys remaining from the fund for military stores, to defray

    the expenses of educating a number of Chinese boys in the

    United States. The scheme found such favor with the governor-

    general and members of the Foreign Office, that early in

    the year 1872 thirty boys were selected by competitive examination

    at Shanghai, and took passage for San Francisco July

    12th, Yung Wing having preceded them to make the necessary

    arrangements. This gentleman’s acquaintance w^ith the

    social life and educational methods in IS^ew England was so

    complete as to enable him readily to place the students—usually

    in pairs—in comfortable households, where they might learn

    English and become initiated into the manner of life among

    western peoples as agreeably as possible.

    The commission established its headquarters in Hartford and

    easily disposed their boys in adjoining towns of Connecticut

    and Massachusetts, where numbers of families welcomed them

    with open arms. Prince Kung’s satisfaction upon learning of

    this friendly reception was expressed in a personal note of

    thanks to Mr. Low at Peking, while the fair prospects of the

    scheme now tended to hasten other parties of students to these

    shores until their number was swelled to one hundred and

    twenty.’ These lads proved themselves almost without excep-

    ‘ The original plan included the sending of one hundred and fifty boys, but the fund laid aside for the purpose was found to be insufficient to cover the cost of the full number.

    tion capable and active in tlie studies set before them, and a8

    their hold upon the language increased, began to outrank all

    but the brightest of their American classmates. As they advanced

    into the higher scientific schools or colleges, greater

    liberty was allowed them, each boy pursuing his inclination as

    to a special course or institution. With the appointment of

    Yung “Wing to the Chinese legation at Washington and the

    arrival of one Wu Tsz’-tang (who knew no English) as commissioner

    in his place at Hartford, the complexion of this enterprise

    seems to have changed. In the spring of 1881 a formal

    memorial, endorsed by Chin Lan-pin, the minister at Washington,

    was addressed to the home government, complaining of

    the course of study pursued by these youths as including Latin

    and Greek and other unnecessary subjects ; of the disrespectful

    behavior of the l)oys when brought before their chiefs ; of

    their deplorable luck of patriotism ; of their forgetting their

    mother tongue, and other sins of omission and commission.

    The memorial seems to have fallen in with the desires of those

    momentarily in power at Peking ; the commission and students

    were all recalled by the return mail, and arrived at Shanghai

    in the fall of the same year.

    Although this action may have been in some degree

    prompted by a spirit of conservatism and distrust, the leading

    motive of the Chinese government cannot be far to seek.

    Had these boys of a dozen years each received his fifteen years’

    instruction in our common-school, classical, and })r(>fessional

    courses, it is impossil)le to believe that the}’ would not at the

    end of this time have been more American than Chinese.

    Their speedy recall was a matter of regret to the many friends

    these interesting lads had made in New England, but from a

    truly Chinese stand-point this foreign popularity would become

    as the flesh-pots of Egypt to them after their return to

    the arid intellectual life in China—and the event in one or two

    instances appears to have proved the shrewdness of this surmise.

    However, this expei’iment can in no wise be considered

    a failure, even if we consider only the knowledge of English

    and elements of a western education obtained by each student; how considerable has been its success will be seen when the

    PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE OF CHINA. 741-

    young incii—now engaged by their government in telegraph

    posts, arsenals, schools, etc.—shall have achieved sufficient distinction

    in their vai-ious professions to prove their fitness for

    the pains bestowed upon them. The organization of scliools

    for other than Chinese methods of education is already begun

    in China—as, for example, tlie Tung-wan Kwan, under charge

    of Dr. Martin, at Peking—and from these a much more

    rational advance to their proper position in scientific knowledge

    may be expected, than by hazardous schemes of foreign

    tuition.

    The pages of this brief compendium of our present knowledge

    of the Chinese Empire were not written in the first place,

    nor have they been revised, with any intent to laud that people

    beyond their just deserts. What there is of weakness, vice,

    narrowness, bigotry, in the national character has been pointed

    out with great frankness, while their blindness and folly after

    the lessons of two warlike visitations from foreign nations

    have not passed unnoticed. The experiences of the last three

    decades will probably prove more momentous for the Chinese

    than those of any previous century in their history, and these

    have not come about without much bitterness and the surly

    traces of misunderstanding and misrepresentation. But the

    great fact must have become apparent, even to the cursory

    reader, that in the Chinese character are elements which in due

    time must lift her out of the terribly backward position into

    which she had fallen and raise her to a rank among the foremost

    of nations. There is a basis of encouragement when we

    keep in mind the literary institutions of tho country and their

    early attention to obtaining a corps of scientific men of their

    own nationality, as in the effort just mentioned.’

    ‘ The reserved force in the Chinese character was very strikingly brought

    out in a new-year’s call at Peking, which the writer remembers, in 1870.

    The topic came up as to how to diminish the expense of getting coal from the

    mines to the city (which up to that time was carried on camels and mules , so

    a.i to put it within the reach ol the poor people. I suggested a tram road

    as the best plan for the fifty miles distance from the mines, and involving

    trifling expense. After listening to the plan, Tan Ting-siang, one of the

    members of the Board of Revenue, and Prince Kung, together exclaimed,

    ” Tieh-lu lai liao! Tkh-la lai Uao!” (‘ Railroads are coming in time’}, Tke ex

    Another ground of hope—and tliese words are as pertinent

    today as when written thirty-five years ago—lies in the matterof-

    fact habits of the Chinese, tlieir want of enthusiasm and dislike

    of cliange, which are rather favorable than otherwise to

    their development as a great community. The presentation

    and reception of the highest truths and motives the human

    mind can realize always excites thought and action ; the chiefest

    fear must be that of going too fast in schemes of reform

    and correction, and demolishing the fabric before its elements

    are ready for reconstruction. The non-existence of caste, the

    weakness of a priesthood which cannot nerve its persecuting

    arm with the power of the State, the scanty influence religion

    has over the ])opular mind, the simplicity of ancestral worship,

    the absence of the allurements of gorgeous temples, splendid

    ritual, seductive music, gay processions, and above all, sanctified

    licentiousness, to uphold and render it enticing to depraved

    human nature, the popular origin of all government holidays,

    and lastly, the degree of industry, loyalty, and respect for life

    and property—these are characteristics which furnish some

    grounds for trusting that the regeneration of China will be accomplished,

    like the operation of leaven in meal, without shivering

    the vessel.

    istence of the treaty principle of ex-territoriality and its consequences is constantly

    before the Chinese high officers, though they appreciate as well the

    fact that their country is preparing and will be the better for such improve*

    ments.

    INDEX.

    ABACUS, or Sioanpan, principle of,

    ii. 60.

    Abeel, Rev. D., i. 134, 835, ii. 240 ; arrives

    in China, ii. 325, 327, 338, 348; memoir,

    ii. 368.

    Abel, Clarke, i. 363, ii. 458.

    Aboriculture, curiosities of, ii. 13.

    Aboriginal races, of China, i. 41 ; of Formosa,

    i. 137 ; in Hunan, i. 148.

    Abulgasi (History of the Tartars), i. 202-

    203.

    Abu Zaid, his work on China, ii. 168

    ;

    generally trustworthy, ii. 414, 425.

    Acupuncture, ii. 123.

    Adams, Hon. John Quincy, his mistaken

    notions of Chinese war, ii. 469.

    Agar-agar, a glue made from seaweed, ii.

    397.

    Agnosticism, Chinese, ii. 201.

    Agriculture, Temple of, Peking, i. 78 ; in

    loess fields, i. 302 ; Chinese works upon,

    i. 686 ; consideration of, ii. 1 ; utensils,

    ii. 3.

    Aksa, town and river of fli, i. 225 ; Yakub

    Bey captures, ii. 730.

    Alabaster’s Wheel ofthe Law, ii. 229.

    Alak. See Tien Siian.

    Alcock. Sir R. , ii. 637.

    Almanac, rectified by Jesuits, ii. 68, 298

    ;

    its importance, ii. 79.

    Altai, i.e., ‘Golden Mountains,’ or Kin

    Shan, i. 9.

    Altars, to Heaven, Agriculture, and Earth,

    Peking, i. 70-78 ; fashion of Romish, in

    China, ii. 31.-).

    Altchuku, or A-shi-ho, town in Kirin, i.

    197.

    Alum, found in Sz’chuen, i. 308 ; an article

    of export, ii. 392.

    Amber, brought to China, ii. 398.

    Amherst, Lord, rebuff of his embassy at

    Ynen-niing Yuen, i. 80 ; his mission to

    the capital, ii. 4.58.

    American, missionaries and the Hangchau

    settlement, ii. 351 ; treaty with China

    respecting toleration of Christianity, ii.

    360 ; trade with China, ii. 460 ; residents

    at Canton and Governor Lin, ii. 514

    1

    embassy to China concludes treaty oi

    VVaiighia, ii. .567 ; homicide of Chinese

    by, in Canton, ii. 568 ; Chinese favorably

    disposed toward, ii. 570 ; fleet destroy

    the Barrier forts, ii. 638 ; government

    asked to co-operate with England,

    ii. 642 ; minister. Sir. Reed, arrives in

    China, ii. 643 ; minister, Mr. Ward, cooperates

    in preventing coolie trade, ii.

    663 ; negotiations with the Chinese

    ofiicials at Taku forts, ii. 665 ; embassy

    escorted to Peking via Pehtang, ii. 669

    ;

    minister refuses to kotow and returns,

    ii. 670 ; sailor hung for murder at Shanghai,

    ii. 696 ; treaty with China negotiated

    )jy Burhngame, ii. 6US ; missionaries

    frightened away from TSugchau, iL 705.

    Amiot, Pere i. 598, ii. 96, 149, SOU.

    Ampere, J. J., i. 715.

    Amoy, climate of, i. 53 ; island, i. 129

    ;

    city, i. 183; its environs, i. 134; lexicon,

    the Shili-wrt Yin, i. 590; dialect,

    i. 611, 612,615; New Year usages at,

    i. 814; infanticide at, ii. 239; sentiment

    toward foreigners, ii. oS8 ; Protestant

    mission at, ii. 348; Chinese and Dutch

    take, ii. 438 ; East India Company trade

    at, ii, 445, 448 ; taken by the English,

    ii. .524, .528 ; not hostile to foreigners, ii.

    573 ; during Tai-ping Rebellion, ii. 629.

    Amulets and charms, to ward off evil, iL

    25.5-257.

    Amusements, at dinner, i. SOS ; out-door,

    i. 825 ; peaceful character of Chinese, i.

    829.

    Amur River (called also Sas^alien, Kwantung,

    Helung kiang), i. 189.

    Analects of Confucius, the Lun Yu, i.

    656.

    Ancestral worship, compatible with

    Buddhism, ii. 223; its antiquity, ii. 236;

    its forms, etc., ii. 250-2.55; allowed by

    Ricci, ii. 292, 299; and Christianity, ii.

    355.

    Anderson, Dr. John, i. 79, 181, 184, 337,

    ii. 719, 721, 732.

    (44 INDEX.

    Anglo-Chinese College <at Malacca, ii. 324.

    Animals, of China, quadiumanous, i. 814-

    317, carnivoious, SlV-^iriO, ruminants.

    320-323, dome stic, 323-320, rodents and

    smaller animals, 32G-o2′.>, cetaceous,

    329-330, four fabulous, 342-34r) ; in the

    Herbal, i. 374-377 ; used as iood, i. 772,

    77() ; pack, ii. 7 ; of the calendar and

    zodiac, ii. fi’.t, 71 ; sculptured, ii. 115.

    Ant-eater, or pangolin, Chinese ideas of,

    i. 328.

    Antelope, hwangyang, or clzcren, of Mongolia,

    i. 321.

    An-ting man, in Peking wall, 1. 63

    ;

    opened to the allied troops, ii. 680.

    Ants, studied by Chinese, i. 354.

    Apple, or haw. of Manchuria, i. 300.

    Arab, merchants introduce the name

    Chhia into Europe, i. 3; travellers in

    China, li. l’;S, 414, 421; name for opium,

    ii, 373.

    Arabdan, khan of the ^ongares, i. 233.

    Architecture, Chinese, compared with Indian,

    i. 72(i, domestic, ‘i28, military,

    758 ; its needs and limitations, ii. 11(1.

    Area of the Eighteen Provinces, i. 272,

    £70.

    Argali, mountain sheep, in China, i. 321.

    Arithiuctic, Chinese knowledge of, ii. GO.

    Arms used in warfare, ii. 88.

    Army of China, pay of, i. 2′.)3 ; laws concerning,

    i. 388 ; memorial as to its condition

    in 1838, i. 494 ; examination

    system in, i. 560 ; in theory and practice,

    ii. SS-93 ; its condition on outbreak

    of Tai-ping Rebellion, ii. 590.

    Arnold’s Light of AfIu, ii. 220.

    Arrow, case of the lorcha, ii. 359,

    035-038.

    Art, Chinese, in book illustrations, i. 080 ;

    in aboriculture, ii. 13 ; in bronze, ii. 31 ;

    porcelain decorations, ii. 25 ; carving,

    etc., li. 59 ; illustrative, iL 105-111

    ;

    symbolic, ii. Ill, 112; caricatures, ii.

    115 ; export of objects of, ii. 393 ; example

    of, ii. 080, note.

    Assam, tea native of, iL 51.

    Ass, wild, of the steppes, i. 212, 323.

    Assembly balls, or club-houses, in Chinese

    cities,!. 70, 122,107,739.

    Astrology and divination, ii. 09, 74.

    Astronomy, Chinese study of, ii, 68, 72

    romance of, ii, 70 ; and Jesuits, ii. 298.

    Atkinson, T, W., i. 331.

    Atlas of China, the Tien Chii, or ‘Heaven’s

    Pillar Mountains,’ i. 13.

    Auber, Peter, on foreign trade with

    China, ii. 4.50. 45;).

    Audience, of officials before Emperor of

    China, i. 801 ; of the Dutch ambassadors

    Goyer and Keyzer,. ii. 435 ; of

    Lord Macartney, ii. 4.55 ; question not

    raised by Gushing, ii. 570 ; question discussed

    by Ward’s embassy at Peking,

    ii. 009 ; Rwinhoe’s descriptin -^f an, at

    Yuen-ming Yuen, ii. 083; _, .uted to

    all foreign ministers, ii. 714.

    Azaleas about Ningpo, i. 370.

    Azure Sea (see Koko-nor), i. 210.

    BABER, E. C, i. 181 ; sent on Gro*.

    venor mission, ii. 723, 724.

    Baldwin, C. C, i. 015.

    Balfour, F. H., li. 212.

    Ball, Samuel, ii. .5.5, 373.

    Ballads, specimens of Chinese, i. 705-714.

    Balls, hollow, how carved, ii. 59.

    Bamboo, beauty and uses of, i. 3.58-.’;00;

    articles exported, ii. 393.

    Bamboo books, the, i. 681 ; their authenticity,

    ii. 149, 15.5.

    Banditti numerous in China, i. 480,

    495, 497.

    Banks and banking system in China,

    ii. 85.

    Baptism, of moribund infants by Catholics,

    ii. 310; discussion among missionaries

    concerning Mord for, ii. 363.

    Baptist Missionary Society in Hong Kong,

    ii. 347.

    Barbers’ establishments in China, i. 7(50;

    their traitment of tlie eye.s, ii. 129.

    Barkul (or Chinsi fu), town and lake of

    Kansuh, i. 214.

    Barkut, or golden eagle, hunting with,

    i. 331.

    Barrier forts, near Canton, destroyed by

    Americans, li. 038.

    Barrow, J., i. 22, 105, 117, 175, 287, 290,

    741, 7.55, 772; ii. 5, 9.5, 97, 104, 240, 455.

    Batang, in Sz’chuen, i. 20.

    Bats, Chinese, i. 316 ; symbol of happiness,

    ii. Ill

    .

    Bayan-kara in the Kwanlun system, i. 11,

    211.

    Bazin, i. 84.5, 714, ii. 213, 217.

    Beal, Samuel, ii. 229.

    Bcal, T., aviary of, at Macao, i. 341.

    Bears, Chinese, i. 317.

    Beggars, on the Tai-shan, i. 91 ; in Canton,

    i. 730 ; how controlled, i. 742 ; condition

    of, i. 835 ; and Buddhist priests,

    ii. 220; alms for, ii. 203.

    Bell, great, of Peking, i. 74 ; temple of, at

    Puking, i. 79.

    Bell, John, his residence at Peking,

    ii. 442.

    Belles-lettres, character and variety of

    Chinese, i. 074.

    Bellew, Dr. II. W., i. 234, 227.

    Bells, rich in tone, ii, 20.

    Belur-tag, Tartash ling, Tstmg ling,

    ‘ Onion ‘ or ‘ Blue Mountains,’ i. 9.

    Benevolent institutions, Chinese, ii. 208-

    20() ; foreign : Morrison’s and Parker’s

    hospitals, ii. 333 ; Society for Diffusion

    of Useful Knowledge, ii. 340 ; Morrison

    Education Society, ii. 341.

    INDEX. 745

    Bentham, Gro., i. 9,<}C>, 355.

    lietel-nut, a masticatory, how used, ii.397.

    Jittiothment, cereniotiies relative to, i.

    785 ; ‘spilling the tea,’ i. T’Jo ; evils attending

    earl J’, i. 7135.

    Bible, translated by Nestorians, ii. 280 ;

    Montecorvino ordered to illustrate the,

    ii. 288 ; withheld from Chinese by

    Ricci, ii. 292 ; Ur. Morrison’s translation,

    ii. lil’.l, o20; revi.sion, ii. SOo, o04 ;

    contains the earliest notice of China,

    ii. 408 ; revision and J. R. Morrison,

    ii. 5(i0.

    Biohe-de-mer, or sea-slug, how eaten,

    i. 780 ; imported, ii. ;)U7.

    Bickmore, A. S., i. 29(>.

    Biographies, numerous in Chinese literature,

    i. (581.

    Biot, Edouard, i. 259, 263, 271, 413, 421,

    482, 521, 543, 554, 559, 590, G3S, 644,

    081, ii. 34. 87, 203.

    Birds, of Tibet, I 243 ; of China, i. 330-

    341 ; under one radical, i. 374.

    Birds’-nest soup, its preparation, i. 780

    ;

    and sharks’ fins imported, ii. 397.

    Birthday fete at Ningpo, i. 814.

    Black-haired race. Li Alin, common term

    for Chinese, i. 5.

    Blacksmith, his shop and tools, ii. 57.

    Blakiston, T. W., i. 21-22, 145, 30.^.

    Blodget, Dr. H., ii. 304.

    Blood of animals used for food, medicines,

    etc., i. 778.

    Boards, Six, in government, i. 415 ; Civil

    Office, i. 421 ; Revenue, i. 422 ; Rites,

    1. 423; War, i. 424 ; Punishments, i. 426;

    Works, i. 427 ; iiresidents of, i. 436

    ;

    subordinate offices in the, i. 559.

    Boats, bridge of, at Ningpo, i. 121 ; variety

    and number of, in China, i. 749-753 ;

    decorated at New Year, 1. 813 ; and internal

    navigation of China, ii. 390.

    Bogue, or Bocca Tigris, near Canton, i.

    100; negotiations v/ith Kishen at, ii.

    517 ; forts taken, ii. 520 ; destroyed

    again, ii. .528 ; supplementary treaty

    signed at, ii. .501 ; Governor Davis retakes

    the forts, li. .573.

    Bonham, Governor, visits the Tai-pings

    at Nanking, ii. .577; advised by gentrv

    of Canton not to enter the city, ii.

    025.

    Bwk of Rites {Li Ki), i. 424, 520, 643-

    047, 805, ii. 33.

    Book of Odes {Shi King), i. 636-643, ii.

    236, 321.

    Book of Records {Shu Kijig), i. 633-636,

    808, ii. 32, 30, 08, 146 ff., 169, 372.

    Book of Chanfies ( Yih Kiiir/), i. 027-033.

    Books, used in schools, i. .520-.541, .574 ;

    manufacture and price of, i. 600-0( 2

    burned by Tsin. B.C. 200, ii. 101 ; Nestorian,

    destroyed, ii. 286 ; circulated in

    the opium traffic, ii. 379 ; destroyed at

    Canton, ii. 026 ; by Protestants, ii. 328»

    331, 340.

    Boone, W. J., ii..^38, 348.

    Bore, or Eagre, of the Tsientang, i. 114,

    ii. 415.

    Borget, A., i. 128, 320, 771.

    Bostang-nor, or Lake Bagarash, i. 24,

    223, 224.

    Botany, of China, i. b’SS-SIO ; of the

    /’lilt tsito, i. 372-374.

    Boulgcr, D. C, i. 237, ii. 137; notice of

    Turkestan, ii. ‘i28 ; of Mohammedan

    revolt, ii. 730, 731.

    Boundaries, of the Chinese Empire, i. 6 ;

    of tlu! Eighteen Provinces, i. 8 ; made

    under Kienlung. i. .59; of 111, i. 215 ;

    of Tibet, i. 237 ; disputes concerning

    the Amur, ii. 441 ; of the Empire near

    Kuldja, ii. 733.

    Bowring, Sir John, i. 459 ; his relations

    with Yeh, ii. 033 ; his character, ii.

    634; action in the Arrow case, ii.

    635 ; opens hostilities with China, ii.

    ‘ 637 ; his conduct discussed in Parliament,

    ii. 041.

    Braam, Andreas van, Dutch ambassador

    to Kienlung, i. 324, ii. 489.

    Bremer, Sir Gordon, attacks Tinghai

    with the fleet, ii. 514; takes the Bogue

    forts, ii. 517, 520 ; sails for Calcutta,

    ii. 521.

    Breton, i. 314, 771.

    Bretschneider, Dr. E., i 84, 345, 651,

    ii. 413.

    Bribes, nature and extent of, among officials,

    i. 474 ; at examinations, i. 569.

    Bricks, Chinese, their shapes and uses,

    i. 728.

    Bridges, construction and variety of, in

    China, i. 7.53-756.

    Bridgman, Dr. E. C, i. .530, 537. ii. 277;

    arrives in China, ii. 327, 333, 335,

    342, 346.

    Bridgman, J. G., i. 43, 209, 316.

    Bronze, beauty and excellence of, ii. 20.

    Bros.set, jeniic, i. 643.

    Brown, Rev. S. R., ii. 342, .344.

    Bruce, Sir Frederick A., and reorganization

    of Ever-Victoiious force, ii. 611 ;

    commendation of (Gordon’s conduct,

    ii. 619 ; sent by Elgin to commissioners

    at Tientsin, ii. 655 ; repairs to Taku

    with the allies, ii. 064, 065, 071, 672 ;

    his good offices in Lay-Oslxime flotilla

    affair, ii. 093, 694 ; his influence in

    China, ii. (i99.

    Buddha, temple and statue of, in Peking,

    i. 71 ; near Si-ngan, i. 151 ; his life,

    ii. 218 ; Chinese expedition to buy

    relics of, ii. 414.

    Buddhism, of the Mougol.s, i. 305,

    ii. 234 ; in Khoten, i. 231 ; the lion and,

    i. 317; ridiculed in the ‘Sacred Commands,’!.

    689; and pagodas in China,

    746 INDEX.

    i. 744; introduced a.b. 05, under

    Ming ti, ii. 163 ; in fourtli century A. d.,

    ii. 165; and the Emperor Wu ti, ii.

    166 ; its growth in China, ii. 217-229

    and Koniaiiism compared, ii. 281,

    315; bibliography, ii. 22′.t, 232, 234;

    and J’uii(/-s/iui, ii. 246.

    Buddhist, name for China, Chin-tan, i 3,

    5; Olympus, i. 12; temples in

    Peking, i. 73-79 ; manufactories at

    Dolon-nor, i. 87; temples in Hangchau,

    i. lis ; on Puto Island, i. 124; at

    Canton, i. I(i4-1()() ; books translateil into

    Mongolian, i. 206 ; temples at Kuldja,

    i. 218; at H’lassa, i. 245; priests

    and snakes, i. 346 ; images in clamshells,

    i. 350 ; c7iaA’*v<»’ar^^i audCliinese

    hwamjt’i^ i. 395 ; arrangement of Chinese

    characters, i. 589 ; tractatG, i. 708 ;

    chanting, ii. 96 ; pilgrims between

    India and China, ii. 413 ; notions of cosmogony,

    ii. 139 ; charm cut in Kiiyung

    kwan gateway, ii. 176; missionaries

    in China, ii. 189 ; priest as rain-maker,

    ii. 203 ; priests oppose Nestorians, ii.

    280, 28(5.

    Buffalo {^hui ni/i), used more than the

    ox. i. 274, 320 ; in rice-fields, ii. 3

    ;

    worshipped, ii. 14.

    Bukur, a town of 111, i. 225.

    Bunge, Alex, von, i. 296, 355.

    Ikirdon, Bishop J., ii. 364.

    Burgevine, succeeds Ward in command

    of the Ever-Victorious force, ii. 609;

    goes over to Tai-pings, ii. 613 ; his proposal

    to (Jordoii, ii. 614.

    Burial, of lamas in Tibet, i. 250 ; places

    in china, i. 275 ; ceremonies attending,

    ii. 243-2.55 ; ceremonies and Christians,

    ii. 3] 3.

    Burkhan-buddha in the Kwanlun system,

    i. 11, 211.

    liiirlingame, Hon. Anson, ii. ()95 ; enters

    upon Ills mission to foreign powers, ii.

    696 ; his death, ii. 698 ; influence in

    China, ii. 699.

    Bushell, Dr. S. W., i. 88, ii. 160, 174.

    (CABINET, or Imperial Chancery, i.

    ; 415-417.

    Callery, J. M., i. 589, 643, 644, 672, 627.

    Cambaluc (Peking), i. 61, 63, 6.5.

    Camellia, a favorite flower, i. 367; akin

    to tea, ii. 40.

    Camels, wild, of Lob-nor, i. 223 ; usefulness

    of, i. 325 ; hair rugs, ii. 39.

    Camphor on Formosa, i. 140; its preparation,

    ii. 55.

    Canals (se<! (Irand Canal, i. 31), i. 37.

    Candida, a Roman Catholic convert,

    establishes hospitals, ii. 265; baptized,

    ii. 292 ; her good works, ii. 294.

    Cangue {Icia), its use as a punishment, i.

    509.

    Canfu (or Kanpu), i. 127, ii. 414 ; Abu

    Zaid concerning, ii. 415.

    Cannon, imitating English, found, ii. 62 ;

    cast b}’ Jesuit missionaries, ii. 298;

    found at Tinghai, ii. 525 ; at Shanghai,

    ii. .536 ; at Barrier forts, ii. 638.

    Canton, climate of, i. 53 ; rainfall, i. 56 ;

    description, i. 160-169 ; environs, i.

    169-170 ; granaries in, i. 295 ; the tankia,

    i. 412, 751 ; location of magistrates

    in, i. 445 ; Gov. Chu’s departure

    from, i. 462 ;

    ‘ Free Discussion Hall

    at, i. 488 ; executions at, in 18.54, i. 513 ;

    prisons, i. 514 ; examinations, i. 550

    ;

    words in dialect, i. 611, 614; shops,

    i. 736; street scenes, i. 740; fire control

    in, i. 743 ; the river craft of, i. 749 ;

    dog-mear, restaurants, i. 778 ; at New

    Year, i.813; at Feast of Lanterns, 1.819 ;

    porcelain painting, ii. 26 ; a cotton

    factory experiment at, ii. 63 ; taken by

    Manchus in 1650, ii. 179; the prefect

    and governor of, pray for rain, ii. 203-

    205 ; infanticide rare in, ii. 239,

    242 ; disposal of the dead at, ii 254 ;

    worship at street shrines, ii. 263 ; Moslems

    in, ii. 268; excitement in, about

    Portuguese, ii. 292 ; Morrison arrives in,

    ii. 318; dies there, ii. 327 ; unpromising

    field for missionarit’s, ii. 34() ; Marcus

    Aurelius’s eiiiliassy enters, ii. 410 ; the

    East India (“onipany established at, ii.

    446 ; homicides among foreigners in, ii.

    451; Lord Napier at, ii. 467-473; foreigners

    detained Ijy Lin at, ii. 498 ; Elliot

    leaves, ii. 503 ; fortified, ii. 513, 521 ;

    Elliot accepts a ransom for, ii. 523 ; dislike

    of foreigners at close of war, ii. 555 ;

    Kiyiiig sent to. ii. 557 ; troubles at, with

    foreigners, ii. .5(i8

    ; question of admittance

    to the city, ii. 573; lawlessness

    at, ii. 580 ; sentiment in. ii. 625 ; rebels

    about, ii. 630 ; their wholesale execution,

    ii. 632 ; Admiral Seymour enters,

    ii. 638 ; French legation withdraws

    from, ii. 639 ; taken by Franco-English

    forces, ii. 644 ; influence of Elgin’s tact

    at, ii. 647, 661 ; coolies with British

    at Taku, ii. 674 ; French missionary

    aggressions at, ii. 709.

    Cantor, Dr. T. E., i. 350, 351.

    Caps, various official, i. 414.

    Cards, visiting, i. 802.

    Caricature in Chinese art, ii. 11.5.

    Carving, delicacy of Chinese, ii. 59 ; exj)

    ort of, ii. :!94 ; horn and ivory, ii. 400.

    Cassia, and cinnamon, ii. .55 ; and cassia

    oil as exports, ii. 392 ; the inalaOatliriDii

    of the Periplus, ii. 412.

    Catalogue, Imperial, i. 626; of ancient

    Chinese books recovered, ii. 149.

    Cathay, a modern Persian name for

    China, i. 4 ; its signification in the Middle

    Ages, ii. 408.

    INDEX. 747

    Cats (kia-li), in China, i. 318 ; eaten, 1.

    777.

    Celestial Empire, derived from 2^ie7i

    C/iiix, ‘Heavenly Dynasty.’ i. 5.

    Celestial Mountains. .See Tien Shan.

    Censorate, its duties and influence, i. 430-

    483.

    Censors, report.s from, i. 4G4, 480, .5(]().

    Censuses of China, i. 2.58-2(54 ; considered

    and compared, i. 2U5-272 ; method of

    taking, i. 2S()-282 ; probable accuracy,

    i. 283-288.

    ‘Century of Surnames ‘ {Pi/i Kia Sing),

    a school-book, i. S^’IO.

    Ceremonies, importance of, in government,

    i. 424 ; (jourt of, i. 43.5 ; the iSiao Ilioh

    upon, i. .540 ; in broader sense mean /t,

    i. G45 ; marriage, i. 787-701 ; of obeisance

    at court, i. 801 ; funeral, ii. 243-

    250.

    Ceylon, Yungloh’s expedition against, ii.

    414.

    Chahar. See Tsakhar, i. 87.

    Chalmers, John, ii. 72, 207, 211.

    Chang-an, in Shensi. See Si-ngan.

    Changchau, in Puhkien, i. 13.5-13G ; bridge

    at, i. 7.55 ; infanticide in, ii. 240

    ;

    taken by Tai-pings, ii. 605.

    Chang-peh Shan, ‘ Long White Mountains,’

    their position, i. 10 ; called Kolmin-

    shanguin alin by Manchus, i. 13,

    188.

    Changsha, capital of Hunan, i. 147

    stormed by Tai-pings, ii. 595.

    Chapu, i. I2(i, ii. 414; captured by the

    British, ii. .533.

    Characters, Chinese, for bee, ant, etc. , i.

    354 ; botanical, i. 372 ; zoological, i.

    874; method of memorizing, at school,

    i. 5-11 ; origin of, i. 580; six classes, i.

    583 ; their number, i. 580 ; classification,

    i. .590-.508.

    Chan, ‘department’ or ‘district,’ term

    explained, i. .58; prefect of, i. 441.

    Chan dynasty, term ‘ Middle Kingdom ‘

    dates from, i. 4 ; and the Kvi-oh-tsz’

    Kien, i. .543 ; King Wan of the, i. 020;

    Duke, i.C37, 643, 808, ii. 157-1(50 ; After

    Chan, ii. 172.

    Chau hu, ‘Nest Lake,’ in Nganhwui, i.

    109.

    Chau-ll, or ‘ Ritual of Chau,’ i. 483; its

    character, i. (543.

    Chau-sm, Emperor of the Shang, ii. 1.56.

    Chehkiang province, climate of, i. 55 •,

    position and water ways, i. 114; trees

    and productions, i. 11.5; the mulberry

    in, ii. 11; silk, ii.34 ; missions in, ii. .)51.

    Chess, the Chinese games of, i. 827-829.

    Chih-li, ‘ Direct rule,’ term explained,

    i. 58.

    Chihli province, position, i. 60; lakes

    and rivers of, i. 88 ; productions, i. 89.

    Children, course of study for, i. 521-541 ;

    how regarded in ancient time.s, i. 640;

    ari’angement of their hair, i. 765

    ;

    names, i. 797 ; how sj)oken of, i. 804 ;

    infanticide, ii. 239ff.; foundling hospitals

    for, ii. 264 ; baptism of, by Catholics,

    ii. 310 ; in the Tientsin Romanist

    orphan asylum, ii. 700.

    Chifu, in Shantung, i. 90, 9.3 ; gold near,

    i. 311 ; French at, ii. 6’i2 ; convention,

    ii. 724.

    Chin dynasty, its trade and intercourse,

    ii. 166.

    Vhi)\ sub-district or department, term

    explained, i. .59.

    Chin Hwa-ching, Chinese general, at

    Wusung, ii. 534 ; his bravery, ii. .53.5.

    China, origin of name uncertain, probably

    from Tuin, i. 2, ii. 161 ; name

    introduced into Europe by Arab traders,

    i. 3 ; native names of, i. 4 ; Buddhist

    and Mohammedan terms for, i. 5 ;

    dimensions of the Empire, i. 5 ; of the

    Eighteen Provinces, i. 8 ; boundaries,

    i. 6 ; its three grand divisions, i. 7 ;

    its mountain systems, i. 9 ; deserts, i.

    15-17; rivers, i. 18; lakes, i. 23 ; coast,

    i. 25; Great Wall of, i. 29; Grand

    Canal, i, 31 ; roads, i. 37; general aspect,

    i. 40 ; aboriginal races of, i. 42 ;

    climate on coast of, compared with

    America, i. .55 ; colonies, i. 185-257

    ;

    population, i. 264; science in, i. 297,

    377; education in, i. .521 ft’.; popular

    ideas concerning, i. 724 ; methods of

    cultivation in, ii. 7 ; its early history

    not without foundation, ii. 135; Christianity

    in, ii. 275 ; surve}^ of, by the

    Jesuits, ii. 308 ; prospects of Christian

    missions in, ii. 354 ; ancient and modern

    commerce of, ii. 372. 390 ft’. ; earliest

    notices of, ii. 408 ; general condition of,

    after first war, ii. .573 ; forcibly opened,

    ii. 656 ; condition in 1865, ii. 6′.)3 ; hopeful

    prospects for the country, ii. 738,

    743.

    Chinchew, or Tsiuenchau, the ancient

    Zayton, i. 129, 136; bridge at, i. 755;

    Portuguese traders at, ii. 428.

    Chin-chin, origin of the word, i. 805.

    Chinese, race types, i. 41 ; women, 1. 42

    ;

    industry and civilization of, i. 46 ; works

    on geography, i. 49 ; people of Shantung,

    i. 93; policy in I’ll, i. 314 ft’.;

    Herbal, i. 370-377 ; political education

    of, i. 384; divisions of society, i. 411;

    advancement aft’ected by their language,

    i. 579 ; philosophy mixed with divination,

    i. 629, 632, ii. 74 ; care of their

    early records, i. 651 ; their notions of

    foreign countries, i. 725 ; popular ideas

    respecting their food, i. 777 ; their social

    customs, i. 782 ; regulations regarding

    marriage, i. 792; names, how written,

    i. 798 ; ceremony and etiquette, i.

    748 IXDEX.

    800 ; a temperate people, i. 808 ; commendable

    traits of the, i. H’d’d ; gardeners

    rather than farmers, ii. o ; societj’,

    industry of, ii. C3 ; their tendency to

    co-operate, ii. 88 ; chronology and cosmogony,

    ii. 13G-144; their origin, it

    144 ; adopt the queue, ii. 17′.) ; causes

    of their remarkable duration, ii. 188 ft”.;

    influence of ancestral worship on, ii.

    ‘2o7 ft”. ; benevolence, ii. SG:! fT. ; Christian

    missions among the, ii. 27.^ ; character

    of, emigrants in the Archipelago, ii.

    3’2:^ ; future influence of newspapers

    among, ii. o41 ; generally irreligious, ii.

    355 ; tluir early isolation and suspicion,

    iL 40t) ; subse<iuent estimate of foreigners

    influenced by early Portuguese traders,

    ii. 4:27 ; maltreated by Spaniards in

    Manila, ii . 432 ; terms for ‘ foreigner,

    ii. 461 ; view of first war with England,

    iL 508 ; national confidence during Taiping

    Rebellion, ii. 604, 625 ; foreigners’

    abuse of, ii. 706 ; character as exhibited

    during the great famine, ii. 735,

    736 ; Education Commission to the

    United States, iL 7’39, 740.

    Chinese Rcj)ository, its origin and object,

    ii. 332 ; on first war with England, ii.

    .550.

    Chinhai, in Chehkiang, L 123 ; capture of,

    ii. 520.

    Ching-hwang miao, of Peking, i. 69 ; in

    Canton, i. 165 ; in Shanghai, i. 107, ii.

    202, 535.

    Chingtih. See Jeh-ho, L 88.

    Chingtu, in Sz’chuen, L 149, 156-157.

    Chinkiang, in Kiangsu, i. 104 ; Nestorians

    in, ii. 285 ; capture by British, ii.

    .540; by Tai-pings, ii. 590; recaptured

    by rebels, ii . 605.

    Cholera and small-pox common, ii. 132.

    Chop (//'(“), meaning of the term, i. 800 ;

    in tea trade, ii. 48.

    Chop-sticks (Av/vji tsz’), how used, L 807.

    Christianity, and the Sabbath in China,

    i. 810; its introduction into China l)y

    Nestorian.s, ii. 275 ; l)y Roman (‘atholics,

    ii. 287 ; confounded with Triad

    Sect, iL 312 ; Protestants commence

    their labors, ii. 318 ; prospects for toleration

    in China, ii. 354 ; jjreached in

    Formosa by the Dutch, ii. 434 ; Hung

    Siu-tsuen accepts, ii. 58(i ; he studies at

    Canton, ii. 588 ; absence of its principles

    in Tai-ping movement, ii. 600- Lord

    Elgin’s reply to missionaries concerning,

    ii. 649 ; and missions in China,

    problem discussed by the officials, ii.

    707.

    Chronology, Chinese, ii. 135 ; its claims

    to belief, ii. 143.

    Chu, (Jovernor, valedictory ode of, i. 462.

    Chu Hi, commentator of Confucius, his

    home in Kiangsi.i. 113 ; his Siau IHolt^

    i. .540 ; commentaries of, i. 652, 654,

    677 ; his philosophy, i. 683 ; on cosmogony,

    ii. 141; on Tablet of Yu, iL

    150, 174, 200.

    Chukiang. See Pearl River, L 22, 159,

    etc.

    Chung-ho tien, ‘ Hall of Central Peace,’

    Palace at Peking, i. 68.

    Chunghow, escorts American embassy to

    Peking, ii. 668 ; in the Tientsin riot, ii.

    702, 703 ; sent to France on a mission

    of apology, ii. 7C.5 ; abused by the

    foreign press, ii. 706 ; sent to Russia,

    ii. 731 ; jjunishmcnt for negotiating

    treaty of Livadia, ii. 732.

    Chungking, in S/.’cliueii, L 155, 158.

    Vhuriij Kiuoh, or ‘ Middle Kingdom,’ name

    for China since B.C. 1150, i. 4, 98.

    Chusan Archipelago, i. 123-126; British

    fleet arrives at, ii. 515 ; restored, ii. 580.

    Chun 2’xiu, or ‘ Spring and Autumn Record,’

    i. 647-651, 663.

    Chu Tsun, a censor, i. 432.

    Cibot, Pere, i. 537, iL 14.

    Cicadas, tricks with, i. 3.52.

    Cities in China, aspect of, i. 40 ; arrangement

    of streets in, i. 738 ; their dull

    appearance, i. 746.

    Civilization, of the Chinese, L 46, 380-

    383 ; the wife in, i. 792.

    Club-houses, in Peking, i. 76 ; Ningpo, i.

    122; Canton, i. 167, 739.

    Clans, in south China, i. 482 ; their customs,

    i. 484 ; secret societies, i. 492 ; in

    the Archipelago, ii. 323.

    Classics, or Chinese canonical books,

    characters in, i. 589 ; the minor, as

    school-books, i. 526-541 ; price of the

    nine, i. 602 ; the five cliief, described, i.

    627-651 •, the ‘Four Books,’ or minor,

    L 652-672 ; Hall of the, i. 74, 730.

    Clientclage in Chinese official ranks, i. 461.

    Climate, of Eighteen Provinces, i. 50 ; of

    Mongolia, i. 201 ; of lli, L 223 ; of Tibet,

    i. 241.

    Cloisonni’, its manufacture, ii. 60.

    Coal, in Chilili, i. 89 ; in Shantung, i. 93 ;

    in Shansi, i. 94-95 ; in Formosa, i. 139;

    in Hunan, i. 147; Kwangtung, i. 174;

    Yunnan, i. 184 ; modeo.f working, i. 305.

    Coast, length of Chinese, i. 7 ; granitic

    mountains of, i. 14; character of, i.

    26 ; climate of, i. 55 ; trade along the,

    ii. 389.

    Cobblers, itinerant, ii. 39.

    Cobdo province, i. 208 ; Tourgouths in,

    i. 220.

    Coffin, C. C, i. 781.

    Coffins, stored in temples, i. 275 ; form

    and value of, ii. 244 ; in larariums, ii.

    2.54.

    Cole, R., i. 604, ii. 325, 350.

    Colledge, Dr. T. R., his hospital at Ma.

    cao, ii. 333, 335.

    INDEX. (49

    Colleges, in Canton, i. 542, 545 ; Anglo-

    Chinese, at Malacca, ii. 324.

    Collie Kev. David, i. 054, ii. o24, 368.

    Colonial Office, Peking, i. 72, 426.

    Colonial Possessions oi Cliina, i. 7 ; genoral

    table of, i. KSi» ; population, i. 284 ;

    governed by the Li Fan Yuen, i. 428.

    Commerce, Chinese, ii. 373^05. See also

    nnder Trade

    Concessions, or foreign settlements at

    trade i)orts, ii. 020.

    Concubines, their position in the household,

    i. 791.

    Confucius, worship of, in ‘ Hall of Intense

    Thought,’ Peking, i. (>’.); temple to, at

    Peking, i. 73. ii. 15!) ; l)irthplace, i.

    90; ‘ bird of,’ the pjacock, i. 337 ; influence

    of, on permanence of Chinese institutions,

    i. 3SL ; family of, ennobled,

    i. 387, 406. 52;), 525 ; and Hiang Toll, i.

    534, 530, 538, (;3t), 637 ; and the Li Ki, i.

    644 ; his Ckiui Tsiii, i. 047 ; Ana ects of,

    i. 6.5() ; his life, i. 058 ; character of his

    philosophy, i. 003 ; worship of, i. 004 ;

    influence in government j)olity, ii. 92;

    on music, ii. 94 ; and early emperors, ii.

    146 ; writings burned, ii. 101 ; worshipped,

    ii. 195 ; on religion, ii. 199 ; tsmples

    to, ii. 203 ; as an example, ii. 206 ; his

    meeting with Lau-tsz’, ii. 212, 218, 237.

    Contrarieties in Chinese and Western

    usages, i. 829-833.

    Cooking among the Chinese, i. 781.

    Cool.e trade, and Kwangting rebellion, ii.

    631 ; its atrocities, and efforts toward its

    suppression, li. 0tj2 ; labor employed by

    the British at Taku, ii. 084 ; convention

    signed respecting, ii. 098 ; is finally

    abolislied, ii. 715.

    Cooper, T. T., i. 43, ii. 719.

    Copper, m Yunnan, i. 184 ; uses and localities

    of, i. 311 ; manufacture, ii. 19.

    Cordier, Henri, i. 034, 781, ii. 318, 024.

    Corea. frontier of, i. 190 ; trade at Ki-iu

    wan fair, i. 194 ; Chinese attempts to

    conquer, ii. 92 ; conquest of, by the

    Tang, ii 109; language, ii. 190.

    Cormorant, fishing with the, ii. 10 ; noticed

    by Friar Odoric, ii. 423.

    Cosmogonj’-, Chinese, ii. 137 ; Chu Hi’s,

    li. 141, 200.

    Cotton cultivati m, ii. 9 ; and manufacture,

    ii. 36, 02.

    Cottrell, C. H., i. 207.

    Council of State, or General Council, i.

    415, 418.

    Couriers, government and post, i. 389, 425.

    Court, of Controllers, Peking, i. 69 ; arrangemont-^

    of imperial, i. 407 ; of Colonial

    Government, i. 428 ; Censorate, i.

    430 , Transmission and Judicature, i.

    433 ; minor court.s, i. 4:!5 ; criminal, i.

    503 ; dialect, i. 013 ; ceremony otkotoii\

    i. 801.

    Creation, Chinese ideas concerning, u

    137.

    Crickets used for gambling, i. 352, 886.

    Crime, laws respecting, in the code, i

    389.

    Crow, the, on Desert of Sha-moh, i. 17

    ;

    about Peking, i. 334.

    Cashing, Hon. Caleb, appointed U. S.

    minister to China, ii. 505 ; concludes

    treaty of Wanghia with Kiying, ii. 567 ;

    correspondence in case of homicide, ii.

    568.

    Customs, management of, i. 444, ii. 402 ;

    internal transit, ii. 391 ; revenue, ii.

    404 ; put into hands of foreigners at

    Shanghai, ii. 027, 658 ; under Mr. Hart,

    ii. 095.

    Cutch, or terra japonica, a dve, imported,

    ii. 398.

    Cuvier, Baron G., i. 343.

    Cycle adopted by Hwangti, ii. 69, 146.

    Cyclopedias in Chinese literature, i. 693.

    DALAI-LAMA of Tibet, i. 245, 256 ;

    the Pope of Shamanism, ii. 3:!3.

    Dancing, or posture-making, ii. 104.

    Daourian Mountains, on north frontier of

    China, i. 9.

    Darwin, Charles R., i. 3.”34.

    Darwin, Erasmus, i. 357.

    Dates, so-called, of China, the jujube

    plum, i. 305, 775.

    D’Avezac, ii. 416, 418.

    David, P.re, i. 157, 343, 290, 314, 317,

    331, 3.52, 355.

    Davis, Sir J., notice of Grand Canal, L

    32 ; of Yuen-mir.g Yuen, i. 80 ; on

    Canal, i. 92 ; Nanking, i. 101 ; Nganking,

    i. HO; tSketches, i. 114, 101,

    290, 297, 434, 5(51, 055 ; Vhinc.ae Poetry,

    i. 703, 714, 715, 719, 722, 745, ii. 19,

    22, 27, 28, .5.5, 05, 79, 118, 137, 1.52,

    179, 200, 214, 220, 233, 349, 3.52, 382,

    400, 42(), 440, 4i9, 454, 458, 404 ; Kiying

    introduced to, ii. 567 ; takes the Bogue

    forts, ii. .573, 574; his China during

    the. W<u\ ii. 570.

    Day, its divisions, ii. 79.

    Debts and debtors, laws and practice concerning,

    i. 515 ; at New Year, i. 811.

    Deer, varieties of, in China, i. 321.

    Degrees, four literary, in China, i. 547-

    500 ; sale of, i. 549, 500 ; value of, i.

    571.

    De Guignes, i. 37, 119, 200, 271, 280, 289,

    291, 292, 081, 724, 735, 794, 800, 812,

    ii. 30, 32, 33, 73, 96, 307, 250, 271, 410,

    439.

    D’Herbelot, on origin of name China, L

    3 ; on Tartar, i. 302.

    Deluge of Yao, probably an inundation,

    ii. 147.

    Dennys, N. B., i. 84, 130, 170.

    ‘ Density of population in China, i. 373.

    750 l^•l)EX.

    Dent, invited to meet liin in Canton, ii.

    4’M ; conducted to consulate by Captain

    Elliot, ii. 5UU ; Liu probably wislies

    him as a liostage, ii. 5U8.

    D’Entiecolks, ii. ^0.

    DeQuincey, Tiiomas, i. 234.

    Desert of Gobi, or Sha-moh, i. 15. See

    Gobi.

    Deshauterayes, Le Roux, i. l’)”)!.

    Dew, Captain, captures Ningpo, ii. GOO

    ;

    before Shauhing, ii. 010.

    Dialects, of the Chinese language, i. 611;

    the Mandarin, i. Gil! ; Canton and Amoy,

    i. ()14-Gia

    Dictionary, of Kanghi, i. 588, 591, 592,

    G02, (u’i ; Dr. Morrison’s, i. 611 ; its

    compilation, ii. o20.

    Dictionaries, used by the Chinese, i. 589-

    591 ; words in various, i. 611 ; of dialects,

    i. 015 ; in the Imperial Catalogue,

    i. 672.

    Dikes, along Yellow River, i. 19 ; the

    Grand Canal, i. o5 ; at Kaifung, i. 99,

    100.

    Dinners, formal Chinese, described, i.

    806.

    Dish-mending by travelling tinkers, ii. 58.

    Diseases prevalent in China, ii. 12U.

    Divination, by the figures of the Yifi

    Jung, i. 632 ; by the horary characters,

    ii. 69 ; at graves, ii. 240 ; Chinese, compared

    with Roman, ii. 201.

    Divisions, of China, i. 7 ; of Mongolia, i.

    202 ; of Tibet, i. 244 ; of society, i. 412 ;

    b}- Yang Kien into chau, hieii, etc.,

    ii. 167.

    Divorce, laws respecting, i. 794.

    Dogs, in China, i. 318 ; eaten, i. 777.

    Dolon-iior, or Lania-miao, i. 87.

    Dominican friars in China, ii. 297; rivalry

    and quarrels with .Jesuits, ii. 299, 300 ;

    persecuted in Macao, ii. 302.

    Doolittle, Justus, i. 480, .550, .5.59, 719,

    7.52, 781, 788, 797, 817, 821, 827, ii.

    14, 7(), 87, 104, 119, 212, 2-Jl, 242, 248,

    255, 2(;i.

    Douc, or Cochinchinese monkey, i. 314.

    Douglas, Dr. C, i. 61.5.

    Douglas, R. K., i. 663, ii. 217, 261.

    Dragon, or funr/, of the Chinese, i. .344

    ;

    imperial enil^lcm, i. 395 ; on Emperor’s

    used as symbol, ii. 112 ; and grave geomancv,

    ii. 246.

    Dragon-boat Festival, i. 148. 696, 816.

    Dramas and plays in China, i. 714 ; resume

    of a plot, i. 822.

    Dress, style and variety of Chinese, i.

    7.59 ; of Chinese women, i. 763 ; at theatrical

    representations, i. 822 ; felts and

    skins as, ii. 39 ; of Tai-pings, ii. .589.

    Drought, action of officials during, ii.

    203-205.

    Drum Tower, Peking, i. 74 ; stone drums

    in Confucian Temple, ii. 159.

    Ducks, numerous, i. 339 ; the mandarin,

    i. 340 ; hatching establishments, i. 77a.

    Dudgeon, Dr. J., i. 770, li. 134, 240, 241,

    44a.

    Dufresse, Romish missionary to China,

    ii. 30(j, 307 ; on infant baptism, ii. 311

    his letters, ii. 317.

    Du Halde, i. 02, 196, 523, ii. 137, 294,

    443, 719.

    Duuganis, Mohammedan tribe of, L 210,

    and Yakub lieg, ii. 727 ; their revolt,

    ii. 730.

    Du Ponceau, P. S., i. 586.

    Dutch, bring tea into Europe, ii. 51

    ;

    tlriven from Formosa by Ko.\inga, ii.

    180; in the Pescadores, i. 141, ii.

    433 ; and missionaries in the Archipelago,

    ii. 320 ; Chinese notice of, ii. 427

    ;

    trade and embassies to China, ii. 434.

    Dutch Folly Fort, at Canton, i. 163,

    170 ; British bombard Canton from, iL

    640.

    Dwellings, in loess, i. 301 ; in cities,

    construction and arrangement, i. 727-

    733 ; boats used as, i. 750.

    Dyer, Samuel, i. (iC»4, ii. 325, 368.

    Dynasties, table of the Chinese, ii. 186.

    Dzaring Lake, in Koko-nor, i. 18.

    EAGLE, or Barkut, in Mongolia, i.

    331.

    East India Company, appoint Morrison as

    translator, ii. 319: oppose his son’s

    press at Macao, ii. 345 ; and the opium

    trade with China, ii. 376, 377 ; its influence

    and character in China, ii. 443,

    4.59, 403 ; attempt to start a trade at

    Fuhchau, ii. 445 ; control the British in

    China, ii. 453; its responsibility, ii.

    458 ; its close, ii. 4.V.), 738.

    Eclip.se.s, of moon at (^antou, i. SI 9 ; Chinese

    observations of, ii. 73 ; noticed in

    the tShii, ii. 149.

    Edicts, style of, and modes of publishing,

    i. 409.

    Edkins, Dr. Joseph, i. 3, 752, ii. 197,212,

    217, 229, 247, 271, 364.

    Education, in China, Chap. IX. ; probable

    extent of, i. 545 ; female, i. 572-

    577 ; character of Chinese, ii. 370 ; of

    Chinese by missionaries, ii. 310, 341 ;

    of Chinese boys in the United States,

    ii. 739-741.

    Egypt, Chinese snuff-bottles found in, ii

    27,

    Eighteen Provinces (or China Proper),

    called Shih-jxih Sing and C’him(\

    Kwoh in Chinese, i. 8; its mountaiu

    system, i. 14 ; boundaries, i. 25 ; coast,

    i. 26; climate, i. .50; topographical

    divisions, i. .58 ; area and population’

    density of. i. 272 ; their government, i

    437-443.

    INDEX. 761

    Eitel, Ernest, ii. 233, 247.

    Elders of villages, their position, i. 483,

    500.

    Elephants at Peking, i. 323.

    Eleuths, tribe uf Mongols, i. 213, 219.

    Elgin, Loid, his opinion of the Arrow

    case, li. 037; arrival in China, ii. (143;

    before Canton city, ii. (144 ; construction

    of municipal control at its capture,

    ii. (;4G ; replies to Shanghai missionaries

    on toleration of Christianity, ii. 049

    ;

    reaches Tientsin, li. Ool ; bearing toward

    the allies in Tientsin, ii. 054 ; and

    the opium question, ii. 057 ; visits the

    rebels at Hankow, ii. 059 ; among native.”?

    near Canton, ii. 001 ; reappointed

    plenipotentiary to ( liina, ii. 071 ; refuses

    surrender of Takii forts and advances

    to Peking, ii. 0’i7; view of the

    pillage of Yuen-miiig Yuen, ii. 683 ; he

    orders its destruction, ii. 684 ; signs

    the treaty of Peking, ii. OsO \ his character,

    ii. 688.

    Elliot, Admiral G., arrives at Chusan,

    ii. 515.

    Elliot, Captain Charles, made superintendent

    of trade, ii. 481 ; his opinion of

    the opium trade, ii. 482 ; . ordered to

    drive away opium ships, ii. 491 ; his

    exertions to stop smuggling, ii. 496 ; returns

    to Canton and oilers co-operation

    with Lin, ii. 499 ; his circular upon surrendering

    the opium, ii. 502 ; leaves

    Canton with the prescribed Englishmen,

    ii. 503 ; retires with them on board

    ship, ii. 506 ; effect upon Lin of his

    protecting Dent, ii. 509 ; arrival off

    Chusan as plenipotentiary, ii. 515 ; interview

    with Kishen at Taku, ii. 510

    ;

    at the Bogue, ii. 518; his humane

    policy, ii. 519 ; reward offered for, ii.

    520; accepts a ransom for Canton, ii.

    523 ; superseded by Sir H. Pottinger, ii.

    524.

    Ellis,’Henry, i. 85, 174, 5(il, ii. 458.

    Embassy, received by Kienlung, ii. 182;

    to China : of Marcus Aurelius, ii. 410 ;

    Ibn Batuta, ii. 423 ; character of an,

    during the Ming, ii. 42() ; the Portuguese

    send four, ii. 438 ; Spanish, ii.

    432 ; Dutch, ii. 438, 439 ; Macartney’s,

    ii. 454 ; Lord Amherst’s, ii. 458 ; Pottinger’s

    question concerning reception

    of an, ii. 5.53 ; the Burlingame, to

    foreign countries, ii. 097.

    Embroidery, on official costume, i. 703

    ;

    on ladies’ dresses, i. 7(55 ; Chinese skill

    in, ii. 36.

    Emigration, restrictions to, from China,

    i. 378, 411 ; character of, to the

    Archipelago, ii. 323 ; of Chinese to

    Amei’ica, treaties respecting, ii. 699.

    Emperor of China, his residence at Peking,

    i. ()6-69 ; country place at Jeh-ho,

    i. 88 ; revenue of, i. 289 ; position, titles,

    etc., i. 393-399; inaugural proclamation,

    i. 399 ; coronation, i. 401 ; authority, i.

    403; family of, i. 404; his escort, i. 410 ;

    relations with ministers, i. 420, 437 ;

    his dress, i. 703 ; worship, i. 801 ; his

    ceremony of ploughing, ii. i;> ; in Chine.

    se annals, ii. 15^ ; tables of Ming and

    Tsing, ii. 1!?6; worships Heaven as

    ‘Tiv)i.-tsz\ ii. 194-199; prays lor rain,

    ii. 305 ; and ancestral worship, ii. 2;.’S ;

    funeral of, ii. 250; worshipped in

    mosques, ii. 370 ; peculiarities about

    succession of the present, ii. 726.

    Empress-dowager, position of, i. 409; death

    of the Eastern, ii. 727.

    Empress-regent, two during Tungchi, ii.

    184 ; their critical position at death of

    Hienfung, ii. 091 ; and marriage ceremonies

    of Tungchi, ii. 710.

    England, compared with China as to population-

    density, i. 273 ; consumption of

    tea in, ii. 51 ; attitude of, at commencement

    of opium war, ii. 510 ; observations

    upon, ii. 572.

    English, manifesto against, at Canton,

    i. 488; caricature of, ii. 116; outrage

    the dead at Canton, ii. 354 ; toleration

    clause in, treaty, ii. 360 ; introduce

    opium into China, ii. 377 ; commerce

    attempted in 1635 and 1664, ii. 444 ; and

    French sailors’ quarrels, ii. 451 ; troops

    at Macao, ii. 456 ; and Chinese expectations

    at Napier’s arrival, ii. 400 ; at

    Canton petition the king regarding

    trade, ii. 470 ; losses during the hrst

    war, ii. 550 ; murder of, near Canton,

    ii. 578 ; consuls at Chinese ports, ii.

    579 ; waive right of entering Canton,

    ii. 573, 025 ; attack pirates, ii. 032

    ;

    insult to flag, ii. 035 ; open hostilities

    at Canton, ii. 638 ; sustain Palmerstoii’s

    war policy at home, ii. 041 ; influ.

    ence of, consular body, ii. 0S9 ; expeditions

    “of trade and exploration” into

    Yunnan, ii. 718-723 ; responsibility foi

    China, ii. 725.

    Erman, A., i. 306.

    Escayrac-de-Lauture, Comte de, ii. 215;

    his return from imprisonment at Peking,

    ii. 684.

    Etiquette, at a court levee, i. 800; of a

    formal call, i. 803.

    Eunuchs in imperial household, i. 407.

    ” Ever-Victorious Force” {Cha)ip-sfn)iff

    Kiuii), its organization under Ward, ii.

    007 ; under Col. Gordon, ii. 009; uniform

    and character, ii. Oil ; takes

    Fushan and other towns, ii. Oil 2 ; before

    Suchau, ii. 013 ; last operations, ii. 617;

    dissolved June 1. 1864, ii. (»18.

    Examinations, Hall of, at Canton, i.

    106 ; riot, i. 498 ; system of, founded, i.

    521 ; mode of conducting, i. 547 ; ar752

    IXDEX.

    rangements, i. 551 ; example of an es-

    Si.j , i. 554 ; statistics of, i. 55S ; army,

    i. 560 ; practical merits and demerits of

    system, i. 5t»2-573.

    Execution, of criminals, i. 511 ; attempted,

    in front of factories, ii. 405 ; of rebels

    in Canton, ii. 632 ; of Shushun, ii. 691

    ;

    of Tientsin rioters, ii. 704.

    Exports, of silk from China, ii. ‘SH ; items

    of, from China, ii. 373, 3112 ; table of,

    ii. 405 ; duties on, in eighteenth century,

    ii. 447.

    Ex-territoriality, its inherent wrong, ii

    657 ; Chinese officials inquire concerning,

    ii. 659; its indirect influence, ii.

    695 ; assumption of, by British minister,

    ii. 72(; ; anecdote illustrating Chinese

    dislike of, ii. 741.

    Extortions practised by officials, i. 475.

    Eyelet-hole ware, called ‘ rice-China,’ how

    made, ii. 25.

    FABER, Ernst, i. 603, ii. 25.5.

    Fabulous animals of the Chinese, i.

    342.

    Factories, the, at Canton, i. 107 ; Chinese

    troops placed over, ii 474 ; mob attack

    the, ii. 495 ; Lin confines foreigners in,

    ii. .500 ; occupied by British troops, ii.

    521 ; brawl and fire at, ii. 556 ; burned

    by Yeh, ii. 639.

    Fairs, on frontiers of Corea, i. 194 ; at

    Peking, i 817.

    Falcons in Peking, i. 332.

    Families, cluster together in China, i.

    277 ; Confucian, ennobled, i. 387 ; in

    tea cultivation, ii. 41 ; and ancestral

    worship, ii. 2:>6 ff’.

    P’amine of 1878, Chinese benevolence

    during, ii 266 ; its extent and terrors,

    ii. 734 ; efforts of foreigners toward its

    relief, ii. 73 5.

    fan River, in .Shansi, i. 94.

    J<^au kuiei, ‘ foreign devils.’ reason for

    name, i. 42 ; use at Canton, ii. 346,

    347 ; influence of the term, ii. 461

    gradual disappearance, ii. (i(i2.

    Farce, a Chinese, i. 715.

    Farms in Cldna, generally small, i. 276,

    278.

    Feet, compressed, origiti and extent of

    practice, i. 776 ; its appearance and effects

    ujjon women, i. 768 ; noticed by

    Friar Odoric, ii. 423.

    Pelt, poorly m;ide, ii. 39.

    Female, education in China, i. .57:2-577

    ;

    dress, i. 763 ; position in society, i. 784

    privileges and misfortunes, i. 794-796

    ;

    parts in theatres, i. 821 ; missionaries,

    ii. 36i.

    Fergusson, James, i. 726, 727, 745, 758,

    ii. 176, 232.

    Festivals, of Dragon-boats, i. 696, 816

    numerous and popular, i.809; New Year,

    i. 810-816 ; of lanterns, i. 817, 818 ; of

    ploughing and the first of spring, iL 13.

    Fiction (see also Novels), character of

    Chinese, i 694.

    Field. Dr. H. M., on Chinese justice,

    i. .510.

    Fi-fi, Chinese monkey, i. 31.5.

    Filial Duty, the ‘ Canons of,’ or Ifiao

    King^ i. 536 ; notable examples of, i

    .

    .538 ; taught in the JJoolc of liitvs, i.

    646.

    Finn, James, ii. 271, 274.

    Fires, how controlled in cities, i. 743 ; in

    pawnshops, ii. 87.

    Fire-wells in Sz’chuen, i. 312.

    Fire-works, in Peking, i. 817; a- id gunpowder,

    ii. 90.

    Fischer, Heinr., i. 309.

    Fisher, Lieut. -Col, ii. 600, 663, 667, 608,

    675.

    Fishes, immense supply of, in China, i.

    276 ; of the Empire, i. 340-350 ; shellfish,

    i. 350-351 ; in (“Janton m.arkets, i.

    780; models of, carried in procession, i.

    818; and fishermen, ii. 14; fins and

    maws eaten, ii. 397.

    Fishing, various methods of, i. 779, ii.

    14.

    Five Sovereigns, the, of Chinese legendary

    history, ii. 142-148.

    Flag, Chinese national and private, i. 7.52.

    Flint, his efforts to establish a trade, ii.

    448 ; imprisoned, ii. 449.

    Flogging, a common punishment, i. .509.

    Flowers, much esteemed, i. 368 ; worn

    upon the head, i. 704 ; at New Year, i.

    811 ; culture of, ii. 12 ; used in scenting

    tea, ii. 48.

    Food, of Tibetans, i. 241 ; in use in China,

    i. 274 ; supplies of palace, i. 408 ; Chinese,

    i. 771-778.

    Foreigners, how classified, i. 429; ideas

    of Cliiuese society, i. 782 ; thought to

    have no surnames, i. 798; tricks playi’d

    on, i. 799 ; establish free hospitals, ii.

    333 fi”. ; Morrison Education Society, ii.

    340; Chinese contempt for, ii. 450-4.5-1 ;

    Chinese terms for, ii. 401 ; in Canton

    kept like animals, ii. 477; imprisoiu’il liy

    Lin in the factories,’ ii. 500 ; how looked

    uj)on by the Chinese, ii. 538 ; in general

    included in terras of English treaty of

    Nanking, ii. oCd ; continued hatred of,

    at Canton, ii. .578,-580; and the Taipings

    at Nanking, ii. 597 ; none injured

    by Tai-pings, ii. 604 ; enlisted by

    the rebels, ii.OOO ; by imperialists under

    Ward, ii. 007; and the Ever-Victorious

    force, ii. (ill ; and collection of duties

    at Shanghai, ii. 627 ; Chinese opinjpn

    of, after the war of ISliO, ii. <iS9 ; phm

    of employing, on war vessels, ii. 692 ;

    their abuse of China, ii. 70() ; admitted

    to audience of Emperor, ii. 714 ; efforts

    INDEX. 753

    toward relief of the famine of 1878, ii.

    735.

    Formosa Island, or Taiwan, i. 27, 44

    ;

    position, character, and products of, i.

    137-141 ; hog found in, i. 324 ; pheasant

    of, i. 337 ; camplior on, ii. .55 ; Dutch

    driven from, ii. 180 ; missions in, ii.

    349 ; history of the Dutch occupation of,

    ii. 433^38 ; massacre of shipwrecked

    crews on, ii. 554 ; during the Tai-ping

    Rebellion, ii. (i()4 ; Japanese descent

    upon, ii. 710 ; its recent growth and

    improvement, ii. 71S.

    Ports, their construction in China, i. 758 ;

    at the Bogue. ii. 520; at Taku, ii. 676.

    Fortune, R., i. 107, 136, 29e”., 370, 733, ii.

    10, 12, 29, 38, 55, 2.53.

    Fortune-tellers, and the cabala of the Yih,

    i. 632 ; and astrology, ii. 74 ; their

    methods, ii. 260.

    Fox, localities of, ideas concerning, i. 320.

    French, studies in Chinese silk-culture,

    ii. 32, 34 ; toleration clauses in, treaty,

    ii. 361 ; relations with China, ii. 441 ;

    and English sailors, their quarrels at

    Canton, ii. 451 ; treaty of Whampoa

    with China, ii. 571 ; attack on rebels at

    Shanghai, ii. 028 ; legation withdraws

    from Canton, ii. 639 ; grievance against

    China, ii. 642 ; convention of Peking,

    ii. 087 ; massacre of consul and Sisters

    of Charity at Tientsin, ii. 700 ; action

    of the, charge’, ii 703.

    Fritsche, H., i. 52, 57.

    Frogs, how caught, i. 778.

    Fruits, of China, i. 366 ; common table,

    i. 774 ; at dinner, i. 807.

    I^’u, ‘ department ‘ or ‘ prefecture, ‘ term

    explained, i. 58 ; government, i. 441.

    Fuhchau (Hokchiu), description of, i.

    130-133 ; its dialect, i. 611 ; bridge at,

    i. 754 ; nunneries abolished in, ii. 230 ;

    missions at, ii. 349 ; van Hoorn lands

    at, ii. 438 ; East India Company commence

    trade at, ii. 44.5 ; treatment of

    foreigners at, ii. 580 ; arsenal established

    at, ii. 61)6.

    Fuh-hi, the inventor of writing, i. 580 ;

    and the Yih King, i. 627-628 ; the first

    monarch, ii. 142 ; confounded with Fuh

    (Buddha), ii. 217.

    Fuhkien province, temperature of, i. .55 ,

    description of, i. 127-13’t; dialect, i.

    614-616 ; marriage customs of, i. 78.5,

    7S7; experiment in coinage, ii. 84;

    Taoist priests in, ii. 215_; infanticide

    in, ii. 240 ; funeral customs, ii. 243 ;

    missions in, ii. 348.

    Fuh-niu shan, in Honan, i. 98.

    Fuhshan (or Fat-shan), a mart near Canton,

    i. .59 ; taken by rebels, ii. 630 ; their

    brutalities in, ii. 631.

    Funerals, ceremonies attending, ii. 343-

    255.

    Vol. II.—48

    Fung-hmang, or phoenix, i. 343 ; as an

    emblem, ii. 111.

    Fuiig-shui, founded on the Yih King^ i.

    628 ; a system of geomancy, ii. 246.

    Fung Sien tien, temple in Emperor’s

    Palace, Peking, i. 09.

    Fung Yun-shan, an early follower of

    Hung Siu-tsuen, ii. 586 ; made the

    ‘ Southern King,’ii. 594 ; he disappears,

    ii. 602.

    Furniture, in country houses, i. 733

    materials, i. 734.

    Furs used for winter garments, i. 763.

    Futai^ orfuyen^ governor of a province,

    i. 438.

    Fuyin, or mayor of Peking, i. 82.

    GABEL, or Salt Department, its im^

    portance, i. 443.

    Gambier, an import, ii. 400.

    Gamble, VV., i. 604, ii. 325.

    Gambling, modes and extent of, i. 825.

    Games, morra {cliai rnri)^ at dinner, L

    808 ; out-door, i. 825 ; chess, i. 827.

    Gang-<lis-ri, Zang, or Kailasa Mountains,

    i. 13.

    Gardens, style of private, in China, i. 734;

    in Shanghai, ii 202.

    ” Gates of China,” perhaps Straits of Luichau,

    i. 26 ; probably at Canfu, i. 127,

    ii. 415.

    Gaubil, Pore, i. 63.3, 634,0.36, 809.

    Gegen, at Wu-tai shan, in Shan si, i. 96.

    Geography, Chinese knowledge of foreign,

    i. 49 ; native topographies, i. 50, 185

    ;

    popular ideas of, in China, ii. 80,

    Geology of China, i. 297-312.

    Gerbillon, Pere, i. 88, ii. 181, 441.

    German representative sent to China in

    1843, ii. .565.

    Genghis khan, i. 726 ; takes Peking, iL

    175 ; and Pres^r John, ii. 286.

    Gill, Capt. \V., r21.

    Ginseng, localities of, i. 367.

    Glass, manufacture of, ii. 21.

    Gobi, or Sha-moh, Great Desert of, the

    Olympus of Buddhist and Taoist myths,

    i. 12 ; its position and area, i. 15; sandhills,

    i. 16 ; called Peh hai and Hah hai,

    i. 2.5, 201, 216 ; grasses of, i. 357 ; its influence

    on Chinese civilization, ii. 189.

    God, word for, in Chinese, ii. 154; discussion

    concerning, among Romanists, ii.

    297 ; among Protestants, ii. 304.

    Goddard, Josiah, i. 015.

    Goes, Benedict, i. 310 ; his journey to

    Cathay, ii. 424.

    Gold, found in Shensi, i. 151 ; in Khoten,

    i. 230 ; in Tibet, i. 244 ; uses of, i. 311,

    ii. 19 ; never coined, ii. 83, 84.

    Golden Island (Kin Shan), in Kiangsu, i

    10.5.

    Gold-fish, methods of rearing, i. 348.

    Gon9alves, J. A., i. 591.

    IND1′:X.

    Gongs, how made, ii. 20 ; their use, ii.

    103.

    Gordon, Colonel Peter, ii. 91 ; takes command

    of the ‘ Ever-Victorious force,’

    ii. 609, i’Al ; captures Fushan, ii. 012;

    before Suchau, ii. Clo ; efforts to protect

    life after its surrender, ii. CIS;

    indignation, ii. (510; wounded before

    Kintan, ii. 017 ; dissolves the ‘ Ever-

    Victorious force,’ ii. 018; his honorable

    conduct appreciated, ii. 019 ; visits

    the works before Nanking, ii. 020; his

    advice to Peking officials as to a war

    with Russia, ii 7c!3.

    Gough, Sir Hugh, arrives to command

    English land force, ii. 521 ; invests Canton,

    ii. 522 ; at Ningpo, ii. 529 ; his

    foroe at taking of Chapu, ii. 5:>) ; at the

    capture of Chinkiang, ii. 542; before

    Nanking, ii. 545 ; his rewards after the

    war, ii. 556.

    Gould, Dr., ii. 340.

    Gould, John, i. 330.

    Government, of Peking, i. 82-83 ; of Mongolia,

    i. 199 ; of Ili, i. 231-233 ; of Tibet,

    i. 255-;357 ; revenue of imperial, i. 289-

    292 ; Chinese, its theory patriarchal, i.

    380 ; laws and departments of, i. 381-

    384; cabinet and boards of, i. 415; provincial,

    i. 437-447 ; influence upon literature,

    i. 719.

    Grain, Commissioner of, i. 443.

    Grains, in the Herbal, i. 372 ; eaten by

    the Chinese, i. 772; how sown, ii. 5.

    Grammar of the Chinese language, i.

    617-021 ; MoiTison’s, ii. 321.

    Grand Canal, Chah ho, or Yun ho, i. 31 ;

    Davis’s description of, i. 32; present

    condition, i. 35, .52, 89, 92, 108, 119;

    deepened by Kublai, ii. 17() ; Tai-pings

    control, ii. 590.

    Grasshoppers, edict for destruction of, i.

    409.

    Graves, in China, i. 275 ; legend concerning

    the false, ii. 107; geomancy in selecting,

    ii. 240 ; pai shan at, ii. 252

    ;

    prayers before, ii. 262.

    Gray, Archdeacon J. H., i. 413, 573, 715,

    778, 788, 790, 821, ii. 14, 231, 355, 201,

    271.

    Gray, Mrs., i. 752, 788.

    Great Plain of China, i. 14 ; extent, i. 27 ;

    pojjulation of, i. 28 ; climate, i. 52.

    Great Wall. Waii-li Chang Ching, i. 29;

    construction, i. 30; aspect, i. 31, 152,

    203; built by Tsin, ii. 100; Arch of

    Mongol dynasty in, ii. 170.

    Greece, and China, infanticide in, ii. 242 ;

    China known as Q\v in, ii. 408 ; communication

    with China in the dark ages,

    ii. 412.

    Griffis, W. E., ii. 78.

    Gros, Baron, arrives in China, ii. 043 ; at

    capture of Canton, ii. 646 ; arrives at

    Tientsin, ii. 6.51 ; leaves China, ii. 661 ;

    reappointed envoy with Lord Elgin, ii.

    671 ; signs the treaty of Peking, ii. 686

    ;

    well fitted tor his task in China, ii, 688.

    Grosier, Abbe, ii. 38, 5(), 90, 104, 719.

    Grosvenor, Hon. T. (I., sent as commissioner

    to Yunnan, ii. 723.

    Gully, Robert, his shipwreck and murder

    on Formosa, ii. .554.

    (iunpowder, invention and use of, ii. 89.

    Gutzlaff, Rev. Charles, i. 100, 193, ii. 137,

    180, 325 ; his three voyages, ii. 328, 350,

    303 ; at Chusan during the war, ii. 515

    at Shiinghai, li. 530, 542, 548, 556.

    Gypsum, uses of, i. 306.

    HAAS, Joseph, i. 033.

    Hailing, General, at Chinkiang, ii.

    2.’)5 ; his devotion, ii. 540 ; posthumous

    honors to, ii. .557.

    Hainan Island, aborigines on, i. 44 ; notice

    of the island, i 175.

    Hair, how dressed and worn, i. 701 ; of

    women, i. 704.

    Hai-tien, near Peking, i. 80 ; British and

    French troops at, ii. 083.

    JIai-tuh, or khi-doc, a Chinese monkey,

    i. 31.5.

    Hakkas, in Formosa, i. 138 ; in Kvvangtung,

    i. 486 ; and the Tai-pings, ii. 582,

    591.

    Hales, Dr., chronology of, ii. 143, 145.

    Hanbury, Daniel, i. 3.53, 3.55, ii. 134.

    Hamberg, Rev. Theodore, his Life of

    Ilnnq SUi-Uncn, ii. ,582.

    Hami, or Kamil, in Kansuh, i. 213, 224.

    Han dynasty, Latin name of .SVjv.s originated

    during, i. 4; Hau (or ‘After’ Han)

    at Chingtu, i. 1.54 ; censuses under, i.

    260 ; its historians, ii. 159 ; its founder

    Kautsu, ii. 162; and Eastern Han, ii.

    164 ; After Han, XXth dynasty, ii. 172.

    Hance, Dr. H. F., i. 3.”)5, 305.

    Hangchau, capital of Chehkiang, i. 115;

    its temples and manufactures, i. 117-

    119 ; pagoda at, i. 744 ; Moslems in, ii.

    268, 270 ; Nestorians in, ii. 285 ; missions

    in, ii. 251 ; Abu Zaid on, ii. 415;

    retaken by imperialists, ii. 618; Romanist

    church confiscated at, ii. 087.

    Hanchuug, in iShensi, i. 151.

    Han hai, ‘ Mirage Sea,’ or Desert of Lobnor,

    i. 16.

    llan-jin^ JIa7i-tiiz\ ‘Men,’ or ‘Sons of

    Han,’ terms used by Chinese for themselves,

    i. 4. ii. 102.

    Hankow, in Hupeh, i. 144; its fortune

    during the reljellion, ii. 000, 007 ; visited

    by Lord Elgin, ii. 0.59.

    Hanlin Yuen, National Academy, Peking,

    i. 72 ; its character, i. 434 ; membership

    a degree of literary rank, i. 559.

    Han River, in Hupeh, i. ]4’2.

    Han-sing Pass, in Shansi, i. 97.

    INDEX. 755

    Hao-king, ancient name of Si-ngan, i. 3.

    Harashar (or Karashar), town and district

    of I’ll, i. 234

    Hardy, R. S., i. 395, 413, ii. 217, 218, 2:30,

    224, 2J6, 232.

    Hare, alpine and others, i. 327.

    Harem, imperial, i. 407 ; and Board of

    Revenue, i. 422 ; Sung’s daughter in, i.

    45().

    Harland, Dr., ii. 123.

    Hart, Sir Robert, takes management of

    customs service, ii. G95.

    Hats, official, i. 414 ; laborers’ and other,

    i. 762.

    Hayton, king of Armenia, vists Mangu

    khan. ii. 420.

    Heaven, Altar to, Peking, i. 76; ideas

    concerning the creation of, ii. 138

    ;

    worship of, ii. 194-198 ; and the term

    tifii, ii. 300.

    Hedde, Isidore, ii. 34.

    Heeren, A. H. L., i. 196, 238, 343, 398, 413,

    44(i, 482, 503, ii. 410, 412.

    Hemp, four kinds of, ii. 10.

    Henderson, Dr. James, ii. 127.

    Hepburn, Dr., ii. 131.

    Jferbnl, Chinese (see Pii?i tsao)^ i. 370,

    etc.

    Herdsman and weaver-girl, fable of the,

    ii. 76.

    Hereditary local officers of «.?’ districts,

    i. 59.

    Hervey-Saint-Denys, Marquis d’, i 703,

    701, ii. 14.

    Hia dynasty, founded by Yu, ii. 148 ; its

    early annals, ii. 152 ; its period, ii. 158.

    Hia, Tartar tribe, ii. 173, 174.

    Hiao, Emperor, B.C. 909. confers Tsinchau

    on Prince Feitsz’, i. 2.

    Hiao Kinf], or ‘Canons of Filial Duty,’

    a school-book, i. 536.

    Hieii, ‘district,’ term explained, i. 58;

    its fAi, or ‘ district magistrate,’ i. 441.

    Hienfung, Emperor, his reign, ii. 184;

    attitude toward foreigners, ii 575 ; imbecilifcv

    during Tai-ping revolt, ii. 604 ;

    childish ignorance during war with

    England, ii. 642 ; signs treaty of Tientsin,

    ii. ()5() ; escapes to Jeh-ho, ii 679 ;

    his death, ii. 689.

    Hieroglyphics, Chinese and Assyrian, L

    581 ; early Chinese, i. 583-586 ; erroneous

    ideas concerning Chinese, i. 605,

    606.

    Himalaya Mountains, i. 10 ; the fourth

    mountain system of China, i. 13.

    Hindu name for China, ‘ Ma-chin,’ i. 3.

    Hing-an mountain system, i. 13.

    Hingking (Yenden), in Shingking, i. 193.

    Hinkai-nor, in Kirin, i. 24.

    History, of ili, i. 233-237; of Tibet, i.

    254-255 ; in Chinese literature, i. 675

    ;

    and chronoloj^y of China, ii 136 ; period

    of fable, ii. 1 37 ; of legend, ii. 143 ; of

    the twenty-six dynasties, il. 148-187″

    worth of Chinese, ii. 413.

    iriston/ of the Tlirie States, a Chinese

    historical novel, i. 603, 677-680, ii. 164.

    H’lassa, capital of Tibet, i. 245-247.

    Ho, Duke, i. 80 ; career of, i. 452.

    Hobson, Dr., i. 776, ii. 125, 137, 337.

    Hohson, B. H. E., ii. 180, 346.

    Hodgson, B. H., i. 243, 254.

    Hog, a[)i)earance and usefulness of, i. 334

    ;

    much eaten, i. 777 ; for sacrifices, i. 781.

    Ho Kwei-tsing, governor-general of Kiangsn,

    his cowardice at fall of Chinkiang

    and Suchau, ii. 605; receives letters

    of the allies, ii. 648 ; sends reply

    to Mr. Bruce at Shanghai, ii. 672.

    Homicides, foreign, at Canton, ii. 451-454,

    460 ; of Lin Wei-hi at Hongkong, ii.

    505 ; of Sii A-mun at Canton, ii. 568 ; of

    Englishmen near Canton, ii. .578.

    Honam, or Honan Island, opposite Canton,

    i. ir)4-165, 169.

    Honan province, its position and people,

    i. 97-99.

    Hong, explanation of term, i. 167 ; merchants

    : their garden.s, i. 736 ; their integrity,

    i. 834 ; monopoly established,

    ii. 447 ; relations with foreign traders,

    ii. 450 ; their position between Governor

    Lu and Napier, ii. 469, 473 ; and

    Chinese shopkeepers, ii. 477 ; expostulate

    with foreigners concerning opium

    smuggling, ii. 493, 494 ; a last attempt

    to squeeze, ii. 559.

    Hongkong, climate of, i. 54 ; description

    of city, i. 171-173 ; botany of, i. 355 ;

    Triad Society prohibited in, i. 493 ;

    missions remove to, ii. 347 ; homicide

    of Lin Wei-hi at, ii. 50.”) ; taken possession

    of b}’^ British, ii. 557 ; influence as

    a free port on smuggling, ii. 633 ; attempt

    to poison foreigners at, ii. 640 ;

    British encouragement to smuggling at,

    ii. 725.

    Honorary Portals, or Pai-lati, i. 83, 756.

    Hoorn, Van, Dutch ambassador to Peking,

    ii. 438.

    Hoppiu, Prof. J. M., ii. 639.

    Horse, new wild, found by Prejevalsky

    in Khoten, i. 231 ; little used, i. 274,

    320 ; appearance, i. 323 ; notices of, in

    the Herbal, i. 375 ; shoeing, ii. 4.

    Hospitals, native foundling, at Shanghai,

    ii. 2(i4 ; established by Candida, ii. 295 ;

    by Dr. Parker at Canton, ii. 333, 334

    fF.; versus itinerary practice, ii. 340; at

    Tinghai and Shanghai, ii. 351.

    Howqua, a Canton merchant, his son.

    created kn-Jin, i. 567; and Parker’s

    hospital, ii. 334 ; his death, ii. 559.

    Hue, Pere Evariste Re’gis, i. 88, 144, 156,

    195, 210, 313, 246. 257, 336, 343, 644, ii.

    50, 331, 332, 277, 386, 390, 293, 299, 42:3,

    708.

    7.”iG INDEX.

    Hiimlioldt.’s theory of hills in Mongolia,

    i. 11; Sx’chucn springs, i. 81o; on the

    plantain, i. 362.

    Hume, David, on infanticide in Rome, ii.

    242.

    Himan province, i. 140-14S; inscription

    of Yu in, ii. 149.

    Hung Jin, brother of the Tien Wang, ii.

    58:i ; is converted, ii. 58G ; teaches and

    baptizes, ii. 587 ; at the capture of Nanking,

    ii . 620 ; subsequent efforts, ii.

    Hung Siu-tsuen, the Tim Wang, leader

    of the Tai-jnng revolt, ii. .582 ; his

    vision, ii. 58o ; belief in his divine calling,

    ii. .58.5 ; goes to Mr. Roberts, ii.

    .588 ; commencement of military movement,

    ii. 5′.t0 ; his opposition to the

    Triad Society, ii. .501 ; his ‘ Celestial

    Decrees,’ ii. 5y:3 ; proclaimed Emperor

    at Nanking, ii. 594 ; failure to reach

    Peking the death of his movement, ii.

    .500 ; dissensions among his generals, ii.

    602 ; his indomital)le sfiirit, ii. 605 ;

    his death at Nanking, ii. 620 ; character

    of his political aspirations, ii.

    623.

    Hungtsih Lake, in Kiangsu, i. 24, 100, 100.

    Hungwu, Emperor, tomb of, at Nanking,

    i. 101, ii. 115 ; inaugural proclamation

    in 1644, i. 395 ; founds the Ming, ii.

    177.

    Huns, driven back by Tsin, ii. 161 ; inroads

    during third century A.D., ii.

    165 ; their kingdom of Wei in fifth and

    sixth centuries a.d., ii. 166; go West

    instead of East, ii. 169.

    Hunter, W. C, ii. 560.

    Hupeh ]n-ovince, i. 142-140.

    Hurun Lake, in Manchuria, i. 24.

    Hwaiking, in Shansi, i. 01.

    Ilira Hill, ‘ Glorious Hia,’ an ancient

    term for China, i. 5.

    Ilwai-ngan, in Kiangsu, i. 108.

    Hwang Ching, ‘ Imperial Citj-,’ Peking,

    i. 60.

    Hwang ho. See Yellow River.

    Hwangti’, an appellation of the Emperor,

    i. 303 ; a jjrimeval monarch, tlie pos.sibleinventor

    of writing, i . 580 ; of clothing,

    ii. 32; of the si ^tj -year cycle, ii.

    60, 146; importance of audience before

    the, ii. 714.

    JIuHUKj gang (AnlrJnpc gnlluroaa), i. 321.

    Hwang sz’, monument to Teshu Lama,

    Peking, i. 70 ; Lord I’^lgin at, ii. 682.

    Hwashana, Commissioner, at Tientsin, ii.

    651 ; at Shangliai, on tai ill’ revision, ii.

    657, 664 ; discusses audience question

    with Ward at Peking, ii. 660.

    Hwuichau, in Nganhwui, i. 110.

    Hwui, kwan, cluh-houses at Peking, i. 76 ;

    ‘clubs,’ variety and extent of, ii. 87.

    Hyacinthe, Pere, i, 63.

    I

    ‘BARBARIAN,’ a term for foreign

    ^ ers, ii. 461.

    I, Prince, and the British interpretei-s at

    Tungchau, ii. 67!-!, (i70 ; the ])risoners

    sent to, ii. 680 ; Elgin located in palace

    of, ii. 686 ; his conspiracy, ii. 600

    ;

    death, ii. 691.

    Ibn Batuta, ii. 271, 373 ; his travels iu

    Cathay, ii. 421.

    Ibn Wahab, an Arab traveller, ii. 414, 425.

    Ice in Peking, i. 52 ; the coast towns, i.

    .53.

    Tchang, in Hupeh, i. 145.

    Iching, on the Yangtsz’, reception of the

    English at, ii. 544.

    Ides, E. Ysbrandt, envoy of Russia to

    Peking, ii. 442.

    Idols, how carved, ii. 115; iu Buddhist

    temples, ii. 235 ; ])atronage of, general,

    ii. 2.59 ; allowed by Ricci, ii. 202.

    Ifung hien, in Ilonan, waste-wier at, i.

    Tlchi, capital of Khotcn, i. 230.

    lli province, i. 21.5 ; its recent boundaries,

    i. 215; physical features, i. 216; its

    two circuits — Songaria, i. 218-220;

    Eastern Turkestan, i. 221-231 ; its government,

    i. 231-233 ; historical notice

    of, i. 233-237 ; Mohammedans of, ii.

    271

    .

    Ilipu, Governor-General and Commissioner,

    i. 464 ; truce with Elliot at

    Chusan, ii. 517 ; his banishment, ii.

    529 ; thanks the English for care of

    prisoners, ii. 534 ; associate commissioner

    with Kiying, ii. 537; concludes

    and signs treaty, ii. 547, 553 ; death, ii.

    557.

    Imitation a Chinese national trait, ii. 6.3.

    Imperial, City, Ibi’ang Ching, I’eking, i.

    69 ; clan and its government, i. 40.5

    family, i. 407 ; Academy, or Hanlin

    Yuen, i. 434.

    Imports, of opium into China, ii. 388

    ;

    from the Archipelago, ii. 306.

    Infanticide, female, in Fuhkien, i. 136

    prevalence of the practice in China, ii.

    239-241 ; comparison with Greece and

    Rome, ii. 242.

    Ink, materials of India, i. 500.

    Inner Council, or Cabinet, i. 41.5.

    Inscription, of Yu, in Kau-lau shan,

    Hunan, ii. 140; in gateway at Kii-yung

    kwan, ii. 176; on Nestorlan Tablet of

    Si-ngan, ii. 277.

    Insects of China, i. 351-3.54.

    Intercourse, social, among the Chinese, i.

    800; between China and Western Asia,

    ii. ICiC) ; ancient, with foreign nations,

    ii. 408; mediaeval, ii. 414. See also

    under Trade.

    Iron, in Shantung, i. 93 ; in Shansi,

    al)undant, i. 95-‘J6 ; its manufacture,

    ii. i’J,

    INDEX. 757

    Irrigation, various morlos of, ii. 6.

    Islaniisni. Sec Moliaiiinietlan.

    Issik-kul, or Lnkr ‘rciniiitu, i. 24, 217.

    Isolation of the (“hinesi’, its influence on

    their character, i. 5^3, Soo ; its causes

    and results, ii. lSS-100, 642, 648, 660.

    Isothermal lines of China, L 51.

    Ivory imported from Africa, ii. 400.

    JADE, or yuhs found in Khoten, i.

    22.3, 220 ; description of, i. 309 ; feU

    txui, or jadeite, i. 312.

    Janiho, food used in Tibet, i. 241.

    Japan, tea shrub.s, ii. 41 ; character symbols

    and sounds in, ii. 190 ; expedition

    to Formosa, ii. 716.

    Jauchau, in Kiangsi, i. 113.

    Jehangi’r, kojeh of Kashgar, i. 235, 454

    ;

    his end, ii. 184, 727, 729.

    Jeb-ho, or Chingtih, Emperor’s summer

    retreat, i. 88, 312; thermal springs at,

    i. 313 ; Sung at, i. 455 ; expense of, L

    566 ; Hienfung retires to, ii, 682 ; palace

    conspiracy at, ii. 690.

    Jenkins, Dr. B., i. 530, ii. 90.

    Jesuit missionaries, correct the Chinese

    calendar, ii. 68 ; their map-making, ii.

    80; enter China in 1.580, ii. 177; and

    ancestral rites, ii. 2.52, 293, 299 ; and

    other Catholics, ii. 294, 297 ; obnoxious

    to Yungching, ii. 443.

    Jewels, of China, i. 310 ; imported, ii. 400.

    Jews in China, ii. 271 ; visited by Dr.

    Martin, ii. 272.

    Jones, Owen, ii. 107.

    Johnson, Samuel, his Oriental Religions,

    i. 691, ii. 211, 217,255.

    Johnson, Rev. Stephen, ii. 349.

    Judicial proceedings, character of, i. .500-

    508 ; cruelty and mercy of, i. 510 ; in

    cases of foreign homicides, ii. 451 flF.,

    460.

    Julien, Stanislas, i. 345, 590, 674, 714, iL

    22, 32, 33, 62, 207, 212, 229.

    Junks, Chinese, 1. 7.5.3; coast trade in,

    decreasing, ii. 389.

    ‘Just Medium,’ the, Vliunfj Yung, i. 053.

    KAIFUNG (Pien-liang), capital of

    Honan, i. 99 ; Jews in, ii. 271 ff.;

    stormed by Tai-pings, ii. 597 ; surly

    spirit in, during the famine, ii. 736.

    Kailasa, mountain in Tibet, i 239.

    Kalgan, town in Northern Chihli, i. 203.

    Kalkas, Mongol tribc’S. i. 20.5, 206, 209.

    _ Kan River, tributary of the Yangtsz’, L

    21, 112; boats upon, i. 751.

    Kanchau, in Kiangsi, i. 113.

    Kane, Dr. H. H,, ii. 388.

    Kang. or brick bed. i. 53, 306.

    Kanghi, Emperor, singular festival of, i.

    08 ; abolishes capitation tax, i. 266

    ;

    dictionary of, i. 588-591, 602, 672, etc.;

    orders copper types, i. 603 ; his ‘ Sacred

    Commands,’ i. 687; tries to suppress

    fashion of compressed feet, i. 770 ; and

    the calendar, ii. 68 ; introduces foreign

    music, ii. 103; and Koxinga, ii. 180;

    against strange religions, ii. 227; prevents

    immolation of women, ii. 250

    ;

    and Father Schaal, ii. 297, 298 ; memorialized

    by Jesuits, ii. 299 ; counter decree

    agaiiist the Pope, ii. 302 ; Portuguese

    embassy to, ii. 429 ; letter of

    Louis XIV. to, ii. 441 ; sends Tulishen

    to the Czar, ii. 442 ; his prophecy

    quoted, ii. 484.

    Kanpu, or Canfu, i. 127.

    _

    Kansuh province, climate, i. 55 ; description

    of, i. 152-154 ; Mohammedan insurrection

    in. ii. 269, 7;>0.

    Kaolin, a constituent of jjorcelain, ii. C3.

    Kara-korum, Mountains, their position,

    i. 13 ; town, Carpini’s mission to Kuyuk

    at, ii. 416.

    Kashgar, government and town, i. 227-

    228, ii. 728 ; its reconquest, ii. 731

    .

    Katshe, or Korkache, a district of Tibet,

    i 238.

    Kantsu. or Lin Pang, founder of the Han,

    ii. 162.

    Kautsung, Emperor of Tang dynasty, iL

    170.

    Kerr, Dr. J. G., i. 164, ii. 337, 339, 340.

    Khoten, district of 111, i. 230-231.

    Kiakhta, trading post on Russian frontier,

    i. 207 ; apples of, i. 366, ii. 443.

    Kiaking, the Emperor, i. 431, 453, 465,

    466 ; his reign, ii. 182 ; prohibits import

    of opium, ii. 378.

    Kiang, ‘river.’ See Yangtsz’.

    Kialing River, in Sz’chuen, i. 1.55.

    Kiangnan—the two Kiang, fertility of

    the region, L 100.

    Kiangning (see Nanking), i. 100.

    Kiangsi province, its surface, i. 111.

    Kiangsu province, i. 99 ; watercourses, i.

    100 ; its towns, etc., i. 101-108. _

    Kiao, ‘sect,’ meaning of term, ii. 193,

    194; its vagueness, ii. 358.

    Kiayii kwan. on Great ^V’aU in Kansuh, L

    1.52, 211, ii. 14.5, 189.

    Kieh Kwei, last Emperor of the Hia, ii.

    1.53.

    Kienlung, Emperor, festival of, i. 67-68

    ;

    effusion on Mukden, i. 193, 5V»8 ; revives

    census, i. 260, 285, 291 ; upon naming

    his successor, i. 404 ; casts lead types,

    i. 603 ; bronzes made under, ii. 20 ; his

    reign, ii. 181 ; treatment of Catholics,

    ii. 305 ; Van Braam’s embassy to, ii.

    439, 447, 449.

    Kicn Tsing Kung, ‘ Palace of Heavenly

    Purity,’ Peking, i. 68.

    Kihngan, in Kiangsi, i. 112.

    Ei-lin, or unicorn, i. 342 ; Sz’ma Kwang

    and the pretended, i. 676.

    758 INDEX.

    Kilung, on Formosa Island, i. 1 “7.

    Kin, or Niu-chih (or Nu-chih), Tartars, i.

    202; established in Pi’king, ii. 174;

    inscription at Kii-yung kwan, ii. 176 ;

    overthrow tlie Mings, ii. 178.

    Kinchau, in Shingking, i. I!t3, 195.

    King, Kiiig-tu, Ki>i(/-s.z\ Chinese terms

    for the capital, i. CO, (il.

    King Shan. Prospector Coal Hill, Peking,

    i. 70.

    Kingsmill, T. W., i. 296, 298, 299, 304,

    ii. 159, 40().

    Kingteh chin (Kiangsi), porcelain works

    at, i. lis, ii. 22, 394.

    Kin-sha. ‘ River of Golden Sand,’ a name

    of the Yangtsz’, i. 20, 155.

    Kin Shan, or Altai Mountains, i. 9.

    Kircher. i. 79, 257, ii. 277, 284, 286.

    Kirghis, and Prutli Kirghis, tribes of Ili,

    i. 22() ; in Kashgar, etc., i. 2o(‘), “31.

    Kirin. province of M.anchuria, i. 19()-198;

    town, called Chiien Chwang, i. 197.

    Kishen. governor-general of Cliihli’, interview

    with Captain Elliot at Taku, ii.

    .516 ; apologizes for attack on flag of

    truce, ii. 517 ; negotiation with Captain

    Elliot at the Bogue, ii. 518 ; ordered to

    Peking, ii. 521 ; reprieved and associated

    with Yihlcing, ii. 529.

    Kitai, a Russian form of Ca/Iiai/, i. 4;

    term for (‘hinese in 111, i. 224.

    Kitan, or Liautiing Tartars, oppress the

    After Tsin, ii. 172.

    Kites, flying, a favorite amusement, i.

    820.

    Kiukiang, on the Yangtsz’, captured by

    Tai-pings, ii. .595.

    Kiu-tiao shan, in Shensi, i. 151

    .

    Kiying, Commissioner, his life, i. 459,

    570 ; obtains toleiation for Christians,

    ii 356, 358 ; grants privileges to Macao,

    ii. 430; joint commissioner with llifiu,

    ii. 537; writes to Pottinger, ii. 546;

    signs Nanking treaty, ii. 549; exchanges

    ratifications, ii. .557 ; his proclamation,

    ii. 558 ; includes all foreigners

    under terms of Nanking treaty, ii.

    561 ; interviews with representatives of

    other foreign power.s, ii. 5(15 ; reappointed

    commi.^sioner to meet Mr.

    Gushing, ii. 566; his correspond 3nce on

    case of homicide, ii. 56^ ; concludes a

    treaty with M. de Lagrene’, ii. 571 ; interview

    with Governor Davis on opium

    question, ii. 577 ; action regarding murder

    of l]nglislim(!ii near Canton, ii. 57S;

    disbands companies of braves about

    Canton, ii. 58() ; his sudden apjiearance

    at Tientsin, ii. 6.53 ; his untimely end,

    ii. 654.

    Klaproth, .[., derives name of Tsung ling

    from onions found there, i. 9 ; on (irand

    Canal, i. 3(>-37 ; Peking, i. 62 ; Afemoircs^

    12<.», 141, 188, 193, 204, 213, 226; on

    Tibet, i. 245, 2.54, 285 ; deluge of Yao

    ii. 147; on Tsin, ii. 160, 163, 20.5, 232,

    233,411, 421, 442.

    Koeppen, C. F., on IJuddhism, i. 249, 250,

    ^ii. 229, 259.

    Koko-nor, Tsing hai, or ‘ Azure Sea,’ i.

    35, 209-213.

    Kopi. See Gobi.

    Koro-s, Cosma de. Hungarian author o*

    Tibet, i. 244, 353.

    Kotow, or prostration, Ceremonial Court

    and the, i. 435 ; described, i. 801 ; at

    funerals, ii. 245 ; performed by Dutch

    ambassadors, ii. 435 ; by Ides, ii. 442

    ;

    discussed before Ward’s embassy at

    Peking, ii. 669 ; its importance in audience

    of the Emperor, ii. 712; the ceremony

    yielded in case of foreign minister.

    s, il. 714.

    Ko-tsing shan, in Western Nganhwui, i.

    12.

    Koulkun. See Kwanlun.

    Kowlung, opposite Hongkong Island, i.

    172 ; allVay at, in 1839, ii. 506; ceded to

    the British, ii. 558, ()86.

    Koxinga, his descendants ennobled, i. 406;

    takes Formosa, ii. 180, 435.

    Kreitner, Lieutenant G.,i. 151, 1.58, 213,

    214, 357, 300, 715.

    Kublai khan, i. 176, 181, 281, 318, 3-30;

    his pai)er money, ii. 85; his reign, ii.

    175; receives Montccorvino, ii. 3S7;

    and the Polos, ii^ 420.

    Kuche, a town of Ili, i. 225, ii. 730.

    Kil-jhi, ‘promoted men,’ second degree of

    literary rank, i. 550 ; their number, i.

    5.58 ; military, i. 560, 5()().

    Kuldja (Goul(lja), Kuren, or Hwuiyuen

    ching, capital of Ili, i. 218 ; it^ capture,

    i. 219; occupation by Russia, i. 236,

    ii. 727, 730 ; Friar Pascal at, ii. 289

    ;

    negotiations respecting its cession, ii.

    731-734.

    Kung. Princp, Kunr/ tshi-waiir/ his proper

    title, i. 405; appointed a regent, ii. 184;

    rewards Colonel Gordon, ii. 616; conducts

    negotiations with Elgin at Peking,

    ii. 682 ; signs the treaty, ii. 686 ; iiis coup

    cCttat, ii. 691 ; refuses to ratify Lay’s

    agreement, ii. 694; signs convention respecting

    coolie trade; ii. 698.699; inTicntsin

    riot correspondence, ii. 702, 705

    discusses audience question, ii. 712, 715;

    his son and the succession, ii. 726, 739.

    Ku-peh kau Pass, in Great VV’all, i. 39, 89.

    Kuren (see Urga). i. 204.

    Kur-kara usu (Kingsni ching), town and

    district of Ili, i. 2.iO.

    Kuro-siwo, ocean current, i. 55.

    Kutuktu, lama high-priest in Urga, i. 204.

    Kuyiik khan, Piano Carpiiii’s embassy to,

    ii. 415.

    Kuzupchi, sand-hills on Desert of Gobi, i

    16.

    INDEX. 759

    Kii-V’ing Kwan, gateway at,, ii. ITfi.

    Kwangsi, an unhealthy province, i. 55 ;

    its position and proilucts, i. 17(5; rise of

    Tai-ping Rebellion in, ii. 5′.’0-595.

    Kwangsii, his succession to the throne, i.

    398, 404 ; his reign, ii. 185, 186 ; his accession,

    ii. 7′.iC.

    Kwaiigtung, considered unhealthj’, i. 5.^ ;

    description and towns of, i. 158-1 Tfi;

    revenue of, i. 290 ; resists the Manchu

    conquest, ii. 179; missions in, ii. o48 ;

    rebels in, ii. (i04, C;JO.

    Kwanlun, or Koulkun Mountains, position

    and extent, i. 11 ; mineral treasures,

    i. 12 ; source of Yangtsz’, i. 20.

    Kwanyin, (Joddess of Mercy, temple to,

    in Kwangtung, i. 175.

    Kweichau province, 1. 55 ; description of,

    i. 1 78-180.

    Kweiliang, Commissioner, meets allies at

    Tientsin, ii. (iSl ; sent to Shanghai to

    revise tariff, ii. 057 ; refuses to accompany

    the allies to Taku, ii. Wi ; discusses

    the audience question with Minister

    Ward, ii. (i()9; sent to intercept-

    Elgin at Tientsin, ii. 677 ; his support

    to Prince Kung, ii. (>91.

    Kweilin, capital of Kv/angsi, i. 177; attacked

    by Tai-pings. ii. 595.

    Kn’oh hao, national designation, period,

    or reign name of Emperor, i. 398.

    LACHARME, Pere, 1. 643.

    Lacquered-ware, Hwuichau, i. 110;

    its manufacture, ii. 30 ; export, ii. 394.

    Ladak not a Chinese possession, i. 13.

    Lagrene, French envoy to China, ii. 309 ;

    obtains toleration for Christians through

    Kiying, li. 355, 357 ; his mission in

    1844, ii. 441 ; concludes treaty of

    Whampoa with Kiying, ii. 571.

    Lakes, of China, i. 23 ; of Hupeh, i. 143 ;

    of ill’, i. 216-317 ; of Tibet, i. 240.

    Lama, mausoleum to a, Peking, i. 79.

    Lamasary ( Yumj-lio Kung) at Peking, i.

    to.

    Lanchau, capital of Kansuh, i. 154.

    Land, how held, ii. 1-3.

    Landscape, appearance of, in China, i. 40.

    Land tax in China, i. 294, 739.

    Language, of Tibet, i. 253 ; proportion of

    readers in China, i. .544 ; Chinese, its

    groups of natural objects, i. 372 ; labor

    of learnin;,^ its characters, i. .541 ; an obstacle

    to progress, i. 568 ; its influence

    upon people and literature, i. 579, ii. 190;

    origin of, i. 581 ; misaj>prehciision regarding,

    i. 605 ; dialects, Mandarin and

    local, i. 611-616 ; its grammar, i. 617 ; defects,

    i. 621 ; methods of studying, i. 623 ;

    an obstacle to missions, ii. 370 ; ignorance

    of, by earlj’ traders, ii. 450, 453.

    Lange, Laurent, his residence at Peking,

    IL 442.

    Lanterns, feast and variety of, i. 817.

    Lantsan River, in Yunnan, L 181.

    Larks as song birds, i. 333.

    Lau-tsz’, founder of Taoism, i. 684 ; hifl

    life, ii. 2U6 ; and teaching.s, ii. 207-214.

    Lavallc’e, C, ii. 647, 654, 684, 685.

    Laws, of China, i. 384 ; reports pf, 385 ;

    Penal Code, 3S5-393 ; their administration.

    Chap. VIII.; as a profession, i.

    ‘(83 ; controlling marriage, i. 793.

    Lav, C. T., i. 60.5, 606, 715, 822, ii. 102,

    103, 117, 330.

    Lay, H. N., appointed intendant of customs,

    ii. 62.S ; his tiotilla fiasco, ii. 692.

    Lay, W. T., ii. 621.

    Leather, quality and uses of, ii. 39.

    Le Comte, i. 289, 509, ii. 285, 295.

    Le (iendre, C. W., i. 140, ii. 717.

    Legge, Dr. James, i. 398, 537, 627, 639,

    633, 634, 635, 636, 638 ff., 648, 603, 671,

    674, 681, 703, 809, ii. 73, 143, 144, 147,

    198, 213, 237, 347. 372.

    Legislation, general features of, i. 391-

    394.

    Li Hung-Chang, Governor-General, concurrence

    in reorganizing the ‘ Ever-Victorious

    force,’ ii. 611 ; executes surrendered

    wangs at Suchau, ii. 615 ; his

    position there, ii. 616 ; dis.solves the

    ‘ Ever- Victorious force,’ ii. 618; and

    Sir T. Wade in the Chifu convention,

    ii. 734 ; denounces the treaty of Livadia,

    ii. 733 ; co-operates with foreigners

    in relief of Great Famine, ii. 735.

    Li Tai-peh, a poet of the Tang dynasty,

    story of, i. 696-703 ; extent of his collected

    poems, i. 704.

    Liang dynasty, the Xlllth, ii. 166 ; After

    Liang, XVIIth dynasty, ii. 171.

    Liang A-fah, Morrison’s first convert, ii.

    321 ; his labors and persecution, ii. 328,

    347, 371 ; his tracts fall into the hands

    of Hung Siu-tsuen, ii. .582, 589.

    Liau River (?>ira-muren), in Manchuria,

    i. 190.

    Liau, Tartar tribe, ii. 173, 174.

    Library at Peking, i. 69 ; its catalogue, i.

    62().

    Li E . or ‘ Book of Rites,’ i. 643-647, 805,

    ii. 196.

    Li-kilt., or ‘ cash a catty’ tax, i. 444.

    Lilies, varieties of, i. 361 ; eaten, i. 773.

    Li Miu, ‘ Black-haired Race,’ common

    name for Chinese, i. 5 ; a tribe on Hainan

    Island, i. 176.

    Lime, made from shells, i. 307 ; use in

    building, i. 729 ; how burned, ii. 56.

    Li-mn, aboriginal tribe, i. 41 ; iu Hainan,

    i. 44 ; mountains, i. 1.59.

    Li shui River, in Hunan, i. 147.

    Lin Tseh-si), Commissioner, geography of,

    i. 50 ; and the rhubarb trade, i. 365

    ;

    career of, i. 457, 4()4, 473, ii. 184 ; ar*

    rives at Canton, ii. 497 ; demands sur«

    760 IlS^DEX.

    render of opirnn, ii. 40S; imprisons

    foreigners in factories, ii. 50() ; an example

    of his i)nl)lic writings, ii. 501 ;

    visits Macao, ii. oO(i ; his reason for demanding

    Mr. Dent, ii. 508 ; reply to

    American request, ii. 514 ; offers rewards

    for British, ii. 510 ; his recall, ii.

    510; memorializes the P^mpcror against

    peaceful measures, ii. 518; recalled from

    hanishmcnt, ii. 5rJ9 ; his death, ii. S’JO.

    Lindsay, H. H., i. 481.

    Lintin, Sir G. Robiuson among opium

    smugglers at, ii. 479 ; Captain Elliot ordered

    to send opium smugglers away

    from, ii. 491.

    Lin-tsing-chau, in Shantung, i. 93.

    Lion, tlie, in China, i. ol7.

    Liquor little used in China, i. 808.

    Literati, or literary class, the gentry of

    China, its influence, i. 520, 5()”2 ; and

    religious sects, i. (391 ; persecuted by

    Tsin, ii. 1()2 ; their opposition to Buddhism,

    ii. 2;2o, 237 ; to Christianity, ;J69.

    Literature, Chinese geographical, i. 50

    ;

    classical, size and importance, i. 020

    five greater, i. 027-052, and four lesser

    classics, i. 052-072 ; works on history, i.

    075; historical novels, etc., i. 077; fiction,

    i. 094, ballads and impromptu

    verses, L 705; dramas, i. 714; its limits

    and deficiencies, i. 718; of Chinese

    music, ii. 98; flourishes under the

    Hans, ii. 164; foreign missionary, ii.

    367.

    Ljilngstedt, Sir A., i. 171, ii. o33, 428;

    his liistory of Macao, ii. 4o().

    Lob-nor, Desert of, i. 16 ; Lake, 1. • 24,

    222-223.

    Lobscheid, Rev. W., i. 271, 615.

    Loch, Captain G. G., i. 105, ii. 302, .53(),

    541, 543, .547, .5.50.

    Loch, Henry, experiences at Tungchau,

    ii. 678 ; capture and imprisonment at

    Peking, ii. ()80, CSl ; is returned to the

    English, ii. 084, 085.

    Lockhart, Dr. Wm., ii. 123, 139, 134,300,

    336, 339, 350, 354.

    Locusts, occasional ravages of, i. 351

    edict against, i. 460 ; character for, i.

    587 ; Father Faber’s miracle of the, ii.

    290.

    Loess, roads in, i. .38, 97; of Shanst, i.

    95; of Shensi, i. 149; extent of, in

    China, i. 297; its nature, i. 298-300;

    dwellings in, i. 301 ; Richthofen’s theory

    of origin, i. 303; terraces, ii. 0;

    great famine in the region, ii. 734.

    Loll (or Fo Loll) River, in Sz’chuen, i. 15,5.

    Lohyang, made the capital by Siangkwan,

    i.’S, ii. 159, 102, 104, 108, 174; and

    Buddhism, ii. 218, 411.

    Lolos race, in Sz’chuen, i. 43, 158 ; in

    Yunnan, i. 183.

    Longevity, Temple of, at Canton, i. 104.

    Loomis, Rev. A. W., i. 703, ii. 350.

    Lotus, highly esteemed, i. 308.

    Low, Hon. P. F., United States Ministef

    to China, ii. 700 ; concerning sentiment

    toward foreigners at Tientsin, ii. 704

    ;

    his reply to Wansiang’s note, ii. 708 ; on

    audience question, ii. 713, 714 ; thanked

    bv Prince Kuiig, ii. 739.

    Lowrie, \V. M., i. 7.55, ii. 287, 350, 368.

    Lu, governor of Kwangt>ung, opposes Napier’s

    coming to Canton, ii. 464 ; rejects

    iiis letter, ii. 467 ; stops the trade, ii.

    471, 473 ; his succes.sor Tang, ii. 481.

    Luhchau, on female education, i. .574 ; instance

    of reproving a mother-in-law, i.

    795.

    Lukan Gorge, on Yangt-sz’, i. 146.

    Ltinfi, or dragon of the Chinese, i. 344;

    carried in procession, i. 818.

    Lung River, in Fuhkien, i. 129.

    Lung-tsiien, in Shansi, i. 95.

    Lute, or kln^ a favorite instrument, ii. 99.

    “\ r A TSUPU, marine goddess, temple

    ItL to, at Ningpo, i. 123; and the Virgin,

    ii. 316.

    MaTwan-lin, his Antiquarian Rcsearclies,

    i. 259-205, 081 ; list of comets, ii. 73.

    Macao, climate of, i. 54 ; description of,

    i. 170; governor of Canton retires to,

    from pirates, ii. 183; Ricci in, ii. 390;

    Tournon imprisoned in, ii. .302 ; Mrs.

    Gutzlaft”s school at, ii. 345 ; smuggling

    trade in opium at, ii. 378 ; origin of the

    settlement and name, ii. 438 ; recent

    history, ii. 4oO ; the Dutch repulsed before,

    ii. 433 ; English man-of-war at, ii.

    448 ; their troops occupy, ii. 4.5(i ; Lord

    Napier reaches, ii. 404; Elliot and the

    English retire to, ii. .500 ; Lin’s soldiers

    repiiLsed at, iL 51(j ; Kiying goes to, ii.

    507 ; becomes a resort of smugglers, ii.

    034 ; of coolie traders, ii . 002 ; finally

    closed to the coolie trade, ii. 715.

    Macartney, Lord, i. 402, 431, 452, 454;

    his embassy to Peking, ii. 4.54.

    Macgowan, Dr. D. J., ii. 3.50, 388.

    Ma-chin, from Mah<i-china, ‘ Great

    China,’ its Hindu name, i. 3.

    Mackie, J. Milton, ii. 002, 624.

    Macy, Wm. A., ii. 344.

    Magaillans (Magalhaens), Pere Gabriel, i.

    04, 289, 473, 589, 817, ii. 297; his embassy,

    ii. 429.

    Mahdbhdrata, name China occurs in the,

    i. 2.

    Mail I a, J-A-M. de M., ii 34. 7.3, 137, 152,

    309, 413.

    Maimai chin, of Urga, i. 204 ; of Kiakhta,

    i. 207, ii. 443.

    Malacca, Protestant missions in, ii. 323i

    324.

    Malte Brun, estimate of Eighteen Prov

    inces, i. 8, 296.

    INDEX. r6i

    Manchu, physical traits, i. 44 ; Empprors

    pul>lish the I’eiial Code, i. 385 ; nobility,

    i. 3S7; and education system, i. 521,

    5()0 ; and Chinese poem, i. 598 ; alter

    the Chinese head-dress, i. 761 ; names,

    how written, i. 79S ; military endeavors

    of their Emperors, ii. 9:3 ; peculiar dread

    of foreign invasion, ii. 6-1;*.

    Manchuria, one of the three grand divisions,

    i. 7 ; extent of, i. LS7 ; watercourses

    and mountains, i. 188-191

    ;

    three provinces, i. 191-‘2O0; climate, i.

    195; adndnistration of government, i.

    199; by native nobles, i. 40().

    Manchus, their ancestors the Kins, ii.

    174 ; overthrow the Mings, ii. 178 ; their

    government better than the Mings, ii.

    185; and the Triad Society, ii. 2(57;

    close China to foreign trade, ii. 420

    ;

    terrible destruction of, at Chinldang,

    ii. 542 ; as rulers of China, ii. 580 ; national

    dislike of, and Tai-ping revolt,

    ii. 596.

    Mandarin ducks, fidelity of, i. 340 ; as an

    emblem, ii. 112.

    Mandarin, derivation of word, i. 417.

    Mandarin (or court) dialect, the kwan

    hwa, i. 613; the Bible in, ii. 364.

    Mangu khan, successor of Kuyuk, mission

    of Rubruquis to, ii. 418 ; of King

    Hayton to, ii. 420.

    Manji, tribes in Yunnan, i. 4.

    Manning, T., mission of, to Tiljet in

    1811, i. 246.

    Mausoleum, of Grand Lama at Peking, i.

    79 ; at Teshu Lumbo, i. 252 ; of Chinese

    Emperors, ii. 248.

    Munu, Laws of] mention of China in, i.3.

    Manures, preparation of, ii. 8.

    Marble, uses of, i. 307; slabs, etc., exported,

    ii. 394.

    Marco Polo. See Polo.

    Margary, A. R., i. 184; sent from Hankow

    to Bhamo, ii. 721 ; his murder, ii.

    722 ; its subsequent investigation, ii.

    723, 734.

    Marriage, customs in Tibet, i. 251 ; in

    Puhkien, i. 785-791 ; good sense of the

    laws controlling, i. 793 ; and ancestral

    worship, ii. 239 ; of Emperor Tungchi,

    ii. 710.

    Marshall, Thos., ii. 287, 307, 318.

    Marshman, J., i. 657, ii. 320; his term

    for baptism, ii. 363.

    Martin, R. M., i. 120, 285, ii. 406, 443,

    562 ; his proposition regarding Chusan,

    ii. 580.

    Martin, Dr. W. A. P., i. 20, 435, 550, 551,

    559, ii. 217, 372, 741.

    Match-makers employed in marriages, i.

    785, ‘586.

    Matting, grass grown for, i. 357 ; manufacture

    and uses of, ii. 61 ; export of,

    ii. 395.

    Mavers, W. F., i. 438, 753, ii. 90, 185,

    217, 348.

    Maximo witch. CarlJ., i. 296, 355.

    McCarthy, Justin, ii. 565; estimate of

    Bowring and Parkes, ii. 6:34, 637 ; on

    results of the w.ar, ii. 687.

    McCarty, Dr. D. B., ii. 350.

    McClatchie, Rev. Canon T., i. 633, 633;

    ii. 142, 200.

    McCulloch’s area of China, i. 5 ; of the

    Eighteen Provinces, i. 8 ; population on

    Plain, i. 28 ; Mongols, i. 45 ; popula-»

    tion, i. 285.

    Meadows, T. T., i. 192, 494, ii. 3, 596.

    597. 624.

    Measures of length, weight, etc., ii. 81.

    Meats seen upon Chinese tables, i. 776.

    Mechanical arts, and implements, ii. 18;

    attainments in, ii. 117.

    Medhurst, W. H., i. 12.5, 2(15, 271, 278,

    290, 530, 615, 634, 636, 685, 755, 809.

    ii. 28, 151, 214, 258, 295, 321, 336, 329,

    330, 352, .354, 3(i3, 369; his Tai-ping

    translations, ii. 594, 623.

    Medicine, practice better than theories

    of, i. 377 ; its profession in Chinese

    society, i. 783 ; attainments in, ii. 118-

    134.

    Mei ling, in Kwangtung, i. 12.

    ]VIoi Shan, or ‘ Coal Hill,’ Peking, i. 70.

    Mencius, birthplace of, i. 90 ; praises the

    Chiui Tsiu, i. 649 ; life of, i. 666 ; his

    doctrines, i. 66S-672 ; and early Emperors,

    ii. 146; writings burned, ii. 161 ;

    a saint, ii. 201, 237.

    Mendacity of the Chinese, i. 834.

    Metals and metallurgy, ii. 1 S ; knowledge

    of, ii. lis.

    Metaphysics of Chu Hi and tendency of

    Chinese thought, i. 6S3-(i85.

    Meteorology of China, i. 51-.55.

    ATi’ao hao, or ancestral name of Emperor,

    i. 399.

    Miaotsz’, i. 41 ; sa?:.ff and sliuh, i. 43, lli},

    177, 179-180; tankla descendants of, at

    Canton, i. 412 ; songs, ii. 95 ; Hung

    Siu-tsuen among, ii. 587.

    Michie, A., i. 20.5.

    Middle Kingdom, Chung Kwoh, a name

    for China since B.C. 11.50, i. 4.

    Military, control of, in provinces, i. 444 ;

    examinations among the, i. 560 ; architecture

    in China, i. 758 ; science, ii. 88.

    Milk little used, i. 77(5.

    Millet, Italian {Setaria”, in Shingking, L

    191 ; much eaten in the North, i. 772.

    Milne, Rev. Wm. C, i. 121, 494, .508, 686,

    744, 745, 746, il 132, 339, 231, 265, 369,

    350.

    Milne, Dr. W.. ii. 325 ; arrives in China,

    ii. 319; at Malacca, ii. 323, 368.

    Min River, in Fuhkien, i. 128; in Sz’chuen,

    i. 154, 155.

    Minerals, probably abundant in Kwan’

    r62 INDEX.

    lun, i. 12; of Shantung, i. 93; of

    Yunnan, i. 183 ; of the Empire, i. 304-

    310.

    Ming dynasty, its period, ii. 177-179; table

    of Emperors, ii. 1S6 ; trade during,

    ii. 373.

    Ming ti, Emperor, ii. 163 ; introduces

    Buddhism, ii. 21 S, 229.

    Mint, its management, i. 428 ; one in

    every province, ii. 83.

    Mirrors, Chinese magic, ii. 20; to cure

    maniacs, ii. 2.50.

    Missionaries, letter from Romish, concerning

    Chinese boat life, i. 751 ; they teach

    mathematics at Peking, ii. 07 ; under

    Kanghi, ii. 181 ; Buddhist, their influence,

    ii. 189 ; Mcsiem, ii. 268 ; Nestorian,

    ii. 275, 2Sr) ; Roman Catholic, ii.

    287 ; their conduct in China, ii. 305

    ;

    the first Protestant, ii. 318 ; female,

    their influence, ii. 304 ; information derived

    from French, ii. 440 ; French, beheaded

    ia Kwangsi, ii. 642 ; British,

    address to Lord Elgin, ii. 649 ; their

    influence in Peking, ii. 689 ; massacre

    of French, at Tientsin, ii. 700 ; American,

    frightened away from Tangchau,

    ii. 705 ; Chinese grievances against, ii.

    701) ; their devotion during the great

    famine, ii. 736.

    Missions, earliest Christian, to China, the

    Nestorians, ii. 275-286 ; Roman Catholic

    : first period, ii. 287-289 ; second period,

    ii. 289-304 ; decrease after edict of

    Yuiigching, ii. 394 ; statistics of Catholic,

    ii. :)07 ; their literary and educational

    labors, ii, 309 ; Protestant, introduced

    by MorrLson, ii. 318; among

    Chinese emigrants in the Archipelago,

    ii. 323 ; their hospital practice, ii.

    333-340 ; condition of Protestant, at

    Morrison’s death, ii. 340 ; conference

    of, in 1877, ii. 3(;5 ; ob.stacles and encouragements

    to, ii. 3fi8 ; Russian, established

    at Peking, ii. 443 ; problem

    of foreign, in China, rules suggested, ii.

    707.

    Mobs, fear of, in Peking, i. 84; attack

    British troops before Canton, ii.

    523 ; attack tiie factories, ii. 495, 556,

    50S.

    Mohammedan, name for China, Timg

    Tu, i. 5 ; mosque in Peking, i. 74

    in Hangchau, i. 119; rebellion in 1865-

    73, i. 149, 154, 2(i9 ; sect in China, ii.

    268-271 ; insurrection in Kansuh suppressed,

    ii. 709; uprising in Yunnan

    province, ii. 719 ; rebellion in Eastern

    Turkestan, ii. 727-731.

    Mohammedans, in Kuldja, i. 219; in

    B ikur, i. 225 ; first come to China, ii.

    268; the sect in tlie Empire, 270; found

    by Ibn Batuta, ii. 422 ; universal uprising

    of, ii. 730.

    Monetary system of the Chinese, ii. 83,

    Mongol, race characteristics, i. 144;

    derivation of name, i. 202 ; dynasty

    (Yuen) and paper money, ii. 8.5, 177;

    regime, ii. 175; Buddhists, ii. 229,

    233.

    Mongolia, position and climate, i. 200-

    202 ; divisions—Inner Mongolia, i. 202-

    204 ; Outer Mongolia, i. 204-209 ; Kokonor,

    i. 209-213 ; outljing towns, i.

    213-21.5.

    Mongols, their number, i. 45; religion.

    Shamanism, ii. 233 ; tolerate the Nestorians,

    ii. 280 ; and first period of

    Catholic missions, ii. 288 ; their conquests

    in Europe, and the embassies to,

    ii. 415.

    Monkeys of China, i. 314-316.

    Monsoons on coast, i. .53-54.

    Moutecorvino, John of, ii. 271 ; goes to

    Cathay, ii. 287, 421 ; found in Peking

    by Friar Odoric, ii. 423.

    Moon, an eclipse at Canton, i. 819; symbols

    of, ii. 73, 74.

    Morals of the Chinese stage, i. 824.

    Morrison, J. R., ii. 332, 342, 345, 363 ; revi’ard

    offered for, ii. 520 ; services as an

    interpreter, ii. 547, 548, 556 ; his death,

    ii. 560

    Morrison, Dr. Robert, i. 230, 265-269,

    282, 284, 523, 524, 5:^0. 559, 603, 622,

    624, 074, 801, 817, ii. 227; his life, ii.

    318; and-Ricci compared, ii. 322,333,

    333, 303, 453, 458, 459.

    Morrison Education Society, ii. 341.

    Mosques, at Kuldja, i. 218 ; near Moslem

    pagoda in C;inton, i. 745 ; notice of, at

    Ningpo, ii. 269.

    Mountains, of China, its frontier, i. 9

    ;

    its four great ranges, i. 10; Pnmpelly’s

    ” Sinian Sy.stem,” i. 14 ; passes

    in, i. 39 ; of Manchuria, i. 188.

    Mourning, cards, i. 802 ; customs in

    China, ii. 249, 250.

    Mukden, capital of Shingking, i. 87

    desci-iption of, i. 192 ; money remitted

    to, i. 295 ; Kienlung’s elegy on, i.

    598.

    Mulberry and silk worms, ii. 10.

    Mules, fine, in China, i. 323.

    2TuH-pai, or ‘ door-tablet ‘ for the census,

    i. 283, 388.

    Murray, Hugh, i. 309, ii. 137, 1.52, 400,

    410.

    Murui-ussu, ‘Tortuous River,’ i. 20.

    Music, in Tibet, i. 25:1; Board of, i. 424 A

    works on, in the ratalogue, i. 072; style

    j and principles of Chinese, ii. 93-98 ; m-j

    • strumcnts of, ii. 99-104. /

    Musk, and mu.sk-deer in China, i. 332 ;

    exporte<l, ii. 395.

    Myths and legends, of the Chinese, ii.

    70; of the creation, ii. 138-142 ;TaoiBt,

    ii. 210 ; Buddhist, ii. 222.

    llSTDEX. 763

    NAILS worn long on fingers, i. TOO.

    Names, for China, i. 2-5, ii. 408 ; ancestral,

    of Emperor, i. ;!99; how inilicated

    in books, i. fJ’il ; changed at marriage,

    i. 788 ; several, during life, i. T’.IT

    ; periphrases

    in use for. i. )S0o ; for jiorcelain,

    ii. ‘2’i ; for tea, ii. 45 ; for opium, ii. 87o.

    Nanchang, cajjital of Kiaugsi, i. 113;

    Ricci in, ii. 2W.

    Nanhiung, in Kwangtimg, i. 174.

    Nan-kan, ‘South Gate,’ in Great Wall,

    i. 14, 81.

    Nankeen, a cotton cloth, ii. 37 ; decrease

    in export of, ii. o95.

    Nanking, climate of, i. 52 ; description of,

    i. 100; Porcelain Tower of, i. 102; its

    iKiiikce/i cloth, ii. 37 ; stone animals at,

    ii. 115; capital of one of the ‘Three

    States,’ A.D. 211, ii. 1(54; pillaged by

    the Kin, ii. 175; capital of the Ming,

    ii. 177 ; Ricci in, ii. ~90 ; the English

    before, ii. 545 ; treaty of, ii. 549

    ;

    Hung Siu-tsuen proclaimed Emperor

    (Tien-teh) at, ii. 584 ; rebel capture of,

    ii. 59*’) ; their stress in, ii. (505 ; taken by

    imperialists, ii. 020.

    Nan ling, ‘Southern Mountains,’ a continuation

    of the Yun ling, i. 12.

    Nan shall, in Kwangtuiig, i. 159; in

    Koko-nor, i. 211.

    Napier, John, mentioned in a Chinese treati.

    se, ii. 07.

    Napier, Lord, superintendent of trade,

    his arrival, ii. 4(54; letter to (Governor

    Lu rejected, ii. 407; contest with the

    governor, ii. 471 ; retires from Canton

    and dies suddenh-, ii. 474.

    Nari ( A-li), a division of Tibet, i. 244, 2.56.

    Navarette, a Dominican friar, and the

    Jesuits, ii. 300.

    Natural history, study of, in China, i.

    290 ; geology, i. ‘297-313 ; zoology, i.

    313-340 ; ichthyology, i. 340-351 ; insects,

    i. 351-354; botany, i. 355-370;

    the Pun-tsao, or Herbal, i. 371-376

    ;

    condition of the science in China, i.

    377-379.

    Niu-chih, or Kin Tartars, i. 202 ; ancestors

    of Manchus, ii. 174.

    Navy, control of, interchanged with army,

    i. 445, 496, 502 ; Lay’s flotilla fiasco, ii.

    ()92.

    Nestor’an, monument at Si-ngan, i. 151,

    ii 27(i ; missionaries at court of Taitsung,

    ii. 1(J9 ; during the Yuen, ii. 280 ;

    oppose Corvino, ii. 287 ; missionaries

    come with traders, ii. 411 ; priest and

    Rubruquis, ii. 418.

    Nevius, J. L., i. 810, ii. 217.

    Newspapers (see also I’ck’uKj Gazette) and

    chea]) type.s, i. 005 ; edited by Protestant

    missionaries, ii. 341.

    New Year, festival and ceremonies, i. 810-

    810 ; its date, ii. 70,

    Nganhwui province, i. 108.

    Nganking, or Anking, in Nganhwui, i.

    110; taken by Tai-pings, ii. .595 ; their

    march to relief of, ii. 007 ; captured by

    imperialists, ii. 008.

    N)ng[)o, tempeiature at, i. 53; description

    of, i. 120-123; the to niin of, 1.

    412; l)irthday fete at, i. 814; spring

    festival, ii. 14 ; cannon found at, ii.

    02; the cholera at, ii. 132; nunneries

    at, ii. 231 ; foundling hospital, ii. 205 ;

    its mosque, ii. 269 ; missions at, ii. 350 ;

    Portuguese at, ii. 428 ; its capture by

    the British, ii. 527 ; attemi)t at recapture,

    ii. 531, ii. 573; during Tai-ping

    Rebellion, ii. 008, 009.

    Nieuwhof (or Nieuhoff), J., ii. 3, 428;

    account of the fall oi Fort Zealandia,

    ii. 436.

    Nitre common in China, i. 308.

    Niu Kien, Governor-General, conduct at

    Wusung, ii. 535, 537 ; British offer, opj)

    ortanity of ransoming Nanking, ii.

    544 ; joint letter to Pottinger, ii. 546.

    Niuchwang (Yingtsz’), in Shingking, L

    194, 751.

    Nobility, Manchu and Chinese, i. 387

    ;

    orders of, i. 406.

    Notation, Chinese arithmetical, ii. 66

    musical, ii. 94.

    Novels, Tibetan, i. 251 ; and tales in Chinese

    literature, i. 692; character of

    Chinese fiction, i. 095.

    Nui Hing-an ling, or Sialkoi Mountains,

    west of the Amur, i. 1 3.

    Numerals, Chinese, i. 619 ; limitations to

    use of, ii. 60.

    Nuns, Buddhist, at Canton, i. 105 ; and

    nunneries, ii. 230.

    Nii-rh Yu, ‘ Words for Women and

    Girls,’ a school-book, L 577.

    OBEISANCE, sundry degrees of, i.

    801.

    Observatory at Peking, i. 72; and the

    Jesuit missionaries, ii. 298.

    Odes, the Book of (see Shi Kinrj, i. 686,

    etc.), ‘for children,’ the Yin Hioh Shitlrh,

    i. 533 ; in Nestorian inscription at

    Si-ngan, ii. 282.

    Odoric, Friar, i. 302 ; on casting out

    devils, ii. 314; his journey to Cathay,

    ii. 422.

    Officers, in China, their extortions, i. 278 ;

    nine ranks, i. 413-415 ; and Board of

    Civil Office, i. 421 ; provincial, i. 438-

    448; checks upon, i. 449; their character

    and position, i. 451 ; their establishments,

    i. 503 ; compelled to e.xtortion,

    i. 510 ; of education, i. 548 ; dresses, i.

    703 ; formalities of meeting, i. 805

    ;

    their religious duties, ii. 201-205 ; instance

    of their functions, ii. ‘230 ; of

    their corruption, ii. 378 ; of theil

    764 INDEX.

    methods, ii. 557; attitude toward foreigners

    at close of the opium war,

    ii. 575.

    Oling Lake, in Koko-nor, i. 18.

    Oliphant, Lawrence, i. 400, ii. 644, 647,

    654, 0()0.

    Olives (the Pimela), so-called, of China,

    i. o()5, 775.

    Olyphant & Co., their assistance to missionaries,

    ii. o2S, hiSO, 342.

    Oineto Fiih, Buddhist prayer, i. 125.

    Om maiu padiiii hum, its meaning, i.

    349.

    Opium, smuggling incident, i. 477 ; its

    increase under Taukwang, ii. 184; introduction

    and names of, ii. 37y ; cultivation

    in India, ii. o74 ; preparation

    and sale, ii. o76 ; manner of smoking,

    ii. 381 ; its effects, li. 384 ; value of the

    trade, ii. 3S7, 430 ; Robinson’s paper

    on smuggling, ii. 479 ; proposal to

    legalize, ii. 48’3 ; the matter referred to

    Canton, ii. 480 ; prohibitory laws severely

    enforced, ii. 490 ; increase of smuggling,

    ii. 492 ; demanded by Lin, ii.

    498 ; surrendered, ii. 502 ; and destroyed,

    ii. 504 ; sales recommence, ii. 506 , Pottinger’s

    position regarding, ii. 538 ; his

    discussions on, with commissioners, ii.

    5.50 ; smuggling and the port of Hongkong,

    ii. 558 ; laissez fairc policy of

    British and Chinese after first war. ii.

    501, 577 ; increase of smuggling, ii. 033 ;

    legalized in revised tariff, ii. 0.57.

    Oranges, many varieties of, at Canton, i.

    774.

    Osbeck, Peter, his voyage to China, ii.

    461.

    Onchterlony, Lieutenant J., his Chinese

    \Vio\n. .551, 574.

    Oysters common along the coast, i. 350

    ;

    their quality, i. 780.

    PAGODA, Porcelain, at Nankin* i.

    1 02 ; and dagoba in China, i. 743 ;

    purpose and construction, i. 745 ; plain,

    at Canton, ii. 209.

    J’ai-laii, in Peking, i. 83 ; their purpose

    and construction, i. 7.50-7.58 ; to commemorate

    British retreat from Canton,

    ii. 620.

    Painting, as a fine art in China, ii. 105

    examples of illustrations, ii. 100-116

    on pith paper, ii. 113. For reproductions

    of Chinese, see the two frontispieces

    of these volumes.

    Pakhoi, port in Kwanj^tung, i. 175.

    Palace, of Emijcror, at Peking, i. 65-69 ; of

    Yuen mitig Yuen, i. 80; life and arrangements

    of, i. 407.

    Palafox, Bishop, i. 162.

    Palisade boundary between Chihli and

    Shingking, i. 25, 187.

    PalladiuB, Archimandrite, ii. 277, 285.

    Palms, fan, cocoanut, etc., i. 300.

    Palti, or Yamorouk Lake, in Tibet, i. 25.

    Panthay insurrection in Yunnan province,

    ii. 719.

    Pao-ho tien, ‘ Hall of Secure Peace,’ in

    Peking, i. 68.

    Pao-tch, on Yellow River, and chief anticlinal

    axes of Sinian system, i. 14.

    Paper, in China, history and varieties of,

    i. 599 ; used for window glass, i. 732

    ;

    collected by priests, ii. 257 ; burned for

    spirits, ii. 257.

    Paper monej’, in Fulichan, i. 132 ; Polo’s

    delight over, ii. 85 ; and Yuen dynasty,

    ii. 177; mentioned by Ibn Batuta, ii.

    422.

    Parker, Admiral Sir William, arrives

    from England, ii. 524.

    Parker, Dr. P., i. 706, ii. 124, 325; his

    hospital at Canton, ii. 333-337, 567,

    639.

    Parkes. Sir Harry, ii. 29 ; McCarthy’s

    estimate of, ii. 634 ; action in the Arrow

    case, ii. 635-637, 040; one of

    commission to govern C.mton, ii. 046 ;

    his ability, ii. 047; experiences _ at

    Tungchau, ii. 078 ; his capture and imprisonment,

    ii. 080.

    Pascal, a Spanish friar, missionary to

    Kuldja, ii. 289, 424.

    Patriarchal feature of government, i. 381.

    Panting, in Chihli, i. 85.

    Pauthier, G., i. 05, 84, 043, 003, 674, iL

    34, 85, 87, 137, 149, 150, 101, 307, 210,

    212, 280, 413, 419, 713.

    Pauying Lake, in Kiangsu, i. 100.

    Pavif. T., i. 096.

    Pavilion, prominent feature of Chinese

    architecture, i. 730.

    Pawnbrokers’ establishments, ii. 86.

    Peacocks reared throughout China, i. 337.

    Pearl River, in Kwangtung, i. 22, 1.59;

    duck-hatching on, i. 778 ; pirates on,

    during this century, ii. 183 ; kept open

    by foreigners, ii. 630.

    Pearls, genuine and artificial, i. 350.

    Pechele (for Pch-rhihli), sometimes used

    for Chihli, i. 00.

    Peepnl, or 7J?<-^i tree {Ficus religiosa),

    worshipped, ii. 259. .

    Pell ling, ‘ Northern Mountains,’ in

    Kwanlun system, i. 12.

    Peh-ta -sz’, ‘ White Pagoda Temple,’ Peking,

    i. 75.

    Pehtang, Americans urged to go to. ii.

    ()(J5 ; they repair to Peking, via, ii. (i08

    ;

    Ho asks Englisli to exchange treaties

    at, 072 ; allies land and capture, ii. 073.

    Pei iio, and towns on its banks, i. 85-86;

    allied fleet reach, ii. 649 ; repulse at

    battle of, ii. 0()6.

    Peking, climate of, i. 51 ; situation, area,

    and history, i. ()0-64 ; walls, i. (i4

    ;

    ‘ Prohibited City,’ i. 05 ; plan of, i. 66,*

    INDEX. 765

    palaces, i. 07-60; ‘Imporial City,’ i.

    G9 ; parks, public buildings, temples, i.

    69-T!>; Altar to Heaven, i. 7<); otlier

    temples, i. 78 ; summer palace, i. 80 ;

    streets, city government, life, i. 81-84 ;

    dogs of, i. yi9 ; crows about, i. 3H4

    State school at, i. 543 ; examinations

    for isin-sz’ degree, i. 558 ; Pih-yung

    Kung, i. 73, 730 ; street scenes in, i.

    741 ; carts used by royalty in, i. 747 ;

    compressed feet in, i. 770 ; marriage

    processions at, i. 7S9 ; fireworks in, i.

    817; ploughing ceremony at, ii. 13; its

    medical college {T’ai-i Yucit), ii. 121 ;

    taken by the Mongols, ii. 175; by the

    Mings, ii. 177, 178; Barrow on infanticide

    in, ii. 240 ; funerals in, ii. 345,

    2.50; Moslems in, ii. 2(59; Catholics first

    established in, ii. 287 ; Ricci goes to,

    ii. 291 ; medical instruction at, ii. 33′.)

    Friar Odoric visits, ii. 423 ; Van

    Hoorn’s embassy to, ii. 438 ; Russian

    mission at, ii. 443 ; Tai-ping expedition

    against, ii. 597 ; Ward’s visit to,

    ii. 6′)9 ; allied troops at, ii. (382, 686 ; a

    foreign quarter in, ii. 088.

    Pekinq Gazette {Kiiirj Pao), on revenue,

    i. 293 ; notice of, i! 420.

    Paial Code, of China, i. 279, 282, 287 ;

    examination of, i. 384-392 ; regulating

    trials and punishments, i. 50(3 ; number

    of characters in, i. 589 ; laws on

    land, ii. 2 ; on physicians, ii. 133

    ;

    framed by Yungloh, ii. 177.

    People of China, their clans, i. 483 ; general

    education, i. 519.

    Pepys, Ramtiel, mentions tea, ii. 51.

    Ferny, P., i 719, ii. 90.

    Pescadores, or Panghu Islands, i. 27, 141 ;

    the Dutch in, ii. 433.

    Petitions presented by the poor to high

    magistrates, i. 505.

    Petroleum in Formosa, i. 139.

    Pheasants, gold, silver, Reeves, and

    others, i. 336.

    Philosophy, Chinese, of the Yih Kinq, i.

    028-033 ; of Confucius, i. 062 ; of Chu

    Hi, i. (183 ; ideas concerning the ‘ action

    and reaction of the elements,’ ii.

    74 ; of the creation, ii. 137-144 ; Bazin’s

    view of growth of Chinese, ii. 213.

    Phoenix, or Fniifj-Zitrnng, i. 343.

    Physical traits of Chinese, i. 41.

    Physicians, their position in society, i.

    783 ; their practice, ii. 124-127; foreigners

    educate Chinese as, ii. 339.

    Pigeon-English, an unwritten patois, i.

    624 ; examples of, i. 832, ii. 340, 402,

    62().

    Pigeons, abundant in Peking, 1. 335

    ;

    raised and eaten, i. 779.

    Pihkwei, made governor of Canton after

    Yeh’s capture, ii. 64(! ; asks Lord Elgin

    to reopen trade, ii. 647.

    Pih-ynngKung, or ‘ Classic Hall,’ Confu«

    cian Temple, Peking, i. 73, 730, 757.

    Pilgrims, to Tai Shan, i. 90 ; Chinese, ta

    Mecca, ii. 370 ; travels of Buddhist, iL

    413.

    Pines, the white, etc., i. 302.

    Pirates, infest Kwangtung, ii. 183 ; pursued

    by British and Portuguese, ii. 032.

    Piry, A. Theophile, i. 080.

    Pi-shan, a doubtful volcano in 111, i. 11.

    Plain. See Great Plain, i. 14, 27, etc.

    Piano Carpini, John of, missionary to

    China, ii. 287 ; his mission to Kuyuk, ii.

    417.

    Plantain, productiveness of, i. 301 ; how

    eaten, i. 774.

    Plough, its construction, ii. 3; drillplough,

    ii. 5; foreifjn, introduced, ii. 63.

    Ploughing, annual ceremony of,at Peking,

    i. 78, ii. 1, 13.

    Poetry of the Sh I King, i. 038-043 ; characteristics

    of Chinese, i. 7(3 ; examples

    of their odes and liallads, i. 70,5-714.

    Po-lai-tsz’, a name of the Yangtsz’ kiang,

    i. 20.

    Police, of Peking, i. 83; tyranny and

    venality of, i. 475—480; memorial to

    Emperor concerning, i. 495.

    Policy of Cliinese government, in Ili, i.

    214 ; its theory, i. 3S0-3S4 ; toward foreign

    traders since the Mings, ii. 426 ; at

    close of opium war, ii. 575.

    Polo, Marco, i. 32, 110, 118, 127, 130, 157,

    181, 213, 242, 281, 304, 330, 330, 337,

    343, 345, 350, 300, 304, ii. 51, 85, 176,

    271, 285, 415 ; his journeys in China,

    ii. 420, 425.

    Polyandry in Tibet, i. 350.

    Polygamy, its extent in China, i. 792.

    Poor, troublesome element of Peking

    population, i. 84 ; petitions forced upon

    magistrates, i. .505 ; dwellings of the, i.

    733 ; disposal of their dead, ii. 2,54.

    Pope of Rome, appoints Corvino archbishop,

    ii. 287 ; sends other missionaries

    to China, ii. 288 ; Ming claimants write

    to, ii. 29(5 ; and question of rites, ii. 299,

    301, 302 ; supports Tournon and the

    Dominicans, ii. 303 ; sends Carpini to

    Kuyuk khan, ii. 415.

    Population, of Great Plain, i. 28 ; of Peking,

    i. (i3, 84; of Canton, i. 101; of

    Shingking, i. 193 ; of the Empire, i.

    2.58-288 ; of Tibet, unknown, i. 284 ; of

    China during the Tang, ii. 171 ; of Peking

    at last determined, ii. 087.

    Porcelain, i. Ill ; works, i. 113 ; materials

    and manufacture, ii. 22 ; export of, ii.

    394.

    Porcupine in China, i. 328.

    Portuguese, church in Peking, i. 75 ; in

    Ningpo, i. 120; settlers in Formosa, i,

    137; in Macao, i. 170; name porcelain,

    ii. 22 ; during the Mings, ii. 177 ; and

    766 INDEX.

    pirate fleets, ii. IS” ; oppose introducing

    Christianity, ii. 281) ; excitement iu Canton

    against, ii. ‘.i’.U ; conduct of early,

    traders with China, ii. 42t; ; misrepre-

    Bent the English, ii. 444 ; keep tFiem

    out of Canton, ii. 44() ; homicide of a, at

    Canton, ii. 451 ; attack the pirates, ii.

    632 ; smuggling lorchas, ii. K’A ; abolish

    coolie trade at Macao, ii. (163.

    Pottinger, Sir Henry, arrives irom England,

    ii. r)”24 ; takes Chinhai and Ningpo,

    ii. 527 ; his proclamation before

    Chinkiang, ii. 5;i7 ; his position regarding

    the opium trade, ii. Oo’J ; Kiying

    writes to, ii. 546; exchanges civilities

    with commissioners, ii. 547; discusses

    opium problem with them, ii. 550

    ;

    ^igns Nanlcing treat}’, ii. 5.53 ; action

    on hearing of Formosa massacres, ii.

    5.55 ; exchanges ratifications with Kiying,

    ii. 557 ; on J. R. Morrison, ii. 501 ;

    action against opium smuggling, ii. 502.

    Poutiatine, Admiral Count, his arrival in

    China, ii. 043.

    Poyang Luke, in Kiangsi, i. 33, 111.

    Players, Buddhist, ii. 225, 226 ; machines

    for, ii. 334 ; at ancestral tomb, ii. 253;

    ‘Girdle Classics,’ ii. 257.

    Prejevalsky, Colonel N., observations on

    Gobi, i. 10; on source of Yangtsz’, i.

    20 ; Lob-nor, i. 24 ; Kansuh, i. 153

    Mongolia, i. 205, 210, 212, 222, 231, 243,

    290, 338, 355, 304.

    Pre’mare. Pere, i. 581), 714, ii. 232.

    Prester John, Prince of the Kara Kitai,

    ii. 385, 280.

    Priests, in Canton, i. 104, 165; and

    snakes, i. 340 , harbor thieves, i. 498

    in society, i. 783 ; and theatres, i. 830 ;

    grow tea, ii. 42 ; no hierarchy of, in

    China, ii. 101, 199; Taoist, ii. 214, 215;

    Buddhist, ii. 220, 224, 250 ; Nestorian,

    ii. 285, 380.

    Primitives in the Chinese language, i.

    591-593.

    Printing, in China, i. 600 ; missionary, ii.

    307.

    Processions, marriage, i. 787-791 ; style

    of, i. 819 ; funeral, ii. 345, 348.

    Professions, the liberal, in Chinese society,

    i. 783.

    Prisons in (>anton, i. 167, 514.

    Pronunciation, varieties in local Chinese,

    i. 61.5-017.

    ‘Prohibited City’ of Peking, i. 65.

    Pro.spect, or ‘Coal’ Hill, Peking, i. 70.

    Protestants, first, missionaries to (!hina,

    ii. 31S ; niethods compared with Catholics,

    ii. ;?22 ; toleration granted to, ii.

    357 ; statistics of, in China, ii. oOtJ.

    Proverbs, Chinese, i. 110,442, 019; collections

    of, and specimen, i. 719-733,

    792, ii. 244.

    Provincial governments, character of the

    system, i. 437; higher, i. 438, and lowei

    officers, i. 441 ; law courts, i. 504.

    Prussian blue, \i8ed in coloring teas, ii.

    47 ; introduced, ii. 62.

    P.salmanazar, George, his Ilintory of Forinoaa,

    i. 141.

    Ptolemy, the geographer, his mention of

    China, ii. 408 ; his “Stone Tower,” ii.

    409.

    Pulses, their importance in medical practice,

    ii. 122, 12.5.

    Pumpellyj R., his “Sinian System” of

    mountains, i. 14; remarks on Gobi, i.

    17; quoted, i. 145, 205, 207, 296, 304,

    305.

    Punishments, Board of, i 426; five kinds,

    i. 508 ; Parkes and Loch at Board of,

    ii. 681.

    Pan t.iao, or ‘Chinese Herbal,’ i. 316;

    concerning the sphex. i. 354 ; its author

    and scope, i. 370 ; divisions of : geology,

    i. 371 ; botany, i. 372 ; zoology, i. 374 ;

    notices of the horse, i. 375, 691, iL

    373.

    Pushtikhur, mountain knot in Turkestan,

    i. 10.

    Puto Island, i. 124.

    Puyur, or Pir Lake, in Manchuria, i. 24.

    Pwanku, the first man, ii. 138-141.

    UAILS, fighting, i. 826.

    ^ Queues, how worn, i. 761 ; false ohair in, i. 765 ; imposed upon Chinese

    by the Tartars, ii. 179 ; mourning,

    ii. 249 ; cut ofT by Tai-pings, ii. 589.

    Quicksilver mines in Kweichau, i. 178,

    311 ; experiments in, ii. 118.

    I)

    ACES (see under Aboriginal), abor-

    \) iginal and colonial, of China, i. 43.

    Radicals in the Chinese language, i. 591-

    593.

    Raffles, SirT. S., i. 482.

    Rain, in North China, i. 51 ; in the south,

    i. 53; contrast in. between coasts of

    China and America, i. 55 ; Taukwang’s

    prayer for, i. 407 ; eflbrts after, by

    officers, ii. 203-205.

    Ranking, J., i. 330.

    Ranks, titular, of noblemen, i. 405 ; of

    the people, i. 411 ; insignia of, i. 414.

    Rationalists, or Taoists, considered as

    magicians, i. ()94 ; ideas of the creation,

    ii. 138; creed, ii. 207 0″.

    Rats, how and when eaten, i. 778.

    lied Book, of officials, its character, i

    452.

    Reed, William B.^ United States Minister,

    i. 400; arrives in China, ii. 643,

    649.

    Regis, Pere J. B., i. 633.

    Reinaud, J. T., i. 127, u. 168, 271, 414,

    425. 426.

    Religion, sects in Tibet, i. 248 ; ridicuU

    INDEX. 7G7

    of, by the literati, i. 601 ; none in early

    mythology, ii. 14)3; only external modifying

    intlaence in China, ii. 18′.); two

    negative features of Chinese, ii. 192

    ;

    the tliree ki<w, or sects : State, ii. 194 ;

    Tao. or Rationalist, ii. 207 ; Fuh, or

    Buddhist, ii. 217; toleration of, in

    Cliiua, ii. 221 ; eft’eto among the people,

    ii. 2G0.

    Be’musat, Abel, his derivation of word

    Tsunfj ling, i. 9 ; myths of the Great

    Deseit, i. 12 ; river basins of China, i.

    27, 2i:!, 214, 2:50, 2:11, 2>!:;, 2:J4, 237, 28t<,

    2.’)0, 2.”)1, 254, 308, 353 ; observations on

    natural sciences, i. 377, 500, .^97, ()0.5

    ;

    on Chinese grammar, i. 617 ; Mencius,

    i. (iOtJ, 674, 675, 681, 682, 694, 696. ii.

    123, 139, 167, 176, 180, 224, 232, 233,

    293, 309, 441.

    Rennie, Dr. D. F., i. 05, ii. 602.

    Researches of Ma Twan-lin, i. 2.59-265.

    Responsibility, a main feature of government,

    i. 382-383 ; its operation, i. 436 ;

    of Emperor for natural calamities, i.

    465; results of, i. 481.

    Revenue, of Chinese Empire, i. 289-292

    ;

    Board of, i. 422 ; Department of, i. 443 ;

    and transit duties, ii. 391.

    Rhubarb from Kansuh, i. 864.

    Ricci, Father Matteo, comes to China, ii.

    289 ; travels northward, ii. 290 ; his

    death, ii. 2,12 ; his character, ii. 293 ; decision

    as to the rites, ii. 292, 299 ; compared

    witli Morrison, ii. 322 ; compiles

    account of Goes’ journey, ii. 425.

    Rice, its importance, i. 772 ; its cultivation,

    ii. 5-7; paper, painting on, ii.

    113; an import, ii. 396.

    RichanlsL.!!, Sir John, i. 296, 347, 348.

    Richthofen, Biron F. von, remarks on

    conformation of Central Asia, i. 18

    roads in loess, i. 39, 97, 120, 150, 1.5S,

    184. :^12, 221, 222, 257, 296, 297, 303,

    305. 636, ii. 137 ; on early knowledge of

    China, ii. 407. 411, 624.

    Ripa, Pere M., ii. 124; arrives in China,

    ii. 302; observations on Catholic missionaries,

    ii. 305.

    Rites, five kinds of, i. 423; Book of, i.

    643-f)47 ; question of the, Ricci’s precedent,

    ii. 292 ; Catholic quarrels concerning,

    ii. 297-303.

    Ritter, Carl, i. 208, 234, 237, 257.

    Rivers, of China, i. 18; of Shansi, i. 94;

    boat life on, i. 751.

    Roberts, Rev. I. J., his connection with

    Hung Siu-tsnen, ii. 587, 622.

    Roads, public, i. 37 ; mountain, i. 39 ; of

    Shansi, i. 91″!

    ; of Sz’chiien, i. 156; safety

    of, in the Empire, i. 212 ; in loess region,

    i. 300.

    Robinson, Sir G. B., associated with Napier,

    ii. 464 ; succeeds him as superintendent,

    ii. 479.

    Rome, Chinese knowledge cf, during the

    Han dynasty, ii. 163; the country ‘i’u

    Tsin, ii. 207 ; and Ciiiiia, infanticide in,

    ii. 242 ; divination in China and, ii.

    261 ; intercourse with Cliiua, ii. 410.

    Roman Catholics’, and Huddliists’ rituals

    compared, ii. 231, 315 ; they suggest

    the founding of hospitals, ii. 205 ; missi

    jns first established in China, ii. 286

    ;

    second period of their missions, ii. 289

    diseussions concerning the rites, ii. 253,

    292, 299 ; expelled from China by Yungciiing,

    ii. 304 ; character of their la})or3

    in China, ii. 316 ; they move to Hongkong,

    ii. 347 ; restitution of their confiscated

    property, ii. 361 , 362 ; indemnified

    in treaty of Peking, ii. 687.

    Rondot, Natalis, Chinese commerce, ii.

    19, 31, 38, 83.

    Roofs, how constructed in China, i. 726,

    729.

    Rubruquis, Friar William, sent by Louis

    XI. to Mangu khan, ii. 418, 425.

    _

    Russia, treaty^ between, and China on

    frontier of II i, i. 215, .594; and toleration

    of Christianity in China, ii. 360

    ;

    boundary disputes, trade, and treaties

    of, with China, ii. 441 ; takes possession

    of Kuldja, ii. 727.

    Russian, ‘pigeon,’ spoken in Vierny, ii.

    402 ; Admiral Poutiatine arrives in

    China, ii. 643 ; and American ministers

    at Tientsin, ii. 6 4 ; diplomacy and the

    Kuldja question, ii. 732.

    SABBATH not known in China, i. 809.

    SacharofF, T., i. 271.

    Sacred Edict (or Commands) of Kanghi,

    the Shing Ym, i. .548; a politico-moral

    treatise, i. 686-601 ; its observations on

    mulberry culture, ii. ; 3 ; illus-trations

    from, ii. 107-111, 227,_ 267.

    Sacrifices, no human, in China, ii. 192;

    three grades, ii. 105; of women at funeral

    of Empress, ii. 250.

    Sagalicn, River (see Amur), i. 180; town

    of (Igoon),i. 108.

    Sa,int-Martin, Didier, Romish missionary

    to China, ii. 3C6, 312 ; on casting out

    demons, ii. 314.

    Salaries, of Chinese officers, i. 204 ; of

    Mongol princes, i. 430.

    Sale of office practised continually by

    Emperor, i. 475.

    Salisbury, Prof. E. E., ii. 232.

    _

    Salt, produced in Shansi, i. 95 ; in

    Sz’chuen, i. 158, 308 ; Yunnan, i. 184

    ;

    Department, or Gabel, i. 443.

    Salve tat, ii. 23, 24.

    ‘Sand,’ a malady at Nanking, i. 52.

    Sand-storms on the Plains, i. .52 ; dunes

    or moving hills in Kashgar, i. 227.

    Sangkolinsin, Tartar general, at Takii

    forts, ii. 664 ; drives back the allies, il

    7G8 INDEX.

    606 ; blunder in operations against allies

    before Taku, ii. 074 ; retires toward Peking,

    ii. (577 ; his deception, ii. 079

    ;

    conversation with Parkes, ii. (i80 ; his

    connection with treatment of English

    pi isoners, ii. 085 ; allows the return of

    allied troops, ii. 088.

    San-Ux’ Kim], or ‘ Trimetrical Classic,’ a

    school-book, i. 526-530.

    Sayce, Prof. A. H., on hieroglyphics, i.

    581.

    iSchaal, Father Adam, recommended to

    the Emperor, ii. ;i94 ; and Shunchi’, ii.

    2y0 ; j)roscribed, and dies, ii. ;i’J7

    ;

    makes cannon, ii. ~98.

    Scarborough, W., i. 720.

    tSchereschewsky, Bishop, S. I. J., ii. 873,

    304.

    Science, study of, in China, i. 297; foreign

    terms of, introduced, i. 021 ; abstract,

    not pursued, ii. 65 ; attainments

    in and ideas upon, ii. 06-86.

    B.adegel, Dr. Gustave, i. 48, 494, 633.

    (School name, shu mltit/, i. 525; when

    conferred, i. 797.

    Schools, boys’, how conducted, i. 525

    books studied, i. 527-541 ; high, i. 542

    Romish mission, ii. 310 ; Morrison

    Education Society, ii. 341-345.

    Rchuhmacher, M. Job. H. , i. 033.

    Schuyler, Eugene, i. 217, 219, 233, ii. 402.

    Sculpture as a fine art, ii. 105, 114.

    Secret societies in China, i. 492 ; their

    character, ii. 2()7.

    Sedan chairs of magistrates, i. 50;! ; their

    kinds and uses, i. 748.

    Senamand, J., i. 003.

    Seres, Latin designation for China, i. 4 ;

    distinguished from Sinw, ii. 408.

    Sen Ki-yu, Governor, compend of geography

    by, i. 50; and Dr. Abeel, ii. 348,

    409, 575.

    Sevres and Chinese porcelains compared,

    ii. 23.

    Seymour, Admiral, ii. 037 ; enters Canton

    city, ii. 038 ; withdraws from the river

    to Macao Fort, ii. (J40 ; takes Taku

    forts, ii. i’>T>\.

    Sexes, separation of in Chines&^ociety, i.

    784. _

    -^

    Shamanism, the Buddhism of Tibet and

    Mongolia, ii. 233-235.

    Shameen, foreign settlement at Canton,

    i. 168.

    Sha-moh (see Gobi), i. 15 ; its character,

    i. 17.

    Shang dynasty, its annals, ii. 154-157, 158.

    Shangchuen, Sancian, or St. John’s Island,

    Kwangtung, i. 173, ii. 289, 437.

    Blianghai, climate, i. 53 ; rainfall, i. 50 ;

    description of, i. 100; its dialect, i.

    01 1 ; Ching-hwang miao at, ii. 202

    ;

    foundling hospital at, ii. 264 ; missions

    aBtablished at, ii. 351, 357 ; conference,

    ii. 305 ; taken and ransomed by th«

    British, ii. 530 ; at close of lirst war, ii

    573 ; captured by rebels, ii. 004 ; protected

    from Tai-pings by foreigners, ii.

    000 ; foreigners at, thank Gordon, ii.

    019; customs duties entrusted to foreigners

    at, ii. 027 ; troubles with Cantonese

    rebels at, ii. 628 ; arsenal estab

    lished at, ii. 690.

    Shangti’, worship of. as God, ii. 154, 157

    ;

    the Taoist, ii. 215 ; and Tien, the term

    question among Catholics, ii. 297

    among Protestants, ii. 364 ; Hung Siutsuen

    and the worship of, ii. 588, 590.

    Shangtu, or Xanadu, i. 87.

    Shan-hai kwan, a town on the Gulf of

    Pechele, i. 25.

    Shansi province, description of, i. 94;

    productions, i. 95 ; mountain passes, i.

    97 ; loess regions of, i. 398-303.

    Shantung province, i. 89 ; productions, L

    92 ; people of, i. 93.

    Shark, mode of catching, i. 347 ; fins

    eaten, ii. 397.

    Shasi, in Hupeh, i. 14.5.

    Shauchau, in Kwangtung, i. 173.

    Shanking, a town in Kwangtung, i. 173;

    Ricci establislied there, ii. 290, 431

    ;

    rebel slaughter at, ii. 632.

    Shaw, R. B., ii. 729.

    Shaw, Samuel, his voyage to China, ii. 460.

    Sheep, domestic and mountain, i. 321

    .

    Shensi province, i. 148-152 ; loess in, L

    298 ; the Huns in, ii. 10.5.

    Shigatsc’, capital of Ulterior Tibet, i. 247.

    Shih, a grain measure, its value, i. 290.

    Shih-pah Sang, or ‘ Eighteen Provinces,’

    called t’liHHij Kii’oh. i. 8.

    Slii Kin(/, the ‘ Book of Odes,’ its poetry,

    i. 03(5-043, 703 ; allusion to silk, ii. 32

    and ancestral worship, ii. 230.

    Shingking colony, i. 25 ; a province of

    Manchuria, i. 191-19(5.

    Shinnung, inventor of agriculture, temple

    to, at Peking, i. 78.

    Shoeing animals, manner of, ii. 4.

    Shoes, how made and worn, i. 701 ; women’s,

    i. 769 ; given at New Year, i. 811.

    Shops, in Peking, i. 82 ; arrangement of

    Chinese, i. 73(5 ; their names, i. 799

    ;

    decorated at New Yeai’, i. 811-813.

    Shiiga Mountains, in the Kwanlun system,

    i. 11.

    SJinKing, the ‘Book of Records,’ i. 90;

    its character and value, i. 633-630 ; on

    temperance, i. 808 ; notice of silk culture,

    ii. 32 ; of cotton, ii. 3(5 ; of early

    attention to astronomy, ii. OS, (59 ; the

    deluge of Yao, ii. 147 ft’.; its credibility,

    ii. 152, 155 ; and House of Chau, u.

    157, 159; and religion, ii. 190; on ancient

    commerce, ii. 372, 59(5.

    Shun, an early Emperor, ii. 145, 146-148.

    Shunchi, Emperor, i. 385 ; orders women

    INDEX. (GO

    immolated, ii. 250 ; and Schaal, ii. 290,

    -,

    ^*^-

    Shuntien, a department of Chihli, i. (iO.

    Sialkoi Mountains, in Manchuria, L 13,

    1S».

    Slang River, in Hunan, i. 14fi.

    eiangkwan, King of Tsinchau, changes

    his ca[)it;il to Lohyang, i. o.

    Siao lUiih, or •Juvenile Instructor,’ a

    text-book, i. 5:22, 540.

    _

    Sign-boards of Poking, i. 8o. 738.

    Sihota, or Sili-hih-teh Mountains, in

    Manchuria, i. 10, 188.

    Si Hu, ‘West Lake,’ near Hangchau, i.

    117; near Fuhchan, i. 131.

    Silk. Hangchau. i. 119; of Sz’chuen, i.

    157 ; worm reared, i. 351 ; manufacture,

    ii. 33-35 ; export of. ii. 395.

    Siik-worm, discovered by Yuenfi, i. 71

    ;

    its culture, ii. 33.

    Silver, localities of, i. 311 ;

    ‘ shoes ‘ of

    si/crr. ii. 84.

    Silver Island (Siung Shan), near Chinkiang.

    i. 100.

    Simon, Eug. , ii. 88.

    Simpson, William, i. 737.

    Si-ugan (Hao-king and Chang-an), abandoned

    in 770 1?. c. by Siangkwan, i. 3;

    description of the city, i. 1 50 ; capital of

    the Chau, ii. l.-)2. 1.58, 102. 105; during

    the Tang, ii. 108 ; temple to Lautsz’ in,

    ii. 215 ; Nestorian tablet of, ii. 270, 408.

    Sining, in Kansuh, i. 154, 210, 213. 2.52.

    ijiu fsui. or ‘Bachelor of Arts,’ first degree

    in examination system, i. .547;

    military, i. 500 ; Hung Siu-tsuen tries

    for, ii. ‘582.

    Siuenhwa, in Chihli, i. 86.

    Six Boards, bureaus of, Peking, i. 72, 415,

    421-428.

    Si Yuen, ‘Western Park,’ Peking, i. 70.

    ” Skinning papers ” used in examinations,

    i. 551.

    Slaves, few in China, i. 413, 564.

    Smith, Rev. Arthur, i. 97.

    Smith, Bishop George, i. 498, ii. 242, 272.

    Smith, F. Porter, ii. 134, 241.

    Smuggling, desperate case of opium, L

    447 ; at Macao and Whampoa, ii. 378 ;

    increase of, about Hongkong, ii. 633

    British encouragement of, ii. 725.

    Snakes in China, i. 34′>.

    Snow, in Peking, i. 51 ; in Shanghai, i.

    .53 ; in Canton, i. .”4.

    Snuff, how taken, i. 771 ; bottles found

    in Egypt, ii. 27.

    Social life, in China, i. 782-830 ; and government

    in reform movements, ii. 581.

    Society, Medical Missionary, ii. ;)34 ; for

    the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in

    China, ii. 340 ; Morrison Education, ii.

    341.

    Songari River, in Manchuria, i. 190 ; in

    treaty of Livadia, ii. 732.

    Vol. II.—49

    Songaria (see Tien-shan Peh Lu), or

    Dzungaria, i. 215 ; its productions, i.

    218; chief cities, i. 219; history, i.

    233-230.

    Sorghum (kaoliaiuj), on Teungming Island,

    i. 108 ; not used for sugar, i. 776.

    Sounds, of the Chinese language indicated

    by symbols, i. 580; mistaken

    ideas regardmg, i. 005 ; still unwritten,

    i. 608 ; dialectic, of Canton and Amoy,

    i. 615; and sense in Chinese rhymes, i

    704.

    Soy, how made, i. 365, 773 ; an export, ii.

    390.

    Soyorti Mountain.s. See Sialkoi.

    Spanish, trade and relations with China,

    ii. 431 ; Don S. de Mas appointed, minister,

    ii. 505 ; government and the

    coolie trade, ii. 715.

    Spectacles, fashion of Chinese, ii. 22.

    Sphex, or solitary wasp, Chinese ideas respecting,

    i. 354.

    Spirits, ardent, temperance in use of, L

    808 ; dread of wandering, ii. 258.

    Squirrels, varieties of, i. 327.

    Stanlev, Dean A. P., on Confucius and

    Buddha, ii. 220.

    Stanovoi, or Wai Hing-an Mountains,

    their position, i. 9.

    Stars, arrangement of the, ii. 76.

    Staunton, Sir G. L.. i. 89, 118, 269, 353,

    362, 403, 453, ii. 444, 454.

    Staunton, Sir G. T., i. 279, 384, 589, 674,

    080, ii. 318, 4.52, 458. 400.

    Steel everywhere made, ii. 19.

    Stent, Geo. C, i. 703, 7C6, 770.

    Stevens, Rev. Edwin, i. 93, 129, 764, ii.

    329, 352, 308.

    Stimpson, i. 290.

    Strass, made in Tsinan, i. 91 ; uses of,

    ii. 21.

    Strauss, Victor von, i. 643, ii. 207, 212.

    Streets, of Peking, i. 82 ; of Canton, L

    168 ; scenes in, i. 740 ; at New Year,

    812, 815; at Emperor’s funeral, ii. 250.

    Sturgeon, or ijin yii, in Yaugtsz’, i. 347.

    Sii, a censor, his punishment, i. 432.

    Su-Hwui, a poetess of the fourth century,

    i. 708.

    Sii Kwang-hi, or Paul Sii, his Encyclopedia

    of Aqricnlture, i. 686, ii. 10, 51

    ;

    converted by Ricci, ii. 291, 292, 294,

    354.

    Sii Kwang-tsin, Governor-General, keepp

    foreigners out of Canton, ii. 573 ; his

    folly, ii. .590, 604.

    Suchau, in Kiangsu, i. 103 ; captured by

    Tai-pings, ii. OUG ; recapture of, ii. 013-

    616.

    Sugar, on Formosa, i. 139; largely grown,

    i. 776; how made, ii. 11.

    Suhshun, favorite of Hienfung, ii. 604;

    his conspiracy and death, ii. 691.

    Sui dynasty, ii. 167.

    770 INDEX.

    Suicides carofiilly drcssod, i. 513.

    Sulphur found in Formosa, i. 139.

    Sun symbolized by a raven, ii. 74.

    Sung dynasty, cotton introduced during

    the, ii. ;>7 ; the Xlth dynasty or Northern

    Sung, ii. 10.5 ; the XXIId, its period,

    ii. 173 ; the Southern Sung, ii. 174.

    Sung, a censor, his rectitude, i. 431 ; his

    career, i. 4.54.

    Sunijkiaug, in Kiangsu, recaptured by

    Ward, ii, (507 ; Gordon retires to, ii.

    (iia.

    Suuglo hills, in Nganhwui, i. lO’J ; in

    ‘ Tea-Picker.s’ Ballad,’ i. 710 fF.

    Sunnite tribe of Mongols, i. ^06.

    Superstitions, of the Chinese, respecting

    divination, 1. tilJO ; in marriages, i. 785

    ff.; Taoist priests and, i. 694, ii. 214;

    m funerals, fung s?iui, ii. 24.5, 24()

    ;

    various, ii. 255-‘3()o ; Chinese and

    Romish, ii. 314, 316; of mediaeval travellers

    in the East, ii. 423.

    Supremacy, Governor Lu’s ideas of Chinese,

    ii. 472 ; Chinese principles of, ii.

    475, 476 ; illustrated in case of Lin’s

    homicide, ii. 506, 510; Chinese, and

    Pottinger’s proclamation, ii. 538.

    Swallows about Peking, i. 332.

    Swinlioe, Robert, i. 206, 318, 328, 329,

    331, 337, 342, ii. 671, 673, 677, 683, 684,

    685.

    Symbolism, Chinese, ii. 74, 111.

    Syle, B. W., ii. 96.

    Sz\ a ‘township’ or ‘commune,’ i. 59;

    government of, i. 441.

    /Sz’ (‘Silk’), origin of the Latin Seres,

    China, i. 4 ; of silk, ii. 35.

    Sz’chuen province, climate, i. .55 ; description

    of, i. 1.54-158; alum found in,

    i. SOS ; wax-worm of, i. 353 ; tea of,

    ii. 50,

    Sz’ Hai, ‘ All within the Four Seas,’ ancient

    Chinese terra for the land, i. 4.

    Sz’ma Kwang, a historian, i. 676, ii. 174.

    Sz’ma Tsicn, a Chinese historian, i. 675,

    ii. 140, 149, 212.

    TABLES : Area and population of

    Eurojjean States, i. 272 ; Censuses

    of the Eiglite(-n Provinces since 1710, i,

    264; Colonies of China, their government

    and sulidivisions, i, 186 ; Dynasti:;

    s of China, ii. 18(;; Expenditure

    of Chinese government, i. 293 ; Exports

    from China during 1880 iind 1881, ii,

    405 ;

    ” Five Sovereigns ” of Chinese

    legendary annahs, ii. 148; Ming and

    Tsing Emperors, ii. 18(i; Missionaries

    (Protestant) in China, 1877, ii. 366;

    Nature, ywwers, and functions of elementary,

    ii, 75 ; Numerals, (‘iiinese, in

    three dialects, i. 619; Opium import

    to Hongkong, ii, 388 ; /’«// Kirn of Puhlii’,

    in the )’//’ Kiii’i. i. O’.’B ; Population

    of China, comparatirc estimates of, i

    263 ; Provinces, government and divisions

    of the Eighteen, i, 01 j Provincial

    officer.?, i. 444 ; Pulse and its corresponding

    organs in the human body, u. i22 ;

    Revenue of the Eighteen Provinces

    :

    Cu.stoms report, ii. 4U4 ; De Guifines’a

    estimate, i. 291 ; Medhurst’s estimate,

    i. 299 ; Radicals of the Chinese language,

    i. 592 ; Rice tribute sent to Peking,

    ii. 5 ; Tea exj)()rt during ten

    years, ii. 404 ; Trade, value of Chinese

    foreign, ii. 4():>; Zodiac, divisions of

    the Chinese, ii. 71

    .

    Ta-chungsz’, ‘Bell Temple,’ Peking, i. 79.

    Ta Hioli, or ‘Superior Learning,’ i. 052,

    Ta hu, or Tai hu, ‘(ireat Lake,’ near the

    Yangtsz’, i. 2:!, 100, 103.

    Tai-ho tien, ‘ Hall of Highest Peace,’

    imperial palace, Peking, i. 67.

    Tai Miao, ‘Great Temple,’ Peking, i. 70.

    Taintor, E. C, i. 141, 176, 433.

    _ Tai-ping, ‘ Tri-netrieal Clas-sic ‘ of, i.

    .530 ; loyalty of imperial officials during

    the rebellion, i, 5C3, ii. 184, 3.59

    ;

    origin of the t3rm, ii. 581 ; commencement

    of insurryctiaii, ii. 589 ; first military

    success, ii. 591 ; character of its

    control, ii. 59 J ; arrangement of camp,

    ii. 594 ; advance to Nanking, ii. .595

    ;

    expedition against Peking, ii. 597

    rapid degeneration of the movement

    after this failure, ii. 599 ; dissensions

    among the leaders, ii. 602 ; eleven new

    wangs appointsd—the sortie from Nanking

    of May, 1 800, ii. 005 ; they fail in

    not following Elgi.i to Peking, ii. 600 ;

    operations to relieve Nganking, ii. 607

    ;

    resistance at Suchau, ii. 613 ; execution

    of leaders at its surrender, ii. 61 5 ; desperate

    condition of the rebels, ii. 617

    end of rebellion in the fall of Nanking,

    ii. 620 ; subsequent movements of the

    refugees, ii. 621 ; their final collapse,

    ii. 622; authorities on the rebellion, ii.

    624 ; army at Hankow visited bv Elgin,

    ii. 0.59.

    Tai shan, in Shantung, i. 90.

    Taitsung, Emperor, of t!ie Tang dynasty,

    institutes examination system, i. .521

    ;

    his reign and acts, ii. 168-170.

    Taiwan, on b’ormosa, i. l-;0.

    Taiyuen, cai>ital of Shansi, i. 96.

    Taku, on the Pei ho, i. 86; interview between

    Elliot and Kishen at, ii. 515 ; the

    allied licet at, ii. 049 ; Russian and

    American interviiw with Tan at, ii. 6.50;

    forts taken by l^nglish and French, ii.

    651 ; the four forci>;n ministers repair

    to, ii, t)64; negotiations of Americans

    at, ii. 065 ; repulse of the allies at, ii.

    600 ; attack upon .and capture of, ii. 676.

    Tallow and the tallow-tree, ii, 11.

    Tang dynasty, the best period of Chinese

    INDEX. 771

    poetry, i. 704; drama originates dnring,

    1. 714; its brilliant period, ii. Ui7-17l ;

    the After Taug, ii. 17^.’; Mo.slems in

    Ciiina during the, ii. 268 ; Arabs, ii. 41 o ;

    travelling regulations under, ii. 4~5.

    Tnii</Jin, Tail’/ Shan, local terms for the

    Chinese and China, i. 4, ii. 1G8.

    Tangnu Mountains’, in Mongolia, i. 0.

    Tang Ting-ching, governor at Canton, ii.

    481 ; his son in the opium trade, ii. 4′.)3

    ;

    his helpless position toward foreigners,

    ii. 4′.)5 ; foolish answer to Elliot, ii. 4’JG

    ;

    visit.s Macao, ii. 506.

    TangTsz’, Temple to Imperial Ancestors,

    Peking, i. 73.

    Tangnts, tribe of, i. 210, 212.

    Tankia boats at Canton, i. 412, 751.

    Tan Ting-siang, governor-general of

    Chihli, meets American and Russian

    minist^ns at Taku, ii. (JiiO ; superseded

    by Kwciliang at Tientsin, ii. 651.

    Taoism, or Rationalism, priests regarded

    as magicians, i. 694 ; its founder, ii.

    206 ; its classic, the Tao Teh King, ii.

    297-214; 3.ndfu)!g s/nii, ii. 246.

    Tarbagatai, district of Songaria, i. 220.

    Tariff and commercial regulations after

    the first war, ii. 558 ; after the second,

    ii. 657.

    Tarim, or Ergu River, i. 16 ; its course and

    basin, i. 221-223 ; reconquest of the

    valley, ii. 727.

    Tartars, or Tatars, i, 44; ” Fish-skin,” i.

    1U6 ; derivation of name, i. 2U2 ; Kitaii

    of Liautung and the After Tsin, ii. 172 ;

    and the Kin, ii. 174.

    Tartary, country formerly called, i. 202.

    Tatnali, Commodore, at Taku, ii. 665 ; his

    conduct during the action, and bon mot,

    ii. ()68.

    Ta Tshu/ Kwoh, ‘Great Pure Kingdom,’

    present official name of China, i. .5.

    Tati, Tau-tui, ‘Circuit’ and ‘ Intendant

    of Circuit,’ i. .59, 440.

    Taukwang, the Emperor, coronation address,

    i. ;J99 ; honors the Empress-dowager,

    i. 409 ; rescript of, i. 449 ; prayer

    for rain i. 466 ; his reign, ii. 18o ; his

    efforts to stop the opiam trade, ii. 492,

    497; rejects Bogne treaty, ii. 519; his

    spirit in pushitig the war, ii. 527 ; proclamation

    concerning th”? causes of the

    war, ii. 539 ; his death, ii. .575.

    Taxes, in China, i. 294 ; difficulty of collecting,

    i. 498; ‘Sacred Edict’ upon,

    i. 688 ; on building lots, i. 739 ; land,

    ii. 2; how paid, ii. 84.

    Taye, son of Emperor Chuen-hii, founder

    of the Tsin family, i. 2.

    Taylor, Dr. C, i. 1(>2.

    Tea, in Ngauhwni, i. 109 ; Kiakhta trade

    in. i. 207; its preparation in Tibet, i.

    ‘241 ; ballad on picking, i. 710 ; culture,

    ii. 39; manufacture, etc., ii. 40-55; as

    an export, ii. 373, 404; duty on, in

    1689, ii. 446.

    Teachers in boys’ schools, i. .524 ff.

    ;

    qualitications, i. .526 ; severity required,

    i. 546.

    Temperance, address of Duke Chau i”

    the Shu King, i. 808, ii. 157 ; of th^.

    Chinese, ii. .54.

    ‘J’emples, in Peking (q.v. ) i. 73-80; in

    Canton, i. 164-166 ; in Tibet, i. 245

    ;

    pillars of Chinese, i. 730 ; public resorts,

    i. 738, ii. 202 ; to Confucius, li.

    203 ; proportion of Buddhist, ii. 224 ;

    worship in, ii. 232, 263.

    Temperature, of Peking, i. 51 ; of coast

    towns, i. .53.

    Tengkiri-nor, in Tibet, i. 25, 240. •

    Tennent, Sir E., ii. 413.

    Terrace cultivation, in loess, i. 300; extent

    of, ii. 6.

    Terranova, an American sailor, case of,

    ii. 453 ; his judicial murder, ii. 460.

    Teshu-lama, monument to a, Peking, i.

    79 ; palace of the, at Teshu-Lumbo,

    Tibet, i. 247, 2.52, 2.56.

    Theatres, management of, i. 820 ; style of

    plays, i. 714, b22 ; morals of Chinese, i.

    824.

    Thom, Robert, interpreter to Pottinger,

    ii. 548, 556. 557.

    Thompson, James, i. 771.

    Tlioms, P. P., i. 392 ; fonts of Chinese

    type of, i. 603 ; Chinese Courtshij:), i.

    704, ii. 320.

    ‘ Thousand Character,’ or ‘ Millenary

    Classic’ {Tsien Txz’ IV’ds;*), a schoolbook,

    i. 531, 598.

    Thrashing-floors, how made, ii. 9,

    Thrushes, trained, i. 333.

    Tibet, physical characteristics of people,

    L 45; names and boundaries, i. 237;

    natural features, i. ‘238-240 ; climate,

    productions, and animals, i. 241-244

    ;

    H’lassa and Shigatse, i. 245-247 ; manners

    and customs, i. 248-2.54 ; language,

    i. 2.53 ; history, i. 2.54 ; government, i.

    255 ; population not numbered, i. ‘284

    ;

    manner of concocting tea in, ii. 50 ; annexed

    by Kienlung, ii. 182 ; Shamanism

    in, ii. 2.33.

    Tick kii, ‘ Iron whirlwind,’ term for typhoon,

    i. 57.

    Tien, ‘ Heaven.’ worshipped, ii. 194, 195,

    198; and Shanr/ti, as terms for Grod, ii.

    297, 300.

    Tien chu, ‘Heaven’s Pillar,’ or Atlas of

    China, a name for the Kwanlun. i. 13.

    Tifn Ilia, ‘ Beneath the Sky,’ a term for

    China, i. 4.

    Tien shan, Tengkiri, or Celestial Mountains,

    in Cobdo, i. 9 ; erroneously called

    Alak, i. 10; one of the four great

    chains of China, i. 11.

    Tien-shan Nan Lu, or Southern Circuit

    772 INDEX.

    (Eastern Turkestan), i. 231 ; its position

    and topography, i. :221-2:i3 ; population,

    i. ;224 ; towns, i. 324-231 ; history, i.

    233-237.

    Tieu-shan Peh Lu, or Northern Circuit

    (Songaria), i. 218; its towns and districts,

    i. 218-221.

    Tien Tan, ‘Altar to Heaven,’ Peking, i.

    70; Emperor’s worship at, ii. 195-198.

    Tientsin, description, i. S~) ; riot and missions,

    ii. 313 ; Mr. Gutzlaff’s visit to,

    ii. 328 ; Flint at, ii. 449 ; Tai-pings repulsed

    at, ii. 598 ; allies reach, ii. 051 ;

    negotiations of the allies at, ii. 654 ; the

    armies again reach, ii. 677 ; riot and

    massacre of foreigners at, ii. 700 ; feeling

    in the city, ii. 703.

    Tiger, the, in China, i. 318 ; in geoniancy,

    ii. 246.

    Timur, or Ching-tsung, Kublai khan’s

    successor, ii. 176.

    Ti’iy, ‘department’ or ‘district,’ term

    explained, i. .58; prefect of, i. 441.

    Tiughai, capital of Chusan Archipelago,

    i. 123; Lockhait’s hospital at, ii. S.^O;

    capture of, by British in 1841, ii. 514

    ;

    second cajjture, ii. 525.

    Tinikow.ski, i. SO, 207, 2.50, ii. 442, 44.3.

    Ti Tan, ‘Altar to Earth,’ Peking, i. 78.

    Titles, of Emperor, i. 397-399 ; of nol)ility,

    i. 405, 40(i ; and Board of Civil

    Office, i. 422 ; assumed on taking office,

    i. 799 ; of the Tien Wang, ii 582.

    Ti Wang Miao, the Walhalla of China, i.

    75.

    Tobacco, introduced into China, i. 309

    how used, i. 776; exported, ii. 394.

    Tonil)s, of the Chinese, ii. 246; worship

    at, ii. 252.

    Tones {sfii7ig’), in the Chinese language, 1.

    609.

    Topographical, terms, i. 58 ; divisions of

    China, i. 61.

    Tortoise, or kiccl, fabulous animal, i. 345.

    Torture, its infliction upon criminals, i.

    .507.

    Tourgouths, tribe of, in Northern fli, i.

    2’20; flight of, from Knssia, i. 234

    ;

    Tulishen’s embassy, concerning, ii. 442.

    Trade, restrictions of, with Corea, i.

    194 ; tl:rouL;h Kiakhta, i. 206 ; revenue

    from, etc., i. 291 ; ancient, of China, ii.

    372 ; value of opium, ii. 388 ; general

    export, ii. 391 ; import, ii. 397 ; present

    management of, ii. 402 ; ancient, with

    Roman Empire, ii. 411, 414 ; limited to

    Canton by the Manchns, ii. 426 ; Portuguese,

    ii. 430 ; Sj)anish, ii. 431 ; Dutch,

    ii. 433 ; Russian, ii. 141 ; history of the

    English, ii. 443-4.59 ; peculiarities of

    early Chinese, ii. -1.50 ; American, ii.

    4t)0 ; Napier appointed suiiernitcndent

    of British, ii. 464 ; mutations of, during

    Napier’s embroglio, ii. 473-477 ; Lin

    finally stops the British, ii. 507 ; carried

    on during the war, ii. 517, 521, 524;

    settlement of, regulations after the first

    war, ii. .557.

    TransformatiLns, Chinese notions about,

    I. 345, 378.

    Travelling, modes of, in China, i. 747

    ;

    rognhitions under the Tangs, ii. 425.

    Treaties, Husso-Chinese, concerning frontier

    of Hi, i. 215; clauses of toleration

    in, of June, 1858, ii. 360 ; Russian, ii.

    441 ; failure of the negotiations at the

    Bogue, iL 518 ; of Nanking, ii. 549 ; its

    ratification, ii. 557 ; British supplementary,

    signed at Bogue, ii. 5(;i ; of

    Wanghia l>etween China and the United

    States, ii. 567 ; French, of Whampoa,

    ii. 571 ; how regarded by the Chinese,

    ii. 578 ; of Tientsin signed, ii. 656 ; difficulty

    of enforcing, in CJhina, ii. 658 ;

    American, ratified at Pehtang, ii. 670;

    English and French, signed at Peking,

    iL 686; the Burlingame, ii. 698; of

    1880, ii. 699 ; of Chunghow at Livadia,

    iL 732 ; of MarquLs Tsfing in settlement

    of Kuldja question, iL 734.

    Triad Society, or Water-lily Sect, i. 493 ;

    its character, ii. 267 ; and Christians,

    iL 812, 323 ; opposition of Hung Siutsuen

    to, ii. .591.

    Trials, criminal, how conducted, i. 504.

    Trigautius (or Trigault), French missionary,

    i. 265, 289, ii. 293, 309, 425, 428.

    ‘ Trimetritxil Classic,’ Saii-tsz’ King, a

    school-book, L 52()-.530.

    Trinity of the Tao-teh -King, Pauthier’a

    fancy, ii. 210.

    Tsaidam, plain of, L 210.

    Tsakhar, or Chahar, territory in Chihli,

    i. 60, 87 ; tribes, i. ‘203.

    Tsang Kwoh-fan, generalissimo of imperial

    forces against the Tai-pings, ii.

    618 ; is visited by Gordon, li. 620 ; investigates

    Tientsin massacre, ii. 703

    his son sent to England and Russia, iL

    733.

    Tsau hu, in Nganhwui, i. 23 ; its goldfish,

    i. 348.

    Tsau-ti, or Gras.sland of Gobi, i. 17.

    Tsetsen khanate, i. 204.

    Tsi dynasty, A. i). 479-502, ii. 166.

    Tsientang River, in Chehkiang, L 114.

    Tsin, the IXth dynastv in Cliina, ii. 165;

    After Tsin, XIXth,’ii. 172.

    Tsin, name t’hin.a. derived from family

    of, i. 2, ii. 101 ; tbey establisli the custom

    of giving tlie Empire the dynastic

    name, i. 4; dynasty ends witli Chwaiigsiang,

    ii. 1()3 ; Tit-tsii).. an ancient name

    for Rome, ii. 410.

    Tsin Chi Hwangti, ‘Emperor First,’

    alters taxes, i. 2C0 ; first universal

    monarch, ii. 160 ; subjugates feudal

    States, iL 188.

    INDEX. 773

    Tei’nan, capital of Shantung, i. 91

    .

    Tsinchau awarded to Feitsz’, a prince of

    Tsin, i. 3.

    Tsing, present dynasty of China, ii. 179-

    186.

    Tsing hai (see Koko-nor), i. 209.

    Tsining chau, in Shantung, i. 92.

    TzinistiP, a term for China, i. 4 ; used by

    the Greek monk Cosmas, ii. 412.

    Tsin-sz’, third literary degree, i. 558, 566.

    Tsitsihar province (Helung kiang), i.

    198-21)0 ; town of, i. 199,

    Tsiuenchau (Chinchew), the ancient Zayton,

    i. 129, lo6, ii. 431.

    Tso Churn, a commentary on the Chun

    Tsiu. i. 649.

    Tso Tsung-tang, commences operations

    against Mohammedan rebels, ii. 709,

    728 ; his successful campaign, ii. 730 ;

    leader of the war faction, ii. 732.

    Tsungming Island, mouth of Yangtsz’

    River, i. 108.

    Tsungling, ‘Onion,’ or ‘ Blue Mountains,’

    also Belur-tag and Tartash ling, its

    position, i. 9.

    Tsiingttih, Governor-General, or Viceroy,

    i. 438.

    Tsz’ki, near Ningpo, visited by British

    troops, ii. 530 ; camp near, ii. 531 ;

    Ward’s death at, ii. 609 ; taken from

    the rebels, ii. 610.

    Tuchetu (Tusietu) khanate, i. 204.

    Tumors common among tke Chinese, ii.

    131.

    Tunes, examples of Chinese, ii. 97.

    Tungchau, the port of Peking, i. 86

    Ward’s embassy at, ii. 669 ; Parkes’s

    experiences in, ii. 678-681.

    Tungchi, the Emperor, i. 411 ; his reign,

    ii. 184 ; palace intrigue upon his accession,

    i. 404, ii. 691 ; Peking in mourning

    for, ii. 250, 276 ; his marriage, ii.

    710 ; audience before, iL 714 ; his death

    and successor, ii. 726.

    Tungting Lake, in Hunan, i. 23, 147.

    Tung Til, ‘Land of the East,’ Mohammedan

    name for China, i. 2.

    Tung-wan Kwan, at Peking, i. 436, ii.

    339, 696, 741.

    Turkestan, Eastern (see Tien-shan Nan

    Lu), i. 221-337; the region, ii. 728.

    Turkoman races of Mongolia, i. 44.

    Til sz\ commune divisions in South

    China, i. .59.

    Types, movable printing, in China, i.

    603-605 ; Dyer’s work on, ii. 32.5, 367.

    Tyfoons, phenomena described, i. 56.

    ULIASUTAI, in Sainnoin khanate, i.

    208, 209.

    Unicorn, or ki-lin, i. 343.

    United States, trade relations with China

    up to 1843, ii. 460 ; first minister to China,

    ii. 565 ; treaty of Wanghia, ii. 567

    ;

    Minister Ward visits Peking, ii. 660

    ;

    the Burlingame treaty with China, i.

    698 ; action of Congress as to indemnity

    surplus, ii. 736 ; Chinese boys sent

    to, for education, ii. 739.

    Urga, or Kuren, i. 17, 204.

    Urumtsi, or Tih-hwa, western department

    of Kansuh, i. 214.

    Ushi, or Ush-turfan, a towTi of 111, i. 225,

    226.

    VACCINATION, its adoption in China,

    ii. 132.

    Van Braam, A. E. (see Braam), i. 324.

    Varnishes, manufacture and use of, ii. 32.

    Vegetables used in Chinese cooking, i. 773.

    Verbiest, a Jesuit priest, ii. 297 ; appointed

    astronomer at Peking, ii. 298.

    Vermilion, its preparation, ii. 61.

    Vice, never deified in China, ii. 192 ; absence

    of, in their mythology, ii. 232,

    and in theic funerals, ii. 254 ; the opium,

    ii. 386.

    Victoria (see Hongkong), i. 171.

    Villages (hiang), usual aspect of Chinese,

    i. 40 ; about Canton, i. 280 ; their

    elders, i. 483, 500.

    Visdelou, Bishop Claude, i. 3, 202, 633,

    681, ii. 277, 309.

    Visiting, the etiquette of formal, i. 802

    ;

    at New Year, i. 815; cards, how adorned,

    ii. Ill, 249.

    Vissering, W., ii. 87.

    Vlangali, Russian minister at Peking, ii.

    699 ; his temperate action in trial of

    Tientsin rioters, ii. 705.

    Vocabularies (see also Dictionaries), native

    Chinese, i. 590.

    Volcanoes, so-called, in Formosa, i. 140

    in Central Asia, i. 319.

    Voltaire, founds a drama on the ” Orphan

    of China,” i. 714.

    Vrooman, Daniel, i. 169.

    WADE, Sir T. F., i. 398, 420, 460,

    611, ii. 624 ; nominated intendant

    of customs at Shanghai, ii. 628

    experiences at Tungchau, ii. 678 ; his

    good offices between China and Japan,

    iL 717 ; action upon murder of Margary,

    ii. 734 ; his minute on the Chifu

    convention, ii. 725.

    Wai Hing-an, or Stanovoi Mountains, i. 9.

    Wall (see also Great Wall) of Peking, i.

    63.

    Wallace, A. R., i. 360.

    Walls, construction of house, i. 738.

    I Walrond, T., ii. 637, 6.55, 660, (502.

    Wanghia, treaty of, between the United

    States and China, ii. .507 ; taken as basis

    for French treaty of Whampoa, ii.

    .571.

    Wanleih, Emperor, receives Ricci, ii. 293,

    294.

    774 INDEX.

    Wan Miao, ‘Literary Temple,’ Peking, i.

    73.

    Wansiang, a minister of the Foreign Office,

    his superstition, ii. 304, 691); letter

    to foreign ministers at Peking, ii.

    707; Low’s reply to, ii. 708, 712, 714;

    his character and influence, ii. 715.

    Wan-yuen koh, or library, Peking, i. 69.

    War, I3oard of, i. 425 ; theory of. studied,

    ii. SS.

    War, with England, features of the first

    Chinese, ii. 4Kj ; Lord John Russell’s

    reasons for declaring, ii. 510; debate

    upon, in Parliament, ii. 512 ; opened

    by capture of Tinghai, ii. 514 ; resumed

    after negotiations at the Bogue, ii. 521

    ;

    thouglit by Chinese to be an opium

    war, ii. 539 ; concluded with treaty of

    Nanking, ii. 547, 550 ; a wholesome infliction

    upon Cliina, ii. 572 ; authorities

    upon, ii. 574 ; Tai-ping Rebellion, ii.

    575-624 ; second, with England and

    France—the Arrow case, ii. 635 ; hostilities

    opened by Admiral Seymour,

    ii. 637 ; discussed in Parliament, ii.

    641 ; a’rival of Elgin and Gros and

    capture of Canton, ii. 643 ; Taku forts

    taken, ii. 651 ; treaties signed at Tientsin,

    ii. 656 ; closing incidents, 6.59 ; repulse

    of allied envoys at Taku forts, ii.

    666 ; allies land at Pelitang and recommence

    the, ii. 673 ; capture of Taku

    forts, ii. 676 ; operations on tlie way to

    Peking, ii. 679-682 ; autljorities on the,

    of 1860, ii. 684 ; objects attained, ii.

    687, 688.

    Ward, Frederick G. , organizes the ‘ Ever-

    Victorious force,’ ii. 607; his deatli at

    Tsz’ki, ii. 6t9.

    Ward, Hon J. E., ii. 660; co-operates in

    suppressing coolie trade, ii. 6(53 ; repairs

    with tho allies to Taku, ii. 661

    ;

    interview with natives, ii. 665 ; goes

    to Peking, ii. 6(58 ; refuses to kotow

    before the Emperor, and returns, ii.

    670.

    Watters, T, ii. 212, 229.

    Wa.x-worm of Sz’chuen, i. 3.53.

    Wei River, in Shensi, i. 148.

    Whales, and mode of catching them, 1.

    339.

    Whampoa, a town on the Pearl River, i.

    170 ; opium lirst shir)ped to, ii. 378 ;

    case of lioniicide at, ii. 453 ; treaty of,

    between France and Ciiina, ii. .571.

    Wheelbarrows used for travelling, i. 747,

    ii. 7.

    White Deer Vale, in Kiangsi, i. 113.

    Whitney, Prof. Wm. D., ii. 73, 234.

    Wife, her jjosition in Chinese society, i.

    792 ; controlled liy the mother-in-law,

    i. 795 ; is given a new name, i. 797,

    799 ; elevated in ancestral worship, ii.238.

    Willow, in poetry, etc., i. 363.
    Williams, John, on comets, ii. 73.
    WilUam.son, Rev. Ale.x., i. 65, 87, 190,200, ii. 277.
    Wilson, Andrew, i. 250, ii. 92, 602, 610,611, 616, 617, 69.5.
    Wolseley, Colonel Garnet, ii. 672 ; observations on Canton coolies, ii. 674, 675 ;character of his narrative, ii. 685.
    Women, physical traits of Chinese, i. 43;in Tibet, i. 248 ; laws resbricting, i. 388of imperial palace, i. 408 ; illiteracy of mothers, i. 521 ; their education, i. 572;

    position, i. 646 ; consideration of literary,

    i. 681 ; kidnapped at fires, i. 743

    their dress, i. 763 ; shoes, i. 769 ; toilet,

    i. 770 ; their milk sold, i. 776 ; separation

    from men, i. 784 ; conduct toward

    young brides, i. 789; never appear at

    feasts, i. 806 ; well treated in crowded

    fairs, i. 817 ; their skill in embroidery,

    ii. .36 ; they practise obstetrics, ii. 123;Chinee historians on Empress Wu, ii.171 ; not admitted to worship, ii. 196 ;Yungching against, at Buddhist temples,ii. 228 ; as nuns, ii. 230 ; their tablets honored in tlie ancestral hall,

    ii. 338, 350 ; Kanghi forbids immolation

    of, ii. 250 ; old, employed as baptists

    by Catholics, ii. 311; as missionaries

    among the Chinese, ii. 364;

    how disposed of in Tai-ping camp, ii 594.

    Wolves in China, i. 320.
    Wood, Lieutenant J., i. 321, 230, 341,310.
    Wordsworth, W., ii. 233.
    Worship, of Shangti in Shang dynasty,ii. 154; by the Emperor, ii. 197; of Heaven, the ceremony and its meaning,i. 76, ii. 194-198; various objects of, ii. 202; Buddhist and Catholic, compared,

    ii. 3-!2 ; ancestral, ii. 236-255

    disputes respecting ancestral, by Romanists,

    ii. 297-1303.

    Writing, how taught in schools, i. 541 ;six styles of, L 597-598 ; materials, i..599.
    Wu River, in Kweicliau, i. 31.
    Wu Tsih-tien, the Empress
    Wu of the Tang, her reign, ii. 170, 280.
    Wuchang, in Hupch, i. 144; taken by the Tai-pings, ii. .595.
    Wuchau fu, in Kwangsi, i. 177.
    Wuhu hien, on the Yangtsz’, i. 110.
    Wusung, near Shanghai, j. 106; captured by the English, ii. 534.
    Wylie, A. , i. 494, 523, 68(), ii. 67, 72, 73,119, 176, 213, 214, 377, 286, 321.

    XANADU, or Shangtu, ancient palace of Kublai, i. 87.
    Xavier, tomb of, on Shaiigchuen Island, i.

    173 ; his mission to China, ii. 289, 428.

    a reward of i?200 for such evidence as would lead to the eonvic*

    tioii of the offenders ; and advanced in all S2,00U to the friends of

    the deceased as some compensation for their lieavy loss, and to

    the villagers for injuries done to them in the riot. Having

    formed the court, he politely invited the provincial officers to attend

    the trial ; and when it was over, informed them that he had

    been unable to ascertain the perpetrator of the deed. Five sailors

    were convicted and punished for riotous conduct hy fine and imprisonment,

    and sent to England under arrest, but to everybody’s

    surprise were all liberated on their arrival. The proceedings in

    this matter were perfectly fair, and the commissioner should have

    been satisfied ; but his subsequent violent conduct really placed

    the dispute on an entirely new ground, though he regarded his

    action as simply exercising the same prerogative of control over

    foreigners in both cases. Finding his demand for the murderer

    disregarded, he took measures against the English then in INfacao

    which were calculated to bring serious loss upon the Portuguese

    population. His course was prompted by anger at losing the

    trade, and only injured liis own cause. In order to relieve the

    unoffending and helpless people in Macao, Captain Elliot and

    all British subjects who could do so left the settlement August

    26th, and M’ent on board ship for a time. During this interval

    Lin and Governor Tang visited Macao under an escort of Portuguese

    troops, but retired the same day. This move placed the

    English beyond his reach, but did not advance his efforts to

    drive the opium ships from the coast, or induce the regular

    traders to enter the port. The sales of opium had begun again

    even before the destruction of the drug, and ra])idly increased

    when it M^as knoM’n that that immense quantity had really been

    destroyed. Lin now began to see that his plan of proceedings

    might not ultimately prove so successful as he had anticipated^

    for he was bound to remain at Canton until he could report the

    complete suppression of the contraband and safe continuance of

    the legal trade.

    Finding that the British fleet at Hongkong was too strong to

    drive away, he forbade the iidial)itants supplying the ships with

    ])rovisions. This led to a collision between the British and three

    junks near Ivowlung, which resulted, however, in no serious

    FURTIIEK TROUBLES BETWEEN EiNCJLlSII AND CHINESE. 507

    damage. On Septcinber lltli, Captain Elliot, luiving oixlered

    all British vessels engaged in the opium trade to leave the

    harbor and coast, thej mostly proceeded to Tsamoh. TJie

    Chinese burned the next day a Spanish vessel, the IJilbaino, in

    Macao waters, under the impression that she was English.

    In unison with all the strange features of this struggle, while

    hostilities were going on, negotiations for continuing trade M-ere

    entered into in October, when the connnissioner signed the agreement,

    and Captain Elliot furnished security for its being conducted

    fairly. But the unauthorized entrance of the English

    ship Thomas Coutts, whose captain signed the bond, led to a

    rupture and the renewed demand for the murderer of Lin

    Wei-hi. Captain Elliot ordered all British ships to reassemble

    at Tungku under the protection of the ships of w^ar Yolage

    and Hyacinth. He also proceeded to the Bogue to request a

    withdrawal of the threats against the British until the two

    governments could arrange the difficulties, when an engagement

    ensued between Admiral Kwan, with a fleet of sixteen

    junhs, and the two ships of war ; three junks w^ere sunk, one

    blown up, and the rest scattered. The commissioner had been

    foiled in all his efforts to destroy the opium trade and continue

    the legal commerce. As a last effort against the Bi-itish,

    he declared their trade at an end after December G, 1839, and

    issued an edict like that of Xapoleon at Berlin, Kovember 19,

    1806, forbidding their goods to be imported in any vessels. An

    enormous amount of property now lay at Canton and on board

    ship waiting to be exchanged in the course of regular trade, but

    only the opium traffic flourished.

    The close of the year 1839 saw the two nations involved

    in serious difficulties, and as the events here briefly recounted

    were the cause of the war, it will be proper to compare the

    opinions of the two parties, in order to arrive at a better judgment

    upon the character of that contest. The degree of

    authority to be exercised over persons Mdio visit their shores is

    acknowledged by Christian nations among themselves to be

    nearly the same as that over their o\vn subjects ; but none of

    these nations have conceded this authority to unchristian

    powers, as Turkey, Persia, or China, mainly because of the little security and justice to be expected. The Chinese luive looked upon foi-eigners resortino; to their ports as dinng so by sufferance ; they entered into no treaty to settle the conditions of authority on either side, for the latter considered themselves as sojourners and aliens, and the natives were unaware of their rights in the matter. Their right to prohibit the introduction of any particular articles was acknowledged, and the propriety of making regulations as to duties allowed. But traders from western nations often set light by the fiscal regulations of such countries as China, Siam, etc., if they can do so without personal detriment or loss of character ; and where there is a want of power in the government, joined to a lack of moral sense in the people, all laws are imperfectly executed.

    No one acquainted with these countries is surprised at frequent and flagrant violations of law, order, justice or courtesy, both among rulers and ruled ; yet the obligation of foreigners to obey just laws made known to them surely is not to be measured solely by the degree of obedience paid by a portion of the people themselves.

    The Chinese government discussed the measure of legalizing

    a trade it could not suppress, but before constructing a law to

    that effect, it determined to nudce a final and more vigorous

    effort to stamp it out. Might nuikes right, or at least enforces

    it ; had the Chinese possessed the power to destroy every ship

    found violating their laws, although the loss of life M-ould have

    been dreadful, no voice would have been raised against the proceeding.

    “Her Majesty’s government,” said Lord Palmerston,

    “cannot interfere for the purpose of enabling Bi’itisli sul)jects

    to violate the laws of the country to which they trade.” But in

    that case this power would not have been dared; the known

    weakness of the government end)oldened both sellers and

    buyers, until Captain Elliot told the Foreign Secretai-y that ” it

    was a confusion of terms to call the opium trade a snuiggling

    trade.”

    Lin probably wished to get Mr. Dent as a hostage for the

    delivery of the opium in the hands of his countrymen, not to

    punish him for disobedience to previous oi’dei’s ; expecting no

    opposition to this denuiud, he seems to have been unwilling to

    MOTIVE.S AND POSITION OP COMMISSIONEIl LIN. 509

    seize him iuimediately, preferring tu try persuasion and command

    longer, and detain him and other foreigners niitil he was

    obeyed ; Captain Elliot he viewed as a mere head merchant.

    When, therefore, the attempt was made, as he supposed, to take

    Mr. Dent out of his hands, lie was ap[)rehensive of a sti’uggle,

    and instantly took the strongest precautionary measui-es to prevent

    the prey escaping. Considei-ate allowance should he granted

    for the serious mistake lie made of imprisoning the innocent

    M’ith the guilty ; hut when Captain Elliot took Mr. Dent thus

    under his protection, the connnissioner felt that his pui-pose

    would be defeated, and no opium ol>tained, if he began to draw

    a distinction. I)esides, conscious that lie possessed unlimited

    power over a few defenceless foreigners, nearly all oi whom

    were in his eyes guilty, he cared vfry little M’here Ids acts felL

    There is no s’ood evidence to show that he seriouslv meditated

    anything which would liazard their lives. “When lie had received

    this vast amount of property, success evidently made him

    careless as to his conduct, and judging the probity and good

    faith of foreigners by his own standard, he deemed it safest to

    detain them until the opium was actually in his possession.

    Concluding that Captain Elliot did attempt to abscond with Mr,

    Dent, it is less surprising, therefore, that lie should have looked

    upon his offers to ” carry out the will of the great Emperor,”

    when set at liberty, as a hire rather than a sincere proposition.

    In imprisoning him he had no more idea he was imprisoning,

    insulting, threatening, and coercing the representative of a

    power like Great Britain, or violating rules western powers call

    jus gentium, than if he had been the envoy from Siam or Lewcliew.

    Wliether he should not have known this is another

    question, and had he candidly set liimself, on his arrival at

    Canton, to ascertain the power, position, and commerce of west

    em countries, he would have found Captain Elliot sincerely

    desirous of meeting him in his endeavors to fulfil his high commission.

    Let us deal fairly by the Chinese rulers in their desire

    to restrain a traffic of which they knew and felt vastly more of

    its evil than we have ever done, and give Lin his due, though

    his endeavors failed so signally.

    The opium was now obtained ; no lives had been lost, nor any one endangered ; but the Uritisli government felt bound to pay its own subjects for their cliests. The only source Captain Eiliut suggested was to make the Chinese refund. The Emperor ordered it to be destroyed, and the conunissioner, after executing that order, next endeavored to separate the legal from the contraband trade by demanding bonds ; they liad been taken in vain from the hong merchants, but there was more hope if taken directly from foreigners. The bonds were not

    made a pretext for war by the English ministry ; that, on the

    part of England, according to Lord John llussell, was “set

    afoot to obtain reparation for insults and injuries offered her

    Majesty’s superintendent and subjects; to obtain indenniitieatiou

    for the losses the merchants had sustained under threats of

    violence ; and, lastly, to get security that persons and property

    trading with China should in future be protected from insult

    and injury, and trade maintained upon a proper footing.”

    Looking at the war, therefore, as growing out of this trade, and

    waged to recover the losses sustained by the surrendry to the

    British superintendent, it was an unjust one. It was, moreover,

    an imnioral contest, when the standing of the two nations was

    examined, and the fact could 7iot be concealed tluit Great Britain,

    the first Cliristian ])Ower, I’eally waged this war against the

    pagan monarch who had vainly endeavored to put down a vice

    hurtful to his people. The war was looked upon in this light

    by the Chinese ; it will always be so looked upon by the candid

    historian, and known as the Opium War.

    On the other hand, the war was felt by every well-wisher to

    China to involve far higher princi})lcs than the mere recovery of

    the opium ; and had it been really held to be so by the English

    ministry, they would have done well to have alluded to them.

    Lin’s reiterated denumds for the murderer of Lin AVei-hi,

    though told that he could not be found, was only one form of

    the supremacy the Chinese arrogantly assumed over other nations.

    Li all their intercourse with their fellow-men the}’ maintained

    a patronizing, unfair, and contemptuous position, which

    left no alternative but withdrawal from their shores or a humiliating

    submission that no one feeling the least inde])endence

    could endure. ‘SoX. unjustly prt)ud of their country in compariCHAKACTER

    OF THE DEBATE UPON THE WAU. 511

    son with those near it, her Emperor, her nileivs, and her people

    all believed her to be inipregnably strong, portentously awful,

    and ininienselj rich in learning, power, wealth, and territory,

    Konc of them imagined that aught could be learned or gained

    from other nations ; for the ” outside barbarians ” were dependent

    for their health and food upon the rhubarb, tea, and

    silks of the Inner Land. They had seen, indeed, bad specimens

    of western power and people, but there were equal opportunities

    for them to have learned the truth on these points. The i-eception

    of the religion of the Bible, the varied useful branches

    of science, and the many mechanical arts known in western

    lands, with the free passage of their own people abroad, M’ere

    all forbidden to the millions of China by their supercilious

    rulers ; they thereby preferred to remain the slaves of debasing

    superstitions, ignorant of common science, and deprived of

    everything which Christian benevolence, philanthropy, and

    knowledge could and wished to impart to them. This assumption

    of supremacy, and a -real impression of its propriety, was a

    higher wall around them than the long pile of stones north of

    Peking. Force seemed to be the only effectual destroyer of

    such a barrier, and in this view the war may be said to have

    been necessary to compel the Chinese government to receive

    western powers as its equals, or at least make it treat their subjects

    as well as it did its own people. There was little hope of

    an adjustment of difficulties until the Chinese were compelled

    to abandon this erroneous assumption ; the conviction that it

    was unjust, unfounded, and foolish in itself could safely be left

    to the gradual influences of true religion, profitable commerce,

    and sound knowledge.

    The report of the debate in the British Parliament on this

    momentous question hardly contains a single reference to this

    feature of the Chinese government. It turned almost wholly

    upon the opium trade, and w^hether the hostilities had not proceeded

    from the want of foresight and precaution on the part

    of her Majesty’s ministers. The speeches all showed ignorance

    of both principles and facts : Sir James Graham asserted that

    the governors of Canton had sanctioned the trade ; Sir George

    Staunton that it woidd not be safe for British power in India if these insults were not cheeked, and that the Chinese had far exceeded in their recent efforts the previous acknowledged laws of the land ! Dr. Lushington maintained that the connivance of the local rulers accjuitted the smugglers ; Sir John llohhouse truly stated that the reason why the government had done nothing to stop the opium trade was that it was profitable; and Lord Melbourne, with still more fairness, said : ” We possess immense territories peculiarly fitted for raising opium, and though I would wisli that the government were not so directly concerned in the traffic, I am not prepared to pledge

    myself to relinquish it.” The Duke of AWllington thought

    the Chinese government was insincere in its efforts, and therefore

    deserved little sympathy ; while Lord Ellenborough spoke

    of the million and a half sterling revenue ” derived from foreigners,”

    which, if the opium monopoly was given up and its eultivatio7i abandoned, they must seek elsewhere, 2\”o one advocated war on the groimd that the opium had been seized, but

    the majority were in favor of letting it go on because it was

    begun. This debate was, in fact, a remarkable instance of the

    way in which a moral question is blinked even by conscientious

    persons whenever politics or interest come athwart its course.

    Xo declaration of war was ever published by Queen Victoria,

    further than an order in coimcil to the admiralty, in which it

    was recited that ” satisfaction and reparation for the late injurious

    proceedings of certain officers of the Emperor of China

    against certain of our officers and subjects shall be demanded

    from the Chinese government ; ” the object of this order was,

    chiefly, to direct concerning the disposal of such ships, vessels,

    and cargoes belonging to the Chinese as might be seized. Perhaps

    the formality of a declaration of war against a nation

    which knew nothing of the law of nations was not necessary,

    but if a minister plenipotentiary from Peking had been present

    at the debate in Parliament in April, 1S40, he would have

    declared the motives and proceedings of his government

    strangely misrepresented. It was time that better ideas of

    one another should find ]>lace in their councils, and tliat means

    enould l)e afforded tlie rulers of each nation to learn the truth.

    The Chinese apparently foresaw the coming struggle, and

    PREPARATION FOR HOSTILITIES. 513

    began to collect troops and repair their forts ; Lin, now governor-

    general of Kwangtnng, purchased the Chesapeake, a large

    ship, and appointed an intendant of circuit near Macao, to

    guard the coasts. The English carried on their trade under

    neutral flags, and Lin made; no further efforts to annoy them.

    He, however, wrote two official letters to Queen Victoria, desiring

    her assistance in putting down the opium trade, in which

    the peculiar ideas of his countrymen respecting their own importance and their position among the nations of the earth

    were singularly exhibited.’ Ts otwithstanding the causes of complaint

    he had against the English, he behaved kindly to the

    surviving crew of the Sunda, an English vessel wrecked on

    Hainan, and sent them, on their arrival at Canton, to their

    •countrymen, ‘ Chimse Bejwsitory, Vol. VIII., pp. 9-12, 497-503 ; Vol. IX., pp. S41-257.

  • WELLS WILLIAMS《The Middle Kingdom》19-23

    CHAPTER XIX. CHBISTIAN MISSIONS AMONG THE CHINESE

    The earliest recorded attempt to impart the knowledge of the true God to the Chinese ascribes it to the Nestorian church in the seventh century; though the voice of tradition, and detached notices in ecclesiastical writers of the Eastern Empire collated by Fabricius, lead to the belief that not many years elapsed after the times of the apostles before the sound of the gospel was heard in China and Chin-India. If the tradition contained in the breviary used among the Malabar Christians, that by Saint Thomas himself the Chinese were converted to the truth, be not received, Mosheim well remarks that ” we may believe that at an early period the Christian religion extended to the Chinese, Seres, and Tartars. There are various arguments collected from learned men to show that the Christian faith was carried to China, if not by the apostle Thomas, by the first teachers of Christianity.” Arnobius, a.d. 300, speaks of the Christian deeds done in India, and among the Seres, Persians, and Medes. The Nestorian monks who brought the eggs of the silk-worm to Constantinople(a.d. 551) had resided long in China, where it is reasonable to suppose they were not the first nor the only ones who went thither to preach the gospel. The extent of their success must be left to conjecture, but ” if such beams have travelled down to us through the darkness of so many ages, it is reasonable to believe they emanated from a brighter source.”

    The time of the arrival of the Kestorians in China cannot be specified certainly, but there are grounds for placing it as early as a.d. 505. Ebedjesus Sobiensis remarks that ” the Catholicos Salibazacha created the metropolitan sees of Sina and Samarcand, though so e say they were constituted by Acbseus and Silas.” Silas was patriarch of the Xcstorians fi-oni a.d. 505 to 520 ; and Achneus was archbishop at Scleucia in 415. The metropolitan bishop of Sina is also mentioned in a list of those subject to this patriarch, published by Amro, and it is placed in the list after that of India, accordmg to the priority of foundation.

    NESTOKIATs^ MISSION IN CHINA. 277

    The only record yet found in China itself of the labors of the Nestorians is the celebrated monument which w’as discovered at Si-ngan fu in Shensi, in 1625 ; and though the discussion regarding its authenticity has been rather warm between the Jesuits and their opponents, the weight of evidence, both interiml and external, leaves no doubt regarding its vei’ity. It has been found quite recently to be in good preservation, and i-ubbings taken from it are nearly perfect. The Syi-iac characters composing the signatures of Olopun and his associates have made it an object of much interest to the natives; these, as Avell as the singular cross on its top (seen in the illustration), have doubtless contributed to its preservation. It was set up in 1850 by a Chinese who liad so much regard for it as to rebuild it in tlic brick wall where it had once stood outside of the city. The stone seems to be a coarse marble.

    It has been often translated since the first attempt by Boime, published with the original by Kircher in Holland. In 1845 Dr. E. C. Bridgman published Kircher’s Latin translation with the French version of Dalquie, and another of his own, which brought it more into notice. The style is very terse, and the exact meaning not easily perceived even by learned natives. As Dr. Bridgman says, ” Were a hundred Chinese students employed on the document they would probably each give a different view of the meaning in some parts of the inscription.” This is apparent when four or five of them are compared. The last one, by A.Wylie, of the London Mission at Shanghai, goes over the whole subject with a fullness and care which leaves little to be desired.’

    ‘ Visdelou in Bthliotheque Oriental, Vol. IV. Kircher’s China Illustrata, Part I., Antwerp, 1667. Chinese Eejwsitory, XIV., pp. 201-329. Hue, Christianity in Chinti, I., pp. 49-58. Wylie, North China Herald, 1855, reprinted in Journal of Am. Oriental 8oc., Vol. V., p. 277. Archimandrite Palladius published a Russian version. Williamson, Journeys in North China, I., p. 382.Le (‘(itholicimne en Chine au VIIl” Sierle de notreere arec nne nourelle traduction de ^inscription de Sif-nr/a/ifoK, par P. D. de Thiersant, Paris, 1877.

    TABLET EULOGIZING THE PROPAGATION OF THE ILLUSTRIOUS RELIGION IN CHINA, WITH A PREFACE; COMPOSED BY KINGTSING, A PRIEST OF THE SYRIAN CHURCH.

    Behold the unchangeably true and invisible, who existed through all eternity without origin; the far-seeing perfect intelligence, whose mysterious existence is everlasting; operating on primordial substance he created the universe, being more excellent than all holy intelligences, inasmuch as he is the source of all that is honorable. This is our eternal true lord God, triune and mysterious in substance. He appointed the cross as the means for determining the four cardinal points, he moved the original spirit, and produced the two principles of nature; the sombre void was changed, and heaven and earth were opened out; the sun and moon revolved, and day and night commenced; having perfected all inferior objects, he then made the first man; upon him he bestowed an excellent disposition, giving him in charge the government of all created beings; man, acting out the original principles of his nature, was pure and iinostentatious ; his unsullied and expansive mind was free from the least inordinate desire ; until Satan introduced the seeds of falsehood, to deteriorate his purity of principle ; the opening thus commenced in his virtue gradually enlarged, and by this crevice in his nature was obscured and rendered vicious ; hence three hundred and sixty-five sects followed each other in continuous track, inventing every species of doctrinal complexity; while soYne pointed to material objects as the source of their faith, others reduced all to vacancy, even to the annihilation of the two primeval principles; some sought to call down blessings by prayers and supplications, while others by an assumption of excellence held themselves up as superior to their fellows ; their intellects and thoughts continually wavering, their minds and affections incessantly on the move, they never obtained their vast desires, but being exhausted and distressed they revolved in their own heated atmosphere ; till by an accumulation of obscurity they lost their path, and after long groping in darkness they were unable to return. Thereupon, our Trinity being divided in nature, the illustrious and honorable Messiah, veiling his true dignity, appeared in the world as a man; angelic powers promulgated the glad tidings, a virgin gave birth to the Holy One in Syria ; a bright star announced the felicitous event, and Persians’ observing the splendor came to present tribute; the ancient dispensation, as declared by the twenty-four holy men,’- was then fulfilled, and lie laid down great principles for the government of families and kingdoms; he established the new religion of the silent operation of the pure spirit of the Triune ; he rendered virtue subservient to direct faith ; he fixed the extent of the eight boundaries,”‘ thus completing the truth and freeing it from dross ; he opened the gate of the three constant principles, introducing life and destroying death ; he suspended the bright sun to invade the chambers of darkness, and the falsehoods of the devil were thereupon defeated ; he set in motion the vessel of mercy by which to ascend to the bright mansions, whereupon rational beings were then released; having thus completed the manifestation of his power, in clear day he ascended to his true station.

    ‘ Po-sz\ ‘ Persians.’ This name was well known to the Chinese at that time, being the designation of an extensive sect then located in the Empire, and the name of a nation with which they had held commercial and political intercourse for several centuries. The statement here is in admirable harmony with the general tradition of the early church, that the Magi or wise men mentioned in Matthew’s gospel were no other than philosophers of the Parsee sect.

    ‘ The ” holy men ” denote the writers of the books of the Old Testament.
    ”The “eight boundaries” are inexplicable; some refer them to the beatitudes
    •The “three constant iiiiiiciplfs” may perhaps mean faith, hope, and charity.
    ‘ Exactly the number we have in the New Testament.

    THE TABLET OF SI-NGAN FIT. 279

    Twenty-seven sacred books have been left, which disseminate intelligence by unfolding the original transforming principles. By the rule for admission, it is the custom to apply the water of baptism, to wash away all superficial show and to cleanse and purify the neophytes. As a seal, they hold the cross, whose influence is reflected in every direction, uniting all without distinction. As they strike the wood, the fame of their benevolence is diffused abroad; worshipping toward the east, they hasten on the way to life and glory; they preserve the bea^d to symbolize their outward actions, they shave the crown to indicate the absence of inward affections ; they do not keep slaves, but put noble and mean all on an equality ; they do not amass wealth, but cast all their property into the common stock ; they fast, in order to perfect themselves by self-inspection ; they submit to restraints, in order to strengthen themselves by silent watchfulness ; seven times a day they have worship and praise, for the benefit of the liring and the dead; once in seven days they sacrifice, to cleanse the heart and return to purity.

    It is difficult to find a name to express the excellence of the true and unchangeable doctrine; but as its meritorious operations are manifestly displayed, by accommodation it is named the Illustrious Religion. Now without holy men, principles cannot become expanded ; without principles, holy men cannot become magnified ; but with holy men and right principles, united as the two parts of a signet, the world becomes civilized and enlightened.

    In the time of the accomplished Emperor Taitsung, the illustrious and magnificent founder of the dynasty, among the enlightened and holy men who arrived was the Most-virtuous Olopun, from the country of Syria. Observing the azure clouds, he bore the true sacred books; beholding the direction of the winds, he braved difficulties and dangers. In the year A.D. G35 he arrived at Chang-an; the Emperor sent his Prime Minister, Duke Fang Hiuenling ; who, carrying the official staff to the west border, conducted his guest into the interior; the sacred books were translated in the imperial library, the sovereign investigated the subject in his private apartments; when becoming deeply impressed with the rectitude and truth of the religion, he gave special orders for its dissemination. In the seventh month of the year A. D. G38 the following imperial proclamation was issued: “Right principles have no invariable name, holy men have no invariable station; instruction is established in accordance with the locality, with the object of benefiting the people at large. The Greatly-virtuous Olopun, of the kingdom of Syria, has brought his sacred books and images from that distant part, and has presented them at our chief capital. Having examined the principles of this religion, we find them to be purely excellent and natural; investigating its originating source, we find it has taken its rise from the establishment of important truths ; its ritual is free from perplexing expressions, its principles will survive when the framework is forgot ; it is beneficial to all creatures ; it is advantageous to mankind. Let it be published throughout the Empire, and let the proper authority build a Syrian church in the capital in the l-ning Way, which shall be governed by twenty-one priests. When the virtue of the Cliau dynasty declined, the rider on the azure ox ascended to the west ; the principles of the great Tang becoming resplendent, the Illustrious breezes have come to fan the East.”

    Orders were then issued to the authorities to have a true portrait of the Emperor taken ; when it was transferred to the wall of the church, the dazzling splendor of the celestial visage irradiated the Illustrious portals. The sacred traces emitted a felicitous influence, and shed a perpetual splendor over the holy precincts. According to the Illustrated Memoir of the Western Regions, and the historical books of the Han and Wei dynasties, the kingdom ii Syria reaches south to the Coral Sea ; on the north it joins the Gem Mountains ; on the west it extends toward the borders of the immortals and the flowery forests; on the east it lies open to the violent winds and tideless waters. The country produces fire-proof cloth, life-restoring incense, bright moon-pearls, and night-lustre gems. Brigands and robbers are unknown, but the people enjoy happiness and peace. None but Illustrious laws prevail; none but the virtuous are raised to sovereign power. The land is broad and

    ample, and its literary productions are perspicuous and clear.

    The Emperor Kautsung respectfully succeeded his ancestor, and was still

    more beneficent toward the institution of truth. In every province ho

    caused Illustrious churches to be erected, and ratified the honor conferred

    npon Olopun, making him the great conservator of doctrine for the preservation

    of the State. While this doctrine pervaded every channel, the State

    became enriched and tranquillity abounded. Every city was full of churches,

    and the royal family enjoyed lustre and happiness. In the year A.D. (iD!) the Buddhists, gaining power, raised their voices in the eastern metropolis;

    ‘ in the year a.d. 713, some low fellows excited ridicule and spread slanders in the western capital. At that time there was the chief priest Lo-han, the Greatly virtuous Kie-leih, and others of noble estate from the golden regions, lofty minded priests, having abandoned all worldly interests; who unitedly maintained the grand princii)les and preserved them entire to the end.

    The high-principled Emperor Iliuentsung caused the Prince of Ning and others, five princes in all, personally to visit the felicitous edifice; he established the place of worship ; .he restored the consecrated timbers which had been temporarily thrown down ; and re-erected the sacred stones which for a time had been desecrated.

    In 742 orders were given to the great general Kau Lih-sz’, to send the five sacred portraits and have them placed in the church, and a gift of a hundred pieces of silk accompanied these pictures of intelligence. Although the dragon’s beard was then remote, their bows and swords were still within reach; while the solar horns sent forth their rays, and celestial visages seemed close at hand.’

    ‘ “Eastern metropolis” is Tiiiu/ Chan, literally ‘Eastern Chau.’ The Empire was at this time under the government of the Empress Wu Ze-tian, who had removed lu!r residence from Chang-an to Luoyang in Honan.

    ‘These personages are the first five Emperors of the Tang dynasty, Hiuentsung’s predecessors. Their portraits were so admirably painted that they seemed to be present, their arms could almost be handled, and their foreheads, or ” horns of the sun,” radiated their intelligence.

    THE TABLET OF SI-NGAX FU. 281

    In 744 the priest Kih-ho, in the kingdom of Syria, looking toward the star(of China), was attracted by its transforming influen, e, and observing the sun(i.e., Emperor), came to pay court to the most honorable. The Emperor commanded the priest Lo-han, the priest Pu-lun, and others, seven in all, together with the Greatly-virtuous Kih-ho, to perform a service of merit in the Hing-king palace. Thereupon the Emperor composed mottoes for the sides of the church, and the tablets were graced with the royal inscriptions ; the accumulated gems emitted their effulgence, while their sparkling brightness vied with the ruby clouds ; the transcripts of intelligence suspended in the void shot fortli their rays as reflected by the sun ; the bountiful gifts exceeded the height of the southern hills ; the bedewing favors were deep as the eastern Bea. Nothing is beyond the range of ri’rht principle, and what is permissible may be identified; nothing is beyiunl tin^ power of the holy man, and that which is practicable may be related.

    The accomplished and enlightened Emperor Suhtsung rebuilt the Illustrious churches in Ling-wu and four other places ; great benefits were conferred, and felicity began to increase ; great munificence was displayed, and the imperial State became established.

    The accomplished and military Emperor Taitsung magnified the sacred succession, and honored the latent principle of nature ; always, on the incarnation-day, he bestowed celestial incense, and ordered the performance of a service of merit ; he distributed of the imperial viands, in order to shed a glory on the Illustrious Congregation. Heaven is munificent in the dissemination of blessings, whereby the benefits of life are extended ; the holy man embodies the original principle of virtue, whence he is able to counteract noxious influences.

    Our sacred and sage-like, accomplished and military Emperor Kienchung appointed the eight branches of government, according to which he advanced or degraded the intelligent and dull ; he opened up the nine categories, by means of which he renovated the illustrious decrees ; his transforming influence pervaded the most abstruse principles, while openness of heart distinguished his devotions. Thus, by correct and enlarged purity of principle, and undeviating consistency in sympathy with others; by extended commiseration rescuing multitudes from misery, while disseminating blessings on all around, the cultivation of our doctrine gained a grand basis, and by gradual advances its influence was diffused. If the winds and rains are seasonable, the world will be at rest; men will be guided by principle, inferior objects will be pure ; the living will be at ease, and the dead will rejoice ; the thoughts will produce their appropriate response, the affections will be free, and the eyes will be sincere ; such is the laudable condition which we of the Illustrious Religion are laboring to attain.

    Our great benefactor, the Imperially-conferred-purple-gown priest,’ I-sz’, titular Great Statesman of the Banqueting-hou.se, Associated Secondary Military Commissioner for the Northern Region, and Examination-palace Overseer, was naturally mild and graciously disposed, his mind susceptible of sound doctrine, he was diligent in the performance ; from the distant city of Rajagriha,^ he came to visit China; his principles more lofty than those of the

    ‘ It was no rare occurrence for priests to occupy civil and military offices in the State during the Tang and preceding dynasties. Of the three titles here given, the first is merely an indication of rank, by which the bearer is entitled to a certain emolument from the State ; the second is his title as an officer actively engaged in the imperial service ; and the third is an honorary title, which gives to the possessor a certain status in the capital, without any duties or emolument connected therewith.

    – WaiHj-s/ii’?!, literally ‘Royal residence,’ which is also the translation of the Sanskrit word Rajagriha, is the name of a city on the banks of the Ganges, thret:’ dynasties, his practice was perfect in every department; it first he applied himself to duties pertaining to the palace, eventually his name was inscribed on the military roll. When the Duke Koh Tsz’-i, Secondary Minister of State and Prince of Fan-yang, at first conducted the military in the northern region, the Emperor Suhtsung made him (1-sz’) his attendant on his travels; although he was a private chamberlain, he assumed no distinction on the march •, he was as claws and teeth to the duke, and in rousing the military he was as ears and eyes ; he distributed the wealth conferred upon him, not accumulating treasure for his private use ; he made offerings of the jewelry which had been given by imperial favor, he spread out a golden carpet for devotion; now he repaired the old churches, anon he increased the number of religious establishments; he honored and decorated the various edifices, till they resembled the plumage of the pheasant in its Hight ; moreover, practising the discipline of the Illustrious Religion, he distributed his riches in deeds of benevolence ; every year he assembled those in the sacred oflice from four churches, and respectfully engaged them for fifty days in purification and preparation ; the naked came and were clothed ; the sick were attended to and restored ; the dead were buried in repose ; even among the most pure and selfdenying of the Buddhists, such excellence was never heard of ; the white-clad members of the Illustrious Congregation, now considering these men, have desired to engrave a broad tablet, in order to set forth a eulogy of their magnanimous deeds.

    ODE.
    The true Lord is without origin,
    Profoiand, invisible, and unchangeable ;
    With power and capacity to perfect and transform,
    He raised up the earth and established the heavens.
    Divided in nature, he entered the world,
    To save and to help without bounds ;
    The sun arose, and darkness was dispelled,
    All bearing witness to his true original.
    The glorious and resplendent, accomplished Emperor,
    Whose principles embraced those of i)receding monarchs,
    Taking advantage of the occasion, suppressed turbulence ;
    Heaven was spread out and the earth was enlarged.
    When the pure, bright Illustrious Religion
    Was introduced to our Tang dynasty,
    The Scriptures were translated, and churches built,
    And the vessel set in motion for the living and the dead;
    Every kind of blessing was then obtained,
    And all the kingdoms enjoyed a state of peace.

    which occurs in several Buddhist works. As this was one of the most important of the Buddhist cities in India, it is natural to suppose that 1-sz’ was a Buddhist priest.

    THE TABLET OF SI-NGAJS Fl’. 283

    When Kautsung succeeded to his ancestral estate,
    He rebuilt the edifices of purity ;
    Palaces of concord, largo and light,
    Covered the length and breadth of the land.
    The true doctrine was clearly announced.
    Overseers of the church wore appointed in due form;
    The people enjoyed liappiness and peace,
    While all creatures were exempt from calamity and distress.
    When Hiuentsung commenced his sacred career,
    He applied himself to the cultivation of truth and rectitude ;
    His imperial tablets shot forth their effulgence,

    And the celestial writings mutually reflected their splendors.

    The imperial domain was rich and luxuriant.

    While the whole land rendered exalted homage ;

    Every business was flourishing throughout,

    And the people all enjoyed prosperity.

    Then came Suhtsung, who commenced anew,

    And celestial dignity marked the imperial movements;
    Sacred as the moon’s unsullied expanse,
    While felicity was wafted like nocturnal gales.

    Happiness reverted to the imperial household.

    The autumnal influences were long removed;

    Ebullitions were allayed, and risings suppressed.

    And thus our dynasty was firmly built up.
    Taitsung the filial and just
    Combined in virtue with heaven and earth ;
    By his liberal bequests the living were satisfied,

    And property formed the channel of imparting succor.

    By fragrant mementoes he rewarded the meritorious.

    With benevolence he dispensed his donations ;

    The solar concave appeared in dignity,

    And the lunar reti-eat was decorated to extreme.

    When Kienchung succeeded to the throne,

    He began by the cultivation of intelligent virtue;

    His military vigilance extended to the four seas.
    And his accomplished purity influenced all lands.

    His light penetrated the secresies of men,
    And to him the diversities of objects were seen as in a mirror;
    He shed a vivifying influence through the whole realm of nature,
    And all outer nations took him for example.
    The true doctrine how expansive I
    Its responses are minute ;
    How difficult to name it!
    To elucidate the three in one.
    The sovereign has the power to act f
    While the ministers record ;
    We raise this noble monument 1
    To the praise of great felicity.

    This was erected in the 2d year of Kienchung, of the Tang dynasty (A.D. 781), on the 7th day of 1st month, being Sunday.

    Written by Lu Siu-yen, Secretary to Council, formerly Military Superintendent for Taichau ; while the Bishop Ning-shu had the charge of the congregations of the Illustrious in the East.

    The two lines of Syriac, of which the following is a transcript, are in the Estrangelo character, and run down the right and left sides of the Chinese respectively :
    Adam Kasiso Vicur-apiskupo in Papasi de Zinstun.

    Beyumi aba dahaliotha Mar liana Jemia katholihi patriarcJds.

    Kircher translates this as follows :

    “Adam, Beacon, Vicar-episcopal and Pope of China.

    In the time of the Father of Fathers, the Lord John Joshua, the

    Universal Patriarch.”

    The transcript of the Sjriac at the foot of the stone is given

    here on the authority of Kircher :

    Bemnatli alf utisaain vtarten diaranoie. Mor Jihuznd Kasiso Vcurapt’skupo de Cnmdan mediiialt malcutho bur niJih napso Militi Kama dincn Balehh medintho Tahhurstan Akim Luclio 7iono Papa dictabon bch medabarniitho dphirwkan Vcm’uzutJion dabhain didnat malclte dizinio.

    ” In the year of the Greeks one thousand and ninety-two, the Lord Jazedbuzid.

    THE TABLET OF SI-NGAN FU. 285

    Priest and Vicar-episcopal of Cumdan the royal city, son of the enlightened Mailas, Priest of Balach a city of Turkestan, set up this tablet, whereon is inscribed the Dispensation of our Redeemer, and the preaching of the apostolic missionaries to the King of China.”

    After this, in Chinese characters, is ” The Priest Lingpau.”

    Then follows:

    Adam mesclmmschdno Bar Jiclbuzad Ciirapishupo.

    Mar Snnju Kasiso, Vcurapiskiqyo.

    8abar Jchiui Kasiso.

    Oabriel Kasiso Varcodiakun, VriscJi medintho de Cumdan vdasrag.

    * Adam the Deacon, sou of Jazeclbiizid, Vicar-episcopal.

    The Lord Sergius, Priest and Vicar-episcopal.

    Sabar Jesus, Priest. .

    Gabriel, Priest, Archdeacon, and Ecclesiarch of Cumdan and Sarag.”

    The following subscription is appended in Chinese:
    ” Assistant Examiner : the High Statesman of the Sacred rites, the Imperijilly-conferred-purple-gown Chief Presbyter and Priest Yi-li.”

    On the left hand edge are the Sjriac names of sixty-seven

    priests, and sixty-one are given in Chinese.

    This trnly oriental writing is the most ancient Christian inscription

    yet found in Asia, and shows plainly that Christianity

    had made great progress among the Chinese. Kircher and Le

    Comte claimed it as a record of the success of the Itomisli

    church in China, but no one now doubts that it commemorates

    the exertions of the Nestorians.

    Timothy, a patriarch, sent Subchal-Jesus in 780, who labored in Tartary and China for many years, and lost his life on his return, when his place was supplied by Davidis, who was consecrated metropolitan. In the year 845 an edict of Wu-tsung commanded the priests that belonged to the sect that came from Ta Tsin, amounting to no less than three thousand persons, to retire to private life. The two Arabian travellers in the ninth century report that many Christians perished in the siege of Canfu. Marco Polo’s frequent allusions lead us to conclude that the Kestorians were both numerous and respected.

    He mentions the existence of a church at Ilangchau, and two at Chinkiang, built by the prefect Marsarchis, who was himself a member of that church, and alludes to their residence in most of the towns and countries of Central Asia.

    The existence of a Christian prince called Prester John, in Central Asia, is spoken of by Marco Polo and Montecorvino.

    The exact position of his dominions, and the extent of his intluence in favor of that faith, have been examined by Col. Yule and M. Paiithier in their editions of the Venetian, and the glamour which once surounded him has been found to have arisen mostly from hearsay I’eports, and from eonfounding different persons under one name. When the conquests of (Tenghis khan and his descendants threw all Asia into commotion, this Prester John, ruler of the Kara Kitai Tartars in northern China, fell before him, a.d. 1203. The Xestorians suffered much, but maintained a precarious footing in China during the time of the Yuen dynasty, having been cut off from all help and intercourse with the mother church since the rise of the Moslems.

    They had ceased long before this period to maintain the purity of the faith, however, and had apparently done nothing to teach and diffuse the Bible, which the tal)let intimates was in part or in whole translated by Olopun, under the Emperor’s auspices.

    At the present time no works composed by their priests,

    or remains of any churches belonging to them or buildings

    erected by them, are known to exist in the Empire, though perhaps

    some books may yet be found. The buildings erected by

    the Nestorians for churches and dwellings were, of course, no

    better built than other Chinese edifices, and would not long

    remain when deserted ; while, to account still further for the

    absence of books, the Buddhists and other opposers may have

    sought out and destroyed such as existed, which even if carefully

    kept would not last many generations. The notices of the

    tablet in Chinese authors, which Mr. Wylie has brought together,

    prove that those writers had confounded the King h’lao with Zoroastrianism and Manicheism, and such a confusion is not surprising. The records of futurity alone will disclose to us the names and labors of the devoted disciples and teachers of true Christianity in the Xestorian church, who lived and died for the gospel among the Chinese.’

    The efforts of the Roman Catholics in China have been great, but not greater than the importance of the field demanded.

    ‘ Yvxle’s ‘Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 275, passim. N. 0. Ai^. Soc. Jonrnnl, Arch.

    Palladius’ notes on it, Vol. X., pp. 20-2:5. Hue, (Un-isiiHuHy in Chiiiu, Chaj)

    II. Pauthi.T’s )r,irro Polo, Chaps. XLVIII.-L. Yule, Cothuy and the Way

    7 hither, \o\. I.,i)p. 174-1»:5.

    TRACES OF THE NESTORlAN MISSIONARIES. 287

    They have met with varied success, and their prudence in the choice of measures and zeal in the work of evangelizing have reflected the highest credit upon them, and would probably, if their object had simply been that of preaching the gospel, have gradually made the entire mass of the population acquainted with the leading doctrines of Christianity. The history of their missions is voluminous, and the principles on which they have been conducted can be learned from their own writings, especially the Lettres Edijiantes^ the Annales de la Foi, and in the elaborate works of Hue and Marshall in later times. The present sketch need embrace only the principal points, for which we shall depend chiefly upon those writers who have already examined these sources.

    The first epoch of their missions in China is the thirteenth

    century. Subsequent to the mission of John of Piano Carpini

    to Kuyuk khan in 1246-47, there were several envoys sent by

    one party to the other whose intercourse resulted in nothing

    permanent. The first attempt which can be called a settled

    mission was that of John of Montecorvino, from Nicholas T\.,

    in 1288. Corvino arrived in India in 1291, and after preaching

    there a twelvemonth, during which time he baptized a hundred

    persons, he joined a caravan going to Catha}^ and was kindly

    received by Kublai khan. The Nestorians opposed his progress,

    and for eleven years he carried on the work alone, but not till

    the latter part of this period with much success. He built a

    church at Cambaluc, ” which had a steeple and belfry with

    three bells that were rung every hour to summon the new eonverts

    to prayer.” He baptized nearly six thousand persons

    during that time, “and bought one hundred and fifty children,

    whom he instructed in Greek and Latin and composed for them

    several devotional books.”

    ‘Clement V., hearing of Corvino’s success, appointed him archbishop in 1307 and sent him seven suffragan bishops as. assistants. Two letters of his are extant in which he gives a pleasing account of his efforts to preach the gospel, but of the
    ‘ Chinese Bepositoi’y, Vol. III., p. 112; Vol. XIII., passim. Lowrie, Land of Sinim.

    subsequent success of the endeavors made by him and his coadjutors to propagate the faith there are only imperfect records.

    Corvino was ordei’ed to have tlie mysteries of tlie Bible represented

    by pictures in all his churches, for the purpose of captivating

    the eyes of the barbarians. He died in 1328, when about

    eighty years of age, ” after having converted more than thirty

    thousand iniidels.” One of the accounts relates that at his

    funeral ” all the inhabitants of__Cambaluc, \vithout distinction,

    mourned for the man of God, and both Christians and pagans

    were present at the funeral ceremony, the latter rending their

    garments in token of grief, . . . and the place of his

    burial became a pilgrimage to which the inhabitants of Cambaluc

    resorted with pious eagerness.” It is not easy to estimate

    the real value of the labors of this priest and his successors, nor

    to decide how much better they were than those of the Xestorians

    in making known the Cross of Christ among the Mongols. The

    short record preserved of Corvino speaks well of his character

    and favorably of the toleration granted by the Mongols to his

    efforts to instruct them. It is affec^ting to hear him say, ” It is

    now twelve years since I. have heard any news from the West.

    I am become old and grayheaded, but it is rather through labors

    and tribulations than through age, for I am onlv lifty-eight

    years old. I have learned tlie Tartar language and literature,

    into which I have translated the whole New Testament and the

    Psalms of David, and liave caused them to be transcribed with

    the utmost care. I write and read and preach openly and freely

    the testimony of the law of Christ.”

    The Pope sent Nicholas to succeed Montecorvino at Peking,

    and a company of twenty-six Franciscans with him, but no authentic

    record of their arrival there has been preserved. In 1336

    the last Mongol Emperoi-, Shunti, whose reign was then called

    Chiyuen, sent Andre, a Frank, as his ambassador to the Pope,

    to whom was also addressed a letter from the Alain Christians

    asking for a bishop to take Corvino’s place, Nicholas not having

    then reached his see. Benedict XII. sent four nuncios, one of

    whom, John of Florence, returned to Europe in 1353, after

    residing and travelling in China twelve years, bringing friendly

    letters from the Emperor ^hunti. At this period there was

    EOMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS—MONTECORVINO. 289

    another bishopric among tlie Mongols at Ih’, or Kuldja, and a

    letter from Pascal, a Spanish friar, dated from that city in 1338,

    lias been preserved. It would seem that during the sway of the

    Mongol princes these missionaries carried on their work chiefly

    among their tribes. It is, if such was the case, less surprising,

    therefore, that we hear nothing of them and their converts after

    the Chinese troops had expelled Kublai’s weak descendants from

    the country in 1368, since they would naturally follow them

    into Central Asia. After the final establishment of the Ming

    dynasty almost nothing is known concerning either them or the

    Nestorians, and it is probable that during the wanderings of the

    defeated Mongols the adherents of both sects gradually lapsed

    into ignorance and thence easily into Mohammedanism and

    Buddhism. There is no reasonable doubt, however, that during

    the three centuries ending with the accession of Hungwu, the

    greater part of Central Asia and Northern China was the scene

    of many flourishing Christian communities.

    The second period in the history of Romish missions in China

    includes a space of one hundred and fifty years, extending from

    the time when Matteo Ricci first established himself at Shanking

    in 1582 to the death of the Emperor Ynngching in 1736.

    Before Ricci entered the country there had been some efforts

    made to revive the long-deferred work among the Chinese, but

    the Portuguese and Spanish merchants were opposed to the extension

    of a faith which their flagitious conduct so outrageously

    belied. The Chinese government was still more strongly opposed

    to the residence of the foreign missionaries. Francis

    Xavier started from Goa in 1552 in company with an ambassador

    to China, but the embassy was hindered by the Governor of

    Malacca, who detained Pereyra and his ship, and Xavier was

    obliged to go alone. He died, however, at Shangchnen, Sancian,

    or St. John’s, an island about thirty miles south-west of Macao,

    disappointed in his expectations and thwarted in his plans by

    the untoward opposition of his countrymen. Other attempts

    were made to accomplish this design, but it was reserved for

    the Jesuits to carry it into effect. Valignani, the Superior of

    their missions in the East, selected Michael Ruggiero, or Roger,

    for this enterprise. He arrived at Macao in 1580 and com-

    VoL. II.—19

    290 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    menced the study of the language. Soon after he was joined

    by Matthew Ricci, and aftgr a series of efforts and disappointments

    they succeeded, in 1582, in obtaining lodgment at IShauking,

    then the residence of the Governor of Kwangtung. He

    granted them permission to build a house there, as they had

    told him that ” they had at last ascertained with their own eyes

    that the Celestial Empire was even superior to its brilliant

    renown. They therefore desired to end their days in it, and

    wished to obtain a little land to construct a house and a church

    where they might pass their time in prayer and study, in

    solitude and meditation, which they could not do at Macao on

    account of the tumult and bustle which the perpetual activity

    of commerce occasioned.” A beginning like this indicated the

    policy which has marked the progress of their work during the

    thi’ee centuries now passed. Xothing is said of making known

    Christ and him crucified as the great theme of their preaching.

    Hue tells us, too, that they took down the picture of the Virgin,

    because ” the report had been spread that the strangers

    worshipped a woman,” and replaced it by an image of the

    Saviour; and in this also they set the example, which successive

    ages have strengthened, of upholding the native idolatry. In

    their intercourse with the people of all classes they won good

    opinions by their courtesy, presents, and scientific attainments,

    and Hue sums up their principles in his approving remark,

    “they thought justly that the philosopher would make more

    impression than the priest upon minds so sceptic and so imbued

    with literary conceit.” The appointed means given by the

    Founder of Christianity for its propagation are never mentioned

    as their guide and authority, and the building corresponds to

    the foundations laid.

    In 151)-i Yalignani advised Ricci and his associates to exchange

    their garb of Buddhist priests for the nu)re respected

    dress of the literati ; and soon after he set out from Shauchau, in

    the north of Kwangtung, for Tsanchang, the capital of Kiangsi,

    and thence made his way to Nanking, still a place of great

    importance, althougli not the capital of the Empire. He was

    directed to depart, and returned to Nanchang, where he was

    permitted to lay the foundation of a religious institution and

    FATTTEK MATTEO RICCI. 291

    establish his associates, lie tlien left again for ^Nanking, but

    finding many obstacles proceeded to Suchau, the capital of

    Kiangnan, and there, too, established a school. The times becoming

    favorable, he appeared a third time at Xanking, in 1598,

    where he was received with amity, frankness, and good breeding,

    and his lectures on the exact sciences listened to with rapture. The

    progress of the mission had been so considerable that Valignani

    had appointed Ricci its Su])erior-General, which gave him power

    to regulate its internal concerns, for which he was well fitted.

    An officer whom he had known in Shauchau, and who had been

    appointed President of the Board of Civil Office, was induced to

    take him to Peking on his return there from a mission to Hainan

    ; but opposition arising this friend, Kwang, advised him

    to return M’ith him to Nanking, as tlie officials at the capital

    were much disappointed to find that he knew nothing about

    making silver and gold, which w^as wanted to pay for the expedition

    to Japan. After Kwang’s departure he and his colleague,

    Cataneo, found themselves nearly penniless, and he decided

    to return south, although it was wintei*. lie reached

    Suchau in a very weak condition, but, having recovered, went

    to Xanking in 1599, where the high provincial authorities visited

    and aided him, heard his discourses on astronomy, and

    enabled him to get a house.

    Everything progressed favorably, and Cataneo had returned

    from Macao with funds and presents. Eicci availed himself

    of a timely proposal from a eunuch to go with him to Peking,

    and started in a junk with his presents. The eunuch, however,

    wished to keep the latter, and by misrepresentations contrived

    to detain Ricci and his companion, Pantoja, at Tientsin for six

    months, at the end of which the villany was exposed, and the

    foreigners invited to court by imperial orders. They reached

    Peking January 4, 1601, twenty-one years after Ricci landed

    in Macao. The pleasing manners and extensive acquirements

    of Picci, joined to a distribution of presents, gained him the

    favor of men in authority. He soon numbered some of them

    among his adherents, among whom Sii, baptized Paul, was one

    of his earliest and most efficient co-operators, and assisted him

    in translating Euclid.

    292 THE MIDDLE KIXGDOM.

    Tlie Emperor AVanleih received liini with kinJnos?, and allowed

    him and Pantoja to be accommodated at the phvce where

    foreign envoys usually remained ; he subsequently permitted

    them to hire a house, and assigned them a stipend. In the

    meantime other Jesuits joined him at Peking, and were also

    settled in all the intermediate stations, where they carried on

    the work of their missions under his direction with success and

    favor. Paul Sii and his widowed daughter, M’ho took the baptismal

    name of Candida, proved efficient supporters of the new

    faith. The new religion encountered many obstacles, and the

    officers who saw its progress felt the necessity of checking its

    growth before it got strength to set at naught the commands

    of government. Much excitement arose in 1005 between the

    Portuguese and the officials at Canton in consequence of a

    rumor of the former going to attack the city ; and it was carried

    to such a height that the latter seized a convert named

    Martinez and punished him so severely that he died. A decree

    in 1617 ordered the missionaries to dejiart from court to

    Canton, there to embark for Euro2)e, but, like many others of

    the same import subsequently issued, it received just as much

    v_5>bedience as they thought expedient to give it—and properly

    too ; for if they were not disturbers of the peace or seditious,

    they ought not to be sent out of the country. This edict hindered

    their work only partially, and such Avas their diligence

    • that by the year 163(3 they had published no fewer than three

    hundred and forty treatises, some of them religious, but mostly

    on natural philosophy and mathematics. Ilicci formulated a set

    of rules for their guidance, in Avhicli he allowed the converts to

    practise the rites of ancestral worship, because he considered

    them purely civil in their luiture. The matter subsequently

    became a bone of contention between the Jesuits and Franciscans.

    The talented founder of these missions died in 1G1(», at the

    age of tifty-eight, and for skill, perseverance, learning, and

    tact, his name deservedly stands highest among their missionaries.

    His withholding the l)ible fi’om the Chinese, and substitution

    of image worship, ritualism, and ])riestly ordinances

    for the pure truths of the gospel, have been maintained by his

    M\S LI IF, AND ClIAHACTKR. 293

    successors, for tliey are essential features of the churcli which

    sent them forth. He lias been extolled by the Jesuits as a man

    possessed of every virtue. Another writer of the same church

    gives liim the following character : ” Ricci was active, skilful,

    full of schemes, and endowed with all the talents necessary to

    render him agreeal)le to the great or to gain the favor of

    princes ; but at the same time so little versed in matters of

    faith that, as the Bishop of Conon said, it was sufficient to read

    his work on the time religion to be satistied that he was ignorant

    of the first principles of theology. Eeiiig more a politician

    than a theologian, he discovered the secret of remaining

    peacefully in China. The kings found in him a man full of

    complaisance ; the pagans a minister who accommodated himself

    to their superstitions ; the mandarins a polite courtier

    skilled in all the trickery of courts ; and the devil a faithful

    servant, who, far from destroying, established his reign among

    the heathen, and even extended it to the Christians. lie

    preached in China the religion of Christ according to his own

    fancy ; that is to say, he disfigured it by a faithful mixture of

    pagan superstitions, adopting the sacrifices offered to Confucius

    and ancestors, and teaching the Christians to assist and cooperate

    at the worship of idols, provided they only addressed

    their devotions to a cross covered with flowers, or secretly attached

    to one of the candles which were lighted in the temples

    of the false gods.” ‘ His work was described by Trigault in

    1616, w’hen full materials were accessible, so that his actions

    and motives are known more fully than many who have come

    after him.

    After his death his place was filled by Longobardi, whose

    experience, learning, and judgment well fitted him for the

    post. The efforts of many enemies caused a reaction in 1616,

    and an edict was issued ordering all missionaries to leave the

    country ; but they w’ere sheltered b}^ their converts, especially

    through the exertions of Sii, who in 1622 obtained the reversal

    of the edict of expulsion, and thereby caused the persecution

    ‘ Anecdotes de la Chine, Tome I., Pref. vi, vii. Hue, Christianity in China^

    Vol. II., Chaps. II. toV. Remusat, Kouceaux MelaiKjcs, Tome II., p. 207.

    204 THE MIDDLE KITfGDOM.

    to cease.’ The talents and learning of Schaal, a German

    Jesuit, who was recommended by Sii to the Emperor’s regard

    in 162S, soon placed him at the head of all his brethren and

    ranked him among the most distinguished men in the Empire.

    The Dominicans and Franciscans also flocked to the land

    which had thus been opened by the Jesuits, but they were not

    welcomed by those who wished to build up their own power.

    After the death of Wanleih, in 1620, and those converts

    within the palace who had favored the cause, new influences

    against it arose, and during the short reign of his young grandson,

    Tienlii, troubles increased. Amid the breaking up of

    the Ming dynasty and the establishment of the present family

    on the throne (1630-1660), the missions suffered much, their

    spiritual guides retired to places of safety from the molestations

    of soldiers and banditti, and converts were necessarily left

    without instruction. The missionaries in the north sided with

    the Manchus, and Schaal became a favorite with the new monarch

    and his advisers, by whom he was appointed to reform

    the calendar. lie succeeded in showing the incompetency of

    the persons who had the supervision of it, and after its revision

    was appointed president of the Kin Tien Kien, an astronomical

    board established for this object, and invested with the insignia

    and emoluments of a grandee of the first class. He employed

    his influence and means in securing the admission of other

    missionaries, and to build two churches in the capital and

    repair many of those which had fallen to decay in the

    provinces.

    The exertions of the native converts did nuich to advance

    the cause of religion, and the baptismal names of Leon, Michel,

    etc., have been preserved among these early confessors ; but

    none are more famous than Sii and his daughter, Candida. He

    gave his influence in its favor and his property to assist in

    building churches, while his revision of their Avritings made

    them acceptable to fastidious scholars. His daughter also spent

    her life in good works. According to Du TIalde, she exhibited

    the sincerity of her profession by building thirty-nine churches

    ‘Sii’s Apology is given in full in the CMnese Repository^ Vol. XIX., p. 118.

    LABORS OF MISSIONARIES AND CONVERTS. 295

    in different provinces, and printing one liundred and thirty

    Christian books for tlie instruction of her countrymen. Having

    hearcl that the pagans in several of the provinces were

    accustomed to abandon their cliildren as soon as born, she established

    a foundling hospital ; and seeing many blind people

    telling idle stories in the streets for the sake of gain, she got

    them instructed and sent fortli to relate the different events of

    the gospel history. A few years before her death the Emperor

    conferred on her the title of shojin, or ‘virtuous woman,’

    and sent her a magnificent habit and head-dress adorned with

    pearls, which it is said she gradually sold, expending the proceeds

    in benevolent works. She received the last sacrament

    with a lively faith of being united to that God whom she .had so

    zealously loved and served. She and her father have since

    been deified by the people, and are worshipped now at Shanghai

    for their good deeds. The large mission establishment at

    Sikawe (properly Su ITia-wei, or the ‘ Sii Family Hamlet ‘), situated

    near that city, under the care of the Roman Catholics, now

    covers the same ground once owned by this eminent man. Candida’s

    example was emulated by another lady of high connections,

    named Agatha, who was zealous in carrying on the same

    works. We can but hope that although the worship of these

    converts was mixed with much error, and Mary, Ignatius, and

    others received their homage as well as Christ, their faith was

    genuine and their works done by an actuating spirit of humble

    love.’

    The Romish missionaries had friends among the high families

    in the land during the first hundred years of their labors,

    besides converts of both sexes. Few missions in pagan countries

    have been more favored with zealous converts, or tlieir missionaries

    more aided and countenanced hy rich and noble supporters,

    than the early papal missions to China. Le Comte speaks

    of the high favor enjoyed by all the laborers in this work

    through the reputation and influence of Scliaal at court. One

    of those who obtained celebrity was Faber, whose efforts in

    Shensi were attended with great success, and who wrought many

    ‘ Medhurst’s China, p. 188. Du Halde’s China, Vol. II., p. 8.

    296 TiiK :^[ir)DLK kixgdom.

    miracles during liis ministry in tliat province. Among otliera

    lie mentions that ” the town of Hang ching was at a certain

    time overrun with a prodigious multitude of locusts, which ate

    up all the leaves of the trees and gnawed the grass to the very

    I’oots, The inhabitants, after exhausting all the resources of

    their own superstitions and charms, applied to Faber, who

    promised to deliver them from the 2)lague provided they would

    become Christians. When they consented he marched in ceremony

    into the highways in his stole and surplice, and sprinkled

    up and down the holy water, accompanying this action with the

    prayers of the church, but especially with a lively faith. God

    heard the voice of his servant, and the next day all the insects

    disappeared. But the people refused to perform their promise,

    and the plague grew worse than before. AVitli much contrition

    they came to the father, confessing their fault and entreating

    his renewed interposition ; again he sprinkled the holy water,

    and the insects a second time disappeared. Then the Avhole

    borough was converted, and many years afterward was reckoned

    one of the devoutest missions in China. His biographer mentions

    that Falser was carried over rivers through the air ; he

    foretold his own death, and did several other such wonders

    ;

    but the greatest mii-acle of all was his life, which he spent in

    the continual exercise of all the apostolical virtues and a tender

    devotion to the mother of God.”

    The increase of churches and converts in the northern provinces

    was rapid during the reign of Shunchi, but the southern

    parts of the Empire not being completely subdued, the claimant

    to the throne of Ming w^as favored by the missionaries there,

    and his troops led on by two Christian Chinese otRcers, called

    Thomas Kiu and Luke Chin. His mother, wife, and son were

    baptized with the names of Helena, Maria, and Constantine,

    and the former wrote a letter to Pope Alexander VH., expressing

    her attachment to the cause of Christianity, and wishing

    to put the country through him under the protection of God.

    He kindly answered her, but the expectations of the llomanists

    were disappointed by the death of Tunglieh, the Emperor.

    During the reign of Shunchi Schaal and his coadjutors stood

    high at Peking, and missions prospered in the provinces ; but

    THE JESUIT FATHER ADAM SOHAAL. 297

    on the Emperor’s deatli tlie administration fell into the hands

    of four regents, and as they were known to be opposed to the

    new sect, a memorial was sent to court setting forth the evils

    likely to arise if it was not repressed. It should be mentioned

    that several monks of the Dominican and Franciscan orders,

    especially of Fuhkien province, where Capellas, a Spaniard, had

    been martyred in 1648, had i-esumed the labors of Archbishop

    John of Montecorvino at Peking, more than thirty years

    before this date. ” Their presence had been resisted by the

    Jesuits [so ran the memorial], and the strifes between these orders

    about the meaning and worship of tien and shanfjti (words

    used for the Supreme Being) revealed the important secret that

    the principles of the new doctrine were made to subserve the purposes

    of those who were aspiring to influence. It was remembered

    also that while the Catholics continued in Japan, nothing

    but intrigue, schism, and civil war was heard of, calamities that

    might sooner or later befal China if the criminal eagerness of

    the missionaries in enlisting people of all classes was not checked.

    The members of the different orders wore distinctive badges of

    medals, rosaries, crosses, etc., and were always ready to obey the

    calls of their chiefs, who could have no scruple to lead them on

    to action the moment a probability of success in subverting the

    existing political order and the ancient worship of China should

    offer.” The regents took the memorial into consideration, and

    in 1665 the tribunals under their direction decreed that ” Schaal

    and his associates merited tlie punishment of seducers, who announce

    to the people a.false and pernicious doctrine.”

    Notwithstanding the honora])le position Schaal held as tutor

    of the young Emperor Kanghi, he was proscril)ed and degraded

    with several high officers who had been baptized. Some of them

    perished, Schaal himself dying of grief and suffering August

    16th of the same year, at the age of seventy-eight, having been

    thirty-seven years in imperial employ, under five monai-chs.

    Verbiest and others were imprisoned, one of whom died ; and

    twenty-one Jesuits, with some of other sects, were sent out of the

    country. Magaillans says he himself was ” loaden for four whole

    months together with nine chains, three about his neck, his arms^

    and his legs ; he was also condenmed to have foi-ty lashes, and

    298 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    to be banished out of Tartaiy as long as he lived. But a great

    earthquake that happened at that time at Peking delivered both

    him and the rest of his companions.’” ‘ Their relief, however,

    was probably owing more to the favor of Kanghi on taking the

    reins of government in 1671 than to the earthquake ; he soon

    released Verbiest to appoint him astronomer, and allowed the

    missionaries to return to their stations, though he forbade his

    subjects embracing Christianity. This favorable change is partly

    ascribed, too, to the errors Verbiest pointed out in the calendar,

    which showed an utter ignorance of the commonest principles

    of astronomy On the part of those who prepared it. An intercalary

    month had been erroneously introduced, and the unfortunate

    astronomers wei’e made to exchange places with the

    imprisoned missionaries, while their intercalary month was

    discarded and the year shortened, to the astonishment of the

    common people. It may reasonably be doubted whether the

    priest acted with sagacity and prudence in thus exasperating

    those in high places by this public ridicule of their incompetency.

    Verbiest also prepared an astronomical work entitled ” The

    Perpetual Astronomy of the Emperor Kanghi,” which he graciously

    received and conferred the title of tajln, or ‘ magnate,’ on

    him, and ennobled all his kindred. ” He had no relatives in China,

    but as the Jesuits called each other brother, they did not hesitate

    to use the same title. Tiio gi-eatest part of the religious caused

    it to be inscribed on the doors of their houses.*”‘

    The favor of the Empei-or continued, and the missionaries re-

    (piited his kindness with many signal services, besides those of

    a literaiy and ustron(Mnicul nature, among which was casting

    camion for his army. In 1636 Scliaal had made a mimber for

    Tsungching, and Verbiest, his successor, cast several hundreds in

    all for the Emperor Kanghi. On one occasion, in 1680, the })ieces,

    three hundred and twenty of all sizes, were to be tested in the

    presence of the coui’t; but before doing so Verbiest ” had an altar

    prepared on which he placed a cross. Then, clothed in his surplice

    and stole, he worshipped the true (Jod, prostrating himself nine

    times, and striking the earth nine times with his forehead, in

    ‘ Magaillans’ C’hiinf, p. 147. Chinese Itepository, Vol. I., p. 434.

    QUESTION OF THE KITES. 299

    the Chinese manner of expressing adoration ; and after that he

    read the prayers of the church and sprinkled the cannon with

    holy water, having bestowed on each of them the name of a female

    saint, which he had himself drawn on the breech.” ‘ Some

    of the high othcers were still opposed to the toleration of

    foreign priests, and the Governor of Chehkiang undertook to

    cany into effect the laws against their admission into the country

    and their proselyting labors ; but Verbicst, on informing the Emperor

    of their character as excellent mathematicians and scholars,

    obtained their liberation. Ko foreigner has ever enjoyed so

    great favor and confidenee from the inilers of China as this able

    priest. lie seems indeed to have deserved this for his diligence,

    knowledge, and purity of conduct in devoting all his energies

    and opportunities to their good. His residence of thirty years

    at Peking (1G5S-1G8S) was passed under the eyes of suspicious

    observers ; but his modesty in the end won their confidence as

    his writings and devotions called forth their approval.

    During all this time—or at least since the other sects came to

    assist in the work—there had been constant disputes, as has already

    been intimated, between the disciples of Loyola, Dominic,

    and Francis, excited probably by rivalry, but ostensibly relating

    to the rites paid to deceased ancestors and to Confucius. Ricci

    had drawn up rules for the regulation of the Jesuits, in which

    he considered these customs to be merely civil and secular, and

    such as might l)e tolerated in their converts. Morales, a Spanish

    Dominican, however, opposed this view, declaring them to be

    idolatrous and sinful, and they were condemned as such by the

    Propaganda, which sentence was confirmed by Innocent X. in

    1645. This decree of the see at Home gave the Jesuits some

    annoyance, and they set themselves at work to procure its revision.

    Martinez was sent to Home as their principal agent in

    this, and by nuiny explanations and testimonials proved to the

    satisfaction of the tril)unal of inquisitors their civil nature, and

    Alexander Yll., in 1050, approved this opinion. There were

    thus two infallible decrees nearly opposed to each other, for

    Alexander took care not to directly contradict the bull of Inno-

    ‘Hue, Christianity in Cliina, Vol. III., p, 81.

    SOO THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    cent, and worded his decision so that botli claimed it. When

    all the missionaries were imprisoned or sent to Canton, a good

    opportunity offered for mutual consultation and decision upon

    these and other points. Twenty-three priests met in the Jesuit

    seminary at Canton in 1665, and drew up forty-two articles to

    serve hereafter for rules of conduct, all of which were unanimously

    adopted. The one relating to the ceremonies was as

    follows

    :

    In respect to the customs by whicli the Chinese worship Confucius and

    the deceased, the answer of the congregation of tlie universal Inquisition,

    sanctioned in 1(556 by his Holiness Alexander VII., shall be invariably followed

    : for it is founded upon the most probable opinion, without any evident

    proof to the contrary ; and this probability being admitted, the door of salvation

    must not be shut against innumerable Chinese, who would abandon our

    Christian religion were they forbidden to attend to those things that they may

    lawfully and without injury to their faith attend to, and forced to give up

    what cannot be abandoned without serious consequences.

    One member of this meeting, the Dominican Navarette, soon

    expressed his dissent, and the dispute was renewed as virulently

    as ever. The opponents of the Jesuits complained that they

    taught their converts that there was but little difference generallj^

    between Christianity and their own belief, and allowed

    them to retain their old superstitions ; they were chai’ged, moreover,

    with luxurj^ and ambition, and neglecting the duties of

    their ministry that they might meddle in the affaii’s of State.

    These allegations were rebutted l)y the Jesuits, though it appears

    from Mosheim that some of them partially acknowledged

    their ti’uth. In 1098 Maigrot, a bishoj) and apostolic vicar living

    in China, issued a mandate on his own authority diametrically

    opposed to the decision of the Inquisition and the Pope,

    in which he declared that tten signified nothing niore than the

    material heavens, and that the Chinese customs and I’ites were

    idolatrous. In 1699 the Jesuits l)r()ught the matter before the

    Empei’or in the folhnving memorial :

    We, your faithful subjects, although originally from distant countries, respectfully

    supi)licate your Majesty to give us clear instructions on the following

    points. The scholars of Euro])e have understood that the Chinese practise

    certain ceremonies in honor of Confucius, that they o!Ter sacrifices to heaven,

    and that tlicy oliserve peculiar rites toward their ancestors ; but persuaded

    POPE CLEMENT XI. AXD KANGHI. 301

    that these ceremonies, sacrifices, and rites are founded in reason, though ignorant

    of their true intention, earnestly desire us to inform them. We have

    always supposed that Confucius was honored in China as a legislator, and that

    it was in this character alone, and with this view solely, tliat th(j ceremonies

    established in his honor were practised. We believe that the ancestral rites

    are only observed in order to exhibit tlie love felt for them, and to hallow tlie

    remembrance of the good receive<l from them during their life. We believe

    that the sacririces offered to heaven are not tendered to the visible heavens

    which are seen above us, but to the Supreme Master, Author, and Preserver of

    heaven and earth, and of all they contain. Such are the interpretation and

    the sense which we liave always given to these Chinese ceremonies ; but as

    strangers cannot be considered competent to pronounce on these ‘mportant

    points with the same certainty as the Chinese themselves, we presume to request

    your Majesty not to refuse to give us the explanations which we desire

    concerning them. We wait for them with respect and submission.’

    The Emperor’s reply in 1700 to this petition, and another

    one presented to him, was sent to the Pope ; in it he decLared

    that ” tien means the true God, and that tlie customs of China

    are political.” The enemies of the Jesuits say that they ” confirmed

    the sentiments expressed in the imperial rescript by the

    oaths which they exacted from a multitude of Chinese, among

    whom were many from the lowest classes, not only entirely

    ignoi-ant of the meaning of many characters in their own

    language, but even of Christian doctrine.” The strongest efforts

    were made by both parties to influence the decision of the Pope,

    but the Jesuits failed. In 1701: a decree of Clement XI. confirmed

    the decision of Bishop Maigrot. It had been reached

    after careful and candid “examination, and was substantially as

    follows: ” As the true God cannot conveniently be named in

    the Chinese language with European words, we must employ the

    words Tien Chu, i.e., ‘ Lord of Heaven,’ in use for a long time

    in China, and approved by both missionaries and their converts.

    AVe must, on the contrary, absolutely reject the aj^pellation of

    Tien (Heaven) and Shangtl (August Emperor) ; and for this

    reason it must on no accoimt be permitted that tablets shall be

    suspended in churches with the inscription King Tien (Adore

    Heaven).” The court of the Vatican had already dispatched a

    legate d latere and apostolic visitor to China in the person of

    ‘ Life of Saint-Manin, p. 292.

    302 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    Tounion, who was consecrated Patriarch of Antioch in order to

    give him a title of sufficient dignity in the distant regions to

    which he was bound.

    The legate landed at Macao in April, 17(>5, and was received

    with a show of honor by the governor and bishop. He arrived at

    Peking in December, but the Jesuits had already prejudiced the

    Emperor against him, and at an audience accorded to him in

    June, 1706, the former brought forward the subject to learn the

    legate’s views. After some delay, however, the patriarch issued

    the Pope’s mandate, which was contrary to the monarch’s decision.

    Kanghi was not the num who would transfer to a pope

    the right of legislating over his own subjects, and in December,

    1706, he decreed that he would countenance those missionaries

    who preached the doctrines of Ricci, but persecute those who

    followed the opinion of Maigrot. Examiners were a])pointed

    for ascertaining their sentiments, but Tournon, who had been

    banished to Macao, forbade the missionaries, under ])ain of excommunication,

    holding any discussion on these points with the

    examiners. The Bishop of Macao conlined the legate in a private

    house, and M-hen he used his ecclesiastical authority and

    powers against his enemies, stuck up a monitory on the very

    door of his residence, exhorting him to revoke his censures

    within tliree days midcr pain of excommunication, and exhibit

    proofs of his legation to his diocesan. This was re-echoed from

    Tournon by a still severer sentence against the bishop. Three

    new missionaries reached Macao at this jun(;ture in January,

    1710, and one of them, l*cre Ilipa, gives an account of a nocturnal

    visit they paid the legate in his })rison after eluding the

    vigilance of his guards. Ripa renuirks that about forty missionaries

    of different religious orders were confined with Tournon,

    who had lately been nuide a cardinal, but he himself and

    his companions were left at liberty. Ills eminence sent a remonstrance

    to the Governor of Canton against his imprisonment,

    and also a memorial to the Emperor stating that six

    missionaries had arrived from Europe, three of whom were

    acquainted with mathematics, music, and painting. Kipa, who

    was to be the painter, says that he knew only the rudiments of

    the art, and records his dissatisfaction at this change in his voQUARRELS

    OF THE JESUITS AND DOMINICANS. 303

    cation, Lut soon resigned himself to obedience. Touruon died

    in his coniinenient in July of the same year.

    The proceedings of Tournon were mainly confirmed by the

    Pope, and in 1715 he dispatched Mezzabarba, another legate, by

    way of Lisbon, who was favorably received at Peking, lie

    ” was instructed to express the Pope’s sincere gratitude to

    Kanghi for his magnanimous kindness toward the missionaries,

    to beg leave to remain in China as their head or as superior of

    the whole mission, and to obtain from Kanghi his consent that

    the Christians in China might submit to tlie decision of his

    Holiness concerning the rites.” The Emperor evaded all reference

    to the rites, and the legate, soon perceiving that his Majesty

    would not surrender any part of his inherent authoiity,

    solicited and obtained permission at his last audience to return

    to Europe, which he did March 3, 1721. The first fifteen

    years of the eighteenth century was the period of the greatest

    prosperity to the Pomish missions in China. It is stated

    that in the governor-generalship of Kiangnan and Kiangsi alone

    there were one hundred churches and a hundred thousand converts.

    The survey of the Empire was carried on by the Emperor’s

    connnand from 1708 to 171S, under the direction of

    ten Jesuits, of whom Pegis, Bouvet, and Jartoux were the most

    prominent.’ It was a great work for that day, and considering

    the instruments they had, the vast area they traversed, and tlic

    imperfect education of their assistants, its accuracy and completeness

    form the best index of the ability of the surveyors.

    The disputes between the various orders of missionaries and

    the resistance of some converts to the Emperor’s commands

    respecting the ancestral rites, together with the representations

    of his own ofiicers upon the tendency of the new religion to

    undermine his own authority, gradually opened his eyes to the

    true character of the propagandists. In 1718 he forbade any

    missionary remaining in the country without permission from

    himself, given only after their promise to follow tlie rules of

    Picci. Yet no European missionary could repair to China

    ‘ An additional re-survey was made and presented to the Emperor Kienlung

    in ITGl by Beuoit and AUerstein.

    304 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    without subscribing a funnuhi in which he proniised fully and

    entirely to obey the orders of Cleiiieut XI. upon these ceremonies,

    and observe those injunctions without any tergiversation.

    Kan^^hi was made acquainted with all these nuitters and took

    his measures, gradually i-estraining the missionaries in their

    work and keeping them about him at court, while he allowed

    persecuting measures to be carried on in the provinces. Tho

    work of Ripa affords evidence of this plan, and it was characteristic

    of Chinese policy.

    After the death of Kanghi in 1723 the designs of the govern

    ment under his son Yungching were still more evident. In

    172-i an order was promulgated in which every effort to propagate

    the Tien C/m klao, or ‘ Religion of the Lord of Heaven,’

    as it was then and has ever since been called, was strictly prohibited.

    All missionaries not required at Peking for scientitic

    purposes were ordered to leave the country, by which more than

    three hundred thousand converts were deprived of teachers.

    Many of the missionaries secreted themselves, and the converts

    exhibited the greatest fidelity in adhering to them even at the

    risk of death. AVhen the missionaries reached Canton, where

    tliey were allowed to remain, they devised measures to return

    to their flocks, and frequently succeeded. The influence of

    those remaining at Peking was exerted to regain their former

    toleration, but wdth partial success. Their enemies in the

    provinces harassed the converts in order to extort money, and

    found plenty of assistants who knew the names and condition

    of all the leading adherents of the proscribed faith, and aided

    in compelling them to violate their consciences or lose their

    property.

    The edict of Yungching forms an epoch in the Uoniish missions

    in China. Since that time they have experienced various

    degrees of quiet and storm, but on the whole decreasing in

    number and influence until the new era inaugurated by the

    treaties of 1S58. The troubles in France and Europe toward

    the latter part of the eighteenth centui-y withdi-ew the a»ttention

    of the supporters of missions from those in China, while in the

    country itself the maintenance of the laws against the ])ropagation

    of Christianity, and an occasional seizure of })i-iests and

    THE CATHOLICS EXPELLED FUOM CHIXA. 30.”i

    converts by a zealous officer, caused a still further diminution.

    Tlie edicts of Kienluiig, soon after his accession in 1T3(), showed

    that no countenance was to be expected from court ; the rulers

    were thoroughly dissatisfied with the foreigners, and ready to

    take almost any measures to relieve the country of them. Perhaps

    their personal conduct had something to do with this

    course of procedure, for Ripa, wlio cannot be accused of partiality,

    says, when speaking of the number of converts, that

    “if our European missionaries in China would conduct themselves

    with less ostentation, and accommodate their manners to

    persons of all ranks and conditions, the number of converts

    would be immensely increased. Their garments are made of

    the richest materials ; they go nowhere on foot, but always in

    sedans, on horseback, or in boats, and with numerous attendants

    following them. AVith a few honorable exceptions, all the missionaries

    live in this manner ; and thus, as they never mix with

    the people, they make but few converts. The diifusion of our

    holy religion in these parts has been almost entirely owing to

    the catechists who are in their service, to other Christians, or

    to the distribution of Christian books in the Chinese language.

    Thus there is scarcely a single missionary who can boast of having

    made a convert by his own preaching, for they merely baptize

    those who have been already converted by others.” ‘ But

    this missionary himself afterward assigns a nnich better reason

    for their not preaching, when he adds that, up to his time in

    ITl-i, “none of the missionaries had been able to surmount the

    language so as to make himself understood by the people at

    large.” This remark must, however, be taken with some explanations.

    There had l)een al^out five hundred missionaries sent

    from Europe between 1580 and 172-1:, wliich was less than an

    annual average of four individuals during a centurv and a half.

    When the intentions of the new Emperor were known, there

    Avould not lono; be wantino; occasions to harass the Christians.

    In 1747 a persecution extended over all the provinces, and

    Bishop Sanz and five Dominican priests in Fuhkien lost their

    lives. All the foreign priests who could be found elsewhere were

    ‘ Residence at PeMnr/, p. 43.

    Vol. II.—20

    306 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    sent away—a mark of leiiiency tlie more striking wlien it was

    supposed by the Chinese that some of them had ah’eady once

    returned from banishment. The missions in Sz’cliuen and

    Shansi suffered most, but througli the zeal of their pastors

    maintained themselves better than elsewhere ; their bishops,

    Mullener, and after him Pottier, contrived to remain in the

    country most of the time between 1712 and 1792. The missions

    in Yunnan and Kweichau were not so flourishing as that

    in Sz’chuen. In this province M. Gleyo was apprehended in

    1767, and endured nuich suffering for the faith he came to

    preach ; he remained in prison ten years, when he was liberated

    through the efforts of a Jesuit in the employ of government.

    For several years after this the order enjoyed comparative

    quiet, but in 1784 greater efforts than ever were made to discover

    a*nd apprehend all foreign priests aiid their abettors,

    owing to the detection of four Europeans in Ilukwang while they

    were going to their mission. M. de la Tour, the procureur of

    the mission at Canton, through whose instrumentality they were

    sent tlirough the country, was apprehended and carried to Peking

    ; and the hong merchant who had been his security was

    glad to purchase his own safety by the sacrifice of one hundred

    and twenty thousand taels of silver.

    Didier Saint-Martin, who was then in Sz’chuen, gives a long

    account of his own capture, trial, and imprisonment, and many

    particulars of the sufferings of his fellow missionaries. Eighteen

    Europeans were taken away from the missions by it, but

    none of them were actually executed ; twelve w-ere sentenced to

    perpetual imprisonment, six having died, but for some reason

    the Emperor revoked the decree soon after it was made, and

    gave them all the choice to enter his service or leave the country

    ; nine of the twelve preferred to depart, the other three

    joining the priests at the capital. This search was so close that

    few of the foreigners escaped. Pottier was not taken, though

    he was obliged at one time to conceal liimself for a month in a

    small house, and in so confined a place that he hardly dared

    either to cough or to spit for fear of being discovered. Saint-

    Martin and Dufresse retired to Manila, where they were received

    with great honors, and were enabled to return after a

    PERSECUTION OF THE MISSIONARIES. ^ 307

    time to Sz’cliuen. The former died in 1801 in peace, but Dufresse

    was beheaded in 1814 ;

    ‘ in 1816 M. Triora was strangled

    in Hupeh, and M. Clet three years after ; in the interval,

    Schoeffler, Bounard, and Diaz perished, and Chapdelaine in

    1856. But no data are available to show the number of native

    priests and converts who suffered death, toiture, imprisonment,

    and banishment in these storms. The records of constancy and

    cheerful fortitude exhibited under tortures and cruel mockings,

    given in the writings of the time, show their faith in Christ.

    The details are summarized in Marshall’s work, and probably

    the number may reasonably be estimated by hundreds.

    The period which elapsed after the pronmlgation of the

    edicts of 1767 up to 1820 contains less to interest the reader

    than since the last date. At that time restored quiet in Europe

    urged a resumption of the work ; and the Annalcs ds la Foi

    henceforth continue the narratives of the missions, formerly

    recorded in the Lettres Kdifiantes, with the approval of the

    directors and bishops. It is not easy at any period to learn

    their condition and number, for only vague estimates of hundreds

    of churches, hundreds of thousands of converts, scores

    of missionaries, schools, catechists, priests, and stations, comprise

    the data given in the flourishing days of Verbiest and

    Parennin. Perhaps many of the early statistics have perished,

    yet it has never been easy to obtain accurate data, and

    often they have been withheld from public knowledge. There

    is no responsibility or reckoning required from the managers

    of the missions by the body of the church as to wdiat is done

    with the funds, as among Protestant missions. In 1820 an

    estimate gives 6 bishops, 2 coadjutors, 23 foreign missionaries,

    80 native priests, and 215,000 converts. In 1839 a table in

    the Annales gives for that year, 8 bishops, 57 foreigners, ll-t

    native priests, and 303,000 converts. In 1846 the record shows

    12 bishops, 7 or 8 coadjutors, 80 foreign missionaries, 90 natives,

    and 400,000 converts; 54 boys’ and 114 girls’ schools

    are put down for Sz’chuen. In 1866 they report 20 bishops,

    ‘ Annales de la Foi, Tome I., pp. 25, 53, 68. Dufresse was afterward

    canonized.

    308 Tin; MIDDLE KINGDO^r.

    233 foreign missionaries, 237 native priests, 12 colleges, 331

    students in seven of them, and 363,000 converts ; these figures

    include only those in the Eighteen Provinces. In 1870 the tahles

    show 254 foreigners, bishops and missionaries, 13S native

    priests in nine provinces, and 404,530 converts.

    Lastly, from the Hong Kong Catholic liegister we learn that

    the statistics in 1881 were : Bishops, 41 ; European priests,

    664; native priests, 559 ; converts in toto^ 1,092,818 ; colleges,

    34 ; convents, 34. The paper which publishes this summary,

    ” from a most reliable source,” gives no information as to where

    the missions or colleges are located, or what numbers are found

    in the different provinces. It is, moreover, somewhat difficult

    to learn what constitutes a college, or whether the grade in

    these institutions is uniform throughout the land. In addition

    to the education imparted at home, a number of Chinese are

    yearly sent to Tiome to be educated at the College of the Propaganda.

    The total number of converts includes all the members

    of the various families who give an outward adherence to

    the rites of the church. In the persecutions which these adherents

    have endured at various times, some have left the faith,

    but a large number of the descendants of these early converts

    have remained faithful, generation after generation, to the religion

    which their ancestors had embraced under more favorable

    auspices. Hence this estimate represents the number now

    adhering to them, many of them being the descendants of early

    converts ; and this number of followers has become so numerous

    largely by natural increase. AVe have no information as

    to the number of converts year by year. In one village of

    South China, where there are some Poman Catholics resident,

    it has been noted that the increase is almost entirely by natural

    generation. The girls of Catholic families are only permitted

    co-religionists. The men inarry heathen wives on the promise

    that they will become Pomanists. One man and his wife of

    this village first became converts. The number of adherents now

    hei-e is over one hundred, all descendants of this first pair; and

    this increase is entirely by natural descent and by marriage.

    With the increased openings since the treaties of 1858 the

    regulation of the missions has devolved on different societies,

    STATISTICS OF CATHOLIC MISSIONS IN CITIXA. 309

    which liavc apportioned their hiborers in the provinces. The

    Lazarists have Cliihh’, Iviangsi, and Chehkiang ; the Franciscans,

    Sliantung, Shansi, Shensi, and llnkwang; the Jesuits,

    Kiangnan and eastern Chihh ; tlie Dominicans, Fnhkien ; the

    Gallic church, all the western and south-western rcirions, with

    Manchuria; one society in Milan has charge of Ilonan, and

    another in Belgium labors in Mongolia. The successful efforts

    of M. Lagrend, the French envoy to China in 1844, to obtain

    formal recognition of the Christian religion and protection to

    its professors from their own rulers, entitle him to the thanks

    of every well-Avisher of missions. The intention of the Chinese

    authorities in tolerating such efforts was to limit them to the

    newly opened ports, where alone churches could be erected, for

    the missionaries are disallowed free entrance into the country.

    This partial permission of 1844 prepared the way for the

    toleration articles in the treaties of 1858, when the four

    Powers present at Tientsin obtained a more explicit acknowledgment

    from the Emperor of the rights of Christian laborers

    and professors among the Chinese. Those articles have been

    in force during the past twenty years, and have proved a safeguard

    and a warrant for the faith of Christ and its adherents

    even beyond the hopes of those who first proposed them.

    The exclusive labors of the Roman Catholics among the

    Chinese comprise a period of about two hundred and fifty years

    from the date of Ricci’s reception at Peking. The various

    works written l)y them during this period contained not only

    the details of their labors, but nearly everything that was then

    known relating to the Chinese. The essays, translations, histories,

    travels, etc., of Visdelou, Mailla, Trigault, Semido,

    Amiot, Le Comte, and scores of others, still remain to inform

    those wdio seek to learn their acts.” Every reader must honor

    the men who thus suffered and labored, prospered and died, in

    the prosecution of their work. It is \vorthy of consideration,

    as to the self-supporting character of this work, that their constant

    experience has shown that, however numerous and zealous

    the converts, the presence of European pastors and overseers is

    Kemusat, Nouveaux Melanges, pp. 207 ff.

    310 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    indispensable to their spiritual prosperity.’ “Whether this is

    owing to the character of the Chinese mind, or to the little

    Christian instruction and principle these converts really have,

    cannot in most cases be easily decided. It can hardly be expected

    that pagans should perceive much difference immediately

    between their old worship and the cei’emonies of the new fait)-

    in the presence of pictures, images, and crosses, before which

    they were taught to prostrate themselves. The native priests

    and catechists were not instructed to maintain the authority

    of the law and word of God above all human teachings in this

    respect, for the second commandment had been early expunged

    from the Decalogue, and thus the connnand of God made

    void, which prohibits man to make, to servo, or to bow down

    to such things. It may be this defect in their religious training

    which keeps these native priests in tutelage under the foreigners,

    and prevents the maintenance of self-supporting, indigenous

    churches under their oversight.

    In former days the entrance of missionaries into the interior

    of China was attended with considerable hazard, delay, and

    uncertainty, arising from the weakness or ignorance of those

    guides to whose care they were entrusted, and the risks they

    ran if detected. This has now all passed awa}’^, and access to

    all parts of the Empire is even more free than it was in the

    days of the Emperor Kanglii. In those early times the development

    of missionary work was not as well understood as it

    is now after long experience, and less attention was paid to

    education and self-support. Those points were not appreciated

    even in Europe, and we should not look for stronger growth in

    the branches of the tree than in its trunk. Within the last

    twent}^ years, not only have the theological schools of the Romish

    missions increa’Sed so that eighteen were open in 1859,

    but with the introduction of the Sisters of Cliarity many thousands

    of young children are taught needlework, reading, and

    various handicrafts to prepare them for useful lives. These

    schools and oi-phanages exert a widespread and lasting influence.

    The baptism of children and adults has ever been a very

    ^Lettrea Mifiantes, Tome IV., p. 77.

    THE BAPTISM OF DYING INFANTS. 3J 1

    important work witli the Roman Catholic missionaries, and

    especially (if its fre(nient mention is an evidence) the baptism

    of uioribumh, or dying children of heathens. The agents in

    this work are usually elderly women, says Yerolles, ” who have

    experience in the treatment of infantile diseases. Furnished

    with innocent pills and a bottle of holy water whose virtues

    they extol, they introduce themselves into the houses where

    there are sick infants, and discover whether they are in danger

    of death ; in this case they inform the parents, and tell them

    that before administering other remedies they must wash their

    hands with the purifying waters of their bottle. The parents,

    not suspecting this j}ieuse ruse, readily consent, and by these

    innocent frauds we procure in our mission the baptism of seven

    or eight thousand infants every year.*’ Another missionary,

    Dufresse, one of the most distinguished of late years, says :

    ” The women who baptize the infants of heathen parents announce

    themselves as consecrated to the healing of infants, and

    to give remedies gratis, that they may satisfy the vow of their

    father who has commanded this as an act of charity.” The

    number of baptized children thus saved from perdition is carefully

    detailed in the annual reports, and calculations are made

    by the missionaries for the consideration of their pati-ons in

    France and elsewhere as to the expense incun-ed for this branch

    of labor, and the cost of each soul thus saved ; and appeals for

    aid in sending out these female baptists are based upon the

    tabular reports. It may, however, be a question, even with a

    candid Romanist who believes that unbaptized infants perish

    eternally, whether baptism performed by women and unconsecrated

    laymen is valid ; and still more so, whether it is ritual

    when done by stealth and under false pretences. The number

    thus annually baptized in all the missions cannot be placed

    much under fifty thousand, and some years it exceeds a hundred

    thousand. Xo attention seems to be given to the child in ordinary

    cases if it happen to live after this surreptitious baptism.

    The degree of instruction given to the converts is trifling,

    partly owing to the great extent of a single diocese and partly to

    imperfect knowledge of the language on the part of missionaries.

    The vexations constantly experienced urge them to be

    812 THE MIDDLE KIXODOM.

    cautious ; and truly if a missionai-y believes that baptism, confirmation,

    confession, and absolution, are all the evidences of faith

    that ai-e required in a convert to entitle him to salvation, it

    cannot be supposed he will deem it necessary to give them longcontinued

    instruction. The canses which usually bring the converts

    into trouble with their CDuntrymen or the officials were

    thus described many years ago by the Bishop of Caradre in

    Sz’chuen ; they are still partly applicable.

    First. Christians are frequently confounded with tlie members

    of the Triad Society, or of the AVhite Lily sect, both by

    their enemies and by persons belonging to those associations.

    Second. The Christians refuse to contribute to the erection

    or repair of temples, or subscribe to idolatrous feasts and superstitious

    rites ; though, according to the A)i7iales, they sometimes

    defray the charges of the theati’ical exhibitions which

    follow, in order to avoid the malice of their adversaries.

    Third. ” Espousals are ahnost indissoluble in China, and

    whenever the Christians refuse to ratify them by proceeding

    to a marriage already commenced, they are regarded as lawbreakers

    and treated as such.” ‘ This is the most common

    source of trouble, especially when the parents of the girl have

    become converts since the beti-othment, and the other party

    is anxious to fulfil the contract. These engagements are sometimes

    broken in a sufficiently unscrupulous manner, and nothing

    draws so much odium upon Christians as their refusal to

    adhere to these conti-acts. On one occasion this bishop assisted

    in breaking up such an engagment, when the parents, on the

    death of a sister of the girl, asserted that the deceased was the

    one who had been betrothed. He adds : ” I thirdc the faith of

    the parents and the purity of their motives will readily excuse

    them before God for the sin of lying.” On other occasions

    the missionaries endeavor to dissolve these engagements by exhorting

    the believing party to take voavs of celibacy.

    Fourth. All connnunication with Europeans being interdicted,

    the magistrates seek diligently for every evidence of their exist-

    Lettres Edifiantes, Tome III., p. 37, wliere there appear two or three cases

    wf this and Saint-Martin’s reasonini,’ on thu point.

    GRIEVANCES AGAINST CATHOLIC CONVERTS. 313

    eiicc in the country, by searching for the objects used in worship,

    as crosses, breviaries, etc.

    Fifth. The little respect the converts have for their ancestors

    is always an offence in the eyes of the pagans, and leads

    to recrimination and vexatious annoyances.

    Sixth. As the converts are obliged to take down the ancesti-al

    tablets in order to put u]> those of their own religion, they are

    seldom forgiven in this change, and occasion is taken therefrom

    to persecute.

    Seventh. The indiscreet zeal of the neophytes leading them

    to break the idols or insult the objects of public worship is

    one of the most common causes of persecution.

    Eightli. The disputes between the missionaries themselves,

    regarding the ceremonies, have frequently excited troubles.

    In addition to these causes, some of ‘which are now removed,

    there are others which have grown up since the toleration

    granted to Christianit}^ by the treaties, and which may develop

    still more. They are discussed in the minute drawn up by the

    Chinese government in 1871, after the Tientsin riot, in which

    eight rules for their regulation are proposed. The grievances

    refer to the seclusion of children in orphanages ; to the pi-esence

    of w^omen in religious assemblies ; to missionaries interfering

    in legal cases so as to screen criminals, and their interchanging

    passports ; to the neophytes rescuing criminals from

    justice ; to the missionaries affecting the style of native officials

    ;

    and, lastly, to their demand for land alleged to have once belonged

    to them, whatever ma\’ have been its ownership meanwhile.

    This has since ceased, and the others have been somewhat

    restrained.

    Christians sometimes refuse to have their deceased friends

    buried with the idolatrous ceremonies required by their relatives,

    upon which the latter occasionally carry the matter

    before the officers, or resort to petty annoyances. In order to

    keep up the spirit of devotion among the neophytes, crucifixes,

    reliquaries, and other articles were given them, and ‘” God

    wrought several miracles among them to authorize the practice.”

    These articles, in the estimation of both priest and people,

    probably have no little influence over the demons which vex and

    314 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    harass tlie pagans, l)nt wliicli never trouble Christians. Saint-

    Martin, writing to liis father from the capital of Sz’chnen in

    1774, says: “The most sensible proof for the pagans, and one

    always in force, is the power the Christians have over demons.’

    It is astonisliing how these poor infidels are tormented, and

    they can find remedy onl}” in the prayers of Christians, by

    whose help they are delivered and then converted. Seven or

    eight leagues from this spot is a house which has been infested

    with demons for a month ; they maltreat all who come near

    them, and have set the dwelling on fire at different times. Tliey

    have had recourse to all kinds of superstitious ceremonies,

    calling in the native priests, but all to no effect ; and the master

    of the family where I am staying has now gone to assist

    them. He is a man of lively faith, and has already performed

    many miraculous cures.”

    It is interesting to compare with this the account of Friar

    Odoric, ” How the friars deal with devils in Tartary.” In his

    Travels we read that ” God Almighty hath bestowed such grace

    upon the Minor friars that in Great Tartary they think it a

    mere nothing to expel devils from the possessed, no more, indeed,

    than to drive a dog out of the house. For there be many

    in those parts possessed of the devil, both men and women,

    and these they bind and bring to our friars from as far as ten

    days’ journey off. The friars bid the demons depart forth

    instantly from the bodies of the possessed, in the name of

    Jesus Christ, and they do depart immediately in obedience to

    this command. Then those who have been delivered from

    the demon straightway cause themselves to be baptized ; and

    the friars take their idols, which are made of felt, and carry

    them to the fire, while all the people of the country round

    assemble to see their neighbor’s gods burnt. The friars accordingly

    cast the idols into the fire, but they leap out again. And

    so the friars take holy water and sprinkle it upon the fire, and

    that straightway drives away the demon from the fire ; so the

    friars again casting the idols into the fire, they are consumed.

    ‘ retires ^diJian(£S, Tomes I., pp. 39 and 151, passim, and IV., p. 27.

    ^ TAfe of Didier Saint-Martin, p. 35.

    CARTIISrG OUT DEVILS. 315

    And then the devil in the air raises a shout, saying :

    ‘ See

    then ! see then ! how I am expelled from my dwelling place !

    And in this way our friars baptize great numbers in that

    country.”

    When persons educated in a country like France allow their

    converts to entertain such ideas, even if they do not favor them

    :>Ss^

    Roman Catholic Altar near Shanghai.

    themselves, and countenance their endeavors to exorcise the

    possessed, we cannot look for a very high degree of knowledge

    or piety. If they are l)rouglit out of pagan darkness, it is but

    little if any better than into light hardly bright enough to enable

    them even to distinguish trees from men.

    The points of similarity between Buddhism and Romanism

    have already been noticed, and the converts from one to the

    » Yule, Cathay and tlie Way TJiitlier, Vol. I., p. 155.

    31G THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    other see but little more change than they do when going from

    Buddhism to the metaphysical speculations of the learned ju

    Mao. If Romisli ])riests have allowed their converts to worship

    before pagan images, provided a cross is put into the

    candles, it would not be difficult for the latter to put the names

    of their departed parents behind the ” tablets of religion,” and

    worship them together. Similar to such a permission is the

    combination of the cross and dragon carved on a Romish altar

    near Shanghai, given on the preceding page, and at which both

    pagans and Christians could alike worship.

    Agnuses, crosses, etc., are easily substituted for coins and

    charms, and it does not surely require much faith to believe the

    former as effectual as the latter. The neophyte takes away the

    tablet in his house or shop having shin, ‘aeon’ or ‘ spirit,’ written

    on it,’ and puts up another, on which is written shin, chin

    chu, tsaotien ti jin-wuh, or ‘ God, true Lord, Creator of heaven,

    earth, man, and all things,’ and burns the same incense befoi-e

    this as before that. Chinese demigods are changed for foreign

    saints, with this difference, tha’^ now they worship they know

    not what, while before they knew something of the name and

    character of the ancient hero from popular accounts and historical

    legends. They cease, indeed, to venerate the queen of

    Heaven, holy mother ISFa tsupu, but Mhat advance in true religion

    has been made by falling down before the Queen of

    Heaven, holy mother Mary ? The people call the Buddhist

    idols and the Romish images by the same name, and apply

    nmch the same terms to their ceremonies. Such converts can

    easily be numbered by thousands ; and it is a wonder, indeed,

    when one considers the nature of the case, that the whole population

    of China have not long since become ” devout confessors

    ” of this faith. Conversions depend, in such cases, on

    almost every other kind of influence than that of the Holy

    Spirit blessing his own word in an intelligent mind and a

    quickened conscience. The missionaries write that ‘• being

    forced in three or four months after their arrival to preach

    ‘ Converts in Sz’chuen sometimes steal tlie idols from the roadside. J.ettres

    ^difiantes, Tome I., p. 219.

    CHARACTER OF CATHOLIC MISSIONARY WORK. 317

    when they do not know tlie language sufficiently either to be

    understood or to understand theniselves, they have seen tlieir

    auditors inunediately embrace Christianity.”

    We pass no decision upon these converts, except what is

    given or drawn from the writings of their teachers. Human

    nature is everywhere the same in its great lineaments, and the

    effect of living godly lives in Christ Jesus will everywhere excite

    opposition, calumny, persecution, and death, accordiug to

    the liberty granted the enemies of the truth. There may have

    been true converts among the adherents to Romanism ; but what

    salutary effects has this large body of Chi-istians wrought in the

    vast population of China during the three hundred years since

    Ricci established himself at banking ? T^one, absolutely none,

    that attract attention. The letters of some of the missionaries

    written to their friends breathe a spirit of pious ardor and true

    Christian principle worthy of all imitation. Among the best

    letters contained in the Annales is one from Dufresse to his

    pupils then at Penang. It is a long epistle, and contains

    nothing (with one exception) which the most scrupulous Protestant

    would not approve. The same may be paid of most of

    the letters contained in the same collection written in prison

    by Gagelin, a missionary who was strangled in Annam in

    1833. It is hardly possible to doubt, when reading the letters

    of these two men, both of whom were mai’tyred for the

    faith they preached, that they sincerely loved and trusted in

    the Saviour they proclaimed. Many of their converts also exhibit

    the greatest constancy in their profession, preferring to

    suffer persecution, torture, imprisonment, banishment, and

    death rather than to deny their faith, though every inducement

    of prevarication and mental reservation was held out to

    them by the magistrates in order to avoid the necessity of proceeding

    to extreme measures. If undergoing the loss of all

    things is an evidence of piety, many of them have abundantly

    proved their title to this virtue. But until there shall be a

    complete separation from idolatry and superstitioTi ; until the

    confessional shall be abolished, and the worship of the A^irgin,

    wearing crosses and rosaries, and reliance on ceremonies and

    penances be stopped ; until the entire Scriptures and Decalogue

    318 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    be tauglit to tlie converts; until, in sliort, the essential doctrine

    of justitication by faitli alone be substituted for the many

    forms of justification l)y works, tlie mass of converts to liomanism

    in China can liai’dly be considered as much better than

    baptized pagans.’

    Turn we now to a brief survey of tlie efforts of Protestants

    among the Chinese, and the results which have attended their

    labors. Hardly forty years have passed since the treaty of Nan^

    king opened the five ports to their direct work in the Empire,

    and the results thus far necessarily partake of the incompleteness

    of new enterprises. The radical distinction between their

    modes of operation and those of their predecessors is indicated

    in the names ‘ Tvclioion of Heaven’s Lord ‘ and ‘ lteli»j;ion of

    Jesus ;

    ‘ the Romanists depend much on their teachings and cere-

    / monies to convert men, the Protestants on the preaching of the

    ‘ word of God and a blessing on its vital truths.

    The first Protestant missionary to China was Rev. Robert

    Morrison, of Morpeth, England, who was sent out by the London

    Missionary Society, lie arrived at Canton, by way of Xew

    York, in Se])teniber, 1807, and lived there for a year, in a quiet

    manner, in the factory of Messrs. Milner and Bull, of Xew York.

    He early made the acquaintance of Sir George T. Staunton,

    one of his firmest friends, and already well versed in Chinese

    studies; Mr. Robarts, the chief of the British factory, advised

    hijii to avow his intention to the Chinese of translating the Scriptures

    into their language, on the ground that it was a divine

    book which Christians highly esteemed and which the Chinese

    should have the opportunity of examining. In consequence of

    difficulties connected with the trade, he was obliged to leave

    Canton in 1S08 with all British subjects and repair to Macao,

    where he deemed it prudent to maintain a careful retirement in

    ‘ An exhaustive collection of the titles of every work of importance upon

    Catholic missions in China, as well as a rhuine of their jieriodical publications,

    may be found in M. Cordier’s Diction ihiirc hibii(H/riij)/iiqiU’ t/iK oiirrKijfK ChinotK,

    Tome I., pp. IJ^O-.ITH, and following these pages are the works concerning

    Protestant missions, pp. .ITH-G’J;}. Compare also Thos. Marshall, (Viristitui

    Mmioun: their Afieittx it lul their lienidtn, London, IHO;^, and Chr. H. Kalkar,

    Oetchichte der christlichen Mission uiit<:r den J/eiih n, (iiitiTsloh, 1879-80.

    THE PROTESTANTS IN CHINA—DR. MORRISON. 319

    order not to attract nndue notice from the Portuguese priests.

    His associate, Dr. Milne, observed, with reference to these traits

    in his character, that ” the patience that refuses to be conqnered,

    the diligence that never tires, the caution that always trembles,

    and the studious habit that spontaneously seeks retirement were

    best adapted for the tirst Protestant missionary to China.”

    He married Miss Mary Morton in 1809, and accepted the appointment

    of translator under the East India Company, in whose

    service he continued until 1834. His position was now a wellunderstood

    one, and his official connexion obtained for him all

    necessary security so that he could prosecute his work with diligence

    and confidence. He no doubt did wisely in the circumstances

    in wdiicli he was placed, for his dictionary could hardly

    have been printed, or his translation of the Scriptures and other

    works been so successfully carried on, without the countenance

    and assistance of that powerful body. The entire Xew Testament

    was published in 181-1:, about half of it having been translated

    by Morrison and the remainder revised from a mamiscript

    which had been deposited in 1739 in the British Museum.

    Rev. W. Milne arrived in July, 1813, as his associate, and resided

    in Canton, leaving his wife at Macao. In 1814 he sailed

    for the Indian Archipelago, provided with about seventeen

    thousand copies of Testaments and tracts for distribution among

    the Chinese there. He stopped at Banca on his route, and then

    proceeded to Java, where he was received by Sir Stamford

    Raffles, a man far in advance of the times in his suppoi-t and

    patronage of missions. Milne was enabled to travel over the

    island and distribute such books as he had. From Java he

    went to Malacca, then a Dutch settlement, afterward returning

    to Canton, where he remained undisturbed, though a severe

    persecution, in which Dufresse lost his life, was waging against

    the Christians throughout the Empire. Milne, finding it difficult

    to prosecute his labors in China (for the East India Company

    would not countenance him), embarked for Malacca in 1815, accompanied

    by a teacher and workmen for printing Chinese

    books ; here he resided till his death in 1822.

    The leading objects in sending Morrison to Canton, namely,

    the translation of the Bible and preparation of a dictionary,

    320 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    occupied the greater portion of his time. He soon commenced

    a Sabbath service with his domestics and acquaintances in his

    own apartments, which lie never relinquished, though it did not

    expand into a regular public congregation dui-ing his lifetime.

    He considered this as one of the most important parts of his

    work, and was much encouraged when in 1814 one of his

    audience, Tsai A-ko, made a profession of his faith and was

    baptized. He was the first convert, and it is reasonably to be

    hoped, judging from his after-life, that he sincerely believed to

    salvation.

    The compilation of the dictionary progressed so well that in

    1814 a few members of the Company’s establishment, among

    whom Mr. Elphinstone and Sir George Staujiton were prominent,

    interested themselves in getting it printed. The Court of

    Directors responded to the application on the most liberal scale,

    sending out as printer P. P. Tlioms, together with a printing

    office. The first volume was issued in 1817, and the whole was

    completed in six quarto volumes, containing four thousand five

    hundred and ninety-five pages, in 1823, at an expense of about

    twelve thousand pounds sterling. It consisted of three parts,

    viz., characters arranged according to their radicals, according to

    their pronunciation, and an English and Chhiese part. This

    work contributed much to the advancement of a knowledge of

    Chinese literature, and its aid in missions has been manifold

    greater. The plan was rather too comprehensive for one man

    to fill up, and also involved much repetition ; a reprint of the

    second part was issued in a smaller volume, in 1854, without

    material addition.

    While the dictionary was going through the press, the ti-anslation

    of the Old Testament was progressing by the joint labors

    of Morrison and Milne, and in November, 1818, the entire

    Bible was published. Another version, by Dr. Marshman at

    Serampore, was completed and printed with movable types in

    1822. A second edition of the Baptist version was never struck

    off, and comparatively few copies have ever been circulated

    among the Chinese. Both these versions are such that a sincere

    inquirer after the truth cannot fail to comprehend the

    meaning, though both are open to criticisms and contain mistakes

    LABORS OF MORKISOX AX I) MILNE. 321

    incident to first translations. Tliev are now numbered anionosuperseded

    versions like those of AViclif and Tyndal, the Italic

    and I’liilas in other languages, but will ever be regarded Nvith

    gratitude.’

    During the years he was thus engaged Morrison published a

    tract on Redemption, a translation of the Assembly’s Catechism,

    church of England liturgy, a synopsis of Old Testament history,

    a hymn book, and a Tour of the World ; altogether, nearly thirty

    thousand copies were printed and distributed. He prepared a

    Chinese grammar on the model of a common English grammar,

    which was printed at Serampore in 1815 ; also a volume

    of miscellaneous information on the chronolog}’, festivals,

    geography, and other subjects relating to China, under the

    title of View of China for Philological P>irj>oses. The list

    of his writings comprises thirty-one titles, of which nineteen are

    in English ; each work bears witness to his learning and piety.

    In 1821 Mrs. Morrison died, and about eight months after he

    visited Malacca and kSingapore, where he was nnich delighted

    by what he saw. The Anglo-Chinese College was then under

    the care of Collie, and this visit from its founder encouraged

    both principal and students. In 1824 he returned to England

    and was honorably received by his Majesty George IV., and

    obtained the approbation of all wdio took an interest in the

    promotion of religion and learning. He published a volume of

    sermons and a miscellany called Ilorce Sinicw while in England ;

    and having formed a second matrimonial connection, left his native

    land again in May, 1826, under different circumstances from

    the lirst time. During his absence the mission at Canton was

    left in charge of the first native preachei-, Liang Kung-fah, or

    Liang x\-fah, whom Morrison had ordained as an evangelist. This

    worthy man carried on his useful labors in preaching and writing

    until his death in 1855 at that city, from whence, in 1834,

    he had been forced to flee for his life. He takes a deservedly

    high position at the head of the native Pi-otestant Christian min-

    ‘ Medhurst’s CMnn, p. 217. Chinese Reposit/)ry, VoL IV., p. 249. Life of

    Morrison, by his widow, passim, 2 Vols , London, 1839. Wylie in Chinese Recorder,

    VoL I., pp. 121, 145. Lives of the I^eaders of our Church Universal.

    p. 819, Phila., 1879.

    Vol.. II.—21

    322 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    istiy among the Chinese in respect to time, and his writings

    have been highly. successful and beneficiah

    During the years whicli elapsed between the return and

    death of Morrison, he was principally occupied by his duties as

    translator to the Coinpany and in literary labors. Uh Metnoirs

    furnish all the particulars of their contents, as well as the details

    of his useful and uneventful life. His last years were

    dieered by the arrival of five fellow-laborers from the United

    States, the first who had come to his assistance since Milne left

    him in 1814. On the dissolution of the East India Company’s

    establishment, in April, 1834, he was appointed interpreter to

    the King’s Commission, but his death took place August 1,

    1834, at the age of fift3′-two, even then nnich worn out with

    his unaided labors of twenty-seven years.

    Perhaps no two persons were ever less alike than the founders

    of the Romish and Protestant missions to China, but no

    plans of opei’ations could be more dissimilar than those adopted

    by Ricci and Morrison. We have already sketched the lifework

    of the former, obtained from friendly sources. When

    Morrison was sent out the directors of the London Missionary

    Society thus expressed their views of his labors : ” AVe trust

    that no objection will be made to yoiw continuing in Canton

    till you have accomplished your great object of acquiring the

    language ; when this is done, you may pi’obably soon afterward

    begin to turn this attainment into a direction which may be of

    extensive use to the world ; ])erhaps you may have the honor of

    forming a Chinese dictionary, more comprehensive and correct

    than any preceding one, or the still greater honor of translating

    the sacred Scriptures into a language spoken by a third pai’t of

    the human race.” The enterprise thus connuitted to the hands

    of a single individual was only part of a system which neither

    the pi’ojectors nor their collaborator supposed would end there.

    They knew that the great work of evangelizing and elevating a

    mass of mind like that using the Chinese language reqnired

    large preparatory labors, of whi(di those here mentioned were

    among, the most important. China was a sealed country when

    Morrison landed on its shores, and he could not have forced his

    way into it if he had ti-ied, with any prospect of ultimate sueTHE

    MISSIONARIES RICCI AND MORRISON. 323

    cess, even by adopting the same plans which Ilicci did. It is

    doubtful if he could have lived there at all had it not been for

    the protection of the East India Company. After all his toil,

    and faith, and prayer, he only saw three or four converts, no

    churches, schools, or congregations publicly assembled ; but his

    last letter breathes the same desires as when he first went out:

    ” I wait patiently the events to be developed in the course of

    Divine Providence. The Lord reigneth. If the kingdom of

    God our Saviour prosper in China, all will be M’ell; other matters

    are comparatively of small importance.” He died just as the

    day of change and progress was dawning in Eastern Asia, but

    liis life was very far from being a failure in its results or influence.

    The principles of these two missionaries have been followed

    out by their successors, and we are quite willing to let their results

    be the test of their foundation upon the Chief Corner

    Stone.

    Protestant missions among the Chinese emigrants in Malacca,

    Penang, Singapore, Tihio, Borneo, and Batavia have never taken

    much hold upon them, and they are at present all suspended or

    abandoned. The first named was established in 1815 by Milne,

    and was conducted longest and with the most efficiency, though

    the labors at the other points have been carried on with zeal and

    a degree of success. The comparatively small results which have

    attended all these missions may be ascribed to two or three reasons,

    besides the fewness of the laborers. The Chinese residing

    in these settlements consist chiefly of emigrants who have fled

    or left their native countries, in all cases without their families,

    some to avoid the injustice or oppression of their rulers, but

    more to gain a livelihood they cannot find so well at home. Consequently

    they lead a roving life ; few of them marry or settle

    down to become valuable citizens, and fewer still are sufficiently

    educated to relish or cai’e for instruction or books. These communities

    are much troubled by branches of the Triad Society,

    and the restless habits of the Malays are congenial to most of

    the emigrants who enter among them. The Chinese, coming as

    they do from different parts of their own land, speak different

    dialects, and soon learn the Malay language as a lingua franca

    ;

    their children also learn it still more thoroughly from their

    324 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    mothers, notwithstanding the education their fathers give them

    in Chinese. The want of fixedness in the Cliinese population

    therefoi’e pai’tly accounts for tlie little permanent impression

    made on it in these settlements by missionary efforts.

    It was at Malacca that the Anglo-Chinese College was established

    in 1818 by Dr. Morrison, assisted by other friends of

    religion. Its objects were to afford Europeans tlie means of acquiring

    the Chinese language and enable Chinese to become

    acquainted with the religion and science of the West. It was

    productive of good up to the time of its removal to Hongkong

    in 18M. About seventy persons were baptized while the mission

    remained at Malacca, and about fifty students finished their education,

    part of whom were sincere Christians and all of them respectable

    members of society. Three or four of the converts have

    become preachers. There is little hesitation, however, in saying

    that the name and array of a college were too far in advance of

    the people among whom it w’as situated. The efforts made in

    it would probably have been more profitably expended in establishing

    common schools among the people, in wdiich Christianity

    and knowledge went hand in hand. It is far better among an

    igiiorant pagan people that a hundred persons should know one

    thing than that one man should know a hundred ; the M’idest

    diffusion of the first elements of religion and science is most desirable.

    The mission was not, however, large enough at any

    one time for its members to superintend many common schools.

    Among the books issued besides Bibles and tracts were a periodical

    called the Indo-Chinese Gleaner, edited by Dr. Mihie ; a

    translation of the Four Books, by Mr. Collie ; an edition of Premare’s

    Not’dla IJngxm Srnicep^ a life of ]\Iilno, and a volume of

    sermons by Morrison. The number of volumes printed in Chinese

    was about half a million.

    The mission at (reorgctown, in tlie island of Pcnang. like that

    at Malacca, was established in 1810 by the Ldndon Missionary

    Society, and continued till 1843, at which time it was suspended.

    The mission at 8inga])(>i’e was commenced in Isl!) by INfr. Milton

    ; the colonial govei’ument granted a lot, and a chapel and

    other buildings wei-e erected in the course of a few years.

    Messrs. Smith and Tonilin came to the settlement in 1827, but

    MISSIONS TO CHINESE IN THE ARCHIPELAGO. 325

    did not remain long. Gutzlaff came over from the Dutch settlement

    at lihio, but did not remain long enough to effect anything

    : nor did Abeel, who came fi-om China in 1831 and left soon

    after for Siam. The German missionary at this station, Thomsen,

    when about to leave in 1834, sold his printing apparatus to

    the mission newly established there under the American Board

    by Tracy. The prospects in China appearing unpromising at

    this time, it was designed by the directors of the American

    society to establish a well-regulated school for both Chinese and

    Malays, which was by degrees to become a seminary, and as

    many primary schools as there were means to support ; besides

    the usual labors in preaching and visiting, a type foundry and

    printing office for manufacturing books in Chinese, Malay,

    Bugis, and Siamese were also contemplated. In December,

    1834, Tracy was joined by the Kev. P. Parker, M.D., who

    opened a hospital in the Chinese part of the town for the

    gratuitous i-elief of the sick ; in 1835 Wolfe arrived from

    England, and tvVo years afterward Rev. Messrs. Dickinson,

    Hope, and Travelli, and T^orth from the United States, to take

    charge of the schools and printing office. The school established

    by the American mission was carried on until 1844, when

    the mission was removed to China and the Malay portion of it

    given up.

    The English mission, after the death of Wolfe in 1837, was

    under the care of Messrs. Dyer and Stronach, the former of

    whom had removed there from Penang and Malacca. Dyer

    had been for many years engaged in preparing steel punches for

    a font of movable Chinese type, and his patient labors had already

    overcome the principal difficulties in the way when the

    work was arrested by his death in 1843. He had, however,

    finished matrices for so many characters of two fonts that the

    enterprise needed only to be carried on by a practised mechanic

    to assure its success. This was afterward done by Messrs. Cole

    and Gamble of the American Presbyterian Board. Tn their

    superior styles and the different sizes now in use wo must

    not forget Dyer’s initiatory steps. .This gentleman labored

    nearly seventeen years with a consecration of energy and singleness

    of purpose seldom exceeded, and won the affectionate re326

    THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    spect of the natives wlierever lie lived. The mission was continued

    until 1845, when the printing office was removed to

    Hongkong, and nearly all pi’oselyting efforts in the colony by

    British Christians suspended. This point of intiuence has peculiar

    claims on them as a radiating centre for the various nations and

    tribes which trade in Singapore.

    The mission to the Chinese in Java was commenced by Slater

    in 1819 and reinforced in 1822 by Medhurst, who continued in

    charge of it, with some interruptions, until 1843, when he removed

    to Shanghai. The Dutch churches have carried on

    evangelizing work in all their colonies, aided and guided somewhat

    by the government officials, but have done almost nothing

    for the Chinese, except as they have been addressed in Malay.

    Such labors in the Dutch colonies have been left to them, and

    foreign societies have now withdrawn from the Archipelago in

    a great measure. The efforts of the American missionaries

    were confined to Borneo and Singapore up to 1844, when they

    all removed to China. The suspicious and restrictive bearing

    of the Dutch authorities toward such efforts had its influence

    in making this change.

    A summary of labors at the stations was given by Medhurst

    in 1837, who refers in it almost exclusively to the English missionaries,

    as the Americans had at that time only recently commenced

    operations. ” Protestant missionaries, considering themselves

    excluded from the interior of the Empire of China, and

    findiuir a host of emic-rants in the various countries in the

    Malayan Archipelago, aimed first to enlighten these, with the

    hope that if properly instructed and influenced they would, on

    their return to their native land, carry with them the gospel

    they had learned and spread it among their countrymen. With

    this view they established themselves in the various colonies

    around China, studied the language, set up schools and seminaries,

    wrote and printed books, conversed extensively with the

    people, and tried to collect congregations to whom they might

    preach the word of life. Since the commencement of their

    missions they have translated the Holy Scriptures and printed

    two thousand complete Bibles in two sizes, ten thousand Testaments

    and thirty thousand separate books, and ujiward of half

    THE MISSIONS WITHDRAWN. 327

    a million of tracts in Chinese ; besides four thousand Testaments

    and one hundred and fifty thousand tracts in the languages

    of the archipelago, making about twenty millions of

    printed pages. About ten thousand children have passed

    through the mission schools, nearly one hundred persons have

    been baptized, and several native preachers raised up, one of

    whom has proclaimed the gospel to his countrymen and endured

    persecution for Jesus’ sake.”

    Since this was written the number of pages printed and circulated

    has more than doubled, the number of scholars taught

    has increased many thousands, and preaching proportionably

    extended ; while a few more have professed the gospel

    by baptism and a generally consistent life. All these missions,

    so far as the Chinese are concerned, are now suspended,

    and, unless the Dutch resume them, are not likely to be soon

    revived. The greater openings in China itself, and the small

    number of cpialified men ready to enter them, invited all the

    laborers away from the outskirts and colonies to the borders,

    and into the mother country itself. The idea entertained, that

    the colonists would react upon their countrymen at home,

    proved illusive ; for the converts, when they returned to dwell

    among their heathen countrymen, were lost in the crowd, and

    though they may not have adopted or sanctioned their old

    heathen customs, were too few to work in concert and too

    ignorant and unskilled to carry on such labors.’

    When Robert Morrison died at Canton in 1S3-I-, the prospect

    of the extension of evangelistic work among the people was

    nearly as dark as when he landed ; in China itself during that

    time only three assistants had come to his help, for there were

    few encouragements for them to stay. Bridgman, the first missionary

    from the American churches to China, in company with

    D. Abeel, seaman’s chaplain at Whampoa, arrived in February,

    1830. Abeel remained nearly a year, when he went to Singapore,

    and subsequently to Siam. They were received in Canton

    ‘ Besides the regular publications of the societies engaged in this brancli of

    missions wliich give authentic details, see the memoirs of Abeel, Dyer, Milne,

    and Morrison, Tomlin’s Missionary Letters, and Abeel’s Residence in China and

    the neighboring countries.

    328 TIIK MIDDLE KIXGDOM.

    by the house of Olypliaiit ik Co., in wliose establishment ono

    or both were maintained during the first three years, and wliose

    partners remained tlic friends and supporters of all efforts for

    the evangelization of the Chinese till its close, fifty years afterward.

    Bridgman took four or five boys as scholars, but his

    limited accommodations prevented the enlargement of the school,

    and in 183-i it was disbanded by the departure of its pupils,

    whose friends feared to be involved in trouble.

    During the summer of 1833 Liang A-fah distributed a large

    number of books in and about Canton, a work which well suited

    his inclinations. Many copies of the Scriptures and his own

    tracts had reached the students assembled at the literary examinations,

    when the ofiicers interfered to prevent him. In

    1834 the authoriti,es ordered a search for those natives who

    had ” traitorously” assisted Lord Xapier in publishing an appeal

    to the Chinese, and Liang A-fah and his assistants were immediately

    suspected. Two of the latter were seized, one of

    whom was beaten with forty blows upon his face for refusing

    to divulge ; the other made a full disclosure, and the police next

    day repaired to his shop and seized three printers, with four

    hundi’ed volumes and l)locks ; the men were subsequently released

    by paying about eight hundred dollars. Liang A-fah

    fled, and a body of police arrived at his native village to arrest

    him, l)ut not finding him or his family they seized three of his

    kindred and sealed up his house, lie finally nuide his way to

    Macao and sailed to Singapore.

    Few books were distributed after this at Canton until ten

    years later, but numerous copies were circulated along the coast

    as far noi’th as Tientsin, accompanied with such explanations as

    could be given. The first and most interesting of these voyages

    was made by Gutzlaff, on board a junk proceeding from Bangkok

    to Tientsin, June 9, 1831, in which the sociable character

    of the Chinese and their readiness to receive and entertain

    foreignc’rs when they could do so without fear of their rulers

    was plainly seen.’ After his an-ival at Macao, December 13th,

    ‘ For an account of a trip much like it, see Annates de la Foi, Tome VII^

    p. 356.

    gutzlaff’s voyages along the coast. 329

    he was engaged by the enlightened chief of the English factory,

    Charles Marjoribanks, as interpreter to accompany Lindsay in

    the ship Lord Amherst, on an experimental commercial voyage

    which occnpied about seven months (February 20 to September

    5, 1832), and presented further opportunities for learning the

    feelings of the Chinese officers regarding foreign intercoui’se.

    Many religious and scientific books were distributed, among

    which was one giving a general account of the English nation

    that was eagerly received by all classes. Within a few weeks

    after his return Gutzlaff started a third time, October 20tli, in

    the Sylph, an opium vessel in the employ of a leading English

    firm at (Janton, and went as far as Manchuria while the winds

    were favorable. She returned to Macao April 29, 1833, visiting

    many places on the downward trip. The interest aroused

    in England and America among political, commercial, and religious

    people, fifty years ago, by the reports of these three

    voyages can now hardly be appreciated. They opened the prospect

    of new relations with one-half of mankind, and the other

    half who had long felt debarred from entering upon their rightful

    fields in all these diversified interests prepared for great

    efforts.

    Great Ihitain took the lead in breaking down the barriers,

    and the religious world urged on the work of missions. Contributions

    were sent to Gutzlaff from England and America, encouraging

    him to proceed, and grants were made to aid in

    printing Bibles and tracts. Li 1835 he gave up his connection

    with the opium trade and took the office of interpreter to the

    English consular authorities on a salary of eight hundred pounds

    sterling, which he retained till his death, August 9, 1851, aged

    fortj’-eight. lie was a man of great industry and knowledge

    of Chinese, and carried on a missionary organization at Hongkong

    by means of native Christians for several years. His

    publications in the Chinese, Japanese, Dutch, German, English,

    Siamese, C/Ochinchinese, and Latin languages number eightyfive

    in all ; they are now seldom seen.

    Li 1835 Medhurst visited China, and, assisted by the house of

    Olyphant & Co., embarked in the brig Huron, accompanied by

    the American missionary Stevens and furnished with a supply

    530 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    of books. During tlie three months of the voyage, tliey ” went

    through various parts of four provinces and many villages, giving

    away about eighteeTi thousand volumes, of which six thousand

    were portions of the Scriptures, among a cheerful and

    willing people, without meeting with the least aggression or injury

    ; having been always received by the people with a cheerful

    smile, and most genei-ally by the officers with politeness and

    respect.”‘ Medhurst’s ability to sj)eak the Amoy dialect introduced

    him to the peo})le in the junks at all the ports on the

    coast. Years after this voyage the Methodist missionaries at

    Fuhchau found that some of the books given away on Ilaitan

    Island had been read and rememl)ered, and thus j^repared the

    people there for listening to further preaching.

    The most expensive enterprise for this object was set on foot

    in 1830, and few efforts to advance the cause of religion among

    the Chinese have been planned on a scale of greater liberality.

    The brig Himmaleh was purchased in ISTew York by the firm of

    Talbot, Olyphant & Co., principally for the pui-pose of aiding

    missionaries in circulating religious books on the coasts of

    China and the neighboring countries, and arrived in August,

    183G. Gutzlaff, who was then engaged as interpreter to the

    English authorities, declined going in her, because in that case

    he must resign his commission, and there was no other missionary

    in China acquainted with the dialects spoken on the coast.

    The brig remained unemployed, therefore, until December,

    when she was dispatched on a cruise among the islands of the

    archipelago under the direction of Mr. Stevens, accompanied

    by G. T. Lay, agent of the Ih-itish and Foreign Bible Society,

    recently arrived. This decision of Gutzlaif, who had again and

    again urged such a measure, and had himself ceased his voyages

    on the coast because of his implied connection thereby with the

    opium trade, was quite unexpected. The death of Mr. Stevens

    at Singapore, in January, threw the chief responsibility and direction

    of the undertaking upon Capt. Fi’azer, who seems to

    have been poorly qualified for any other than the maritime

    part. Kev. Messrs. Dickinson and Wolfe went in Stevens’

    place, but as none of these gentlemen understood the Malayan

    language, less direct intercourse was had with the people at the

    THE DISTRIBUTION OF BOOKS. 331

    places where they stopped than was anticipated. The Himiiialeh

    reached China in July, 183T, and as there was no one

    qualiiied to go in her, she returned to the Ignited States. An

    account of the voyage was written by Lay and published

    in Xew York, in connection M’ith that of the ship Morrison to

    Japan in August, 1837, by C. W. King, of the tirni of Olyphant

    & Co., under whose direction the trip of the latter was

    taken for the purpose of restoring seven shipwrecked Japanese

    to their native land. Gutzlaff accompanied this vessel as interpreter,

    for three of the men were under the orders of the

    English superintendent ; the expedition failed in its object, and

    all the men were brought back. Probably fifty thousaud books

    in all were scattered on the coast in these and other voyages,

    and more than double that number about Canton, Macao, and

    their vicinity.

    This promiscuous distribution of books has been criticised by

    some as injudicious and little calculated to advance the objects

    of a Christian mission. The funds expended in printing and

    circulating books, it was said by these critics, who have never undertaken

    aught themselves, could have been nnich better employed

    in establishing schools. To scatter books broadcast

    among a people whose ability to read them was not ascertained,

    and under circumstances which prevented any explanation of

    the design in giving them or inquiries as to the effects produced,

    was not, at first view, a very wdse or promising course.

    But it must be remembered that prior to the treaty of Nanking

    this was the only means of appi’oaching the people of the

    country. The Emperor forbade foreigners residing in his borders

    except at Canton, and Protestant missionaries did not believe

    that it was the best means of recommending their teachings

    to come before his subjects as persistent violators of his laws

    ;

    God’s providence would open the way when the laborers M’ere

    ready, Xo one supposed that the desire to receive books was

    an index of the ability of the people to understand them or

    love of the doctrines contained in them. If the plan offered a

    reasonable probability of effecting some good, it certainly could

    do almost no harm, for the respect for printed books assured

    us that they would not be wantonly destroyed, but rather, in

    332 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    most cases, carefully preserved. The business of tract distribution

    and colportage may, however, be carried too far in advance

    of other parts of missionary work. It is much easier

    to write, print, and give away religious treatises, than it is

    to sit down with the people and explain the leading truths

    of the Bible ; but the two go well together among those who

    can read, and in no nation is it more desirable that they should

    be combined. If the books be given away without explanation,

    the people do not understand the object and feel too little

    interest in them to take the trouble to find out ; if the preacher

    deliver an intelligible discourse, his audience will probably

    remember its general purjwrt, but they will be likely to read

    the book with more attention and understand the sermon

    better when the two are combined ; the voice explains the

    book and the book recalls the ideas and teachings of the

    preacher.

    It is not surprising that the fate of these books cannot be

    traced, for that is true of such labors in other lands. On the

    one hand, they have been seen on the counters of shops cut in

    two for wra})})ing up medicines and fruit—which the shopman

    would not do with the worst of his own Ijooks ; on llie other, a

    copy of a gospel containing remarks was found on board the

    adniirars junk at Tinghai, when that town was taken by the

    English in 1840. Tliey certainly have not all been lost or contemptuously

    destroyed, though perhaps most have been like

    seed sown by the wayside. In missions, as in other things, it

    is impossil)le to predict the result of several courses of action

    before trying them ; and if it was believed that many of those

    who receive books can read them, there was a strong inducement

    to press this branch of labor, when, too, it was the only

    one which could be brought to bear upon large portions of the

    people.

    In 1832 the Chinese Itepository was commenced by Bridgman

    and encouraged by Morrison, who, with his son, continued

    to furnish valual)le papers and translations as long as they lived.

    Its object was to diffuse correct information concerning China,

    while it foi-med a convenient rcjiertoiy of the essays, travels,

    translations, and papers uf contriljutors. It was issued monthly

    A MISSION HOSPITAL AT CANTON. 333

    for twenty years under the editorship of Messrs. Bridgnian and

    AVillianis, and contains a history of foreign intercourse and missions

    during its existence. Tlie Chinese Recorder lias since

    chronicled the latter cause and the China Review taken the

    literary branch.

    In 1834 Dr. Parker joined the mission at Canton, and opened

    a hospital, in October, 1835, for the gratuitous relief of such

    diseases among the Chinese as his time and means would allow,

    devoting his attention chiefly to ophthalmic cases and surgical

    operations. This branch of Christian benevolence was already

    not unknown in China. Morrison in 1820 had, in connection

    with Dr. Livingstone, commenced dispensing medicines at

    Macao, while T. R. Colledge, also of the East India Company,

    opened a dispensary at his own expense, in 1827, and finding

    the number of patients rapidly increasing, he rented two small

    houses at Macao, where in four years more than four thousand

    patients were cured or relieved. The benevolent design was

    encouraged by the foreign community, and about six thousand

    five hundred dollars were contributed, so that it was, after the

    first year, no other expense to the founder than giving his time

    and strength. It was unavoidably closed in 1832, and a philanthropic

    Swede, Sir Andrew Ljungstedt, prepared a short account

    of its operations, and inserted several letters written to Dr. Colledge,

    one of which is here quoted :

    To knock head and tliank the great Englisli (hiotor. Venerahle gentleman :

    May your groves of almond trees be abundant, and the orange trees make tlie

    water of your well fragrant. As lieretofore, may you be made known to tlie

    world as illustrious and brilliant, and as a most profound and skilful doctor.

    I last year arrived in Macao blind in both eyes ; I liave to tliank you, venerable

    sir, for having by your excellent methods cured me perfectly. Your

    goodness is as lofty as a hill, your virtue deep as the sea; therefore all my

    family will express their gratitude for your now-creating goodness. Now I

    am desirous of returning home. Your profound kindness it is impossible for

    me to requite ; I feel extremely ashamed of myself for it. I am grateful for

    your favors, and shall think of them without ceasing. Moreover, I am certain

    that since you have been a benefactor to the world and your good government

    is spread abroad, heaven must surely grant you a long life, and you will enjoy

    every happiness. I return to my mean province. Your illustrious name,

    venerable sir, will extend to all time ; during a thousand ages it will not decay.

    I return thanks for your great kindness. Impotent are my words to sound

    your fame and to express my thanks. I wish you i!verlasting tranquillity.

    THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    Presented to the great Englisli doctor and noble gentleman ia the lltli year ol

    Taukwang, by Ho Shuh, of the district of Chau-ngan, in the department of

    Changchau in Fuhkien, who knocks head and presents thanks.

    Another patient, in true Chinese style, returned thanks for

    the aid he had received in a poetical effusion :

    This I address to the English physician : condescend, sir, to look upon it.

    Diseased in my eyes, I had almost lost my sight, when happily, sir, I met witli

    you. You gave me medicine ; you applied the knife ; and, as when the clouds

    are swept away, now again I behold the azure heavens. My joys know no

    bounds. As a faint token of my feelings, I have composed a stanza in heptameter,

    which, with a few trifling presents, I beg you will be pleased to accept.

    Then happy, happy shall I be

    !

    He lavishes his blessings, but seeks for no return

    ;

    Such medicine, such physician, since Tsin were never known

    :

    The medicine—how many kinds most excellent has he !

    The surgeon’s knife— it pierced the eye. and spring once more I see.

    If Tung has not been born again to bless the present age,

    Then sure ’tis Sii reanimate again upon the stage.

    Whenever called away from far, to see your native land,

    A living monument I’ll wait upon the ocean’s strand.

    When Dr. Parker\s scheme was made known to Howqna, the

    hono; merchant, he readily fell in with it and let his huilding

    for the purpose, and after the first year gave it rent free till its

    destruction in 1856. It was opened for the admission of patients

    Xovend)er 4, 1835. The peculiar circumstances nnder

    which this enterprise was started imposed some caution on its

    superintendent, and the hong merchants themselves seem to

    have had a hu’king suspicion that so ])ui’ely a henevolent object,

    involving so mnch expense of timt\ laboi’, and moiiev, must

    have some latent object which it l)ehooved them to watch. A

    linguist’s clei’k was often in attendance, partly for this purpose,

    for three or fonr years, and made liimself very useful. The

    patients, who numbered about a hundred daily, were often i-estless,

    and hindered their own relief by not patienth’ awaiting

    their turn ; but the habits of order in which they are trained

    made even such a company amenable to rules. The surgical

    operations attracted nnicli notice, and successful cui-es were

    spoken of abroad and served to advertise and recommend the

    institution to the hi<i;her ranks of native societv. It is difficult

    SUCCESS OF Parker’s medical scheme. 33^5

    at this date to full}- appreciate the extraordinary ignorance and

    prejudice respectin<^ foreigners wliicli tlie Chinese tlien entertained,

    and which could be best removed by some such form of

    benevolence. On the other hand, the repeated instances of

    kind feeling between friends and relatives exhibited among the

    patients, tender solicitude of j)arents for the relief of children,

    and the fortitude shown in bearing the severest operations, or

    faith in taking unknown medicines from the foreigners’ hands,

    all tended to elevate the character of the Chinese in the opinion

    of every beholder, as their unfeigned gratitude for restored

    health increased his esteem.

    The reports of this hospital in Sin-tau-lan Street gave the

    requisite information as to its operations, and means were taken

    to place the whole system upon a surer footing by forming a

    society in China. Suggestions for this object were circulated

    in October, 1836, signed by Messrs. Colledge, Parker, and

    Bridgman, in which the motives for such a step and the good

    effects likely to result from it were thus explained

    :

    We cannot close these siiggestions without adverting to one idea, thougli

    this is not the place to enlarge upon it. It is affecting to contemplate this

    Empire, embracing three hundred and sixty millions of souls, where almost

    all the light of true science is unknown, where Christianity has ncdredy shed

    one genial ray, and where the theories concerning matter and mind, creation

    and providence, are wofully destitute of truth ; it is deeply affecting to see the

    multitudes who are here suffering under maladies from which the hand of

    (diarity is able to relieve them. Now we know, indeed, that it is the glorious

    gospel of the l)lessed God onl}’ that can set free the human mind, and that it

    is only when enlightened in the true knowledge of God that man is rendered

    capable of rising to his true intellectual elevation ; but while we take care to

    give this truth the high place which it ought ever to hold, we should beware

    of depreciating other truth. In the vast conflict which is to i-evolutionize the

    intellectual and moral world, we may not underrate the value of any weai^on.

    As a means, then, to waken the dormant mind of China, may we not place a

    high value upon medical truth, and seek its introduction with good hope of

    its becoming the liandmaid of religious truth ? If an inquiry after truth upon

    any subject is elicited, is there not a great point gained ‘? And that inquiry

    after medical truth may be provoked, there is good reason to expect ; for, exclusive

    as China is in all her systems, she cannot exclude disease nor shut her

    people up from the desire of relief. Does not, then, the finger of Providence

    point clearly to one way that we should take with the people of China, directing

    us to seek the introduction of the remedies for sin itself by the same door

    througli which we convey those which are designed to mitigate or remove its

    336 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    evils ? Although medical truths cauuot restore the sick and afflicted to the

    favor of God, yet perchance the spirit of inquiry about it once awakened

    will not sleep till it inquires about the source of truth ; and he who comes

    with the blessings of health may prove an angel of mercy to point to the Lamb

    of God. At any rate, this seems the only open door ; let us enter it. A faith

    that worketh not may wait for other doors. Xcfne can deny that tlii.-i is a way

    of charity that worketh no ill, and our duty to walk in it seems plain and

    imperative.’

    This paper was favorably received, and in Februarj’, 1838, a

    public meeting was convened at Canton for the purpose of

    forming a society, ” tlie object of which shall be to encourage

    gentlemen of the medical profession to come and practise gratuitously

    among the Chinese by aifording the usual aid of hospitals,

    medicines, and attendants ; but that the support or remuneration

    of such medical gentlemen be not at present within

    its contemplation.” Some other rules were laid down, but the

    principle here stated has been since adhered to in all the similar

    establishments opened in other places. It has served, moreover,

    to retain them under the oversight and their resident physicians

    in the employ of missionary societies. Xo directions were

    given by the framers of the first society concerning the mode

    of imparting religious instruction, distributing tracts, or doing

    missionary work as they had opportunity. The signers of the

    original paper of suggestions also issued an address, further

    setting forth their views and expectations:

    To restore health, to ease pain, or in any way to diminish the sum of

    human misery, forms an object worthy of the philanthrojiist. But in the

    prosecution of our views we look forward to far higher results than the mere

    relief of human suffering. We hope that our endeavors will tend to break

    down the walls of prejudice and long-cherished nationality of feeling, and to

    teach the Chinese that those whom they affect to despise are both able and

    willing to become their benefactors. They shut the door against the teachers

    of the gospel ; they find our books often written in idioms which they cannot

    readily understand ; and they have laid such restrictions upon commerce that

    it does not awaken among thein that love of science, that spirit of invention,

    and that love of thought which it uniformly excites and fosters whenever it

    is allowed to take its own cour.se without limit or interference. In the way of

    doing them good our opportunities are few ; but among these that of practis-

    ‘ Chinese Repositoi’y, Vol. V., p. 372; Vol. VII., pp. 33-40. Lockhart’s Med’

    iciU Missionary in China, 18G1, p. 134.

    FORMATION OF MEDICAL MISSIONARY SOCIETY. 337

    ing medicine and surgery stands pre-eminent. Favorable results have hitherto

    followed it, and will still continue to do so. It is a department of benevolence

    peculiarly adai)ti’d to China.

    In the depaitnieut of benevolence to which our attention is now turned,

    purity and disinterestedness of motive are more clearly evinced than in any

    other. They appear unmasked ; they attract the gaze and excite the admiration

    and gratitude of thousands, llcul the nirk is our motto, constituting alike

    the injunction under which we act and tlie object at which we aim ; and

    which, with the blessing of God, we hope to accomplish by means of scientific

    practice in the exercise of an unbought and untiring kindness. We have

    called ours a missionary society because we trust it will advance the cause of

    missions, and because we want men to fill our institutions wlio to requisite

    skill and experience add the self-denial and liigh moral qualities which are

    looked for in a missionary.

    The undertaking so auspiciously begun at Canton, in 1835,

    has been carried on ever since, and was the pattern of many

    similar hospitals at the stations afterward occupied. The

    greatest part of the funds needed for carrying tliem on has

    been contributed in China itself by foreigners, wlio certainly

    would not have done so had they not felt that it was a wise and

    useful charity, and known something of the way their funds

    were employed. The hospital at Canton has exceeded even the

    hopes of its founders, and its many buildings and wards attest

    the liberality of the community which presented them to the

    society. The native rulers, gentry, and merchants are now

    well acquainted with the institution, and contribute to carry it

    on. During the forty-five years of its existence it has been

    conducted by Drs. Parker and Kerr nearly all the time, who

    have relieved about seven hundred and fifty thousand patients

    entered on the books ; tlie outlay has been over one hundred

    and twenty-five thousand dollars. Several dispensaries in the

    country have also been carried on with the society’s grants in

    aid. A separate hospital was conducted in Canton from 1846

    to 1856 by B. Ilobson, F.R.C.S., who iias left an enduring

    record of his labors in eighteen medical works in Chinese,

    many of them illustrated. J. G. Kerr, M.D., has also issued

    several small treatises, and the publications of this kind in

    Chinese suitable for the people, issued by them and other missionary

    physicians, already number nearly fifty.

    In these details of the inception of the plan of combining

    Vol. II.—22

    338 THE MIDDLE KINGDO^F.

    medical labors witli the work of Cliristian missions in China,

    it will be seen how the confined position of foreigners at Canton

    proved to be an incentive and an aid to its prosecution for

    some years—lo7ig enough to show its place and fitness. On

    the cessation of hostilities between China and tireat Britain in

    1842, other fields were opened, wliere its benefits were even

    more strongly shown. The war had left the people amazed

    and irritated at what they deemed to be a causeless and unjust

    attack by superior power. This was the case at Amoy, where no

    foreigners had lived until the British army took possession in

    August, 1841. In February, 1842, Eevs. D. x\beel and W. J.

    Boone went there and made the acquaintance of the people on

    Kulang su, who were much pleased to meet with those who

    could converse with them and answer their inquiries. Di-.

    Gumming was able, by their assistance, as soon as he opened

    his dispensary, to inform the people of his designs ; and the

    missionaries, on their part, preached the gospel to the patients,

    distributing in addition suitable books. The people were so

    ready to accept tlic proffenid relief that it was soon impossible

    for one man to do more than wait upon the blind, lame, diseased,

    and injured who thi-onged his doors. A few months

    more equally proved that while the phj^sician was attending

    to the patients in one room, the preacher could not ask for a

    better audience than those who were waiting in the adjoining

    one. An invitation to attend more formal services on the

    Sabbath was soon accepted by a few, whose curiosity led them

    to come and hear more of foreigners and their teachings. The

    reputation of the hospital was seen when taking short excursions

    in the vicinity, for persons M’ho had been relieved constantly

    came forward to express their heartfelt thanks. Thus

    suspicion gave way to gratitude, enemies were converted to

    friends, and those who had enjoyed no opportnnity of learning

    the character of foreigners, and had been taught to regard

    them as barbarians and demons, were disabused of tlicir (M-ior.

    The favorable impression thus made at Amoy, forty years ago,

    has never been suspended, and numerous native chnrchos have

    been gathered in all that region. Just the same uuicn of

    pi’eaching and practice was begun at iShaughai by Dr. W.

    POPULARITY AND INCREASE OF HOSPITAL WORK. 339

    Lockliart after the capture of that city in 1844, and has been

    continued to this time. Ningpo and Fuhcliau received similar

    benefits soon after ; tliese and many others have received aid

    fi’om foreigners residing in the Empire. Several thousand

    dollars were sent from Great Britain and the United States to

    further the object, and one society was formed in Edinburgh

    in 1S56 to develop this branch of missionary work.

    The proposition in the original scheme of educating Chinese

    youth as physicians and surgeons has not been carried out to a

    great extent. The practising missionary has hardl}^ the time

    to do his students justice, and unless they show great aptitude

    for operations, the assistants get M^eary of the I’outine of attending

    to the patients and go away. Dr. Lockhart speaks of

    his own disappointments in this I’espect. Dr. Parker had only

    one pupil, Kwan A-to, who took up the profession among his

    countrymen. Dr. Wong A-fun received a complete medical

    education in Edinburgh, and rendered efficient help for many

    years in the hospital at Canton till his death. The college at

    Peking has now a chair of anatomy and physiology, which will

    aid in introducing better practice. Dr. Kerr gives some other

    reasons for the small number of skilled physicians educated

    in the missionary hospitals, yet some of his pupils had obtained

    lucrative practice. Others had imposed themselves in

    remote places on the people as such, who had only been employed

    as students a few months—a gratifying index of progress.

    It is not likely, however, that the Chinese generally

    will immediately discard their own mode of practice and adopt

    another from their countrymen so far as to support them in

    their new system. They have not enough knowledge of medicine

    to appreciate the difference between science and charlatanism

    ; and a native physician himself might reasonably

    have fears of the legal or personal results of an unsuccessful or

    doubtful surgical case among his ignorant patients, so far as

    often to prevent him trying it.

    The successive annual reports issued from the various missionary hospitals in China furnish the amplest information concerning their management, and numerous particulars respecting the people who resort to them. At the Missionary Conference in Shanghai (1877) Drs. KeiT and (iould presented papers relating to this branch of labor in all its various aspects. The latter discussed the advantages of hospital versus itinerary practice ; the modes of bringing the patients under religious instruction: how to limit their number so as to not wear out the physician; oversight of assistants and education of pupils; how far this gratuitous relief should be extended; what was the best mode of getting a fee from those natives who were able to pay something; and, finally, the reasons for not uniting the ministerial functions with the medical. These various points show clearly how the experience of past years had manifested the wisdom and foresight of those who originated the work, and the manner it has developed in connection with other branches. If kept as an auxiliary agency, there seems to be no reason for reducing the efforts now made by foreign societies until native physicians and surgeons are able to take up this work, just as native preachers are to oversee their own churches.

    Another benevolent society, whose name and object was the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China, was established in December, 1834. The designs of the association were ” by all means in its power to prepare and publish, in a cheap form, plain and easy treatises in the Chinese language, on such branches of useful knowledge as are suited to the existing state and condition of the Chinese Empire.” It published six or eight works and a magazine during the few years of its existence, and their number would have been larger if there had been more persons capable of writing treatises. Since then this kind of mission work has been taken up by various agencies better fitted to develop its several departments, and, excepting newspapers, the preparation of suitable histories,

    geographies, and scientific books has been done by Protestant

    missionaries. The Chinese government has directed its employes

    in the ai’senal schools to translate such works as will

    fm-nish the scholars with good elementary books.

    Their usefulness as aids and precursors of the introduction

    of the gospel is very great. Among a less intelligent population

    they are not so important until the people get a taste for

    knowledge in schools ; but where the conceit of false learning

    SOCIETY FOR DIFFUSION OF USEFML KNOWLEDGE. 341

    and pride of literary uttaininents cause such a contempt for all

    other than their own l)ooks, as is the case in Chinese society,

    entertaining narratives and notices of otlier people and lands,

    got up in an attractive form, tend to disabuse them of these

    ideas (the offspring of arrogant ignorance rather than deliberate

    rejection) and incite them to learn and read more. The

    influence of newspapers and other periodical literature will be

    very great among the Chinese when they begin to think for

    themselves on the great truths and principles which are now

    being introduced among them. They have already begun to

    discuss political topics, and the great advantage of movable

    tj’pes over the old blocks tends to hasten the adoption of

    foreign modes of printing. It may, by some, be considered as

    not the business of a missionary to edit a newspaper ; but those

    who are ac(|uainted with the debased hiertness of heathen

    minds know that any means which will convey truth and

    arouse the people tends to advance religion. The influence

    of the Dnyanodya in Bombay, and other kindred publications

    in various places hi India, is great and good ; hundreds of the

    people read them and then talk about the subjects treated in

    them, who would neither attend religious meetings, look at the

    Scriptures, nor have a tract in their possession. The same will

    be the case in China, and it is not irrelevant to the work of a

    missionary to adopt such a mode of imparting truths, if it be

    the most likely way of reaching the prejudiced, proud, and

    ignorant people around him. When the native religious community

    has begun to take form, this mode of instruction and

    disputation will be left to its most intelligent members.

    In January, 1835, the foreign community in China established a third association, which originated entirely with a few of its leading members. Soon after the death of Dr. Morrison, a paper was circulated containing suggestions for the formation of an association to be called the Morrison Education Society, intended both as a testimonial of the worth and labors of that excellent man, more enduring than marble or brass, and a means of continuing his efforts for the good of China. A provisional committee was formed from among the subscribers to this paper, consisting of Sir G. 13. Robinson, Bart., Messrs. W. Jardine, D. W. C. Olypliant, Lancelot Dent, J. 11. Morrison, and Rev. E. C. Bridgnian ; live thousand nine hundred and seventy-seven dollars were immediately subscribed, and about one thousand five hundred volumes of books presented to its library. This liberal spirit for the welfare of the people among whom they sojourned reflected the highest credit on the gentlemen interested in it, as well as upon the whole foreign community, inasmuch as, with only four or five exceptions, none of them were united to the ‘jountry by other than temporary business relations.

    The main objects of the Morrison Education Society were ^’ the establishment and improvement of schools in which Chinese youth shall be taught to read and write the English language in connection with their own, by which means shall be brought within their reach all the instruction rc(piisite for their becoming wise, industrious, sober, and virtuous members of society, fitted in their respective stations of life to discharge well the duties which they owe to themselves, their kindred, their country, and their (iod.” The means of accomplishing this end by gathering a library, employing competent teachers, and encouraging native schools were all pointed out in this programme of labors, whose comprehensiveness was ecpialled only by its phi-]anthroj)y. Applications were made for teachers both in England and America ; from the former, an answer was received that

    there was no likelihood of obtaining one ; a person was selected

    in the latter, the Tlev. S. II. Brown, who with his wife arrived

    at Macao in February, 1839. In the interval between the formation

    of the Society and the time when its operations assumed

    a definite shape in its own schools, something was done in collecting

    information concerning native education and in supporting

    a few boys, or assisting Mrs. Gutzlaff’s school at Macao.

    THE MOKRISOlsr EDUCATION SOCIETY. 343

    The Society’s school was opened at Macao in November, 1839, with six scholars ; four years afterward it removed to INforrison Hill in Hongkong, into the connnodious quarters erected by its president, Lancelot Dent, on a site granted by the colonial government for the purpose. In 181-5 Brown had thirty pupils, who filled all the room there was in the house. He stated in his report of that year, as a gratifying evidence of confidence on their part, that no parent had asked to have his child leave during the year. ” When the school was coMiinenced,” observes Mr. Brown, ” few offered their sons as pupils, and even they, as some of them have since told me, did it with a good deal of apprehension as to the consequences. ‘ We could not understand,’ says one who first brought a boy to the school, ‘ why a

    foreigner should wish to feed and instruct our children for nothing.

    We thought there must be some sinister motive at the bottom

    of it. Perhaps it was to entice them away from their parents

    and country, and transport them by and by to some foreign

    land.’ At all events, it was a mystery. ‘ But now,’ said the

    same father to me a few weeks ago, ‘ I understand it. I have

    had my three sons in your school steadily since they entered it,

    and no harm has happened to them. The eldest has been qualified

    for service as an interpreter. The other two have learned

    nothing bad. The religion you have taught them, and of which

    1 was so much afraid, has made them better, I myself believe

    its truth, though the customs of my country forbid my embracing

    it. I have no longer any fear ; you labor for others’ good, not

    your own. I understand it now.’ “

    This suspicion was not surprising, considering the connnon

    estimate of foreigners among the people, and indicates that it

    was high time to attempt something Avorthy of the Christianity

    which they professed. The scliool was conducted as it would

    have been if removed to a town in Xew England ; and when its

    pupils left they were fitted for taking a high rank in their own

    country. Their attachment to their teacher was great. One

    instance is taken from the fourth report : ” Last spring the

    father of one in the older class came to the house and told his

    son that he could not let him remain here any longer but that

    he must put him out to service and make him earn something.

    His father is a poor miserable man, besotted by the use of opium,

    and has sold his two daughter into slavery to raise money. The

    boy ran away to his instructor and told him what his father

    liad said, adding, ‘I cannot go.’ Willing to ascertain the sincerity

    of the boy and the strength of his attachment to his

    friends, his teacher coolly replied, ‘ Perhaps it will be well for

    yon to go, for probably you could be a table-boy in some gentleman’s house and so get two dollars a month, which is two more than jou get here, where only your food is given yon.’ The little fellow looked at him steadily while he made these remarks, as if amazed at the strange language he used, and when he had done, turned hastily about and burst into tears, exclaiming, ‘ 1 cannot go ; if I go away from this school I shall be lost.’ He did not leave, for his father did not wish to force him away.”

    Another case shows the contidence of a parent on the occasion

    of the death of one of the pupils, his only child : ” He heard

    of his son’s illness too late to arrive before he died, and when he

    caiue it was to bury his remains. He was naturally overwhelmed

    with grief at the affliction that had come upon him, and his apprehensions

    of the effect of the tidings upon the boy’s mother

    were gloomy enough. After the funeral was over, I conversed

    with him. To my surprise he made not the least complaint as

    to what had been done for the sick lad, either in the “way of

    medical treatment or otherwise, but expressed many thanks for

    the kind and assiduous attentions that liad been l)estowcd upon

    him. He said he had entertained great hope of his son’s future

    usefulness, and in order to promote it had placed him here at

    school. But now his family would end in liimself. I showed

    him some specimens of his son’s drawing, an annisement of

    which he was particularly fond. The tears gushed faster as his

    eyes rested on these evidences of his son’s skill. ‘Do not show

    them tome,’ said he; ‘it is too much. I cannot speak now. I

    know you have done well to my son. I pity yon, for all your

    labor is lost.’ I assured him I did not think so. He had been

    a very diligent and obedient learner, and had won the esteem of

    his teachers and companions. He had been taught concerning

    the true drod and the way of salvation, and it might have done

    him everlastin<; ijood. As the old man was leavinc; me, he

    turned and asked if, in case he should adopt another boy, I

    would receive him as a pupil, to which I replied in the affirmative.”

    An assistant teacher, Wm. A. Macy, joined Mr. Brown in

    184G; the latter returned to America in 1847, and the school

    was closed in 184J>, owing chiei^y to the departure of its early

    patrons from China and the opening of new ])orts of trade,

    scattering the foreign comnnmity so that funds could not be

    ITS SUCCESSFUL OPERATION. 345

    obtained. Mission societies began to enlarge their work at

    tliese ports and occupy the same department of education as

    tlie Morrison School. It, however, did a good work in its education

    of half a score of men who now fill high places in their

    country’s service, or occupy posts of usefulness most honorably

    to themselves. The boy mentioned in a previous paragraph

    afterward went through a medical course at Edinbui-gh, became

    a practising surgeon and physician at Canton, and died there in

    1878, honored by foreigners and natives during a life of usefulness

    and benevolence. In that year Mr. Brown visited

    China for his health, and M’as received hy this Dr. Wong and

    others of his old pupils with marks of regard honorable and

    gratifying to both ; they fitted up a house there for him, presented

    him Avith a beautiful piece of silver plate, and paid his

    passage up to Peking and back to Shanghai.

    The efforts of Protestants for the evangelization of China

    were largely of a preparatory nature until the j-ear 1842. Most

    of the laborers were stationed out of China, and those in the

    Empire itself were unable to pursue their designs without many

    embarrassments. Mrs. Gutzlaff experienced many obstacles in

    her endeavors to collect a school at Macao, partly from the

    fears of the parents and the harassing inquiries of the police,

    the latter of which naturally increased the former ; partly again

    from the short period the parents were M’illing to allow

    their children to remain. The Portuguese clergy and government

    of Macao have done nothing themselves to impede Protestant

    missionaries in their labors in the colony since 1833,

    when the governor ordered the Albion press, belonging to Dr.

    Morrison’s son, to be stopped, on account of his publishing a

    religious newspaper called the Miscellanea /Sinicw / and this he

    was encouraged to do from knowing that the East India Company

    was opposed to its continuance. The governor intimated

    to one of the American missionaries in 1839 that no tracts

    nnist be distributed or public congregations gathered in the colony,

    but no objection would be made to audiences collected in

    his own house for instruction. Xo obstacle was put in the way

    of printing, and the press that was interdicted in 1833 was carried

    back to Macao in 1835, after the dissolution of the East India Company, under the diiection of the American mission. Several aids in the study of the Chinese language were issued from it during the nine years it was there under the author’s charge.

    The city of Canton was long in China one of the most unpromising

    fields for missionai-y labors, not alone when it was

    the only one in the Empire, but until recently. This was owins

    to several causes. The pui-suits of foreigners were limited

    to trade. Their residence was confined to an area of a few

    acres held by the guild of hong merchants allowed to trade with

    them, and all intercourse was carried on in the jargon known as

    Pi(Jeon-English. They were systematically degraded by the

    native rulers in the eyes of the people, who knew no other appellation

    for the strangers than fan-kicei^ or ‘ foreign devil.’

    The opium war of 1839-42 had aroused the worst passions of

    the Cantonese, and their conceit had been increased by the unsuccessful

    attempts to take the city in 1841 and 1847 by the

    English forces. Since 1858 the citizens have been accessible to

    other infiuences, and learned that their isolation and ignorance

    brought calamity on themselves.

    When Morrison died, Dr. Bridgman and the writer of these

    pages were the oidy fellow-laborers belonging to any missionary

    society then in China; the Christian church formed in 1835

    contained only three members. It was indeed a day of small

    things, but from henceforth grew more and more bright. The

    contrast even in twelve years is thus described in Dr. llobson’s

    report of his hospital ; the extract shows the little freedom then

    enjoj^ed in comparison with what it now is, nearly forty years

    after:

    MISSIOX AT CANTON. 347

    The average attendance of Chinese has been over a hundred, and nono have been more respectful and cordial in their attention than those in whom aneurism has been cured or sight restored, from whom the tumor has been extirpated or the stone extracted. These services must be witnessed to understand fully their interest. Deep emotions have been awakened when contrasting the restrictions of the first years of Protestant missions in China with the present freedom. Then, not permitted to avow our missionary character and object lest it might eject us from the country; nor could a Chinese receive a Christian book but at the peril of his safety, or embrace that religion without hazarding his life. Now he may receive and practise the doctrines of Christ, and transgress no law of the Empire. Onr interest may he more easily conceived than expressed as we have declared the truths of the gospel, or when looking upon the evangelist Liang A-fah, and thought of him fleeing for his life and long banished from his native land, and now ruturned to declare boldly the truths of the gospel in the city from which he had fled. Well did he call upon his audience to worship and give thanks to the God of heaven and earth for what he had done for them. With happy effect he dwelt upon the Saviour’s life and example, and pointing to the paintings suspended on the walls of the room, informed his auditors that these were performed by his blessing and in conformity to his precepts and example. Portions of the Scriptures and religious tracts are given to all the hearers on the Sabbath, and likewise to all the patients during the week, so that thousands of volumes have been sent forth from the hospital to scores of villages and to distant provinces.

    Before the capture of the city the people had become quite friendly to all missionary labors, through the ameliorating influences of the hospitals. While the city was beleaguered by the insin-gents in 1S55, the wounded soldiers were attended to by Dr. Hobson, who sometimes had his house full. After Canton was occupied by the allies in 1858 there was an enlargement of mission work in the city and envh-ons, which has been growing in depth and extent till the changes draw the attention of the most casual observer. Foreigners are now seldom addressed £LS yan-hvei, and their excursions into the country and along the streams are made in safety. The Germans have established

    stations in many places between Canton and Hongkong,

    and easterly along the river up to I\ia-ying, where the

    people are more turbulent than around the city or toward the

    west.

    The occupation of Hongkong in 1841 induced the American

    Baptists to make it a station immediately, and Messrs. Roberts

    and Shuck began the mission work, followed by the London

    Mission two years after, when Dr. Legge removed there from

    Malacca. The Roman Catholic missionaries also moved over

    from Macao at the earliest date. The colonial authorities in

    time began a system of common schools for all their subjects, so

    that mission schools have been less necessary since that date,

    but are still opened to some extent. The benevolent labors by

    German, British, and American missionaries in Plongkong and

    its vicinity have been zealously carried on in harmony, and there are fully fifty separate stations on the mainland northerly from the island which are worked from this colony. The number in the whole province of Kwangtung amounts to more than seventy-five, all of them efficiently established since 1858.

    The mission at Amoy was commenced in 1842 by Messrs.

    Abeel and Boone under the most favorable auspices. Tlie

    English expedition took that city in August, 1841, and on leaving

    it stationed a small naval and military force on the island

    of Kulang su. The people of Anio}’ and its environs cared perhaps

    little for the merits of the war then raging, but they knew

    that they had suffered much from it, and no intei-j^reters were

    available to carry on communication between the two parties.

    Both these gentlemen could converse in the local dialect, and

    were soon applied to by many desirous of learning something of

    the foreigners or who had business with them. The Chinese

    authorities were also pleased to obtain the aid of competent interpreters, and the good opinion of these dignitai-ies exercised considerable influence in inducing the people to attend upon the ministrations of the missionaries. Both officers and ]n-ivate gentlemen invited them to their residences, where they had opportunity to answer their reasonable inquiries concerning foreign

    lands and customs, and convey an outline of the Christian

    faith. One of these officers was Sen Ki-yu, afterward governor

    of the province and author of the Jlmj Ilwan CIn Lioh, in

    which he mentions Abeel’s name and speaks of his indebtedness

    to him in preparing that work. The number of books given

    away was not great, but part of every day was spent in talking

    with the people; when the hospital was opened by Dr. Cumming,

    greater facilities were afforded for intercourse. The iri’itation

    caused by what the people naturally looked upon as an unprovoked

    outrage was gradually allayed. There had been no long

    education of intercommunication between natives and foreigners

    in Amoy as at Canton. The work so pleasantly begun in 1842 in

    Kulang su lias extended over most parts of the province of

    Fuhkien, and westward into the prefecture of Chauchau in

    Kwangtung. There are more converts, native pastors, and

    schools in this province than any other in China.

    MISSIONS IlSr AMOY AND FUHCHAU. o49

    Its capital was never visited by a foreign enemy, nor did it siiflFer from the Tai-ping rebels, so that the gentry of Fuhchau have never been scattered nor their influence broken, like those of many other provincial centres. The mission work was commenced there in 1847 by Kev. Stephen Johnson, from Bangkok, who was soon joined by other American and English colleagues. He speaks of the great prejudices against all foreigners among the citizens in consequence of the evil effects of opium-smoking, which destroyed the people who would not cease to buy it. An experience of thirty years has not altogether removed this dislike, which even lately found an opportunity to exhibit itself in removing the Church Missionary Society’s mission from the Wu-shih Hill, where it had rented buildings for that period and ” injured the good luck of the city.” These prejudices will gradually give way with a new generation of scholars and merchants, and we can afford to be patient with them when we reflect on their slow progress in other things.

    The American Board, American Methodist, and Church Missionary

    Societies have each extended their stations beyond the

    city into the country almost to the borders of Chehkiang and

    Kiangsf, occupying in all nearly two hundred localities with

    their assistants. Besides these agencies, the China Inland mission

    has occupied three cities on the eastern coast and about

    sixteen other stations. The whole number of places in the

    province of Fuhkien where Protestants have opened their woi k

    in one form and another is now over two hundred and fifty,

    under seven separate societies. In most of these towns the

    good will of the people has remained with them when their objects

    have been fully imderstood ; and the contrasts of destroying

    their chapels or book-shops, as at Ivien-ning, have been found tt)

    be mixed up with other causes. Since the year 18G3 the island

    of Formosa has been occupied by two or three British societies,

    and the work of their missionaries in the cliief towns has been

    greatly prospered. Dr. Maxwell has carried on his hospital at

    Taiwan with eminent success as a means of winning the good

    opinion of suspicious natives and aborigines and inclining them

    to listen to the gospel. Native churches have been gathered in

    various parts remote from the coast, and thirty-five stations are

    now worked by the two British societies which have taken up this field. This progress has not been without opposition, for two of the converts were martyred a few years ago by their countrymen.

    The first missionary efforts north of Canton of a permanent nature were made in ISiO by Dr. Lockhart, in the establishment of a hospital at Tinghai in Chusan. They were resumed by Milne in 1842, and while the island was under the control of British troops. Gutzlaff occupied the office of Chinese jnagistrate of Tinghai in 1S42, and endeavored to hold meetings.

    Milne left Xingpo in June, 1843, and came to Hongkong overland

    dressed in a native costume. After his departure, some

    time elapsed before his place was supplied. The journal of his

    residence in that city indicated a great willingness on the part of

    people of all ranks to cultivate intercourse with such foreigners

    as could converse with them. Drs. Macgowan and McCarty

    went there in 1S43 and 1844 to open a hospital, and were followed

    by Messrs. Lowrie, Culbertson, Loomis, and Cole, the latter

    in charge of a printing office of English and Chinese type and a type foundry. Keligious services are held at the hospitals in that city, and Dr. IMacgowan says: “Each patient is exhorted to renounce all idolatiy and wickedness and to enibruce the religion of the Saviour. They are aduiitted by lens into the prescribing room, and before being dismissed are addressed by the physician and the native Christian assistant on the subject of religion.

    Tracts are given to all who are able to read.” The more such labors are carried on the better will the prospect of peace and a profitable intercourse between China and western nations become ; the more the people learn of the science and resources, the character and designs, and partake of the religion and benevolence of western nations, the icss chance will there be of collisions, and the more each party will respect the other. The fear is, however, that the disruptive and disorganizing influences will preponderate over the peaceful, and precipitate new outbreaks before these influences obtain much hold upon the Chinese.

    MISSIONS IN CHEHKIANG PROVINCE. 351

    The occupation of Ningbo in 1841 by the British troops, and their excursions into the country, had the effect of preparing the people of Zhejiang province to listen to foreigners. The mission work begun at Ningbo by three or four societies in 1842-4S has been carried on with marked success and completeness in its agencies. The various missions have taken different parts of the province for their particular fields, and by means of chapels, hospitals, schools, printing offices, itinerating and preaching excursions, and the sale of religious books, have made known the truth. A large part of the province was ravaged by the Tai-ping rebels, and after their dispersion in 18G7 Hangzhou and Shanking were occupied. These two cities were well high destroyed, but their inhabitants are learning that no force or governmental influence accompanies the preaching of the doctrines of Jesus. This idea has considerable strength among all the Chinese, and no disclaimer or explanations have much effect at first. The people of Zhejiang province have less energy and individuality than their countrymen in the southern provinces, but they have received the faith in simplicity, maintaining its ordinances and bearing its expenses in many cases without foreign aid. In the seventy stations now occupied by six societies from England and America, the advance is seen to be great since the capture of Ningbo and Tinghai forty years ago, even by the confession of those who still hold aloof. The good reputation of the missionaries was shown in the amicable settlement of an irritating question in Ilangchau city in 1874. It arose

    from the occupation of the hillside by the Americans, who had

    bought the spot when it was bare of houses and erected their

    own dwellings. These were deemed to be detrimental to its

    prosperity, and a riot arose which was quelled by the authorities.

    A proposal was then made l)y the gentry to remove them by getting

    another site in the lower city, and this harmonized all parties

    while establishing a good precedent for future observance.

    The great city of Shanghai was almost unknown to foreign

    nations until the treaty of Nanking opened it to their trade in

    1842. Its inhabitants suffered greatly at its capture, but the

    growing commerce ere long brought prosperity. As soon as arrangements could be made the London Mission moved its hospital from Chusan Island to Shanghai (in 1844), and Dr. Lockhart immediately commenced his work. Ilis rooms were thronged, and it is stated that ten thousand nine hundred and seventy eight patients were attended to between May, 1844, and June, 1845. The knowledge of this charity spread over the province of Kiangsu, and removed much of the ill-will and ignorance of the people toward foreigners. One effect in the city was to incite the inhabitants to open a dispensary during four summer months, for the gratuitous relief of the sick. It was called iS/d I Kuiig-kluJi, or ‘ Public Establishment for Dispensing Healing.’

    ” It was attended by eight or nine iiative practitioners, who saw

    the patients once in five da\’S ; this attendance was gratuitous

    on the part of some of them, and was paid for in the case of

    others. The medicines are supplied from the different apothecary

    shops, one furnishing all that is wanted during one day,

    which is paid for by subscriptions to the dispensary. The patients

    vary from three hundred to five hundred. The reason

    given for the recent establishment of this dispensary for relieving

    the sick is that it has been done by a foreigner who came

    to reside at the place, and therefore some of the wealthy natives

    wished to show their benevolence in the same way.” Such a

    spirit speaks well for the inhabitants of Shanghai, for nothing

    like competition in doing good has ever been started elsewhere,

    nor even a public acknowledgment made of the benefits conferred

    by the hospitals.

    During the voyage along the coast of China made by Messrs. Medhurst and Stevens, in 18l>5, they visited Shanghai ; and an abstract of Medhurst’s interview with the officers on that occasion is taken from his journal. lie had already been invited by them to enter a temple hard by the landing-place, to the end that they might learn the object of the visit, and was conversing with them.

    The party was now joined by another officer named Chin, a hearty, rough-looking man, with a keen eye and a voluble tongue. He immediately took the lead in the conversation, and asked whether we had not been in Sliantung and had communication with some great officers there ? He inquired after

    Messrs. Lindsay and GutzlafF, and wished to know whither we inttjnded to

    proceed. I told him these gentlemen were well ; but we could hardly tell

    where we should go, quoting a Chinese proverb, “We know not to day what

    will take place to-morrow.” But, I continued, as your native conjurors are

    reckoned very clever, they may perhaps be able to tell you. ” I am conjuror

    enough for that,” said Chin ; ” but what is your profession V ” I told him that I

    ENTRY OF MISSIONS INTO SnANGHAI. 35J?

    was a toachor of religion. . . . AfttT a little time a great noise was heard outside, and the arrival of the chief magistrati; of the city was announced, when several officers came in and requested me to go and see his worship.

    He appeared to be a middle-aged man, but assumed a stern aspect as I entered, though I paid him the usual compliments and took my seat in a chair placed opposite. This disconcerted him much, and as soon as he could recover himself from the surprise at seeing a barbarian seated in his presence, he ordered me to come near and stand before him, while all the officers called out, ” Rise ! Rise! ” I arose accordingly, and asked whether I could not be allowed to sit at the conference, and as he refused, I bowed and left the room. I was soon followed by Chin and Wang, who tried every effort to persuade me to return ; this, however, I steadfastly refused to do unless I could be allowed to sit, as others of my countrymen had done in like circumstances. . .

    Having been joined by Mr. Stevens (who had been distributing books

    among the crowd without), we proceeded to converse more familiarly and to

    deliver out books to the officers and their attendants, as well as to some

    strangers that were present, till they were all gone. A list of such provisions

    as were wanted had been given to Wang, whom we requested to purchase them

    for us, and we would pay for them. By this time tlie articles were brought

    in, which they offered to give us as a present, and seeing that there was no

    other way of settling the question, we resolved to accept of the articles and

    send them something in return. The rain having moderated, we aro.se to take

    a walk and proceeded toward the boat, where the sailors were busy eating

    their dinner. Wishing to enter the city we turned o3E in that direction, but

    were stopped by the officers and their attendants, and reluctantly returned to

    the temple. After another hour’s conversation, and partaking of refreshments

    with the officers, they departed. On the steps near the boat we observed

    a basket nearly full of straw, and on the top about half a dozen books

    torn in pieces and about to be burnt. On inquiry, they told us that these

    were a few that had been torn in the scuffle, and in order to prevent their

    being trodden under foot they were about to burn them. Recollecting, however,

    that Chin had told his servant to do something with the books he had

    received, it now occurred to us that he had directed them to be burned in our

    presence. On the torch being applied, therefore, we took the presents which

    were lying by and threw them on the fire, which put it out. The policeman, taking off the articles, applied the torch again, while we repeated the former operation ; to show them that if they despised our presents, we also disregarded theirs. Finally the basket was thrown into the river and we left, much displeased at this insulting conduct.’

    ‘ China: Its State and Prospects, pp. 371-377. Chinese Repository, Vol. IV.,pp. 330, 331.

    This extract might be thouffht to refer to an event which took place in the days of Hicci instead of one within the memory of the living. The progress and changes since it occurred in that city typify what has been going on throughout the whole land. Medhurst came back to Shanghai to live, within nine years after this incident, and when his failing health compelled his retirement in 1856, he closed an honorable service of thirty-nine years in the mission field. His dictionaries, translations, and writings in Chinese and English (ninety -three in all) indicate his industry ; and through them he, being dead, yet speaketh to the Chinese upon his favorite themes of redemption.

    The work which he began was reinforced by colleagues from Groat Britain and America until the whole population was reached, and towns lying south of the Yangzi river were all visited. After the rebellion was quelled in 1867 other cities were occupied, until about forty-five localities in all parts of Kiangsu are now held as preaching stations. People are returning to their deserted homes, and lands that lay fallow for years are retilled ; thither foreign and native preachers and colportors bring the living word without hindrance.’

    The consequences of the introduction of the gospel into China are likely to be the same that they have been elsewhere, in stirring up private and public antagonism to what is so opposed to the depravity of the human heart. There are some grounds for hoping that there will not be much systematic opposition from the imperial government when once the chiefs of

    the nation learn the popular sentiments and will. The principal

    reasons for this are found in the character of the people,

    who are not cruel or disposed to take life for opinions when

    those opinions are held l)y numbers of respectable and intelligent

    men. The fact that the officers of government all spring from

    the body of the people, and that these dignitaries are neither

    governed nor influenced by any State hierarch}’—by any body

    of pi’iestly men, who, feeling that the progress of the new faith

    will cause the loss of their influence and position, are determined

    to use the power of the State to put it down—leads us to

    hope that such officers as may adopt the new faith will not, on

    account of their profession, be banished (»r disgraced. Such

    was the case with Sii, who assisted and countenanced Ricci.

    ‘ In this connection the work of Dr. Lockhart {.}f<‘(h’riil 3fmionnry in China, London, IHCil) may prolitably be read for the details and results of mission labors in Shanghai.

    PROSPECTS FOR CHRISTIANITY IN CHINA. 355

    The general character of the Chinese is irreligious, and they

    care much more for money and power than they do for religions

    ceremonies of any kind ; they would never lose a battle as

    the Egyptians did because the Persians placed cats between the

    annies. There are no ceremonies which they consider so binding

    as to be willing to tight for them, and persecute others for

    omitting, except those pertaining to ancestral worship ;—these

    are of so domestic a nature that thousands of converts miirht

    discard them before much would be known or done by the people

    in relation to the matter. The conscientious Christian

    magistrate would be somewhat obnoxious to his master, and

    liable to be removed for refusing to perform his functions at

    the ching-hivang iniao before the tutelar gods of the Empire.

    These and other reasons, growing out of the character of the people

    and the nature of their political and religious institutions, lead

    to the hope that the leaven of truth will permeate the mass of

    society and renovate, purify, and strengthen it without weakening,

    disorganizing, or destroying the government. There

    are, also, some causes to fear that such will not be the case,

    arising from the ignorance of the people of the proper results

    of Christian doctrines; from a dread of the government respecting

    its own stability from foreign aggression ; from the

    evil consequences of the use of opium, and the drainage of the

    precious metals ; and from the disturbing effects of the intercourse

    with unscrupulous foreigners and irritated nati^’es often

    leading to riots and the interference of government authorities.

    The toleration of the Christian religion had been allowed throughout the Empire by imperial edicts issued in the reign of Shunchi and his son ; and often and often discountenanced and persecuted after those dates. The governmental policy had been long settled to disallow its profession by its subjects or the residence of the Koman Catholic missionaries in its borders.

    In 1844 the French envoy, M. de Lagrene, brought their disabilities to the notice of Kiying, who memorialized the throne and received the following rescript, which reversed the bloody decrees of 1722 and later years. For his efforts in this matter he deserves the thanks and remembrance of every friend of Christianity and the Chinese.

    Kiying, imperial fonimissioner, minister of State, and governor-general of Guangdong and Guangxi, respectfully addresses the throne by memorial.

    On examination it appears that the religion of the Lord of Heaven is that professed by all the nations of the West ; that its main object is to encourage the good and suppress the wicked ; that since its introduction to China during

    the Ming dynasty it has never been interdicted ; that subsequently, when

    Chinese, practising tliis religion, often made it a covert for wickedness, even

    to the seducing of wives and daughters, and to the deceitful extraction of the

    pupils from the eyes of the sick,’ government made investigation and inflicted

    punishment, as is on record ; and that in the reign of Kiaking special clauees

    were first laid down for the punishment of the guilty. The prohibition, therefore,

    was directed against evil-doing under the covert of religion, and not

    against the religion professed by the western foreign nations.

    Now the request of the French ambassador, Lagrene, that those Chinese

    who, doing well, practiise this religion, be exempt from criminality, seems

    feasible. It is right therefore to make the request, and earnestly to crave

    celestial favor to grant that, henceforth, all natives and foreigners without

    distinction, who learn and practise the religion of the Lord of Heaven, and do

    not excite trouble by improper conduct, be exempted from criminality. If

    there be any who seduce wives and daughters, or deceitfully take the pupils

    from the eyes of the sick, walking in their former paths, or are otherwise

    guilty of criminal acts, let them be dealt with according to the old laws. As

    to those of the French and other foreign nations who practise the religion, let

    them only be permitted to build churches at the five ports opened for commercial intercourse. They must not presume to enter the country to propagate religion.

    Should any act in opposition, turn their backs upon the treaties, and rashly overstep the boundaries, the local officers will at once seize and deliver them to their respective consuls for restraint and correction. Capital punishment is not to be rashly inflicted, in order that the exercise of gentleness may be displayed. Thus, peradventure, the good and the profligate will not be blended, while the equity of mild laws will be exhibited.

    This request, that well-doers practising the religion may be exempt from criminality, I (the commissioner), in accordance with reason and bounden duty, respectfully lay before the throne, earnestly praying the august Emperor graciously to grant that it may be carried into effect. A respectful memorial. DaoGuang, 24th year, 11th month, 19th day (December 28, 1844), was received the vermilion reply : ” Let it be according to the counsel [of Kiying].”

    This is from the Emperor.’-‘
    ‘ Tills is thus explained by a Chinese : ” It is a custom with the priests who teach this religion, when a man is about to die, to take a handful of cotton, having concealed within it a sharp needle, and then, while rubbing the individual’s eyes with the cotton, to introduce the needle into the eye and puncturi! the pupil with it ; the humors of the pupil saturate the cotton and are afterward used as a medicine.” This foolish idea has its origin in the extreme unction administered by Catholic i)riw5ts to the dying. See, moreover, th«

    Lettrca FjIiJitiiittK, Tome IV., p. 44.

    ‘^ Chiiieite lifj)Oiiitorij, Vol. XIV., p. 195.

    TOLKKATIOli OBTAINED THKOUGII KITING. 357

    This rescript <2,rniito(l toleration to the Christians already in the country, known only by the term Tien Cha k!ao, or ‘ Keligion of the Lord of Heaven/ and referring only to those persons who profess Catholicism. Subsequently the French minister was asked to state whether, in making this request of the Chinese officers, he intended to include Christians of all sects, as there had been some doubts on that point, he therefore brought the subject again before Qiying, who issued an explanatory notice, without making a second appeal to his sovereign. It is not necessary to quote the entire reply, which granted as conq:)lete toleration to all Christian sects as its writer was able to do from his knowledge of their differences. The term Vesii, kiao, since adopted for Protestants, was not then current. After quoting the purport of M. de Lagj’enc’s communication, Qiying thus sums up his conclusions :

    Now I find that, in the first place, when the regulations for free trade were agreed upon, there was an article allowing the erection of churches at the five ports. This same privilege was to extend to all nations ; there were to be no distinctions. Subsequently the commissioner Lagrene requested that the Chinese who, acting well, practised this religion, should equally be held blameless. Accordingly, I made a representation of the case to the throne, by memorial, and received the imperial consent thereto. After this, however, local magistrates having made improper seizures, taking and destroying crosses, pictures, and images, further deliberations were held, and it was agreed that these [crosses, etc.] might be reverenced. Originally I did not know that there were, among the nations, these differences in their religious practices. Now with regard to the religion of the Lord of Heaven—no matter whether the crosses, pictures, and images be reverenced or be not reverenced—all who, acting well, practise it, ought to be held blameless. All the great western nations being placed on an equal footing, only let them by acting well practise their religion, and China will in no way prohibit or impede their so doing Whether their customs be alike or unlike, certainly it is right that there should be no distinction and no obstruction.—December 22, 1845.

    The sentence in this document which speaks of local magistrates making improper seizures probably refers to something which had occurred in the country. At Shanghai the intondant of circuit issued a proclamation in November, lS-i5. based upon the Emperor’s rescript, in which he defines the Tien Chu Mao ” to consist in periodically assembling for unitedly worshipping the Lord of Heaven, in respecting and venerating the cross, with pictures and images, as well as in reading aloud the works of the said religion ; these are customs of the said relio-ion in question, and practices not in accordance with these cannot be considered as the religion of the Lord of Pleaven.”

    The varions associations and sects found throughout China are all included under the vague name of klao, or ‘ doctrine ;

    ‘ they are an annoyance to the government and well disposed people, and are referred to and excepted against in this proclamation.

    In a decree received by Qiying at Canton, February 20, 1846, relating to the restoration of the houses belonging to Romanists, the views of the Chinese government respecting the foreign missionaries were further nuxde known.

    On a former occasion Qiying and others laid before Us a memorial, requesting immunity from punishment for those who doing well profess the religion of Heaven’s Lord; and that those who erect churches, assemble together for worship, venerate the cross and pictures and images, read and explain sacred books, be not prohibited from so doing. This was granted. The religion of the Lord of Heaven, instructing and guiding men in well-doing, differs widely from the heterodox and illicit . ects ; and the toleration thereof has already been allowed. That which has been requested on a subsequent occasion, it is right in like manner to grant.

    Let all the ancient houses throughout the provinces, which were built in the reign of Kanghi, and have been preserved to the present time, and which, on personal examination by proper authorities, are clearly found to be their bona fide, possessions, be restored to the professors of this religion in their respective places, excepting only those churches which have been converted into temples and dwelling-houses for the people.

    If, after the promulgation of this decree throughout the provinces, the local officers irregularly prosecute and seize any of the professors of the religion of the Lord of Heaven, who are not bandits, upon all such the just penalties of the law shall be meted out.

    If any, under a profession of this religion, do evil, or congregate people from distant towns, seducing and binding them together; or if any other sect or bandits, borrowing the name of the religion of the Lord of Heaven, create disturbances, transgress the laws, or excite rebellion, they shall be punished according to their respective crimes, each being dealt with as the existing statutes of the Empire direct.

    Also, in order to make apparent the proper distinctions, foreigners of every nation are, in accordance with existing regulations, prohibited from going into the country to propagate religion.

    GOVERNMENT POLICY TOWARD MISSIONARIES. 359

    For these purposes this decree is given. Cause it to be made known.
    From the Emperor.'(‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XV., p. 155, where the original is given.)

    The directors of Protestant missions did not think it right to violate the Last paragraph in this rescript, and confined their efforts to the open ports, where their agents had much preliminary work to do. This went on quietly, and on the whole peaceably, as the inhabitants found that the missionaries were their friends. Chapels^ schools, hospitals, printing offices, and dwellings were erected at all the ports, bo that by the year 1858 about one hundred Protestants were carrying them on. The number of converts was few, and there was not much result to show in tabular lists. It was a time of seed-sowing.

    In 1849 the adherents of Hong Xiu-quan began to make trouble in the west of Kwangtung, and to be called the Shangdihui / and the Peking authorities were unable to distinguish them from Protestants, who had thus rendered the name for God in the version of the Bible used by these misguided men. Their rapid successes against the imperial troops soon roused the utmost energies of the government to suppress them and retake Nanking. In 1856 a more dangerous struggle was precipitated by the impolitic action of Yeh Ming-chin, the governor-general at Canton, in respect to the Arrow, a snniggling lorcha carrying the British flag, which ended in a declaration of war against China. When hostilities ceased in 1858 by signing treaties of peace at Tientsin with envoys of the four nations there assembled, it was deemed to be a favorable time to introduce some definite stipulations respecting the toleration of Christianity in China. The rescripts of the Emperor DaoGuang in 1844 had never carried any real weight among rulers or people, nor had the Romanists ever been able to re-possess their old churches and other real estate taken from them. The largest part had long been occupied or destroyed.

    Any opposition to such a proposal was not likely to be very persistent on the part of the Chinese plenipotentiarie^s in face of the force at the call of those who had just captured the forts at Taku and held the city of Tientsin under their guns. The four nations. Great Britain, France, the United States, and Russia, were, as representatives of Christendom, in the providence of God brought face to face with China, the representative of paganism. They came to demand an arrangement of commercial, diplomatic, civil, and ex-territorial rights, and the introduction of religious privileges did not enter into their plans.

    The war on the part of the two first-named powers had no reference to religion, and their two colleagues wuuld doubtless have omitted the articles on toleration if the Chinese had held out on those alone. At this singular and most unexpected correlation of moral and physical forces among the nations of the world, involving the greater part of its inhabitants, the freedom of the rising church of Christ in China was quietly secured by the four following articles of toleration inserted in the treaties signed in June, 1858. They are here given in the order of their dates:

    Russian. Art. YIII.—The Chinese government having recognized the fact that the Christian doctrine promotes the establishment of order and peace among men, promises not to persecute its Christian subjects for the exercise of the duties of their religion; they shall enjoy the protection of all those who profess other creeds tolerated in the Empire. The Chinese government, considering the Christian missionaries as worthy men who do not seek worldly advantages, will permit them to propagate Christianity among its subjects, and will not hinder them from moving about in the interior of the Empire. A certain number of missionaries setting out from the open ports, or cities, shall be provided with passports signed by Russian authorities.

    American. Art. XXIX.—The principles of the Christian religion, as professed by the Protestant and Roman Catholic churches, are recognized as teaching men to do good, and to do to others as they would have others do to them. Hereafter, those who quietly profess and teach these doctrines shall not be harassed or persecuted on account of their faith. Any person, whether, citizen of the United States or Chinese convert, who according to these tenets peaceably teaches and practises the principles of Christianity, shall in no case be interfered with or molested.

    TREATY STIPULATIONS RESPECTING CHRISTIANITY. 361

    British. Art. VTTI.—The Christian religion, as professed by Protestants or Roman Catholics, inculcates the practice of virtue, and teaches man to do as he would be done by. Persons teaching it or professing it, therefore, shall alike be entitled to the protection of the (‘liinose authorities ; nor sliull any siicli, peaceably pursuing their calling, and not offending against the laws, be persecuted or interfered with.

    French. Art. XIII.—La religion Chretienne, ayant pour objet essentiel, de porter les honinies a la vertu, les niembres de toutes communions Ohretiennes jouiront d’une entiere securite pour leurs personnes, leurs proprietes, et le libre exercice de leurs pratiques religieuses ; et une protection efficace seia donnee aux missionnaires qui se rendront pacifiquement dans I’interieur du pays, munis des passeports reguliers dont il est parle dans TArticIe VIII. Aucune entrave ne sera apportee par les autorites de TEmpire Cliinois au droit qui est reconnu a tout individu en Chine d’einbrasser, s’il le vent, le Christianisme et d’en suivre les pratiques, sans etre passible d’aucune peine intiigee pour ce fait. Tout ce qui a etc precedemment ccrit, proclame, ou public en Chine par ordre du gouvernement centre le culte Chretien, est compK’tement abroge, et reste sans valeur dans toutes les pi’ovinces de I’Empire.

    An article similar to these in its general import has been

    inserted in nearly all the treaties subsequently signed with the

    Chinese. They contain as nmch freedom of faith and practice

    by converts as could be desired by any reasonable man ; but

    many missionaries were disappointed that their provisions were

    violated or disregarded by native officials. These sanguine persons

    often forgot that forbearance and time were both needed

    to bring the people and their rulers up to an appreciation of tlie

    new liberties and obligations contained in the treaties, and that

    their ignorance would be best and thoroughly removed by the

    living evidences of the purity and power of Christianity among

    its converts. These have already begun to show their faith by

    their works.

    The only additional action of the Chinese government in this direction that needs to be noticed is Article YI., agreed upon with the French envoy and contained in the convention signed at Peking in October, 1860, in relation to the restoration of property once o^^^^ed by the Romanists. The translation is as follows :

    Art. VI.—It shall be promulgated throughout the length and breadth of the land, in the terms of the imperial edict of February 20, 1846, that it is permitted to all people in all parts of China to propagate and practise the teachings of the Lord of Heaven, to meet together for preaching the doctrines, to build churches and to worship; further, all such as indiscriminately arrest [Christians] shall be duly punished, and such churches, schools, cemeteries, lands, and buildings as were owned on former occasions by persecuted Christians shall be paid for, and the money handed to the French representative at Peking for transmission to the Christians in the locality concerned.

    It is in addition permitted to French missionaries to rent and purchase land in all the jyovinces, and to erect buildings thereon at jpleasure^

    In carrying out the details of this article, so much injustice and violence were exhibited by native Ilomanists, supported by the missionaries in claiming lands alleged to have belonged to them as far back as the days of Ilicci and in the Ming dynasty, and forcing their owners and occupants to yield them without any or sufficient compensation, that riots and hatreds arose in many parts of China. Temples, houses, and shops which had been in the legal possession of natives for one or two centuries were claimed under this stipulation, and they forcibly resisted the surrender. The discontent became so great that the French minister at last issued a notice, about 1872, that no more claims of this kind would be received from the missionaries, and further complaints ceased. The imbroglio was heightened by the murder of two or three missionaries in Kweichau and Sz’chnen during the previous years, and the escape of the guilty parties into other provinces.

    ‘ This sentence in italics is not contained in the French text of the convention; hut as that Language is made, in Art. Ill of the Treaty of Tientsin, the oiiUi authoritative text, the surreptitious insertion of this important stipulation in the Chinese text makes it void. The procediu-e was unworthy ofa great nation like France, whose army environed Peking when the convention was signed.

    REVISION OF THE BIBLE IN CHINESE. 363

    The feelings of all the llomish missionaries at the removal of the many disabilities under which they had long lived and bravely suffered were expressed by the Bishop of Shantung in an encyclical letter to his people, in which he exhorts them to “maintain and diligently learn the holy religion. . . . Let them also pray that the holy religion may he greatly promoted, remembering that the kind consideration of the Emperor toward our holy religion springs entirely from the favor of the Lord of Heaven. After the reception of this order, let thanks be oifered up to God for his mercies in the churches, for three Lord’s days in succession. While the faithful rejoice in this extraordinary favor, let Ave Marias be recited to display grateful feelings.”

    The subject of the thorough revision of the Chinese Bible had long occupied the thoughts of those best acquainted with the need of such a work; and when the English missionaries met at Hongkong in 1843, a general conference of all Protestant missionaries was called to take measures for the preparation of so desirable a work. The version of Morrison and Milne was acknowledged by themselves to be imperfect, and the former had begun some corrections in it before his death. Messrs. Medhurst, Gutzlaff, Bridgman, and J. R. Morrison had united their labors in revising the New Testament, and published it in 1836.

    The greatest harmony existed at this meeting, and the books

    of the New Testament were distributed among the missionaries

    at the several stations without regard to denomination. Some

    discussion arose as to the best word for haptt’sm, for all agieed

    that it could not well be transliterated. The question was referred

    to a committee, which, finding itself unable to agree upon

    a term, recommended that in the proposed version this word

    should be left for each party to adopt which it liked. The

    term si I’l, wdiich had been in use to denote this rite since the

    days of Ricci, by Romanists of all opinions, had been taken by

    Morrison and Medhurst, and by those associated with them.

    Marshman preferred another word, tsan^ which was so unusual

    that it would almost always require explanation ; and in fact

    could only be fully explained by the ceremony itself. Some of

    the American Baptist missionaries have taken Marshman’s term,

    and others have proposed a third one, yuh. Their joint action

    with their brethren in regard to a common version was after* ward repudiated by the societies in the United States, which directed them to prepare separate translations.

    The question of the proper word for God in Chinese was also referred to a committee at this mooting in Hongkong, which reported its inability to agree; and this point, like the word for baptism, was therefore left to the decisiuns of the respective missions, after the version itself was finished. The delegates on the projected translation were chosen by the body of missionaries at each station, and met at Shanghai in June, 1847. They consisted of Eev. Messrs. Medhurst, J. Stronach, and Milne from the London Missionaiy Society, and Rev. Messrs. Bridgman, Boone, Shuck, Lowrie, and Culbei’tson from American societies ; of the last five, Culbertson took Lowrie’s place after his death, and Bp. Boone was never able to take an active share in the work, The New Testament was finished July 25, 1850, and was published soon after with different terms for God and Spirit.

    The Old Testament was translated by the three first named in 1853 ; while another, more adapted to common readers, was completed in 1862 by Messrs. Bridgman and Culbertson.

    (jiitzlaff also issued two or three revisions by himself. In 1805

    a committee was formed in Peking for the purpose of making

    a version of the SS. in the Mandarin dialect, especially that

    prevalent in the northern provinces. It was done by Rev.

    Messrs. Blodget, Edkins, Burdon, and Schereschewsky ; the New Testament was completed by them jointly in 1872, and the Old Testament in 1874 by the last named alone. It made the sixth complete translation of the Bible into Chinese during this century. Other translations have been made into the five southern patois of several books of the liible—and at ]S’ingpo and Amoy they are issued in the Romanized letters, and not in the Chinese character. These last, of course, are unintelligible to all natives not taught in mission schools.

    PROGRESS IN EVANGELIZING THE CHINESE. 365

    The influence and labors of female missionaries in China is, from the constitution of society in that country, likely to be the only, or principal means of reaching their sex for a long time to come, and it is desirable, therefore, that they should engage in the work by learning the language and making the acquaintance of the families jirouiid them. No nation can be elevated, <)!• (In’istian institutions placed upon a pci’nianent basis, until fenuiles are taught their rightful place as the companions of men, and can teach their children the duties they owe to their God, themselves, and their country. Fenuile schools arc the necessary complement of boys’, and a heathen wife soon carries a man back to idolatry if he is only intellectually convinced of the truths of Christianity. The comparatively high estimation the Chinese place upon female education is an encouragement to nniltiply girls’ schools. The formation of mission boards in western lands, conducted entirely by women, has made these schools and medical work among women in China both practical and necessary. No large mission is now regarded as complete without one or more women to carry on such parts of the work as belong to them ; and this is true of the Komish missions as well as Protestants.

    The advance in the work of evangelization since the opening of the Empire in 1842 by the Treaty of Nanking has been in the highest degree encouraging. It was soon ascertained that the hatred and contempt of foreigners which were supposed to dwell in the minds of all Chinese, needed only to be met with kindness and patient teachings to give place to respect and confidence.

    The sufferings from the war with England, and the evils resulting from the snuiggling and use of opium among the people, had embittered the minds of dwellers along the coast ; but as most of this was local, the enlargement of mission work did nuich to remove the ignorance which nursed the dislike. The free relief of disease and pain in the hospitals aided greatly to improve intercourse, so that at this day the natives in and around the open ports have become entirely changed in their feelings.

    This outline of Protestant mission work in China may be closed by a notice of the conference held at Shanghai in May, 1877, at which one hundi-ed and twenty-six men and women, connected wath twenty different bodies, assembled to discuss their common work in its various departments. The report of their proceedings gives fuller statistics of the work then going on than is to be found elsewhere, and the twenty-seven papers read and discussed in the three -days’ sessions contain the ripened views of competent thinkers upon the most serious questions connected with the welfare of China. The following table has been taken from this report, and exhibits a remarkable development in education and preaching, considering that most of the stations have been opened since 1860.

    STATISTICS or PROTESTANT MISSIONS TO CHINA FOR THE YEAR 1877.

    Branches of Mission Work.

    Stations where missionaries reside

    Out-stations

    Organized churches

    {i<) Wholly self-supporting

    (b) Partially self-supporting

    Communicants,

    -j g^^es ‘.’.’.’.’.’.[[‘.’.][‘.’.

    Pupils in 31 boj’s’ boarding-schools

    ” 177 boys’ day-schools

    ” 39 girls’ boarding-schools

    ” 82 girls’ day-schools

    ” 21 theological schools

    ” 115 Sunday-schools

    Pastors and preachers ordained

    Assistant preachers

    Colportors

    Bible women

    Church buildings for worship

    Chapels and preaching places

    In-patients / .^^^^ i.ospitals, 187G …\

    Out-puticnts, \ f f^

    Patients treated in 24 dispensaries, 1876.

    Medical students

    Contributions of native Christians, 1876..

    American British

    Missions. Missions.

    41 215 150 11

    115

    3,117

    2,183

    347

    1,255

    464

    957

    94

    2,110

    42

    212

    28

    62

    113

    183

    1,390

    47,635

    25,107

    19

    $4,482

    43

    290

    156

    7

    149

    4,504

    2,440

    154

    1,470

    206

    335

    120

    495

    28

    273

    46

    28

    118

    249

    3,905

    41,170

    16,174

    13

    $5,089

    Continental Missions.

    8

    27

    12

    687

    584

    146

    265

    124

    15

    22

    “”*3

    34

    3

    2

    15

    Total,

    92

    532

    318

    18

    264

    8,308

    5,207

    647

    2,991

    794

    1,307

    236

    2,605

    73

    519

    77

    92

    246

    457

    5,295

    88,805

    41,281

    33

    $9,571

    STATISTICS OF PROTESTANT MISSIONS TO CHINA. 367

    The total number of men who have joined the Protestant missions to the Chinese up to 1876, as nearly as can be ascertained, has been 484. Of these 41 were laymen, chiefly physicians, and no women or natives are included. Twelve American societies had sent out 212 ordained missionaries, and the same number of British societies had sent 196 ; all the agents of the 8 or 10 continental societies amounted to 35. The number in 1847 was 112 of all nations; in 1858, this figure had increased to 214 ; and a table made out in 1877 by the Shanghai Conference gives 473 as the total number of persons then engaged in active missionary work in China, including 15 not employed by any of the 25 societies enumerated. Of these 210 belonged to 10 American, 242 to 13 British, and 26 to 2 German societies; 172 of the whole number being wives of missionaries, and 63 unmarried females.

    No one acquainted with the practical evangelical work in

    China needs to be told that these statistics give no idea of the

    cliaracter and attainments of the fourteen thousand converts

    which have joined native churches, or the extent and thoroughness

    of the education given the five thousand seven hundred

    children counted in. Those who look for more than the

    merest beginnings of faith and culture in the minds of natives

    just brought out of the ignorance, sottishness, and impurity of

    heathenism into tlie brightness of Christianity, or those who

    .harshly criticise these results of mission work, will do well to

    examine for themselves more fully the limitations and nature

    of all its branches.

    ‘No mention is made in these items of the amount of printing

    done at mission presses, for those particulars are scattered

    over hundreds of reports issued during the last score or two

    years. The presses formerly conducted by Williams, Wylie,

    and Cole at Canton, Slianghai, and Hongkong during an aggregate

    of nearly forty years, have been superseded by more and

    larger establishments ; moreover, the facilities for transporting

    books render their issues more available at the remotest parts

    of the country. The manufacture of Chinese and Japanese

    types by the Presbyterian Mission press and foundiy furnishes

    native workmen with the means of printing newspapers and

    books, which otherwise could never have been done (so as to

    become self-supporting) by means of blocks. At this establishment

    over thirty millions of pages are annually sent forth,

    and this amount is more than doubled by all the other mission

    presses. The effects of this literature upon the native mind,

    which these agencies are scattering wider every year, will be

    apparent in the near future.

    The worth and labors of many men comprised in this number of missionaries have long been known to the Christian publie. Milne and Collie ardently longed and labored diligentlv for the comino; and extension of the kingdom of Christ in China, though not allowed to live in its borders. Few men in the missionary corps have exceeded Edwin Stevens in sound judgment and steady pursuit of a well-formed purpose, which in his case was to aid in perfecting the version of the Bible, he was employed nearly three years as seamen’s chaplain at Whampoa before entering the service among the Chinese, and his labors in that department were highly acceptable to those who frequented the port.

    The warm-hearted, humble piety and singleness of purpose

    of Samuel Dyer were also well known to every one engaged

    with him. His long and assiduous labors to complete a fount

    of Chinese metallic type, amid many obstacles and hindrances,

    were prompted by the hope that, when once finished, books

    could be printed M’itli more elegance, cheapness, and rapidity

    than in any other way. He lived to see it brought into partial

    use, and to satisfy himself concerning the feasibility of this

    plan. If the impulses of private friendship and the esteem

    generally entertained for David Abeel should prompt a notice

    of his character and labors, it would soon extend to many

    pages ; they have been well worthy the fuller notice which is

    given in his memoir. Among other biographies may be mentioned

    those of Walter M. Lowrie, William C. Burns, D. Sandeman,

    J. Henderson, Samuel Dyer, E. C. Bridgman, and W. Aitcheson, which will furnish information upon the details of their labors. Female missionaries have also done much, and will do more, in this work, which recpiires minds and labors in large variety. Mrs. Maiy Morrison, Mrs. Sarah Boone, Mrs. Theodosia Dean, Mrs. L\icy J]all, IVIrs. Henrietta Shuck, Mrs. Doty, and Mrs. Pohlman, all died in China before 184G—the first of scores of honorable women who have since thus ended their lives.

    JTOTICES OF FORMER PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES. 369

    Before closing this brief sketch of Christian missions among the Chinese, it may be well to mention some of the peculiar facilities and difficulties which attend the work. The business of transforming heathen society and reconstructing it on diristian principles is a great and proti’;u*tt'(l undertaking, and is to be commenced in all communities by working on individuals. The opposition of the iinregenerate heart can be overcome only by the transforming influences of the Spirit, but the intellect must be enlightened, and the moral sense instructed by a system of means, before the truths of the Bible can be intelligently received or rejected. This opposition is not peculiar to China, but it will probably assume a more polemic and argumentative cast there than in some other countries. The proud literati are not disposed to abase Confucius below the Saviour, but rather inclined to despise the reiteration of his name and atonement as a seesaw about “one Jesus who was dead, whom we affirm to be alive”. Medhurst notices a tract written against him by

    a Chinese, in which it is argued that ” it was monstrous in barbarians

    to attempt to improve the inhabitants of the Celestial

    Empire when they were so miserably deficient themselves.

    Thus, introducing among the Chinese a poisonous drug, for

    their own benefit to the injury of others, they were deficient in

    benevolence ; sending their fleets and armies to rob other nations

    of their possessions, they could make no pretentions to

    rectitude ; allowing men and women to mix in society and walk

    arm in arm through the streets, they showed that they had not

    the least sense of propriety ; and in rejecting the doctrines of

    the ancient kings they were far from displaying wisdom ; in

    deed, truth was the only good quality to which they could lay

    the least claim. Deficient, therefore, in four out of the five

    cardinal virtues, how could they expect to renovate others ?

    Then, while foreigners lavished money in circulating books for

    the renovation of the age, they made no scruple of trampling

    printed paper under foot, by which they showed their disrespect

    for the inventors of letters. Further, these would-be exhorters

    of the world were themselves deficient in filial piety, forgetting

    their parents as soon as dead, putting them off with deal coffins

    only an inch thick, and never so much as once sacrificing to

    their manes, or burning the smallest trifle of gilt paper for their

    support in the future world. Lastly, they allowed the rich and

    noble to enter office without passing through any literary examinations, and did not throw open the road to advancement to the poorest and meanest in the land. From ^JJ these, it appeared that foreigners were inferior to Chinese, and therefore most unfit to instruct them.”

    To these arguments, which commend themselves to a Chinese with a force that can hardly be understood by a foreigner, they often add the intemperate, immoral lives and reckless cupidity of professed Christians who visit their shores, and ask what good it will do them to change their long-tried precepts for the new-fangled teachings of the Bible? The pride of learning is a great obstacle to the reception of the humiliating truths of the Gospel everywhere, but perhaps especially in China, where letters are so highly honored and patronized. The language is another difficulty in the way of the diffusion of the Gospel, both on the part of the native and the missionary. The mode of education among the Chinese is admirably fitted for the ends they propose, viz., of forming the mind to implicit belief and reverence for the precepts of Confucius, and obedience

    to the government which makes those precepts the outlines of

    its actions, but it rather weakens the intellect for independent

    thought on other subjects. The language itself, as we have

    had opportunity to observe, is an unwieldy vehicle for imparting

    new truths, either by writing or speaking, chiefl}’ because of

    the additional burden every new character or term imposes upon

    the memory. The immense number, who read and speak this

    language, reconciles one, however, to extra labor and patience

    to become familiar with its forms of speech, and ascertain the

    best modes of conveying truth.

    When the five ports were opened in 1845 to practical missionary

    work among the two or three millions of people living

    in and around them, it was soon found that they were tolerably

    well-disposed to foreigners when they understood what was said

    to them. Fifteen years of constant labor changed the ignorance

    and suspicion with which they regarded the first missionaries,

    into respectful regard if not acceptance of their message. At

    the end of this period, the capture of Peking and the ratification

    of the treaties of Tientsin completed the opening of China

    to such labors as far as diplomatic agency could go. Congregations

    are now collected, and truth explained to them with a

    good degree of acceptance every Sabbath, and all that is wanted

    CHECKS AND PROMOTIONS IN CHINESE MISSIONS. 371

    to get more congregations is more preachers ; long before missionary labors are accomplished in all the ports, the whole land will afford every choice of climate and position. Facilities for learning the language are constantly increasing. Dictionaries, vocabularies, phrase books, grammars, and chrestomathies in all the dialects will soon be prepared ; and the list now is not small. They have all, with few exceptions, been made and printed by Protestant missionaries.

    Churches have increased since the first one was formed in Canton in 1835, and some of them are served by native evangelists, two of whom, Liang A-fali and Tsin Slien, of the London Mission, deserve mention as among the first of their countrymen who became educated, earnest preachers of the gospel. The future is full of promise, and the efforts of the church with regard to China will not cease until every son and daughter of the race of Ilan has been taught the truths of the Bible, and has had them fairly propounded for reception or rejection. They will progress until all the cities, towns, villages, and hamlets of that vast Empire have the teacher and professor of religion living in them; until their children are educated, their civil liberties understood, and political rights guaranteed; their poor cared for, their literature purified, their condition bettered in this world by the full revelation of another made known to them. The work of missions will go on until the government is modified, and religious and civil liberty granted to all, and China takes her rank among the Christian nations of the earth, reciprocating all the courtesies due fi-om people professing the same faith.

    CHAPTER XX.  COMMERCE OF THE CHINESE

    It is probable that the applications made in remote times to the rulers of China for liberty to trade with their subjects, partook in their opinion very much of the nature of an acknowledgment of their power; the presents accompanying the request were termed I’ung, and regarded as tribute, while the traders themselves also looked upon the intercourse in somewhat the same light. The chapter of the Book of Records, called the ” Tribute of Vu,’” is one of the most ancient documents in existence relating to the products of a country, and indicates a trade in them of no small extent. Silk, lacquer, furs, grass-cloth, salt, gems, gold, silver, and other metals, ivory and manufactured goods are enumerated ; they are mostly identified with articles still produced, as Legge has shown in his translation. The records of the origin and early course of this trade are lost to a great extent, but the Chinese annals furnish proof of similar traffic for two thousand years after the days of Yu. It had the effect of extending the influence of Chinese institutions among less civilized neighbors, and of making foreign commerce a means of benefit to all parties. The restrictions and charges upon all trade were of small amount at this early period ; as it extended, the cupidity of local officers led them to burden it with numerous illegal fees, which gradually reduced its value, and finally, in some instances, drove it away altogether.

    TIIADE WTTIT nillSrA. 373

    The materials in Chinese literature for investigating this subject after the period of the Han dynasty are abundant, and they will reward the careful analysis of foreign scholars. Mairo Polo, the two Arab travelers in a.d. 850 and 878, and Ibn BaAXCIENT tuta, in 1330, have each contributed their narratives, hinting therein more than they could carefully investigate of the wide ransre and value of the Chinese forei2;u commerce. During; the Ming dynasty this trade fell off, owing to the impoverishment of the land by the Mongols ; but when (about 1000) the stimulus of European ships along the coast began to develop and reward native manufactures, foreign nations and merchants appreciated the fact that it was more profitable to trade with China than attack her.

    The principal items of export and import have not materially changed during the last century ; the splendid fabrics of Chinese looms, their tea, lacquered ware, and products of their kilns, being still bartered for the cottons, metals, furs, and woolens of the west. Such articles as possess peculiar interest, and have not been already described, together with a few notices respecting the present extent and mode of conducting the trade, will suffice to explain its general features.’ The history of the cultin-e and trade in tea by Samuel Ball of Canton in 1835, may yet be considered as an authority upon the subject.

    The growth in the use of tea is instructive, too, rising from an importation of about eighty pounds into England in 1670, till it had so well vindicated its virtues and enlarged its use among that people, that in ISSO one hundred and eighty million pounds were required to supply them ; and more than that was exported elsewhere from China.

    The first item which attracts attention in the table of trade with China is opium, whose growth and momentous consequences require a detailed account. The use of opium as a medicine has not long been known to Chinese doctors, though, from the way the poppy is mentioned in the Hcrhal, there is reason to suppose it to be indigenous. The drug is called apien, in imitation of the word ojnum, while the plant is called qfuipinjj, a transliteration of the Arabic name Afi/un, from which country it was brought about the ninth century. It has many

    ‘Ample materials are now provided in the full reports of the Custom’s .service and the Exhibition Catalogues of Vienna, Paris, Philadelphia, etc. ; the reports of Rondot, Iledde, and other members of the French Legation in 1844 are still valuable.

    names, as great smoke, ‘black commodity black earthy foreign medicine; the last is the term used in the tarifP. The compiler of the llerhal^ who wrote two centuries ago, speaks of the plant and its inspissated juice, saying that both were formerly but little known ; he then concisely describes the mode of collecting it, which leads to the inference that it was then used in medicine. None was imported coastwise for scores of years after that date, but the poppy is now grown in every province and in Manchuria, and no real restraint is anywhere put on its cultivation. The juice is collected and prepared by the people for their own consumption in much the same manner as in India; as long ago as 1S30 we find one official observing in respect to the cultivation, which was extending, that it was ” not only bringing injury on the good, but greatly retarding the work of the husbandmen.”

    The mode of raising the poppy in the Patna district in India

    is thus described : The ryot or cultivator havhig selected a

    piece of ground, always preferring {cceter’is paribus) that which

    is nearest his house, fences it in. He then, by repeated ploughings

    and manuring, makes it rich and fine, and removes all

    the weeds and grass. Xext. he divides the field into two or

    more beds by small dikes of mould, running lengthwise and

    crosswise according to the slope and nature of the ground, and

    again into smaller squares by other dikes leading from the

    principal ones. A tank is dug about ten feet deep at one end

    of the field, from which by a leathern bucket, water is raised

    into one of the principal dikes and carried to every part as

    required ; this irrigation is necessary because the cultivation is

    carried on in the dry weather. The seed is sown in November,

    and the juice collected in February and March, during a period, usually, of about six weeks ; weeding and watering commence as soon as the plants spring up, and are continued till the poppies come to maturity. Cuts are then made in the capsule with a niishtur or notched iron instrument made of three or four sharp laiicet-likc plates; this is done at sunrise, and the exudation is scraped off next morning by a scoop or slttuJia, and deposited in the dish hanging at the ryot’s side. He takes it home and after draining it dry in a large shallow dish, turns

    OPIUM CULTIVATION IN INDIA. 375

    it over and over in the air for a month till the mass is equally dried, and it is lit to carry to the godown. Here it is thrown into a great tank, and kneaded to a uniform consistence; when ready it is rolled into balls according to the size of a brass bowl; these balls are covered with a coating of popp}’ petals, and stored in a drying-house till ready for jjacking. The quality of the article depends very much upon the care taken in the drying and covering with Ikoa or opium paste when the ball is prepared.

    The cultivator must deliver a certain quantity at the stipulated

    price to the collector, the amount being fixed by a survey

    of the field when in bloom ; he receives about one dollar and

    sixty-five cents for a seer (one pound thirteen ounces) of the

    poppy juice, which must be of a certain consistence. The ryot

    has, in most cases, already received the advance money, and if

    he sell this crude opium to any other than the collector, or if

    he fail to deliver the estimated quantity, and there is reason for

    supposing he has embezzled it, he is liable to punishment. In

    all parts of India, the cultivation of the poppy, the preparation

    of the drus, and the traffic in it until it is sold at auction for

    exportation, are under a strict monopoly. Should an individual

    undertake the cultivation without having entered into

    engagements with the government to deliver the produce at the

    fixed rate, his property would be immediately attached, and he

    compelled either to destroy the poppies, or give security for

    the faithful delivery of the product. The cultivation of the

    plant is compulsory, for if the ryot refuse the advance for the

    year’s crop, the simple plan of throwing the rupees into his

    house is adopted ; should he attempt to abscond, the agents

    seize him, tie the advance up in his clothes, and push him into

    his house. There being then no remedy, he applies himself as

    he may to the fulfilment of his contract. The chief opium district is on the Ganges valley, occupying the best land in Benares and Behar, to the extent of about a thousand square miles. The northern and central parts of India are now covered with poppies, while other plants used for food or clothing have nearly been driven out. In Turkey, Persia, India, and China many myriads of acres and millions of people are employed in the cultivation of poppies.’ The growth has extended so much in Persia that opium has lately come from thence to China.

    The preparation of the opium is superintended by official examiners, and is a business of some difficulty, from the many substances put into the juice to adulterate or increase its weight.

    Wetting it so that the mass shall be more fluid than it naturally is, mixing sand, soft clayey mud, sugar, coarse molasses, cowdung, pounded poppy-seeds, and the juice of stramony, quinces, and other plants, are all resorted to, though with the almost certain result of detection and loss. When the juice has been dried properly, to about seventy per cent, spissitude, it appears coppery brown in the mass, and when spread tliin on a \vhito plate, shows considerable translucency, with a gallstone yellow color and a slightly granular texture. When cut with a knife it exhibits sharp edges without drawing out into threads ; and is tremulous like strawberry-jam, to which it has been aptly compared. It has considerable adhesiveness, a handful of it not dropping from the inverted hand for some seconds.

    ‘ Chinese Eepository, Vol V. , p. 472.

    PREPARATIOiSr AND SALE OF OPIUM. 377

    All the opium grown is brought to Calcutta and stored in government warehouses, until it is exposed for sale at auction, at an upset price, graduated according to the market price in China. It is supposed not to cost much more than seven hundred rupees a chest, and is sold at as high an advance as it will bear. Great care is taken to suit the taste of the Chinese ; on one occasion, the East India Company refunded part of the price on a lot which had been differently prepared, to try whether that people would prefer it. There are several sorts of opium : Turkey and Persian, which sell cheapest, and reach China from Aden ; Patna and Benares which are sold at Calcutta ; and Malwa, which is cultivated out of British jurisdiction. In order to equalize its competition, an export duty was until 1812 put on each chest of one hundred and twenty-five rupees, which has been increased to six hundred rupees. The drug is rolled in balls, and then packed in strong boxes, weighing from one hundred and sixteen pounds for Patna, to one hundred and thirty-four pounds or one hundred and forty pounds for Malwa. .Mahva opium is grown and prepared by natives, and is often extensively adulterated ; between four hundred and five hundred cakes are in a chest, and the cultivator there receives double the wages of the ryot in Bengal.

    Opium chests are made of mango wood in Patna and Benares and consist of two parts, in each of which there are twenty partitions; the balls are carefully rolled in dry poppy leaves.

    The chest is covered with hides or gunny bags, and the seams closed so as to render it as impervious to the air as possible. After the drug is sold at auction, there is no further tax on it. The revenue from this monopoly has become so great and important, that its continuance is described by a leading editor in India as a matter of life and death to the Government. In 1840, the income was somewhat over two millions sterling; it has since steadily increased, till in 1872 it amounted to £7,657,000; the average annual sum between the years 1869 to 1876 was £6,524,000, and it has been over five millions ever since the peace of Tientsin. The purity and flavor of the drug has been carefully maintained by competent scientists, and by this date the prejudice in its favor has become so strong among the Chinese, as to induce them to pay an enormous premium for the Indian article over any native product.

    The use of opium among the Chinese two centuries ago must

    have been very little,^ or tjie writings of Bomish missionaries,

    from 1580 down to the beginning of the nineteenth century,

    would certainly have contained some account of it. It was not

    tdl the year 1767 that the importation reached a thousand chests,

    and continued at that rate for some years, most of the trade

    being in the hands of the Portuguese. The East India Company

    made a small adventure in 1773 ; and seven years after, a depot

    of two small vessels was established by the English in Lark’s Bay, south of Macao ; the price was then about $550 a chest.

    In 1781 the company freighted a vessel to Canton, but were obliged to sell the lot of 1,600 chests at 8200 a chest, to Sinqua, one of the hong-merchants, who, not being able to dispose of it to advantage, reshipped it to the Archipelago. The price in 1791 was about ,$370 a chest, and was imported under the head of medicine at a dutv of about seven dollars a hundredweight, including charges. The authorities at Canton began to complain of the two ships in Lark’s Bay in 1793, and their owners being much annoyed by the pirates and revenue boats, and inconvenienced by the distance from Canton, loaded the opium on board a single vessel, and brought her to AVhampoa, where she lay unmolested for more than a year. She was then loaded and sent out of the river, and the drug introduced in another ship ; this practice continued until 1820, when the governor-general and collector of customs issued an edict, forbidding any vessel to enter the port in which opium was stored, and making the pilots and Hang-merchants responsible for its being on board. The Portuguese were also forbidden to introduce it into Macao, and every officer in the Chinese custom-house there was likewise made responsible for preventing it, under the heaviest penalties. “Be careful,” says his excellency in conclusion, ” and do not view this document as mere matter of form, and so tread within the net of the law, for you will find your escape as impracticable as it is for a man to bite his own navel.”

    The importation had been prohibited by the Emperor JiaQing in 1800, under heavy penalties, on account of its use wasting the time and destroying the property of the people of the Inner Land, and exchanging their silver and commodities for the ” vile dirt ” of foreign countries. The supercargoes of the Company therefore recommended the Directors to prohibit its shipment to China from England and India, but this could not be done ; and they contented themselves by forbidding their own ships bringing it to China. The Hang-merchants were required to give bonds, in 1809, that no ship which discharged her cargo at Whampoa had opium on board ; but they contrived to evade the restriction. The traffic was carried on at Whampoa and Macao by the connivance of local officers, some of whom watched the delivery of every chest and received a fee; while their superiors, i-emote from the scene of smuggling, pocketed an annual bi’ibe for overlooking the violation of the imperial orders.

    SMUGGLIiS”G TRADE IN OPIUM. 379

    The system of bribery and condoning malpractices, so common

    in China, Is well illustrated bj a case which occurred in connection

    with this business. In September, 1S21, a Chinese inhabitant

    of Macao, who had been the niediuni of receiving from

    the Portuguese, and paying to the Chinese officers the several

    bribes annually given for the introduction of opium, was arrested

    by government for hiring banditti to assault one of his personal

    opponents. Having got the man in their power, quicksilver was

    poured into his ears, to injure his head without killing him;

    they also forced him to drink a horril)le potion of scalding tea

    mixed with the short hairs shaved from his head. The vile

    wretch who originated this cruel idea and paid the perpetrators

    of it, was a pettifogging notary, who brought gain to tlie officials

    by intimidating the people, until he was the pest and terror of

    the neighborhood. An official enemy at last laid his character

    and doings before the governor, who had him seized and thrown

    into prison, when he turned his wrath on his former employers,

    and confessed that he held the place of bribe-collector, and that

    all the authorities received so much per chest, even up to the

    admiral of the station. The governor, though doubtless aware

    of these practices, was now obliged to notice them ; but instead

    of punishing those who were directly guilty, he accused the senior Hang-merchant, a rich man, nicknamed the ” timid young lady,” and charged him with neglecting his suretyship in not pointing out every foreign ship which contained opium. It was in vain for him to plead that he had never dealt in opium, nor had any connection with those who did deal in it; nor could lie search the ships to ascertain what was in them, or control the authorities who encouraged and protected the smuggling of opium: notwithstanding all his pleas, the governor was determined to hold him responsible. He was accordingly disgraced, and a paper, combining admonition, with exhortation and entreaty, was addressed by his excellency to the foreigners, Portuguese, English, and Americans. The gods, he said, would conduct the fair dealers in safety over the ocean, but over the contraband smugglers of a pernicious poison, the terrors of the royal law on earth, and the wrath of the infernal gods in hades were suspended. The Americans brought opium, he observed, “because they had no king to rule them.” The opium ships thus being driven from Wkanipoa, and the Portuguese unwilling or afraid to admit it into Macao unless at a high duty, the merchants established a floating depot of receiving-ships at Lintin, an island between Macao and the Bogue. In summer, the ships moved to Kumsing moon, Kapshui moon, Hongkong, and other anchorages off the river, to be more secure against the tyfoons ; remaining near Lintin during the north-east monsoon, until 1S39.’

    The mode of introducing opium into the country, when the prohibitions against its use were upheld by the moral approval of the best portion of the native society, has hardly any interest now, except as a matter of history. It is a sad exhibition of power, habit, skill, and money all combining to weaken and overpower the feeble, desultory resistance of a pagan and ignorant people against the progress of what they knew was destroying them. The finality of such a struggle could hardly be doubted, and when the tariff of 1858 allowed opium to enter by the payment of a duty, the already enfeebled moral resistance seemed to die out with the extinction of the smuggling trade in opium, now raised to a licensed commerce. The rise and course of the trade up to that year can be learned from the volumes of the Chinese Repository and newspapers issued in China.

    ‘ CMnetse RejMisitonjj Vol. \., ]ip. 546-553.

    PREPAEING THE DllFCi FOR SMOKING. 381

    The utensils used in preparing the opium for smoking, consist chiefly of three hemispherical brass pans, two bamboo filters, two portable furnaces, earthen pots, ladles, straining-cloths, and sprinklers. The ball being cut in two, the interior is taken out, and the opium adhering to or contained in the leafy covering is previously sinnnered three several times, each time using a pint of spring water, and straining it into an earthen pot; some cold water is poured over the dregs after the third boiling, and from half a cake (weighing at first about twenty-eight pounds, and with which this process is supposed to be conducted), there will be about five pints of liquid. The interior of the cake is then boiled with this liquid for about an hour, until the whole is reduced to a paste, which is spread out with a spatula in two pans, and exposed to the fire for two or three minutes at a time, till the water is driven off; during this operation it is often broken up and re-spread, and at the last drying cut across with a knife. It is all then spread out in one cake, and covered with six pints of water, being allowed to remain several hours or over night for digestion. When sufficiently soaked, a rag filter is placed on the edge of the pan, and the whole of the valuable part drips slowly through the rag into a basket lined with coarse bamboo paper, from which it falls into the other brass pan, about as much liquid going through as there was water poured over the cake. The dregs are again soaked and immediately filtered till found to be nearly tasteless ; this weaker part usually makes about six pints of liquid.

    The first six pints are then briskly boiled, being sprinkled

    with cold water to allay the heat so as not to boil over, and removing

    the scum by a feather into a separate vessel. After

    boiling twenty minutes, five pints of the weak liquid are poured

    in and boiled with it, until the whole is evaporated to about

    three pints, when it is strained through paper into another pan,

    and the remaining pint thrown into the pan just emptied, to

    wash away any portion that may remain in it, and also boiled

    a little while, when it is also strained into the three pints. The

    wliole is then placed over a slow fire in the small furnace, and

    boiled down to a pi-oper consistency for smoking ; while it is

    evaporating a ring forms around the edge, and the pan is taken

    off the fire at intervals to prolong the process, the mass being

    the while rapidly stirred with sticks, and fanned until it becomes

    like thick treacle, when it is taken out and put into small

    pots for smoking. The boxes in which it is retailed are made

    of buffalo’s horn, of such a size as easily to be carried about the

    person. The dregs containing the vegetable residuum, together

    with the scum and washings of the pans, are lastly strained and

    boiled with water, producing about six pints of thin, brownish

    licpiid, which is evaporated to a proper consistence for selling to

    the poor. The process of seething the crude opium is exceedingly

    unpleasant to those unaccustomed to it, from the overpowering narcotic fumes which arise, and this odor marks every shop where it is prepared and every person who smokes it.

    The loss in weight by this mode of preparation is about one half. The Malays prepare it in much the same manner. The custom in Penang is to reduce the dry cake made on the first evaporation to a powder, and when it is digested and again strained and evaporated, reducing it to a consistence resembling shoemaker’s wax.

    The opium pipe consists of a tube of heavy wood furnished at the head with a cup which serves to collect the residuum or ashes left after combustion; this cup is usually a small cavity in the end of the pipe, and serves to elevate the bowl to a level with the lamp. The bowl of the pipe is made of earthenware, of an ellipsoid shape, and sets down upon the hole, itself having a small rimmed orifice on the fiat side. The opium-smoker always lies down, and the impossible picture given by Davis of a ” Mandarin smoking an opium-pipe,” dressed in his official

    robe.s and sitting up at a table, becomes still more singular if the

    author ever saw a smoker at his pipe. Tying along the couch,

    lie holds the pipe, aptly called yen tsiang, i.e., ‘ smoking-pistol,’

    60 near the lamp that the bowl can be brought close up to the

    flame. A pellet of the size of a pea being taken on the end of

    a spoon-headed needle, is put upon the hole of the l)owl and set

    on fire at the lamp, and inhaled at one whiff so that none of the

    smoke shall be lost. Old smokers will retain the breath a long

    time, filling the lungs and exhaling the fumes through the nose.

    The taste of the half-lluid extract is sweetish and oily, somewhat

    like rich cream, but the smell of the burning drug is rather

    sickening. When the pipe has burned out, the smoker lies listless

    for a moment while the fumes are dissipating, and then

    repeats the process until he has spent all his purchase, or taken

    his prescribed dose. When the smoking commences, the man

    becomes loquacious, and breaks out into boisterous, silly merriment,

    which gradually changes to a vacant paleness and shrinking

    of the features, as the quantity increases and the narcotic

    acts. A deep sleep supervenes fi’om half an hour to

    three or four hours’ duration, during which tlie pulse becomes

    slower, softer, and smaller than before the debauch. No refreshment

    is felt from this sleep, when the person has become

    a victim to the habir, but a universal sinking of the .powers

    of the body and mind is experienced, and complete reckless ness of all consequences, if only the craving for more can be appeased.

    MANNER OF SMOKING OPIUM. 383

    A novice is content with one or two wliiffs, which produce vertigo, nausea, and headache, though practice enables him to gradually increase the quantity; “temperate smokers,”‘ warned by the sad example of the numerous victims around them, endeavor to keep within bounds, and walk as near the precipice as they can without falling over into hopeless ruin. In order to do this, they limit themselves to a certain quantity daily, and take it at, or soon after meals, so that the stomach may not be so much weakened. A ” temperate smoker”(though this term is like that of a tenvperate robber, who only takes sliillings from his employer’s till, or a tenvperate bloodletter, who only takes a spoonful daily from his veins) can seldom exceed a mace weight, or about as much of prepared opium as will balance a pistareen or a franc piece ; this quantity Mill fill twelve pipes. Two mace weight taken daily is

    considered an innnoderate dose, which few^ can bear fur any

    length of time ; and those who are afraid of the effects of the

    drug upon themselves endeavor not to exceed a mace. Some

    persons, who have strong constitutions and stronger resolution,

    continue the use of the drug within these limits for many

    years without disastrous effects upon their health and spirits

    though most of even these moderate smokers are so nmch the

    slaves to the habit that they feel too wretched, nerveless, and

    imbecile to go on with their business without the stimulus.

    The testimony regarding the evil effects of the use of this pernicious drug, which deserves better to be called an ” article of destruction ” than an ” article of luxury,” are so unanimous that few can be found to stand up strongly in its favor. Dr. Smith, a physician in charge of the hospital at Penang, says: “The baneful effects of this habit on the human constitution are particularly displayed by stupor, forgetfulness, general deterioration of all the mental faculties, emaciation, debility, sallow complexion, lividness of lips and eyelids, languor and lacklustre of eye, and appetite either destroyed or depraved, sweetmeats or sugar beino; the articles that are most reiished.’*

    These synq)toms appear when the habit has weakened the physical powers, but the niiliappy man soon begins to feel the power cf the drug in a general languoi- and sinking, which disables him, mentally more than bodily, from carrying on his ordinary pursuits. A dose of opium does not produce the intoxication of ardent spirits, and so far as the peace of the community and his family are concerned, the smoker is less troublesome than the drunkard; the former never throws the chairs and tables about the room, or drives his wife out of

    doors in his furious rage ; he never goes reeling through the

    streets or takes lodgings in the gutter ; but contrariwise, he is

    quiet or pleasant, and fretful only when the effects of the pipe

    are gone. It is in the insupportable languor throughout the

    whole frame, the gnawing at the stomach, pulling at the shoulders,

    and failing of the spirits that the tremendous power of

    this vice lies, compelling the *’ victimized ” slave “to seek it yet

    again.” There has not yet been opportunity to make those

    minute investigations respecting the extent opium is used

    among the Chinese, what classes of people use it, their daily

    dose, the proportion of reprobate smokers, and many other

    points which have been narrowly examined into in regai’d

    to the use of alcohol ; so that it is impossible to decide the

    (question as to which of the two is the more dreadful habit.

    These statistics have, heretofore, been impossible to obtain in

    (“hina, and it will be very difficult to obtain them, even when

    a person who may have the leisure and abilities shall undertake

    the task.

    Various means have been tried by benevolent natives to dissuade their countrymen from using it, such as distributing tracts showing its ruinous effects, compounding medicines for the smoker to take to aid him in breaking off the habit, and denouncing the smoking-shops to government. A painter at Canton made a series of admonitory pictures, showing the several steps in the downward course of the opium-smoker, until beggary and death ended the scene; one of them, showing the young debauchee at his revels, is here introduced.

    DISASTROUS EFFECTS OF THE HABIT. 385

    Manner of Smoking Opium.

    A Chinese scholar thus sums up the bad effects of opium, which, ‘le says, us taken at first to raise the animal spirits and prevent lassitude i ” It exhausts the aninuil spirits, impedes the regular performance of business, wastes the flesh and blood, dissipates every kind of property, renders the person ill-favored, promotes obscenity, discloses secrets, violates the laws, attacks the vitals, and destroys life.” Under each of these heads he lucidly shows the mode of the process, or gives examples to uphold his assertions: “In comparison with arsenic, I pronounce it tenfold the greater poison ; one swallows arsenic because he has lost his reputation, and is so involved that he cannot extricate himself. Thus driven to desperation, he takes

    the dose and is destroyed at once ; but those who smoke the

    drug are injured in many ways. It may be compared to raising

    the Avick of a lamp, which, while it increases the blaze,

    hastens the exhaustion of the oil and the extinction of the light.

    Hence, the youth who smoke will shorten their own days and

    cut off all hopes of posterity, leaving their parents and wives

    without any one on whom to depend. From the robust who

    smoke the ‘flesh is gradually consumed and worn away, and the

    skin hangs like a bag. Their faces become cadaverous and

    black, and their bones naked as billets of wood. The habitual smokers doze for days over their pipes, without appetite ; when the desire for opium comes on, they cannot resist its impulse. Mucus flows from their nostrils and tears from their eyes; their

    very bodies are rotten and putrid. From careless observers the

    sight of such objects is enough to excite loud peals of laughter.

    The poor smoker, who has pawned every article in his possession,

    still remains idle ; and when the periodical thirst comes

    on, will even pawn his wives and sell his daughters. In the

    province of Xganhwui I once saw a man named Chin, who, being

    childless, purchased a concubine and got her with child; afterward, when his money was expended and other means all failed him, being unable to resist the desire for the pipe, he sold her in her pregnancy for several tens of dollars. This money being expended, he went and hung himself. Alas, how painful was his end ! “‘

    The thirst and burning sensation in the throat which the wretched sufferer feels, only to be removed by a repetition of the dose, proves one of the strongest links in the chain which drags him to his ruin. At this stage of the habit his case is almost hopeless; if the pipe be delayed too long, vertigo, complete prostration, and discharge of M’ater from the eyes ensue; if entirely withheld, coldness and aching pains are felt over the body, an obstinate diarrhoea supervenes, and death closes the scene.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 108.

    MISERABLE CONDITION OF TTIE SMOKER. 387

    The disastrous effects di the drug are somewhat delayed or modified by the quantity of nourishing food the person can procure, and consequently it is among the poor who can least afford the pipe, and still less the injury done to their energies, that the destruction of life is the greatest. The evils suffered and crimes committed by the desperate victims of the opium pipe are dreadful and multiplied. Theft, arson, muder, and suicide are perpetrated in order to obtain it or escape its effects. Some try to break off the fatal habit by taking a tincture of the opium dirt in spirits, gradually diminishing its strength until it is left off entirely; others mix opium with tobacco and smoke the compound in a less and less proportion, until tobacco alone remains. The general belief is that the vice can be overcome without fatal results, if the person firmly resolve to forsake it and keep away from sight and smell of the pipe, laboring as much as his strength will allow in the open air until he recovers his spirits and no longer feels a longing for it. Few, very few, however, emancipate themselves from the tyrannous habit which enslaves them; they are able to resist its insidious effects until the habit has become strong, and the resolution to break it off is generally delayed until their chains are forged and deliverance felt to be hopeless.

    Swallowing opium is commonly resorted to as a means of suicide; the papers published in China constantly report cases where physi(;ians have tried to save the patient by injections of atrophine before life is gone, and the number of these applications painfully show how lightly the Chinese esteem life. A comparison is sometimes drawn between the opium-smoker and drunkard, and the former averred to be less injured by the habit; but the balance is struck between two terrible evils, both of which end in the loss of health, property, mind, influence, and life. Opium imparts no benefit to the smoker, impairs his bodily vigor, beclouds his mind, and unfits him for his station in society ; he is miserable without it, and at last dies by what he lives upon.

    The import having been legalized in 1858, under the pressure

    of war, it was useless fo.v the imperial government longer to

    prevent the cultivation of the poppy, and the growth has rapidly

    extended throughout the provinces. Since all the opium brought,

    to China reaches it through Hongkong, and the consumption upon

    that island must be comparatively insignificant, the table on the

    following page, taken from the Chinese Customs Reports, will

    convey a very fair idea of the amount and value of the import

    during the past six years.

    Although it is difficult to make a general statement regarding an import of such varying quantity and value, the average total may be safely enough put at between twelve and thirteen million pounds, the approximate value of which is something over sixty million dollars, per annum. The prices range from $540 to $580 per pecul for Benares, $740 for Malwa, $560 for Patna, $540 for Persian, and nearly $1,500 for the prepared drug. The imports of Persian and Tnrkisli, though steadily increasing, amount as yet to hardly one-fiftieth of the total. But the merest guesses can be made at the production of native opium.

    TOTAL IMPORT OF OPIUM AT HONGKONG.

    Year.

    VALUE OF THE OPIUM TRADE. 389

    do without now,” said a British minister once in a soiTOwing

    mood, as he acknowledged its evils ; l)ut there are many other

    commodities, and a survey of the native and foreign conmierce

    will exhibit the extent and variety of the resources of the Empire.

    The Chinese trade with foreign ports in native vessels is

    at present nearly extinct, in consequence of the increase of foreign

    shipping and advantages of insurance enabling the native

    trader to send and receive commodities with less risk and more

    speed than by junks. The facilities and security of commerce

    in a country are atnong the best indices of its government being

    administered, on the whole, in a tolerably just manner, and on

    those principles which give the mechanic, farmer, and merchant

    a good prospect of reaping the fruits of their industry. This

    security is afforded in China to a considerable degree—far more

    than in Western Asia—and is one of the most satisfactory proofs,

    amid all the extortions and depravity seen in their courts and

    in society at large, that the people, generally speaking, enjoy the

    rewards of industry. Tranquillity may often be owing to the

    strong arm of power, but trade, manufactures, voyages, and

    large commercial enterprises must remunerate those Mdio undertake

    them, or they cease. The Chinese are eminently a trading

    people ; their merchants are acute, methodical, sagacious, and

    enterprising, not over-scrnpulous as to their mercantile honesty

    in small transactions, but in large dealings exhibiting that regard

    for character in the fulfilment of their obligations which

    extensive commercial engagements usually produce. The roguery

    and injustice which an officer of government may commit Nvithout

    disgrace would blast a merchant’s reputation, and he undertakes

    the largest transactions with confidence, being guaranteed

    in his engagements by a combination of mercantile security and

    responsibility, which is more effectual than legal sanctions.

    These are like the rings and. guilds, the corporations, patents,

    co-operative societies, etc., which are fonn<l in Europe and America,

    and enter into nil branches of industry.

    The coasting trade is disproportionately small compared with the inland commerce ; large junks cross the seas, but smaller ones proceed crAitionsly along the coast from one headland to another, and sail chiefly by day. Their cargoes consist of rice, stockfish, vegetables, timber, poles, coal, stones, and other bulky articles. Between the unopened ports the native trade still employs thousands of small craft, whose crews know no other homes; but the progress of steam and sailing ships has gradually turned the coasting trade into foreign bottoms.

    The foreign ports now visited by Chinese junks are Singapore,

    Labuan, Borneo, IJangkok and elsewhere in Siam, Manila, Corea,

    and Japan. The cargoes carried to these places comprise

    coarse crockery, fruits, cottons, cheap silks, and metallic articles

    of great vai’iety. European goods are not brought to any great

    amount by junks, but the variety of articles of food or domestic

    use and raw materials for manufactures, known under the general

    denomination of Straits2yrodtice, is large. Rice is the chief

    import from Bangkok and Manila ; i-attans, pepper, and betelnut

    from Singapore and Borneo; biclK’-de-mer from the Sulu

    Sea. Of the amount of capital embarked iji this commerce, the

    number of vessels, the mode in which it is carried on, and the

    degree of risk attending it, little is known. It is gradually decreasing,

    and all the valuable portions are already transferred to foreign bottoms.

    The natural facilities for inland navigation in China are, as the first chapters of this work have pointed out, unusually great, and have been, moreover, improved by art for travel and transportation.

    INTERNAL TRADE AND TRANSIT DUTIES. 391

    It will be a hazardous experiment for the peace of the country to hastily supplant the swarms of boats on its rivers and canals by shallow-draught steamers and launches, and throw most of their poor and ignorant crews out of employment. The sugar, oil, and rice of the southern provinces, the tea, silk, cotton, and crockery of the eastern, the furs, grain, and medicines of the northern, and the metals and minerals of the western, are constantly going to and fro and demand myriads of boats; add thereto the immense number of governmental boats required for the transportation of salt and the taxes paid in kind, the passage-boats plying in great numbers between contiguous towns, the pleasure and cfflcial barges and revenue cutters, and lastly, the far greater number used for family residences, and the total of the inland shipping, it will be seen, imist be enormous. It is, however, impossible to state the amount in any satisfactory

    manner, or give an idea of the proportion between the different

    kinds of boats. The transit duties levied on the produce carried

    in these vessels partake of the nature of an excise duty, and

    afford a very considerable revenue to the government, the greatest

    so, probably, next to the land tax. It was estimated that

    the additional charges for transit duty and transportation on

    only those teas brought to Canton overland for exportation

    amounted to about a million of dollars. Whenever a boat loaded

    with produce passes the custom-house, the suj^ercargo presents

    his manifest, stating his name and residence, the name of the

    boat and its ci’ew, and the description of the cargo, and when

    the charges are paid proceeds on his voj-age. The tariff on

    goods at these places is light, but their number in a journey of

    any length, and the liability to imforeseen detention and exaction

    by the tidewaiters, greatly increase the expense and delay.

    Since the treaties of 1842 and 1858, the Chinese and British

    authorities have been in constant dispute about the right and

    mode of levying transit dues on foreign and native produce

    going through the country—a dispute which involves and disturbs

    the whole revenue system of the country.

    The mode of conducting the foreign trade with China now

    presents few of those peculiarities which formerl}” distinguished

    it, for the monopoly of the hong merchants and of the East India

    Company- both being abolished, native and foreign traders

    are free to choose with whom they will deal. The introduction

    of regular printed permits, clearances, and other customs blanks

    to facilitate trade, followed the treaty of 18-12, and their acceptance

    has now extended to every port. The employment of

    foreigners to conduct the details of the trade in connection with

    native officers and clerks has worked easily, and its extension

    to all commerce is gradually perfecting.

    The articles of trade are likely to increase in variety and amount, and a brief account of the principal ones, taken from the Chinese Commercial Guide, may be interesting to those unacquainted with the character of this commerce. The foreign export and import trade divides itself into two branches, that between India and the Archipelago and China, and that beyond the Isthmus of Suez ; the former comprises the greatest variety, but its total value is much less. Alum of an inferior quality is sent to India to use in dyeing, making glass, and purifying water. Aniseed stars, seeds of many sorts of anioniaiii, euhehs, and tarrtieric are all sought after for their aromatic properties. The first is the small five-rayed pod of the lUicium anisatum / the pods and seeds are both prized for their aromatic qualities, and a volatile oil, used in perfumery and medicine in Europe, is obtained from them; the Asiatics employ them in cooking, Ciihths^ the produce of a vine (d/hcha ofic/’/tah’s), are externally distinguished from black pepper chiefly by their lighter color, and a short process where the seed is attached to the stalk.

    The taste is warm or pungent and slightly bitter, with a pleasant

    aromatic smell ; the Chinese article goes to India, the consumption

    of Europe being supplied from Java. Turmeric is

    the root of the CiircuDui longa^ and is used over the Archipelago

    and India for its coloring and aromatic properties, and for

    food. The roots are uneven and knotty, of a yellowish-saffron

    color ; the smell resembles ginger, with a bitterish taste; and the

    two are usually combined in the composition of curry-powders.

    Its color is too fugacious for a dye, no mordant having yet been

    found to set it.

    Cassia and cassia oil are sent abroad in amounts far exceeding

    the whole of the preceding; cassia buds also form an article

    of commerce. Cassia oil is used for confectionery and perfumery,

    and the demand is usually much greater than the supply.

    Arsenic is exported to India for medicinal purposes, and the

    native sulphuret or orpiment is sometimes shipped under the

    Hindustani name of harfalL as a A^ellow colorinii; druij;.

    Wrist and ankle rings, known by the Hindu name of Ijangles,

    ai’e exported largely, with false pearlsj coral, and beads ; the

    Chinese imitate jade and chalcedony in their mamifacture, iu

    which the Hindus do not succeed so well. The universal use

    and brittle nature of these ornaments render their consumption

    enormous in Eastern Asia. Ilrans foil., or tinsd, is made into

    the kin hwa, or ‘golden flowers,’ M-hich are placed before

    shrines and adorn the rooms of houses, imitating bouquets and

    tableaux with cuiming art ; it is also used for coatings of toys.

    Bones and horiis are manufactured into buttons, opium-boxes,

    PRINCIPAL EXPORTS FROM CHINA. 393

    hair-pins, etc., some of which go abroad. Many kinds of use^

    fill and fancy articles are made from bamboo and rattan, and

    their export forms an item of some importance. Chairs, baskets,

    canes and umbrella handles, fishing-rods, furniture, and

    similar articles are still made in vast variety. The same may

    be said of the great assortment of articles comprised under the

    head of cui-‘tosities, as vases, pots, jars, cups, images, boxes, plates,

    screens, statuettes, etc., made of copper, iron, bronze, porcelain,

    stone, wood, clay, or lacquered-ware. During tlie last twenty

    years the native shops have been nearly cleared of the choicer

    specimens of Chinese art and skill in these various departments.

    Caj)oo)’ cutchefy, corrupted from the Hindu name Aafur.

    Jcuchri, or camphor root, is the aromatic root of the Iledychiwn,

    and also of the K(jemj)ferla ; it goes to Bombay for perfumery,

    plasters, and other medicinal ends, as well as preserving clotlies

    from insects. It is about half an inch in diameter, and cut up

    when brought to market ; it has a pungent, bitterish taste.

    Galangal is another aromatic root exported for perfumery and

    medicine. The name is probably a corruption of Kaoliang, or

    Ko-loiig, meaning ‘ mild ginger,’ from Ivauchau, in the southwest

    of Kwangtung, where the best is found. It is the dried

    root of the Alplnia qfficinarurii (liance) and other species, and

    thousands of peculs reach Europe and America, wdiere it is

    used as a cordial and tonic. There are two or three sorts ; the

    smaller is a reddish-colored root, light and firm in texture, with

    an acrid, peppery taste.

    The larger is from a different plant (Kmmpferia galanga), and inferior in every respect. Both are used as spicery, and the powder is mixed in tea among the Tartars, and to flavor a liquor called nastoihi drank in Russia. All the plants whose roots have the aromatic sliai’p taste of ginger are prized by the Chinese. China-7’oot is a commercial name applied to two different products, for which the native namefuh-ling rather misleads.

    One is the root of Smilax China, a vine-like dodder in appearance ; it is a knotty and jointed brown tuber, white and starchy when cut, and sweetish. The other is a curious fungus(Pachyma) produced by fir roots apparently as it is found under that tree. The article is whitish and reddish when cut, ])itter isli and sharp to the taste, and eaten hot as a stomachic in rice-cakes where it is cheap. It is similar to the Indian bread, oi tuck-ahoo, of the Carolinas.

    The exportation of porcelain and ch’uiaware, which was so

    great last century, dimiiushed as European skill produced finer

    sorts at cheaper rates, and ceased altogether about twenty-five

    years ago, when the Tai-ping rebellion dispersed the workmen

    in Kingteh chin. Since the peace, those kilns have resumed

    work, and the demand for their finest pieces has arisen once

    more from western lands, so that China bids fair to regain her

    original reputation. She still supplies most parts of Asia with

    coarse stoneware and crockery for domestic use. Glue of a

    tolerabl}’ good quality, made from ox-hides, supplies the Chinese

    and furnishes an article for export to India. IsinglasSy or

    fisli-ii;lue, is nuide from the sounds and noses of sturo;eons and

    other sorts of fish, as the bynni carp, or l^oli/neniiis ^ it is used

    in sizing silk and in cookery, as well as in manufacturing of

    India-ink, water-colors, and false pearls.

    A kind of parasol, made of oiled paper, or silk called /i/'(tt/^ol {i.e., (juitte sol), is exported to India ; the article is durable, considering its material, and its cheapness induces a large consumption.

    Tobacco, one of the most widely cultivated plants in China (for men, women, and children smoke), is also sent to the Indian Islands in considerable quantity, for use among the natives. Ware made from ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-o’-pearl, and gold and silver constitutes altoo-ether a considerable item in the trade, for the beautiful c;irving of the Chinese always commands a market. The workmen easily imitate new patterns for boxes, combs, and buttons of mother-o’-pearl or tortoiseshell, while the cheapness and beauty with which silver table furniture is made cause a large demand. Lacqtiered-icare is not so much sent abroad now as fornuM-ly, the foreign imitations of the trays and tables having nearly superseded the demand, for the Chinese ware. Marhle dahn of a clouded lilue limestone are wrought out in Kwangtung province for floors, and some go abroad ; square tiles are used everywhere for pavements, roofing, brick stoves, and drains. In the southern provinces they are well biii-iied and make serviceable floors.

    PRINCIPAL EXPORTS FROM CHINA. 395

    2Iats of rattan for table furniture, and of grass for floors, are

    all made by liand. The latter is manufactured of two or three

    sorts of grass in different widths and patterns, and though the

    amount annually sent to the United States and elsewhere exceeds

    five million yards, it forms a very small proportion to the home

    consumption. Floor matting is put up in rolls containing

    twenty mats, or forty yards. Musi; though still in demand, is

    often and much adulterated, or its quality impaired by disease.

    It comes in bags about as large as a walnut; when good, it is of a dark purplish color, dry and light, and generally in concrete, smooth, and unctuous grains; its taste is bitter and smell strong; when rubbed on paper the trace is of a bright yellow color, and the feel free from grittiness. A brown unctuous earth is sometimes mixed with it, and the bags are frequently artificial; the

    price is about forty-five dollars a pound for the best quality.

    Nanl’eeii is a foreign name given to a kind of reddish cotton

    cloth manufactured near Xanking and Tsungming Island ; it was

    once largely exported, but the product has now nearly ceased.

    It is the most durable kind of cotton cloth known, and its excellence

    always repays the cultivator. The opening of the country

    to foreigners, and the disorders ensuent on the Tai-ping rebellion,

    altered the character of the silh trade. The loss of capital

    and dispersion of workmen in the vicinity of Canton nearly

    destroj’ed the export of raw silk and piece-goods formerly made

    at Fatshan, and the pongees once woven there are seldom seen.

    The elegant crape shawls and scarfs, gauzes and checked lustrings, satins and lining silks, which were sent abroad from Canton, have all dwindled away. Raw silk makes the bulk of the export, amounting to over a hundred thousand bales, of which nearly two-thirds goes to Great Britain. The annual average for the six years ending 1860 was seventy-eight thousand five hundred bales ; in 1836 it was twenty-one thousand the price of the best sorts was about five hundred and fifty dollars a pecul. Silk goods are exported to the annual value of about two million taels ; they consist chiefly of gauzes, pongees, handkerchiefs, scarfs, sarsnet, senshaws, levantines, and satins; ribbons, sewing-thread, and organzine, or thrown silk, are not much shipped. The silk trade is more likely to increase than any other branch of the commerce, after tea, and the Chinese can furnish ahnost any amount of raw and manufactured silks, according to the demand for them. Soij is a name derived from the Japanese sho-ya • it is made by boiling the beans of the Dol’ichos soja, adding an equal quantity of wheat or barley, and leaving the mass to ferment; a laj^er of salt and three times as much water as beans are afterward put in, and the whole compound stirred daily for two months, when the liquid is pressed and strained. Another method of making the condiment has already been mentioned in Volume I., p. 365.

    Besides the articles above-mentioned, there are many others which singly form very trifling items in the trade, but their total exportation annually amounts to man}^ lacs of dollars. Among them fire-crackers, and straw braid Moven in Shantung from a variety of wheat, are both sent to the United States. Among other sundries, vermilion, gold leaf, amber, sea-shells, preserved insects, fans, ginger, sweetmeats and jellies, rhubarb, gamboge, camphor, grass-cloth, artificial flowers, insect wax, fishing-lines, joss-sticks, spangles, window-blinds, vegetable tallow, and pictures arc the most deserving of mention. Some of them may perhaps become important articles of commerce, and all of them, except vermilion, gamboge, and i-attans, are the produce of the countiy.

    The inq)orts make a much longer list than the exports, for almost everything that should or might sell there is from time to time offered in the market ; and if the Chinese at Canton had had any inclination or curiosity to obtain the productions or manufactures of other lands, they have had no want of specimens. It will only be necessary to mention articles of import whose names are not of themselves a sufficient description. ()})ium, rice, raw cotton, long cloths, domestics and sheetings among manufactured cottons, ginseng, tin, lead, bar, rod, and hoop iron, and woolen goods, constitute the great bulk of the import trade. Rice is brought from southern islands, and a bounty used to be paid on its importation into Canton by taking oft” the tonnage dues on shi})s laden with this alone—a bonus of about three thousand dollars on a large vessel.

    IMPORTS FROM THP] ARCHIPELAGO. 397

    The importations from the Indian Aix’liipelago comprise a large variety of articles, though their total amount and value

    are not very great. Ayar-ayar, or ayal-agal, is the Malay name

    for the Plocarla tena,i\ Gnicillarla^ and other sorts of seaweed ;

    it is boiled and clarified to make a vegetable glue which is

    largely employed in lantern and silk manufacture instead of

    isinglass ; it is also made into a jelly, but the seaweed {Lalnihiarla)

    from Japan has supplanted it. Betel-nut is the fruit of

    the areca palm, and is called hetel-nat because it is chewed with

    the leaf of the betel pepper [Chavlca) as a masticatory. The nut

    is the only part brouglit to China, the leaf being raised along

    the southern coast ; it resembles a nutmeg in shape and color,

    is a little larger, and the whole of the nut is chewed. They

    are boiled or eaten raw, the former being cut into slices and

    boiled with a small quantity of cutcli and then dried. Those

    brought to China are simply deprived of the husk and dried.

    AVhen chewed, a slice of the nut is wrapped in the fresh leaf

    smeared with a mixture of gambler or shell-lime colored red,

    and the whole masticated to a pulp before spitting it out. The

    teeth become dark red from using it, but the Chinese are careful

    to remove this stain. The taste of the fresh pepper leaf is

    herbaceous and aromatic with a little pungency, and those who

    chew have it seldom out of their mouths ; the habit is not

    general where the fresh leaf cannot be obtained.

    Birlie-(h-iiiei\ i.e., slug of the sea, or tripang, is a marine gasteropod {Ilolothui’la) resembling, when alive, a crawling sausage more than anything else ; it is sometimes over a foot long and two or three inches through ; it inhabits the shallow waters around the islands of the Pacific and Indian Archipelago, and is obtained by diving or spearing, and prepared by cleansing and smokirjg it. In the market it appears hard and rigid, of a dirty brown color ; when soaked in water it resembles porkrind, and when stewed is not unlike it in taste. The Chinese distinguish nearly thirty sorts of hal sung—’sea ginseng;’ in commerce, however, all are known as white or black, the prices ranging from two dollars up to eighty dollars a pecul.

    Birds’ nests., sJiarks\ti)is, and JisJi-uKUrs are three other articles of food prized by Chinese epicures for their supposed stimidating quality, and they readily fetch high prices. The tii’st is the nest of a species of swallow {Collocalia)^ which makes the gelatinous fibres from its own crop out of the seaweed (Gelidlum) it feeds on. These nests resemble those of the chinmey swallow in shape, and are collected in most dangerous places along the cliffs and caves in the Indian Islands.

    The article varies from thirty dollars to three dollars a pound, and its total import is hardly five hundred peculs a year. The taste of the Chinese for the gelatinous fins and stomachs of the shark aids in clearing the seas of that ferocious fish even as far as the Persian Gulf. The soup nuide from the fins resembles that from isinglass, and is worthy of acceptance on other tables. Amhe?’ is found on various eastern shores, along the Mozambique coast, in the Indian Islands, and localities in Annam and Yunnan. The consumption for court beads and other ornaments is great, and shows that the supply is permanent, for none is brought from Prussia. The Chinese use the powder of amber in their high-priced medicines. Their artists have also learned to imitate it admirably in a variety of articles made of copal, shell-lac, and colophony.

    The hezoars, or biliary calculi from ruminating and other animals, always find a ready market in China for drugs ; that from the cow is most prized, and is often imitated with pipeclay and ox-gall mixed with hair, or adulterated by the camel bezoar. The Mongols prize these substances very highly ; the pure goat and cow bezoars are ground for paints by the Cantonese.

    Outeh, or terra japonica, is a gummy resin, obtained from a species of areca palm and the Acacia catechu, and was for a long time supposed to be a sort of earth found in Japan ; it is called aotc/i from the Ilunn of Cutch, near which the tree grows. The best is fi-iable between the fingers, is of a reddish-brown color, and used in China as a dye. There are two kinds, black andjf>«Zd y the former is made by boiling the heartwood of the acacia and putting the resin into snutll cakes ; it is now brought in small quantities, as gambler has supplanted it.

    IMPORTS FROM THE ARCHIPELAGO, 399

    Rose-maloes, corruj)ted from rasaiiiala, the Javanese name of the Altingia excelsa^ is a liquid storax obhined from the Styrax ; it is a scented gummous oil (tf the consistency of tar, and is 1)ronglit from Bombay to China for medicine. Guruhemoin, or henjamin, is one of the gnm-resiiis brouglit from abroad, and highly prized by Chinese doctors; its Chinese name indicates that it came from Partliia ; but it is collected from the Styrax henzoin in Snmatra and Borneo by making incisions in the bark in much the same manner as opium, until the plant withers and dies. It comes to market in cakes, which in some parts of those islands formerly served as standards of value.

    Good benzoin is full of clear light-colored spots, marbled on the broken surface, and giving off an agreeable odor when heated or rubbed ; ‘it is the frankincense of the far East, and has been employed by many nations in their religious ceremonies; for what was so acceptable to the worshippers was soon inferred to be equally grateful to the gods, and sought after by all devotees as a delightful perfume. The quantity of benzoin imported is, however, small, and the Arabian frankincense, or olihanion, is more commonly seen in the market, and is employed for the same purposes. This gum-resin exudes from the Boswellia thurifera cultivated in Coromandel; the drops have a pale reddish color, a strong and somewhat unpleasant smell, a pungent and bitterish taste, and when chewed give the saliva a milky color ; it burns with a pleasant fragrance and slight residuum. Dragon”s hlood is probably an equivalent of the Chinese name lung-yen hiang, given to this resin from its coming to market in lumps formed from the agglutinated tears.

    It is the gummy covering of the seeds of a rattan palm (D(jemonoroj)S draco) common in Sumatra, which is separated by shaking them in a basket or bag ; an inferior sort is made by boiling the nuts. It is used in varnishing, painting, and medical preparations. ‘

    Cloves are consumed but little by the Chinese, and mostly in expressing an oil which forms an ingredient in condiments and medicines, like the oil of peppermint made by themselves. Pepper is much more used than cloves, the tea being considered beneficial in fevers ; the good effects as a febrifuge seem to be doubted lately, for the importation is only twenty thousand peculs, not one-half what it was fifty years ago.

    Barooa camj^hor is still imported from Borneo, the people supposing that the drops and lumps found in the fissures of the tree (Dryohalanops) in that island are more powerful than their own gum; the proportion between the two, both in price and quantity, is about eighteen to one.

    Gamhier is obtained from the gambier vine {Uncar’ai) by boiling the leaves and inspissating the decoction ; a soapy substance of a brownish-yellow color remains, which is both chewed with betel-nut and forms a good and cheap material for tanning and dyeing. Putchuch is the root of a kind of thistle {Aio’I.-landla) cultivated in Cashmere ; it comes in dry, brown, broken pieces, resembling rhubarb in color and smell, and affording an agreeable perfume when burned ; the powder is employed in making; incense-sticks and the thin shaviiiics mixed in medicines.

    Cornelians, agates, and other stones of greater or less value are purchased by the Chinese for manufacturing into official insignia, rings, beads, and other articles of ornament; they are brought chiefly from India or Central Asia. 8eed jpearls^ to the amount of three hundred thousand dollars, are annually brought from Bombay to Canton, where they are run on strings to be worn in ladies’ head-dresses ; coral is also a part of cargoes from the Archipelago. Mother-of-pearl shells and tortoise-shell are brought from the same region and the Pacific islands, Muscat, and Bombay, a large part of which is re-exported in the shape of buttons, combs, and other productions of Chinese skill.

    ‘ The elegant plumage of the tiirquois kingfisher and some other birds is aiso worked into ornaments and head-dresses.

    GEMS, IVORY, AND WOODS IMPORTED. 401

    Jvorij still comes from Africa via Bombay, and ^Nfalaysia, mostly from Bangkok ; the fossil ivory of Siberia has furnished the material for the inlaid tables of Ningbo ; but the cost of fine ivory has prevented the manufacture of many articles once common at Canton. Rhinoceros’ horns are all brought to China to be carved into ornaments, or served in remedies and tonics.’ But the principal use of these horns is in medicine and for amulets, for only one good cup can be carved from the end of each horn ; the parings and fragments are carefully preserved to serve for the other purposes. The teeth of the sperm whale, walrus, lamantine, and other phocine animals, form an article of import in limited quantities under the designation of ” sea-horse teeth; ” these tusks weigh from sixteen to forty ounces, their ivory being nearly as compact though not so white as that of the elephant.

    Several kinds of wood are brought for cabinet and inlaid work, medical preparations, and dyeing. Among these are ebomj and cainagon {^inao tsz’), both obtained from species of Diosjr//ros growing in India and Luzon ; they are often very cleverly imitated by covering teak and other hard woods with a black stain.

    Galiru icood—also called eagle oragila wood (Aquilaria)—furnishes the calambak timber, highly prized for its perfume ; the diseased heart-Avood of this tree is the precious aloes wood, the lign aloes of the Bible.’ Among dye-stuffs the laka wood (^Tanarius) from Sumatra, mangrove bark, sapan wood {Coesal2>ini(i), and redwood are important articles; the imports of sandal wood for incense, rosewood, satin wood, amboyna or knot wood, camphor and hranjee are employed in various ways for junks, buildings, and furniture.

    The greater facilities of trade with foreign countries since 1860 have vastly enlarged the list of imports and exports, and brought many new and useful articles within reach of the natives living far from the ports. In their fear and ignorance the Chinese associated everything dreadful with the name and coming of those whom they called devils and barbarians, and knew chiefly in connection, with war and opium. By degrees,

    however, they are learning the benefits of a wider commercial

    as well as intellectual intercourse. One of the ]nost notable

    among the imports, which carries with it something of this

    broadening influence, is kerosene; the traveller in China, as well

    as in Algeria, Greece, and Egypt, can hardly fail to note with

    interest the multitude of benefits arising from the introduction

    of a cheap and brilliant lamp into a house whose only light

    before has been a water-lamp or tallow candle. Electric lighting

    is now employed in certain of the foreign settlements, and will

    doubtless become as popular in the far East as among Western

    nations. It is needless, however, to enumerate the novelties in

    which the Chinese are constantly urged and tempted to invest.

    The mode of conducting the trade is described in the author’s

    ‘ Chinese Commercial Guides Fifth Edition, p. 106.

    Chinese Ccmimercial Guide (fifth edition, Ilonglcong, 1863), which contains the treaties, tariffs, regulations, etc., of other nations as well as of China. A peculiar feature of this trade is the fact that the natives have always conducted it in English,—that is, they do business in the jargon called jrlyeon-English, whose curious formation has already received some attention in a previous chapter. The Chinaman using it deems no sentence complete until it contains the same number of words and in thensame idiom as its equivalent phrase in his own language. A sample of this hybrid lingo, with its melange of Chinese, Portuguese, and Malay words and grammatical constructions, may

    not be out of place here. We will suppose a shopkeeper is

    soliciting custom from a foreigner : ” My chin-chin you,” he

    says, “one good fleen [friend], tahe care for \ny [patronize me];

    ‘spose you wanchee any first chop ting, my can catch ee for you

    [obtain]. I secure sell ’em plum cash [prime cost], alia same

    cumsha [present] ; can do ?” The foreigner, with great gravity,

    replies : ” Just now my no wanchee anyting ; any teem [time]

    ‘spose you got vel}’^ number one good ting, p’rhaps I come you

    shop look see.” After hearing for a few days such sentences,

    the foreigner begins to imitate them, soon learning to adapt his

    speech to his interlocutor’s, and thus perpetuating the jargon.

    Other nationalities are also obliged to learn it, and the whole

    trade is conducted in this meagre gibberish, which the natives

    suppose, however, to be correct English, but which hardly enables

    the two parties to exchange ideas upon even household

    subjects. Much of the misunderstanding and trouble experienced

    in daily intercourse with the Chinese is doubtless owing

    to this iniperfect medium.’

    The trade at the five ports opened by the treaty of Nanking

    in 1842 was conducted by native custom-house officers,

    as it had been previously at Canton, but under regulations

    which insured more honesty and efficiency. In lSr>;>, however,

    the capture of Shanghai by insurgents throw tlic whole trade

    into such confusion that the collector, who had been formerly

    ‘ Mr. Scluiyler mentions hearing some Chinese residents at Vierny speaking” pigeon-Kiissian.” Tiirkt)it(tii,\o\. If., p. 147.

    PRESENT MANAGEMENT OF TRADE IN CHINA. 403

    A mongrel with the Russian officers ol the post, which might be called a Hang merchant at Canton, called in the aid of foreigners to carry on his duties. A trio of inspectors was nominated for this purpose by tlie British, American, and French ministers from their nationalities ; and so well did it work in honestly collecting the revenue for the imperial coffers, that when the city was recaptured the system was made permanent for that port. In the negotiations growing out of the treaties of Tientsin in 1858, the Chinese government felt so much confidence in the feasibility of the plan, that it was extended to all the ports and placed under the entire control of an inspector-general.

    By thus utilizing the experience and integrity of foreign employes in carrying on this important branch of its administration, the rulers broke through their long seclusion and isolation, and opened the way for removing the impediments to their own progress in every branch of polity.

    The following tables, compiled or abridged from the so-called

    ” Yellow Books,” or Trade Reports, issued by the Imperial

    Maritime Customs, will furnish a general idea of the foreign

    trade with China and some statistics concerning its domestic

    commerce. It is hardly necessary to add, however, that concerning

    the latter when unconnected with foreigners, there are

    almost no figures of value attainable. The Ilaihwan tael^ it

    may be well to repeat, is valued at $1.36|^, or 5s. Qh,d. The

    jpecul weighs 133| pounds.

    ANNUAL VALUE OF THE FOREIGN TRADE OF CHINA. 1871 TO 1881.

    Ybab.

    CUSTOMS REVENUE, 1871 TO 1881.

    Year.

    1871

    1872

    1873

    1874

    1875

    1876

    1877

    1878

    1879

    1880

    1881

    Duties on Native Produce

    Exported to—

    Foreign Countries.

    Ilk. Tls.

    5,246,467

    5,840,261

    4,978,179

    5,535,041

    5,640,062

    5,772,709

    5,703,321

    5,803,485

    5,958,176

    6,696,290

    6,869,486

    Chinese Ports.

    Ilk. Th.

    138,116

    099,724

    158,938

    147,686

    291,923

    222,860

    140,442

    306,118

    426,894

    572,392

    460,182

    Total Revenue fkom—

    Foreign Trade. Home Trade. TotaL

    Ilk. Tls.

    9,508,972

    10,029,050

    9,238,675

    9,775,743

    10,030,226

    10,318,631

    10,356,415

    10,.524,811

    11,391,329

    11,899,995

    12,494,889

    Ilk. Tls.

    1,707,174

    1,649,-586

    1,738,407

    1,721,529

    1,937,S83

    1,834,290

    l,710,()ti3

    1,956,177

    2,140,341

    2,3.58,588

    2,190,273

    Ilk. Tls.

    11,216,146

    11,()7S,636

    10,977,083

    11,497,273

    11,968,109

    12,152,921

    12,067,078

    12,483,988

    13,.53 1,670

    14,2.58,583

    14,685,163

    EXPORT OF TEA FROIM CHINA DURING TEN YEARS.

    Ybar.

    TRADE STATISTICS. 405

    EXPORT OF NATIVE CHINESE GOODS TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES,

    1880 AND 1881.

    Description of Goods.

    Silk, all kinds
    Tea, all kinds
    Bags, all kinds
    Bamboo, all kinds
    Beans and beancake
    Cassia lignea\ Camphor \ Chinaware and pottery\ Coal\ Clothing, boots, and shoes\Cotton, raw and waste\Cnrios
    Dyes, colors, and paints
    Fans, all kinds\Fish, provisions, and vegetables\Fire-crackers\Flour, grain, and pulse\Fruits, all kinds
    Grasscloth
    Hemp

    Hides and hoops

    Indigo

    Lung-ngans

    Mats and matting

    Medicines

    Metals, manufactured

    Metals, unmanufactured

    Nankeens and wool

    Nutgalls and preserves

    Oil, all kinds

    Paper, books, tin, and brass foil

    Rattans and rattanware

    Rhubarb

    Skins, all kinds

    Straw braid

    Sugar, white, brown, candy…

    Tobacco

    Vermicelli and macaroni

    Sundries, unenumerated ClasKifier of Quantity.

    1880. 1881.

    Peculs.

    Pieces.

    Value.

    Peculs.

    Value.

    Peculs.

    Value.

    Peculs.

    Pieces.

    Peculs.

    Pieces.

    Peculs.

    Total value.

    Pieces.

    Peculs.

    Value.

    Quantity 114,831 3,097,119 749, S83 154,645 38,785 12,337 75,143

    161 30,315 Value. Quantity.676 6,387,989 68,940 37,051 149,394 73,720 1,1S5 19,548 30,786 3,847 8,080 384,680 S8,676i 14,284 217

    6,511 47,690 3,692

    43,581

    2,085

    6,153

    344.193

    48,970

    1,138,196 19,077 26,991 Bk. Tls. 1 29,831,444 35,728,169 *20,555 74,597 159,996 225,692 100,679 379,574 34 337, .548

    182.918 44,948

    3,196 38,881

    165,922 260,010

    139,653 92,913

    104,719 160,602

    2.53,.548 13,768;

    34,669′ 533,027 i

    194,451

    147,405 i

    8751

    122,815

    432,774

    70,295

    .512,720 8.975 212,.537 152,486 1,227,670 3,263,889 167,931 13.5,432 2,366,290 Vahie. 77,883,587

    CHAPTER XXI.  FOREIGN INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA

    The most important notices which the research of authors had collected respecting the intercourse between China and the West, and the principal facts of interest of a political and commercial nature down to the year 1834, are carefully arranged in the first three chapters of Sir John Davis’ work.’ In truth, the terms intercourse and ambassies, so often used with reference to the nations of Eastern Asia, indicate a peculiar state of relations with them ; for while other courts send and receive resident ministers, those of China, Japan, Corea, and Cochinchina liav^e until very recently kept themselves aloof from this national interchange of civilities, neither understanding its principles nor appreciating its advantages. Embassies have been sent by most European nations to the two first, which have tended rather to strengthen their assumptions of supremacy than to enlighten them as to the real objects and wishes of the courts proposing such courtesies. The commercial intercourse has, like the political, either been forced upon or begged of these governments, constantly subject to those vexatious restrictions and interruptions which might be expected from such ill-defined arrangements; and though mutually advantageous, has never been conducted on those principles of reciprocity and equality which characterize commerce at the West. As yet, the rulers and merchants of oriental nations are hardly well enough acquainted with their own and others’ rights to be able or willing

    ^ The Chinese, 2 Vols., Harper’s Family Library, 1837. See also Murray’s China, Vol. I., 1848. Montgomery Martin’s Chiu(t, passim, 1847. Memoires conr. les Chino/K, Tome V., pp. 1-23. T. W. Kingsmill in iV’. C. Br. M. A.Soc. Jourml, N. S., No. XIV., 1879.

    ISOLATION AND SUSPICION OF THE CIIIXESE. 407

    to enter into close relations with European powers. Both magistrates

    and people are ignorant and afraid of the resources, power,

    and designs of Christian nations, and consequently disinclined

    to admit them or their subjects to unrestrained intercourse.

    When western adventurers, as Pinto, Andrade, Wcddell, and

    others came to the shores of China and Japan in the sixteenth

    and seventeenth centuries, they found the governments disposed

    to traffic, but the conquests subsequently made by Europeans in the neighboring regions of Lu9onia, Java, and India, and their cruel treatment of the natives, led these two powers to apprehend like results for themselves if they did not soon take precautionary measures of exclusion and restriction.

    Nor can there be much doubt that this policy was the safest measure, in order to preserve their independence and maintain their authority over even their own subjects. Might made right more generally among nations then than it does now, and the belief entertained by most Europeans at that period, that all pagan lands belonged justly to the Pope, only wanted men and means to be everywhere carried into effect. Had the Chinese and Japanese governments allowed Portuguese, Spanish, French, and English colonists to settle and increase within their borders, they would, probably, long since have crumbled to pieces and their territories have been possessed by others.

    The data brought together by Davis in 1838 on this subject has since been enlarged and illustrated by Col. Yule in his admirable ” Preliminary Essay ” of 18GG, prefixed to ddJiay and the Way Thither, and by Richthofen, the latter half of whose first volume on China is devoted to an exhaustive treatise upon the ” Development of the Knowledge of China.” ‘ A digest of these elaborate works would be too long for our purpose here,

    ‘ China, Ergehnisse eigener Beisen und darnvf gegriindeter Studien, Berlin,1877. This author’s arrangement of the subject into ” Periods ” is as follows :

    I.—Legendary notices of intercourse before the year 1122 B.C.
    II.—From the accession of the Chans to the building of the Great Wall (1122-213 B.C.).
    III.—From the building of the Great Wall to the accession of the Tangs (212B.C.-619 A.D.).
    IV.—From the Tangs to the Mongols (619-1205).
    V.—From the rise of the Mongol power to the arrival of the Portuguese in China (1205-1517).
    VI. —From the arrival of the Portuguese to the present time.

    where only the most interesting points can be noticed. The first recorded knowledge of China among the nations of the West does not date further hack than the geographer Ptolemy, a.d. 150, who seems himself to have Ijeeii indebted to the Tyrian author Marinus. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, however, refers to the same land under the name ©Iv, or 77iin, at perhaps an earlier date. Previous to this time, moreover, accounts of the existence of the land of Confucius, and an appreciation and demand for the splendid silks made there, had reached Persia, judging from the legends found in its writers alluding to ancient w^ars and embassies with China, in which the country, the government, people, and fabrics are invested with a halo of power and wealth which has not yet entirely vanished. These legends strengthen the conclusion that the Prophet Isaiah has the first mention now extant of the FloMcry Land under theimmeSinujK

    The interchange of the initial in China, Thina or Tina, and Sitia ought to give no trouble in identifying the land, for such changes in pronunciation are still common in it ; e.g., Chun-cha^b fu into Tlt-chiu hu.

    The Periphis of Ari-ian places the city of Thina perhaps as far east as Si-ngan, but too vaguely to be relied on ; that great city must certainly have then been known, however, among the trader’s of Central Asia, who probably were better acquainted with its geography than the authors who have survived them. Under the term Seres the Chinese are more clearly referred to at even an earlier date than Sina, and among the Latin writers it was about the only term used, its association with the silks brought thence keeping it before them. The two names were used for different regions,’ the Seres being understood as lying to the north. Mela places them between the Lidians and Scythians; Ptolemy calls the country Seriee and the capital Sera, but regarded them as distinct from the Slna>, precisely as a Chinese geograplier might confuse Britain and England. He says there

    ‘ The diflFerent appellations soeiu to have been employed according as it was

    regarded as the terminus of a southern sea route for a journey across the continent.

    In the former aspect the name has nearly always beim some form of

    Sin, (Jhiii, Hinjc, Cliina ; in the latter, to the ancients as the land of the Seres,

    to the middle ages as the Empire of Catlxnj.—Yule.

    EARLIEST NOTICES OF CHINA. 409

    was a long and dangerous land route leading to Sera through

    Persia to Bactria, over mountain deiiles and perilous patlis,

    wliicli occupied the largest part of a year. Besides Ptolemy,

    there are notices by Pliny of the Seres, and these two authors

    furnished their successors with most of their knowledge down

    to the reign of Justinian. Col. Yule concisely summarizes the

    knowledge of China down to that date among the Romans:” The region of the Seres is a vast and populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the limits of the habitable world; and extending west nearly to Imaus and the confines of Bactria.

    The people are civilized men, of mild, just, and frugal temper; eschewing collisions with their neighbors, and even shy of close intercourse, but not averse to dispose of their own products, of

    which raw silk is the staple, but which include also silk stuffs,

    furs, and iron of remarkable quality.” lie further explains how

    authors writing at Pome and Constantinople were quite unable

    to traverse and rectify what was said of the marts and nations

    spoken of in the farthest East, and place them with any precision.

    They wei”e, in truth, in the same difficulty in coming to an accurate

    conclusion that the Chinese geographer Sen Ki-yu was when writing at Fulichau in 1847 ; he could not explain the discrepancies he found between llhodes and its colossus and Rhode Island in the United States.

    Among the marts mentioned in the various authors, Greek,

    Roman, and Persian, only a few can be identified with even fair

    ])robability. The ” Stone Tower ” of Ptolemy seems to have

    denoted Tashl-eiul, a name of the same meaning, and a town

    still resorted to for trade. His port of Cattigara may have

    l)een a mart at the mouth of the Meinani, the Meikon, the Chu

    Kiang, or some other large stream in that region, where seafaring

    people could exchange their wares with the natives, then

    quite independent of the Chinese in Shensf, who were known

    to him as Seres. Cattigara is more probably to be looked for

    near Canton, for its annals state that in the reign of 11wan ti

    (a.d. 147-168) ” Tienchuh (India), Ta-tsin (Rome, Egypt or

    Arabia), and other nations came by the southern sea with

    tribute, and from this time trade was carried on at Canton with

    foreigners.” During the same dynasty (the Eastern Han), foreigners came from Cantoo, Lu-li\vaiig-clii, and other nations in the south. The nearest was about ten days’ journey, and the farthest about iive months’.’

    On the hind frontier, the Chinese annals of the Ilan dynasty

    record the efforts of Wu ti (b.c. 140-86) to open a communication

    with the Yuehchi, or Getji?, who liad driven out the Greek

    rulers in Bactria and settled themselves north of the lliver Oxns,

    in order to get their help against his enemies the Huns. He

    sent an envoy, Chang Kiang, in 135, who was captured by the

    Iluns and kept prisoner for ten j^ears, when he escaped with

    some of his attendants and got to Ta-wan, or Ferghana, and

    thence reached the Yuehchi further south. He was unsuccessful

    in his mission, and attempted to return home through

    Tibet, but was re-taken by the Huns, and did not succeed in

    reporting himself at Chang-an till thirteen years had elapsed.

    The introduction of the vine into China is rather doubtfully

    ascribed to this brave envoy.

    De Guignes concludes that this notice about trade at Canton

    refers to the embassy sent in a.d. IGG by the Emperor Marcus

    Aurelius (whom the Chinese call An-tun), which entered China

    by the south at Tongking, or Canton. The Latin author Florus,

    who lived in Trajan’s reign, about fifty years before, has a passage

    showing, as proof of the universal awe and veneration in

    which the power of Rome was held under Augustus, that ambassadors

    fi-om the remotest nations, the Seres and the Indians,

    came with presents of elephants, gems, and pearls—a rhetorical

    exaggeration quite on a par with tlie Chinese account of the

    tribute sent from An-tun, and not so well authenticated.

    AVhether, indeed, the Ta-tsin kwoh mentioned by Chinese writers

    meant Judea, Home, or Persia, cannot now be exactly ascertained,

    though Yule concludes that this name almost certainly

    means the Roman Empire, otherwise called the Kingdom

    of the Western Sea. The title was given to these regions be

    cause of the analogy of its people to those of the Middle King-

    ‘ Chinese Eeiiository, I., p. 365. Heeren, Addtir Ri’HeairhcH, IT., pp. 285-295.

    Murray’s China, I., p. 141. Yulo’s Cathay, Vol. I., pp. xli-xlv. Smith,

    Claaskal Dictionary, Art. SicuES.

    INTERCOUIlSK RKTWKEX MOMV. AXD CHINA. 411

    dom.’ The envoys sent to tliut coiintiT repoi-ted that ” beyond

    the territoi-y of the Tuu-slii (perhaps tlie Persians) there was

    a great sea, by wliicli, sailing; (hie west, one might arrive at tlie

    country where tlie sun sets.” like most attempts of the kind

    in subsequent days, the mission of Antoninus appears to liave

    been a faihn-e, and to have returned without accomplishing

    any practical benefit to intercourse or trade between the two

    greatest empires in the world. It was received, no doubt, at

    Lohyang, then the capital, with ostentatious show and patronizing

    kmdness, and its occurrence inscribed in the national i-ecords

    as another evidence of the glory and fame of the Son of

    Heaven. That a direct trade between Home and China did

    not result at this period may have been largely due to the

    jealousy of the Parthian merchants, who reaped great profits

    as middle-men in the traffic, and disposed of their own woven

    and colored stuffs to the Romans, all of which gain they knew

    would have passed over their heads had the extreme East and

    West come into more intimate relations.

    It is worthy of observation how, even from the earliest times,

    the traffic in the rich natural and artificial productions of India

    and China has been the great stimulus to urge adventurers to

    come from Europe, who on their part offered little in exchange

    besides precious metals. The Scrk-a ‘vestls, whether it was a

    silken or cotton fabric, and other rarities found in those regions,

    bore such a high price at Pome as to tempt the merchants to

    undertake the longest journeys and undergo the greatest hardships

    to procure them ; and such was the case likewise during

    the long period before the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope.

    The existence of this trade early enabled the Xestorian missionai’ies

    to penetrate into those remote regions, and keep up a

    communication with their patrons at home ; the more extended

    ‘ Cathay and iJie Way Thilher, p. Ivi. Klaproth, Tahleanx IIistoriqne>i de

    VAsie (Paris, 182G), p. 68. So Richtliofen {China, Bd. I., p. 470), who adds : ” It

    is accepted now, by almost all those who have written on the subject, that the

    Chinese by Ta-tsin meant to denote ‘Great-China,’ and through this, on the

    other hand, we have a proof that the Chinese called their own country Ti^in.

    It will hardly do, however, to suppose that so prejudiced a people as they would recognize another folk as greater. The; appellation Ta (great) is given, to every nation whoso power the Chinese feel to be considerable.” voyages of modern comniorce likewise assist benevolent poisons in reaching the remotest tribes and carrying on their labors, through their patrons on the other side of the world, probably with less danger and delay than a mission at Cadiz could have been directed from Jerusalem in the days of the apostles.

    The notices in Cosmas (a Greek monk who had been a merchant,

    and wrote his ” Universal Christian Topography” between

    530 and 550 a.d.) of China and its products refer to the

    maritime trade under the Byzantine emperors. This country

    he locates very correctly as occupying the extreme east of Asia,

    and calls Tzinista^ a name probably picked up from the Persians

    or old Hindus, and nearly similar to the Tsinisthan of the

    tablet at Si-ngan. Another Greek, Theophylact, in the next

    century describes the internal intercourse in Central Asia, and

    a great Turkish people, the Taugas, whom he was unaware were

    the Chinese. It may be that he miswrote Taiig in a grecized form

    for the dynasty just about that time settling its power. The

    indirect commerce between China and the Greek Empire increased

    by sea and land until the i-ise of the Moslem power.

    The same indifference on the part of the Chinese respecting

    the power, resources, and position of other lands is seen through

    all their notices of those western kingdoms. The products carried

    west were silk in various forms, but the demand for this

    article diminished after the worms had been successfully taken

    to Greece about a.d. 550. Cotton fabrics, medicines, and spices

    went westward as well as silk, but it is impossible to distinguish

    the trade with China from that with India. The leaf

    called raalcibathrum in the Periplus was not a Chinese plant,

    but the tamalapatra, a kind of cassia {Cinnamonutm liitidum,

    whose leaves were purchased in Rome for three hundred denarii

    per pound), and now called Malabar leaf ; it was probably mixed

    or confounded with tlie Indian nard and with camphor. The

    people called SesaUe in the Periplus are probably to be looked

    for in Assam or Sikkim, where wild cassia grows, and where

    the real tea plant is native ; but neither tea nor betel-leaf can

    be regarded as the ancient malabathrum.’

    ‘Heeren’s Asiatic Researches, II., p. 294; Yule’s Cathciy, pp. xlvi, cxliv.

    co:\rMrNiCATiox wnii tiik greek empire. 413

    Witliin the last few years the translations of the travels of

    Buddhist ])ilgrinis hetweon China and India have furnished

    more satisfactory details of the peoples iidiahiting the central

    and western parts of Asia than all the Greek and Latin authors.

    Those of Fahian (309-414), of Iliucn-tsang (628-645), and of

    Ilwui-sing (518), are the most extensive. Further researches into

    conventual libraries in China and Tibet are encouraged by

    what has been found on their shelves, and from them enough

    has already been gained to .reward the labor. Of greater worth

    than these, perhaps, are the official histories of the Han, Tsin,

    and Tang dynasties, reaching from b.c. 200 to a.d. 900, only

    portions of which have yet been made accessible in full. Their

    trivialties are so numerous that their entii-e translation intoEng;-

    lish would hardly repay the printing, as the experiment by

    Mailla, in 1785, oitheTang Klen. Kang-mnh, in thirteen volumes

    quarto, shows. These histories, on the whole, supply more accurate

    information about Syria, Pei-sia, Greece, and Parthia,

    than the Avriters of those countries give about China ;—for

    example, the notices of FuUn, or Constantinople, are more

    minute than any account of Chang-an in western writers. But

    as Yule well remarks, there is much analogy between the fragmentary

    views each party had, the same uncertainty as to exact

    position, and the same application of facts belonging to the

    nearer skirts of a half-seen empire to the whole land. It can

    M^ell be paralleled by reading some of our own travellers who

    applied all that they saw and heard at Canton to the Eighteen

    Pi-ovinces. Only a few emljassies from Ta-tsin and Falln are

    enumerated by Pauthier in his Chine as coming down to the year

    1091 ; but the tractate by Dr. E. Bretschneider, of the Russian

    Legation at Peking,’ shows how constant were the visits of the

    Arabs down to the Sung (a.d. 1086), and especially during the

    Tang dynasty. During the Tsin and Wei dynasties the visits

    of envoys from Ceylon were frequent, all of them an outgrowth

    of Buddhism, but repaid in more ways than one by the trade

    and its results—as shown by Sir E. Tennent in his H’lMory of

    Ceylon. In 1266 the King of Ceylon had Chinese soldiers in

    ‘ On the Knmdedge of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies possessed by the Ancient Chinese, London, 1871.

    his service, and envoys came to liiiii to \n\\ Iluddlia’s sacred

    alms-disli. In 14(»5 tlie Emperor Ynngloh of the Ming dynasty,

    taking underage at the indiginties offered to liis re[)resenlative

    by Wijayabahu IV., despatclied Ching IIo with a Heet of sixtytwo

    ships and a hind force to cruise along the coasts of Cambodia,

    Siam, and other places, demanding ti-ihnte and conferring

    gifts as the successor of the throne held by the great

    Kublai. Going again the next year as far as Ceylon, Ching

    IIo evaded a snare set by the king, and captured him and his

    whole familv and officials, carrvini>; them all to Pekinj;. In

    1411 the latter were set free, but a new king was appointed

    to the vacant throne, who reigned fifty jears and sent tribute

    till 1459 ; this was only thirty-eight years before Gama arrived

    at Calicut. It was the last attempt of the Chinese to assert their sway beyond the limits of the Middle Kingdom seaward.’

    ‘Tennent’s Ccijlov, I., pp. 607-62G. Yule’s Cathay, pp. Ixvi-lxxvi.

    – Relation des Voyar/es faitit par l(‘« Anihes ct Ics JVi-nans (hum Vlnde et dla Chine dans le IX”” Siede de Ver’ Chretienitc, 2 Vols., Paris, 1845.

    NOTICES OF ARAB TRAVELLERS. 41fi

    One intimation of a continuance of the intercourse with China from the time of Justinian to that of the Arab travelers Wahab and Abu Zaid, is the Xestorian inscription (page 277). The narratives of the Arabs (a.d. 850 and 877) are trustworthy in their general statements as to the course pursued in the voyage, the port to which they sailed in China, the customs of the people there, and the nature and mode of conducting the trade; they form, in fact, the first authentic accounts we have of the Chinese from western writers, and make us dinibt a little whether others like them have not been lost, rather than suppose that such were never written. These interesting relics were translated by Reinaud in 1845, with the text and notes.” The second traveler speaks of the sack of the city of Canfu, then the port of all the Arabian merchants, in which one hundred and twenty thousand Mohannnedans, Jews, Christians, and Magians, or Parsees, engaged in traffic, were destroyed. This shows the extent and value of the trade. Canfu was Kanpu, a fine port near the modern town of the same name, twenty-five miles from HangZhou, and near Chapu on the Bay of Hangzhou ; the Gates of China were probably in the Chusan Arcliipelago and its nmnerons channels. Much of the statement made 1)V >\bn Zaid respecting the wealth, extent, and splendor <»f Canfu really refers to the city of Hangzhou. The bore in the Qiantang river makes it impossible for ships to lie off that place, and this had its effect in developing Kanpn. The destruction of the capital in 877 contributed to direct part of the trade to Canton, which even then and long after was comparatively a small place, and the people of that part of the country but little removed from gross barbarism. In Marco Polo’s time Ganpu was frequented by all the ships that bring merchandise from India.’

    Prior to the date when he reached the confines of the Pacific,

    the ravages of the Mongols, under Genghis and his successors, in

    the regions between the Mediterranean and Caspian, and their

    great victory near Lignitz, April 12, 1241, had aroused the fears

    of the Pope and other potentates for their own safety. After

    the sudden recall of the hosts of Okkodai, in the same year, at

    his death, and their retreat from Bohemia and Poland to the

    Dneiper, the Pope determined to send two missions to the Tartars

    to urge them to greater humanity. One was a Franciscan

    monk, John of Piano Carpini, wdio carried the following letter

    to Batu klian on the Wolga:

    INNOCENT, BISHOP, SERVANT OF THE SERVANTS OF GOD, TO THE KING AND PEOPLE OF THE TARTARS.

    ‘ Chinese ReposiUrry, Vol. I., pp. G, 42, 2.’)2 ; Vol. III., p. 115. Yule’s ilfarctf Pdo, Vol. II., pp. 149, 1.50. Catltiiy^ p. uxciii.

    Since not only men, but also irrational animals, and even the mechanical mundane elements, are united by some kind of alliance, after the example of superior spirits, whose liosts the Author of the universe has established in a perpetual and peaceful order, we are compelled to wonder, not without reason, how you, as we have heard, having entered many lands of Christians and others, have wasted them with horrible desolation, and still, with continued fury, not ceasing to extend further your destroying hands, dissolving every natural tie, neither sparing sex nor age, direct indifferently against all the fury of the sword. We therefore, after the example of the Prince of Peace, desiring to unite all mankind in unity and the fear of God, warn, beseech, and exhort you henceforth to desist wholly from such outrages, and especially from the persecution of Christians ; and since, by so many and so great offences, you have doubtless grievously provoked the wrath of the Divine majesty, that you make satisfaction to him by suitable penitence ; and that you be not so daring as to carry your rage further, because the omnipotent God has hitherto permitted the nations to be lai<l prostrate before your face. He sometimes thus passes by the proud men of the age; but if they do not humble themselves, he will not fail to inflict the severest temporal punishment on their guilt.

    And now, behold, we send our beloved brother John, and his companions, bearers of these presents, men conspicuous for religion and honesty, and endued with a knowledge of sacred Scripture, whom we hope you will kindly receive and honorably treat as if they were ourselves, placing confidence in what they may say from us, and specially treat with them on what relates to peace, and fully intimate what has moved you to this extermination of other nations, and what you further intend, providing them in going and returning with a safe conductor, and other things needful for returning to our presence.

    We have chosen to send to you the said friars, on account of their exemplary eonduct and knowledge of the sacred Scriptures, and because they would be more useful to you as imitating the humility of our Saviour, and if we had thought they would be more grateful and useful to you, we would have sent ither prelates or powerful men.’

    M. D’Avezac’s essay contains a full account of the travels

    and proceedings of Carpini and his companion, Benedict, in

    their hazardous journey of a hundred days from Kiev, across

    the plains of Russia and Bokhara, to the court of Kuyuk, who

    had succeeded Okkodai. They were first sent forward by the

    commanding ofiicers of the several posts to Batu’s camp, where

    the Pope’s letter was translated ; from hence they were again

    despatched at the most rapid rate, on horseback, to Kara-korum,

    M’here they arrived July 22, 124G, almost exhausted. After

    they had been there a few days the election was decided, and

    all ambassadors were introduced to an audience to the khan,

    when the Pope’s envoys alone werf^ without a present. The

    letter was read, and an answer ret’:<i-ned in a few weeks in the

    same style. These two potentates, so singularly introduced to

    each other in tlieir mutual ignorance by the letters carried by

    John, had much more in common in their pretensions to universal

    dominion by the command of God than they suspected.

    ‘ Murray’s Marco Polo, p. 49. Yule’s CatJuty, p. cxxiii ff. D’Avezac’s essay in the liecueU de Voyages, IV. , p. 399,

    MISSION OF THE POPE TO BATU KUAN. 417

    LETTER OF THE KING OF THE TARTARS TO THE LORD POPE.

    The khan’s letter was as follows :
    The strength of God, Kuyiik kliiui, the ruler of all men, to the great Pope. You and all the Christian people who dwell in tlie West have sent by your messengers sure and certain letters for the purpose of making peace with us. This we have heard from them, and it is contained in your letter. Therefore, if you desire to have peace with us, you Pope, emperors, all kings, all men powerful in cities, by no means delay to come to us for the purpose of concluding peace, and you will hear our answer and our will. The series of your letters contained that we ought to be baptized and to become Christians ; we briefly reply, that we do not understand why we ought to do so. As to what is mentioned in your letters, that you wonder at the slaughter of men, and chiefly of Christians, especially Hungarians, Poles, and Moravians, we shortly answer, that this too we do not understand. Nevertheless, lest we should seem to pass it over in silence, we think proper to reply as follows: It is because they have not obeyed the precept of God and of Genghis khan, and, holding bad counsel, have slain our messengers;’ wherefore God has ordered them to be destroyed, and delivered them into our hands. But if God had not done it, what could man have done to man V But you, inhabitants of the West, believe that you only are Christians, and despise others ; but how do you know on whom he may choose to bestow his favor ? We adore God, and, in his strength, will overwhelm the whole earth from the east to the west. But if we men were not strengthened by God, what could we do ?”

    ‘ Allusion is here made to Tartar ambassadors, whom the Russians murdered before the battle of Kalka.

    ”Murray’s Marco Polo, p. 59.

    The khan took the precaution, which the Pope did not, of putting his reply into an intelligible language, and when it yvaa written in Tartar he had it carefully explained to the friars, who translated it into Latin, and were soon after dismissed.

    They left the court on November 13, 1246, and ” travelled all winter through a wide open country, being commonly obliged to sleep on the ground after clearing away the snow, with which in the morning they often found themselves covered.” They reached Kiev the next June, and Carpini was rewarded for his hardships by being appointed Archbishop of Antivari in Dalmatia. As Yule remarks, “they were the first to bring to western Europe the revived knowledge of a great and civilized nation lying in the extreme East upon the shores of the ocean.”

    Louis XL of France having heard that Sartach, the son of Batu, then commanding on the w^estern frontier, was a Christian, sent z mission to liini, consistin<5 of the friar AVilliani Rubrnquis ‘ and three companions. They left Constantinople May 7, 1253, and proceeded to the Crimea, from wlience they set ont with a present of wines, frnits, and biscuits intended for the khan. In three days they met the Tartars, who conducted them first to Scacatai, a chieftain by whom, after considerable delay and vexation, they were furnished with everything necessary for a journey across the plains of southei-n Russia to the Wolga and the camp of Sartach. The monks attempted to convert the rude nomads, but igno.ance of the language and

    suspicions of their intentions interposed great obstacles on

    both sides. On arriving at the end of their journey, they were

    disappointed at finding the ruler of these warriors a besotted

    infidel, who expected all persons admitted into his presence to

    bring him costly presents. A Nestorian named Cojat, whom

    Rubruquis regarded as. no better than a heretic, was high in

    authority, and the only medium of counmmication with the

    khan. He told the friar to bring his books and vestments

    and make himself ready to appear before the khan on the

    mori’ow ; their elegance was such that at the close of the audience

    Cojat seized most of them under an idle pretext that it

    was improper to appear in them a second time before Batu

    khan, to whom Rubruquis and his companions were to be sent.

    Their journey was soon after prosecuted by following up the

    Wolga some distance, and when they arrived at the encampment

    of Batu khan, he made many inquiries about the resources and

    power of the French king and the war he was waging with the

    Saracens. On his introduction, ” the friar bent one knee, but

    finding this unsatisfactory did not choose to contend, and dropped

    on both. Misled by his position, instead of answering questions

    he began a prayer for the conversion of the khan, with

    warning of the dreadful consequences of unbelief. The prince

    merely smiled ; but the derision which was loudly expressed by

    the surrounding chiefs threw him into a good deal of confusion.”

    ‘ Or, more correctly, Rubruk, as D’Avezac lias pointed out {Bull. <1e hi Soc. de Geof/i:, 18G8), and in whose conclusions Yule joins {Marco Polo, second edition, p. 536).

    EMBASSY OF KUBRUQUIS TO MANGU KlIAI^. 419

    The interview was followed by an order to proceed to the court of Mangu, who had succeeded Kuyuk as Grand khan. This long journey occupied four months, through the high hind of Central Asia (farther eastward than where Carpini found Kuyuk’s court), and subjected them to severe hardships. Mangu received the mission hardly with civility, but having been examined by some Xestorian priests, they were admitted to an audience. The same ceremonies were required as at Batu’s court, and inquiries made as to the possessions of the French king, especially the number of rams, horses, and oxen he owned, which, the friar was amazed to learn, were soon to be attacked by the Tartars. Xo permission to remain could be obtained, but he was furnished with a house and allowed to tarry till the cold mitigated. In this remote region he found a European architect, William Bourchier, and his wife, from Mentz, besides many Armenians, Saracens, and Xestorians, all of whom the khan received, he accompanied the coin-t to Kara-korum, where he nearly became involved in dangei’ous religious disputes, and on the approach of milder weather was conqjelled to return to Batu khan, by whom he was sent on, in a south-westerly direction, until he entei’ed Armenia, and thence found his way to Iconium, having been absent nearly two years.

    These ambassadors had not the aid of printing to diffuse their narratives, and it was perhaps chiefly owing to the high standing of those who sent them that their relations have been preserved. In the case of many travellers of humbler origin or pretensions, there Avas no inducement to write what they had seen ; these therefore only told their stories, which were lost with the narrators.

    Even the travels of Marco Polo would perhaps never have been given to the world if the leisure of captivity had not induced him to adopt this method of relieving its tedium. Every examination of his record has added to its reputation for accuracy, both in the position of the cities he mentions or visited and in the events he details ; and when it is considered that he dictated it several years after his return to a fellow-prisoner, Rusticiano of Pisa, who wrote it in French, his accuracy is wonderful.

    The edition by Marsden in 1818 remained for fifty years the chief authority, but the recent editions by Pauthier and Yule, with their full notes, have made the traveller’s record vastly better understood, while adding iiiiich to our knowledge of mediaeval Asia.

    Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, was the son of ]Sieolo Polo, who with his brother Matteo, nobles and merchants of Venice, first left that city about 125-i, and Constantinople in 1260, on a mercantile voyage to the Crimea, from which point a series of events led them eastward as far as China, then lately conquered by Kublai, the Grand Khan and successor of Mangu khan, whom Rubruquis visited. They were favorably received, and when they left Kublai it was under a promise to return, which they did about December, 1274, bearing letters from

    Gregory X., and accompanied by young Marco, then about sixteen

    years old. He soon became a favorite with the Emperor,

    and was able to travel to many parts of the country, spending in

    all about twenty-one years in the East ; the three Polos reached

    Venice again in 1295. Marco was prefect at Yangchau on the

    Grand Canal for three years, and this involves a knowledge of

    Mongolian and Chinese speech and writing, without which he

    could hardly have administered its ofHcial duties. His possession

    of these accomplishments was nearly indispensable to the

    post, though Col. Yule infers, from an easily explained mistake

    in Chapter LXXV., that he did not have them. On reaching

    Venice, by way of India and Persia, the long-lost travellers appeared

    so completely altered that their friends and countrymen

    did not recognize them. Their wealth and entertainini>- recitals,

    however, soon restored them to the highest ranks of society.

    The industry of recent editors has probably brought togethei- all

    that can be learned of their subsequent history, which is now so

    well known as to require no further words here.

    NARRATIVES OF POLO AND OF KING TTAYTON. -t21

    In the year 1254, Ilethum, or Hayton, king of Little Armenia, undertook a journey to Mangu khan, to petition for an abatement of the tribute which he had been obliged to pay the Mongols. Having first sent forth his brother, Senipad, or Sinibald (in 1240), to Kuyuk khan, Hayton himself set out upon the accession to the throne of his successor. Passing through Kars and Armenia Proper to the Wolga, he was there received by Patu and foi-warded by a route to the north of that traversed by Carpini to Kara-korum and the Grand khan. At the end of a six weeks’ sojourn with the court, during which time he appears to have been kindly received, Ilayton commenced his homeward journey via Bishbalig and Song-aria to Samarkand, Bokhara, Khorasan, and thence to Tabriz. The accounts of these two embassies, wherein are described many wonderful things concerning the heathens of the East and barbarians upon the route, made up, doubtless, a large part of the ” History ”(written in 1307) by the king’s relative, Ilayton of Gorigos.’

    The different positions held by these men and the Polos naturally led each of them to look upon the same people and events with vastly different feelings. The efforts of John of Montecorvino to propagate Christianity in China were undertaken just as the Polos returned, but no detailed accounts of his labors(beyond what Col.Yule has gathered in his Cathay) have been preserved.

    Among the most important mediaeval travelers in Asia was the Moor, Ibn Batuta, who at the age of twenty-one set out(in 1325) upon his journeys, from which he did not return until thirty years later.” Abu-Abdullah Mahomed (nicknamed Ibn Batuta, ” The Traveller “) commenced his wanderings, which were contemporaneous with those of the more doubtful Englishman, Sir John Mandeville, by a series of pilgrimages to the sacred places of his religion ; among other excursions, he found time at one period to continue three years in Mecca. Going from one city to another, along the shores of the Mediterranean, and in the countries between it and the Caspian, he at length reached Delhi, where he resided eight years, enjoying—until the latter end of his stay—high favor from the Sultan Mahomed.

    ‘ The chapter concerning Cathay appears in Yule’s Cathay, p. cxcv. A translation of the elder Hayton’s narrative is given by Klaprotli in the Journal Asiatique, IV” Scries, Tome XII., pp. 273 ff.

    ‘ His work has been very ably edited and translated into French by M. Defremery and Dr. Sanguinetti (four volumes, Paris, 1858-5!)), under the patronage of the Asiatic Society of Paris. Several partial translations of the journal have appeared from time to time within the present century.

    The versatile Moor occupied the position of judge, though there is good reason to doubt his serious attention to any business while at this magnificent court, other than that of spending his master’s money. In the spring of 1342, having recovered tVoin a temporary disgrace, he was despatched on an ambassy to

    China hy tlie Sultan. It seems that a (“liincse envoy had arrived

    at Delhi to request permission for the natives to rebuild

    a temple in Butan, as they were poor and dependent upon the

    inhabitants of the plain, and had besought the Chinese government

    to intercede for them. Ibn Batuta was sent with lavish

    presents to the Emperor, but a refusal to assist in the building

    project uidess that sovereign would go through the form of

    paying a poll-tax to the Sultan. This embassy was attacked by

    a body of Hindus when scarcely out of Delhi, and obliged to

    return. Again it was sent out, going to Calicut on the Malabar

    coast, where were found fifteen Chinese vessels or galleys at

    anchor, whose crews and guard amounted to a thousand men

    each. The envoy embarked his attendants on one of these

    ships, but while he remained on shore to pray for a prosperous

    voyage, a storm sunk the vessel and all on board. After this

    second mishap the luckless Moor was afraid to return to Ids

    master, and went to Sumatra, from whence he found his way

    to China, landing at Zayton, the present Chinchew, in Fuhkien.

    Though it is doubtful if Ibn Batuta, notwithstanding his description

    of the place, ever reached Peking, his spirited accounts

    of Zayton, Sinkalan (Canton), Khansa (Hangchau), Kanjanfu,

    and other centres of trade in the soutli, are both entertaining

    and important. Spite of exaggerations, confusion of names

    and dates, and certain cases of positive fiction, one can hardly

    fail to put faith in the generality of his statements and conclude

    in favor of his veracity and genuine character. He mentions

    that tlie circulation of paper money, wliich Marco Polo thought

    so excellent a device for a king to raise funds, had entirely

    driven out the use of metallic currency. In every large town

    lie found Mohammedans, ruled by officers of their own persuasion.

    TRAVELS OF IBN BATUTA AND FRIAR ODORIC. 423

    The journal of Friar Odoric (1286-1331) contains much of interest in connection with China of the middle ages. This worthy priest landed at ” Censcalan ” (Canton), after a long and tedious trip from Bagdad round by Sumatra and thence northeast by land to Zayton. Here, says he, ” we friars minor have two houses, and there I deposited the bones of our friars who suffered martyrdom for the faith of Jesus Christ.” He had brought these relics from Tana, near Bombay. Thence he journeyed to Fnlichau, Hangzhou, and Nanjing, going on northward to Peking, where the aged archbishop, (Jorvino, was still living, and remained there three years. His return journey as far as H’lassa was not very different from that of Hue and Gabet in 184-3 ; from the Tibetan capital he probably continued on a westerly course to Cabul and Tabriz, reaching Venice in 1330, after an absence of thirteen years. His itinerary was taken down the following year by William of Solagna, a brother of the order, at Padua.

    In this narrative there is mention of a number of characterise tics of the Chinese, well known to all the world of to-day, but left wholly unnoticed by other travellers of his age. “His notices of the custom of fishing with cormorants, of the habits of letting the finger-nails grow long, and of compressing the women’s feet, as well as of the divisions of the khan’s Empire into twelve provinces, with four chief vizirs, are peculiar to him, I believe, among all the European travellers of the age.

    Polo mentions none of them. The names which he assigns to the Chinese post-stations, and to the provincial Boards of Administration, the technical Turki term which he uses for a sack of rice, etc., are all tokens of the reality of his experience.’”

    • Yule, Catlmy and the Way Tliither, p. 31.

    On the other hand, the influence of superstition upon their own minds rendered most of the religious travellers into Central Asia—Odoric as well as the others—less trustworthy and observant than they would perhaps have been either centuries before or after that period. Everything of a religious sort they regarded as done under the direct agency of the powers of darkness, into whose dominions they were venturing. Too fearful, moreover, to examine candidly or record accurately’ what they beheld, these pious adventurers were constantly misled by endeavors to explain any uncommon experience by referi-ing the same to their own imperfect or erroneous conceptions. This is true as well of the Bomish priests connected with the Peking mission, a few of whose letters have been preserved and recently made known to the public by Col. Yule; among tlieso are Friar Jordanus, Bishop Andrew of Zayton, Pascal of Vittoria, together with the Ai-chbisliop of Soltania, author of the “Book of the Estate and Governance of the (Ireat Caan of Cathay.” ‘

    But much fairer than these missionaries, in his reputation

    for veracity, was tlie Jesuit Benedict Goes, wlio in the centui-

    y preceding what nva,y be termed the modern period of our

    knowledge of China, undertook a journey across the desert,

    to die on the threshold of the Empire. Born in one of the

    islands of the Azore group. Goes spent his youth in the profession

    of a soldier on board of the Portuguese fleet. Becoming

    suddenly converted, he entered the service of the Jesuits as a

    lay brother—which humble i-ank he i-esolutely held during the

    rest of his career—and was sent to the court of Akbar, His

    residence in India gained hijn a high reputation for courage,

    judgment, and skill in the Persian tongue, the linguafranca

    of Asia at that date. He was selected, therefore, to undertake

    a journey to the Cathay of Marco Polo, in the capital of which

    Jerome Xavier thought he had hopes of finding the Christian

    ruler and descendant of Prester John. Goes set out from

    Agra in 1602, joined a company of merchants, and with them

    took a route passing through Cabul, the Hindu kush, along

    the River Oxus to its head-waters on the Pamir table-land,

    and so to Yangi Hissar, Yarkand, Aksu, and Suh-chau, where

    he was detained seventeen months, and finally died, shortly

    after assistance had been sent him from the mission at Peking.

    ‘ About 13:30. See ibid., pp. 238-250.

    JOURNEY OF BENEDICT GOES. 425

    De Christiana Ej’pedit’wne apiul /Sinas.’ To Benedict Goes

    His journey was full of terrible hardships, and it was to these as well as to the careless treatment he suffered in Suhchau that he owed his untimely end. Could we have Goes’ own narrative of his experience, the information concerning the unknown regions of Central Asia over which he toiled would be of priceless worth. His journals, however, were either lost or destroyed during his miserable detention at the frontier town, and nothing remained save a few meagre notes

    and his faithful Armenian servant Isaac, whose language no one at Peking could understand. Such as it was, an account was compiled from these soun-es by Ilicci himself, and published soon after that missionary’s death in the work of Trigautius, we may give the credit of the discovery that Cathay and China(Sina) were in reality one and the same land. It is a curious illustration of the condition of intercommunication between distant parts of the world in those days, that this fact must have been known to the earliest Jesuit missionaries in Peking, though the friars of the same order stationed in India held to a belief in Cambaluc and its Christian prince until far into the seventeenth century.

    In many particulars the practical descriptions of Abu Zaid, Masudi,” Ibn Wahab, and Marco Polo stand in decided contrast to the details noted down by such as Rubruquis and Odoric. The accounts of all these writers convey the impression that China was in their time free to all travellers. Ibn Wahab, speaking of the regulations practised under the Tang dynasty, observes:

    If a man would travel from one province to another, he must take two passes with him, one from the governor, the other from the eunuch [or lieutenant]. The governor’s pass permits him to set out on his journey and contains the names of the traveller and those also of his company, also the ages of the one and the other and the clan to which he helongs. For every traveller in China, whether a native or an Arab, or other foreigner, cannot avoid carrying a paper with him containing everything by which he can be verified.

    ‘ A translation of this notice appears in Col. Yule’s oft-quoted CatJuiy and the Wiiy Thither, pp. 529-591. Trigautins’ work appeared in 1615, and was subsequently translated into all the continental languages. Compare Purchas, His PiUjriiites, Vol. III., pp. 380, ff.—A Ducourse of the Kingdonte of Ghimi, tnken ont of Eiecivs and I’rif/avfivii, rontayning the Conntrey, People, Gotiernmevt, etc., etc. ° Reinaud, Relation des Voyaf/e,i, etc. MM. Barbier de Meynard and Favet de Courteille, Les Prariex d’Or, Paris, 1801-OG.

    The eunuch’s pass specifies the quantities of money or goods wliich the traveller and those with him take along ; this is done for the information of officers at the frontier places where these two passes are examined. Whenever a traveller arrives at any of them, it is registered that ” .Such a one, son of such a one, of such a calling, passed here on such a day, month, and year, having sufii things with him.” The governmpnt resorts to this means to prevent danger to travellers in their money or goods ; for should one suifer loss or die, everything about him is immediately known and lie himself or his heirs after his death receive whatever is his. ‘

    The same writer speaks of the Mabed, a nation dwelling in Yunnan, on the south-west, who sent ambassadors every year with presents to the Emperor; and in return he sent presents annually to them. These embassies, indeed, were simply trading companies in disguise, who came from the Persians, Arabs, and other nations, with every protestation of respect and humility, bearing presents to the Son of Heaven. The dignity of the Emperor denumded that these should be returned with gifts three or four times the value of this ” tribute,” and that the ambassadors should be royally entertained during their sojourn at the capital. It is needless to add that such missions were repeated by the merchants as often as circumstances would permit. Entrance into the country overland otherwise than by some such ruse seems to have been withheld after the fall of the Mongol dynasty.

    It was, however, not until the subjugation of the Empire by

    the Manchus that foreign trade was limited to Canton, the

    jealous conduct of the present rulers being to a certain extent

    actuated by a fear of similar reprisals from some quarter, which

    the Mongols experienced. The outrageous behavior of foreign

    traders theujselves must, moreover, be regarded as a chief

    cause of the watchful seclusion with which they were treated.

    ” Their early conduct,” says Sir John Davis, referring to the

    Portuguese, ” was not calculated to impress the Chinese witli

    any favorable idea of Europeans ; and when in course of time

    they came to be com])etitors with the Dutch and the English,

    the contests of mert;antile avarice tended to place them

    all in a still worse point of view. To tliis day the character of

    the Europeans is represented as that of a race of men intent

    alone on the gains of commercial traffic, and regardless altogether

    of the means of attainment. Struck by the perpetual hostilities which existed among these foreign adventurers, aslleinaud, siiiiilated in other respects by a close resemblance in their costumes and manners, the government of the country became disposed to treat them with a degree of jealousy and exclusion which it had not deemed necessary to be exercised toward the more peaceable and well ordered Arabs, their predecessors.” ‘

    IkUition, Tome I., p. 41.

    THE empire: closed to foreigners. 427

    These characteristics of avarice, lawlessness, and power have been the leading traits in the Chinese estimate of foreigners from their first acquaintance with them, and the latter have done little to effectually disabuse orientals upon these points.

    The following record of their first arrival, taken from a Chinese work, is still good authority in the general opinion of the natives:

    During the reign of Cliingtili [1506], foreigners from the West, called Fahlan-ki [Franks], who said that they had tribute, abruptly entered the Bogue, and by their tremendously loud guns, shook the place far and near. This was reported at court, and an order returned to drive them away immediately and stop their trade. At about this time also the Hollanders, who in ancient times inhabited a wild territory and had no intercourse with China, came to Macao in two or three large ships. Their clothes and their hair were red; their bodies tall; they had blue eyes, sunk deep in their heads. Their feet were one cubit and two-tenths long; and they frightened the people by their strange appearance. “‘

    ‘ The Chinese, Vol. I., p. 20.- The term hong-mao, or * red-haired,’ then applied to the Dutch, has sLuc« been transferred to the English.

    The Portuguese Hafael Perestrello sailed in a junk for China in 1516, five 3’ears after the conquest of IVIalacca, and was the first person who ever conducted a vessel to China under a European flag. Ferdinand Andrade came in the next year, in fcjur Portuguese and four Malay ships, and gave great satisfaction to the authorities at Canton by his fair dealings; his galleons were allowed to anchor at Shangchuen, or St. John’s Island. His brother Simon came the following year, and by his atrocious conduct entirely reversed the good opinion formed of his countrymen; the Chinese besieged him in port and drove him away in 1521. Others of his countrymen followed him, and one of the earliest ships accompanied some Chinese junks along the coast, and succeeded in establishing a factory at 2singpo; trade was also coiicliicted at Amoy. In 1537 there were three Portuguese settlements near Canton, one at St.

    John’s, one at a smaller island called Lanipa9ao (Lang-peh-kau), lying north-west of the Grand Ladroncs, and the third just l)eirun on Macao.’ In 1542 traders had left St. John’s for

    Lainpa9ao, and ten years afterward, at the time of Xavier’s

    death, trade was concentrated at the latter, where five or six

    hundred Portuguese constantly resided in 1500. Macao was

    connnenced under the pretext of erecting sheds for drying goods

    introduced under the appellation of trihute, and alleged to have

    been damaged in a storm. In 1573 the Chinese government

    erected a barrier wall across the isthmus joining Macao to the

    island of liiangshan, and in 1587 established a civil magistracy

    to rule the Chinese. By their ill conduct at Ningbo the Portuguese

    drew upon them the vengeance of the people, who rose

    upon them and ” destroyed twelve thousand Christians, including

    eight hundred Portuguese, and burned thirty-five ships and

    two junks.” One of their provocative acts is stated to have

    been going out in large parties into the neighboring villages

    and seizing the women and virgins, by which they justly lost

    their privileges in one of the provinces and ports best adapted

    to European trade. Four years later, in 15-19, they were also

    driven from their newly formed settlement at Chinchew.

    ‘ There stood originally on tlio site of tins town an idol known as Avia. Amau-gau, or Ama-kdu, then, meant the ‘Harbor of Ama,’ which in Portuguese was written Amiicuo, and afterward shortened to Marao. Conip. Trigautius, Be OJiristiana E.vjmHtione apvd S/iiks, Hiir). Nieuwhof, Niivirhriiru;e Bes’-Jiryrivf/e nivH Gosandarhitp, etc., Amsterdam, ^CtGA. Sir A. Ljungstedt, Historical Sketch of the Portii (pi cue Settlements in China, Boston, 18^(5. Chinese Commercial Guide, lifth edition, i^. 22’J.

    PORTUGUESE RELATIONS WITH CHINA. 429

    The Portuguese have sent four embassies to the Emperor of China. The first envoy, Thome Pires, was appointed by the Governor at Goa, and accompanied Ferdinand Andi-adc lo Canton, in 1517, where he was received and treated in the usual style of foreign ambassadors. When his mission was reported at Peking the Emperor Chingtih was infiuenced against it by a subject of the Sultan of Malacca, and detahied Pires at Canton three years; the flagitious conduct of Andrade’s brother

    and the character of the Portuguese induced the Emperor to

    appoint a court to examine whether the embassy was legitiujate

    or spurious, and Pires and his companions were adjudged to be

    spies and sent back to Canton to be detained till Malacca was

    restored. This not being done, he and others suffered death in

    September, 1523 ; other accounts lead to the inference that he

    died in 2)rison. Thus the innocent were made to suffer for the

    guilty. The next embassy was undertaken in 155’2, at the suggestion

    of Xavier, by the Viceroy of Goa, but the mission proceeded

    no farther than Malacca, the governor of that towTi

    refusing to allow it to leave the place—a significant intimation

    of the degree of subordination and order maintained by the

    Portuguese in the administration of their new colonies. The

    third was also sent from Goa in 1667, in the name of Alfonso

    YL, on occasion of the suspension of the trade of Macao by

    Kanghi ; the expense was defrayed by that colony (about

    forty thousand dollars), and ” the result of it so little answered

    their expectations that the Senate solicited his Majesty not to

    intercede in behalf of his vassals at Macao with the government

    of China, Avere it not in an imperious and cogent case.”

    A good opportunity and necessity for this, it was thought, presented itself in 1723, when Magaillans returned to China carrying the answer of the Pope to Kangxi, to send an envoy, Alexander Metello, along with him to Peking, lie arrived at court in May, 1727, and had his audience of leave in July, receiving in exchange for the thirty chests of presents which he offered, and which Yungching received with pleasure ” as evidences of the affection of the King of Portugal,” as many for his master, besides a cup of wine and some porcelain dishes, sent from the Emperor’s table, and other presents for himself and his retinue, which were ” valuable solely because they were the gifts of a monarch.” No more advantage resulted from this than the embassy sent a century previous, though it cost the inhabitants of Macao a like heavy sum. Another and last Portuguese embassy reached Peking in 1753, conducted and ending in much the same maimer as its predecessors ; all of them exhibiting, in a greater or less degree, the spectacle of humiliating submission of independent nations through their envoys to a I’oiirt which took pleasure in arrogantly exalting itself on the homage it received, and studiously avoided all reference to the real business of the embassy, that it might neither give nor deny anything. But in estimating its conduct in these respects, it must not be overlooked that the imperial court never associated commercial equality and regulations with embassies and tribute.

    The influence and wealth of the Portuguese in China for the last century and a half have gradual decreased. A Swedish knight. Sir Andrew Ljungstedt, published a historical sketch of their doings down to 1833, including an account of the colony, which is still the fullest book on the subject. In 1820 the opium trade was removed to Lintin, and that being the principal source of income, the commerce of the place for many years was at a low ebb. The imperial commissioner Iviying granted some additional privileges to the settlement in 1844, among others, permitting the inhabitants to build and repair new houses, churches, and ship’s without a license, and to trade at the five ports open to foreign commerce on the same terms as other nations ; it was just three centuries before this that the Portuguese were driven away from Ningbo. The anchorage of the Typa was included in the jurisdiction of Macao, but the application of the Portuguese commissioner to surcease payment of the anmial ground-rent of five hundred taels to the Chinese met with a decided refusal. Its advantages as a summer resort and its accessibility to a densely peopled region M^est invite visitors and traders to some extent, but the proximity and wealth of Hongkong make it secondary to that. Its short-lived prosperity in 1839-50, during the opium war and curly days of Hongkong, was followed b}’ the enlargement of the coolie trade, which for twenty-five years was the only real business.

    EMBASSIES AND TRADE. 431

    The Chinese have never ceded the peninsula to the Portuguese crown, although they were powerless to prevent the export of coolies; the relations now between the two countries are not distinctly defined. In 1862 a treaty was negotiated at Peking by Governor Guimaraes, in which the supremacy of the Portuguese authority over the ten-itory within the Barrier was implied rather than declared in Article IX., wherein the ecpial apTHEIR pointment of consular officers was mutually agreed to. The Chinese found out, however, that this virtually acknowledged the independence of the colony, and refused to i-atify the treaty without an express stipulation asserting their right of domain to the peninsula. It has never been ratified, therefore, but trade is unfettered, and the Chinese inhabitants continue to increase; no rental has been paid for the ground-tax since 1849. The cessation of the coolie trade in 1873 has reduced Macao lower than ever, and it now hardly pays its own officials; all the thrifty or wealthy foreign citizens have removed elsewhere.

    The trade between the Spaniards and Chinese has been

    smaller, and their relations less important than most other

    European nations. The Spanish admiral Legaspi conquered

    the Philippines in 1543, and Chinese merchants soon began to

    trade with Manila ; but the first attempt of the Spaniards to

    enter China was not made until 1575, when two Augustine

    friars accompanied a Chinese naval officer on his return home

    from the pursuit of a famous pirate named Li-ma-lion, whom

    the Spaniards had driven away from their new colony. The

    missionaries landed at Tansuso, a place on the coast of Kwangtung,

    and went up to Canton, where they were courteously received.

    The prefect sent them to the governor at Shanking,

    by whom they were examined ; they stated that their chief object

    was to form a close alliance between the two nations for

    their mutual benefit, adding at the same time what their countrymen

    had done against Li-ma-hon ; a second object was their

    wish to learn the language of China and teach its inhabitants their religion. The governor kept them in a sort of honorable bondage several weeks, and at last sent them back to Manila, doubtless by orders from court, though he alleged as a reason that the pirate Li-ma-hon was still at large. After the return of this mission the governor of the Philippines deemed it advisable to let the trade take its own course, and therefore refused the proposal of a body of Franciscans to enter the country.

    They, however, made the attempt in a small native vessel, and passed up the river to Tsiuenchau, where they were seized and examined as to their designs. Not being acquainted with the language, they were both themselves deluded and misrepresented to the prefect by a |)r()fes.se(l native friend who understood Portuguese; after many months’ delay they were mortified to learn that no permission to remain would be given, and in 1580 they returned to Manila, not at all disposed to renew the enterprise.

    Philip II,, however, having received the suggestion made by

    the Chinese admiral that he should send an embassy to Peking,

    had already ordered the governor to undertake such an enterprise.

    He fitted out a mission, therefore, in 1580, at the head

    of which was Martin Ignatius. It gives one a low idea of the

    skill of navigators at that day to learn that in this short trip,

    the vessel being carried np the coast northward of Canton, the

    party thought it better to land than to try to beat back to their

    destination. The envoy and all with him were brought before

    the Chinese officers, who, probably entirely misunderstanding

    their object, imprisoned them ; after considerable delay they

    were brought before a hio;her officer and sent on to Canton,

    where they were again imprisoned ; the Portuguese governor of

    Macao subsequently obtained their liberation. This unlucky

    attempt, if Mendoza is right in calling it an embassy, was the

    only one ever made by the Spanish government to communicate

    with the court of Peking nntil the mission of Don Sinibaido de

    Mas in 1847 and his treaty of 18G4. The pecular feature of that treaty was the piivilege, first granted to Spanish merchants, of engaging coolies as contract lal)orcrs for Cuba. The harsh treatment they received there led the Chinese to send a commission of inquiry in 1873, aiul to suspend the validity of this article until the truth could be ascertained. This procedure has resulted in a cessation of imported Chinese laborers at Havana.

    INTERCOUKSE BETWEEN HOLLAND AND THE EAST. 43.J

    The Chinese have carried on a valuable trade at Manila, but the Spaniards have treated them with peculiar severity. They are burdened Avith special taxes, and their immigration is rather restrained than encouraged. The harsh treatment of Chinese settlers there excited the attention and indignation of one of their countrymen many years ago, and on his return to Canton he exercised all his inHuence with officers of his own government, making what he had seen the model and the mative to induce them to treat all foreigners at Canton in the same way. It ended in perfecting the principal features of the system of espionage and restriction of the co-hong which existed for nearly a century, until the treaty of 1842;—another instance of the treatment requited upon foreigners for their own acts.

    The Dutch commerce with the East commenced after their successful struggle against the Spanish yoke, and soon after completing their independence they turned their arms against the oriental possessions of their enemies, capturing Malacca, the Spice Islands, and other places. They appeared before Macao in 1622 with a squadron of seventeen vessels, but being repulsed with the loss of their admiral and about three hundred men, they retired and established themselves on the Pescadores in 1624. Their occupation of this position was a source of great annoyance both to the Spaniards and to the Chinese authorities in Fuhkien. According to the custom of those days, they began to build a fort, and forced the native Chinese to do their work, treating them with great severity. Many of the laborers were prisoners, whom the Dutch had taken in their attacks.

    Alternate hostilities and parleys succeeded, the Chinese declaring that the Dutch must send an envoy to the authorities on the mainland ; they accord higly despatched Yon Mildert to Amoy, and the sub-prefect forwarded him to Fuhchau to the governor. He decided to send a messenger to the Dutch to state to them that trade would be allowed if they would remove to Formosa, but this proposition was refused. However, after a series of attacks and negotiations, the Chinese constantly increasing their forces and the Dutch diminishing in their supplies, the latter acceded to the proposition, and removed to Formosa, where they erected Fort Zealandia in 1G24. It is recorded that the Chinese landed five thousand troops on one of the Pescadore Islands ; and their determined efforts in repelling the aggressions or occupation of their soil by the Dutch probably raised their reputation for courage, and prevented the repetition of similar acts by others. It was doubtless a good stroke of policy on their part to propose the occupation of Formosa to the Dutch in exchange for the Pescadores, for they had not the least title to it themselves, aiul hardly knew its exact size at the character of the inhabitants. The Dutch endeavored ta extend their power over it, but with only partial success; in the villages around Fort Zealandia they introduced new laws among the inhabitants, and instead of their councils of elders, constituted one of their chief men supervisor in every village, to administer justice and report his acts to the governor of the island.

    The moral interests of the natives were not neglected, and in 162G George (Jandidius, a Protestant minister, Avas appointed to labor among them, and took great pains to introduce Christianity. The natives were ignorant of letters, their superstitions resting only on traditions or customs which were of recent origin; the prospects, therefore, of teaching them a better religion were favorable. In sixteen months he had instructed over a hundred in the leading truths of (,’hristianity. The work was progressing favorably, churches and schools were multiplying, the interniarria£o:es of the colonists and natives M-ere brinfofufiitr them into closer relationship with each other, and many thousands of the islanders had been baptized, when the Dutch governors in India, fearful of offending the Japanese, who were then persecuting the Christians in Japan—in which the Dutch helped them, to their lasting disgrace—restricted these benevolent labors, and discouraged the further conversion of the islanders. Thus, as often elsewhere in Asia, the interests of true religion were sacrificed upon the altar of mammon, and the trade thus bought died from inanition.

    During the struggles ensuent upon the overthrow of the Ming dynasty, many thousands of families emigrated to Formosa, some of whom settled under the Dutch, while others planted separate colonies ; their industry soon changed the desolate island into a cultivated country, and increased the produce of rice and sugar for exportation. The immigration went on so rapidly as to alarm the Dutch, who, instead of taking wise measures to conciliate and instruct the colonists, tried to prevent their landing, and thereby did much to irritate them and lead them to join in any likely attempt to expel the foreigners.

    DUTCH OCCUPATION OF FORMOSA. 435

    Meanwhile, their trade with China itself was trifling compared with that of their rivals, the Portuguese, and when the undoubted ascendancy of the Manchus was evident, the government of Batavia resolved to despatch a deputation to Canton to petition for trade. In January, 1653, Schedel was sent in a richly freighted ship, but the Portuguese succeeded in preventing any further traffic, even after the envoy had spent considerable sums in presents to the authorities, and obtained the governor’s promise to allow his countrymen to build a factory.

    Schedel was informed, however, that his masters would do well to send an embassy to Peking, a suggestion favorably entertained by the Company, which, in 1055, appointed Goyer and Keyzer as its envoys. The narrative of this embassy by Nieuwhof, the steward of the mission, made Europeans better acquainted with the country than they had before been—almost the only practical benefit it produced, for as a mercantile speculation it proved nearly a total loss. Their presents were received and others given in return ; they prostrated themselves not only before the Emperor in person, but made the kotow to his name, his letters, and his throne, doing everything in the way of humiliation and homage likely to please the new rulers. The only privilege their subserviency obtained was permission to send an embassy once in eight 3’ears, at which time they might come in four ships to trade.

    This mission left China in 1657, and very soon after, the Chinese chieftain, Ching Ching-kung (Koshinga, or Koxinga as his name is written by the Portuguese), began to prepare an attack upon Formosa. The Dutch had foreseen the probability of this onset, and had been strengthening the garrison of Zealandia since 1G50 while they were negotiating for trade ; Koxinga, too, had confined himself to sending emissaries among his countrymen in Formosa, to inform them of his designs. He set about preparing an armament at Amoy, ostensibly to strengthen himself against the Manchus, meanwhile carrying oil his ordinary traffic with the colony to lull all apprehensions until the council had sent away the admiral and force despatched from Java to protect them, when in June, 1661, he landed a force of twenty-five thousand troops, and took up a stroll”” position. The coinmniiicatinn hctweoii tlic forts being cnt off, the governor sent t\v<> ImiKbvd ami forty nien to dislodiTc the enemy, only luilf of whom retiirneil alive ; one (»f the four ships in the luirbor was burned by the Chinese, and another hastened to Batavia for reinforcements. Koxinga fol-\o\voa\ u\> these successes by cutting off all communication between the garrison and the surrounding country, and compelling the surrender of the garrison and cannon in the small fort.

    Fort Zealandia was now closely invested, but finding himself severely galled, he turned the siege into a blockade, and vented his rage against the Dutch living in the surrounding country, and such Chinese as abetted them. Some of the ministers and schoolmasters were seized and crucified, under the pretext that they encouraged their parishioners to resist ; others were used as ao-ents to treat concerninG; the surrender of the fort. Yalentyn has given a clear history of the occupation of Formosa by his countrymen in his great work, and especially of their defeat at Zealandia. He narrates an incident of Rev. A. Ilambroek, as does also ^^ieuwhof, from whose travels it is quoted.

    Among the Dutch prisoners taken in the country, was one Mr. Hambroek, a minister. This man was sent by Koxinga to the governor, to propose terms for surrendering the fort ; and that in case of refusal, vengeance would be taken on the Dutch prisoners. Mr. Hambroek came into the castle, being forced to leave his wife and children behind him as hostages, which sufficiently proved that if he failed in his negotiation, they had nothing but death to expect from the chieftain. Yet was he so far from persuading the garrison to surrender, that he encouraged them to a brave defence by hopes of relief, assuring them that Koxinga had lost many o” his best ships and soldiers, and began to be weary of the siege. When ho had ended, the council of war left it to his choice to stay with them or return to the camp, where he could expect nothing but present death; every one entreated him to stay. He had two daughters within the castle, who hung upon his nock, overwhelmed’ with grief and tears to see their father ready to go where they knew he must be sacrificed by the merciless enemy. But he represented to them that having left his wife and two other children as hostages, nothing but death could attend them if he returned not: so unlocking himself from his daughters’ arms, and exhorting everybody to a resolute defence, he returned to the camp, telling them at parting that he hoped he might prove serviceable to his poor fellow-prisoners, fvoxinga received his answer sternly ; then causing it to be rumored that the prisoners excited the Formosans to rebel, he ordered all the Dutch male prisoners to be slain ; some being beheaded, others killed in a more barbarous manner, to the number of five hundred, th ir b di .> .sviijipcd quite naked and buried; nor were the women and children spared, many of them. likewise being slain, though some of the best were preserved for the use of the commanders, and the rest sold to the common soldiers. Among the slain were Messrs. Hambruik, Mus, Wiiisam, Ampzingius, and Campius, clergymen, and many schoolmasters.

    KOXIXCiA DRIVES THEM FROM TIIK ISLAND. 4’17

    A force of ten ships and seven hundred men arriving from Batavia, the besieged began to act on the offensive, but were nnal)le to drive Koxinga from the town, though they checked his operations and brought down the garrisons from Kihmg and Tamsui to their aid. A letter from the governor of Fuhkien to Coyet, the Dutch governor, came soon after, suggesting a junction of their forces to drive Koxinga away from the coast, after which both could, easily conquer him in Formosa. This proposal was followed, but no sooner had the five vessels gone than Koxinga made his advances so vigorously that the garrison was forced to surrender, after a siege of nine months and the loss of one thousand six hundred men. Thus ended the Dutch rule in Formosa, after twenty-eight years’ duration.’

    ^ Chinese Repository, Vols. I., p. 414, and XX., p. 543. Journal N. C. Br.R. As. Soc, Vol. XI. (1876), Art. I. Moreau de St.-Mery, Vot/iu/e de VArnbassade de la ComjMignie des Iiuks orientales Ilolldnduises vers V Einpereur de la Chine, tire dujoiirtnd d^Andre Evcnird van, Branm Houckc/eest, translated and published in London, 2 Vols., 1798. J. Nieuwhof, JVamrkenrir/c Beachryrincie ran’t Oesandschap der NederlandtscJie Oost-Lidische Compagnie van Batavia nar Peking in Sina, door de Ileeren Pieter de Ooyer en Jacob de Keyser, Amsterdam,1G64.

    This loss induced the council at Batavia to prosecute their former enterprise against Anioy, where Koxinga still had a garrison. Twelve vessels were fitted out under Bort, who arrived, in 1662, at the mouth of the River Min, where he was visited by deputies from the governor, and induced to send two of his officers to arrange with him concerning operations. The governor was in the country, and the two officers, on reaching his camp, soon saw that there could be no cordiality between their leaders ; this proposal of a foreign power to assist them against the Chinese was too much like that of Wn San-kwei to their chieftains in 1644 for the Manchus to entertain it. Bort, desirous of doing something, commenced a series of attacks on the fleet and garrisons of Koxinga, burning and destroying them in a piratical manner, that was nut less ineffectual toward regaining Formosa and obtaining privilege of trade at Canton than harassing to the Chinese on the coast. lie returned to Batavia in 1663, and was despatched to Fnhkien in a few months with a stronger force, and ordered to make reprisals on both Manchus and Chinese, if necessary, in order to get satisfaction for the loss of Formosa. The governor received him favorably, and after a number of skirmishes against the rebellious Chinese, Amoy was taken and its troops destroyed, which completed the subjugation of the province to the Manchus. As a reward for this assistance, the real value of which cannot, however, be easily ascertained, the governor lent two junks to the Dutch to retake Formosa, but Koxinga laughed at the pitiful force sent against him, and Bort sailed for Batavia.

    These results so cliagrined the council that they fitted out no more expeditions, preferring to despatch an embassy, under Van lloorn, to Peking, to petition for trade and permission to erect factories, lie landed at Fulichau in 1664, where he was received in a polite manner. The imperial sanction had been already received, but he unwisely delayed his journey to the capital until his cargo was sold. While discussing this matter the Dutch seized a Chinese vessel bringing bullion from Java contrary to their colonial regulations, and the governor very properly intimated that until restitution was made no amicable arrangement could be completed ; consequently Van lloorn, in order to save his dignity and not contravene the orders of his own o;overnment, was obliged to allow the bullion to be carried ofp, as if by force, by a police officer.

    EMBASSIES OF VAN IIOORN AND VAN BRAA:\r. 439

    These preliminary disputes were not settled till nearly a year had elapsed, wdien A^an lloorn and his suite left Fulichau, and after a tedious journey up the River Min and across the mountains to llangchau, they reached the canal and Peking, having been six months on the way, ” during which they saw thirty seven cities and three hundred and thirty-five villages.” The same succession of prostrations before an empty throne, followed by state banquets, and accompanied by the presentation and conferring of presents, characterized the reception of this embassy as it had all its predecessors. It ended with a similar farce, alike pleasing to the haughty court which received it, and unworthy the Christian nation which gave it; and the “only result of this grand expedition was a sealed letter, of the contents^ of which they were wholly ignorant, but which did not, in fact, grant any of the privileges they so anxiously solicited.” They had, by their performance of the act of prostration, caused their nation to be enrolled among the tributaries of the Grand khan, and then were dismissed as loyal subjects should be, at the will of their liege lord, with what he chose to give them. It was a fitting end to a career begun in rapine and aggression toward the Chinese, who had never provoked them.

    The Dutch sent no more embassies to Peking for one hundred and thirty years, but carried on trade at Canton on the same footing as other nations. The ill success of Macartney’s embassy in 1793 induced Van Braam, the consular agent at Canton, to propose a mission of salutation and respect from the government of Batavia, on the occasion of Kienlung reaching the sixtieth year of his reign. He hoped, by conforming to Chinese ceremonies, to obtain some privileges which would place Dutch trade on a better footing, but one would have supposed that the miscarriage of former attempts might have convinced him that nothing was to be gained by new humiliations before a court which had just dismissed a well-appointed 3mbassy. The Company appointed Isaac Titsingh, late from lapan, as chief commissioner, giving Van Braam the second place, and making up their cortege with a number of clerks and interpreters, one of whom, De Guignes, wrote the results of his researches during a long residence in Canton, and his travels with the embassy to Peking, under the title of Vo;/-arjen d Peking. It is needless to detail the annoyances, humiliations, and contemptuous treatment experienced by the embassy on its overland journey in midwinter, and the degrading manner in which the Emperor received the envoys : his hauteur was a befitting foil to their servility, at once exhibiting both his pride and their ignorance of their true position and rights.

    They were brought to the capital like malefactors, treated when there like beggars, and then sent back to Canton like mountebanks to perform the three-times-three prostration at all times and before everything their conductors saw fit; avIio on their part stood by and hiughed at their embarrassment in mailing these evolutions in their tight clothes. They were not allowed a single opportunity to speak about business, which the Chinese never associate with an embassy, but were entertained with banquets and theatrical shows, and performed many skillful evolutions themselves upon their skates, greatly to the Emperors gratification, and received, moreover, a present of broken victuals from him, which had not only been honored by coming from his Majesty’s own table, but bore marks of his teeth and good appetite;” they were upon a dirty plate, and appeared rather destined to feed a dog than form the repast of a human creature.” Van Braanrs account of this embassy is one of the most humiliating records of ill-requited obsequiousness before insolent government lackeys which any European was ever called upon to pen. The mission returned to Canton in April, 1706, having attained no more noble end than that of saluting the Emperor, and this, indeed, was all the Chinese meant should be done when themselves suggesting the entire performance; for in order to understand much of their conduct toward their guests, the feelings they entertained toward them must not be lost sight of.

    In 1843 the governor-general at Batavia sent T. Modderman to Canton to make inquiries respecting trade at the newly opened ports and establish consulates. The council there had, in 1839, forbidden Chinese to settle in any of their Indian colonies, owing to their skill in engrossing the native trade; but when this prohibition was removed about 1875, the Chinese showed no disposition to emigrate to Java. In 1803 a treaty was negotiated by M. Van der Ilooven at Tientsin, which placed the trade on the same footing as other nations.

    RELATIONS OF FRANCE AND KTTSSIA WITH CHIXA. 441

    The French Government has never sent a formal mission to the capital to petition for trade and make obeisance, though thnjugii their missionaries that nation has made Europeans better acquainted with China and given the Chinese more knowledge of western countries than all other Christian nations together. In the year 12S!) Pliilij) the Fair received a letter from Argun khan in Persia, and in 1305 another from Oljaitu, both of them proposing joint action against their enemies the Saracens. The originals are still to be seen in Paris. In 1G88 Louis XIV. addressed a letter to Ivanghi, whom he called “Most high, most excellent, most puissant, and most magnaniuious prince, dearly beloved good friend ; ” and signed himself “Your most dear and good friend, Louis.” Li 1844 diplomatic relations were resumed by the appointment of a large mission, at the head of which was M. Lagrenc, by whom a treaty was formed between France and China.’

    The Russians have sent several embassies to Peking, and

    compelled the Chinese to treat them as equals. The first recorded

    visit of Russian agents at Peking is that of two Cossacks,

    Petroff and Yallysheff, in 1567, who, however, did not

    see the Emperor Lungking, who succeeded to the throne that

    year, because they had brought no presents. In 1619 Evashko

    Pettlin i-eached that city, having come across the desert from

    Tomsk ; but he and his companion, having no presents, could

    not see the ” dragon’s face,” and were dismissed with a letter,

    which all the learning at Tobolsk and Moscow could not decipher.

    Thirty-four years after, the Czar Alexis (1653) sent his

    envoy Baikoff, who refused to prostrate himself before the

    Erapei-or Shunchl, and was promptly dismissed. This repulse

    did not interfere with trade, for in the years 1658, 1672, and

    1677 three several trading embassies reached Peking. During

    j»ll this time Russian and Chinese subjects and soldiers frequently

    quarrelled, especially along the banks of the Amur, and

    the necessity of settling these disturbances and pretexts for

    trouble by fixing the boundary line being evident to both nations,

    commissioners were appointed and met at Xipchu, where,

    on August 27, 1689, they signed the first treaty ever agreed

    upon by the court of Peking. The principal points in it were

    the retirement of the Russians from Albazin and Manchuria,

    where they had held their own for thirty-eight years, the fj-eedom

    of trade, and defining the frontier along the Daourian

    Mountains. The missionary Gerbillon was mainly instrumental

    ‘ CMnese Repository, Vol. XIX., pp. 526-535. Yule’s CatJiay, p. cxxx. Re*muriut in Mem. de I’AacJ. Ins., Vol. VII., pp. 367, 391 ff.

    ill settling these disputes, and neitlier party would probably

    have lowered its ari-ogaut claims if it had not been through his

    influence ; the Chinese were far the most difficult to please.’

    Peter sent Ysbrandt Ides in 1G92 as his envoy to Peking to

    exchange the ratitications. llis journey across the wilds and

    wastes of Central Asia took up more time than a voj^age by

    sea, for it was not till a year and eight months that “he could

    return thanks to the great God, who had conducted them all

    safe and well to their desired place.” Ides’ own account of his

    mission contains very slight notices regarding its object or how

    he was received ; but it is now credibly believed that he performed

    the kotoio before the Emperor. About twenty years

    after iiis departure, Kanghi sent a Manchu envoy, Tulishen,

    through Russia to confei” with the khan of the Tourgouth Tartars

    about their return to China, which a portion of them accomplished

    some years after. Tulishen executed his mission so

    well that he was sent again as envoy to the Czar about 1730,

    and reached Petersburg in the reign of Peter II. In 1719 Peter the Great despatched another embassy, under Ismailoif, to arrange the trade then conducted on a precarious footing—an account of which was drawn up by John Bell in 17G3. Ismailoff refused to prostrate himself until it was agreed that a Chinese minister, whenever sent to Petersburg, should conform to the usages of the Russians ; a safe stipulation, certainly, to a court which never demeans itself to send missions. The evident desii-ableness of keeping on good terms with the Russians led the Chinese to treat their envoys with unusual respect and attend to the business they came to settle. One of the most instructive books on the kind of intercourse carried on during this period is the Journal of Lange, who went first in 1716, and thrice afterward, and has left an account of his residence at Kangxi’s capital.’

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VIII., pp. 417, 500. Du Halde, Description geo’gi’fiphiqiie, historiqne, chronologique, ]iulitique el phyHique iJe V Empire tie la Chine”t deht, T(trf(irie chinoiHC, 4 vols., Paris, 1735. G. Timkowski, Travels of the liiisKian Mission through Mongolia to China, etc., 2 vols., London, 1827. Klaproth, Memoires stir I’ A.sie, Tome I., pp. 1-81.

    ” Published in one volume with Bell: Joitritcy froni St. Petersburgh in Ruatin to Ispahan in Persia, etc., London, 1715.

    RUSSIAN MISSIONS TO PKKIXG. 443

    In 1727 a fifth mission was sent by the Empress Catherine under Count Vladishivitcli, which succeeded in establishing the intercourse on a still better basis, viz., that a mission, consisting of six ecclesiastical and four lay members, should remain at Peking to study the Chinese and Manchu languagea, so that in terpreters could be prepared and communications carried on satisfactorily; the members were to be changed decennially. The caravans, which had been the vehicles of trade, were regulated about 1730 by the establishment, at Kiakhta and Maimaichin, of two marts on the frontier, where it could be brought under regulations; the last reached Peking in 1755. This embassy was the most successful of all, and partly owing to the Emperor Yungcliing”s desire to counterbalance Jesuit intrigues by raising up other interpreters. This treaty, signed August 27, 1727, remained in force till June, 1858—the longest lived treaty on record.

    The narrative of George Timkowski, who conducted the relief sent in 1821, gives an account of his trip from Kiakhta across the desert, together with considerable information relating to the Kalkas and other Mongol tribes subject to China. The archimandrite.

    Hyacinth Batchourin, has given a description of Poking, but such works as the members of the Russian college have written are for the most part still in that language. Up to the present date there have been sixteen archiniandrites (1736 to 1880) and many monks attached to the ecclesiastical mission in Peking.’

    The intercourse of the English with Chiria, though it commenced

    later than other maritime nations of Europe, has been

    far more important in its consequences, and their trade greater

    in amount than all other foreign nations combined. This intercourse

    has not been such as was calculated to impress the Chinese

    with a just idea of the character of the British nation as a

    leading Christian people ; for the East India Company, which

    had the monopoly of the trade between the two countries for

    nearly two centuries, systematically opposed every effort to diffuse

    Christian doctrine and general knowledge among them down to the end of their control in 1834.

    ‘ Dudgeon’s monograph on Russian Intercourse with China contains notices of all events of any importance between the two nations, digested with great care, pp. 80, Peking, 1872. Also, Martin’s China, Vol. I., p. 386.

    The liri^t English vessels anc-liored oft Macao in July, 1G35

    under the coiumand of AVeddell, who was sent to China in ac

    o’ordance witli a “truce and free trade” which liad been entered

    into between the Enghsh merchants and the viceroy of Goa, wlio

    gave letters to the governor of Macao. The iieet was coldlj

    received and AVeddell deluded with vain promises until the

    Portuguese fleet had sailed for Japan, when he was denied permission

    to trade. Two or three of his officers having visited

    Canton, he was very desirous to participate in the traffic, and

    proceeded wi’di his whole fleet up to the Bogue forts, where

    this desire was made known to the commanders of the forts,

    who promised to return an answer in a week. Meanwhile the

    Portuguese so misrepresented them to the Chinese that the

    commander of the forts concluded to end the matter by driving

    them away. Having made every preparation during the j^eriod

    the fleet M’as waiting, an attack was first made upon a wateringboat

    by firing shot at it when passing near the forts.

    ” Herewith the whole fleet, being instantly incensed, did, on

    the sudden, display their bloody ensigns ; and, weighing their

    anchors, fell up with the flood, and berthed themselves before

    the castle, from whence came many shot, yet not any that

    touched so much as ludl or rope ; wdierenpon, not being able to

    endure their bravadoes any longer, each ship began to play

    furiously upon them with their broadsides ; and after two or

    three hours, perceiving their cowardly fainting, the boats were

    landed with about one hundred men : which sight occasioned

    them, w’ith great distractions, instantly to abandon the castle and

    fly ; the boats’ crews, in the meantime, without let, entering the

    same and displaying his Majesty’s colors of Great Britain upon

    the walls, having the same night put aboard all their ordnance,

    fired the council-house and demolished wdiat they could. The

    boats of the fieet also seized a juidv laden with boards and timber,

    and another wuth salt. Another vessel of small moment

    was surprised, by whose boat a letter was sent to the chief

    mandarins at Canton, expostulating their breach of truce, excusing

    the assailing of the castle, and withal in fair terms r&

    i[uiring the liberty of trade.” ‘ This letter was shortly answered,

    ‘ Staunton’s E^mbassy^ Vol. I.

    , y\>. 5-12.

    COMMENCEMENT OF J5KIT1SII INTEKCOUKSE. 44^

    and after a little explanatory negotiation, hastened to a favorable

    conclusion on the part of the Chinese by what they had

    seen, trade was allowed after the captured guns and vessels

    were restored and the ships supplied with cargoes.

    No other attempt to open a trade was made till 1G64, and

    during the change of dynasty which took place in the interim,

    the trade of all nations with China suffered. The East India

    Company had a factory at ijantam in Java, and one at Madras,

    but their trade with the East was seriously inconnnoded by tlie

    war with the Dutch ; when it was renewed in 1664, only one

    ship was sent to Macao, but such v/ere the exactions imposed

    upon the trade by the Chinese, and the effect of the misrepresentations of the Portuguese, that the ship returned without

    effecting sale. This did not discourage the Company, however,

    who ordered their agents at Bantam to make inquiries respecting

    the most favorable port and what commodities were most

    in demand. They mentioned ” Fuhchau as a place of great

    resort, affording all China commodities, as raw and wrought

    silk, tutenague, gold, china-root, tea, etc.” A trade had been

    opened with Koxinga’s son in Formosa and at Amoy, but this

    rude chieftain had little other idea of traffic than a means of

    helping himself to every curious commodity the ships brought,

    and levying heavy imposts upon their cargoes. A treaty was

    indeed entered into with him, in which the supercargoes, as

    was the case subsequently in 1842, stipulated for far greater

    privileges and lighter duties than Chinese goods and vessels

    would have had in English ports. Besides freedom to

    go where they pleased without any one attending them, access

    at all times to the king, liberty to choose their own clerks

    and trade with whom they pleased, it was also agreed ” that

    what goods the king buys shall pay no custom ; that rice

    imported pay no custom ; that all goods imported pay three

    per cent, after sale, and all goods exported be custom free.”

    The trade at Amoy was more successful than at Zealandia, and a small vessel was sent there in 16TT, which brought back a favorable report. In 1078 the investments for these two places were $30,000 in bullion and $20,000 in goods ; the returns were chiefly in silk goods, tutenague, rhubarb, etc.; the trade was continued fur several years, ajiparently with considerable profit, though the Manchus continually increased the restrictions under which it labored. In 16S1 the Company ordered their factories at Anioy and Formosa to be withdrawn, and one established at Canton or Fuhchau, but in 1685 the trade was renewed at Amoy.

    The Portuguese managed to prevent the English obtaining a footing at Canton until about 10S4 ; and, as Davis remarks, the stupid pertinacity with which they endeavored to exclude them from this port and trade is one of the most striking circumstances connected with these trials and rivalries. It is the more inexplicable in the case of the rortuguese, for they could carry nothing to England, nor could they force the English to trade with them at second hand ; theirs M’as truly the ” dog in the manger” policy, and they have subsequently starved upon it.

    In 10S9 a duty of five shillings per pound was laid upon tea imported into England ; and the principal articles of export are stated to have been wrought silks of every kind, porcelain, lacquered-ware, a good quantity of fine tea, some fans and screens.

    Ten years after, the court of directors sent out a consul’s commission to the chief supercargo, Mr. Catchpoolo, which constituted him king’s minister or consul for the whole Empire of China and the adjacent islands. In ITOl an attempt was made by him to open a trade, and he obtained permission to send ships to Chusan or Ningbo; an investment in three vessels, worth £101,300, was accordingly made, but he found the exactions of the government so grievous, and the monopoly of the merchants so oppressive, that the adventure proved a great loss, and the traders were compelled to withdraw. The Company’s hopes of trade at that port nuist, however, have been great, for their investment to Amoy that year was only ,£34,400, and to Canton £40,800. In 1702 Catchpoole also established a factory at Pulo Condore, an island near the coast of Cochin China which had been taken by the English. The whole concern, however, experienced a tragical end in 1705, when the Malays rose upon the English, murdered them all, and burned the factory. The Cochin Chinese are said to have instigated this treacherous at tack to regain the island, which was claimed by them.

    EARLY EFFORTS IX ESTABLISHING A TRADE. 447

    The extortions and grievances suffered by the traders at Canton were increased in 1T02 by the appointment of an individual who alone had the right of trading with them and of farming it out to those who had the means of doing so. The trade seems hardly, even at this time, to have taken a regular form, but by 1720 the number and value of the annual commodities had so much increased that the Chinese established a uniform duty of four per cent, on all goods, and appointed a body of native merchants, who, for the privilege of trading with foreigners, became security for their payment of duties and good behavior. The duty on imports was also increased to about sixteen per cent, and an enormous fee demanded of purveyors before they could supply ships with provisions, besides a heavy measurement duty and cumshaw to the collector of customs.

    These exactions seemed likely to increase unless a stand was taken against them. This was done by a united appeal to the governor in person in 1728 ; yet the relief was only temporary, for the plan was so effectual and convenient for the government that the co-hona; was ei-e lono- re-established as the only medium through which the foreign trade could be conducted. An additional duty of ten per cent, was laid upon all exports, which no efforts were effectual in removing until the accession of Kienlung in 1736. This apparently suicidal practice of levying export duties is, in China, really a continuation of the internal excise or transit duties paid upon goods exported in native vessels as well as foreign.

    The Emperor, in taking off the newly imposed duty of ten per cent, required that the merchants should hear the act of grace read upon their knees ; but the foreigners all met in a bodv, and each one ao;i’eed on his honor not to submit to this slavish posture, nor make any concession or proposal of accommodation without acquainting the I’est. The Emperor also required the delivery of all the arms on board ship, a demand afterward waived on the payment of about ten thousand dollars.

    The Hang merchants shortly became the only medium of communication with the government, themselves being the exactors of the duties and contrivers of the grievances, and when complaints were made, the judges of the equity of their own acta

    In 1734 only one English ship came to Canton, and one waa sent to Anioy, but the extortions there were greater than at the other port, whereupon the latter vessel withdrew. In 1736 the number of ships at Canton was four English, two French, two Dutch, one Danish, and one Swedish vessel ; the Portuguese ships had been restricted to Macao before this date.

    Commodore Anson arrived at Macao in 1742, and as the Centurion was the first British man-of-war which had visited China, his decided conduct in refusing to leave the river until provisions were furnished, and his determination in seeking an interview with the governor, no doubt had a good effect. A mixture of decision and kindness, such as that exhibited by Anson when demanding only what was in itself right, and backed by an array of force not lightly to be trifled with or incensed, has always proved the most successful way of dealing with the Chinese, who on their part need instruction as well as intimidation. The constant presence of a ship of war on the coast of China would perhaps have saved foreigners nnich of the personal vexations, and prevented many of the imposts upon trade which the history of foreign intercourse exhibits, making it in fact little better than a recital of annoyances on the part of a government too ignorant and proud to understand its own true interests, and recriminations on the part of traders unable to do more than protest against them.

    EXERTIONS AND PUNISHMENT OF MR. FLINT. 449

    In consequence of the exactions of the government and the success of the co-hong in preventing all direct intercourse with the local authorities, the attempt was again made to trade at .Vmoy and jSingpo. The llardwicke was sent to Amoy in 1744, and obliged to return without a cargo. Messrs. Flint and Harrison were despatched to Tsingpo in 1755, and were well received ; but when the Ilolderness subsequently came to trade, it was with difficulty that she procured a cargo, and an iuq)erial edict was promulgated soon after restricting all foreign ships to Canton. In 175i> the factor}- at IS’ingpo was demulished, so that Mr. Flint, who repaired there that year, was imable to do anything toward restoring the trade. This gentleman was a person of uncommon perseverance and talents, and had mastered the difficulties of the Chinese language so as to act as interpreter at Canton twelve years before lie was sent on his mission, ” The ungrateful return which his energy and exertions in their service met with from his employers,” justly observes Sir erolin Davis, ” was such as tended in all probability, more than any other cause, to discourage his successors from undertaking so laborious, unprofitable, and even hazardous a work of supererogation.”

    On his arrival at Ningpo, Mr. Flint, finding it useless to attempt anything there, proceeded in a native vessel to Tientsin, from whence he succeeded in making his case known to the Emperor Kienlung. A commissioner was deputed to accompany him overland to Canton ; Mr. Flint proceeded to the English factory soon after his arrival, and the foreigners of all nations assembled before the commissioner, who informed them that the hoppo had been superseded, and all duties remitted over six per cent, on goods and the cumshaw and tonnage dues on ships. The sequel of Mr. Flint’s enterprise was unfortunate, and the mode the Chinese took to bring it about thoroughly characteristic.

    It proved, however, that these fair appearances were destined only to be the prelude to a storm. Some days afterward the governor desired to see Mr. Flint for the purpose of communicating the Emperor’s orders, and was accompanied by the council of his countrymen. When the party had reached the palace, the Hang merchants proposed their going in one at a time, but they insisted on proceeding together ; and on Mr. Flint being called for, they were received at the first gate and ushered through two courts with seeming complaisance by the officers in waiting ; but on arriving at the gate of the inner court they were hurried, and even forced into the governor’s presence, where a struggle ensued with their brutal conductors to force them to do homage after the Chinese fashion until they were overpowered and thrown down. Seeing their determination not to submit to these base humiliations, the governor ordered the people to desist ; and then telling Mr. Flint to advance, he pointed to an order, which he called the Emperor’s edict, for his banishment to Macao, and subsequent departure for England, on account of his endeavoring to open a trade at Ningpo contrary to orders from Peking He added that the native who had written the petition in Chinese was to b^ beheaded that day for traitorously encouraging foreigners, which was performed on a man quite innocent of what these officers were pleased to call a crime. Mr. Flint was soon after conveyed to Tsienshan, a place near Macao, called Casa Branca by the Portuguese, where he was imprisoned two years and a half and then sent to England. ‘

    ‘Davis, Chinese, Vol. I., p. 58.

    Mr. Flint stated to the Company that a fee of one thousand two hundred and fifty dollars to the governor would set him at liberty, but they contented themselves Avith a petition. The punishment he received from the Chinese for this attempt to break their laws would not have been considered as unmerited or unjust in any other country, but the neglect of the Company to procure the liberation of one who had suffered so much to serve them reflects the greatest reproach upon that body.

    The whole history of the foreign trade, as related by Auber

    In his chronological narrative, during the one hundred and fifty years up to 1842 is a melancholy and curious chapter in national intercourse. The grievances complained of were delay in loading ships and plunder of goods on their transit to Canton; the injurious proclamations annually put up by the government accusing foreigners of horrible crimes ; the extortions of the underlings of office ; and the difficulty of access to the high authorities. The Hang merchants, from their position as traders and interpreters between the two parties, were able to delude both to a considerable extent, though their responsibility for the acts and payments of foreigners, over whom they could exercise no real restraint, rendered their .situation by no means pleasant. The rule on which the Chinese government proceeded in its dealings with foreigners was this :

    *’ The barbarians are like beasts, and not to be ruled on the same principles as citizens. AYere any one to attempt controlling them by the great maxims of reason, it would tend to nothing but confusion. The ancient kings well understood this, and accordingly ruled barbarians by misrule ; therefore, to rule barbarians by misrule is the true and best way of ruling them.”

    The same rule in regard to foreign traders was vii-tuallj^ acted on in England during the reign of Henry A”II., and the ideas among the Chinese of their power over those who visit their shores are not unlike those which prevailed in Europe before the Reformation.

    ANOMALOUS POSITION OF FOREIGNERS IX CHINA. 451

    The entire ignorance of foreign traders of the spoken and written language of China brought them into contempt with all classes, and where all intercourse was carried on in a jargon which each party despised, the results were often misunderstanding, dislike, and hatred. Another fruitful source oi difficulty was the turbulent conduct of sailors. The French and English seamen at Whanipoa, in 1754, carried their national hatred to such a degree that they could not pursue their trade without quarrelling; and a Frenchman having killed an English sailor, the Chinese stopped the trade of the former nation

    until the guilty person was given np, though he was subsequently

    liberated. The Chinese allotted two different islands

    in the river at Whampoa for the recreation of the seamen of each

    nation, in order that such troubles might be avoided in future,

    A similar case occurred at Canton in 17S0, when a Frenchman

    killed a Portuguese sailor at night in one of the merchants’

    houses and fled to the consul’s for refuge. The Chinese demanded

    the criminal, and after some days he was given up to

    them and publicly strangled ; this punishment he no doubt merited,

    although it was the fii’st case in which they had interfered

    where the matter was altogether among foreigners. In 1784

    a native was killed by a ball left in a gun when firing a salute,

    and the Chinese, on the principle of requiring life for life, demanded

    the man who had fired the gun. Knowing that the

    English were not likely to give him up, the police seized Mr. Smith, the supercargo of the vessel, and carried him a prisoner into the city. On the seizure of this gentleman the ships’ boats were ordered up from Whampoa with armed crews to defend the factories, A messenger from the Chinese, however, declared that their purpose in seizing Smith was simply to examine him on the affair, to which statement the captive himself added a request that the gunner should be sent up to the authorities and submit to their questions. Trusting too much to their promises, the man was allowed to go alone before the officials within the city walls, when Mr. Smith was immediately liberated and the unhappy gunner strangled, after some six weeks’ confinement, by direct orders of the Emperor. The man, probably, underwent no form of trial intelligible to himself, and his condemiuition was the more unjust, as by Section CCXCII. of the Chinese code he was allowed to ransom himself by a fine of about twenty dollars. As a counterpart of this

    tragedy, the Chinese stated (and there was reason for believing

    tliein) tliat a native who had accidentally killed a British sea

    man about the same time was executed for the casualty.

    The Chinese mode of operations, when it was inipracticablo

    to get possession of the guilty or accused party, was well exhibited

    in the ease of a homicide occurring in 1807. A party

    of sailors had been drinking at Canton, when a scuffle ensued,

    and the sailors put the populace to flight, killing one of the

    natives in tlie onset. The trade was promptly stopped, and the

    liong merchant M’ho liad sccxred the .ship lield responsible for

    the delivery of the offender. Eleven men were arrested and a

    court instituted in the Company’s hall before Chinese judges,

    Captain Rolles, of II. B. M. ship Lion, being present with the

    committee. The actual homicide could not be found, but one

    Edward Sheen \vas detained in custody, which satisfied the

    Chinese M’hile he remained in Canton ; but when the committee

    wished to take him to Macao with them they resisted, imtil

    Captain Holies declai’cd that otherwise he should take the ])risoner

    on board his own ship, which he did. Being now beyond

    their reach, the authorities were fain to account for the affair

    to the supreme triljunul at the capital by inventing a tale, stating

    that the prisoner had caused the death of a native by raising

    an upj)er window and accidentally dropping a stick npon

    liis head as he was passing in the street below. This statement

    was reported to his Majesty as having been concurred in by the

    English after a full examination of witnesses who attested to

    the circumstances ; the imperial rescript affirmed the sentence

    of the Board of Punishments, which ordered that the prisoner

    should be set at liberty after paying the nsual fine of twenty

    dollars provided by law to defray the funeral expenses. The

    trade was thereupon resumed.’

    ‘ Sir G. T. Staunton, Penal Code of Chiiut^ p. 516.

    CIIIXKSK ACTION IN CASP:S OF nOMIClDE. 453

    Another case of homicide occurred at AVhampoa in 1820, when the authorities reported that the butcher of another ship, who had committed suicide the day of the inquest, was the guilty person. The court of directors very properly blamed their agents at Canton for their complicity in this subterfuge, and spoke of ” the paramount advantages which must invariably be derived from a strict and inflexible adherence to truth as the foundation of all moral obligations.” ‘

    Other cases of murder and homicide have since occurred between foreigners and natives. In the instance of the British frigate Topaze at Lin tin Island in 1822, whose crew had been attacked on shore, her captain successfully resisted the surrender of a British subject for the death of two natives in the affray.

    The dignified and united action of the British authorities on this occasion was a striking contrast to the weakness of the Americans the year before in the case of Terrariova. It proved the beneficial results of a stand for the I’ight, for no foreigner has since been executed by the Chinese. It also proved the necessity and advantages of competent interpreters and translators, inasmuch as the case owed much of its success to Dr. Morrison’s aid, which had been rejected by the Hang merchants the previous year.”

    These cases are brought together to illustrate the anomalous

    position which foreigners once held in China. They constituted

    a community by themselves, sui)ject chiefly to their own

    sense of honor in their mutual dealings, but their relations wdth

    the Chinese were like what lawyers call a ” state of nature.”

    The change of a governor-general, of a collector of customs, or

    senior hong merchant, involved a new couree of policy according

    to the personal character of these functionaries. The committee

    of the East India Company had considerable power over

    British subjects, especially those living in Canton, and could

    deport them if they pleased ; but the consuls of other nations

    had little or no authority over their countrymen. Trade was

    left at the same loose ends that politics were, and the want of

    an acknowledged tariff encouraged sniuggling and kept up a

    constant spirit of resistance and dissatisfaction between the native

    and foreign merchants, each party endeavoring to get along

    as advantageously to itself as practicable. IS or was there any

    acknowlediied medium of communication between them, for the

    ‘ Auber, Chirm: An Outline of its Oovernment, Tmws, Policy, etc., p. 286,London, 18;M.

    – ChhuHi’ Repository, Vol. II., pp. 513-515. Moriison’s Memoirs, Vol. XL.App., p. 10- Auber, China, its Government, etc., pp ~88-309.

    (•(.iit^iils, not being credited by the Chinese Government, came

    and went, hoisted or lowered their flags, without the slightest

    notice fi’oni the authorities. Trade conld proceed, perhaps,

    without involving the nations in war, since if it was unprofitable

    it would cease ; but while it continued on such a precarious

    footing national character suffered, and tlic misrepresentations

    produced thereby rendered explanations dilficult, inasmuch as

    neither party understood or believed the other.

    The death of the unfortunate gunner in 1784, and the large

    debts owed to the English by the hong merchants, Avhich there

    seemed no probability of recovering, induced the British Government

    to tnrn its attention to the situation of the king’s subjects in

    China with the purpose of placing their relations on a better

    footing. The flagitious conduct of a Captain M’Clary, who seized

    a Dutch vessel at Whampoa in 1781, which Davis narrates,”

    and the inability of the Company to restrain such proceedings,

    also had its weight in deciding the crown to send an embassy to

    Peking. Colonel Cathcart was appointed envoy in 1788, but his

    death in the Straits of Sunda temporarily deferred the mission,

    which was resumed on a larger scale in 1792, when the Earl of

    Macartney was sent as ambassador, with a large suite of able

    men, to place the relations between the two nations, if possible,

    on a well-understood and secure footing. Two ships were appointed

    as tenders to accompany his Majesty’s ship Lion (04),

    and nothing was omitted, either in the composition of the mission

    or the presents to the Emperor, to insure its success. Little

    is known regarding its real impression upon the Chinese ;

    they treated it with great consideration while it remained in

    the country, although at an estimated cost of $850,000, and probably dismissed it with the feeling that it was one of the most splendid testimonials of respect that a tributary nation had ever paid their court. The English were henceforth registered among the nations who had sent tribute-bearers, and were consequently only the more bound to obey the injunctions of their master.”

    ‘ The Cfiitirsr, Vol. I., p. 03.

    ‘Sir G. L. Staunton, Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, 3 vols., London, 1798.

    EMBASSY OF LOIID MACA KINKY, 45.0

    To the European world, as well as to the British nation, however, this expedition may be said to have opened China, so great was the interest taken in it and so well calculated were the narratives of Staunton and Barrow to convey better ideas of that remote country. ” Much of the lasting impression which the relations of Lord Macartney’s embassy leave on the mind of his reader,” to quote from a review of it, ” must be ascribed, exclusive of the natural effect of clear, elegant, and able composition, to the number of persons engaged in that business, the variety of their characters, the reputation they already enjoyed or afterward acquired ; the bustle and stir of a sea voyage; the placidity and success which finally characterized the intercourse of the English with the Chinese ; the splendor of the reception the latter gave to their European guests ; the walks in the magnificent gardens of the ‘ Son of Heaven ; ‘ the picturesque and almost romantic navigation upon the imperial canal; and perhaps, not less for the interest we feel for every grand enterprise, skillfully prepared, and which proves successful, partly in consequence of the happy choice of the persons and the means by which it was to be carried into effect.” This impression of the grandeur and extent of the Chinese Empire has ever since more or less remained upon the minds of all readers of Staunton’s narrative ; but truer views were imparted than had before been entertained concerning its real civilization and its low rank among the nations.

    That the embassy produced some good effect is undeniable, though it failed in most of the principal points.. It also afforded the Chinese an opportunity of making arrangements concerning that future intercourse which they could not avoid, even if they would not negotiate, and of acquiring information concerning foreign nations which would have proved of great advantage to them. Their contemptuous i-ejection, ignorant though they decided to remain of the real character of these courtesies, of peaceful missions like those of Macartney, Titsingh, and others, takes away much of our sympathy for the calamities which subsequently came upon them. With characteristic shortsightedness they looked upon the very means taken to arrange existing ill-understood relations as a reason for considering those relations as settled to their liking, and a motive to ^\\\\ further exactions.

    For many years subsequent to this endjassy the trade went on without interruption, though the demands and duties were rather increased than diminished, and the personal liberty of foreigners more and more restricted. The government generally, down to the lowest underling, systematically endeavored to degrade and insult foreigners in the eyes of the populace and citizens of Canton, in order, in case of any disturbance, to have their co-operation and sympathy against the ” barbarian devils,” The dissolute and violent conduct of many foreigners toward the Chinese gave them, alas, too many arguments for their aspersions and exactions, and both parties too frequently considered the other fair subjects for imposition.

    In 1S02 the English troops occupied Macao by order of the governor-general of India, lest it should be attacked by the French, but the news of the treaty of peace arriving soon after, they re-embarked almost as soon as the Chinese remonstrated.

    The discussion was revived, however, in 1808, when the French again threatened the settlement ; and the English, under Admiral Drury, landed a detachment to assist the Portuguese in defending it. The Chinese, who had previously asserted their complete jurisdiction over this territory, and which a little examination would have plainly shown, now protested against the armed occupation of their soil, and immediately stopped the trade and denied provisions to the ships. The English traders were ordered by the Committee to go aboard ship, and the governor refused to have the least communication with the admiral until the troops were withdrawn. He attempted to proceed to Canton in armed boats, but was repulsed, and finally, in order not to implicate the trade any further (a step not at all apprehended in protecting the Portuguese), he wisely withdrew his troops and sailed for India. The success of the native authorities greatly rejoiced them ; a temple was built on the river’s bank to commemorate their victory, and a fort, called ” Ilowqua’s Folly ” by foreignerb(since washed away), erected toguai’d the river at that point.

    ATTITUDE OF CHINESE TUWAKD FOREIGN TKAUEKS. 457

    The Chinese, ignorant of the principles on which international intercourse is regulated among western powers, regarded every hostile deinoiistratiuii between them in their waters as directed toward themselves, and demanding their interference. Though often powerless to defend themselves against their own piratical subjects, as has been manifested again and again—for example, in 1810, and also in 1(500, when Koxinga ravaged the coast—they still assume that they are able to protect all foreigners who ” range themselves under their sway.” This was exhibited in 1814, when the British frigate Doris, against all the acknowledged rights of a nation over its own waters, and simply because it could be done with impunity, cruised off the port of C’anton to seize American vessels. The provincial authorities ordered the Committee to send her away, saying that if the English and Americans had any petty squabbles they must settle them between themselves and not bring them to China.

    The Committee stated their inability to control the proceedings of men-of-war, whereupon the Chinese began a series of annoyances against the merchants and shipping, prohibiting the employment of native servants, entering their houses to seize natives, molesting and stopping ships’ boats proceeding up and down the river on business, hindering the loading of the ships, and other like harassing acts so characteristic of Asiatic governments when they feel themselves powerless to cope with the real object of their fear or anger. These measures proceeded at last to such a length that the Committee determined to stop the British trade until the governor would allow it to go on, as before, without molestation, and they had actually left Canton for Whampoa, and proceeded down the river some distance, before he showed a sincere wish to arrange matters amicably. A deputation from each party accordingly met in Canton, and the principal points in dispute were at last gained. In this affair the Chinese would be adjudged to have been altogether in the right according to international law. At this time the governor general conceded three important points to the Committee, viz., the right of corresponding with the government, under seal, in the Chinese language, the unmolested employment of native servants, and the assurance that the houses of foreigners should not be entered without permission ; iior were these stipulations evei retracted or violated.

    The proceedings in this affair were conducted with no little apprehension on both sides, for the value of the traffic was of such importance that neither party could really think of stepping it. Besides the revenue accruing to government from duties and presents, the preparation and shipment of the articles in demand fur foreign countries give employment to millions of natives in different parts of the Empire, and had caused Canton to become one of the greatest marts in the world. The governor and his colleagues were responsible for the revenue and peaceful continuance of the trade; but through their ignorance of the true principles of a prosperous commerce, their fear of the consequences ]’esidting from any innovation or change, or the least extension of privileges to the few half-imprisoned foreigners, they thought their security la}’ rather in restriction than in freedom, in a haughty bearing to intimidate, and not in conciliation to please their customers. On the other hand, the existence of the East India Company’s charter depended in a good degree upon keeping a regular supply of tea in England, and therefore the success of the Committee’s bold measure of stopping the trade depended not a little upon the ignorance of the Chinese of the great power a passive course of action would give them.

    The government at home, on learning these proceedings, resolved to despatch another ambassy to Peking in order to stato the facts of the case at court, and if possible agree upon somo understood mode of conducting trade and communicating with, the heads of government. Lord Amherst, who like Lord Macartney had been governor-general of Lidia, was appointed ambassador to Peking, and Henry Ellis and Sir George T. Staunton associated with him as second and third commissioners.

    A large suite of able men, with Dr. Morrison as principal interpreter, accompanied the ambassy, and the usual quantity and variety of presents.’ The mission reached the capital August 28, 1816, but was summarily dismissed without an audience, because the ambassador would not perform the kotow

    ‘ Ellis, Embassy to China, London, 1840. Sir J. F. Davis, Sketclies of China, 2 Vols., London, 1841. Clarke Abel, Ndrrative of a Journey in the Interioi of Chiiiii (111(1 a Voyaae to (iiid from that Country in 1816 and 1817, London,1»18. II. Morrison, A View of China, etc., Macao, 1817. LOKI> AMHEKST’s embassy TO I’KKING. 459

    or appear before his Majesty as soon as he un-ived ; tlie intrigues

    of the authorities at Canton with the high officers about

    the Emperor to defeat the ambassy by deceiving their master

    have also been adduced as reasons for its faihire. Its real failure,

    as we can now see, was owing to the utter misconception

    of their true position by the Emperor and his officials, arising

    from their ignorance, pride, isolation, and mendacity, all combining

    to keep them so until resistless force should open them

    to meliorating influences. It was the last attempt of the kind,

    and three alternatives only remained : the resort to force to

    compel them to enter into soine equitable arrangement, entire

    submission to wdiatever they ordered, or the withdrawal of all

    trade until they proposed its resumption. The course of events

    continued the second until the flrst was resorted to, and eventuated

    in laying open the whole coast to the enterprise of western

    nations.

    At the close of the East India Company’s exclusive rights in China, the prospect for the continuance of a peaceful trade was rather dubious. The enterprising Mr. Marjoribanks despatched a vessel to ascertain how far trade could be carried on along the coast, which resulted in satisfactorily proving that the authorities were able and determined to stop all traffic, however desirous the people might be for it. The contraband trade in opium was conducted in a manner that threatened ere long to

    involve the two nations, but the Company nominally kept itself

    aloof from it by bringing none in its ships: the sajne Company,

    however, did everything in India to encourage the

    growth and saleof the drug, and received from it at the time of

    its dissolution an annual revenue of nearly two millions sterling.

    During its whole existence in China the East India Company stood forward as the defenders of the rights of foreigners and humanity, in a manner which no community of isolated merchants could have done, and to some extent compelled the Chinese to treat all more civilly. As a body it did little for the encouragement of Chinese literature or the diffusion of Christian truth or of science among the Chinese, except the printing of Morrison’s Dictionary and an annual grant to the Anglo-Chinese College; and although Dr. Morrison was their official translator for twenty-five years, the directors never gavb liiiii the empty compliment of enrolling him in the list of tlieii servants, nor contributed one penny for carrying- on his great work of translating and printing the Bible in Chinese. They set themselves against all such efforts, and during a long existence the natives of that country had no means put into their hands, by their agency, of learning that there was any great difference in the religion, science, or civilization of European nations and their own.

    The trade of the Americans to China commenced in 1784, the first vessel having left New York February 22d of that year, and returned May 11, 1785 ; it was commanded by Captain Green, and the supercargo, Samuel Shaw, on his return, gave a lucid narrative of his voyage to Chief Justice Jay. His journal, published in 1847, contains the only lecord of this voyage, and furnishes many curious facts about the political and social relations existing between foreigners then in China. Our trade with China steadily increased after this date, and has been the second in amount for many years. The only political event in the American intercourse up to 1842 was the suspension of trade in October, 1821, in consequence of the homicide of a Chinese by a sailor at Whampoa. The American merchants were really helpless to carry the trial of Terranova to a just conclusion against the Chinese law, which peremptorily required life for life wherever foreigners were concerned, and gave him up on the assurance that his life was in no danger.

    They are stated, in a narrative published in the North American lieview, to have told llowtpia at the trial on board the Emily at Whampcja, “We are bound to submit to yowY laws while we are in your waters; be they ever so unjust, we will not lesist them.” The poor man was taken out of the ship by force, while all the Americans present protested against the unfair trial he had had ; he was then promptly carried to Canton and strangled at tlif public execution ground (October 25) ; his body was given up next day, and the trade reopened.’

    ‘Shaw’s Jonrnal, Boston, 1847. North Anirrtrm) Ifrvicir, Jannary, IS’^iry. ChiiirKP /iVyw.v/Vo/v/, So])t(‘ml)(‘r, 18:50 Kir Geo. T. Staiiutou’s iVWi’aa <>/ Ohiiuif Becond editiuii, pp. 4()’J—lo2, 1850.

    AMERICAN TKADE WITH CHINA. 461

    The American Government neither took notice of this affair nor made remonstrance against its injustice, but still left the commerce, lives, and property of its citizens wholly unprotected, and at the mercy of (Chinese laws and rulers. The consuls at Canton were merely merchants, having no salary from their government, no funds to employ interpreters when necessary, or any power over their countrymen, and came and went without the least notice or acknowledgment from the Chinese.

    The trade and intercourse of the Swedes, Danes, Russians, Italians, Austrians, Peruvians, Mexicans, or Chilians, at Canton, have been attended with no peculiarities or events of any moment. None of these nations ever sent ” tribute ” to the court of the Son of Heaven, and their ships traded at Canton on the same footing with the English. The voyage of Peter Osbeck, chaplain to a Swedish East Indiaman, in 1753, contains considerable information relating to the mode of conducting the trade and the position of foreigners, who then enjoyed more liberty and suffered fewer extortions than in later years.’

    The termfaii-l’wel, by which they were all alike called by the Cantonese, indicated the popular estimation, and this epithet of foreign deviV did much, in the course of years, to increase the contempt and ill will which it expressed, not only there but throughout the Empire, for they were thereby maligned before they were known. Another term, /’, has been raised into notice by its condenmation in the British Treaty as an epithet for British subjects or countries. This word, there rendered ‘ harharian,” conveys to a native but little more than the idea that the people thus called do not understand the Chinese language and usages, and are consequently less civilized. This epithet harharian meant to the Greeks those who could not speak Greek, as it did to Shakespeare those who were not English; likewise among the Chinese, under ^were included great masses of their own subjects. By translating icai i as ‘ outside harhai’imis,” foreigners have been misrepresented in the status they held among educated natives, which was not that of savages but of the illiteracy growing out of their ignorance of the language and writings of Confucius.

    ‘ A Voyage to China and the East Indies, translated from the Germun b^Joliu R. Forster, 2 vols. , London, 1771.

    The ancient Chinese hooks speak of four wild nations on the four sides of the country, viz., the fan, i, tih, man / the first two seem to have been applied to traders from the south and west, and grew into more distinct expressions because these traders often acted so outrageously. Other terms, as ” western ocean men,” ” far-travelled strangers,” and ” men from afar,” have occasionally been substituted when i was objected to. When used as a general term, without an opprobrious addition, i is as well adapted as any to denote all foreigners ; but the most recent usage gives prominence to the terms ical hwok and yangjdn (‘outside country’ and ‘ocean man’). Among educated natives the national names are becoming more and more common, as Ying A-wo/i, Fah l-woh, Jlei hoohy Teh kwoh^ for England, France, Americaj Germany, etc.

    CHAPTER XXII.  ORIGIN OF THE FIRST WAR WITH ENGLAND

    The East India Company’s commercial privileges ceased in 1834, and it is worthy of note that an association should have been continued in the providence of God as the principal representative of Christendom among the Chinese, which by its character, its pecuniary interests, and general inclination was bound in a manner to maintain peaceful relations with them, while every other important Asiatic kingdom and island, from Arabia to Japan, was at one time or another during that period the scene of collision, war, or conquest between the nations and their visitors. Its monopoly ceased when western nations no longer looked upon these regions as objects of desire, nor went to Rome to get a privilege to seize or claim such pagan lands as they might discover, and when, too. Christians began to learn and act upon their duty to evangelize these ignorant races.

    China and Japan were once open to such agencies as well as trade, but no effective measures were taken to translate or distribute the pure word of God in them.

    Believing that the affairs of the kingdoms of this world are ordered by their Almighty Governor with regard to the fulfilment of his promises and the promulgation of his truth, the first war between England and China is not only one of great historical interest, but one whose future consequences cannot fail to exercise increasing influence upon many millions of mankind.

    This war was extraordinary in its origin as growing chiefly out of a commercial misunderstanding ; remarkable in its course as being waged between strength and weakness, conscious superiority and ignorant pride ; melancholy in its end as forcing the weaker to pay for the opium within its borders against all its laws, thus paralyzing the little moral pcrsi its feeble government could exert to protect its subjects ; and momentous in its results as introducing, on a basis of acknowledged obligations, one-half of the world to the other, without any arrogant demands from the victors or humiliating concessions from the vanquished. It was a turning-point in the national life of the Chinese race, but the compulsory payment of six million dollars for the opium destroyed has left a stignui upon the English name.

    In 1834 the select Committee of the East India Company repeated its notice given in 1831 to the authorities at Canton, that its ships would no longer come to China, and that a king’s officer would be sent out as chief to manage the affairs of the British trade. The only ” chief ” whom the Chinese expected to receive was a commercial headman, qualified to communicate with their officers by petition, through the usual and legal medium of the Hang merchants. The English Government justly deemed the change one of considerable importance, and concluded that the oversight of their subjects and the great trade they conducted required a commission of experienced men.

    The Tit. Hon. Lord Xapier was consequently appointed as chief

    superintendent of British trade, and ari’ived at Macao July 15,

    1834, where were associated with him in the commission John

    F. Davis and Sir G. B. Bobinson, formerly servants of the

    Company, and a number of secretaries, surgeons, chaplains, interpreters,

    etc., whose miited salaries amounted to $91,000.

    On arriving at Canton the tide-waiters officially repoi’ted that

    three ” foreign devils ” had landed. As soon as Governor Lu

    had learned that Lord Xapier had ]-eached Macao, he ordered

    the hong merchants to go down and intimate to him that he

    nuist remain there until he obtained legal permission to come

    to Canton ; for, having received no orders from couit as to the

    manner in which he should treat the English su[)erintendent,

    lie thought it the safest plan to adhere to the old regulations.

    Lord Napier had been ordered to report himself to the governor

    at Canton 7j>/ lette/’. A short extract from his instructions

    will show the intentions of the English (iovei’iiment in constituting

    the connnission, and the entirely wrong views it had of

    lORD NAriKK Sri’EllINTENDENT OK HKI’ilSII I’KADK. 465

    the notions of the Chinese respecting foreign intercourse, and the character they gave to the English authorities. Lord Palmerston says: In addition to the duty of protecting and fostering the trade of his Majesty’s subjects with the port of Canton, it will be one of your principal objects to ascertain whether it may not be practicable to extend that trade to other parts of the Chinese dominions. . . . It is obvious that, with a view to the attainment of this object, the establishment of direct communications with the jiort of Peking would be desirable ; and you will accordingly diiect your attention to discover the best means of preparing the way for such communications, bearing constantly in mind, however, that j)ecnliar caution and circumspection will be indispensable on this point, lest you should awaken the fears or offend the prejudices of the Chinese Government, and thus put to hazard even the existing opportunities of intercourse by a precipitate attempt

    to extend them In conformity with this caution you will abstain from entering

    into any new relations or negotiations with the Chinese authorities, except

    under very urgent and unforeseen circumstances. But if any opportunity for

    such negotiations should appear to you to present itself, you will lose no time

    in reporting the circumstance to his Majesty’s government, and in asking

    for instructions ; but previously to the receipt of such instructions you will

    adopt no proceedings but such as may have a general tendency to convince the

    Chinese authorities of the sincere desire of the king to cultivate the most

    friendly relations with the Emperor of China, and to join with him in any

    measures likely to promote the happiness and prosperity of their respective Bubjects.

    (jrovernor Lu’s messengers arrived too late to detain the

    British superintendent at Macao, and a military officer despatched

    to intercept liun passed him on the way ; so that the

    first intimation the latter received of the governor’s disposition

    was in an edict addressed to tlie hong merchants, from which

    two paragraphs are extracted :

    On this occasion the barbarian eye, Lord Napier, has come to Canton

    witliout having at all resided at Macao to wait for orders ; nor has he requested

    or received a permit from the superintendent of customs, but has hastily come

    up to Canton— a great infringement of the established laws! The customhouse

    waiters and others who presumed to admit liim to enter are sent with a

    communication requiring their trial. But in tender consideration for the said

    barbarian eye being a new-comer, and unacquainted with the statutes and laws

    of the Celestial Empire, I will not strictly investigate. . . . As to liis object

    in coming to Canton, it is for commercial business. The Celestial Empire appoints

    officers, civil ones to rule the people, military ones to intimidate the

    -nicked. The petty affairs of commerce are to be directed by the merclianta

    themselves : the officers have nothing to hear on the subject. … If any

    affair is to be newly commenced, it is necessary to wait till a respectful memorial be made, clearly reporting it to the great Emperor, and hi? mandate h?

    received ; the great ministers of the Celestial Empire are not permitted to have intercourse by letters with outside barbarians. If the said barbarian eye throws in private letters, I, the governor, will not at all receive or look at them. With regard to the foreign factory of the Company without the walls of the city, it is a place of temporary residence for foreigners coming to Canton to trade ; they are permitted only to eat, sleep, buy and sell in the factories; they are not allowed to go out to ramble about.’

    How unlike were these two docunients and the expectations

    of their writers ! The governor felt that it was safest to wait

    for an imperial mandate before commencing a new affair, and

    refused to receive a letter from a foreign officer. Had he done

    so he would have laid himself open to reprimand and perhaps

    punishment from his superiors ; and in saying that the superintendent

    should report himself and apply for a permit before

    coming to Canton, he only required what the members of the

    Company had always done when they returned from their sum

    mer vacation at Macao. Lord Xapier thought he had tlie same

    liberty to come to Canton without announcing himself that

    other and private foreigners exercised ; but an officer of his

    rank would have pleased the Chinese authorities better by observino;

    their regulations. He had thought of this contingencv

    before leaving England, aiid had requested ” that in case of

    necessity he might have authority to treat with the government

    at Peking ;

    ” this request being denied, he desired that his appointment

    to Canton might be announced at the capital ; this

    not being granted, he wished that a connnunication from the

    home authorities might be addressed to the governor of Canton

    ; but this was deemed inexpedient, and he was directed to

    ” go to Canton and report himself by letter.” These reasonable

    requests involved no loss of dignity, but the court of St. James

    chose to send out a superintendent of trade, an officer partaking

    of both ministerial and consular powers, and ordered him to

    act in a certain manner, involving a violation of the regulations

    of the country where he was going, without providing for tlic

    alternative of his rejection.

    ‘ (Jorrcspondenee relatimj to China (Blue Book), p. 4. Chinese Bepository, Vol. III., p. 188 ; Vol. XL, p. 188.

    HIS LETTER REJECTED I5Y GOVERNOR LU. 467

    To Canton, therefore, he came, and the next day reported himself by letter to the governor, sending it to the city gates. His lordship was directed to have nothing to do with the Hang merchants ; and therefore when they waited upon him the morning of his arrival, with the edict they had been sent down to Macao to ” enjoin upon him,” he courteously dismissed them, with an intimation that “he would communicate immediately with the viceroy in the manner befitting his Majesty’s commission and the honor of the British nation.” The account of the reception of his communication is taken from his correspondence: On the arrival of the party at the city gates, the soldier on guard was despatched to report the circumstance to his superior. In less than a quarter of an hour an officer of inferior rank appeared, whereupon Mr. Astell offered my letter for transmission to the viceroy, which duty this officer declined, addiner that his superior was on his way to the spot. In the course of an hour several officers of nearly equal rank arrived in succession, each refusing to deliver the letter on the plea that higher officers would shortly attend. After an hour’s

    delay, during which time the party were treated with much indignity, not

    unusual on such occasions, the linguists and hong merchants arrived, who entreated

    to become the bearers of the letter to the viceroy. About this time

    an officer of rank higher than any of those who had preceded him joined the

    party, to whom the letter was in due form offered, and as formally refused.

    The officer having seen the superscrijition on the letter, argued, that “as it

    came from the superintendent of trade, the hong merchants were the proper

    channels of communication : ” but this obstacle appeared of minor importance in their eyes, upon ascertaining that the document was styled a letter, and not & petition. The linguists requested to be allowed a copy of the address, which was of course refused.

    About this time the kicang-hielt, a military officer of the rank of colonel, accompanied by an officer a little inferior to himself, arrived on the spot, to whom the letter was offered three several times and as often refused. The senior hong merchant, Howqua, after a private conversation with the colonel, requested to be allowed to carry the letter in company with him and ascertain

    whether it would be received. This being considered as an insidious attempt

    to circumvent the directions of the superintendents, a negative was made to

    this and other overtures of a similar tendency. Suddenly all the officers took

    their departure for the purpose, as it was afterward ascertained, of consulting

    with the viceroy. Nearly three hours having been thus lost within the city,

    Mr. Astell determined to wait a reasonable time for the return of the officers, who shortly afterward reassembled ; whereupon Mr. Astell respectfully offered the letter in question three separate times to the colonel and afterward to the other officers, all of whom distinctly refused even to touch it; upon which the party returned to the factory.’

    * Chinese Bepositori/, Vol. XI. , p. 27.

    The goveriKir ]e})orted this oecurreiu’e at court in a meinorial, in which, after stating that his predecessor had instructed the Company’s supercargoes to malce arrangements tluit “a ?’«//7<;ni[or supercargo, the word. being applied to all foreign consuls] acquainted with affairs should still be appointed to come to Canton to control and direct the trade,” he states what had occurred, and adds:
    The said Larbarian eye would not receive the Hang merchants, but after-M’ard repaired to the outside of the city to present a letter to me, your Majesty’s minister, Lu. On the face of the envelope the forms and style of equality were used, and there were absurdly written the characters Ta Thuj kiroh [‘Great English nation’]. Now it is plain on the least reflection, that in keeping the central and outside [people] apart, it is of the highest importance to maintain dignity and sovereignty. Whether the said barbarian eye has or has not official rank there are no means of thoroughly ascertaining. But though he be really an officor of the said nation, he yet cannot write letters on equality with the frontier officers of the Celestial Empire. As the thing concerned the national dignity, it was inexpedi’^nt in the least to allow a tendency to any approach or advance by which lightness of esteem might be occasioned.

    Accordingly orders Mere given to Ilan Shau-king, the colonel in command of the military forces of this department, to tell him authoritatively that, by the statutes and enactments of the Celestial Empire, there has never been intercourse by letters with outside barbarians ; that, respecting commercial matters, petitions must be

    made through the medium of the hong merchants, and that it is not permitted

    to offer or present letters. . . . On humble examination it appears that

    the commerce of the English barbarians has hitherto been managed by the

    hong merchants and taipans ; there has never been a barbarian e^-e to form a

    precedent. Now it is suddenly desired to appoint an officer, a superintendent,

    which is not in accordance with old regulations. Besides, if the said nation

    has formed this decision, it still should have stated in a petition the affairs

    which, and the way how, such superintendent is to manage, so that a memorial

    miglit be presented requesting yovir Majesty’s mandate and pleasure as to what

    should be refused, in order that obedience might be paid to it and the same be

    acted on accordingly. But tlie said barbarian eye, Lord Napier, wjthout having

    made any plain nqiort, suddenly came to the barbarian factories outside the

    city to reside, and presumed to desire intercourse to and fro by official documents and letters with the officers of the Central Flowery Land; this was, indeed, far out of the bounds of reason.’

    ‘^ Chinese Bepouionji Vol. III., p. 327.

    CONTEST BETWEEN THE COVEIINOR AXD NAPIER. 460

    The governor here intimates that the intention of his government in requesting a taijpan to come to Canton was only to have a responsible officer with whom to communicate. In refusing to receive an ‘eye,” or superintendent, therefore, he did not, in his own view of the case, suppose that he was refusing, nor did he or the court of Peking intend to refuse, the residence of a supercargo, for they were desirous to have responsible heads appointed over the connnerce and subjects of every ration trading at Canton. These occurrences were discussed by the Hon. John Quincy Adams in his lecture upon the war with China, delivered in 1841, in which he alleged that the rejection of Lord JSTapier’s letter and mission was a sufficient reason for the subsequent contest, he showed the impolicy of allowing the Chinese ideas of supremacy over other nations, and exhibited their natural results in the degraded position of foreigners. He had, however, only an imperfect conception of the strength of this assumption,

    but it was not debated in this contest between Governor Lu and

    Lord Napier. The former was not blameworthy for endeavoring

    to carry the laws of his own country into execution, while

    the latter was doing his best to obey the instructions of his own

    sovereign. The question of the propriety of those laws, involving

    as they did the supremacy of the Emperor over the English,

    or the feasibility of those instructions, could only he discussed

    and settled by their principals. Whether this assumption was

    a proper ground of hostilities is altogether another question.

    When Lord Napier’s letter was rejected he would probably have

    referred home to his government for further instructions if it

    had intended to settle the question of supremacy, but he did not

    do so, nor did the ministry refer to it or remonstrate against the

    unhandsome treatment their representative received.

    The refusal of Lord Napier to confer with the hong merchants,

    and of the governor to receive any communication except

    a petition, placed the two parties in an awkward position.

    In his letter the former stated the object of his coming to Canton,

    and requested that his excellency Avould aecoi-d him an interview

    in order that their future intercoui’se might be arranged ;

    and considering the desirableness of giving him accurate views,

    the party at the gate would have acted M’isely in permitting the

    hong merchants to take it to him. The governor was irritated

    and alarmed, and vented his anger upon the unfortunate hong

    merchants. These had two or three interviews with Lord Na’pier after the rejection of the letter, but as they now said it

    Mould not be received unless superscribed _^??’;i, or ‘ petition.’

    they were dismissed. Having heard that there was a party

    among the British residents in Canton who disapproved of the

    proceedings of the superintendent, they vainly endeavored to

    call a meeting of the disaffected on the 10th of August, while his

    lordship assembled all of his countrymen next day, and found

    that they generally approved of his conduct. On the 14th he

    reviews his position in consequence of the rejection of his letter

    ivad the subsecpient conduct of the governor. After recommending

    the renewal of the effort to open better understood relations with the court of Peking by a demand upon the Emperor to allow the same privileges to all foreigners residing in China which Chinese received in foreign countries, he goes on to say:

    My present position is, in one point of view, <a delicate one, because the trade is put in jeopardy on account of the difference existing between the viceroy and myself. I am ordered by his Majesty to ” go to Canton and there report myself by letter to the viceroy.” I use my best endeavors to do so ; but the viceroy is a presumptuous savage, and will not grant the same privileges to me that have been exercised constantly by the chiefs of the committee.

    He rakes up obsolete orders, or perhaps makes them for the occasion ; but

    the fact is, the chiefs used formerly to wait on the viceroy on their return

    from Macao, and continued to do it nntil the viceroy gave them an order to

    wait upon him, whereupon they gave the practice iip. Had I even degraded

    the king’s commission so far as to petition through the liong merchants for an

    interview, it is quite clear by the tenor of the edicts that it would have been

    refused. Were he to send an armed force and order me to the boat, I could

    then retreat with honor, and he would implicate himself; but they are afraid

    to attempt such a measure. What then remains but the stoppage of the trade

    or my retirement ? If the trade is stopped for any length of time the consequences to the merchants are most serious, as they are also to the unoffending

    Chinese. But the viceroy cares no more for commerce, or for the comfort

    and happiness of the people as long as he receives his pay and plunder, than

    if he did not live among them. My situation is different ; I cannot hazard

    millions of property for any length of time on the mere score of etiquette. If

    the trade shall be stopped, which is probable enough in the absence of the frigate, it is possible I may be obliged to retire to Macao to let it loose again.

    Then has the viceroy gained his point and the commission is degraded. Now, my lord, I argue that whether the commission retires by force of arms or by the injustice practised on the merchants, the viceroy has committed an outrage on the Britisli crown which should be equally chastised. The whole system of government here is that of subterfuge and shifting the blame from tlia

    oppositp: vikus of the two parties, 471

    shoulders of the one to the other. … I shall not go, however, without jiublishini; in Chinese and disseminating far and wide the base conduct of the viceroy in oppressing the merchants, native as well as foreign, and of my having taken the step out of pure compassion to them. I can only once more implore your lordship to force them to acknowledge my authority and the king’s commission, and if you can do that you will have no difficulty in opening the ports at the same time.’

    Such were the sentiments and desires which filled the mind of the English superintendent. He is in error in saying that the governor would not grant him the same privileges as had been accorded to the chiefs of the Company. The present question was not about having an interview, but regarding the superscription of his letter ; for the chiefs of the Company sent their sealed communications through the Hang merchants as petitions. The governor stopped the English trade on the 16th, and two days after issued an explanatory paper in reply to the report that his orders on that subject had been carried into effect. This document sets forth his determination to uphold the old regulations, and a few sentences from it are here introduced as a contrast with the preceding despatch. The conviction of the governor in the supremacy of his Emperor over all foreign nations which had sent embassies to his court, and his own official position making him responsible for successfully maintaining the laws over foreigners, must be borne in mind :

    To refer to England : slrould an official personage from a foreign country proceed to the said nation for the arrangement of any business, how could he neglect to have the object of his coming announced in a memorial to the said nation’s king, or how could he act contrary to the requirements of the said nation’s dignity, doing his own will and pleasure? Since the said barbarian eye states that he is an official -personage, he ought to be more thoroughly acquainted with these principles. Before, when he offered a letter, I, the governor, saw it inexpedient to receive it, because the established laws of the Celestial Empire do not permit ministers and those under authority to have private intercourse by letter with outside barbarians, but have, hitherto, in commercial affairs, held the merchants responsible; and if perchance any barbarian merchant should have any petition to make requesting the investigation of any affair, [the laws require] that by the said ttiipiiu a duly prepared petition should be in form presented, and an answer by proclamation awaited.

    * Chinese Repository, Vol. XV., p. 68.

    There has never been such a thing as outside barbarians sending in a letter.

    He then says that there had iic’ver been any official correspondence to and fro between the native officers and the barbarian merchants ; by this he means a correspondence ol equality, which the Chinese Government had indeed never yielded. The idea of supremacy never leaves him—witness, for example, the following strain, peculiarly Chinese :

    The Hang merchants, because the said barbarian eye will not adhere to the old regulations, have requested that a stop should be put to the said nation’s commerce. This manifests a profound knowledge of the great principles of dignity. It is most highly praiseworthy. Lord Napier’s perverse opposition necessarily demands such a mode of procedure, and it would be most right immediately to put a stop to buying and selling. But considering that the said nation’s king has hitherto been in the highest degree reverently obedient,

    he cannot in sending Lord Napier at this time have desired him thus obstinately

    to resist. The some hundreds of thousands of commercial duties yearly

    coming from the said country concern not the Celestial Empire the extent of

    a hair or a feather’s down. The possession or absence of them is utterly unworthy

    of one careful thought. Their broadcloths and camlets are still more

    unimportant, and of no regard. But the tea, the rhubarb, the raw silk of the

    Inner Land, are the sources by which the said nation’s people live and nuiiutain

    life. For the fault of one man, Lord Napier, must the livelihood of the

    whole nation be precipitately cut off? I, the governor, looking up and embodying

    the great Emperor’s most sacred, most divine wish, to nurse and tenderly

    cherish as one all that are without, feel that I cannot bring my mind to

    bear it ! Besides, all the merchants of the said nation dare dangers, crossing

    the seas myriads of miles to come from far. Their hopes rest wholly in the

    attainment of gain by buying and selling. That they did not attend when

    summoned by the hong merchants to a meeting for consultation, was because

    they were under the direction of Lord Napier ; it assuredly did not proceed

    from the several merchants’ own free will. Sliould the trade be wholly cut

    off in one morning, it would cause great distress to many persons, who, having

    travelled hither by land and sea, would by one man, Lord Napier, be

    ruined. They cannot in such case but be utterly depressed with grief. . . .

    I hear the said eye is a man of very solid ai\d expansive mind and placid speech. If he consider, he can himself doubtless distinguish right and wrong: let him on no account permit himself to be deluded by men around him. . . . Hereafter, when the said nation’s king liears respecting these repeated orders and official replies, [he will know] that the whole wrong lies on the barbarian eye ; it is in nowise owing to any want on the part of the Celestial Empire of extreme consideration for the virtue of reverential obedience exercised by the said nation’s king.’

    ‘ Chinese Bejwsitori/, Vol. III., p. 235.

    CHINESE IDEAS OV SUPREMACY. 473

    He consequently sent a deputation of officials to Lord Napier to inquire ‘why he had come to Canton, what business he was appointed to perform, and when he would retire to Macao. The letter was again handed them, but the superscription still remained, and they refused to touch it. They, however, leariuKl enough to be able to inform their master what he wished to know : the real point of dispute between the two could only be settled between their sovereigns. The governor by this deputation showed a desire to make some arrangement, and the trade would probably have been shortly reopened had not Lord Kapier carried out his idea, two days after, of appealing to the people in order to explain the reasons why the governor had stopped the trade and brought distress on them. The paper simply detailed the principal events which had occurred since his arrival, laying the blame upon the*” ignorance and obstinacy “of the governor in refusing to receive his letter, and closino; with—” The merchants of Great Britain wish to trade with all China on principles of mutual benefit ; they will never relax in their exertions till they gain a point of equal importance to both countries; and the viceroy will find it as easy to stop the current of the Canton River as to carry into effect the insane determination of the hong.”

    In many of the former proceedings between the Chinese and foreigners, based as they were upon incorrect ideas, the rules of diplomacy elsewhere observed formed no guide ; but the publication of this statement was unwise and dangerous. Not only did it jeopardize the lives and property of British subjects, but of all other foreigners residing at Canton, to whose safety and interests, as involved with his own dispute. Lord Napier makes no reference in his despatches. Happily, Governor Lu did not appease his irritation by letting loose the populace of Canton, which was highly excited, but by imprisoning members of the co-hong for allowing the superintendent to come to the city.

    The governor and his colleagues stopped the English trade on September 2d, in a proclamation containing many inaccurate statements and absurd reasonings, in which he forbade either natives or foreigners to give aid or comfort to Lord Xapier. Communication with the shipping at AV^hampoa was also interdicted, so that, in reality, the entire foreign trade was interrupted. A guard of Chinese troops was placed near tlio (\)nipany’s factoiy, but no personal distress was felt on account of the interdict. 11. B. M. frigates Andromache and Imogene were ordered up to protect the shipping and persons of British subjects, and the two vessels anchored at Whanipoa on the 11th.

    In their passage through the Bogue they returned the fire from the forts, with little damage to either ; and on anchoring, a lieutenant and boat’s crew were despatched to Canton to protect the English factory. These decisive proceedings troubled the native authorities not a little, who, on their part, prepared for stronger measures by blocking up the river and stationing troops about Whampoa, but were relieved when they found that the ships remained* at their anchorage.

    Lord Xapier sent a protest against the proceedings of the

    governor in stopping the trade, through the Chamber of Commerce

    and hong merchants ; but at this juncture his health gave

    way so rapidly that three days after the frigates had anchored

    he decided to return to Macao and wait for insti’uctions. Tlie

    Chinese detained him on his passage down until the ships were

    out of the river; but he sank and died October 11th, a fortnight

    after reaching that city. As soon as he left Canton the

    trade was reopened. On hearing that the ships had reached

    AVhampoa, the Emperor degraded or suspended all the officials

    who had been in any way responsible ; but when he learned

    that ” Lord Xapier had been driven out, and the two ships of

    war dragged over the shallows and expelled,” he restored most

    of those whom he had thus punished. The governor also vented

    his indignation upon ten of his subordinates, by subjecting them

    to torture in order to “ascertain if they were guilty of illicit

    connection with foreigners.” The drama was closed on the part

    of the Chinese by an imperial mandate : ” The English barbarians

    have an open market in the Inner Land, but there has

    hitherto been no interchange of official communications. Yet

    it is absoluteh’ requisite that there should be a person possessing

    general control, to have the special direction of affairs; wherefore let the governor immediately order the Hang merchants to command the said separate merchants, that they send a letter back to their country calling for the appoint ineiit of luiotlier person as taqxin^ to come for the couti’ol and direction of conunercial affairs, in accordance with the old regulations.”

    STOPPING OF THE TP.ADK AND IJKA’III OF XAI’IKK. 475

    The principles on which the Chinese acted in this affair are

    plainly seen. To have granted official intercourse bv letter

    would have been to give up the whole question, to consider the

    king of England as no longer a tributary, and so release him

    and his subjects from their allegiance. To do so would not only

    permit them to come into their borders as equals, subject to no

    laws or customs, but would fui’ther open the door for resistance

    to their authority, armed opposition to their control, and ultimate

    in possession of their territory. The governor hints at

    this when speaking of the necessity of restraining the barbarian

    eye: “AVith regard to territory, it would also have its consequences.”

    These would be the probable results of allowing

    such a mode of address from the Kalkas, or Tibetans, and the

    Emperor felt the importance of irs concession in a way that

    Lord Xapier himself could not appreciate. Xcvertheless, with

    the inconsistency of children, the Son of Heaven and his courtiers,

    in the mandate just quoted, yi(;ld their obligations to justly

    govern the far-travelled strangers, by requiring them to get a

    countryman ” to exercise general control ” and live among them

    —thus establishing the principle of ex-territoriality within their

    borders which they now find so irksome.

    It is pitiable, and natural too, that the Chinese should have had notions so incorrect and dangerous, for it led them to misinterpret every act of foreigners. Their entire intercourse with Europeans, since the Portuguese first came to their shores, had conspired to strengthen the opinion that all traders were crafty, domineering, avaricious, and contumacious, and must be kept down in every possible way to insure safety to the Chinese natives. The indignation of the Emperor on hearing of the entrance of the ships of war was mixed with great apprehension,

    ” lest there were yet other ships staying at a distance ready to bring in aid to him ” [Lord Xapier]. Ignorant as he was of the true character of the embassies which had been received at Peking, he was still more likely to take alarm at any attempt to open an equal intercourse, and disposed to resist it as he would a forcible occupation of his territory, of which it was, in his view, only the precursor.

    That these were the feelings of the rulers at Peking cannot be doubted; and we must know what views and fears actuated them in order to understand their proceedings. If the position of England in the eyes of the Chinese had been fully known in London, the unequal contest imposed upon Lord Xapier would either have been avoided or directed against the imperial government.

    The offer of an amicable intercourse was given to the Chinese, but through the inapplicable instructions which his lordship received this offer was not made to the weaker and ignorant party in such a way as not to excite its fears, while it fully explained the real position and intentions of England, and through her all Christendom, in seeking intercourse with China. Yet so long as the court of Peking, in virtue of the Emperor’s vicegerency over mankind, claimed supremacy’ over other nations, the struggle to maintain that assumption was sure to come. This false notion did, however, really continue among them for about forty years, till five foreign ministers had their first audience with the Emperor Tungchl, June, 1873, and stood before his throne as they presented their credentials.

    The Pritish residents at Canton saw the point of difficulty clearly, and in a petition to the king in council, dated December 4, 1834, recommended that a commissioner be sent to one of the northern ports with a small fleet to arrange the matter of future intercourse. In this petition they ” trace the disabilities and restrictions under which Pritish connnerce now labors to a long acquiescence in the arrogant assumption of supremacy over the monarchs and people of other countries claimed by the Emperor of China for himself and his subjects,” and conclude that ” no essentially beneficial result can be expected to arise out of negotiations in which such pretensions are not decidedly repelled.”

    PETITION OF BRITISH MERCHANTS TO TIIK KING. 477

    The recommendations of the petitioners were disregarded in England. The cabinet disapproved of the spirit of Lord Napier’s despatches, and intimated to him that it was “not by force and violence that his Majesty intended to establish a commercial intercourse between his subjects and China, but by conciliatory measures.” After the events of 1834 if a commissioner, backed by a small fleet, had Leen iininediatelj appointed to Peking to arrange the terms of future intercourse, the subsequent wai might have been averted, though it is more likely that the imperial court would have rejected all overtures until compelled to treat by force.

    As things were situated at Canton, it was really impossible for

    the Chinese Government to carry on a line of policy with respect

    to foreign intercourse wdiich would at once maintain its assumptions,

    avoid the risk of a rupture, squeeze all the money possible

    out of the trade, and repress the complaints of the Bi-ilish

    merchants. The cessation of the Company’s monopoly, as well

    as its control over all British subjects, had weakened the leverage

    of the local authorities to manage them, to a greater degree

    than they were aware.

    The trade was conducted during the next season to the satisfaction

    of all parties. That of other nations had been practically

    stopped with that of the English, but the suspension was at a

    dull season of the 3’ear. Their consuls took no official part in

    the dispute, though they had some ground for complaint in the

    suspension of their trade and the imprisonment of their countrymen.

    The Chinese shopkeepers known as “outside merchants”

    having been interdicted trading at all with foreignei’s, went to

    the governor’s palace in a laige body and soon obtained a removal

    of the restriction. The hong mei’chants themselves instigated

    this decree, for these shopkeepers, while deriving large

    profits from their business, were almost free from the extortions

    which the monopolists suffered. All the extraordinary expenses

    incurred by the provincial exchequer in the late affair were i”equired

    of these unfortunate men ; and the}^ 7)iifst get it out of

    the trade in the best way they could. Amelioration could not

    be expected from such a system ; for as soon as the foreigners

    began to complain, the hong merchants were impelled by every

    motive to misrepresent their complaints to the governor and

    quash every effort to obtain redress. The situation of foreigners

    there was aptly likened by a wi’iter on the subject to the inmates

    of the Zoological Garden in Regent’s Park : ” They [the animals]

    have been free to play what pranks they pleased, so that

    they made no uproar nor escaped from confinement. The keepers looked sharply after them and tried to keep them (Hiiet, because annoyed by the noise tliey made and responsible for the mischief they miglit commit if they got at Hberty. They might do what was right in their own eyes with each other. The authorities of China do not expect from wild and restless barbarians the decorum and conduct exemplified in their own great family.”

    The peculiar position of the relations with the Chinese and the

    value of the trade, present and prospective, was so great that

    these events called out many pamphleteers both in England and

    the East. The servants of the Company naturally recommended

    a continuance of the peaceable system, nrging that foreigners

    should obey the laws of tlie Empire where they lived and not

    interfere with the restrictions put upon them. Others counselled

    the occupation of an island on the coast, to which Chinese

    “traders would immediately resort, and which was to be held

    only so long as the Emperor refused to open liis ports and allow

    a fair traffic with his people. Othei’S deprecated resort to force

    until a commissioner to Peking had explained the designs and

    wishes of his government, demanded the same privileges for

    foreigners in China that the Chinese enjoyed abi’oad, and then,

    in the event of a refusal, compel acquiescence. Some advised

    lettiuii: thing’s take their own course and conducting trade

    as it could be at Canton until circumstances compelled the

    Chinese to act. ” That which we now require is not to lose the

    enjoyment of what w^e have got,” said the Duke of Wellington,

    and his advice was followed in most respects. A few thought it

    would be the wiser way to disseminate juster ideas of the position,

    power, and wishes of England and all foreign nations among the

    Chinese in their own language. They argued very properly that

    ignorance on these points would neutralize every attempt to

    bring about a better state of things ; that although the Chinese

    were to blame for their uncompromising arrogance, it was also

    their great misfortune that they really had had little opportunity

    to learn the truth respecting their visitors. All these suggestions

    looked forward to no long continuance of the present undefined,

    anomalous relations, and all of them contained much pertinent

    advice and many valuable items of information ; but ii

    CONTINUATION OF THE TRADE. 479

    was a question not more difficult than important what course of

    procedure was the best. AVliile the point of supremacy seemed

    to be settled in favor of the Son of Heaven, the virus of the

    contraband opium trade was working out its evil effects among

    his subjects and hastening on a new era.

    The British superintendents now lived in Macao pending the

    action of their government, merely keeping a clerk at Canton

    to sign manifests. The foreign residents established the Society

    for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and other benevolent

    projects mentioned in a previous chapter ; they also sent two

    or three vessels along the coast to see what openings existed for

    entering the countrj’, preaching the gospel, or living on shore.

    The results of the voyages fully proved the impossibility of entering

    the country in an open manner without the permission

    of the rulers, and the limited intercourse with the people also

    showed that the character of foreigners was generally associated

    with the opium trade. The dwellers immediately on the coast

    were eager for an extension of the traffic, because it brought

    them large gains, and the officers at the principal ports were

    desirous of participating in the emoluments of their fellows

    at Canton ; but those who had the good of the countiy at

    heart (and there are many such in China) thought that the extension

    of foreign trade would bring with it unmitigated evil

    from the increased use of opium.

    Sir G. B. Robinson, the superintendent, remained at Lintin

    on board a cutter among opium ships anchored there during the

    season of 1835-30, and was so well satisfied with his position

    that he recommended his government to purchase a small ship

    for the permanent acconunodation of the commission there beyond

    the reach of the Chinese officers, and to vest its powers in

    a single individual. He also expressed his conviction that there

    was little hope of establishing a proper understanding with the

    Chinese Government, except by a resort to force and the occupation

    of an island off the mouth of the river:

    I see no grounds to apprehend the occurrence of any fearful events on the north-east coast, nor can I h\arn what new danger exists. I am assured from the best authority that the scuffles between different parties of smugglers and mandarins, alike engaged and competing in the traffic, are not more serious or frequont than in this province. In no case have Europeans been engaged in any kind of conflict or affray : and while this increasing and lucrative trade is in the hands of the parties whose vital interests are so totally dependent ou its safety and continuance, and by whose prudence and integrity it has been brought into its present increasing and flourishing condition, I think little apprehension may be entertained of dangers emanating from imprudence on their part. Should any unfortunate catastrophe take place, what would our

    position at Canton entail upon us but responsibility and jeopardy, from which

    we are now free ? On the question of smuggling opium I will not enter in

    this place, though, indeed, smuggling carried on actively in the government

    boats can hardly be termed such. Whenever his Majesty’s government directs

    us to prevent British vessels engaging in the traffic, we can enforce any order

    to that effect, but a more certain method would be to prohibit the growth of

    the poppy and the manufacture of opium in British India ; and if British

    ships are in the habit of committing irregularities and crimes, it seems doubly

    necessary to exercise a salutary control over them by the presence of au authority

    at Lintin.

    Taking all things into consideration, this is a remarkable despatch

    to be sent by the representative of a Cliristian government

    writing from the midst of a fleet of smugglers on the

    shores of a pagan country. ” The scuilles caused by the introduction

    of opium are,” he remarks, ^’not more serious or frequent

    on the coast than about Canton ; ” though even there,

    l)i-obably, not one-half which did occur were known ; but Europeans

    never personally engaged in any of them. They only

    brought the cause and object of these collisions where the people

    could get it, and then quietly looked on to see them fight

    about it. Tlie ” prudence and integrity ” of the merchants were

    engaged in cherishing it to a high degree of prosperity, and

    they were not likely to act imprudently. The orders of the

    supreme government for its officers on the coast to stop the

    traffic were utterly powerless, through the cupidity and venality

    of tho.se officers and their underlings ; yet their almost complete

    failure to execute them does not impugn the sincerity of

    the court in issuing them. There is not the least evidence to

    show that the couii of Peking was not sincere in its desire to

    suppress the trade, from the first edict in 1800 till the war broke

    out in 1840. The excuse that the government smuggled because its revenue cruisers engaged in it and the helpless provincial authorities winked at it, is no more satisfactory than to make the successful bribery of custoui-liousc officers in Enghiiul or elsewhere a proof of the corruption of the treasury department.

    SIR GEORGE ROBINSON ON OPHT^r-SM (tggF.IXG. 481

    The temptation of an ” increasing and lucrative ” trade was as strong to the unenlightened pagan Chinese smuggler as it was to the Christian merchants and monopolists who placed the poisonous drug constantly within his reach. It would have been far more frank on the part of the British superintendent to have openly defended a traffic affording a revenue of more than two millions sterling to his own government, and suggested that such an ‘” increasing and lucrative ” business should not be impeded, than to say that he could stop British ships enji:ao;iiio: in it as soon as he received orders to that effect.

    The existence of tlie commission at the outer anchoi-ages was

    fully known to the authorities at Canton, but no movement

    toward reopening tlie intercourse was made by either party.

    Lord Palmerston instructed the superintendent not to comnmnicate

    with the governor-general through the hong merchants,

    nor to give his written connnnnications the name of

    petitions. Captain Elliot succeeded Sir George in 183G, and

    innnediately set about reopening the connnunication with the

    Chinese officei’s in the same way that the supercargoes of the

    Company had conducted it. lie defended this course upon

    the grounds that he had no right to direct official communication with the governor, and that the remarkable movements of the Chinese and the state of uncertainty in respect to the whole foreign trade rendered it desirable to be at Canton. The successor of Lu, Tang Ting-ching, M’illingly responded to this proposition by sendiug a deputation of three officers to Macao with the hong merchants to make some inquiries before memorializing the Emperor. In his report the governor avoided all reference to Lord Napier, and requested his Majesty’s sanction to the present request as being in accordance with the orders that the English merchants should send home to have a supercargo come out to manage them. It was of course granted; and the British connnission, having received a ” red permit “

    from the collector of customs, returned to Canton April 12,

    1837, after an absence of about thirty months. In his note to

    the governor upon receiving the imperial sanction, Captain Eliot says: “The undersigned respectfully assures his excellencj’ that it is at once his duty and his anxious desire to conform in all things to the imperial pleasure ; and he will therefore heedfully

    attend to the points adverted to in the papers now before

    him.” This language was decided, and his excellency after-

    Mard called upon the superintendent to do as he had promised.

    The remarkable movements of tlie supi’eme government here

    referred to grew out of a memorial from IIu Xai-tsi, formerly

    salt commissioner and judge at Canton, proposing the legalization

    of the opium trade. In this paper he acknowledges tliat

    it is impossible to stop the traffic or use of the drug ; if the

    foreign vessels be driven from the coast, they will go to some

    island near by, where the native craft will go off to them ; and

    if the laws be made too severe upon those who smoke the drug

    they will be disregarded. By legalizing it, he says, the drain of

    specie will be stopped, the regular trade rendered more profitable

    and manageable, and the consumption of the drug regulated.

    He proposes instant dismissal from office as the penalty for all

    functionaries convicted of smoking, while their present ineffectual

    attempts to suppress the trade, which i-esulted in general

    contempt for all law, would cease, and consequently the dignity

    of government be better maintained. The ti-ade on the coast

    would be concenti’ated at Canton, and the fleet at Lintin broken

    up, thereby bringing all foreigners more completely under

    control.

    This unexpected movement at the capital caused no little stir

    at Canton, and the hong merchants presently advertised the foreigners

    that soon there would no longer be any use for the receiving-

    ships at Lintin. Captain Elliot wrote that he thought

    legalization had come too late to stop the trade on the coast, and,

    with a prescient eye, adds that the “feeling of independence

    created among British subjects from the peculiar mode of conducting

    this bi’anch of the trade,” would ere long lead to graver

    difficulties and acts of violence requiring the armed interference

    of his govennncnt. The impression Avas general at Canton

    that the trade would be legalized, and increased preparations

    were accordingly made in India to extend the cultivation. The

    governor and his colleagues reconnnended its legalization on the

    PROPOSAL TO LEGALIZE TFIE OPIUM TRADE. 483

    grounds that ” the tens (»f millions of precious money which

    now annually ooze out of the Empire will be saved,” the duties

    be inei’eased, the evil practices of transporting contraband goods

    by deceit and violence suppi-essed, numberless quarrels and litigations

    arising therefrom and the crimes of wortliless vagrants

    diminished. They also deluded themselves with the idea that if

    the officers were dismissed as soon as convicted, the intellif^ent

    part of society would not indulge their depraved appetites, but

    let the ” victims of their own self-sacrificing folly,” the poor

    opium-smokers, be found only among the lower classes. In connection

    with this report, the hong merchants replied to various

    inquiries respecting the best mode of carrying on the opium

    trade in case it should be legalized, and their mode of conducting

    commerce generally ; adding that it was bej-ond their power to

    control thesnniggling traffic or restrain the exportation of sycee,

    and showed that the balance of trade would naturally leave the

    country in bullion. These papers are fairly drawn up, and their

    perusal cannot fail to elevate the character of the Chinese for

    consideration, carefulness, and business-like procedure.’

    There were other statesmen, however, who regarded Ilii Xaitsi’s

    memoi’ial as a dangerous step in the downward path, and

    sounded the alarm. Among these the foremost was Chu Tsun,

    a cabinet minister, who sent in a counter-memorial couched

    in the strongest terms. He advised that the laws be more

    strictly maintained, and cited instances to show that when the

    provincial authorities earnestly set about it they could put the

    trade down ; that the people would soon learn to despise all laws

    if those against opium-smoking were suspended ; and that recreant

    officers should be superseded and punished. His indignation

    warms as he goes on : ” It has been represented that

    advantage is taken of the laws against opium by extortionate

    underlings and worthless vagrants, to benefit themselves. Is it

    not known, then, that when government enacts a law, there is

    necessarily an infi-action of that law ? And though tlie law

    should sometimes be relaxed and become ineffectual, yet surely

    it should not on that account be abolished ; any more than we

    ‘ Chinese Eepositoi-y, Vol. V., pp. 139, 259, 385 fiE.

    eliould altogether cease to eat because of stoppage of the throat

    The laws which forbid the people to do wrong may be likened

    to the dikes which prevent the overflowing of water. If any

    one urging, then, that the dikes are veiy old and therefore useless,

    we should have them thrown down, w hat words could ex-

    ]u-ess the consequences of the impetuous lush and all-destroying

    overflow! Yet the provincials, when discussing the subject of

    opium, being perplexed and bewildered by it, think that a prohibition

    which does not iiUerhj prohibit is better than one which

    does not effectually prevent the importation of the drug. . . .

    If we can l)ut prevent the importation of o])ium, the exportation

    of dollars will then cease of itself, and the two offences will both

    at once be stopped. Moreover, is it not better, by continuing the

    old enactments, to find even a partial remedy for the evil, than by

    a change of the laws to increase the importation still further? “

    lie then proceeds to show that the native article could not

    compete with the foreign, for it would not bo as well luainifactured,

    and moreover ” all men prize what is strange and undervalue

    whatever is in ordinary use.” Its cultivation would occupy

    rich and fertile land now used for nutritive grains : ” To draw

    off in this way the waters of the great fountain requisite for the

    production of food and raiment, and to lavish them upon the

    root whence calamity and disaster spring forth, is an eri-or like

    that of the physician who, when treating a mere external disease,

    drives it inward to the heart and centre of the body. Shall

    the fine fields of Kwangtnng, ^vhich produce their three crops

    every year, be given up for the cultivation of this noxious Meed ‘i”

    He says the question does not concern property and duties, but the welfare and vigor of the people ; and quotes from the 7//,vtory of Formosa a passage showing the way in which the natives there were enervated by using it, and adds that the purpose of the English in introducing opium into the country has been to weaken and enfeeble it. Kanghi long ago (1717) remarked, he observes, ” There is cause for apprehension, lest in the centuries or millenniums to come China may be endangered by collisions with the various nations of the AYest who come hither from beyond the seas.” And now, in less than two centuries, “weseo the commencement of that danger which he apprehended.”

    CIIU T8UN OPPOSES THE PROPOSITION. 485

    The suggestion of II ii Nai-tsi, to allow it to the people ami interdict the officers, is called bad casuistry, ” like shutting a woman’s ears before you steal her earrings/’ He shows that thi& distinction will be vain, for it will be impossible to say who is of the people and who are officers, for all the latter are taken from the body of the former. The permission will induce people to use it who now refrain from fear of the laws ; for even the proposal has caused ” thieves and villains on all hands to raise their heads and open their eyes, gazing about and pointing the finger under the notion that wheu’once these prohibitions

    are repealed, thenceforth and forever they may regard themselves

    far from every restraint and cause of fear.” He asserts

    that nothing l)ut strong laws rigidly carried into effect will restrain

    them from their evil ways, and concludes by recommending

    increased stringency in their execution as the only hope of

    reformation.

    This spirited paper was supported by another fvom a sub-censor,

    Hii Kiu, on the necessity of checking the exportation of

    silver, and reconnnending that a determined officer be sent to

    punish severely the native traitors, which would add dignity to

    the laws ; and then the barbarians would be awed and consequently

    reform and be entirely defeated in their designs of conquering

    the country. He cites several instances of their outrageous

    A’iolation of the laws, such as levelling graves in Macao

    for the purpose of making a road over them, landing goods

    there for entering them at Canton in order to evade the duties

    and port charges, and even riding in sedans with four bearers,

    like Chinese officers. Force needed only to be put foi’th a little

    and they would again be humbled to subjection ; but if they

    still brought the pernicious drug, then inflict capital punishment

    upon them as well as upon natives. The sub-censor agrees with Chu Tsun regarding the designs of foreigners in doing so, that they wished first to debilitate and impoverish the land as a pi-cparatory measure, for they never smoked the drug in their own country, but brought it all to China. This prevailing impression was derived mainly from the abstinence of foreign merchants and seamen.

    Both these papers were transmitted to Canton for deliberation, although the local officers had already sent a memorial to the cabinet approving the suggestions of Hii Nai-tsi. At this time, however, it was properly remarked that ” there had been a diversity of opinion in regard to it, some requesting a change in the policy hitherto adopted, and others recommending the continuance of the severe prohibitions. It is highly important to consider the subject carefully in all its bearings, surveying at once the whole field of action so that such measures may be adopted as shall continue forever in force, free from all failure.”

    This subject, the most important, it cannot be doubted, which had ever been deliberated upon by the Emperor of China and his council, was now fairly brought before the whole nation ; and if all the circumstances be taken into consideration, it was one of the most remarkable consultations of any age or country.

    A long experience of the baneful effects of opium-smoking upon the health, minds, and property of those who used it, had produced a deep conviction in the minds of well-wdshers of their country of the necessity of some legal restraint over the people; while the annual drainage of specie at the rate of three or four million sterling for what brought misery and poverty in its train, alarmed those who cared only for the stability and prosperity of the country. The settlement or management of the question was one of equal difficulty and importance, and the

    result proved that it was quite beyond the reach of both their

    power and wisdom. Fully conscious of the weak moral principle

    in themselves and in their countrymen, they considered it

    right to restrain and deter the people by legislative enactments

    and severe penalties. Ignorant of the nature of commercial

    <lealings, they thought it both practicable and necessary to limit

    the exportation of specie; for not having any substitute for

    coin or any system of national credit, there was serious hazard,

    otherwise, that the government would ultimately be bankrupted.

    It is unjust to the Chinese to say, as was argued b}’ those who

    had never felt these sufferings, that all parties were insincere in

    their efforts to put down this trade, that it was a mere affectation

    of morality, and that no one would be more chagrined to see it

    stop than those apparently so strenuous against it. This assertion

    was made bv Lord Palmerston in Parliament and re-echoed

    THE MATTER REFERRED TO CANTON”. 487

    by the Indian officials ; but those who have candidly examined

    the proceedings of the Chinese, or have lived among the people

    in a way to learn their real feelings, need not be told how incorrect

    is the remark. The highest statesman and the debilitated,

    victimized smoker alike agreed in their opinion of its bad effects,

    and both were pretty nnich in the position of a miserable lamb

    in the coil of a hungry anaconda.

    The debate among the Chinese excited a discussion among

    foreigners, most of whom were engaged in the traffic. Here

    the gist of the question turned upon the points whether opium

    was really a noxious stinnilant 2^^^ ^^1 ^.nd whether the Chinese

    government was sincere in its prohibitions in the face of the

    notorious connivance of the officers along the coast from Hainan

    to Tientsin. One writer conclusively proved its baneful effects

    upon the system when taken constantly, and that its habitual

    use in the smallest degree almost certainly led to intemperate or

    uncontrollable use ; he then charges the crime of nuirder upon

    those who traffic in it, and asserts that ” the perpetuating and

    encouraging and engaging in a trade which promotes disease, misery, crime, madness, despair, and death, is to be an accomplice

    with the guilty principals in that tremendous pursuit.” He

    exposes the fallacy, liypocrisy, and guilt of the question whether

    it be less criminal for a man to engage in a pursuit which he

    knows to be injurious to his fellow-men, because if he does not

    do so some one else will. The Court of Directors, even, whom

    all the world knows to be chief managers of the cultivation,

    manufacture, and sale of the drug, says in one of its despatches

    that ” so repugnant are their feelings to the opium trade, they

    would gladly, in compassion to mankind, put a total end to the

    consumption of opium if they could. But they cannot do this,

    and as opium will be grown somewhere or other, and will l)e

    largely consumed in spite of all their benevolent wishes, they

    can only do as they do ” !

    Another Englishman engaged in the traffic defended it on the ground that what is bad now was always bad ; and the Emperor and his ministers had doubtless other grounds for their sudden opposition. He asserts that opium is ” a useful soother, a harmless luxury, and a precious medicine, except to those wli “abuse it,” and that while a few destroy themselves, the prudent many enjoy a pleasing solace, to get which tends to produce the persevering economy and the never-ceasing industry of the Chinese. He estimates that at a daily allowance of one and onethird ounce not more than one person in three hundred and twenty-six touches the pipe, and that there were not inore than nine hundred and twelve thousand victimized smokers in the Empire. He also remarked that the present mode of conducting the trade by large capitalists kept it respectable, and that if their characters were held up to odium and infamy it would get into the hands of desperadoes, pirates, and marauders. He looked upon the efforts to put it down as utterly futile as the proclamations of Elizabeth were to put down hops, or the Counterl) laste of James to stop tobacco.

    This rejoinder was responded to by two M’riters, who clearhcxhil)

    ited its nnsoundness and ridiculed the plea that the trade

    should be kept in the hands of gentlemen and under the direction

    of a monopol}’. The smuggler brought his vessel on the

    coast, and there waited till the people came oif for his merchandise,

    disposing of it without the least risk to himself, ” coolly

    commenting on the injustice of the Chinese government in refusing

    the practice of international law and reciprocity to countries

    whose subjects it only knows as engaged in constant and

    gross infraction of laws, the breaking of M’hich affects the basis

    of all good government, the morals of the country.” The true

    character of the smu”-“;lini»; trade is well set forth :

    Reverse the picture. Suppose, by any cliaucc, that Cliinese junks were to

    import into England, as a foreign and fashionable luxury, so harmless a thing

    as arsenic or corrosive sublimate ; that after a few years it became a rage ; that

    thousands, yea, hundreds of thousands used it, and that its use was, in consequence

    of its bad effects, prohibited. Suppose that, in opposition to the prohibition,

    junks were stationed in St. George’s Channel with a constant supply,

    taking occasional trips to the Isle of Wight and the mouth of the Thames when

    the officers were sufficiently attentive to their duty at the former station to prevent

    its introduction there. Suppose the consumption to increase annually,

    and to arouse the attention of the government and of those sound-thinking

    men who foresaw misery and destruction from the rapid spread of an insidious,

    unprofitable, and dangerous habit. Suppose, in fact, that, muUiUy vomive, all

    which has been achieved here had been practised there. Suppose some con-

    Beivators of the public morals to be aroused at last, and to remonstrate againsJ

    DISCUSSION AMONG THE FOREIGNERS. 489

    its use and increase ; and that among the nation sending forth this destroyer to prey on private happiness and pnhlic virtue, one or two pious and wellmeaning bonzes were to r’jiuonstrato with their countrymen on the enormity of their conduct : —how wonderfully consolatory to one party, and unanswerable to the other, must be the remark of Ihe well-dressed and well-educated Chinese merchant: ” Hai ya ! my friend, do not you see my silk dress and the crystal knob on my cap; don’t you know that I have read and can quote Confucius, Mencius, and all the Five Books ; do you not see that the barbarians are passionately

    fond of arsenic, that they will have it, and even go so far as to pay for

    it ; and can you, for one moment, doubt that it would not be much worse for

    tliem if, instead of my bringing it, it were left to the cliance, needy, and uncertain

    supply which low men of no capital could afford to bring V ” ‘

    Tlie writer sliows that instead of only one person in every

    three hiindi-ed and twenty-six using the pipe, it was far more

    probable that at least one out of every one hundred and fifty

    (or about two million five hundred thousand in all) of the population

    was a victimized smoker. The assertion of its being a

    harmless luxury to the many, like wine or beer, is disputed, and

    the sophisticated argument of its use as a means of hospitality

    exploded. ” What would a benevolent and sober-minded

    Chinese think,” he asks, ” were the sophistry of the defendei’s

    of this trade translated for him ? Where would he find the

    high-principled and high-minded inhabitants of the far-off

    coimtry ? How could he be made to comprehend that the believers

    in and practisers of Christian morality advocated a trade

    so ruinous to his country ? That the government of India compelled

    the growth of it by unwilling ryots; and that, instead of

    its being brought to China by ‘ desperadoes, pirates, and marauders,’

    it was purveyed by a body of capitalists, not participating

    certainly in what they carry, but supplying the Indian revenue

    safely and peaceably ; that the British government and others

    encouraged it ; and that the agents in the traffic M-ere constantly

    residing at Canton, protected by the government whose

    laws they outraged, but monstrously indignant, and appealing to

    their governments, if No. 2 longcloths are classed as No. 1 through the desperate villany of some paltry custom-house servant ?”

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol V., p. 409.

    The other writer exposes the sinful fallacy of the argument of expediency, and then proceeds to show how great an obstacle it is in the way of diffusing the gospel among the Chinese. We nnist refer to their own remarks’ for the fuller development of the arguments, but this one showed the earnestness of his convictions by offering a premium of £100 for the best essay ” showing the effects of the opium trade on the commercial, political, and moral interests of the nations and individuals connected therewith, and pointing out the course they ought to pursue in regard to it.” There was, however, so little interest in the subject that this premium was neverawarded, though the proposal was extensively advertised both in China and England.

    The governor of Canton and his colleagues soon learned that

    the feeling at court was rather against legalizing the drug,

    though they were directed to report concerning the amount of

    duty proper to be levied on it ; and to show their zeal, arrested

    several brokers and dealers. A-ming, one of the linguists, M’as

    severely tortured and exposed in the cangue for exporting

    sycee ; others escaped similar treatment by absconding. The

    chief superintendent naively expressed his opinion that ” the

    legalization of the trade in 0})ium would afford his ]\[ajesty’s

    government great satisfaction,” but suggested that the gradual

    diversion of British capital into other channels would be attended

    with advantageous conse(piences. To one situated between

    his own government, which promoted the preparation

    and importation of opium, and the Chinese government, which

    was now making extraordinary efforts to regulate it, and

    deeply sensible of the injury resulting from its use to the

    people around him, and to the reputation of his own and all

    foreign nations from the constant infraction of the laws, the proposed

    step of legalization offei-cd a timely relief. Xo one was

    more desirous of putting a stop to this destructive traffic than

    Captain Elliot, but knowing the impossibility of cheeking it by

    laws, he naturally wished to see the nniltitude of political and

    commercial evils growing out of snuiggling done away with.

    There were, indeed, many things to urge in favor of this

    ‘ Chinese liepository, Vol. V., pp. 407, 41o, uud passim.

    TUE PKOHIBITOKY LAWS ENFORCED. 491

    course ; but the fact ought never to be lost sight of, and be

    mentioned to the lasting credit of the Emperor Taukwang and

    his advisers, in the midst of their perplexity and weakness, that

    he would not admit opium because it was detrimental to his people.

    The conflict was now fairly begun ; its issue between the

    parties, so unequally matched—one having almost nothing but

    the right on its side, the other assisted by every material and

    physical advantage—could easily be foreseen. Captain Elliot,

    as the recognized head of the British trade, received an order

    through the Iiong merchants from the provincial authorities to

    drive away the i-eceiving-ships from Lintin, and send the Emperor’s

    commands to his king, that lieneeforth they be prohibited

    coming. He replied that he could not transmit any orders

    to his own sovereign which did not come to him direct from

    the government, and quoted the recent instance of the governor-

    general of Fuhkien communicating directly M’ith the captain

    of a British ship of w^ar. The governor was therefore

    forced to send his orders to the prefect and colonel of the

    department to be enjoined on Captain Elliot. He replied by

    promising to send it to his country, and adds, in true diplomatic

    style, unworthy of himself and his nation : ” He has already

    signified to your excellency, with truth and plainness, that his

    commission extends only to the regular trade with this Empire ;

    and further, that the existence of any other than this trade has

    nev’eryet been suljmitted to the knowledge of his own gracious

    sovereign.” Captain Elliot transmitted with these “orders” a

    minute account of the condition of the opium trade, and a

    memorandum respecting the desirableness of opening comnnmication

    with the court. Lord Palmerston, in reply, intimates

    that “her Majesty’s government do not see their way in such a

    measure with sufficient clearness to justify them in adopting it

    at the present moment.” He adds that no protection can be

    afforded to ” enable British subjects to violate the laws of the

    country to which they trade. Any loss, therefore, which such

    persons may suffer in consequence of the more effectual execution

    of the Chinese laws on this subject, must be borne by the parties who have brought that loss on themselves by their own acts.” A most paradoxical but funvonient position for this ‘• honorable ” officer of the Englisli goveriiuieiit to assiiiiie, and worthy to be recorded in contrast to the utterances from J-‘eking.

    ^’ear the close of 1837 the British flag was again hauled

    down at Canton, and the superintendent returned to Macao because

    he refused to superscribe tlie word p/’/iyOr ‘petition,’ upon

    his communications, according to his instructions, and the governor

    declined to receive them without it. In July, 1838, Sir

    Frederick Maitland arrived in the Wellesley (T-l), and was

    brought into correspondence with the Chinese Admiral Kwan,

    in consequence of the forts firing upon an English schooner

    passing the Bogue and stopping her to inquire Nvhether he or

    any of his crew or women were on board. The Wellesley and

    her two consorts were anchored near the forts, and the Chinese

    admiral made a full apology for the mistake ; his conduct in

    the affair was very creditable both to liis judgment and temper.

    As soon as Sir Fj-ederick arrived, Captain Elliot vainly

    endeavored to reopen correspondence with the governor by

    sending an open letter to the city gates, which was received

    and taken to him, but returned in the evening because it had

    not the requii’cd superscription.

    INCREASE OF SMl’GGLIXG AND AFFRAYS. 493

    Having now fully taken the sense of the Empire in the replies received from all its highest officials, the Emperor DaoGuang increased his efforts to suppress the trade. In April, 1838, a native named Kwoh Si-ping was publicly strangled at Macao by express command of the Emperor, as a warning to others not to engage in exporting sycee or introducing opium. The execution was conducted by the district magistrate and subprefect with dignity and order in the presence of a crowd of natives and foreigners. More than fifty small craft under the English or American flag were constantly plying off the port of Canton, most of them engaged in smuggling. Sometimes the government exerted its power ; boats were destroyed, smugglers seized and tortured, and the sales checked ; then it M-enton again as briskly as ever. These boats were easily caught, for the government could exercise entire control over its own subjects; but when the foreign schooners, heavily urmcd and manned, sailed up and down the river delivering the drug, the revenue

    cruisers vvei’e afraid to attack them. The hong merchants addressed

    a note to all foreign residents concerning them, the close

    of which vividly exhibits their unlucky position as the ” responsible

    advisers’” of the barbarians : “Lately we have repeatedly

    received edicts from the governor and lioppo severely reprimanding

    us ; and we have also written to you, gentlemen of the different

    nations, several times, giving you full information of the

    orders and regulations, that you might perfectly obey them and

    manage accordingly ; but you, gentlemen, continue wholly regardless.”

    Collisions became more and more frequent between the Chinese

    and their rulers, in consequence of the increased stringency of

    the orders from court. In September, in an affray near Whampoa

    between the militarj’ and villagers, several persons were

    killed and scores arrested. The retailers at Canton were imprisoned,

    and those found in other places brought there in

    chains. In Ilupeh it was reported that the officers had punished

    arrested smokers by cutting out a portion of the upper lip

    to incapacitate them from using the pipe. Still, such was the

    venality of the officers that even at this time the son of Governor

    Tang himself was engaged in the traffic, and many of the

    underlings only seized the drug from the smuggling-boats to retail

    it themselves. The memorial of Hwang Tsioh-tsz”, advising

    the penalty of death, was promulgated in Canton ; and the

    Empd’or’s rescript urged to stronger measures. In a rapid survey

    of the ill effects from the use of the drug, Hwang aeknoMdedges

    that it had extended to Manchuria, and pervaded all ranks

    of official and humble life. The efflux of silver “into the insatiate

    depths of transmarine regions ” had caused the rate of

    exchange for cash to rise until it was difficult to carry on the

    business of government. lie then reviews the different plans

    proposed for checking the cause of all this evil, such as guarding

    the ports, stopping the entire foreign trade, arresting the smugglers,

    shutting up the shops, and, lastly, encouraging the home

    growth. lie confesses that the bribes paid the coast-guard service

    and the maritime officei-s are so great as entirely to prevent

    their vigilance; and that the home-prepared drug does not yield the same stimulus as the foreign article. As a last resort, he proposes to increase the penalties upon the consumers, laying all the blame upon them, and advises death to be awarded all who smoke opium after a year”s warning has been given them. The well-known subdivision of responsibility was to be made doubly strong by requiring bonds of every tithing and hundred that there were no smokers within their limits. Officers found guilty were not only to be executed, but their children deprived of the privilege of competing at the public examination. One cannot withhold a degree of sympathy for the helpless condition of the officers and statesmen of a great Empire sincerely desirous of doing their country service, and yet so sadly ignorant of their false position by their assumption of supremacy over the very nation whom they could not restrain, and whose officials they rejected for a formality. They might as well have tried to concert a measure to stop the YangZi Jiang river in its impetuous flow, as to check the opium trade by laws and penalties.

    TRADE STOPPED AT CANTON”. 495

    On December 3, 1SB8, about two peculs of opium were seized while landing at the factories, and the coolies carried into the city. They declared that they had been sent to Whampoa by Mr. Lines, a British merchant, to obtain the opium from an American ship consigned to Mr. Talbot. The governor ordered the Hang merchants to expel these two gentlemen and the ship within three days, on the garbled testimony of the two coolies. Mr. Talbot sent in a communication, stating that neither the ship nor himself had anything to do with the opium, and obtained a reversal of the order to leave. The Hang merchants were justly irritated, and informed the Chamber of Commerce that they would not rent their houses to any who would not give a bond to abstain from such proceedings, and refusing to open the trade until such bonds were given; they furthermore declared their intention to pull Mr. Innes’ house down if he refused to depart. The Chamber protested that ” the inviolability of their personal dwellings was a point imperatively necessary ” for their security ; the Hang merchants then )-esorted to entreaty, stating their difficult position between their own rulers on one side, who held them responsible for executing their orders, and the foreigners on the other, over whom they had little or no power. The Chamber could only express its regret at the unjust punishment inflicted on a Hang merchant, Punhoyqua, for this, and reassert its inability to control the acts of any foreigner.

    The governor had put himself in this helpless condition by

    refusing Captain Elliot’s letters ; and it is remarkable that he

    hesitated to arrest Mr. Innes, when one word would have set

    the populace on the factories and their tenants, and destroyed

    them all. As an alternative, he now resolved to show foreigners

    what consequences befel natives who dealt in opium ; and

    while Mv. Innes still remained in Canton, he sent an otRcer

    with fifteen soldiers to execute Ilo Lau-kin, a convicted dealer,

    in front of the factories. The officer was proceeding to carry

    his orders into effect near the American flag-stafP, when the

    foreigners sallied out, pushed down the tent he was raising, and

    told him in loud tones not to execute the man there. Quite

    unprepared for this opposition, he hastily gathered up his implements

    and went into a neighboring street, where the man

    was strangled. Meanwhile a crowd collected to see these extraordinary

    proceedings, whom the foreigners endeavored to

    drive away, supposing that a little determination would soon

    scatter them. Blows, however, were returned, the foreigners

    driven into their factories, and the gates shut ; the crowd had

    now become a mob, and under the impression that two natives

    had been seized, they began to batter the fronts and break the

    windows with stones and brickbats. They had had possession

    of the square about three hours, and the danger was becoming

    imminent, when the Pwanyu hien, or ‘ district magistrate,’ came

    up, with three or four other officers, attended by a small body

    of police. Stepping out of his sedan he waved his hand over

    the crowd, the lictors pouncing upon three or four of the most

    active, whom they began to chastise upon the spot, and the

    storm was quelled. About twenty soldiers, armed with swords

    and spears, took their stand in a conspicuous quarter ; the magistrate

    and his retinue seated themselves, leaving the hong

    merchants and the police to disperse the crowd. The foreigners

    were also assured that all should be kept quiet during the

    night, but not a word was said to them regarding their conduct in interfering with the execution or their lolly in bringing this danger upon themselves. This occurrence tended to impress both the government and people with contempt and hatred for foreigners and their characters, fear of their designs, and the necessity of restraining them. The majority of them Avere engaged in the opium trade, and all stood before the Empire as violators of the laws, while the people themselves suffered the dreadful penalty.

    There is no room for the details and correspondence connected with this remarkable incident.’ Captain Elliot now reappeared in Canton, and at a general meeting expressed his conviction of the cause of these untoward events in the snniggling traffic on the

    river, declaring his intention of ordering all the British-owned

    vessels to leave it within three days ; he moreover expressed tlie

    hope that the further step of opening connnunication with the

    provincial authorities to obtain their co-operation to drive them

    out would be prevented by their speedy departure. Injunctions

    and entreaties to his countrymen were, however, alike unavailing,

    and he accordingly addressed the governor, stating liis wish to

    co-operate in driving them out. In a public notice he remarked

    that ” this course of traffic was rapidly staining the British

    character with deep disgrace ” and exposing the regular commerce

    to innninent jeopardy, and that he meant to shrink from

    no responsibility in drawing it to a conclusion. The governor,

    as was expected, praised the superintendent for his offer, but

    left him to do the whole work; lenuirking, in that peculiar

    strain of Chinese conceit which so effectually forestalls our

    sympathy for their difficulties, that ” it may well be conceived

    that these boats trouble me not one iota :”—as if all he had to

    do was to arise in his majesty, and they were gone. The boats,

    hoM’ever, gradually left the river. Mr. Innes retired, and the

    regular trade was j-esumed in January.

    Chinese Jtepositai’y, Vol. VII. , pp. 437-456.

    ArPOINTMENT OF COMMISSIONER LIN. 497

    No British consular officer has been placed in a more difficult and humiliating dilemma, and Captain Elliot did himself honor in his efforts. The English newspapers ridiculed him as a tidewaiter of the Chinese custom-house, a man who aided the cowardly authorities to carry their orders into effect, thereby staining the honor of her Majesty’s commission. Although ho did not intend to draw a line between the heinousness of the opium trade inside of the I’ogue and its harmlessness beyond that limit, still there were good reasons, under his peculiar position, for some action to show the Chinese government that British power would not protect British subjects in violating the laws of China.

    At this period the Peking govermnent had taken its course

    of action. Reports had been received from the provincial authorities

    almost unanimously recommending increased stringency

    to abolish the traffic. History, so far as we know, does

    not record a similar example of an arbitrary, despotic, pagan government taking the public sentiment of its own people before

    adopting a doubtful line of conduct. It was a far more momentous

    and difficult question than eyen the cabinet deemed it to

    be, while their conceit and ignorance incapacitated them from

    dealing with it prudently or successfully. There can be no reasonable

    doubt that the best part of his people and the moral

    power of the nation were with their sovereign in this attempt.

    Hii Xai-tsi was dismissed for proposing legalization, and three

    princes of the blood degraded for smoking opium ; arrests, fines,

    tortures, imprisonments, and executions were frequent in the

    provinces on the same grounds, all showing the determination

    to eradicate it. The governor of llukwang, Lin Tseh-sii, was

    ordered to proceed to Canton, with unlimited powers to stop the

    traffic. The trade thei’e was at this time almost suspended, the

    deliveries being small and at losing pi-ices. Many underlings

    were convicted and summarily punished, and on February

    2Gth Fung A-ngan was strangled in front of the factoi-ies

    for his connection with opium and participation in the affray

    at Whampoa. The foreign flags, English, American, Dutch,

    and French, were all hauled down in consequence. The entire

    stoppage of all ti-ade ^yas thi-eatened, and the governor urged

    foreigners to send all opium ships from Chinese waters.

    Commissioner Lin arriyed in Canton March lOth. The Emperor sent him to inquire and act so as thoroughly to remove the source of the evil, foi-, says he, ” if the source of the evil lie not clearly ascertained, how can we hope that the stream of pernicious consequences shall be stayed? It is our full hope that the long-indulged habit will be forever laid aside, and every root and o-erni of it entirely eradicated : we would fain think that our ministers will be enabled to substantiate our wishes, and so remove from China the dire calamity/’ It was reported in Canton that the monarch, when recounting the evils which had long afflicted his people by means of opium, paused and wept, and turning to Lin, said : ” How, alas ! can I die and go to the shades of my imperial father and ancestors, until these direful evils are removed ! ” Such was the chief purpose of this movement on the part of the Chinese government, and Lin was invested with the fullest powers ever conferred on a subject. Although long experience of the ineffectiveness of Chinese edicts generally lead those residing in the country to regard them as mere verbiage, still, to say that they are all insincere and formal because they are ineffectual, is to misjudge and pervert the emotions of common humanity. Lin appears to have been well fitted for the mission , and if he had been half as enlightened as he was sincere, he would perhaps have averted the war which followed, and been convinced that legalization was the most judicious step he could recommend.

    The connnissioner spent a week making inquiries, during

    which time nothing was publicly heard from him; while natives

    and foreigners alike anxiously speculated as to his plans. It was

    not until March 18th that his first proclanuitions were issued to

    the hong merchants and foreigners ; that to the latter required

    them to deliver up all the opium in the storeships, and to give

    bonds that they would bring no more, on penalty of death.

    The poor hong merchants were, as usual, instructed regarding

    their responsibility to admonish the foreigners, and strictly

    charged to procure these bonds, or they would be made examples

    of. Three days were allowed for compliance with these demands.

    Thehoppo had already issued orders detaining all foreigners

    in Canton—in fact, making them prisoners in their own

    houses; comnnmication with the shipping was suspended, troops

    were assembled about the factories, and armed cruisers stationed

    on the river. The Chamber of Commerce wrote to the hong

    LIN DEMANDS A SURRENDER OF OPII’M. 499

    merchants on the 20th^ through their chamiian,W. S, Wetniore,

    an American, stating that they would send a definite reply in

    four days, and adding that ” there is an almost unanimous feeling

    in the community of the absolute necessity of the foreign

    residents of Canton having no connection with the opium traffic/’

    This paper was taken to the commissioner, and ahout ten

    o’clock P.M. the hong merchants again met the Chaniber, and

    told them that if some opium was not given up two of their

    number would be beheaded in the morning. The merchants

    present, including British, Parsees, Americans, and others, acting

    as individuals, then subscribed one thousand and thirtyseven

    chests, to be tendered to the commissioner ; but the hong

    merchants reported next morning that this amount was insufficient.

    In the afternoon Lin sent an invitation to Mr. Dent, a

    leading English merchant, to meet him at the city gates, who

    expressed his willingness to go if the commissioner would give

    him a safe-warrant guaranteeing his return within a day. The

    hong merchants returned without Inm ; and the next morning

    two of them, Howqua and Mowqua, came again to his house

    with chains upon their necks, having been sent with an express

    order for him to appear. They repaired to the Chamber of

    Commerce then assembled, but all soon returned to Mr. Dent’s

    house, where an animated debate took place, which resulted in

    the unanimous decision on the part of the foreign residents

    that he should not go into the city without the safe-warrant.

    This unexpected demand caused much discussion among foreigners, as it was doubtless a contrivance to secure a hostage; and the refusal of the former to give a written safe-warrant would probably have ended in seizing Mr. Dent and imprisoning him, if Ilowqua, the senior hong merchant, had not allowed everything to wait over one day till Monday. Mr. Dent’s partner had that day seen i\\e a7i-chah sz\ or ‘provincial judge,’ in the city to explain why he hesitated to go to Lin.

    On the 22d Captain Elliot sent a note to the governor expressing his readiness to meet the Chinese officers, and use ” his sincere efforts to fulfil the pleasure of the great Emperor as soon as it was made known to him.” The Chinese could hardly draw any other conclusion from this admission than that he had the power, as well as the inclination to put down the opium trade, which he certainly could not do ; it tended therefore to deceive them. This note was followed by a letter to Captain Blake, of the Larne, requesting his assistance in defending British property and life, and by a circular ordering all British ships, opium and others, to proceed to Hongkong and prepare themselves to resist every act of aggression. A second circular to British subjects detailed the reasons which compelled him to withdraw all conlidencc in the “justice and moderation of the provincial government,”‘ and demand passports for all his countrymen who wished to leave Canton, while counselling every one to make preparations to remove on board ship. Elliot

    now proceeded to Canton, which he safely reached about sunset

    Sunday evening, dressed in naval uniform and closely attended

    by cruisers watching his movements. The British flag was

    then hoisted, and Captain Elliot, conducting Mr. Dent to the

    consulate in the most conspicuous manner, summoned a public

    meeting, read his notice of the previous day, and told the hong

    merchants to inform the commissioner that he was willing to

    let Mr. Dent go into the city if he could accompany him.

    His coming up the river had excited the apprehensions of

    the Chinese that he meant to force his way out again, and

    oi’ders were issued to close every pass around the factories. By

    nine o’clock that evening the foreigners, about two hundred

    and Feventy-fi\e in number, Avere the only inmates of their

    houses. Patrols, sentinels, and officers, hastening hither and

    thither, with the blowing of trumpets and beating of gongs,

    added confusion to the darkness of the night.

    THE FOKEIGNEKS IMPRISONED IN THE FACTORIES. 501

    On the 25th most of the foreign merchants of all nations signed a paper pledging themselves ” not to deal in opium, nor to attempt to introduce it into the Chinese Empire : ” how many of the individuals subsequently broke this pledge on the ground that it Avas forced from them cannot be stated, but part of the firms which signed it afterward actively engaged in the trade. Captain Elliot applied for passports for himself and countrymen, and requested the return of the servants, avoiding all reference to his promise of three days before, or mention of the cause of these stringent proceedings. His requests were refused ; no native was allowed to bring food or water to the factories; letters could not be sent to AVlianipoa or Macao, except at ininiiucnt risk ; the continciiient was complete, and had been effected without the least personal harm. The heavy punishment which had fallen on Kwoh Si-ping, Ho Lau-kin, and Fung A-ngan had now come near to the foreign agents of the traihc ; but not an individual had been touched.

    The commissioner next issued an exhortation to all foreigners,

    urging them to deliver the drug on four grounds, viz., because

    they were men and had reason ; becanse the laws forbade its

    use, nnder severe penalties ; because they should have feelings

    for those who suffered from using it ; and because of their

    present duress, from which they would then be released. This

    paper, as were all those issued by Lin, was characterized by an

    uimsual vigor of expression and cogency of reasoning, but betrayed the same arrogance and ignorance which had misled his predecessors. One extract will suffice. Under the first reason why the opium should be delivered up, lie says that otherwise the retribution of heaven will follow them, and cites some cases to prove this: Now, our great Emperor, being actuated by the exatted virtue of heaven itself, wishes to cut off this deluge of opium, which is the jilainest proof that such is the intention of high heaven! It is then a traffic on which heaven looks with disgust, and who is he that may oppose its will ? Thus in the instance

    of the English chief Robarts, who violated our laws ; he endeavored to

    get possession of Macao by force, and at Macao he died! Again, in 1834, Lord

    Napier bolted through the Bocca Tigris, but being overwhelmed with grief and

    fear he almost immediately died : and Morrison, who had been darkly deceiving

    him, died that very year also! Besides these, every one of those who have

    not observed our laws have either been overtaken with the jiidgments of heaven

    on returning to their country, or silently cut off ere they could return

    thither. Thus then it is manifest that the heavenly dynasty may not be opposed I Two communications to Captain Elliot, from Lin through the prefect and district magistrates, accompanied this exhortation,

    stating his view of the superintendent’s conduct in contumaciously

    resisting his commands and requiring him to give np the

    opium. For once in the history of foreign intercourse with

    China, these commands were obeyed, and after intimating his readiness to comply, Captain Elliot issued a circular on Marcb

    27th, which from its important results is quoted entire :

    I, Charles Elliot, chief superintendent of the trade of British subjects in

    China, presently forcibly detained by the provincial government, together with

    all the merchants of my own and the other foreign nations settled liere, without

    supplies of food, deprived of our servants, and cut off from all iutercoui’se

    with our respective countries (notwithstanding my own official demand to be

    set at liberty that I might act without restraint), have now received the commands

    of the high commissioner, issued directly to me under the seals of the

    honorable officers, to deliver into his hand all the opium held by the people

    of my own country. Now I, the said chief superintendent, thus constrained by

    paramount motives affecting the safety of the lives and liberty of all the foreigiu’rs

    here present in Canton, and by other very weighty causes, do hereby,

    in the name and on the behalf of her Britannic Majesty’s government, enjoin

    and require all her Majesty’s subjects now present in Canton, forthwith to

    make a surrender to me for the service of her said Majesty’s government, to be delivered over to the government of China, of all the opium under their respective control : and to hold the British ships and vessels engaged in the opium trade subject to my immediate direction : and to forward me without delay a sealed list of all the British-owned opium in their respective possession.

    And I, the said chief superintendent, du now, in the most full and unreserved manner, hold myself responsible for, and on the behalf of her Britannic Majesty’s government, to all and each of her Majesty’s subjects surrendering the said British-owned opium into my hands, to be delivered over to the Chinese government. And I, the said chief superintendent, do further especially caution all her Majesty’s subjects here present in Canton, owners of or charged with the management of opium the property of British subjects, that failing the surrender of the said opium into my hands at or before six o’clock this day, I, the said superintendent, hereby declare her Majesty’s government wholly free of all manner of responsibility in respect of the said British-owned opium.

    And it is specially to be understood that proof of British property and value of all British-owned opium surrendered to mo agreeable to this iu)tic(>, shall bedetermined upon principles, and in a manner liereafter to be defined by her Majesty’s government.

    ‘The guarantee offered in this notice was deemed sufficient by

    the merchants, thoui2;h Captain Elliot had no authority to take

    such a responsibility, and exceeded his powers in giving it ; being

    the authorized agent of the crown, however, his government

    was responsible for his acts, though the notice did not, nor

    could it, set any price npon the sui-rendercd property.

    At the time it was given it could not l)e honestly said that

    ‘ Cliinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 633.

    CAPTAIN ELLIOT S CIRCULAR. 503

    tlic lives of foreigners were in jeopardy, and Lin liad promised

    to reopen the trade as soon as the opium was delivered and the

    bonds given. What the other ” very weighty causes ” were

    nnist be guessed ; but the requisition was promptly answered,

    and before night twenty thousand two hundred and eighty-three

    chests of opium had been surrendered, which Captain Elliot the

    next day tendered to the connnissioner. Their market value at

    tlie time was not far from nine millions of dollars, and the cost

    price nearly eleven millions. Directions were sent to twentytwo

    vessels to anchor near the Bogue, to await orders for its

    delivery, the commissioner and the governor themselves going

    down forty miles to superintend the transfer. On April 2d the arrangements for delivering the opium were completed, and on May 21st it was all housed near the Bogue.

    When the guard M-as placed about the factories, no native

    came near them for three days, but on the 21>tli a supply of

    sheep, pigs, poultry’, and other provisions was “graciously bestowed

    ” upon their inmates, most of whom refused them as

    gifts, which impressed Lin with the belief that they were not

    actually suffering for food. On May 5th the guards and boats

    M-ere removed, and communication resumed with the shipping.

    Sixteen persons, English, Americans, and Parsees, named as

    principal agents in the opium trade, were ordered to leave the

    country and never return. On the 24th Captain Elliot left

    Canton, accompanied by the ten British subjects mentioned

    among the sixteen outlawed persons. In order still further to

    involve her Majesty’s ministers in his acts, he forbade British

    ships entering the port, or any British subject living in Canton,

    on the ground that both life and property were insecure; there were, however, no serious apprehensions felt by other foreigners remaining there ; and the propriety of the order was questioned by those who were serious sufferers from its action.

    This success in getting the opium encouraged Lin to demand the bond, but although the captains of most of the ships signed it when the port was first opened, it was not required long after. The British merchants at Canton prepared a memorial to the foreign secretary of their government, recapitulating the aggressive acts of the Chinese government in stopping the legal trade, detaining all foreigners in Canton until the opium was surrendered, and requiring them to sign a hund not to bring it again, which involved their responsibility over those whom they could not control; but nothing was said in it of their own unlawful acts, no reference to their promises of a few months before, no allusion to the causes of these acts of aggression. Its burden was, however, to urge the government to issue a notice of its intentions respecting the pledge given them by the superintendent in his demand for the opium.

    Lin referred to Peking for orders concerning the disposal of

    the opium, and his Majesty commanded the Mhole to be destroyed

    by him and his colleagues in the presence of the civil

    and military officers, the inhabitants of the coast, and the foreigners,

    ” that they may know and tremble thereat.” Captain

    Elliot, on the other hand, before it had all been delivered, wrote

    to his government, April 22d, his belief that the Chinese intended

    to sell it at a high price, remunerating the owners and

    pocketing the difference, ])reparatory to legalizing the traffic,

    and making some arrangements to limit the annual importation

    to a certain number of chests ; consequently he recommended

    an ” innnediate and strong declaration to exact complete indemnity

    for all manner of loss ” from the Chinese. lie calls Lin “false and perfidious,” though it is difficult to see why he applies these epithets to one who seems to have sincerely endeavored to carry out instructions, while his own communicfttions certainly tended to mislead him. The sense of the responsibility he had assumed, and the irritating confinement under which it was written, account, in a measure, for this despatch, so different in its tenor from his previous declarations.

    THE OPIU.>r YIELDED AND DESTROYED. 505

    The opium was destroyed in the most thorough manner, by Hiixiiig it in parcels of two hundred chests, in trenches, with lime and salt water, and then drawing off the contents into the adjacent creek at low tide. Overseers were stationed to prevent the workmeunor villagers from ])urloining the opium, and one man was summarily executed for attempting to carry away a small quantity. No doubt remained in the minds of persons who visited the place and examined the operation, that the entire quantity of twenty thousand two hundred and ninety-one eliests received from the English(eiglit nioi-e having been sent from Macao) was completely destroyed:—a solitary instance in the history of the world of a pagan monarch preferring to destroy what would injure his subjects, rather than to fill hisown pockets with its sale. The whole transaction M’ill ever remain one of the most remarkable incidents in human history for its contrasts, and the great changes it introduced into China.’

    The course of events during the remainder of the year 1839 presents a strange mixture of traffic and hostility. The British merchants were obliged to send their goods to Canton in ships sailing under other Hags, which led the commissioner to issue placards exhorting British captains to bring their ships into port. This procedure brought out a rejoinder from Captain Elliot, giving the reasons why he had forbidden them to do so, and complaining of his own unjust imprisonment as unbecoming treatment to the “officer of a friendly nation, recognized by the Emperoi*, who had always performed his duty peacefully and irreproachably.” Captain Elliot’s own correspondence shows, however, that this is an unfair statement of the political relations between them.

    While this matter of trade was pending, a drunken affray occurred at Hongkong with some English sailors, in which an inoffensive native named Lin Wei-lii lost his life. The commissioner ordered an inquest to be held, and demanded the nnn–derer, according to Chinese law. The superintendent empanelled a regular court of criminal and admiralty jurisdiction at Ilongicong, to try the seamen who had been arrested. He also offered’ Sir Robert Peel declared that this property was obtained by her Majesty’s agent without any authority ; but when the six millions of dollars were received from the Chinese as indemnity, the British government made its subjects receive their money in London, charged them with all expenses insteal of paying it in China, and priced the opium at scarcely half what the East India Company had received from it, by taking the market rates when the trade at Canton was nominal. The merchants lost, with accruing interest, about two millions sterling, and “Sir R. Peel transferred a million sterling from their pockets to the public treasury.”—Chinese liepositon/, Vol. XIIL, p. 54 (from London paper).

    CHAPTER XXIII. PROGRESS AND RESULTS OF THE FIRST WAR BETWEEN ENGLAND AND CHINA

    On June 22, 1840, before the advance part of the British force reached China, Sir Goi’don Bremer published a notice oi the blockade of the port of Canton. The Americans living There had requested Lin to let all their ships arriving before it was laid on come directly up the river, lie granted the application, but declared it ” to be an egregious mistake, analogous to an audacious falsehood, that the English contemplated putting on a hlo’^kade.”” Captain Elliot also issued a manifesto to the people, which was widely dispersed, setting forth the grievances which had been suffered by the English at the hands of Lin, and assuring them that noliarm would come while they pursued their peaceful occupations—for the quarrel was entirely between the two governments, and the Queen had deputed high officers to make known the truth to the Emperor.

    Sir Gordon Bremer’s force of live ships of war, three steamers,

    and twenty-one transports reached Tingliai harbor July 1th. In

    reply to a summons to surrender, the Chinese officers declared

    their determination to resist as far as their means allowed ; but

    complained of the hardship of being made answerable for

    wrongs done at Canton, upon which place the blow should properly

    fall. The attack was made on Sunday, July 5th, when the

    Wellesley (74) opened her guns on the town, which were

    answered by the juidcs and batteries. A few minutes sufficed

    to silence the latter, and three thousand men landed and

    menaced Tinghai, whose walls were lined with soldiers. The

    town was. evacuated dm-ing the night, most of the respectable

    inhabitants going to NingBo ; many of the Chinese high officials were killed, which, with the experience of the terrible foreign force brought against them, disheartened their troops beyond measure.

    AERIVAL OF THE J5KITISH—FALL OF TINGIIAI, 515

    Two days after this attack tiie joint plenipotentiaries, Admiral G. Elliot and Captain Elliot, arrived in the Melville (74) at Cliusan. To the authorities at Amoy and Ningbo they sent copies of Lord Palmerston’s letter to the Emperor, with a request to forward them to Peking ; the officials declined, however, undertaking any such responsibility.

    The prefect of Ningbo took measures to prevent the people of Chusan from ” aiding and comforting” their conquerors by sending police-runners to mark those who supplied them ; a purveyor from Canton was seized and brought back. An idea that the Chinese people wished to throw off the Manchu yoke, and a desire to conciliate the islanders, led the British to take less decided measures for supplying themselves with provisions than they otherwise would. A small party was sent to recapture the puwvyor, but its unsuccessful trip over the island showed the unwillingness of the people to have anything to do with their invaders, while their dread was increased by the arrest of several village elders. Mr. Gutzlaff was stationed at Chusan, doing his best to reassure the people ; and as he went around exhorting them to act peaceably, some of them asked him, ” If you are so desirous of peace, why did you come here at all ?”

    After arranging the government of the island, the stations of

    the troops, and blockading of Amoy, Ningpo, and the mouths

    of the Min and Yangtsz’ Rivers, the two plenipotentiaries left

    Tinghai and anchored off the Pei ho August 11th, Captain Elliot

    went ashore, and finding that Kislien, the governor-general of

    Chilli], was at Taku, delivered the letter to his messenger, who

    returned with a request for ten days’ delay in which to lay it

    before the Emperor. During this interval the ships visited the

    coast of Liautung to procure provisions, which they obtained

    with some difficulty. No message coming ofp, a strong boat force was sent ashore on the 28th, with a menacing letter to Kishen, wdien it was ascertained that the reply had in reality been awaiting the return of the ships during several days. Arrangements were now made for a personal interview at Taku between Kisheu and Captain Elliot, on Sunday, August 30th, in a large tent. Kislien argued his side of the question with great tact and ability, sincerely urging the argument that his master had the most unquestionable right to treat the English

    as he had done, for they were and had em-olled themselves his

    tributary subjects. He could not treat definitely on all the

    points in dispute, and obtained a further delay of six days in

    order to refer again to Peking. The conclusion was the reasonable

    arrangement that Kishen should meet the English

    plenipotentiaries at Canton, where the truth could be better

    ascertained ; and on September 15th the squadron returned to Chusan.

    While these things were taking place at Taku, there had occurred a few skirmishes elsewhere. A shipwrecked crew had fallen into Chinese hands and been carried to 3s’ingpo, and some foraging parties were roughly handled. Lin tried to inspirit his troops by offering large rewards for British ships and subjects, and a force of about one thousand two hundred men was stationed in and around the Barrier at Macao. Captain Smith, however, moved two sloops and a steamer near their position, and soon drove the soldiers away, destroying their guns and barracks.

    Lin was busy enlisting volunteers and preparing the defences

    of Canton, but in the sunnner he was ordered to return ” with

    the speed of flames ” to Peking. His Majesty was uimeccssarily

    severe upon his servant : ” You have not only proved

    yourself unable to cut off their trade,” he says, ” but you have

    also proved yourself unable to seize perverse natives. You

    have but dissembled with empty words, and so far fi’om having

    been any help in the affair, you have caused the waves of confusion

    to arise, and a thousand interminable disorders are

    sprouting ; in fact, you have been as if your arms wei’c tied,

    without knowing what to do : it appears, then, you are no bettor

    than a wooden image. When I meditate on all these things,

    J am lilled with anger and melancholy.” Trade was carried on

    notwithstanding the blockade, by sending tea and g(Kxls thi’ough

    Macao ; and many ships loaded for England and the United

    States.

    INTERVIEW BETWEEN ELLIOT AND KISIIEN. 517

    Admiral Elliot entered into a truce with Tlipu, governorgeneral

    of (“lielikian*;, by wliicli each party agreed to observe

    certain boundaries. ISickness and deatli had made sad inroads

    into the health and numbers of the troops at Tinghai, owing to

    their bad location, malaria, and iiii]>ro{)er food ; more than four

    hundred out of the four thousand landed in July having died,

    and three times that number being in the hospitals. The

    people dared not reopen their shops until after the truce ; the

    visits paid to various parts of the island better informed the

    inhabitants of the personal character of their temporary rulers,

    and a profitable trade in provisions encouraged them to farther

    acquaintance.

    The two plenipotentiaries returned November 20th, and immediately sent a steamer bearing a despatch from Ilipu to Kishen; the vessel was fired upon by an officer unacquainted with the meaning of a white flag—the intent and privileges of which were after this understood; Kishen made an ample apology for this mishap. Negotiations were resumed during the month of December, but the determination of the Chinese to resist rather than grant full indemnity for the opium was more and more apparent.

    Kishen probably found more zeal among the people for a fight than he had supposed, but his own desires were to settle the matter ” more soon, more better.’” What demands were made as a last alternative are not known, but one of them,

    the cession of the island of Hongkong, he refused to grant, and

    broke off the discussion. Commodore Bremer thereupon attacked

    and took the forts at Chuenpi and Taikok-tau on January

    7th, when the furthei- progress of his forces was stayed bv

    Kishen, who was present and saw enough to convince him of

    the folly of resistance.

    On January 20th the suspended negotiations had proceeded so far that Captain Elliot announced the conclusion of preliminary arrangements upon four points, viz., the cession of the island and harbor of Hongkong to the British crown, an indemnity of six millions of dollars in annual instalments, direct official intercourse upon an equal footing, and the immediate resumption of English trade at Canton. By these arrangements Chusan and Chuenpi were to be immediately restored to the Chinese, the prisoners at Ningbo released, and the English allowed to occupy Hongkong. One evidence of Kishen’s

    ” scrupulous good faith,” mentioned in Captain Elliot’s notice,

    is the edict he put up on Hongkong, telling the inhabitants

    they were now under English authority. Two interviews took

    place after this, at the last of which it was plain that two of the

    four stipulations, viz., the first instalment of a million of dollars,

    and opening of trade by February 1st, would not be fulfilled.

    The intimations of the designs of the court were so

    evident that the treaty was probably never even presented to

    the Emperor for ratification.

    Kishen carried his negotiations thus far, with the hope perhaps

    that an adjustment of the ditficulties on such terms would

    be accepted by his imperial master. On the other hand, Lin

    and his colleagues memorialized him as soon as Kishen came to

    Canton against peaceful measures, and their reconnnendations

    as to the necessity of resistance were strongly backed by the

    mortifying loss of Cliusan. The approach of a large force to

    the Pei ho alarmed his Majesty, and conciliatory measures were

    taken, and a reference to Canton proposed before settling the

    dispute ; when the men-of-war left, he was inclined for peace,

    and issued orders not to attack the ships while the discussions

    were going on. But the memorials had already changed iiis

    mind, and war was determined on at the date of signing the

    treaty. It is probable if, instead of seizing Chusan, which had

    given no cause of provocation, the English had gone up the

    Yangtsz’ kiang and Pei ho, and stationed themselves there until

    their demands were granted, peace would have been soon made.

    But, in that case, would the vain notion of their supremacy have

    left the Chinese ?

    Looking back forty years, one can recognize the benefit to

    both parties whicli resulted from the failure of this treaty. The

    great desire of Chi’istian people, who believed that China was

    finally to receive the gospel, was that it might be opened to

    their benevolent effoi’ts, l)ut this treat)’ left the country as closed

    as ever to all good influences, commercial, political, social, and

    religious, while the evils of smuggling, law-breaking, and opium-

    Bmoking remained unmolested. The crisis which had brought

    FAILURE OF NEGOTIATIONS AT THE BOGUE. 519

    out this expedition was not likely soon to recur, and if this

    failed to break down its seclusiveness, no other nation Mould

    attempt the task. Every well-wisher of China cherished the

    hope that, since this unfortunate conflict nnist needs be, its outcome

    would leave the entire land fully accessible to the regenci–

    ating, as well as shielded from the evil influences of Christian

    nations.

    Captain Elliot appreciated the dilemma into which the Emperor

    had been brought by the acts of Lin, and knew that

    ignorance was much more the misfortune than the fault of

    both ; he acted humanely, therefore, in pui’suing a mild course

    at first, until the points at issue had been fairly brought before

    the people as well as the cabinet. However justly some parts

    of his conduct may have merited criticism, this praiseworthy

    feature of his policy by no means earned the torrent of abuse

    he received for consistently pursuing such a course. His countrymen

    would have had him burn, kill, and destroy, as soon as

    the expedition reached the coast, before even stating his

    demands at court ; and during his negotiations with Ivishen,

    and when Chusan was restored, a smile of contempt at his supposed

    gullibility was everywhere seen. The treaty of the Bogue, though formed in good faith by both commissioners, was rejected by both sovereigns, though for opposite reasons; by Victoria, because it did not grant enough, by Taukwang, because it granted too much.

    The Emperor issued orders to resume the war, collect troops

    from the provinces upon Canton and Tinghai, in order to ” destroy

    and wipe clean away, to exterminate and root out the

    rebellious barbarians,” and urged the people to regard them

    with the same bitterness they did their personal enemies. His

    mandate is couched in strong terms, saying that his enemies

    have been rebellious against heaven, opposing reason, one in

    spirit with the brute beasts, ” beings that the overshadowing

    vault, and all-containing earth can hardly suffer to live,” obnoxious

    to angels and men, and that he must discharge his

    heaven-conferred trust by sweeping them from the face of the

    earth. This decree exhibited the true principles of action of

    this proud government, which deliberately rejected the offer of peace, and determined to npliold its fancied supremacy to the utmost. China nnist now win or hi’eak.

    Ilostih} intentions had become so evident that Captain Elliot

    announced that Commodoi’e l>i-emer would return to the Bogue

    with tlie force ; the boats of the Nemesis were fired upon while

    sounding, and the battery near Anunghoy was attacked the

    same day that Clnisan was evacuated. Rewards of $50,000

    were ofPered for Elliot, Bremei-, Morrison, and other ringleaders,

    and all the defences put in the best condition. On Februarv

    20th the Bogue foi’ts were all taken. Admiral Kwan falling

    at his post. The British had nine ships, assisted by less than

    five Inmdred troops, and two steamers. The Chinese force was

    prol)ably over three thousand, but it made no resistance after

    tlie batteries were taken ; the total loss Avas supposed to be not

    far from a thousand. The forts were built so solidly that few

    were kihed by tlie broadsides of tlie ships, and their magazines

    so well protected that no explosions took- place; the powdeifound

    in them was nsed to demolish the walls. There were in

    all eight large forts on the sides of the river and AVangtong

    Island, forming altogether a line of batteries which would have

    been impregnable in the hands of European troops, and was not

    without reason deemed to be so by the Chinese themselves.

    The next day the small ships moved up to the First Bar, where

    a long fortification on the river bank, and an intrenched camp

    of two thousand troops, defended by upward of a hundred

    cannon, with a strong raft thrown across the river, showed a

    resolution to make a stand. The ships and steamers opened a

    hot tire upon the batteries and camp, which returned it as well

    as they could, but the loss of life was greatest when the English

    landed. Many instances of personal bravery showed that the

    Chinese were not all destitute of courage, but without discipline

    and better weapons it was of no avail. Nearly one-fourth

    were killed, their camp burned, the Chesapeake and all her

    stores blown up, and most of the crew killed. The raft was

    easily removed b}^ the steamers, to the mortification of the

    Chinese, who had trusted that this might prove a permanent

    barrier to the approach of ships to the city. From this point

    the way was open to within five miles of Canton, and when the forts at that place were taken, the prefect met Captain Elliot on March od with a Hag of truce proposing a suspension of hostilities for three days.

    CAPTURE OF THE APPKOACIIES TO CANTON”. 621

    Kishen had already been ordered to return to Peking to

    await his trial; his nieniorial’ on hearing of his degradation

    does him credit. Iliang was left in command of the province

    until four general officers, leading large bodies of troops, should

    arrive. The highest of these was Yihshan, a nephew of the

    Emperor, assisted by “i’ang Fang, Lungwan, and Tsishin. On

    the part of the English, Major-dreneral Sir Hugh Gougli arrived

    fi’om India to take command of the land forces, and Sir Gordon

    Bremer sailed for Calcutta to procure recruits. Bodies of troops

    were gathering in and around Canton to the amount of five

    or six thousand, most of whom had come from the North-West Provinces, and were not less strange and formidable to the citizens than were their foreign” enemies.

    After the truce, had expired the English moved toward Canton

    by both the channels leading to the city, the iron steamer

    Nemesis proceeding up the Irmer Passage, subduing all obstacles

    in her way until every fort, raft, battery, camp, and stockade

    between the ocean and Canton had been taken or destroyed,

    and the city lay at their mercy. The factories had been kept

    safely, and were occupied by British troops just two years

    after Lin had imprisoned the foreigners there. A second truce

    was agreed upon March 20th, by which trade was allowed to

    proceed on the old mode ; merchant ships accordingly advanced

    up the river, and for about six weeks trade went on uninterruptedly—one party getting their tea and the other their duties.

    The new governor, Ki Kung, together with the “rebel-quelling general ” Yihshan, then arrived, and the people, thinking that a slight cause would disturb the truce, took advantage of it to remove their effects, well aware how much they would suffer from their own army in case of trouble.

    ^Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 335.

    Toward the middle of May the hostile intentions of the Chinese were manifest, though cloaked under professions of amity; and on the 21st Captain Elliot notilied all foreigners to go

    aboard ship. The secret prepai-ations for attack were very extensive. Large fire-boats and rafts were prepared, masked batteries erected along the river, troops quartered in the temples, and large camion placed in the streets. The day before the notice of Captain Elliot was issued, the prefect had the impudence to publish a proclamation assuring all classes of the

    peaceful intentions of the commissioners. Finding their prey

    gone, a night attack was made by land and water on the ships,

    but none were seriously injured. As daylight advanced the

    Xemesis went in pursuit of the fire-boats and junks, and burned

    upward of sixty, while three men-of-war silenced the batteries

    along shore. Meantime the Chinese troops searched the factory

    buildings for arms and pillaged three of the hongs, to the

    consternation of the prefect, who told the commissioner that he

    would be forced to pay for losses thus sustained. On the 24th

    the land and naval forces under Sir Hugh Gongh and Sir Fleming

    Senhouse arrived from Hongkong and prepared to invest

    the city. Most of the troops debarked above it, at Xeishing,

    under the personal directions of Sir Fleming, M’ho had provided

    many boats in which the force of two thousand six hundred

    men, besides followers, guns, and stores, were toM’ed about

    twelve miles. A detachment landed and took possession of the

    factories. Sir Hugh Gough remained near the place of debarkation

    till the next morning, when the whole body moved

    onward to attack the forts and camps behind the city. As the

    English advanced the Chinese found that their shot did not

    reach them, so that after an hour”s firing they began to collect

    outside of the forts, preparatory to retiring. The advance

    puslied on, and sent them scampering down the hills toward

    the city ; the intrenched camp was cai’ried with considei’able

    loss to its defenders, who everywhere ran as soon as the fight

    came to close quarters ; but in the forts there were many furious

    struo;o;:les.

    THE CITY RANSOMED. 523

    On the 20th a driving rain stopped all operations ; and a ])arley was also requested from the now deserted city walls by two officers, who agreed to send a deputation to make arrangements for surrender. Night came on before any heralds appeared, so that it was not till morning that the troops were in position, the guns loaded and primed, port-fires lighted, and

    everything in readiness to open lire, when a messenger arrived

    from captain Elliot, desiring fm-ther operations to be

    delayed until he had concluded his negotiations. The terms

    were : that the forces should remain in position until a ransom

    of $(),000,000 was paid ; that the three imperial commissioners

    and all their troops should march sixty miles from the city; that compensation for the loss of property in the factories and

    burning the Spanish brig Bilbaino should be at once handed

    over or secured ; and that the Chinese troops, nearly fifty thousand

    in number, should evacuate the city. Captain Elliot ought

    indeed to have demanded a personal apology from Yihshan and

    his colleagues for their infamous treachery before letting them

    go. His acceptance of this ransom and sparing the city from

    capture were sharply criticised at the time, and the contemptuous

    bearing of the citizens during the sixteen ensuing years

    of their possession proved that it was an ill-timed mercy. How

    nuich influence the ordeis from home to be careful of the teatrade

    had in this course cannot be learned.

    While the English forces were occupying the heights the

    lawless soldiers from Kweichau and Kwangsi began to plunder

    the citizens, who retaliated till blood was shed and more than a

    thousand persons were killed in the streets ; a patriot mob of

    v^illagers, numbering about fifteen thousand, attacked the few

    British troops left on the hills north of the city, but a prompt

    advance on the part of Sir Hugh drove this rabble a rout of

    some three miles. Upon their reappearance next day, the prefect

    was told that if they were not instantly dispersed the city

    would, be bombarded ; the threats and persuasions of the commissioners,

    aided by a British officer, finally induced the mob to

    retire. The superiority of discipline over mere numbers was

    probably never more remarkably exhibited ; though the Chinese

    outnumbered the English more than forty to one, not a single

    foreigner was killed.

    On the 31st the prefect furnished five hundred coolies to assist in transporting the guns and stores to the river side^ and ten days after Captain Elliot’s first notice everything was restored to the Chinese. The casualties among the British forces were fourteen killed and one hundred and twelve wounded, but about three hundred died from sickness. The losses of the Chinese from first to last could hardly have been much under five thousand men, besides thousands of cannon, ginjals, and

    matchlocks. In posting their forces, placing their masked batteries,

    and equipping their troops and forts, the Chinese showed

    considerable strategy and skill, ])ut lack of discipline and confidence

    rendered every defence unavailing. Yihshan and his associates

    memorialized the Emperor, detailing their reasons for

    ransoming the city and requesting an inquiry into their conduct.^

    The sickness of the troops compelled the British force to

    remain at Hongkong to recruit and wait for reinforcements.

    Commodore 13remer returned as joint plenipotentiary, bringing

    additional forces from Calcutta, and the expedition was on the

    point of sailing northward when both he and Captain Elliot

    were wrecked in a tyfoon, and this detained the ships a few

    days longer. Before they sailed Sir Henry Pottinger and ^Vdmiral

    Sir William Parker arrived direct from England to supersede

    them both. Sir Henry announced his appointment and

    duties, and also sent a communication to the governor of Canton,

    assuring him that the existing truce would be observed as

    long as the Chinese did not arm their forts, impede the regular

    trade, which had been lately reopened to British ships by imperial

    command, or trouble the merchants residing in the factories.

    The trade went on at Canton, after this, without any

    serious interruption during the M-ar, the usual duties and

    charges being paid as if no hostilities existed.

    The expedition moved northward, August t^lst, under the

    joint conniiand of Sii” Hugh Gough and Admiral Parker, consisting

    of two seventy fours and seven other ships of war, four

    steamers, twenty-three transports, and a surveying vessel, carrying

    in. all about three thousand five hundred troops. Six ships

    and four or five liundicd Indian troops remained off (‘anton

    and at Hongkong, to compel the observance of the tmice. The

    force reached Amoy, and after a hasty reconnoissance attacked

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. X. (p. 402), in which, and in Vols. “VIII., IX., and XI., most of the official papor.s issued from the Chinese and English authorties during the war are contained.

    FALI OF AMOY AND TINGHAI. 5*25

    all its defences, which were carried without inuch loss of life on

    either side. The city was taken on the 27t]i, and all the arms

    and public stores, wall-pieces, ginjals, matchloc-ks, shields, uniforms,

    bows, arrows, spears, and quantities of powder were destroyed

    ; five hundred cannon were found in the forts. AVlien

    II. M. S. Blonde came into this harbor, fourteen months previous,

    to deliver the letter for Peking, the fortifications consisted

    only of two or three forts near the city, but every island and pro

    tecting headland overlooking the harbor had since been occupied

    and arn.ed, while a line of stone wall more than a mile long, with

    embrasures roofed by large slabs covered with earth to protect

    the guns, had been built, and batteries and bastions erected al

    well-chosen points. The broadsides of the ships had little effect

    liere, and it was not until the troops landed and drove out tha

    garrisons, who “stood right manfully to their guns,’” that the

    fire slackened, and the Chinese retreated. The city was completely

    pillaged by native robbers, who ran riot during several

    weeks until the craven authorities came back and resumed tliei.v

    functions. The island of Kulang su was garrisoned by a detachment

    of five hundred and fifty troops, and three ships left

    to protect them. The British found one two-decker among the

    war junks, built on a foreign model, launched and i-eady for

    sea, canying twenty guns; all were bui-ned.

    The English fieet again entered the harbor of Tinghai, September

    29th, and found the beach much altered since February.

    Stone walls and fortifications extended two miles in front of the

    suburbs, besides sand-bags and redoubts thrown up q}\ well-selected

    positions. They were taken after a defence marked with

    unusual courage ; the general connnanding the battery and all his

    suite were killed at their posts, and many hand-to-hand confiicts

    took place. But bravery and numbers were alike unavailing,

    and in two hours their defences were cleared, the walls of the

    town escaladed, the whole force scattered, and the island subdued,

    with the estimated loss to the Chinese of a thousand men.

    Great quantities of oitlnance, among which were forty brass guns made in imitation of foreign howitzers, with military stores and provisions in abundance, were seized. A detachment was sent throughout the island to drive oft’ the enemy’s troops, and announce to the inhabitants that they were now under English authority. They evinced none of the alarm they had done the year before; provisions came in, shops were opened, and confidence in these proclamations generally exhibited. A military government was appointed, and a garrison of four hundred men left to protect the island.

    The military operations in Chehkiang were conducted by

    Yukien and Yu Pu-yun ; l)<)th these men had urged war, and

    had done all they could to fortify Tinghai and Chinhai, whose

    batteries and magazines showed the vigor of their operations.

    The English fleet proceeded to Chinhai October 9th, and a force

    of about two thousand two hundred men, with twelve field

    pieces and mortars, landed next morning to attack the citadel

    and intrenched camp. There were nearly five thousand men in

    this position, who formed in good order as the English advanced,

    opening a well-directed fire upon the front column, but (piite

    neglecting two detachments on their flanks ; as the three opened

    upon them nearly simultaneously, their force was completely

    bewildered, and all soon broke and fled. Knowing nothing of

    the mode of asking for quarter, while some fled into the country,

    the greater part retreated toward the watei’, pursued by the

    three colunms, hundreds being shot and hundreds drowned. Sir

    Hugh (lough sent out a flag with Chinese written upon it, to

    inform them that their lives >vould be spared if they yielded, but

    not more than five hundred either could or would throw down

    their arms. The water was soon covered with bodies, and fully

    fifteen hundred soldiers lost their lives. The town and its

    defences Avere bombarded, and the troops driven out. Yukien

    endeavored to drown himself on seeing the day was lost,

    but being ])revented he retreated to Yiiyau, whiere he comnntted

    suicide, as was said, by swallowing gold leaf. lie was a

    Manchu, and could not brook his master’s displeasure; but his

    atrocious crueltv to two Englishmen who fell into his hands,

    one of whom was flayed and tlien burnt to death, had aroused

    general detestation against him. About one hundred and flfty

    pieces of brass ordnance, with great quantities of gunpowder

    and other military stores, were destroyed. Tlie guns and carriages

    in the fort and batteries were so well made and phiced

    CAPTURE OF CIIINIIAI AND NINGPO. 527

    that ill some cases the victors on eutering turned tlieni against

    the flying Chinese. The frame of a wlieel vessel, intended to

    he moved hy human power, was found near Chinhai, sliowing,

    as did the brass guns, traversing carriages, and frigate at Amoy,

    that the Chinese were ah-eady imitating tlie machinery of war

    from their foes.

    Niiigpo was taken without resistance on the 13th. Many of

    the people left the city, and those who remained shut themselves

    in their houses, writing ,sA?^H nihi, ‘submissive people,’

    on the doors. Captain Anstruther took possession of his old

    prison—where he found the identical cage he had been carried

    in—and released all the inmates to make way for his detachment

    of artillery. About !5lOO,000 in sycee were found in this building,

    upward of $70,000 in the treasury’, many tons of copper

    cash in the mint, and rice, silk, and porcelain in the public

    stores, forming altogether the most valuable prizes yet secured.

    Sir Henry Pottinger intended at first to burn the city, but, happily

    for his reputation, he decided to occupy it as winter quarters.

    Leaving a garrison at Chinhai, he returned to Hongkong

    in February, 1842, Sir Hugh and the admiral remaining at the

    north.

    The fall of Anioy, Tinghai, Chinhai, and Xingpo, instead of

    disheartening the Emperor, served rather to inspirit him. His

    commissioners, generals, and high officers generally did the best

    their knowledge and means enabled them to do, and when defeated,

    endeavored to palliate the discomfiture they could not

    entirely conceal by misrepresenting the force brought against

    them, and laying the blame upon the common people, the elements,

    the native traitors who aided the British, or the inefficiency

    of the naval armaments. The troops sent home Avith

    tokens of victory from Canton stimulated the war spirit in the

    western provinces. After they had gone Yihshan concocted

    measures of defence, one of wliich was to enlist two or

    three thousand volunteers, or “village braves,” near the city.

    and place them under their own officers. The people having

    been taught to despise foreigners were easily incensed against

    them, and several cases of insult and wantonness were repeated

    and magnified in order to stir up a spirit of revenge. These patriots supposed, nioi-eover, tliat it” the great Emperoi had failed on Mt-y/’, instead of entrusting the conduct of the (piarrel to truckling traitorous polti’oons like Kishen and the prefect, they could li ve av ^ -^ l»iin of his enemies.

    Consequently the truce was soon broken in an underhand

    manner by sinking hundreds of tons of stones in the river.

    II. M. S. lloyalist levelled ;;:he fortifications at the Bogue, and

    Captain Is ias destroyed a number of boats at Whampoa. After

    the destruction of these forts and his retirement from the rivci\

    Yihshan directed his attention to erect in o- forts near the citv,

    casting guns, and drilling the volunteers, v.-ho numbered nearly

    thirty thousand at the new year. He also gave a public dinner

    to the rich men of the city, in order to learn their willingness

    to contribute to the expenses of these measures. However,

    since no serious obstacles were placed in the way of shipping

    teas by the provincial officers, from the duties on which they

    chiefly derived the funds for these undertakings, the Britisli

    officers deemed it advisable to let them alone.

    The case was different at other ))oints. The imperial government

    had supposed that Amoy would be attacked, because the

    visit of the Blonde showed that the barbarians, “sneaking in

    and out like rats,” knew of its existence ; but the people of that

    province, except near Amoy, took no particular interest in the

    dispute, and probably knew far less of it than was known in

    most parts of England and the United States; no newspapei\s,

    with “own correspondents” to write the “latest accounts from

    the seat of war,” narrated the progress of this struggle, which to

    them was like the silent reflection of distant lightning in their

    own quiet firmament. The sack of Amoy was a heavy blow to

    its citizens, but the plunderers were mostly their countiymen; and when Captain Smith of the Druid had been there a short

    time in command, and his character became known, they returned

    to their houses and shops, supplied the garrison with provisions,

    and even brought back a desei’ter, and assisted in chasing

    some ])irates. Rumors of attack were always bi’ought to

    him, and his decthwations allayed their fears, so that after the

    sulj pi’efect resumed his authority no distui’bance occurred. The

    p.xplanations of the missionaries on Kulang su, in diffusing a

    better understanding of the object in occupying that island, also contributed to this result.

    DETERMINED MEASURES OF DP:FKN(n:. 529

    The loss of Chinhai and Xingpo threw the eastern parts of

    Chehkiaug open to the invaders, and alarmed the couit far more

    tlian the destruction of Canton would have done. The Emperor

    appointed his nephew, Yihking, to be ” majesty-bearing genei-alissimo,” and with him Tih-i-shun and Wunwei, all Manchus, to

    command the grand army and arouse the dwellers on the seacoast

    to arm and defend themselves. ” Ministers and people !

    Inhabitants of our dominions ! Ye are all the children of our

    dynasty ! For two centuries ye have trod our earth and eaten

    our food. Whoever among you has heavenly goodness nnist

    needs detest these rebellious and disordei-ly barbarians even as

    ye do your personal foes. On no account allow yourselves to be

    deceived by their wiles, and act or live abroad with them.”

    Such was the closing exhortation of an imperial proclamation

    issued to encourage them. In order to raise funds for its operations,

    the government resorted to the sale of office and titles

    of nobility, and levied benevolences from rich individuals and

    contributions from the people ; which, when large in amount,

    were noticed and rewarded. Kishen, who had been tried at

    Peking and sentenced to lose his life, was for some reason reprieved

    to be associated with Yihking as an adviser, but never

    proceeded beyond Chihli. Lin was also recalled from Ili, if

    indeed he ever went be^’ond the Great “Wall, and Ih’pu, whose

    treatment and release of the prisoners at Xingpo had gained

    him the good-will of the English, was also sentenced to banishment,

    but neither did he go beyond the Desert,

    Defences were thrown up at Tientsin and Taku to guard the

    passage to the capital, but the bar at the mouth of the Pei ho

    was its sufficient protection. Fearing tliat the English would

    advance upon the city of Ilangchau, the troops of the province

    and all its available means were put into requisition. Sir Hugh

    Gough could only approach it by a land march from Kingpo,

    and deemed it advisable to wait for reinforcements, his available

    force being reduced to six hundred men on entering that city.

    The rewards given to the families of those who had fallen in

    battle, and the posthumous honors conferred by the Emperor, stimnfated others to deeds of valor and a determination to accomplish their master’s vengeance. Yukien, ” who gave his

    life for his country, casting himself into the water,” received

    high titular honors in the hall of worthies, and his brother was

    permitted to bring his corpse within the city of Peking. The

    names of humbler servants were not forgotten in the impei-ial

    rescripts, and a place was granted them among those whom the

    “king delighteth to honor.” Thus did the Chinese endeavor

    to reassert their supremacy, though their counsels and efforts

    to chastise the rebellious barbarians were not unlike the deliberations of the rats upon ” how to bell the cat.”

    The occupation of Ningpo was an eyesore to the Chinese

    generals, but the citizens had learned their best interests and

    generally kept quiet. They showed their genius in various contrivances

    to carry off plunder, such as putting valuable articles

    in coffins and ash-baskets, wrapping them around corpses, packing

    them under vegetables or rubbish. One party overtook two

    persons near Ningpo running off with a basket between them; on overtaking and recovering it, a well-dressed lady was found

    coiled up, who, however, did not scream when detected. Another

    was found in a locker on board a junk, and as the captain was

    desirous of examining the mode of bandaging her feet, he told

    his men to lift the body out of the closet, when a scream explained

    the trick ; she was dismissed, and the money she had

    endeavored to hide put into her hands. Opium M^as found in

    most of the official residences ; its sale received no serious check

    from the war, and no reference was made to it by either party.

    Toward the end of the year 1841, information was received

    of the collection of a large force at Yiiyau. Two iron steamei’S

    soon landed seven hundred men, who took up a position for the

    night, intending to escalade the walls in the morning ; but their

    defenders evacuated the ])lace. The marines and seamen took

    the circuit of the walls, and found the troops, about a thousand

    strong, drawn up in array ; and the two, after exchanging their

    fire, started on the run. The ])ublic stores wore destroyed, and

    the town left to the care of its citizens, without inncli loss of life

    on either side. On his return the general visited Tsz’ki, l)Ht

    the troops and the authorities had decani])eth The rice found in

    CHINESE ATTEMPT TO RECAPTURE NINGPO. 581

    Hie granaries was distributed to the townsmen, and the detachment

    returned to Ningpo December 31st. On u simiUir visit to

    Fimghwa it was found that the authorities and troops liad fled,

    so that to destroy the government stores and distribute the rice

    to the people was all that remained to be done. These two

    expeditions so terrified tlie ” majesty-bearing genei-alissimo,”

    Yihking, and his colleagues, that they fled to Suchau, in

    Kiano-su. With such leaders it is not strano;e that the villagers

    near Ningpo wished to enrol themselves under British rule;

    and the effect of the moderation of the English troops was seen

    in the people giving them little or no molestation after the first

    alarm was over, and supplying their wants as far as possible.

    The force had fairly settled in its quarters at Kingpo, when

    the Chinese opened the campaign, March 10th, by a well-concerted

    night attack on the city. During the preceding day,

    many troops entered the city in citizen’s clothes, and stationed

    themselves near the gates ; and about three o’clock in the morning

    the western and southern gates were attacked and driven

    in. Colonel Morris ordered a party to retake the south gate,

    which was done, wnth considerable loss to the enemy ; as usually

    happened, the moment the Chinese were opposed their main

    object was forgotten, and every man sought his own safety,

    thereby exposing himself more fully to destruction. On the

    approach of daylight the garrison assembled at the western

    gate, and dragging two or three howitzers through it, came

    upon the main force of the enemy drawn up in compact form,

    headed by an officer on horseback. The volleys poured into

    this dense mass mowed them down so that the street was choked

    with dead bodies, and the horse of the leader actually covered

    with corpses, from which he was seen vainly endeavoring to

    release himself. Those who escaped the fire in front were

    attacked in rear ; at last about six hundred were killed, and the

    whole force of five thousand scattered by less than two hundred

    Europeans, with the loss of one man killed and six wounded.

    The British then prepared to attack an intrenched camp of

    eight thousand troops near Tsz’ki, and about twelve hundred

    w^ere embarked in the steamers. The Chinese had chosen their

    ground vs^ell, on the acclivity of two hills behind the town, and ill Older to confound and dispei’se their enenij completely, tlia attacking force was divided so as to fall upon them on three

    sides siniultane(»usly, which was done with great slaughter. The Chinese did not run until they began to close in with their opponents, when they soon found that their intimidating gesticulations and cheers, their tiger-faced shields and two-edged swords, were of no avail in terrifying the barlnirians or resisting their pistols, bayonets, and furious onset. In these cases,

    emulation among the different parties of English troops to

    distinguish themselves occasionally degenerated into unmanly

    slaughter of their flying enemy, who were looked u})(>n i-ather

    as good game than fellow-men, and pursued in some instances

    several miles. INIost of the Chinese troops in this engagement

    and in the attack on Ningbo were from the western proviriCes, and

    superior in size and bodily strength to those hitherto met. They

    had been encouraged to attack Ningbo by a bounty to each man

    of four or five dollars, and pieces of sycee were found on their

    bodies. The Chinese lost a thousand slain on the field, many by

    their own act ; the English casualties were six killed and thirty seven wounded.

    The conquerors set fire to the Chinese camp in the morning,

    consuming all the houses used as arsenals, with arms and amnninition

    of ever}’ kind. The force then proceeded to the Changki

    pass, a defile in the mountains, but the imperialists had abandoned

    their camp, leaving only ” a considerable (juantity of

    good bread.” In his despatch Sir Hugh speaks of the forbearance

    shown by his men toward the inhabitants ; and efforts

    were taken by the English, throughout the war, to spare the

    people and respect their property. The English thus dispersed

    that part of the Grand Army which had been called out by the

    Emperor and his ” majesty-beariiig generalissimo” to annihilate

    tlie rebels. The fugitives spread such dismay among their

    comrades near Ilangchau that the troops began to desert and

    exhibit symptoms of disbanding altogether; the spirit of dissatisfaction

    was, moreover, increased by the people, who very

    naturally grumbled at being obliged to support their unsuccessful

    defenders, as well as submit to their tyrannous exactions.

    The Chinese near Isingpo and Chinhai had so nmch confi

    CAPTUKE OF TSZ’kI AXD CIIAPl’, , 533

    deuce in the Englitli, luid were so greatly profited by tlieir

    presence, that no disturbances took place. The rewards offered

    by the Cliinese generals for prisoners induced the people to lay

    in wait for stragglers. One, Sergeant Campbell, was seized

    near Tinghai, put into a bag to be carried to the coast, where he

    was shipped in a junk and landed at Chapu, before being relieved

    of his hood. One of his ears was cut off with a pair of

    scissors, but after reaching ilaugchau he was well treated.

    During his captivity there he was often questioned by the Chinese

    ofiicers as to the movements, forces, and arms of his countrymen,

    and received a high idea of their intelligence from the

    character of their inquiries.

    The entire strength with Sir Hugh Gough, in May, consisted

    of parts of four English regiments, a naval brigade of two hundred

    and fifty, and a few Indian troops, in all about two

    thousand five hundred men ; the fleet comprised seven ships of

    war and four steamers. On the ITth the whole anchored in

    the harbor of Chapu, about forty miles above Chinhai. About

    six thousand three hundred Chinese troops and one thousand

    seven hundred Manchus were posted herein forts and intrenched

    camps. The English landed in three columns, as usual without

    opposition, and promptly turned the orderly arranged army and

    garrisons of their opponents into a mass of fugitives, each man

    throwing away his arms and uniform and flying upas de geant.

    A body of three hundred Manchus, seeing their retreat cut

    off, retired into an enclosed temple, whose entrance was both

    narrow and dark. Every one who attempted to enter it was

    either killed or wounded, one of whom was Lieutenant-Colonel

    Tomlinson. At length a part of the wall was blown in, which

    exposed the inmates to the rifles of tlieir foes, and a rocket or

    two set the building on fire, by which the inmates were driven

    from their position to the rooms below ; when resistance ceased

    only fifty were taken prisoners, the others having been burned

    to death or suffocated. The total loss of the invaders was thirteen

    killed and fifty-two wounded.

    The defences of Chapu being carried, with a loss to the

    enemy of about one thousand five hundred, the English moved

    on the city. This was the first time the Manchus had really come in contact with the English ; and either fearing that indiscriminate slaughter would ensue on defeat, as it would have

    done had they been the victors, or else unable to brook their

    disgrace, tliej destroyed themselves in great numbers, first immolating

    their wives and children, and then cutting their own

    throats. Scores of bodies were found in their quarters, some

    not entirely dead ; others were prevented from self-destruction,

    and in many instances, young children were found attending

    upon their aged or infirm parents, awaiting in dread suspense

    the visit of the conquerors, from whom they expected little less

    than instant destruction. The English sui-geons endeavoi-ed to

    bind up the wounds of such Chinese as fell in their waj-, and

    these attentions had a good effect upon the high Chinese officers,

    Ilipu himself sending a letter in which he thanked the

    general and admiral for their kindness in giving the hungry

    rice to eat and caring for the wounded. The old man endeavored

    to requite it by making the condition of his prisoners as

    easy as he could, and paid them money on their release. When

    the English generals, having destroyed all the government

    stores, re-embarked, the prisoners were released with a small

    present, and on their retui-n to Hangchau loudly proclaimed

    their praises of the foreigners.

    The expedition proceeded northward to the mouth of the

    Yangtsz’ kiang, and reached the embouchure of the AVusung,

    where the ships took their allotted positions, June 16th, before

    the well-built stone batteries, extending full three miles along

    the western banks of the river. One of these works enclosed

    the town of Paushan and mounted one hundred and thirty-four

    guns ; the others counted altogether one hundred and sevent}’–

    five guns, forty-two of which were brass. These defences wei-e

    manned by a Avell-selected force, under the command of Chin

    Hw^a-ching. The ships had scarcely taken their stations when

    the battei-ies opened, and both sides kept up a caimonading for

    about two hours, the Chinese w^orking their guns with nnich

    skill and effect. When the marines landed and entered, they

    bravely nieasui-ed weapons with them, and died at their posts.

    Among the war junks were several new wheel-boats, having two

    wooden paddle-wheels turned by a capstan, which interlocked

    FALL OF THE WUSUNG BATTERIES. 535

    its cogs into those upon the shaft, and was worked by men on

    the gun-deck. These were paddling out of danger, when the

    steamers overtook and silenced them. The number of Chinese

    killed was about one hundred, out of not less than live thousand

    men composing the garrison and army. The governor-general,

    Kiu Kien. who was present, in reporting the loss of the forts

    and dispersion of the troops, says he braved the hottest of the

    light, ” where cannon-balls innumerable, ilying in awful confusion

    through the expanse of heaven, fell before, behind, and

    on either side of him ; while in the distance he saw the ships

    of the rebels standing erect, lofty as the mountains. The fierce

    daring of the rebels was inconceivable ; officers and men fell at

    their posts. Every efPort to resist and check the onset was in

    vain, and a retreat became inevitable.”

    Among the killed was General Chin, who had taken unwearied

    pains to drill his troops, appoint them to their places, and

    inspirit them with his own courageous self-devotion. In a

    memoir of him, it is said that on the mcyningof the attack “he

    arrayed himself in his robes of state, and having prayed to

    heaven and earth, ordered all his ofiicers and soldiers to get

    their arms and ammunition ready.” JS^iii Kien^s conduct was

    not such as to cheer them on, and most of the officers ” came

    forward and begged to retire ” when they saw the dilapidated

    state of the batteries. Chin’s second suggested a retreat when

    the marines entered the battery, but he drew his sword upon

    him, saying, ” My confidence in you has been misplaced.” He

    again inspirited his men, himself loading and firing the ginjals,

    and fell pierced with wounds on the walls of the fort, bowing

    his head as he died in the direction of the Emperor’s palace.

    His Majesty paid him high honors, by erecting shrines to him

    in his native village and at the place where he fell ; in the

    Ching-hwang miao at Shanghai there is a sitting image of him

    in his robes of state, before which incense is burned. A reward

    of a thousand taels was given his family, and his son was made

    a k’d-jin by special patent. In this notice it is stated as a current

    rumor in Shanghai, that about a fortnight after his death

    Chin sent down the news through the divining altar at Sungkiang,

    that he had been promoted by the Supreme Kuler of

    536 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    Heaven to the rank of second general-in-eliief of the Board of

    Thunder, so tliat although he coukl not, while alive, repay the

    imperial favor by exterminating the rebels, he could still afford

    some aid to his country.

    The stores of every kind ‘.vere destroyed, except the brass

    pieces, among which were one Spanish gun of old date, and

    a Chinese piece more than three centuries old, both of them

    of singular shape, the latter being like a small-mouthed jar.

    The British landed on the 19th, two thousand in all, and proceeded

    to Shanghai by land. After the capture of “Wusung,

    Mr. Gutzlaff, who accompanied the admiral as interpreter, succeeded

    in reassuring the people and inducing them to stay in

    their dwellings ; he was also employed in procuring provisions.

    The ships silenced two small batteries near the city with a

    single broadside, and the troops entered it without resistance.

    The good effects of previous kindness shown the people in

    respecting their property were here seen. Captain Loch says

    that on the march along the banks he passed through two villages

    where the shops were open, with their owners in them,

    and that groups of people Avere assembled on the right and left

    to see them pass. The troops occupied the arsenals, the pawnbrokers’

    shops, and the temples, destroying all the government

    stores and distributin<; the rice in the granaries among the

    people. The total number of caimon taken was three lumdred

    and eighty-eight, of which seventy-six M’ere of brass ; some of

    the latter were named ” tamer and subduer of the barbarians ;”

    others, “the robbers’ judgment,” and one piece twelve feet long

    was called the ” Barbarian.” The citizens voluntarily came

    forward to supply provisions, and stated that there had been a

    serious affray in the city a few days befoi’c between them and

    their officers, who wished to levy a subsidy for the defence of

    the city, which even then they w’ere on the point of abandoning.

    The boats before the walls were crowded with inhabitants ffying

    with their property, many of whom returned in a few days.

    The troops retired from Shanghai June 23d, leaving it less

    injured than any city yet taken, owing chiefly to tlie efforts

    made by the people themselves to protect their property. The

    eight hundred junks and upward lying off the town were unSHANGHAI

    TAKEN. 631

    lianiied, but their owners no doubt were made to contribute

    toward the 8300,000 exacted as a ransom. Sir Henry Pottiiiger

    now rejoined the expedition, accompanied by Lord Saltoun,

    with hii-ge reinforcements for both arras, and immediate preparations

    were made for proceeding up the Yangtsz’, to interrupt

    the con^nnmication by the Grand Canal across tliat river.

    Tiie Chinese officers, unable to read any European language,

    learned the designs of their enemy chiefly by rumors, which

    natives in the employ of the English brought them, and consequently

    not unfrequently misled his Majesty—unwittingly, in

    mentioning the wrong places likely to be attacked, but wilfully

    as to their numbers and conduct in the hour of victory. The

    fall of Shanghai and the probable march upon Sungkiang and

    Suchau greatly alarmed him, and he now began to think that

    the rebels really intended to proceed up to Kanking and the

    Grand Canal, which he had been assured was not their purpose.

    He accordingly concentrated his troops at Chinkiang, Nanking,

    Suchau, and Tientsin, four places which he feared were

    in danger, and associated Kiying and llipu as commissioners

    M-ith the governor-general, Xiu Ivien, to superintend civil affairs;

    military matters were still left under the management of the

    imbecile Yihking. Only a few places on the Yangtsz’ kiang

    offered eligible positions for forts, and Xiu Kien wisely declined

    to stake the Great River at Chinkiang, lest it should alarm the

    inhabitants. Fire-rafts and boats were, however, ordered for

    the defence of that city, and reinforcements of troops collected

    there and at XaiAing, some of whom were encamped witliuot

    the city, and part incorporated with the garrison. The

    tone of the documents which fell into the hands of the English

    showed the anxiety felt at court regarding the result of this

    movement up the river.

    The British plenipotentiary published and circulated a manifesto

    at this date for ” the information of the people of the

    country.” In this paper he enumerated, in much the same

    manner as Captain Elliot had done, the grievances the English

    l)ad suffered at Canton from the spoliations, insults, and imprisonment

    inflicted upon them by Lin in order to extort opium,

    which was given up by the English superintendent to rescue

    538 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    himself and Ins countiTnien from deatli. . The tluplicity of the

    Chinese government in sending down Kislien as a commissioner

    to Canton to arrange matters, and then, while he was negotiating,

    to break off the treaty and treacherously resort to war, was

    another “gi-and instance of oifence against England.” The bad

    treatment of kidnapped prisoners, tlie mendacious reports of

    victories gained over the English, wliicli misled the Emperor

    and retarded the settlement of the war, was another cause of

    offence. The restriction of the trade to Canton, establishment

    of the monopoly of tlie hong merchants, the oppressive and unjust

    exactions imposed upon it tlirongh their scheming, and

    many other minor grievances which need not be enumerated,

    formed the last count in this indictment. Three things must

    be granted before peace could be made, viz., tlie cession of an

    island for commerce and the residence of merchants ; compensation

    for losses and expenses ; and allowing a friendly and

    becoming intercourse between the officers of the two countries

    on terms of equality. This proclamation, however, nnide no

    mention of the real cause of the war, the opium trade, and in

    that respect was far from being an ingenuous, fair statement of

    the question. It was much more like one of Xapoleon’s bulletins

    in the Moniteur, and considering the moral and intellectual

    condition of Great Britain and China, failed to uphold the high

    standing of the former.

    While Sir Henry Pottinger knew that the use of this drug

    was one of the greatest evils which afflicted the people, he

    should have, in a document of this natui’e, left no room for the

    supposition, on the part of either ruler or subject, that the war

    was undertaken to uphold and countenance the opium trade.

    He could not have been ignorant that the Emperor and his

    ministers supposed the unequal contest they were waging was

    caused b\’ their unsuccessful efforts to supjiress the traffic ; and

    that if they were defeated the opium trade must goon unchecked.

    The question of supremacy was set at rest in this proclamation ;

    it must be given up ; but no encouragement was held out to

    reassure the (vhinese government in their lawful desire to restrain

    the tremendous scourge. Wh}^ should he ? If he encouraged

    any action against the trade, he could expect little promotion or

    PROCLAMATIONS ISSUED BY BOTH PARTIES. 539

    .•eward from liis superiors in Indiii or England, who looked to

    it for all the revenue it could be made to bring ; or consideration

    from the merchants, who would not thank him for telling

    the Chinese they might attack the opium clippers wherever the}’

    found them, and seize all the opium they could, and English

    •power would not interfere.

    The Emperor issued a proclamation about the same time,

    recapitulating his conduct and efforts to put a stop to the war,

    stating what he had done to ward off calamity and repress the

    rebels. The opium ti-ade, and his efforts for a long time to

    repress it, and especially the measures of Lin, are in this papei

    regarded as the causes of the war, which concludes by expressing

    his regrets for the sufferings and losses occasioned his subjectl

    by the attacks of the English at Amoy, Chusan, Xingpo, and

    elsewhere, and exhorting them to renewed efforts. It is a mat

    ter of lasting regret that the impression has been left upon the

    minds of the Chinese people that the war was an opium war,

    and waged chiefly to uphold it. But nations, like individuals,

    must usually trust to might more than right to maintain their

    standing ; and when conscious weakness leads them to adopt

    underhand measures to regain their rights, the temptation which

    led to these acts is rarely thought of in the da}’ of retribution.

    The money demands of England were not deemed at the tijiie

    to be exacting, but she should, and could at this time in an

    effectual manner, through her plenipotentiary, have cleared herself

    from all sanction of this traffic. If Lord jVIelbourne could

    wish it were a less objectionable traffic. Sir Henry Pottinger

    might surely have intimated, in as public a manner, his regret at

    its existence. He probably did not deem the use of opium very

    deleterious.

    The number of ships, steamers, transports, and all in the

    expedition, when it left Wusung, July Otli, was seventy-two,

    most of them large vessels. They were arranged in five divisions,

    with an advance squadron of five small steamers and tenders to

    survey the river, each division having a frigate or seventy-four

    at its head. The woild has seldom seen a more conspicuous

    instance of the superiority of a small body possessing science,

    skill, and discipline, over immense nmltitudes of undisciplined.

    540 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    ignorant, and distrustful soldiers, than was exhibited in this bold

    manoeuvre. ]^ot to speak alone of the great disparity in numbers,

    the distant quarters of the globe whence the ships were

    collected, the many languages and tribes found in the invading

    force, the magnitude of their ships, abundance of their supplies,

    and superiority of their weapons of war, the moral energy and

    confidence of power in this small troop over its ineffective adversary

    was not less conspicuous. The sight of such a fleet sailing

    up their Great River struck the inhabitants with mingled astonishment

    and dread.

    Chinkiang lies half a mile from the southern bank of tha

    Yangtsz’, surrounded by a high wall four miles in circuit, and

    liaving hills of considerable elevation in its rear. The canal

    conies in from the south, close to the walls on its western side,

    and along the shores of both river and canal are extensive suburbs—

    at this time completely under the command of the guns

    of the ships, which could also bombard the city itself from some

    positions. A bluff hill on the north partly concealed the town

    from the ships, and it was not till this hill- top had been gained

    that the three Chinese encampments behind the city could be

    seen. The general divided his small foi-co of seven thousand

    men into three brigades, under the connnand of ]\rajor-Generals

    Lord Saltoun, Schoedde, and Bartlcy, besides an artillery brigade

    of live hundred and seventy rank and file, under Lieutenant-

    Colonel Montgomerie. The Chinese encampments contaiiR'(l

    moi-e than three thousand men, most of them soldiers from

    IJupeh and Chehkiang provinces. The Manchu garrison within

    the city consisted of one thousand tw^o hundred regular troops

    and eight hundred Mongols from Ivoko-nor, together/ with eight

    hundred and thirty -five Chinese troops, making altogether from

    two thousand six hundred to two thousand eiglit hundred fighting

    men ; the entire force was under the command of Hailing,

    who had made such a disposition of his troops and strengthened

    his means of defence as well as the time allowed. lie closes his

    last communication to the Emperor with the assurance that “he

    cannot do otherwise than exert his whole heart and sti-ength in

    endeavors to repay a small fraction of the favors he has enjoyed

    from his ijcovernment.”

    ATTACK UPON CHINKIANG. 541

    The right brigade, under Lord Saltoun, .sdou drove tlie imperialists

    out of their camp, who did not Avait for his near

    approach, but brolve and dispersed after firing tliree or four distant

    volleys. Captain Loch says that while the i)arty of volunteers

    were approaching the camp, they passed through a small

    hamlet on the liills; “the village had not been deserted; some

    of the houses were closed, while the iidiabitants of others were

    standing in the streets staring at us in stu})id wonder ; and

    although they were viewing a contest Ijetween foreigners and

    their fellow-countrymen, and in danger themselves of being

    shot, were coolly eating their meals.”‘

    The centre brigade, under ]\Lijor-General Schoedde, landed

    on the northern corner of the city, to escalade the walls on that

    side and prevent the troops from the camp entering the gates.

    He was received by a w^ell-sustained iii-e, his men placing their

    ladders and mounting in the face of a determined resistance ; as

    soon as they gained the parapet they drove the Tartars before

    them, though their passage was bravely disputed. While they

    were mounting the walls a fire was kept up on the city on the

    northern and eastern sides, under cover of which, after clearing

    the ramparts, they proceeded to the western gate, conquering

    fill opposition in the northern part (tf the city, and driving the

    Tartars to the southern quarter.

    The left brigade, under Major-Genei-al Bartley, did not i-each

    the western side as soon as was expected, being delayed by the

    canal, here between seventy and eighty feet broad, which formed

    a deep ditch on this side. The western gate was blown in, the

    blast carrying before it a high pile of sand-l)ags heaped against

    the inside to strengthen the bars. While this work was going

    on, seven boats carrying artillerymen entered the canal to proceed

    up to the gate ; but when nearly opposite they were repulsed

    by a severe lire from the walls, and the men compelled to abandon

    the three leading boats and take refuge in the houses along

    the banks ; the others halted under cover of some houses until

    their comrades rejoined them, when all j-eturned to the ships.

    Two hundred marines now landed, and with three iiundred

    sepoys soon recovered the boats and carried back the M^ounded

    men. The party then planted their ladders in the face of a

    f)42 THK MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    spirited fire from the walls, and succeeded in carrying them

    against all opj)Ositioii.

    All resistance at the three gateways having been overcome, it

    was supposed that the city was nearly subdued. Sir Hugh consequently

    ordered a halt for his men on account of the heat, and

    despatched a small force to proceed along the western ramparts

    to occupy the southern gate. This squad had proceeded about

    half a mile when it met a body of eight hundred or one tliousand

    Taitars regularly drawn up in an open space. They fired

    with steadiness and regularity, but their bi-avery was of no

    avail, for the party, giving them one volley, charged down the

    bank and scattered them immediately, though not without some

    resistance. The dispersed Tartars, however, kept up a scattering

    fire along the streets and from the houses, wliicli served

    chiefly to irritate their enemies and increase their own loss.

    The heat of the day having passed, the commander-in-chief,

    guided by Mr. Gutzlaff and some Chinese, marched with two

    regiments into the southern quarter of the city. The scenes of

    desolation and woe which he met seem to have sickened the

    gray-haired warrior, for lie says in his despatches, “finding dead

    bodies of Tartars in every house we entoi-ed, principally women

    and children, thrown into M’ells or otherwise murdered by their

    own peo]>le, I was glud to withdraw the ti’oops from this frightful

    scene of destruction, and place them in the northern quarter.”

    It was indeed a terrific scene. Captain Loch, who accompanied

    Sir Hugh, says they went to a large building thought to be the

    prefect’s house, which was forced open and found entirely

    deserted, thougli completely furnished and of great extent

    ;

    ” we set fire to it and marched on.” What the object or advantage

    of this barbarous act was he does not say. Leaving the

    general, he turned down a street and burst open tlie door of a

    large mansion ; the objects which met his view were shocking.

    After we had forced our way over piles of furniture placed to barricade

    the door, we entered an open court strewed with rich stuffs and covered with

    clotted blood; and upon the steps leading to the hall of ancestors there were

    two bodies of youthful Tartars, cold and stiff, who seemed to be brothers.

    Having gained the threshold of their abode, they had died where they had

    fallen from loss of blood. Stepping over those bodies we entered the hall, and

    TRAGIC SCENES IN THE CITY. 5-J3

    met face to face three women seated, a motlier and two daughters, and at their

    feet lay two hodies of elderly men, with their tliroats cut from car to ear, their

    senseless heads resting upon the feet of their relations. To the right were two

    young girls, heautiful and delicate, crouching over and endeavoring to conceal

    a living soldier. In the heat of action, when the blood is up and the struggle

    is for life between man and man, the anguish of the wounded and the .sight of

    misery and pain is unheeded ; humanity is partially obscured by danger ; hut

    when excitement subsides with victory, a heart would be hardly human that

    could feel unaffected by the retrospection. And the hardest heart of the oldest

    man who ever lived a life of rapine and slaughter could not have gazed on

    this scene of woe unmoved. I stopped, horror-stricken at what I saw. The

    expression of cold, unutterable despair depicted on the mother’s face changed

    to the violent workings of scorn and hate, which at last burst forth in a paroxysm

    of invective, afterward in floods of tears, which apparently, if anything

    could, relieved her. She came close to me and seized me by the arm, and

    with clenched teeth and deadly frown pointed to the bodies, to her daughters,

    to her yet splendid house, and to herself ; then stepped back a pace, and with

    firmly closed hands and in a husky voice, I could see by her gestures, spoke of

    lier misery, her hate, and, I doubt not, her revenge. I attempted by signs to

    explain, offered her my services, but was spurned. I endeavored to make her

    comprehend that, however great her present misery, it might be in her unprotected

    state a hundredfold increased ; that if she would place herself under

    my guidance, I would pass her through the city gates in safety into the open

    country ; but the poor woman would not listen to me, and the whole family

    was by this time in loud lamentation. All that remained for me to do was to

    prevent the soldiers bayoneting the man, who, since our entrance, had attempted

    to escape.’

    The destruction of life was appalling. Some of tlie Manchus

    slmt the doors of their houses, while through the crevices persons

    could be seen deliberately cutting the throats of their

    women, and destroying their children by throwing them into

    wells. In one house a man was shot while sawing his wife’s

    throat as he held her over a well into which he had already

    thrown his children ; her wound was sewed up and the lives of

    the children saved. In another house no less than fourteen

    dead bodies, principally women, were discovered ; while such

    was their terror and hatred of the invadei’s, that every JManchu

    preferred resistance, death, suicide, or flight, to surrender. Out

    of a Manchu population of foui thousand, it was estimated that

    not more than five hundred survived, the greater part having

    perished by their own hands.

    ‘ Capt. G. G. Loch, Narrative of Events in China, p. 109.

    544 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    The public offices were ransacked and all anus and stores

    destroyed ; oulj §60,000 iu sjcee were fouud iu the treasury

    The populace began to pillage, and in one instance, fearing a

    stop might be put to their rapacity, tliey set fire to the buildings

    at each end of a street in order to plunder a pawnbroker’s

    shop without interference. The streets and lanes were strewed

    with silken, fur, and other rich dresses Avhich the robbers had

    thrown awa}^ when they saw something more valuable, and the

    sepoys and camp-followers took what they could find. Parties

    were accordingly stationed at the gates to take everything

    from the natives as they went out, or which they threw over the

    walls, and in this way the thieves M’ere in tlieir turn stripped.

    Within twenty-four hours after the troops landed, the city and

    suburbs of Chinkiang were a mass of ruin and destruction;

    part of the eastern wall was subsequently blown iu and all the

    gates dismantled to prevent any treachery. The total loss of

    the English was thirty-seven killed and one hundred and thirtyone

    wounded.

    A cui’ious contrast to the terrible scenes i-‘oin*:; on at Chinkiang

    was seen at Iching hien, on the northei’u side of the river.

    Four days before, the approach of the steamer Nemesis had

    caused no little consternation, and iu the evening a Chinese

    gentleman came off to her with a few presents to learn if thei-e

    was any intention of attacking the town, lie was told that if he

    would send supplies of meat and provisions no huiin would be

    done, and all he brought should be paid for. In the morning

    ])rovisi(>ns were furnished, and he remained on board to see the

    steamer chase and bring junks to; being nnich amazed at these

    novel operations, which gave him a new idea of the energy of

    the invaders. In the evening connnands were given him to

    bi-ing provisions in larger quantities, and three boats went up to

    the town to procure them. The people showed no hostility,

    and through his assistance the English opened a market in the

    courtyard of a temple, at which supplies were purchased, put

    aboard snudl junks, and conveyed to the fleet. On the 21st the

    same person came, according to agi’cement, to accompany a large

    ])arty of English from the ships to his house, where he had

    prepared an entertaimnent for them. Through the medium of

    RECEPTION OF THE ENGLISH AT ICHING. 545

    a Chinese boj commniiicatiou was easily carried on, and tlie

    alarms of the townspeople quieted ; a proclamation was also

    issued stating that every peaceable person would be unharmed.

    This gentleman had invited a large company of his relatives and

    friends, and served up a collation for his guests ; all this time

    the firing was heard from Chinkiang, where the countrymen of

    those so agreeably occupied were engaged in hostile encounter.

    On returning to their boats an additional mark of I’espect was

    shown by placing a M’ell-dressed man each side of every officer

    to fan him as he walked. At the market-temple another entertainment

    was also served up. Xo injury was done by either

    side, and the forbearance of the English was not without good

    effect. Such queer contrasts as this have frequently characterized

    the contests between the Chinese and British,

    Some of the large ships were towed up to Nanking, and the

    whole fleet reached it August 9th, at which time preparation

    had been made for the assault ; but desirous of avoiding a repetition

    of the sad scenes of Chinkiang, the British leaders had

    also sent a communication to Kiu Kien, oifering to ransom the

    city for iB3,00(»,000.

    This celebrated city lies about three miles south of the river,

    but the north-east corner of an outer wall reaches within seven

    hundred paces of the water ; the western face runs along the

    base of w^ooded hills for part of its distance, and is then continued

    through flat grounds around the southern side, both being

    defended b}- a deep ditch. The suburbs are on this low ground,

    M-here Sir Hugh Gough intended to bombard the place and

    make an entrance on the eastern side, M’liile diversions at other

    points perplexed the garrison. Ills force consisted of only four

    thousand five hundred effective men ; there were, as nearly as

    could be learned, six thousand Manchu and nine thousand Chinese

    troops within the city. On the 11th Lord Saltoun’s brigade

    landed at a village from whence a j)aved road led to one of the

    eastern gates, and other detachments were stationed in the

    neighborhood. Everything was in readiness for the assault by

    daylight of August loth, and the governor-general was told

    that it would assuredly be made unless the commissioners produced

    their authority for treating.

    546 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    In the interval between the downfall of Chinkian”; and in^

    vestment of Nanking, several eonnnnnications were received

    from the Chinese officers, and one from Kiying, couched in

    conciliatory language, and evincing a desire for peace. Sir

    Henry Pottinger replied in the same strain, deploi’ing tlie war

    and calamities caused by its continuance, but stating that he

    could have no interview with any individual, however exalted,

    M’ho was not properly connnissioned to treat for peace. It is

    probable that the Emperor did not receive any suggestion from

    his ministers in regard to making peace until after the fall of

    Chinkiang, and it was a matter of some importance, therefore,

    for Ilipu and his colleague to delay the attack on Nanking until

    an answer could be received from the capital. The usual doubts

    in the minds of the English as to their sincerity led them to

    look npon the whole as a scheme to perfect the defences, and

    gain time for the people to retire ; consequently the pi-eparations

    for taking the city went on, in order to deepen the conviction

    that if one party was practising any deception, the other

    certainly was in earnest.

    On the night of the l-4th, scarcely three hours before the

    artillery was to open, Ilipu, Kiying, and Niu Ivien addressed a

    joint letter to Sir Henry Pottinger requesting an interview in

    the morning, Mhen they M’ould produce their credentials and

    arrange for furtlier proceedings. This request was granted with

    some reluctance, for the day before the jyuehing .sz’ and Tartar

    commandant had behaved very unsatisfactorih’, refusing to exhibit

    the credentials or discuss the terms of peace or ransom.

    The distress ensuent upon the blockade was becoming greater

    and greater ; more than seven hundred vessels coming from the

    south had been stopped at Chiidciang, and a large fleet lay in

    the northern branch of the canal, so that some possibility

    existed of the whole province falling into anarchy if the pressure

    were not removed. The authorities of the city of Yangchau,

    on the canal, had already sent half a million dollars as

    the )-ansom of that place, while Niu Kien would only offer a

    third of a million to ransom the capital.

    The Eni])eror*’s authority to treat with the English was, however,

    exhibited at this meeting, and in return Sir Henry’s was

    ARRANGEMENTS EOIl CESSATION OF HOSTILITIES. 547

    fully explained to them. The delegates on the part of the

    conmiistiioners were Hwang ^S’gun-tiing, secretary to Kiying,

    and Chin, the Manchii commandant, while Major Malconi,

    secretary of legation, and Mr. J. 11. Morrison acted on the part

    of the plenipotentiary. Captain Loch, who was present, humorously

    describes the solemn manner in which the Emperor’s

    commission was brought out from the box in wdiich it was deposited,

    and the dismay of the lower attendants at seeing the

    foreigners irreverently handle it and examine its authenticity

    with so little awe. The skeleton of the treaty was immediately

    drafted for Hwang to take to his superiors. General Chin

    laughingly remarked that though the conditions were hard,

    they were no more so than the Chinese would have demanded

    if they had been the victors. The bearing of these officers

    was courteous, and Hwang especially found favor with all who

    were thrown into his company.

    The utmost care being requisite in drawing up the articles,

    most of the work falling upon Mr. Morrison, it was not till late

    at night on the 17th that the final draft was sent to the

    Chinese. The plenipotentiary, on the 18th, desired the general

    and admiral to suspend hostilities, at which time arrangements

    were also made for an interview the next day between the representatives

    on both sides. The English officers meantime explored

    the vicinity of the city, and the demand for provisions

    to supply the force caused a brisk trade highlj’ beneficial to the

    Chinese, and well calculated to please them.

    On the 19th Kiying, tlipu, and jS^iu Kien, accompanied by a

    large suite, paid their first visit to the English. The steamer

    Medusa brought them alongside the Cornwallis, and Sir Henry

    Pottinger, supported by the admiral and general, received them

    on the quarter-deck. The ship was decked with flags, and the

    crowd of gayly dressed officers in blue and scarlet contrasted

    well with the bright crapes and robes of the Chinese. This

    visit was one of ceremon\’, and after partaking of refreshments

    and examining the ship the commissioners retired, expressing

    their gratification at what they saw. They conducted themselves

    with decorum in their novel position, and Kiying and

    llipu, though both brought up in the full persuasion of the

    54:8 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    Bupremacj of their sovereign over the rulers of all other nations,

    and particularly over the English, manifested no ill-concealed

    chagrin. They liad previously sent up a report of the prugj’uss

    of the expedition after the capture of Chinkiang, rec[uesting

    in it that the demands of the invaders might be conceded ; the

    inefficiency of their troops is acknowledged, and a candid statement

    of the impossibility of effectual resistance laid before his

    Majesty, with cogent reasons for acceding to the demands of the

    Englisli as the wisest course of procedure. The further disasters

    which will ensue if the war is not brought to a close

    are hinted at, and the concession of the points at issue considered

    in a manner least humbling to imperial vanity. The sum

    of $21,000,000 to be paid is regarded by them as a present

    to the soldiers and sailors before sending them home

    ;

    partly as the liquidation of just debts due from the hong merchants,

    whose insolvency made them chargeable to the government,

    and partly as indemnification for the opium. Trade at

    the five ports was to be allowed, because fonr of them had already

    been seized, and this was the only w’ay to induce the

    invaders to withdraw, while Hongkong could be ceded inasnnich

    as they had already built houses there. The memorial is a

    curious effort to render the bitter pill somewhat palatable to

    themselves and their master.

    The English plenipotentiary, accompanied by a large concourse

    of officers, returned the visit on shore in a few days, and were

    met at the entrance of a temple by the commissioners, who led

    them through a guard of newly uniformed and unarmed soldiers

    into the building, the bands of both nations striking up their

    music at the same time. This visit continued tlie good understanding

    which prevailed ; the room had been carpeted and ornamented

    with lanterns and sci-olls for the occasion, while the

    adjacent grounds accommodated a crowd of natives. On the 20tli

    Sir Henry Pottinger and his suite, consisting of his secretary,

    ]\[ajor Malcom, Messi-s. Morrison, Thorn, and Gutzlaff, the three

    interpreters, and three other gentlemen, proceeded about four

    miles to the landing-place on the canal, where they were met by

    a brigadier and two colonels; the banks of the canal wei’c lined

    with troops. The party then took their horses, and, preceded

    AKTICLES OF THE TIJEATY OF NANKING. 549

    by a mounted escort, were received at tlie city gate by the secretaries

    of llipu ; the procession advanced to the place of meeting,

    guarded by a detachment of Manchu cavahy, whose shaggy

    ponies and llowing dresses presented a singular contiast to the

    envoy’s escort and their beautiful Arabs, lie himself was conducted

    through the outer gate, up the court and through the

    second gateway, ascending the steps into the third entrance,

    where he dismounted and entered the building with the commissioners

    and governor-general. The room had been elegantly

    fitted up, and a crowd of official attendants dressed in their ceremonial

    robes stood around. Sir Henry occupied the chief seat

    between Kiying and Ili’pu, their respective attendants being

    seated in proper oi’der, with small tables between every two

    persons, while dinner was served up in usual Chinese style.

    These formalities being over, the thirteen articles of this most

    important treaty were discussed :

    I.—Lasting peace between the two nations.

    II.—The ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuhchau, Kingpo, and

    Shanghai to be opened to British trade and residence, and trade

    conducted according to a well-understood tariff.

    III.—” It being obviously necessary and desirable that British

    subjects should have some port whereat they may careen and

    refit their ships when required,” the island of Hongkong to be

    ceded to her Majesty.

    lY.—Six millions of dollars to be paid as the value of the

    opium which was delivered up ” as a ransom for the lives of

    II. B. M. Superintendent and subjects,” in March, 1839.

    Y.—Three millions of dollars to be paid for the debts due to

    British merchants.

    YI.—Twelve millions to be paid for the expenses incurred in

    the expedition sent out ” to obtain redress for the violent and

    unjust proceedings of the Chinese high authorities.”

    YIL—The entire amount of $21,000,000 to be paid before

    December 31, 1845.

    YIII.—All prisoners of war to be immediately released by

    the Chinese.

    IX.—The Emperor to grant full and entire amnesty to those

    of his subjects who had aided the British.

    J^O THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

    X. —A regular and fair tariff of export and import customs

    and other dues to be established at the open ports, and a transit

    duty to be levied in addition whicli will give goods a free conveyance

    to all places in China.

    XI.—Official correspondence to be hereafter conducted on

    terms of equality according to the standing of the parties.

    XIl.—Conditions for restoring the places held by British

    troops to be according to the payments of money.

    XIII.—Time of exchanging ratifications and carrying the

    treaty into effect.

    The official English and Chinese texts of this compact and a

    literal translation of the Chinese text are given in the (JJunese

    Repodtoi’ij^ Vols. XIII. and XIV.; in that serial is also to be

    found a full account of the struggle which was thus brought to

    a close. Looked at in any point of view, political, commercial,

    moral, or intellectual, it will always be considered as one of the

    turning points in the history of mankind, involving the welfare

    of all nations in its wide-reaching consequences.

    When matters connected with the treaty had been arranged,

    Sir Henry proposed to say a few words upon ” the great cause

    that produced the disturbances which led to the war, viz., the

    trade in opium.” But upon hearing this (Captain Loch says)

    they unanimously declined entering upon the subject, until they

    were assured that he had introduced it merely as a topic for

    private conversation.

    The}’ then evinced much interest, and eagerly requested to know why wB

    would not act fairly toward them by prohi1)iting the growth of tlie poppy in

    our dominions, and thus effectually stop a traffic so pernicious to the human

    race. This, he said, in consistency with our constitutional laws could not he

    done ; and he added that even if England chose to exercise so arbitrary a

    power over her tillers of the soil, it would not check the evil, so far as the

    Chinese were concerned, while the cancer remained uneradicated among themselves,

    but that it would merely throw the market into other hands. It, in

    fact, he said, rests entirely with yourselves. If your people are virtuous, they

    will desist from the evil practice ; and if your officers are incorruptible and

    obey your orders, no opium can enter your country. The discouragement of

    the growth of the poppy in our territories rests principally with you, for nearly

    the entire produce cultivated in India travels east to China ; if, however, the

    habit has become a confirmed vice, and you feel that your power is at present

    inadequate to stay its indulgence, you may rest assured your people will pro*

    DISCUSSION OF THE OPIUM t^UESTION. 551

    cure the drug in spite of every enactment. Would it not, therefore, he better at

    once to legalize its importation, and by thus securing the co-operation of the

    rich and of your authorities, from whom it would thus be no longer debarred,

    thereby greatly limit tlie facilities which now exist for smuggling ? They

    owned the plausibility of the argument, but expressed tliemselves persuaded

    that their imperial master would never listen to a word upon the subject.

    To convince them that what he said was not introduced from any sinister

    wish to gain an end more advantageous for ourselves, he drew a rapid sketch

    of England’s rise and progress from a barbarous state to a degree of wealth and

    civilization unpai’alleled in the history of the world ; which rajiid rise was

    principally attributable to benign and liberal laws, aided by commerce, which

    conferred power and consequence. He then casually mentioned instances of

    governments having failed to attain their ends by endeavoring to exclude any

    particular objects of popular desire ; tobacco was one of those he alluded to,

    and now that it was legalized, not only did it produce a large revenue to the

    crown, but it was more moderately indulged in in Britain than elsewhere.’

    To the well-wisher of his fellow-iueu this narrative suggests

    many melancholy reflections. On the one hand were fonr or

    five high Chinese officers, who, although pagans and unacquainted

    with the prhiciples of true virtue, had evidently sympathized with

    and upheld their sovereign in his fruitless, misdirected endeavors

    to save his people from a vicious habit. ” Why will you not

    act fairly toward us by prohibiting the growth of the poppy ?

    is their anxious inquiry ; for they knew that there was no moi’al

    principle among themselves strong enough to resist the opium

    pipe. ” Your people must become virtuous and your officers

    incorruptible, and then you can stop the opium coming into your

    borders,” is the reply ; precisely the words that the callous

    rumseller gives the broken-hearted wife of the besotted drunkard

    when she beseeches him not to sell liquor to her enslaved

    husband. ” Other people will bring it to you if Ave should stop

    the cultivation of the poppy ; if England chose to exercise so

    arbitrary a power over her tillers of the soil, it would not check

    the evil,” adds the envoy; “you cannot do better than legalize

    it.” Although nations are somewhat different from individuals

    in respect to their power of resisting and suppressing a vice,

    ‘ Loch’s Events in China, p. 173, London, 1843. This same point is slightly

    referred to by Lieutenant Ouchterlony, on page 448 of his Chinese War, where

    he states that Sir Henry had prepared a paper for the information of the Chinese

    officials, proposing to them to permit the traffic in opium to be by barter

    552 Tin-: MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    and Sir Henry did riglit to speak of the legal difficnlty in the

    way of restraining labor, yet how heartless was the excnse,” if we

    do not bring it to you others will.”” Xo suggestion was made

    to them as to the most judicious mode of restraining what they

    were told they could not prohibit; no hint of the farming

    system, which would have held out to them a medinm path between

    absolute freedom and prohibition, and probably been

    seriously considered by the court ; no frank explanation as to

    the real position the English government itself held in respect

    to the forced growth of this pernicious article in its Indian territories.

    How much nobler would that govermnent have stood

    in the eyes of mankind if its head and ministers had instructed

    their plenipotentiary, that when their other demands were all

    paid and conceded no indemnity should have been asked for

    smuggled opium entirely destroyed by those who had seized it

    within their borders under threats of worse consequences. That

    government and ministry which had paid a liundred millions for

    the emancipation of slaves could surely aiford to release a pagan

    nation from such an imposed obligation, instead of sending their

    armies to exact a few millions which the revenue of one year,

    derived from this very article alone, M’ould amply discliarge to

    their ONvn subjects. For this pitiful sum nnist the great moral

    lesson to the Emperor of China and his subjects, which could

    have been taught them at this time, be lost.

    Sir Henry inquired if an envoy would be received at Peking,

    should one be sent from England, which Kiying assured him

    Mould no doubt be a gratification to his master, though what

    ideas the latter connected with such a suggestion can only be

    inferred. The conference lasted thi-ee or four hours, and when

    the procession returned to the barges, through an immense

    crowd of people, nothing was heard from them to indicate dislike

    or dread ; all other tlioughts were merged in overpowering

    curiosity. It was remarkable that this was the anniversary of

    the day when English subjects, among Avhom were the three

    interpreters here present, left Macao in 1831), by order of Lin;

    on August 26, 1840, the plenipotentiaries entered the Pei ho to

    seek an interview with Kishen ; that day, the next year, Amoy

    and its extensive batteries fell ; and now the three years’ game

    THE TREATY SIGNED AND RATIFIED. 653

    is won and China is obliged to bend, her magnates come down

    from tlieir eminences, and her wall of supremacy, isolation, and

    conceit is shattered beyond the possibility of restoration. Iler

    rulers apparently submitted with good grace to the hard lesson,

    which seemed to be the only effectual means of compelling

    them to abandon their ridiculous pretensions ; though it cannot

    be too often repeated that the effect of kindness, honorable

    dealing, and peaceful missions had not been fairly tried. ‘

    Arrangements were made on the 29tli to sign the treaty on

    board the Corn wall is. After it was signed all sat down to

    table, and the admiral, as the host in his flagship, gave the

    healths of their Majesties, the Queen of England and the Emperor

    of China, which was announced to the fleet and army by

    a salute of twenty-one guns and hoisting the Union Jack and a

    yellow flag at the main and mizzen. The treaty was forwarded

    to Peking that evening. The embargo on the rivers and ports

    was at once taken off, the troops re-embarked, and preparations

    made to return to Wusung. The six millions were paid without

    much delay, and on September 15th the Emperor’s ratification

    was received. The secretary of legation, Major Malcom,

    immediately left to obtain the Queen’s ratification, going by

    steam the entire distance (except eighty miles in Egypt) from

    Kanking to London—an extraordinary feat in those days.

    The imperial assent was also published in a rescript addressed

    to Kiying, in reply to his account of the settlement of affairs, in

    which he gives directions for disbanding the troops, rebuilding

    such forts as had been destroyed, and cultivating peace as Avell

    as providing for the fulfilment of the articles. It is, on the

    whole, a dignified approval of the treaty, and breathes nothing

    of a spirit of revenge or intention to prepare for future resistance.

    The fleet of ships and transports returned down the river and

    reassembled at Tinghai, at the end of October, not a vessel

    having been lost. Even before leaving Xanking, and in the passage

    down the river, the troops and sailors, especially the Indian

    regiments, were reduced by cholera, fever, and other diseases,

    some of the transports being nearly disabled ; the deaths

    amounted to more than a thousand before reachini; Ilono-kons.

    554 THE .MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    On arriving at Anioy tlio plenipotentiary was highly ineented

    on hearing of the melancholy fate of the captive crews of the

    Xerbudda and Ann, wrecked on Formosa. The first, a transport,

    contained two hundred and seventy-four souls, and when she

    went ashore all the Europeans abandoned two hundred and

    forty Hindus to their fate, most of whom fell into the liands of

    the Chinese. The Ann was an opium vessel, and lier crew of

    fifty-seven souls were taken prisoners and carried to Taiwan fu.

    The prisoners were divided into small parties and had little

    conmumieation with each other during their captivity, M’hich

    was aggravated by Mant of food and clothing, filthy lodgings,

    and other hardships of a Chinese jail, so that many of the Indians

    died. The survivors, on August loth, with the exception

    of ten persons, were carried out to a plain near the city, one of

    whom, ]Mr. Xewman, a seacunnie on board the Ann and the

    last in the procession, gave the following account

    :

    On being taken ont of his sedcan, to have his hands shackled beliind his back,

    he saw two of the prisoners with their irons otf and refusing to have them

    put on. They had both been drinking and were making a great noise, crying

    out to him that tliey were all to have their heads cut off. He advised them to

    submit quietly, but they still refusing, he first wrenched off his own and then

    j)ut them into theirs, to the great pleasure of the soldiers, but when the soldiers

    wished to replace liis he declined. As they were on the point of securing

    him he accidentally saw the chief officer seated close to him. Going befoi’e

    him he threw himself on his head and commenced singing a few Chinese

    words which he had fretjiiently hoard repeated in a temple. The officer was

    HO pleased with this procedure that he turned round to the soldiers and ordered

    them to carry him back to the city. All the rest, one hundred and ninetyseven

    in number, were i)laced at small distances from each other on their

    knees, their feet in irons and hands manacled behind their backs, thus waiting

    for the executioners, who went round and with a kind of two-handed

    sword cut off their heads without being laid on a block. .Afterward their

    bodies were thrown into one grave and their heads stuck up in cages on the

    seashore.’

    A journal was kept by Mr. Gully to within tliree days of his

    death, and another by Captain Denham of the Ann, one of the

    prisoners saved to send to Peking.* Both contain full accounts

    Chinese Reponit^yry, Vol. XII., p. 248.

    ” Journah of Mr. GvUi/ and CapUiin Denlutni during a Cajdivity in China in

    1842. London : Chapman & Hall, 1844.

    MASSACRE OF SIIIIMV P.ECKIJD CREWS ON FORMOSA. 555

    of the treatment of the luihuppy captives, and diminish the

    synipathy felt for tlie defeat of the government whicli allowed

    such shuighter. It was said to have been done by orders from

    court, grounded on a lying report sent up by the Mancliu commandant,

    Tahuiigah. When their sad fate was learned Sir

    Henry l*ottinger published two proclamations in Chinese, in

    which the principal facts were detailed, so that all might know

    the truth of the matter; a demand nuide fur the degradation and

    punishment of the lying officers who had superintended it, and

    the confiscation of their property for the use of the families of the

    sufferers, lliang, the governor-general, expressed his sincere regret

    to the English envoy at what had taken place, and examined

    into the facts himself, which led to the degradation and

    banishment of the conmuuidant and intendant. While the prisoners

    were still at Taiwan fu, II. M. S. Serpent was sent over

    from Anioy to reclaim them, by which expedition the truth of

    the barbarous execution was first learned ; this vessel afterward

    went tiiere to receive the shipwrecked crew of the Ilerculaneum

    transport.

    The citizens of Amoy, jSiingpo, and Shanghai hailed the cessation

    of the war and the opening of their ports to foreign

    trade ; but not so at Canton. The discharged volunteers still

    remained about the city, notwithstanding orders to return home

    and resume their usual employments, most of whom probably

    had neither. Scheming demagogues took advantage of a rumor

    that the English army intended to form a settlement opposite

    the city, and issued a paper in the name of the gentry, calling

    upon all to combine and resist the aggression. The enthusiasm

    it caused was worked up to a higher pitch b}^ an inflannnatory

    manifesto, in which desperate measures were plainly intinuited ;

    but the district magistrates took no steps against them. An

    invitation was circulated for the citizens and gentlemen from

    other provinces to meet at the public assembly hall to consult

    upon public affairs. A counter but less spirited manifesto was

    pasted up in the hall, which had the effect of inducing about

    half the people to disperse. The writers of this paper dissuaded

    their countrymen from hasty measures, by telling them’ that no

    556 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    land could be taken or dwellings occupied without periuission

    from the provincial authorities, and urged upon them to live at

    peace with tlie English, in accordance Avith the injunctions of

    their wise sovereign.

    A brawl occurred in Hog Lane on December Gth, between

    some hucksters and lascars, who -were pursued into the Square,

    where the mob rapidly increased, and about two o’clock began

    pulling down a brick wall around the Company’s garden and

    forcing open one of the factories, which was speedily pillaged,

    the inmates escaping through the back doors. The British flagstaff

    was fired by a party which kept guard around it, and the

    flames connnunicating to the verandah, other parts soon caught,

    and by midnight the three hongs east of Ilog Lane were burning

    furiously. The ringleaders, satisfied with firing the British

    consulate, endeavored to prevent thieves carrying away the

    plunder ; but they were forced to escape about midnight. These

    wretches soon began to quan-el among themsch’es for the dollars

    found in the ruins, and it was not till noon that the police

    and soldiers ventured to attack the knotted groups of struggling

    despei’adoes and arrest the most conspicuous, and with the aid

    of boats’ crews from the shipping recapture some of the specie.

    Full compensation was subsequently made to the foreigners for

    the losses sustained, amounting to $67,397, and some of the

    ringleaders were executed.

    A. large part of the officers in the army and navy engaged in

    the war received promotion or honorary titles. Sir Hugh was

    made a baronet, and, after more service in India, elevated to

    the peerage, with the title of Lord Gough, Baron of Chinkiang

    fu ; the plenipotentiary and the admiral obtained Grand Crosses

    of the liath. The three interpreters, Messrs. Morrison, Thorn,

    and Gutzlaff, whose services had been arduous and important,

    received no distinctive reward from their government. The

    amount of prize money distributed among the soldiers and

    sailors was small. The losses of the English from shipwreck,

    sickness, and casualties dm-ing tlie war amounted to more than

    three thousand ; the mortality was greatest among the Indian

    regiments and the European recruits, especially after the opei”

    ations behind Canton and the capture of Chinkiang.

    SETTLEMENT OF COMMERCIAL REGULATIONS. 557

    While the English goveniiiieiit lewarded its officers, the Emperor

    expressed his displeasure at the conduct of the major

    part of his surviving generals, but distributed posthumous

    honors to those who had died at their posts. Hailing, with liis

    wife and grandson, were honored with a fane, and his sons promoted.

    Kiying was appointed governor-general at ]^anking.

    Tliougli many civil and military officers were condemned to

    death, none actually lost their lives, except Yu Pu-yun, the

    governor of Chehkiang, who fled from JS^ingpo in October,

    1841.

    The settlement of the duties and regulations for carrying

    on foreign commerce immediately engaged the attention of the

    plenipotentiary. He called on the British mei’chants for information,

    but so utterly desultory was the manner in which the

    duties had been formerly levied, that they could give him little

    or no reliable information as to what was really done with the

    money. The whole matter was placed by both parties in the

    hands of Mr. Tliom, who had been engaged in business at Canton,

    and Hwang Ngan-tung, secretary to Kiying. To settle these

    multifarious affairs and restore quiet, Ilipu was sent to Canton

    as commissioner. On his arrival, he set about allaying the popular

    discontent at the treaty, and his edict ‘ is a good instance of

    the mixture of flattery and instruction, coaxing and connnanding,

    which Chinese officers frequently adopt when they are not

    sure of gaining their end by power alone, and do not wish to irritate.

    In this instance it did much to remove misapprehension

    and allay excitement, but its author had not long been engaged

    in these arduous duties before he ” made a vacancy,”

    aged seventy-two, having been more than half his life engaged

    in high employments in his country’s service ; his conduct and

    foresight in the last two years did credit to himself and elevated

    his nation. Ilis associate, Kiying, took his place and exchanged

    the ratifications of the treaty of Nanking at Hongkong with Sir

    Henry Pottinger, ten months after it had been signed by the

    same persons. The island was then taken possession of on behalf

    • Chinese Repository, Vol. XXL, p. lOG.

    of the Queen by proclamation, and the warrant read appointing Sir Henry governor of the colony. Its influence on +he well-being of China since that period has been less than was anticipated by those who looked to the higher welfare and progress of a British colony so near to it as likely to be an example for good. A free port has encouraged smuggling to a degree that constantly irritates and baffles the native authorities on the mainland, and leads to armed resistance to their efforts toward collecting lawful revenue, especially on opium ; while the influx of Chinese traders, attracted by its greater security, is gradually converting the island into a Chinese settlement protected by British rule. The peninsula of Kowhmg, on the north side of the harbor, was added in 1860, to furnish ground for the

    commissary departments of the forces. The influence of a wellordered

    Christian government exercising a beneficent rule over

    a less civilized race under its sway, is soon neutralized by licensing

    the opium farms and gambling saloons and lending its moral

    sanction to smuggling.

    The tariff and commercial regulations were published July 22d.

    In this tariff, all emoluments and illegal exactions superimposed

    upon the imperial duties were prohibited, and a fixed duty

    put on each article, which seldom exceeded five per cent, on

    the cost ; all kinds of breadstuffs were free. ( ‘ommercial dealings

    were placed on a well -understood basis, instead of the

    former loose way of conducting business ; the monopoly of the

    hong merchants was ended, the fees exacted on ships were abolished,

    and a tonnage duty of five mace per ton substituted ; the

    charge for pilotage was reduced so much that the pilots were

    nearly stripped of all they received after paying the usual fees

    to the tidewaiters along the river. Disputes between English

    and Chinese were to be settled by the consuls, and in serious

    cases by a mixed court, when, upon conviction, each party was

    to punish its own criminals.

    The proclamation giving effect to these i-egulations was one

    of the most important documents ever issued by the Chinese

    government ; as an initiation of the new order of things, it

    was creditable to the people whose rulers were of themselves

    and could utter such words to them. After referring to the war

    and treaty of peace, Kiying goes on to say, respecting the tariff,

    THE NEW TARIFF PROCLAIMED. 559

    that as soon as replies shall be received from tlie Buai-d of Tlev^

    enue, “it will then take effect witli refei-ence to the commerce

    with China of all countries, as well as of England. Henceforth,

    then, the weapons of war shall forever be laid aside,

    and joy and profit shall be the perpetual lot of all ; neither sli<i;ht

    nor few will be the advantages reaped by the merchants alike

    of China and of foreign countries. From this time foi-ward,

    all must free themselves frou] prejudice and suspicions, pursuing

    each his proper avocation, and careful always to retain no inimical

    feelings from the recollection of the hostilities that have

    before taken place. For such feelings and i-ecollections can luive

    no other effect than to hinder the growth of a good understanding

    between the two peoples.” It should be moreover added, as

    due praise to the imperial government, that none of the many

    liundreds who served the English on ship and shore against

    their country were afterward molested in any way for so doing.

    Many were apprehended, but the commissioner says he ” has

    obtained from the good favor of his august sovereign, vast and

    boundless as that of heaven itself, the remission of their punishment

    for all past deeds ; » . . they need entertain no appi-

    ehension of being hereafter dragged forward, nor yield in

    consequence to any fears or suspicions.”

    ‘These new arrangements pleased the leading Chinese merchants

    better than they did the hoppo and others who had lined

    their pockets and fed their friends with illegal exactions. The

    never-failing sponge of the co hong could no longer be sucked,

    but for a last squeeze the authorities called upon the merchants

    for five millions of dollars, which they refused to pay, and

    withdrew from business with so much determination and union

    that the hoppo and his friends were foiled ; they finally contributed

    among themselves about one million seven hundred

    thousand dollars, which was nearly or quite their last benevolence

    to their rulers. Ilowqua, the leading member of the body during

    thirty years, died about this time, aged seventy-five ; he was,

    altogether, the most remarkable native known to foreigners, and

    while he filled the difficult station of senior merchant, exhibited

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XII., p. 443.

    great shrewdness and ability in jiumaging the deHcate and difficult

    affairs constantly thrown upon him. lie came fi-oni Amoy

    when a voung man, and his property, probably over estimated

    at four millions sterling, passed quietly into the hands of his

    children.’

    Tlie foreign community also suffered a great loss at this time

    in the death of John Ilobert Morrison, at the age of twentynine,

    lie was born in China, and had identified himself with

    the best interests of her people and their advancement in

    knowledjre and Christianity. At the age of twenty, on his

    father’s decease, he was appointed Chinese secretary to the

    British superintendents, and filled that responsible situation

    with credit and efficiency during all the disputes with the proyincial

    authorities and commissioner Lin, and of the war, until

    peace was declared. His intimate acquaintance with the policy

    of the Chinese government and the habits of thought of its officers

    eminently fitted him for successfully treating with them,

    and enlightening them upon the intentions and wishes of foreign

    powers ; while his unaffected kindness to all natives assured

    them of the sincerity of his professions. The successful conduct

    of the negotiations at Xanking depended very much upon him,

    and the manner in which he performed the many translations

    to and from Chinese, connected with that event, was such as to

    secure the confidence of the imperial connnissioners, in their

    ignorance of all foreign languages, that they were fairly dealt

    with.

    He was eminently a Christian man, and whenever opportunity

    allowed, failed not to speak of the doctrines of the Bible to his

    native friends. The projected revision of the Chinese version

    of the Scriptures by the Protestant missionaries engaged his

    attention, and it was expected would receive his assistance.

    With his influence, his pen, his property, and his prayers, he

    contributed to the welfare of the people, and the confidence felt

    in him by natives who knew him was often strikingly exhibited

    ‘ Compare The Fan Kwae at Canton before Treaty Days, by an Old Residejit

    (Mr. W. C. Hunter), London, 1882; a little volume which, besides many personal

    reminiscences of the characters mentioned in this narrative, furnishes an interesting picture of life in Canton a half century ago.

    DEATH OF JOHN K. MOKKISON. 561

    at Canton durin*^ tlio coniinotions of 1841 and the negotiations

    of 1843. lie died at Macao August 29th, a jear after the treaty

    of i^anking was signed, and was l)nried by the side of liis

    parents in the Pi’otestant burying-gronnd. Sir lleiny Pottinger

    announced his death as a “positive national calamity,” and it was so received ‘by the government at home, he also justly added that ” Mr. Morrison was so well known to every one, and so beloved, respected, and esteemed by all wdio had the pleasure and happiness of his acquaintance or friendship, that to attempt to pass any panegyric upon his private character would be a mere waste of words ;” while his own sorrow was but a type of the universal feeling in which his memory and merit are embalmed. As a testimony of their sense of his worth, the foreign community, learning that he had died poor,

    leaving a maiden sister who had been dependent upon him, and

    that his official accounts were in some confusion, immediately

    came forward and contributed nearlj’ fourteen thousand dollars

    to relieve his estate and relatives from all embarrassment.

    The negotiations were concluded by the English and Chinese

    plenipotentiaries signing a supplementary treaty on October 8th

    (the day was a lucky one in the Chinese calendar), at the Bogue.

    This treaty provided, among other things, for the admission of

    all foreigners to the iive open ports on the same terms as English

    subjects ; it was inserted at the request of Kiying, that all

    might appreciate the intentions of his government ; for neither

    he nor his master knew anything of that favorite phrase, ” the

    most favored nation,” and expected and wished to avoid all controversy by putting every ship and flag on the same footing.

    It might have been expected that the Chinese government

    would have now taken some action upon the opium trade, which

    was still going on unchecked and unlicensed. Opium schooners

    were passing in and out of Hongkong liarbor, though the drug

    sold by the Indian government at Calcutta was not allowed by

    the colonial British government at Hongkong to be stored on

    shore. Yet no edicts wei-e issued, few or no seizui-es made, no

    notice taken of it ; no proposition to repress, legalize, or inanage

    it came from the imperial commissioner. The old laws denouncing

    its use, purchase, or sale under the penalty of deati* still remained on the statute book, but no one feared or cared for them. This conduct is fully explained by the supposition that, having undergone so much, the Emperor and his ministers thought safety from future trouble with the British lay in enduring what was past curing ; they had already suffered greatly

    in attempting to suppress it, and another war might be caused

    by meddling with the dangerous subject, since too it M^as now

    guarded by well-armed British vessels. Public opinion was still

    too strong against it, or else consistency obliged the monarch to

    forbid legalization.’

    Sir Henry Pottingcr, hearing that persons were about sending

    opium to Canton under the pretense that unenumerated articles

    were admissible by the new tariff at a duty of five per

    cent., issued a proclamation in English and Chinese, to the intent

    that such proceedings were illegal. lie also forbade British

    vessels going bej-ond lat. 32° X., and intimated to the Chinese

    that they might seize all persons and confiscate all vessels found

    above that line, or anywhei*e else on the coast besides the five

    ports ; and, moreover, published an order in council wdiich

    restricted, under penalty of $500 for each offence, all British

    vessels violating the stipulations of the treaty in this respect.

    All this was done chiefly to throw dust in their eyes, and put

    the onus of the contraband traffic on the Chinese government

    and the violation of law on those who came off to the smuggling

    vessels, and these proclamations and orders, like their edicts,

    were to be put ” on record.” This was shoAvn when Captain

    Hope, of II.M.S. Thalia, for stopping two or three of the opium

    vessels proceeding above Shanghai, was recalled from his station

    and ordered to India, where he could not “interfere in such a manner

    with the undertakings of British subjects “—to quote Lord

    Palmerston’s despatch to Captain Elliot. This effectually deterred

    other British officers from meddling with it.

    Yet the commercial bearings of this trade were clearly seen

    in England, and a memorial to Sir Bobert Peel, signed by two

    hundred and thirty-five merchants and manufacturers, was drawn

    ‘ Montgomery Martin, China ; Political, Commercial, and Social, Vol. II.,

    Chap. IV. (London, 1847)—a chapter containing some most suggestive reflections

    on this subject by a member of her Majesty’s government at Hongkong.

    RENEWAL OF THE OPIUM DISCUSSION. 563

    np, in which they proved that tlie ” commerce with China cannot^r

    be conducted on a permanently safe and satisfactory basis so long

    as the contraband trade in opium is permitted. Even if legalized,

    the trade would inevitably undermine the commerce of Great

    Britain with China, and prevent its being, as it otherwise might

    be, an advantageous market for our manufactures. It would operate

    for evil in a double way: first, by enervating and impoverishing

    the consumers of the drug, it would disable them from becoming

    purchasers of our productions ; and second, as the Chinese

    would then be paid for their produce chiefly as now in opium, the

    quantity of that article imported by them having of late years

    exceeded in value the tea and silk we receive from them, our

    own manufactures would consequently be to a great extent precluded.”

    The memorial shows that between 1803-08 the annual

    demand for M’oollens alone was nearly $750,000 more than

    it was for «Z^ products of British industry between 1834—39 ; while

    in that interval the opium trade had risen from three thousand to

    thirty thousand chests annually. Nothing in the annals of commerce

    ever showed more conclusively how heartless a thing trade

    is when it comes in contact with morality or humanity, than

    the discussions respecting the opium traffic. These memorialists

    plead for their manufactures, but the East India Company

    would have been soi-ry to have had their market spoiled : what

    could Sir Robert Peel, or even Wilberforce, if he had been

    premier, do against them in this matter ? The question was

    which party of manufacturers should be patronized. But none

    of these “merchants and manufacturers of the highest standing

    and respectability ” refer to the destruction of life, distress of

    families, waste of mind, body, and property, and the many other

    evils connected with the growth and use of opium, except as connected

    with the sale of their goods. One paper, in order

    to compound the matter, recommended the manufacture of

    morphine to tempt the Chinese, in order that, if they would

    smoke it, they might have a delicate preparation for fashionable

    smokers.

    The conduct of the ministry in remunerating the merchants

    who had surrendered their property to Captain Elliot was appropriate

    to the character of the trade. The $6,000,000, instead of being divided in Cliina aiijOiig those m’Iio were to receive it —as could have been done without expense—was cariied to England to be coined, which, with the freight, reduced it considerably. Then by the manner of ascertaining the market value at the time it was given up, and the holders of the opium script got their pay, they received scarcely one-half of what was originally paid to the East India Company, either directly or indirectly, thereby reducing it nearly a million sterling. Furthermore, by the form of payment they lost nearly one-fifth even of the promised sum, or about one million two hundred thousand dollars. Then they lost four years” interest on their whole capital, or about four million dollars more. What the merchants lost, the government profited. The Company gained during these four years at least a million sterling by the increased price of the drug, while Sir Eobert Peel also transferred that amount from the pockets of the merchants to the public treasury. It was an imdignified and pitiful haggling with the merchants and owners of the opium, whom that ministry had encouraged for many years in their trade along the Chinese coast, and then forced to take wdiat was doled out.

    Public opinion will ever characterize the contest thus brought

    to an end as an oj/ium war, entered into and cai’ried on to

    obtain indemnity for opium seized, and—setting aside the niceties

    of western international law, M’liich the Chinese government

    knew nothing of—most justly seized. The British and American

    merchants who voluntarily subscribed one thousand and

    thirty-seven chests to Commissioner Lin, acknowledged themselves

    to be transgressors by tliis very act. Yet war seemed to

    be the only way to break down the intolerable assumptions of

    the court of Peking ; that a Avar M’ould do it was quite plain

    to every one acquainted with the character of that court and the

    genius of the j^eople, and the result has shown the expectation

    to have been M’cU based. Members of Parliament expi’cssed

    their gratification at being at last out of a bad busines^s ; their

    desire, frequently nttered, that the light of the gos])(‘l and the

    blessings of C’hristian civilization might now be introduced

    among the millions of China, was a cheap peace-offering of good

    wishes, some^\llat in tin- manner t)f the old Hebrews sacrificing

    treatip:.s mith otiieu powers. 565

    a kid when tbej liad eoniniitted a trespass. Tlie short but pithy

    digest of the whole war by Justin McCarthy, in Chapter X. of

    the Ilisturij of Our Ocn Times, brings out its leading features

    in a fairly candid manner.

    The announcement of the treaty of Xanking caused considerable

    sensation in Europe and America, cliictly in commercial

    circles. M. Augusto Moxhet, the Belgian consul at kSingapore,

    was sent on to China to make such inquiries for transmission to

    his government as would direct it in its efforts to open a trade.

    The Xetherlands government sent orders to the authorities at

    Batavia, who despatched M. Tonco Modderman for the same

    purpose. The king of Prussia appointed ]\I. Grube to proceed

    to China to prosecute researches as to the prospect of finding

    a market for German mamifactnres. The Spanish ministry,

    through the authorities at Manila, designated Don Sinibaldo de

    Mas in this new sphere. The governor of Macao, M. Pinto,

    before returning home, was appointed commissioner on behalf

    of II. M. F. Majesty, to treat respecting the rights and privileges

    of Macao under the new order of things, and succeeded in

    obtaining some stipulations favorable to the trade of the place,

    but could not get the Chinese to cede it to Portugal. These

    gentlemen arrived in China during the latter part of 1S43, and

    most of them had interviews or communication with Kiying before

    he returned to court in December.

    The governments of the United States and France early appointed

    ministers extraordinary to the court of Peking. Caleb Cushing, commissioner on behalf of the United States, brought a letter from the President to the Emperor, which is inserted in full as an instance of the singular mixture of patronizing and deprecatory address then deemed suitable for the Grand Khan by western nations :

    LETTER TO THE EMPEROR OF CHINA FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

    I, John Tyler. President of the United States of America -which States are: Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, ^Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, and Michigan—send you this letter of peace and friendship, signed by my own hand.

    I hope your healtli is good. China is a great Empire, extending over a great

    part of the world. The Chinese are numerous. You have millions and millions

    of subjects. The twenty-six United States are as large as China, though

    our people are not so numerous. The rising sun looks upon the great mountains

    and great rivers of China. When lie sets, he looks iipon rivers and

    mountains equally large in the United States. Our territories extend from

    one great ocean to the other ; and on the west we are divided from your dominions

    only by the sea. Leaving the mouth of one of our great rivers, and

    going constantly toward tlie setting sun, we sail to Japan and to the Yellow

    Pea.

    Now, my words are that the governments of two such great countries should

    be at peace. It is proper, and according to tlie will of lieaven, that they should

    respect each other, and act wisely. 1 therefore send to your court Caleb Cushing,

    one of tlie wise and learned men of this country. On his first arrival in

    China, he will iiujuire for your health. He has strict orders to go to your

    great city of Peking, and there to deliver this letter. He will have with him

    secretaries <tnd interpreters.

    The Chinese love to trade with our jteople, and to sell them tea and silk, for

    which our people pay silver, and sometimes other articles. But if the Chinese

    and the Americans will trade, tliere shall be rules, so that they shall not break

    your laws or our laws. Our minister, Caleb Gushing, is authorized to make a

    treaty to regulate trade. Let it be just. Let there be no unfair advantage on

    either side. Let the people trade not only at Canton, but also at Anioy, Ningpo,

    Shanghai, Fuhchau, and all such other places as may o.Ter profitable exchanges

    both to China and the United States, provided they do not break your

    laws nor our laws. We shall not take the part of evil-doers. We shall not

    uphold them that break your laws. Therefore, we doubt not that you will be

    pleased that our messenger of peace, with this letter in his hand, shall come

    to Peking, and there deliver it ; and that your great officers will, by your order,

    make a treaty with liim to regulate a.fairs of trade—so that nothing may

    happen to disturb the pea(;e between China and America. Let the treaty be

    signed by your own imperial hand. It shall be signed by mine, by the authority

    of our great council, the Senate.

    And so may your health be good, and may peace reign.

    Written at Washington, this twelfth day of July, in the. year of our Lord

    one thousand eight hundred and forty-three. Your good friend.

    Mr. Gushing arrived in Cliiiia in the frigate Brandy wine,

    Commodore Parker, February 24^, 1844. The announcement

    of tlie general objects of lii.s mission, and the directions he had

    to proceed to Peking, was made to Governor Cliing, who instantly

    informed the com-t of his arrival ; and with a promptitude

    indicative of the desii-e of the Emperor to give no cause

    of offence, Kiying was reappointed commissioner, with highei

    EMBASSY FROM THE UNITED STATES TO CHINA. 567

    powers than before. The frigate had brought out a flagstaff

    and vane for the consulate at Canton ; the vane was in the

    form of an arrow, and as it turned its barb to tlie four points of

    the compass, the superstitious people tliought it conveyed destructive

    influences around, transfixing all the benign operations

    of heaven and earth, and thereby causing disease and calamitv

    among them. An unusual degree of sickness prevailed at tliis

    time in the city and its environs, which the geomancers and

    doctors declared would not cease until the deadly arrow was removed.

    The people accordingly w^aited on the consul, Mr. Forbes, to request the removal of the arrow, which he acceded to, and substituted a vane of another shape. The gentry issued a placard the next day, connuending its removal, and requesting the people to harbor no ill-will toward the Americans as the cause of the sickness.

    Kiying having announced his appointment and jxnvers to the

    people, proceeded to the Bogue to meet Sir Henry Pottinger,

    and be introduced to Governor Davis, from whence he went to

    Macao and took up his residence in the village of Wanghia, in

    the suburl)S of that city. lie had associated three assistants

    with himself, viz., Hwang Ngan-tung, Pwan Sz’-shing, one of

    the late hong merchants, and Chau Chang-ling, a prefect. II.

    E. Hon. Caleb Cushing was sole commissioner and envoy extraordinary; Fletcher AVebster, Esq., was secretary ; Rev. E.

    C. Bridgman, D.D., and Pev. Peter Parker, M.D., were joint

    Chinese secretaries, and Dr. Bridgman, chaplain ; Messrs. J. H.

    O’Donnell, R. Mcintosh, S. Hernisz, T. R. AVest, and John R.

    Peters, Jr., were attached to the legation.

    Mr. Cushing had already prepared the general outline of the

    treaty, which greatly abridged the negotiations, and the few

    disputed or doubtful points in the draft having been modified

    and settled, it was signed at AVanghia on July 3, 1844, by the

    two plenipotentiaries, Commodore Parker, and a few other

    Americans, a large company of Chinese being present. Its fulness

    of details and clear exhibition of the rights conceded by

    the Chinese government to foreigners dwelling within its borders,

    made it the leading authority in settling disputes among

    them until 1860.

    Soon after Ki’ying left Canton the populace began to show

    signs of disturbance. A party of gentlenieu wei’e walking in

    the Company’s garden, when the gate was burst open by a mob

    and they were obliged to escape by boats. On the next evening

    the mob again collected, with the intention of getting possession

    of the large garden, but were driven out of the passage without

    much opposition. Two or three Americans, in escorting one of

    their countrymen to his house, were attacked by missiles on

    their return ; whereupon one of them fired low to drive the

    people back, but unhappily killed a native, named Sil A-mun.

    The case was investigated by the district magistrate, and a

    report made by the governor to Kiying; but Cliing took no

    pains to send a sufficient force to repress the populace. In a

    communication to the American consul he says, after ordering

    him to deliver up the murderer : ” It has been ascertained that

    the man who was killed was from the district of Tsingyuen,

    having no relatives in Canton. But if he had been a citizen, it

    would have become at the moment an occasion for attack, for it

    would have been told to the populace, and they would have revenged

    it by again setting fire to the factories and plundering

    their contents, or something of that sort. The people are highly

    irritated against the offender, and it is impossible but that they

    have constant debates among themselves until they are revenged.”

    A party of marines from the corvette St. Louis came up to

    Canton the next day, and qiiiet was restored. Kiying brought

    the case before Mr. Cushing, stating it to be his conviction that

    “the murderer ought to forfeit his life,” and begging him to

    give orders for a speedy examination of the ease. In his reply

    Mr. Cushing expressed his regret at what had occurred, his

    willingness to institute an inquiry, and added a few remarks

    upon the necessity of better protecting foreigners at Canton,

    in order to prevent the recurrence of such scenes, and embroiling

    the two counti’ics. Kiying replied in a considerate maimer,

    still upholding the authority of his government and laws: “It

    seems from this that, regarding our nations and their subjects,

    the people of our land may be peaceful, and the citizens of the

    United States may be peaceful, and yet, after their governments

    CASES OF RIOT AND HOMICIDE IN CANTON. 569

    luive become amicable, that tlien tlieir people may become inim

    ical ; and albeit the authorities of the two governments may

    day after day deliberate upon friendship, it is all nothing but

    empty M-ords. Thus, while we are deliberating and settling a

    treaty of peace, all at once the people of our two countries are

    at odds and taking lives.” lie also speaks of the overbearing

    and violent character of the people of Canton :

    Since the period when the English brought in sohiiers, these ladrones have been banding together and forming societies ; and while some, taking advantage of their strength, have plundered and robbed, others have called upon the able-bodied and valiant to get their living. Therefore, employing troop&, which is the endangering of the authorities and [peaceable] people, is the profit of these miscreants ; peace and good order which traders, both native and foreign, desire, is what these bad men do not at all wish. … I have heard that usually the citizens of Canton have respected and liked the officers and people of the United States, as they were peaceable and reasonable ; that they would, even when there was a cause of difference, endeavor to settle it, which is very unlike the English. But unexpectedly, on the 16th instant, a cause for animosity was given in the shooting of Sii A-mun. I have heard different accounts of this affair ; I judge reasonably in thinking that the merchants oi your country causelessly and rashly took life. But the populace are determined to seek a quarrel, and I very much fear lest they will avail of this to raise commotion, perhaps under the pretence of avenging his death, but doubtless with other ideas too.

    The American minister referred in a subsequent commnnication

    to the death of the boy Sherry, in May, 1841, when the

    boat’s crew from the ship Morrison was captured. This affair

    had been already bronght to the notice of the Chinese government

    by Commodore Kearny, and a sum of $7,800 paid for

    losses and damages sustained ; but the present was a fitting

    opportunity for reviving it, since it and the case of Sii A-mun

    furnished a mutual commentary npon the necessity of securing

    better protection for foreigners. Kiying made an investigation

    of the case, and reported the successive actions of his predecessor,

    Ki Knng ; so thoroughly indeed was his reply divested of all

    the rhodomontade usnally seen in Chinese state papers, that one

    could hardly believe it was written by a governor-general of

    Canton. The exciting circumstances of the first casualty did

    indeed go far to extenuate it; though now both Kiying and his

    superiors could not but see that the time for demanding life foi life had passed away. The commissioner was, however, in a

    dilemma. He could only appease the populace by stating in his

    proclamations that he was making every effort to ascertain who

    was the murderer and bring him to justice, and they must leave

    the management of the case in the hands of the regular authorities.

    On the other hand, the arguments of Mr. Cushing and

    the stipulations in the English treaty, both convinced him that

    foreign nations would not give up their treaty right of judging

    their own countrymen. He finally escaped the trouble by deferring

    the petitioners and relatives of the deceased awhile, and

    then appeasing them by a small donation.

    In conducting these negotiations, and settling this treaty “between

    the youngest and oldest empires in the world,” Mr. Cushing

    exhibited both ability and knowledge of his subject. In his

    instructions he was directed to deliv^er the President’s letter to

    the Emperor in person, or to an officer of rank in his presence; and, therefore, on his arrival he informed the governor that he had been sent to the imperial court, and being under the necessity of remaining a few weeks at Macao, he improved the first opportunity to inquire after the health of his Majesty. Whether

    he regarded the mere going to court as important camiot be inferred

    from his correspondence, but if so, he should have gone

    directly to the mouth of the Pei ho and waited there for a commissioner to be sent to meet him. Vet the real advantages of

    such a proceeding at this time would have been trifiing, and its

    risks and contingencies very serious; as the Emperor was not

    dis])osed to forego that homage required of all who appeared

    before him, however willing he might be to grant commercial privileges, it was undesirable to excite discussions on this point.

    ^Moreover, the appointment of Kiying with such unusual powers

    indicated a favorable disposition toward the Americans. It was

    fortunate that the two plenipotentiaries wei-e at hand when the

    riot and homicide occurred, while the discussion which grew out

    of those events was no snuill benefit to the local government.

    The secret of nmch of the ])ower of the Emperor of China consists

    in the acknowledgment by his subjects of his sacred character

    as the Son of Heaven ; and although that lofty assumption

    uuist come down before the advance of western civilization, and

    CONCLUSION OF THE FKKNCIl TKEATV. 571

    will ere long criiinble of itself, to have asked for an audience

    when tliis formalitj was known to be inadmissible would have

    irritated him, and put the foreign minister in an indefensible

    position. The subsequent discussions proved how deeply rooted

    in the Chinese mind was this attribute ; the peaceful settlement

    of the question in 1873 could not have been anticipated

    hi 1844.

    The French ambassador, II. E. Th. de Lagrene, arrived in

    China August 14th. In addition to the two secretaries, MM. le

    Marquis de Ferriere le Yoyer and le Comte d’liarcourt, five

    other gentlemen were sent out to make investio-ations into the

    commerce, arts, and industrial resources of the Chinese. M. de

    Lagrene took possession of the lodgings prepared for him at

    Macao, in the same building which Mr. Gushing had occupied.

    Kiying immediately made arrangements for opening the negotiations

    by sending his three associates to congratulate the French minister on his arrival; he himself reached Macao September 29th. The gratification of the Chinese statesmen at finding that the missions from the American and French governments were not sent, like the English expedition, to demand indemnity and the cession of an island, was great. Their arrival had been foreshadowed among the people of Canton, the number of ships of war had been exaggerated, and the design of the

    ambassadors strangely misrepresented as including the seizure

    of an island. These reports could hardly fail to reach and have

    some effect upon the highest officers in the land. The time,

    therefore, was favorable, not merely to obtain the same political

    and commercial advantages which had been granted to England,

    but further to explain to the Chinese officers something of the

    relations their nation should enter into with the other powers of

    the earth. The first interviews between Kiying and M. de Lagrene

    were held in October, and the treaty of Wanghia taken as

    the basis of agreement. The negotiations were amicably settled

    by the signing of the treaty at Whampoa on October 23d.

    This act may be said to have concluded the opening of China,

    so far as its government was prepared for the extension of this

    intercourse.

    The instalments due according to the treaty of NanJing were not yet all paid, but the Chinese had shown their desire to fulfil their engagements, and the $.21,000,000 were received by the English within a short period of the specified time. This was a minor consideration, however, in comparison with the great

    advantages gained by England for herself and all Christendom

    over the seclusive and exclusive system of former days, which

    had now received such a shock that it could not only never

    recover from it, but was not likely even to maintain itself where

    the treaties had defined it. The intercourse begun by these

    treaties went on as fast as the two parties found it for tlieir

    benefit. The war, though eminently nnjust in its cause as an

    opium war—and even English officers and authors do not try to

    disguise that the seizure of the opium was tlie real reason for an

    appeal to arms, though the imprisonment of Captain Elliot and

    other acts was the pretext—was still, so far as human sagacity

    can perceive, a wholesome infliction upon a government which haughtily refused all equal intercourse with other nations, or explanations regarding its conduct, and forbade its subjects having free dealings with their fellow-men.

    ‘ If in entering upon the conflict England had published to the

    world her declaration of the reasons for engaging in it, the

    merits of the case would have been better understood. If she

    had said at the outset that she commenced the struggle with the

    Emperor because he would not treat her subjects resorting to

    his shores by his permission with common humanity, allowing

    them no intercourse with his subjects, nor access to his officers;

    because he contemptuously discarded her ambassadors and consular agents, sent with friendly design ; because he made foolish

    regulations (which his own subjects did not observe) an occasion

    of offence against others when it suited him, and had despoiled

    them of their property by strange and arbitrary pi-occcdings,

    weakening all confidence in his equity ; lastly, because he kept

    liimself aloof from other sovereigns, and shut out his people

    from that intercourse with their fellow-men which was their

    privilege and right ; her character in this war would have appeared

    far better. But it is the prerogative of the Governor of

    nations to educe good out of evil, and make the wrath, the

    avarice, and the ambition of men to serve his purposes and advanco his own designs, although their intentions may be far otherwise.

    CONDITION OF CIIIXA AFTER THE WAR. 573

    The external and internal relations of the Chinese Empire at

    the close of the year 1844 were in a far better state than one

    M’onld have snpposed they conld have become in so short a time

    after such a convulsion. The cities and provinces where the

    storm of war had beat most violently were i-eviving, the authority

    of the officers was becoming re-established, the bands of

    lawless desperadoes were gradually dispei’sing, and the people

    resuming their peaceful pursuits. No ill-will was manifested in

    Amoy on account of the losses its citizens had sustained, nor at

    Ningpo or Shanghai for their occupation by Englisli troops.

    The English consuls at the five ports had all been received, and

    trade was connnencing under favorable auspices. The opium

    trade—for this dark feature everywhere forces itself into the

    prospect—was also extending, and opium schooners plying up

    and down the coast, and anchoring on the outside limits of

    eveiy port to deliver the drug.

    The citizens of Canton, however, maintained their hereditary

    ill-will toward foreigners, and proceeded to such lengths that

    the local government became powerless to carry the stipulation

    of the British treaty, to enter its city gates, into effect. Governor

    Davis proceeded to Canton in May, 1847, with several

    vessels of war, capturing all the guns at the Bogue in his progress

    up the river, and compelled the authorities to grant a

    larger space for residences and wai-ehouses on the south side of

    the Pearl River, to be occupied as soon as arrangements could

    be made. It was also agreed that the gates should be unconditionally

    opened within two years, so that foreigners might have

    the same access to this city as to the other four ports. When

    the time came for this to be carried out, the Emperor ordered

    Governor-General Sli to mind the voice of the people and disregard

    this engagement, which had probably never received his

    sanction. A careful examination of the Chinese text of all the

    treaties showed that an explicit permission to enter the citadel

    {c/iin(/), or walled portion of the marts opened to foreign commerce,

    was not given. In consequence of this vagueness the

    Hongkong authorities, acting under instructions from London,

    did not press the point, and the gates of Canton remained inviolate

    till January, 1858.”

    • C/iinese Repositoiy, Vols. XVIII. , pp. 216,275; XV., p. 40 ff. Davis,Cfiina durinff the War (tiul mice the Peace, 1852. Vol. II., Chaps. V. and VI ,passim. Among other authorities on the war may be mentioned Lord Jocelyin,Six Months with ilte Chinese Expedition, London, 1841 ; K. Stewart Mackenzie,Narrative of the Second Campaign in China, London, 1842; Col. Aithur Cunynghame,liecoUections of Service in China, 1853 ; Lieut. John Ouchterlony,The Chinese War, 1844 ; The Last Tear in China to the Peace of Xaiding, by a Field Officer, London and Philadelphia, 1848 ; Auguste Haussmann, L<iChine, resume historiqiie, etc., Paris, 1858 • Ad. Barrot in the Revue des DeuxMondes for February 15, March 1, June 1, and July 1, 1842.

  • WELLS WILLIAMS《The Middle Kingdom》15-18

    CHAPTER XV.  INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF THE CHINESE

    The superiority of the Chinese over their immediate neighbors in the enjoyments of life and in the degree of security for which individuals can look under the protection of law have their bases chiefly in the industiy of the people. Agriculture holds the first place among the branches of labor, and the honors paid to it by the annual ploughing ceremony are given from a deep sense of its importance to the public welfare ; not alone to provide a regular supply of food and labor for the population, but also to meet the wants of government by moderate taxes, and long experience of the greater ease of governing an agricultural than a mercantile or warlike community. Notwithstanding the encouragement given to tillage, many tracts of land still lie waste, some of it the most fertile in the country; partly because the people have not the skill and capital to drain and lender it productive, partly because they have not sufficient prospect of remuneration to encourage them to make the necessary outlay, and sometimes from the outrages of local banditti making it unsafe to live in secluded districts.

    Landed property is held in clans or families as much as possible, and is not entailed, nor are overgrown estates frequent.

    The land is all held directly from the crown, no allodial property being acknowledged ; if mesne lords existed in feudal times they are now unknown. The conditions of common tenure are the payment of an annual tax, the fee for alienation, with a money composition for personal service to the government, a charge generally incorporated into the direct tax as a kind of scutage. The proprietors of land record their names in the district and take out a hung ki, or ‘ red deed,’ which secures them in possession as long as the ground tax is paid. This sum varies according to the fertility, location, and use of the land, from $1.50 per acre for the best, down to twenty or thirty cents for unproductive or hilly fields. As the exactions for alienation oi sale of lands are high, amounting to as much as one-third of the sale price sometimes, the people accept white deeds from each other as proofs of ownership and responsibility for taxes. As many as twenty or thirty such deeds of sale occasionally accompany the original hung Ai, without which they are suspicious if not valueless. In order to keep the knowledge of the alienations of land in government offices, so that the taxes can be assured, it is customary to furnish a kl-wei, or ‘ deed-end,’ containing a note of the terms of sale and amount of tax liable on the property.

    There is no other proof of ownership required ; and the simplicity and efficiency of this mode of transfer offer a striking contrast to the cumbrous rules enforced in western kingdoms. Revised codes of land laws are issued by the provincial authorities when necessary, as was done in 1846 at Canton.’

    The paternal estate and houses thereon descend to the eldest son, but his brothers can remain upon it with their families, and devise their portion inperpetuo to their children, or an amicable composition can be made ; daughters never inherit, nor can an adopted son of another clan succeed. A mortgagee must enter into possession of the property and make himself responsible for the payment of the taxes ; unless explicitly stated, the land can be redeemed any time within thirty years on payment of the original sum. Sections XC. to C. of the Code contain the laws relating to this subject, some of which bear a resemblance to those established among the Hebrews, and intended to secure a similar result of retaining the land in the same clan or tribe.

    » T. T. Meadows in N. C. Br. R. A. S. Transactions, Hongkong, 1848, Vol. 1

    TENURE AND CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 3

    The enclosure of recent alluvial deposits cainiot be made without the cognizance of the authorities, but the terms are not onerous; for waste hillsides and poor spots ample time is allowed for a return of the capital expended in reclaiming them before assessment is made.

    The Chinese are rather gardeners than farmers, if regard be had to the small size of their grounds. They are ignorant, too, of many of those operations whereby soils naturally unfruitful are made fertile and the natural fertility sustained at the cheapest rate by proper manuring and rotation of crops ; but they make up for the disadvantages of poor implements by hard work. Their agricultural utensils are few and simple, and are probably now made similar to those used centuries ago. The broad hoe is used in soft land more than any other tool ; the weight of its large wooden blade, which is edged with iron, adds impetus to the blow. Spades, rakes, and mattocks are employed in kitchen gardening, and the plough and harrow in rice cultivation. The plough is made of wood, except the iron-edged share, which lies flat and penetrates the soil about five inches. The whole implement is so simple and rude that one would think the inventor of it was a laborer, mIio, tired of the toil of spading, called the ox to his aid and tied his shovel to a rail ;—fastening the animal at one end and guiding the other, he was so pleased with the relief that he never thought of improving it much further than to sharpen the spade to a coulter and bend the rail to a beam and handle. The harrow is a heavy stick armed with a single row of stout wooden teeth, and furnished with a framework to guide it ; or a triangular machine, with rows of iron teeth, on which the driver rides to sink it in the ooze.

    The buffalo is used in rice cultivation, and the ox and ass in dry ploughing ; horses, mules, cows, and goats likewise render service to the farmer in various ways, and are often yoked in most ludicrous combinations. The team which Nieuhoff depicts of a man driving his wiie and his ass yoked to the same plough is too bad for CluTia often to present, though it has been so frequently repeated and used to point a comparison that one almost expects on landing to see half the women in the harness. It may be doubted, however, if this country can vie with some portions of Germany and Holland in the matter of mongrel teams employed on farms.

    The arrangements of farriers’ shops in China are very similar to those of European countries, saving that the tools are of the simplest character. The manner of trussing up the poor beast which is to be shod would seem, however, an unnecessary exercise of caution in the case of a majority of the over-worked horses and nuiles. The animal is fastened to a frame and lifted almost entirely off the ground, while a rope twisted al>out his nose and tightened at will with a turn-stick controls the least attempt at unruliness. Iron shoes are employed in the north: in the south, where horses are little used, they are usually left nnsliod^ though the fore feet are often covered with leather shoes which lit the lioof.

    METHOD OF PLANTING RICE. 5

    An early rain is necessary to the preparation of rice-fields, except where water can be turned upon them. The grain is first soaked, and when it begins to swell is sown very thickly in a small plat containing licpiid manure. “When about six inches high the shoots are planted into the fields, which, from being an unsightly marsh, are in a few days transformed to fields clothed with living green. Holding the seedlings in one hand, the laborer wades through the nnid, at every step sticking into it five or six sprouts, which take root without further care ; six men can transplant two acres a day, one or two of whom are engaged in supplying the others with shoots. The amount of grahir£(j|IU2£d to sow a Chinese mao in this way is thirty-seven and one-half catties, or three hundred and thirty pounds-Wbout^two and one-halTUushels to an Jiinglish acre. The produce is on an average tenfokh Rent ofTaiid is usually paid according to the amount of the crop, the landlord paying the taxes and the tenant stocking the farm ; leases are for three, four, or seven years ; the terms vary according to the position and goodness of the soil.’

    Grain is not sown broadcast, and this facilitates hoeing and weeding the fields as they require. Two crops are planted, one of which ripens after the other; maize and pulse, millet and sesamnm, or sorghum and squash are thus grown together. The plough is an efficient tool in soft soil, but a wide hoe, the blade set almost at a right angle, is the common implement in the north. Barrow describes a drill-plough in common use in the north which remarkably economizes time and seed. ” It con-Eisted of two parallel poles of wood shod at the lower extremity

    ‘ The amount of tribute rice sent to Peking from Kiangsu Province is 01)0,000 tons of 640 catties, or 974,400 peculs Chelikiang ” 44r),000 ” ” ” 633,000 ” Kiangsi ” 80,000 ” ” ” 112,000 ” Hupeh ” 50,000 ” ” ” 70,000 “1,789,400 “Of this the Chinese Company carried in 1875 to Tientsin. . 626,900 “Went by junks 1,162,500 «

    with iron to open the furrows ; these poles were placed upon wheels; a small hopper was attached to each pole to drop the seeds into the furrow, which were covered with earth by a transverse piece of wood fixed behind, that just swept the face of the ground.”‘

    The extent to which terrace cultivation has been described as common is a good instance of the way in which erroneous impressions concerning China obtain currency from accounts not exactly incorrect, perhaps, but made to convey- wrong notions by the mode of their description. The hills are terraced chiefly for rice cultivation or to retain soil which would otherwise be washed away ; and this restricts their gradation, generally speaking, to the southern and eastern provinces. Most of the hills in Kwangtung and Fuhkien are unfit for the plough except near their bases, while in the north it is unnecessary to go to great expense in terracing for a crop of cotton, wheat, or millet. Much labor has been expended in terracing, and many hillsides other -M’ise useless are thus rendered productive; but this does not mean that every hill is cut into plats, nor that the entire face of the country is one vast garden. Terracing was probably a more important feature of agriculture in Palestine in former days than it is in China. The natural terraces of the loess districts, and their extraordinary convenience as well as fertility, have already been noticed in a former chapter. These, it should however be remembered, do not occur south of the Yangzi River.

    The ingenuity of the farmer is well exhiluted in the various modes he employs to insure a supply of water for his rice. In some places pools are made in level fields as reservoirs of rain, from which the water is lifted as occasion requires by well sweeps.

    ‘ Travels in China, London, 1804.

    TERRACE CULTIVATION AND IRRIGATION. 7

    It is also expeditiously raised by two men holding a pail between them by ropes, and with a swinging motion rapidly dipping the water out of the tank into little furrows. A favorite plan is to use a natural brooklet and conduct it from one plat to another till it has irrigated the whole hillside. It is where such water privileges offer that the terrace cultivation is best developed, especially in the neighborhood of large cities, where the demand for provisions promises the cultivator a sure reward for his labor. The appearance of the slopes thus graduated into small ledges is beautiful; each plat is divided by a bank serving the triple purpose of fence, path, and dyke, and near which the • rills glide with refreshing lapse, turning whithersoever the master willeth. This primitive method of upland irrigation is carried out far more perfectly in China than in Switzerland, where it is better known to the generality of travelers. Water is not often wasted upon grass meadows in the former country. The food these marshy plats furnish to insects, mollusks, snakes, and birds is surprising to one who examines them for the first time.

    Wheels of various sorts are also contrived to assist in this labor, some worked by cattle, some by human toil, and others carried round by the stream whose waters they elevate.j The last are very common on the banks of the rivers Siang, Ivan, Min, and their affluents, wherever the banks are convenient for this purpose.

    High wheels of bamboo, firmly fixed on an axle in the bank, or on pillars driven into the bed, and furnished with buckets, pursue their stately round, and pour their earnings of two hundred and fifty or three hundred tons a day into troughs fixed at an elevation of twenty or thirty feet above the stream. The box-trough, containing an axle to be turned by two men treading the pedals, is rather a more clumsy contrivance, used for slight elevations ; the chain of paddles runs around two axles and in the trough as closely as possible, and raises the water ten or twelve feet in an equable current.

    Few carts or wagons are used with animals in the southern and eastern provinces where boats are at all available, human strength supplying the means of transportation ; the implements of husbandry and the grain taken from the fields both being carried on the back of the laborer. It is not an uncommon sight about Canton to see a ploughman, when he has done his work, turn his buffalo loose and shoulder his plough, harrow, and hoe, with the harness, and carry them all home. It is when one crosses the Yangtsz’ on his way north that pack animals are met transporting goods and food in great droves ; here, too, people on carts and wheelbarrows fill the roads. On the Great Flain a sail is raised on the latter when a fair wind will heln the man to trundle it over a level way.

    The Chinese manure the plant rather than the ground, both

    in the seed and growing grain. The preparation of manure

    from night soil, by mixing it with earth and drying it into cakes,

    furnishes employment to multitudes who transport at all hours

    their noisome loads through the narrow city streets. Tanks

    are dug by the wayside, paila are placed in the streets and retiring

    stalls opened among the dwellings, whose contents are

    carried away in boats and buckets ; but it is a small compensation

    for this constant pollution of the sweet breath of heaven

    to know that the avails are to be by and by brought to market.

    Science may yet ascertain how the benefits of this necessai-y

    work can be obtained without its disgusting exposure among

    the Chinese. Besides this principal ingredient of manure vats,

    MANUFACTURE AND USE OF MANURES. 9

    other substances are diligently collected, as liair from the bar ber’s shop, exploded tire-ci”ackers and sweepings from the streets, lime and plaster from kitchens and old buildings, soot, bones, tish and animal remains, the mud from the bottom of canals and tanks, and dung of every kind. In Kiangsu a small leaf clover {^Medleago satlva) is grown through the winter upon ridges raised in the rice-fields, and the plants pulled up in the spring and scattered over the fields to be ploughed and harrowed into the wet soil with the stubble, their decomposition furnishing large quantities of ammonia to the seedlings. Vegetable rubbish is also collected and covered with turf, and then slowly burned; the residue is a rich black earth, which is laid upon the seeds themselves when planted. The refuse left after expressing the oil from ground-nuts, beans, vegetable tallow, tea, and cabbage seeds, etc., is mixed with earth and made into cakes, to be sold to farmers. The bean-cake made in Liautung thus aids the cotton and sugar planter in Swatow with a rich compost.

    The ripe grain is cut with bill-hooks and sickles, or pulled up by the roots; scythes, mowing-machines, and cradles are unknown where human arms are so plenty. Rice-straw is made into brooms and besoms; the rice is thrashed out against the side of a tub having a curtain on one side, or bound into sheaves and carried away to be stacked. The thrashing-floors about Canton are made of a mixture of sand and lime, well pounded upon an inclined surface enclosed by a curb; a little cement added in the last coat makes it impervious to the rain; with proper care it lasts many years, and is used by all the villagers for thrashing rice, peas, mustard, turnips, and other seeds, either with unshod oxen or flails. Where frost and snow come the ground requires to be repaired every season ; and each farmer usually has his own.

    The cultivation of food plants forms so large a proportion of those demanding the attention of the Chinese, that excepting hemp, indigo, cotton, silk, and tea, those raised for manufacture are quite unimportant. The great cotton region is the basin of the Yangzi Jiang, where the white and yellow varieties grow side hy side. The manure used is nnul taken from the canals and spread with ashes over the ploughed fields, in which seeds are sown about the 20th of April. The seeds are planted, after sprouting, five or six in a hole, being rubbed with ashes as they are put in, and weeded out if necessary. After the winter crops have been gathered cotton-fields are easily made ready for the shoots, which, while growing, are carefully tended, thinned, hoed,

    and weeded, until the flowers begin to appear about August. As

    the pods begin to ripen and burst the cultivator collects them

    before they fall, to clean the cotton of seeds and husks. The

    weather is carefully watched, for a dry summer or a wet autumn

    are alike unpropitious, and as the pods are ripening from August

    to October, it is not uncommon for the crop to be partially lost.

    The seeds are separated by a wheel turning two rollers, and the

    cotton sold by each farmer to merchants in the towns. Some

    he keeps for weaving at home ; spinning-wheels and looms

    being common articles of furniture in the houses of the peasantry.

    Cotton is cultivated in every province, and most of it is used where it grows. Around Peking the plant is hardly a foot high ; the bolls are cleaned for wadding to a great extent, while the woody stalks supply fuel to the poor. Minute directions are given in Sii’s EneyelojKedia of Agriculture respecting the cultivation of this plant, whose total crop clothes the millions of the Empire without depending on any other land.’

    ‘Fortune’s Wanderings, Cliap. XIV.; Chinese Itejjository, Vol. XVIIT., pp. 449-409.

    COTTOX, HEMP, MULBEKKY, AND SUGAR. 11

    Hemp is largely cultivated north of the Mei ling, and also grows in Fuhkien ; grass-cloth made from the iJulicltos htilhosus is used for sunuuer dresses. There are four plants which produce a fibre made into cloth known under this name, viz.: the Cannahis sativa, or connnon hemp, at Canton; the Bn’Jnncfia nivea, a species of nettle ; the S’ula tillarfoHay or abutilon hemp, in Chihli ; and the Hibiscus cannahinus. The coloring matter used for dyeing blue is derived from two plants, the Pohjgonuin tinctoriurii at the south, and the tlen tshig {Isatls indujotlcci) cultivated at Shanghai and Chusan. The mulberry is raised as a sluide and fruit tree in the northern provinces, where it forms a beautiful plant fifty feet high ; elsewhere the consumption of the leaves renders its culture an important branch of labor in the silk-pr(xliicing provinces. Some growers allow it to attain its natural height, others cut it down to increase the branched

    and the produce of leaves. In Chelikiang it is cut in January

    and deprived of its useless brandies, leaving only the outer ones,

    which are trinnned into two or three points in order to force

    the plant to extend itself. The trees are set out in rows twelve

    feet or more apart, each tree being half that distance from its

    neighbor and opposite the intervals in the parallel rows; the

    interspaces are occupied with legumes or greens. The trees are

    propagated by seed and by suckers, but soon losing their vigor

    from being constantly sti’ipped of leaves, are then rooted up

    and replaced by fresh nurslings.

    Sugar is only a southern and southeastern crop. The name che^ by which it is known, is an original character, which favors the opinion that the plant is indigenous in China, and the same argument is applicable to wheat, hemp, mulberry, tea, and some of the common fruits, as the plum, pear, and orange. The canes are pressed in machines, and the juice boiled to sugar or boiled and hawked about the streets for consumption by the people. The sugar-mill consists merely of two upright cylinders, between which the cane is introduced as they turn, and the juice received into reservoirs; it is then boiled down and sent to the refiners to inidergo the necessary processes to fit it for market ; much is lost by this slovenly manufacture.

    Many plants are cultivated for their oil, used in the arts or in

    cooking. The seeds of two or three species of Elcococea belonging

    to the Euphorbiaceous family, and the Cu/raspu/yans,

    are gathered, and by pressure furnish an oil to mix with lacker

    and paints, or to smear boats as a preservative against teredoes

    and other insects. It is deleterious when taken into the system,

    but does not appear to injure those who use or express it.

    The tallow-tree {StlUiiKjia schtfera) grows over the eastern provinces ; it is a beautiful tree, resembling the aspen in its shape and foliage, and would form a valuable addition to the list of shade-trees in any country. Mr. Denny, the United States Consul at Shanghai, has recently sent a quantity of these seeds to California, where efforts are being made to grow them.

    The tree has been introduced into India for its timber. The seeds grow in clusters like ivy berries, and are collected in November; when ripe the capsule divides, and falling off discovers two or three kernels covered with the pure, hard white tallow. When the tallow is to be prepared, these are picked from the stalks and put into an open wooden cylinder with a perforated bottom, in which they are well steamed over boiling water. In ten or fifteen minutes the tallow covering; the seeds becomes soft, and they are thrown into a stone mortar and gently beaten with mallets to detach it. The whole is then

    sifted on a hot sieve, by which the tallow is separated from the

    kernels, though containing the brown skin which envelops the

    latter and presenting a dirty appearance. The tallow in this

    state is enclosed in a straw cylindei”, or laid upon layers of straw

    held together by iron hoops, and subjected to pressure in a rude

    press, from which it runs clear in a semifluid state and soon

    hardens into cakes. The candles made from it become soft in

    liot weather, and are sometimes coated by dipping them in colored

    wax.’ From one hundred and thirty-three pounds of nuts

    is obtained some forty or fifty pounds of tallow.

    The departments of floriculture and arboriculture have received

    great attention, but the efforts of their promoters are directed

    to producing something curious or bizarre, rather than

    improving the quality of their fruits or enlarging the number

    of their flowers. A common mode of multiplying specimens is

    to slit the stem and insert half of it in damp earth tied around

    the stalk until it has rooted, and then cutting off the whole.

    Dwarfing trees or forcing them to grow in grotesque shapes

    employs much time and patience. The juniper, cypress, pine,

    elm, bamboo, peach, plum, and flowering-almond are selected

    for this purpose ; the former is trained into the shapes of deer

    or other animals, pagodas, etc., with extraordinary fidelit}’, the

    eyes, tongue, or other parts being added to complete the resemblance.

    ‘ Fortune’ii ]\'(iii(k’ri’ii(j.s, ^. 78.

    CEKKMONY OF PLOUGHING AND SPUING FESTIVAL. 13

    The principle of the operation depends upon retarding the circulation of the sap by stinting the supply of water, confinino; the roots, and bendino; the branches into the desired form when young and pliable, afterwards retaining them in clieir forced position in pots, and clipping off all the vigorous shoots, until, as is the case of the cramped fee.t of women, nature gives up the contest and yields to art. Thesq^Uike the similar exhibitions in sculpture and painting, indicate the uncultivated taste of the people, who admire the fantastic and monstrous more than the natural. Some of the clumps placed in large earthen vases, consisting of bamboos, Howers, and

    dwarf trees growing closely together upon a piece of rock-work,

    and overshadowing the water in the vase, in which gold-fish

    swim through the crevices of the stone, are beautiful specimens

    of Chinese art. Without understanding the principles of an

    aquarium, the people have succeeded in combining animal and

    vegetable life in these elegant ornaments of their houses.

    The annual ceremony of ploughing is of very ancient origin. At Peking it consists in ploughing the sacred field in the Temple of Agriculture with a highly ornamented plough kept for the purpose, the Emperor holding it while turning over three furrows, the princes five, and the high ministers nine. These furrows were, however, so short that the monarchs of the present dynasty altered the ancient rule, ploughing four furrows and returning again over the ground. The ceremony finished, the Emperor and his ministers repair to the terrace adjoining the plat, and remain till it has all been ploughed. The crop of wheat is used in idolatrous services. The rank of the actors renders the ceremony more imposing at Peking, but the people of the capital oidy know that such a performance takes place, as they are not admitted inside of the enclosure when it is observed by the Emperor and his suite. This ceremony is also required of all high officers throughout the Empire, and is attended with more or less parade in April.

    In the provinces its celebration varies, and as there are two festivals coming near together connected with agriculture, one or the other of them is apt to predominate. The annual ploughing ritual is one, and the //// chan, or ‘ Eirst day of spring,’ is the other and prior in date. The prefect of every city and his subordinates on that day repair to the appointed spot outside of the walls, accompanied by music and a great procession of the citizens, carrying through the streets a paper image of the buffalo or ox, which, with the idol image worshipped at the same time, are at some places taken into his yamun. Here the whole is placed on an altar, and the officials present walk around and whip the effigy with rods before it is set on fire

    and scrambled for by the people present. Besides the paper

    ox, a clay one is also made and taken beyond the eastern gate,

    sometimes accompanied by or holding hundreds of little images

    inside ; after the ceremonies are over it is broken up, and

    the pieces and small images are carried off by the crowd to

    scatter the powder on their own fields, in the hope of thereby

    insuring a good crop.

    In Ningbo the principal features of the ceremony consist of

    a solemn worship by all the local officers of a clay image of a

    buffalo and an idol of a cow-herd. The prefect then ploughs a

    small piece of ground, and he and his associates disperse till the

    morrow, when they come together in another temple at dawn.

    Here a series of prostrations and recitals of pra^’ers are performed

    by the “fathers of the people” in their presence, some

    of whom have no respect for the worship, Mhile others, perhaps,

    evince deep reverence. As soon as it is over the clay ox is

    brought out, and a procession consisting of all the officers pass

    around it repeatedly, striking the body at a given signal, and

    concluding the ceremony by a heavy blow on the head. The

    crowd then rush in and tear the effigy to pieces, each one carrying

    off a portion to strew on his fields.’

    The various modes of catching and rearing fish exhibit the contrivance and skill of the Chinese quite as much as their agricultural operations. Some persons reckon that at least one tenth of the population in the prefecture of Kwangehau derive their food from the water, and necessity leads them to invent and try many ingenious ways of securing the finny tribes.

    ‘ PereCibot in Mem. cone, les Chinois, Tome III., p. 499. Penal Code, pp.94-106, 520. Chinese nepository, Vol. II., p. :}50 ; Vol. III., pp. 121, 231; Vol. v., p. 485. La Chine Ouverte, p 340. Foreign Mixnionari/ Chronide, Vol. XIII., p. 290. Gray’s China, Vol. II., pp. 115-117. Doolittle’s Social Life, Vol. TI., pp. 18-23. Revue de V Orient, Tome V. (1844), p. 297. Baron d’Hervey Saint-Denys, Recherchea stir VAc/ricnUure et VHorticuUitre des Ohi mis, Paris, 1850. Journal iV: C Br. R. A. Soc, No. IV., pp. 209 fif.

    FISHING ANL> FISHERMEN ALONG THE COAST. 15

    Xets woven of hempen thread are boiled hi a solution of gambier to preserve them from i-otting. The smacks which swarm along the coast go out in pairs, partly that the crews may afford mutual relief and protection, but chiefly to join in dragging the net. In the sliallows of rivers rows of heavy posts are driven down and nets secured to them, which are examined and changed at every tide. Those who attend these nets, more-over, attach scoops or drag-nets to their boats, so loaded that they will sink and gather the sole, ray, and other fish feeding near the bottom. Lifting-nets, twenty feet square, are suspended from poles elevated and depressed by a hawser worked by a windlass on shore ; the nets are baited with the whites of eggs spread on the meshes.

    Group and Residence of Fishermen near Canton.

    ‘ The fishermen along the coast form an industrious, though rather turbulent community, by no means confining their enterprises to their professed business when piraty, dakoity, or marauding on shore hold out greater prospects of gain. When their boats become unseaworthy they are still considered landworthy, and are transformed into houses by setting them bodily upon a stone foundation above the reach of the tide, or breaking them up to construct rude huts.

    The Fishing Cormorant.

    Cormorants are trained in great numbers to capture fish in the rivers and lakes ; they will disperse at a given signal and return with their prey, but not often without the precaution of a neck-ring. A single boatman can easily oversee twelve or fifteen of these birds, and although hundreds may be out upon the water each one knows its own nuister. If one seize a fish too heavy for him alone, another comes to his assistance, and the two carry it aboard ; but such cases are very rare compared with others where the w^eak or young bird is unceremonioaisly robl)ed of its capture. When several hundreds of them fish together the scene becomes animated and noisy in the extreme. The birds themselves are fed on bean-curd and eels or fish. They lay eggs when three years old, which are often hatched under barnyard liens, and the chickens fed with eel’s blood and hash. They do not fish during the summer months. The price of a pair varies from five to eight dollars.

    METHODS OF CATCHING FIRII. 17

    Mussels are caught in cylindrical basket-traps attached to a single rope and drifted with the tide near the bottom. Similar traps fur catching laiul-crabs are laid along the edges of rice fields, baited with dried fish. When the receding tide leaves the river banks dry the boat peo^Tje get overboard and wade in the mud, or push themselves along on a board with one foot, in search of such things as harbor in the ooze.

    In moonlight nights low, narrow shallops, provided with a wide white board fastened to the wale and floating upon the water, are anchored in still water; as the moon shines on the board the deceived fish leap out upon it or into the boat; twenty or thirty of these decoy boats can . be seen near Macao engaged in this fishery on moonlight evenings. Sometimes a boat furnished with a treadle goes up and down near the shores striking boards against its bottom and sides ; the startled fish are caught in the net dragging astern. The crews of many small boats combine to drive the fish into their nets by splashing and striking the water, or into a pool on the margin of the river at high tide, in which they are easily retained by wattles, and scooped out when the water has fallen. Divers clap sticks together under water to drive their prey into the nets set for

    them, or catch them with their toes when, terrified at the noise,

    they hide in the mud. Xeither fly-fishing nor angling with hook

    and line is much practised ; its tedium and small returns would

    be poor amends to a Chinese for the elegance of the tackle or

    the science displayed in adapting the fly to the fish’s taste.

    By these and other contrivances the Chinese capture the

    finny tribes, and it is no surprise to hear that China contains as

    many millions of people as there are days in the 3’ear when one

    sees upon what a large proportion of them feed and how they

    live. Their expenditure of human labor appears enormous to

    those who are accustomed to the manufactories and engines of

    western lands, but perhaps nothing would cause so much distress

    in China as the prematui’o and inconsiderate introduction of labor-saving machines. Population is so close upon the means of production, not seldom overpassing them, that those who would be thrown out of employment would, owing to their ignorance as to the best resources and want of means to do anything by themselves, suffer and cause incalculable distress before relief and labor could be furnished them. Therere, for instance, six or seven 3’ards near Canton where logs are sawed by hand, but all of them together hardly turn out as many feet of boards as one water-wheel turning three or four saws would do. Yet the two hundred men employed in these yards would perhaps be half-starved if turned off in their present condition, even if they did not destroy their competitor; though there is every reason for believing that improvements will be introduced as soon as those wdio see their superiority are assured they can be made profitable.

    The mechanical arts and implements of the Chinese partake of the same simplicity which has been remarked in their agricultural,—as if the faculty of invention or the notion of altering a thing had died with the discoverer, and he had had the best guarantee for the patent of his contrivance in the deprivation of all desire in his successors to alter it. This servility of imitation marks them in many things, but in machinery and metallurgy is chiefly owing to ignorance of the real nature of the ma*”erials they use, a knowledge which has only recently become familiar to ourselves. In the absence of superior models, it produces a degree of apathy to all improvement which strangely contrasts with their general industry and literary tastes. Simplicity of design pervades all operations, and when a machine directs in the best known manner the power of the hand which M’ields it, or aids in executing tiresome operations, its purpose is considered to be fully answered, for it was intended to assist and not to supplant human labor. Yet with all their simplicity some of them are both effectual and ingenious, and not a few are made to answer two or three ends. For example, the bellows, an oblong’ box divided into two compartments, and worked by a piston and two valves in the upper, which forces the wind into the lower part and out of the nozzle, is used by the travelling tinker as a seat when at work and a chest for his tools when his work is done ; though it does not, indeed, serve all these purposes with efliciency.

    CONDITION OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS. 19

    In the arts of metallurgy the Chinese have attained only to mediocrity, and on the whole do not equal the Japanese. To this deficiency may perhaps be ascribed their little progress in some other branchet^ which could not be executed without tools of peculiar size or nicety. Mines of iron, lead, copper, and zinc are worked, though the modes employed in digging the ore, preparing and smelting it, and purifying the metals have not yet been fully examined. Gold is used sparingly for ornaments, but is consumed in vast quantities for gilding; gold thread is commonly imported, and the ingots are known only as bullion. Mr. Gordon found the people in the country parts of Fuhkien quite ignorant of its value, for he could only pass doubloons for a dollar apiece, the natives having never seen them before.

    The Chinese workmanship in chased, repousse, and carved work of gold and silver—baskets, card-cases, teapots, combs, etc.—is almost unequalled. Their jewelry, too, admirably exhibits the delicate filigree work which agrees so well with their genius. Flower-baskets wnth chased flowers and figures of various sorts enamelled on the outside of the open work of wire, and set with precious stones, may perhaps be regarded as the masterpiece of native art in the working of metals.

    • Davis’ Chinese, Vol. II. , p. 235. Penny Cydopcedia, Art. Coppeb. Natalia Rondot, Commerce de la Chine, 1849, p. 142.

    Steel is everywhere manufactured in a rude way, but the foreign importation is gradually supplying a better article. The quality of this metal made is best shown by the carvings in the hardest stones for ornaments, which have never been exceeded elsewhere. Iron is cast into thin plates and various machines of considerable size, but the largest pieces they make, viz., bells and cannon, are small compared with the shafts and steamhammers turned out abroad. Wrought iron is chiefly worked up into nails, screws, hinges, and small articles needed in daily life, though its quality is remarkably good. The jWi tung, argentan or ‘ white copper’ of the Chinese, is an alloy of copper 40.4, zinc 25.4, nickel 81.6, and iron 2.6, and occasionally a little silver; these proportions are nearly the same as German-silver. ” When in a state of ore, it is said to be powdered, mixed with charcoal dust, and placed in jars over a slow fire, the metal rising in the form of vapor in a distilling apparatus, and afterward condensed in water.” ‘ When new, this alloy appears as lustrous as silver, and is uuiTiufactured into incensejars, flower-stands for temple service, boxes, a vast variety of fancy articles, and a few household utensils not intended to be used near the fire. Puzzling specimens of work are made of it, such as teapots enclosed in chinaware and ornamented with a handle and a spout of stone, and having characters on the sides. The white copper varies a good deal in its appearance and malleability, owing probably to mixtures added after distillation.

    Copper is less used than iron for culinary vessels, but will

    probably increase as rapid importation diminishes the cost, for

    iron rusts quickly in the southern parts. The manufactures of

    gongs, cymbals and trumpets, lamps, brass-leaf for working

    into the hin kwa, or tinsel-flowers used in worship, and the

    copper coin of the country, consume probably four fifths of all

    the copper used. The gong is employed on all occasions,

    and its piercing clamor can be heard at any time of day and

    night, especially if one lives near the water. It is an alloy of

    twenty parts of tin with eighty of copper, and is made b}””

    melting one hundred catties of hung tung, or ‘ red copper,’

    with twenty-five catties of tin. The alloy is run into thin plates,

    and the gongs are made by long and expert hammering until

    the requisite sonorousness is obtained.

    Bells and tripods are frequently cast of a large size. The

    bells at Peking (mentioned in Volume I., p. 79) are peculiarly

    rich in quality of tone ; they are almost invariably made without

    tongues, being sounded with a mallet. The tripods for

    receiving the ashes of papers consumed in worship also bear

    inscriptions of a religious character ; the priests of temples containing

    them take great pride in showing their ancient bells,

    tripods, and other like rarities. The pieces of bronze formerly

    produced under the patronage of the Emperor Ivienlung, as

    incense tripods, lions, astronomical instruments, and the infinite

    variety of ornaments, probably represent their highest attainments

    in this branch of metallurgy for beauty and excellence.

    CHINESE ATTAINMENTS IN METALLURGY. 21

    The metallic mirrors, once the oidy reflectors the Chinese manufactured, are now nearly supei-seded by glass ; the alloy is like that of gongs with a little silver added. These mirrors have long been remarkable for a singular property which some of them possess of reflecting the raised characters or device on the back when held in the sun ; this is caused by their outline being traced upon the polished surface in very shallow lines, the whole plate being afterward rubbed until the lines are equally

    bi;ight with the other parts, and only rendered visible by the

    strongest sunlight.’ Besides the metallic articles already mentioned,

    the ornamental and antique bronze and copper figures,

    noticeable fur their curious forms and fine polishing and tracery,

    afford the best specimens of Chinese art in imitating the human

    figure. They are mostly statuettes, representing men,

    gods, birds, monsters, etc., in grotesque shapes and attitudes ;

    some of them are beautifully ornamented with delicate scrolls

    and flowers in niello work of silver or gold wire inserted into

    grooves cut in the metal.

    The manufacture of glass is carried on chiefly at Canton, and its increasing use for windows, tumblers, lamps, mirrors, and other articles of household furniture, shows that the Chinese are quite ready to adopt such things from foreign countries as they find to be advantageous. The importation of broken glass for remelting has entirely ceased, but flints are carried from England for the use of glass-blowers. The furnaces are small, and from the ignorance, on the part of the workmen, of the constituents of good glass, their products are not uniform.

    ‘ Other and perhaps more correct explanations of this peculiarity have been given.

    Foreign window glass is now brought so cheaply that the native inferior article, which distorts objects seen through it, is disappearing; colored articles and chandeliers are still made. The most finished articles which the Chinese have yet produced are ground shades for Argand lamps. Beautiful ornaments are made of the liao-ll, the old native name for a vitreous composition like strass, between glass and porcelain. Ear-rings, wristlets, snuff-bottles, jars, cups, etc., are made of it, plain, colored, and variegated, in vast variety. Some of these articles exhibit different tints in layers, each layer being ground away where it is not wanted, as in cameo carving; blue, red, and yellow are the prevailing colors. The art of producing it has been known longer than glass-making, but was invented later than that of porcelain.

    The cutting and setting of hard and precious stones is carried on to some extent. Spectacles are cut and ground in lathes from crystal, smoky quartz, and a variety of rose quartz resembling the cairngorm-stone, which the Chinese call cha-tsing^ or ‘tea-stone,’ from its color. Their spectacles are not always true, and the wearer is obliged to have tliem ground away until his eyes are suited. The pebble is cut in a lathe, by a wire-saw working in its own dust, into a round shape Avitli plane edges.

    When worn, the rim rests upon the cheek-bones; the frame has a hinge between the glasses, and the machine is sometimes kept on the ears by loops or weights. Foreign-shaped spectacles are supplanting these primitive optics, but the prejudice is still in favor of crystal. The cutting of diamonds is sometimes attempted, but it is not a favorite gem among the Chinese.

    Diamonds and corundums are both employed to drill holes in clamping and mending broken glass and porcelain ; tumblers, jars, etc., are joined so securely in this way without cement as to hold fluids. Both these gems are used to cut glass, but another mode, not unconnnon, is to grease the place to be fractured, and slowly follow the line along by a lighted jossstick until it breaks.

    Sir John Davis condensed all the important information known half a century ago concerning the materials and manufacture of porcelain in his valuable work, but great advance has since been made in a better understanding of this branch of Chinese industry. The wordj)o?’ccla/’}i is derived h’on\ p<»\’ellana, which was given to the ware by the Portuguese under the belief that it was made from the fusion of egg-shells and fish’s glue and scales to resemble the nacre of sea-shells (Cypr?ea) or porcellana. This instance of oft-hand nomenclature is like that of the Chinese calling ca,outchouc elephmifs skin horn its appearance.

    MATERIALS AXD M ANrKACTUIlE OF I’OIICKLAIX. 23

    M. Julien’s translation of the Klmj-teh chin Tun Luh (Paris, 1856) furnishes the native accounts of the porcelain manufactures at Kingteh chin, in Kiangsi, and adds so nmch from other sources that his work is a veritable classic in its special branch. He places the invention of porcelain between b.c. 185 and A.D, 85, and opening the first kiln, at Sinping (not far from the present centre of llonan province), under the reign of Changti of the Eastern Han dynasty. From this the manufacture gradually extended as raw materials were found in other localities, especially in Fauliang, on the eastern shores of the Poyang Lake, where the best ware is still made. A second

    preface to this work, written by M. Salvetat, of the manufactory

    at Sevres, gives the details of the introduction of the art

    into Europe about 1722, and the subsequent improvement to

    the time when European Avares far exceeded the Chinese or

    Japanese for beauty. During the dreadful ravages of the Taiping

    rebellion the manufactories at Kingteh were all stopped.

    A very brief epitome of M. Salvetat’s paper will indicate the

    ingredients of porcelain and their manipulation : Two substances

    enter into all kinds of this ware ; one a strong, infusible

    material which endures great heat, and the other, fusible at a

    low temperature, which communicates its transparency to the

    other as they together pass through the furnace. The first

    of these is called Ixiolin, fi-om the name of a range of hills east

    of Kingteh chin, known as Kao Lituj or ‘ High Ridge,’ a word that has been adopted in Europe as a term for all varieties of the argillaceous or feldspathic components of porcelain. The other is known as jx’h-tun-tss”, a Chinese term properly applied to the bricks of prepared silex, called tun, but now generally adopted to denote the fusible element. The discovery near Taochau fu of both of these in great purity led to the establishment of the kilns there in a.d. 583 ; and Chinese artists discriminate many varieties of each. It is apparently only since A.D. 1000, or thereabouts, that these kilns have produced the choice pieces now so highly prized.

    The kaolin comes from decomposed granite, and is reduced by trituration and several washings to an impalpable powder; this last precipitate is put on cloths, one above another, and dried under slight pressure to a uniform paste ready for the furnace. The a^ka?- oi j>eh-Ui n-Uz’ are prepared in a similar manner; other workmen mix the clay and the quartz—the bones and the flesh, as they are aptly called bv the Chinese — in such proportions as the ware requires. In general, Chinese porcelain is more silicious than European, containing 70 parts of silex, 22 of alumine, G of potash and soda, with traces of lime, manganese, magnesia, and iron. Sevres ware has 58 silex, 34^ alumine, 3 alkali, and 4^ lime ; as the feldspar decreases the beauty of the ware diminishes, but its durability and usefulness increase.

    To make ready the paste for the furnace, the Ijricks of both

    ingredients are trodden in a large basin by buffaloes or men till

    they are well mixed into a watery mass, which is then worked

    and kneaded again on slate slabs in small pieces till it is delivered

    into the hands of workmen to be fashioned on lathes and

    frames into the desired forms and sizes. These craftsmen work

    with very simple machinery, as is apparent from the rude drawings

    of their operations. M. Salvetat gives high praise to their

    skill in producing large jars without the aid of the machinery

    used in Europe, and indicates the great use they make of their

    feet in these operations — a feature of all Asiatic artisans which

    attracts the traveller’s notice wherever he goes. Some of their

    procedures are inferior and ruder than the Japanese potters exhibit,

    but space does not allow them to be described in this

    sketch.

    The glazing on Chinese ware contains silex mixed with lime

    and the ashes of burnt ferns, in such proportions as are found

    suitable for the diiferent varieties. During the mixing of these

    ingredients the ashes are mostly eliminated, and the glazing

    really consists of quartz flexed by carbonate of lime. The liquid

    glaze is applied to the biscuit by dipping, by aspersion, and by

    washing, according to the nature of the ware ; sometimes it is

    blown through a tube in a dewy shower oft repeated.

    STYLES AND MATERIALS OF PORCELAIN DECORATION. 2.1

    When ready for the furnace, the pieces are carried to work, men specially skilled in properly firing them, where the different sizes are placed in ovens particularly fitted to bake each kind. Large jars require a separate oven so as to adapt the fire to their size and thickness, continuing it at a uniform blast for several days. Cups and small pieces are baked one on top of another in smaller ovens, some of which are open and others closed. Coal and wood are both used for fuel. The pieces are taken from the furnaces when successfully baked, to be decorated and colored in all the various hues and pictures which have made Chinese porcelain so much sought after. Some of their ground colors of red, yellow, and green have not been equaled elsewhere ; a careful analysis indicates the presence of the

    oxides of copper, cobalt, iron, lead, antimony, and manganese.

    Some of the rarest and most beautiful tints seem to have been

    the result of happy experiment, the knowledge of which died

    with its manufacture. It is not often that the Chinese artist

    adorns his plaque or jar with mythological or religious characters,

    preferring to let his fancy run riot in grotesque combinations

    of natural scenes, amid which, however, the unerring

    instinct or tlie accumulated experience of many successive generations

    seldom permit him to wander from a truly artistic

    conception. The amount of labor devoted to some minute

    treasure of porcelain decoration is little short of fabulous. Mr.

    Matthew x\rnold”s picture of the “cunning workman” who

    Pricks with vermilion some clear porcelain vase,
    An emperor’s gift—at early morn lie paints,
    And all day long, and when night comes, the lamp
    Lights up his studious forehead and thin hands, could probably be seen scores of times in the humbler quarters of great cities in China.

    Their ignorance of analytical chemistry compels them to follow a rule of thumb in the composition of their colors ; but generally they use oxide of copper for green and bluish greens, gold for reds, oxide of cobalt for blues, of antimony for yellows, and of arsenic and tin for whites. The preparation and application of these materials admit of less scope and beauty than are found on the finest European ware, and their result is more like enamelling than painting. M. Salvetat admits that the Chinese potter has excelled in producing craqii^ele ware, and certain hues, as sea-green, deep rosedon reds, and brilliant blues, which have not been equalled in Europe.

    One elegant mode of ornament peculiar to them is seen in the tao-mhi(j ts3′-Vi, lit., ‘clear, bright porcelain,’ called eyelet-hole ware or grains of rice, made in the reign Kienlung. The paste is cut through by a kind of stamp which takes out enough to form the figure, in which the glaze is inserted before the piece is finally joined and ready for the kihi. When tired the glaze becomes transparent ; different patterns are frequently painted on the two surfaces, in which advantage is taken of the eyeletholes to adapt them to two sets of figures. An instance of mechanical skill is occasionally seen in their articulated vases, in which one jar is baked inside of another, the outer one being perforated so as to show off the object within; the baking of such pieces must be very difficult and uncertain.

    The ware sold at Canton for foreign use is painted in that city to suit the caprice of purchasers, and during the present century has become identified abroad with Chinese art, wdiile it is really a combination of two or three styles. Its peculiarity consists in covering the dish with medallions and vignettes in bright colors, containing figures of heroes, arms, birds, etc., or scenes oti a colored or white ground. Such ware is not commonly used by the Chinese, but its manufacture is unhappily beginning to affect their national taste. This style is quite different from the well-known blue willow pattern which has long been regarded as the real CdeHtlal ware. This color does mark the common pottery and stoneware used all over the Empire by the poor, but the pattern is not so common.

    It is not possible to enter here into all the niceties of this

    subject, which is now attracting great attention, and has been

    examined by Jacqnemart, Prime, Young, and many others.

    Further researches into native and foreign books and collections

    will bring out new facts, legends, and specimens, while we may

    look for rare old pieces, as has been the case with the discovery

    of the small perfume bottles in Egypt, as soon as full liberty is

    given over all Asia to seek and dig.

    Besides table furniture, porcelain statuettes and idols are common, and vases often bring extravagant prices, owing to some quality of fineness, coloring, antiquity, or shape, which native connoisseurs can only appreciate. The god of porcelain himself is usually made of this material. D’Entrecolles, in his account of the manufacture of the ware, says that this deity owes his divinity to his self-innnolation in one of the furnaces.

    CHINESE BOTTLES DISCOV EKED IN EGYPT. 27

    in utter despair at being able to accomplish the Emperor’s orders for the production of some vases of peculiar fineness ; the pieces which came out of the furnace after the wretch was burned pleased his Majesty so much that he deified him. Cheap stoneware is made at Shaukinii;, in Kwangtung, and many other places, some of it very pure and white.

    The exportation of })orcelain has formed a very ancient branch of commerce westward, and it is not strange that specimens should occasionally be met with even at a great distance from China. The discovery of Chinese bottles in Egypt and Asia Minor, containing quotations from Chinese poets, shows that intercourse existed between the extremes of Asia in the tenth or eleventh centuries. Rosellini seems to have been the earliest to notice these relics of an ancient trade, during his researches in Egypt in 1828, when he obtained two or three. In a letter written in reply to one from Sir J. F. Davis, he states that he found one of these little bottles in a ” petit panier tissn de feuilles de palmier,” with other objects of Egyptian manufacture, in a tomb, whose date he places between b.c. 1800 and 1100. His words are, ” Ayant penetre dans un de ces trois tombeaux j’y ai trouve,” etc., which is as explicit as possible. He also adds, that many fragments of similar bottles had been offered to him by the peasants, which he had looked upon as quite modern till this discovery showed that they were real antiques.

    Since then, several more have been picked up ; Dr. Abbott’s Egyptian collection in Kew York contains seventeen, all of which came from Egypt, but none, besides llosellini’s, out of a tomb directly into the hands of an Egyptologist. Layard and Cesnola bought similar bottles in Cyprus and Arban. However, one well-authenticated fact, like that of llosellini’s discovery, gives some evidence of a similar ancient origin to others precisely like it in shape, coloring, and inscriptions, for the trade between Arabia and Egypt to China has long since ceased ; but as fifty years have passed without another bottle occurring in any of the numerous tombs opened by careful and competent persons, one is inclined to think that Ttosellini’s tomb may have been twice used to bury mummies in, or that he mistook its age.

    The inscriptions ;inJ style of writing of five different kinds have been engraved, and Sir Walter H. Medhnrst gives a translation of each, tracing the lines to their original authors. One of them is from AV’ ang Wai (a.d. 702-745), and reads, JSLlng

    yueh sung chung chao, ‘ The bright moon shines amidst the

    firs.’ A second i-eads, Chlh isai Uz’ shan chung, ‘ Only in the

    midst of these mountains,’ and it dates a.d. 831-837. A third

    is contracted from a line by Wei Ying-wuh (a.d. 702-795),

    being part of a stanza of eight lines, as follows: IIivo lal ijta

    yih nien, ‘ The flowers open, and lo, another year !

    ‘ A fourth

    dates from a.d. 1068-1085, and is from the famous poet Su

    Tung-po : Hang hioa hung sJiih 11, ‘The apricot flowers bloom

    for miles around ;

    ‘ this is abridged from a distich in pentameter as follows:

    One mass of color, the apricot flowers bloom for miles around ;

    The successful graduate urges on his steed as if flying. .

    Sir John Davis ascribes this inscription to a Chinese song written prior to the Christian eia, but gives no proof of so early a date, and he is probably in error. The fifth inscription is of the same date as the last ; it forms part of a quatrain by Chao Yung, and reads, Liao teh shaojhi eld, ‘ Which few, I ween, can comprehend.’

    In Prime’s work on pottery he has given fac-similes of five bottles whose inscriptions are the same as those explained by Medhnrst ; his No. 142 and No. 14G is the second in this list ; his No. 143 is the first ; his 144 is the third ; and his 145 is the fifth and is different in shape from the others. The characters on the one found at Arban by Layard are written in a very cursive style.’

    ‘ Davis’ Sketches, Vol. II., pp. 72-84. Medhurst’s Ohinn, p. 135. Julien’s Histoire de la Porcelain Ohinow’, pp. xi-xxii. Prime’s Pottery and Porcelain^ p. 232. N. G. Br. R. A. S. Tranmctions, 1852, pp. 34-40 ; 1854, p. 93.

    INSCRIPTIONS UPON THE BOTTLES. 2l3

    The age and origin of these bottles has excited much inquiry, but the weight of evidence points to their having been taken to Egypt and Arabia by the Arabs who traded at Canton and Hang Zhou down to the end of the Sung dynasty in 1278. They were, as AVilkinson suggests in his Ancient Kgijpthin^, probably used by the purchasers to hold Void, to paint the eyes and eyelids of women ; their original use was probably to liokl peppermint and other oils, bandoline and tooth-powders, though

    snuff is now generally carried in them, as glass bottles contain

    the essences and oils seen in shops. The uniformity in size, shape,

    coloring, and decoration in these bottles indicates that the

    trade was rather confined to one port in China, for at present a

    vast variety in all these particulars would be seen, as I ascertained

    some years ago at Canton when unsuccessfully looking

    in the shops for some having inscriptions like those discovered

    in Egypt. Mr. Fortune found one having the same inscription

    as Xo. 2, and Sir Harry Pai-kes came across three others, but

    their rarity now proves the change ; and these were probably

    real antiques. The latter found two other inscriptions on similar

    bottles in China, whose authors lived a.d. 584 and later; and

    argues against their high antiquity from the metre having been

    introduced in later times. The strongest proof of their modern

    origin is the material and the date of the style of writing, neither

    of which could have been prior to the Han dynasty if Chinese

    records are Avorth anything ; such simple lines as these five

    could indeed have been handed down and adopted by later poets from lost authors, but this possibility weighs nothing against the others. The more antiquarian researches extend in Asia, however, the more shall we find that the books and inscriptions now extant do not contain the earliest dates of inventions and travels.

    The cheap pottery of the Chinese resembles the Egyptian

    ware in color and brittleness, but is less porous when unglazed.

    Tea-kettles, pans, plates, teapots, and articles of household use,

    bathing-tubs, immense jars, comparable to hogsheads, for liolding

    water, fancy images, statuettes, figurines, toys, flower-pot >,

    and a thousand other articles are everywhere burned from clay

    and sold at extremely low prices. The jars are used in shops

    to contain liquids, powders, etc. ; in gardens to keep fish, collect

    rain, and receive manure and offal ; and in boats and houses for

    the same purposes that barrels, ])ails, and pans are put to elsewhere.

    “Water will boil sooner and a dish of vegetables be

    cooked more expeditiously in one of these earthen pots than in

    metal ; the caloric seems to permeate the clay almost as soon as

    it is over the fire. Druni-shaped stools and garden seats, vitruvian

    ornaments for balustrades, fanciful llower-pots in the shape

    of buffaloes, representing the animal feeding under the shade of

    a tree growing out of its body, lishes, dragons, phoinixes, and

    other objects for decorating the ridges and for gargoyles are

    manufactured of this ware. Flat ligures of the human form

    are set into frames to represent groups of persons, or elegantly

    shaped characters are arranged into sentences, both of them to

    put on the walls of rooms, making altogether a great variety of

    purposes to which this material is applied.

    The lacquered-ware peculiar to China and Japan owes its

    histre to the prepared sap of a kind of sumach {IlJius vernieifera)

    cultivated in both countries for this purpose. AVood oils

    are obtained from other plants, such as the C’urcas, Augia,

    J^Jleococcus, and lihus semi-alatus^ and the different qualities of

    lacquered-ware are owing to the use of these inferior ingredients.

    The real varnish-tree is described bv De Guiiiiies as resemblini»;

    the ash in its foliage and bark ; it is about tifteen feet in height,

    and when seven j-ears old furnishes the sap, which is carefully

    collected in the summer nights from incisions cut in the truidv.

    It comes to market in tubs holding the cakes, and those who

    collect it are careful to cover their faces and hands from contact

    with this irritating juice as they prepare it for market. A good

    yield of a thousand ti-ees in one night would be twenty pounds

    avoirdupois weight of sap. The best sort is tawny rather than

    white in its inspissated state, and is kept well protected from the

    air by tarred paper. The body of lacquered-ware is usually seasoned

    pine, well smoothed, and the grooves covered with hempen lint

    or paper. A sizing of pig’s gall, often mixed with very fine

    sand, makes a priming. The prepared lacquer is composed of the

    sap dissolved in spring-water, adding ground-nut oil, pig’s gall,

    and rice vinegar in the sunshine with broad flat brushes till it

    is thoroughly mixed.

    The principal object in preparing the wood is to cover it with a priming that wall receive the lac(]uer and remain impervious to changes in temperature. This preparation varies a good deal according to the quality of the ware ; it is laid on evenly, coat after coat, allowing each to dry before the next is spread.

    UlANUFACTUKE OF LACQUEKED-WARE. 81

    The last coating is rubbed with puiuice or the finest sandstone, finishing this priming with ;i .smooth piece of slate. When ready the piece is taken into a close room having paper lattices and shut out from any air, where it receives a coating of clear lacquer. It is then put into a dark room to dry. The operation is repeated ten or fifteen times for the best kinds. Some workmen are so sensitive to the liquid lacquer that they cannot safely do this part of the manufacture ; others go through all the processes without annoyance. Coloring matter to give the lacquer a brown hue, or to make an imitation of venturuia(or aventui’lne^ a brownish glass spangled throughout with copper filings) by mixing gold leaf, is added during these operations.

    The gilding is performed by another set of workmen in a

    large workshop. The figures of the design are drawn on thick

    paper, which is then pricked all over to allow the powdered

    chalk to fall on the table and form the outline. Anotlier

    workman completes the picture by cutting the lines with a burin

    or needle, and filling them with vermilion mixed in lacquer, as

    tliick as needed. This afterward is covered by means of a hairpencil

    with gold in leaf, or in powder laid on with a dossil ; the

    gold is often mixed with fine lampblack. The proper lacquer

    is seldom used otherwise than in making this ware. The Chinese

    term for UiU includes this and all kinds of oils and paints,

    so that some confusion arises in describing their materials.’ A beautiful fabric of lacquered-ware is made by inlaying the nacre of fresh and salt-water shells in a rough mosaic of fiowers, animals, etc., into the composition, and then varnishing it. Another highly prized kind is made by covering the wood with a coating of fine powdered cinnabar and varnish three or four lines in thickness, and then carving figures upon it in relief. The great labor necessary to produce this ware renders it expensive, and it is not now produced.

    ‘ N. Rondot, Commerce (le la Chine, p. 120 ; Journal Asuttique, IV. Series,Tome XI., 184y, pp. 34-05 ; Clduene Commercial Cruidc, 5th Ed., p. 134.

    The oils obtained from the nuts of other trees by simple pressure and by refining them afterward are quite numerous. The details of their manufacture and application may yet furnish many new hints and processes to western arts. The oil of the Eleococcus, after pressing (according to De Guignes), is boiled with Spanish white in the proportion of one ounce to half

    a pound of oil ; as it begins to thicken it is taken off and poured

    into close vessels. It dissolves in turpentine and is used as a

    varnish, either clear or mixed with different colors ; it defends

    woodwork from injury for a long time, and forms a good painter’s

    oil. Boiled with iron rust it forms a reddish brown varnish.

    In order to prevent its penetrating into the wood when

    used clear, and to increase the lustre, a priming of lime and

    hog’s blood simmered together into a paste is previously laid on.

    The manufacture of silk is original among the Chinese, as

    well as those of porcelain and lacquered-ware, and in none of

    these have foreigners yet succeeded in fully equalling the native

    products. The notices of the cultivation of the nmlberry

    and the rearing of silk-worms found in Chinese works have

    been industriously collected and published by M. Julien by

    order of the French government—another instance of the

    intelligent care of this nation to aid one of its great industries.

    The introduction by M. Beauvais indicates certain })oints

    worthy of the notice of cultivators ; it has been remarked that

    the hints thus obtained from Julien’s translation have been of

    more value to the peoj)le employed in silk culture in France

    than all that has been paid by the govei-nment for the promotion

    of Chinese literature from their first outlay in tlie last century.

    The earliest notice in the SJuo Kimj of silk culture occurs in the Yu Kiing. It is said the mulberry grounds were made fit for silk-worms, when speaking of the draining of Yen Chau (parts of Shantung and Cliihli), as if it was an usual culture ; other references to silk in the same book show it to have been a well-known fabric at that date (b.c. 2204). The allusion, therefore, in the Book of Odes to silks of many sorts also strengthen the notice in the Wei li’i^ which says :

    Slling shi, the Empress of Hwangtl, began to rear silk-worms:

    At this period Hwangti invented the art of making clotliing.

    ORIGIN AND IMPOUTANCE OP^ THE SILK INDUSTRY. 33

    This legend carries tlie art back to u.r. 2600, or perhaps five

    centuries after the Deluge. Siling is said to have been her

    birthplace, and Lui Tsu her right name ; she was deified and is

    still worshipped as the goddess of silk under the name of Yuenfi.

    In this act, as De Guignes observes, the Chinese resemble other

    ancient nations in ascribing the invention of spinning to women,

    and deifying them ; thus the Egyptian Isis, the Ljdian Arachne,

    and the Gi-ecian Athene also handled the distaff. A temple

    called the Sten-tsaii Tao exists in the palace grounds dedicated

    to Yuenfi, wherein she is worshipped annually in April by the

    Empress. The altar, grounds, sacrifices, ritual, and buildings

    are all in imitation of those in the Temple of Agriculture, of

    which they are a counterpart. The Book of Rites contains a

    notice of the festival held in honor of weaving, which corresponds

    to that of ploughing by the Emperor. ” In the last month

    of spring the young Empress purified herself and offered a sacrifice to the o:oddess of silk-worms. She went into the eastern fields and collected mulberry leaves. She forbade noble dames and the ladies of statesmen adorning themselves, and excused her attendants from their sewing and embroidery, in order that they might give all their care to the rearing of silkworms.”

    The present enclosure was put up by Yungching in 17-12, but its buildings are now much dilapidated. The attention of the Chinese government to this important branch of industry has been unremitted, and at this day it supplies perhaps one-half of all the gai’tnents worn by the people. In the paraphrase to the fourth maxim of the Shing Yu, it is remarked : ” In ancient times emperors ploughed the lands and empresses cultivated the mulberiy. Though the most honorable, they did not disdain to toil and labor, as examples to the whole Empire, in order to induce all the people to seek these essential supports.” One-half of the lllastrations of Agriculture and Weaving are devoted to delineating the various processes attending this manufacture ; and Julien quotes more than twenty works and authors on this subject. Among other uses to which this material is put, may be remembered, in the second chapter of this work, the burning of many thousand pieces of plain, coarse silk as part of the offerings to the gods at Peking, and in the annual sacrifices before the tablets of Confucius.

    ‘While the worms are growing, care is taken to keep them

    undisturbed bj either noise or bright light; they are often

    changed from one hurdle to another that they may have roomy

    and cleanly places ; the utmost attention is paid to their condition

    and feeding, and noting the right time for preparing them for

    spinning cocoons. Three days are required for this, and in six

    it is time to stifle the larvae and reel the silk from the cocoons; but this being usually done by other workmen, those who rear the worms enclose the cocoons in a jar buried in the ground and

    lined with mats and leaves, interlaying them with salt, which

    kills the pnpfe but keeps the silk supple, strong, and lustrous ;

    preserved in this manner, they can be transported to any distance,

    or the reeling of the silk can be delayed until convenient.

    Another mode of destroying the cocoons is to spread them on

    trays and expose them by twos to the steam of boiling water,

    putting the upper in the place of the lower one according to

    the degree of heat they are in, taking care that the chrysalides

    are killed and the silk not injured. After exposure to steam the

    silk can be reeled off immediately, but if placed in the jars they

    must be put into warm water to dissolve the glue before the

    floss can be unwound.

    ‘ Julien, Culturer des Muriers, 1837 ; Pauthier, Chine Moderne, p. 21; Hedde, Cat(tlo(pu’ (JcH Prodvits Serigenes, 1848, pp. 100-287; Chinese Fepos/ton/, Vol.XVIII,, pp. :K)8-;314 ; Commercial Guide, 5th Ed., p. 136 ; Mailla, Ilistoire de la Chine, Tome I., p. 24 ; Biot, Tcheon-li, passim, 1851.

    REARING AND TltKATMENT OF SILK- WORMS. 85

    The commission sent from France to China in 1844 to make inquiries into its industries consisted of skilled men, and their reports embody a great amount of details nowhere else to be found. The digested catalogue of the exhibits of M. Iledde at St. Etienne in 1848 contains four hundred and fifty-three articles relating to silk and mulberry alone. The amount of silk goods exported has never regained its value previous to 1854, in consequence of the destruction of skilled workmen and manufactories during the Tai-ping rebellion, and raw silk still forms the bulk of the export. The finest silk comes from Chehkiang province, and is known as tsatli,, tay-saam, and yuenhwa in commerce ; the centre of the culture is at Ilii-chau, a prefecture in the northwest of that province. The mulberry grows everywhere, and none of the provinces are without some silk, but Kwangtung, Sz’chuen, and Chehkiang furnish the best and most.

    Great attention is paid in Shantung, Sz’chuen, and Kweichau

    to collecting wild silk from the cocoons of worms which

    feed on the ailantus, oak, and xanthoxylum. The insect is the

    Attacus ei/nthia, and its food the tender leaves of the ailantus

    and Quercus mongholica in Shantung, where great quantities of

    durable silk is woven. It is not so lustrous as that produced by

    the bombyx-worm, which feeds on the mulberry leaf, and comparatively

    little is exported. The proportion of manufactured

    silks sent abroad is less now than it was fifty years ago, but the

    home consumption is so enormous that an annual export to

    the value of nearly ninety millions of dollars has little effect

    on the prices. In 1854 the price of the best raw silk was

    about $330 a bale, and the expoi-t over fifty-one thousand bales ;

    in 1860, the sanie sort was $550, and the export nearly eighty

    thousand bales ; this increase in price was owing chiefly to disease

    in the trees in Europe, though the ravages of war in both

    Chehkiang and Kwangtung had destroyed much property in

    this branch.

    The loom in China is worked by two hands, one of whom sits on the top of the frame, where he pulls the treadles and assists in changing the various parts of the machine. The workmen imitate almost any pattern, excelling particularly in crapes, and flowered satins and damasks for oflficial dresses.

    The common people wear pongee and senshaw, which they frequently dye in gambler to a dust or black color ; these fabrics

    constitute most durable garments. Many of the delicate silk

    tissues known in Europe are not manufactured by the Chinese,

    most of their fabrics being heavy. The lo, or law, is a beautiful

    article like grenadine and seldom sent abroad ; it is used

    for summer robes, muscpiito curtains, festoons, and other purposes.

    The English words .satin, .senshaw, and sill’ are probably

    derived from the Chinese terms sz’-twan, sien-sha, and sz\

    intermediately through other languages.

    The skill of the Chinese in embroidery is well known, and

    the demand for such work to adorn the dresses of officers

    and ladies of every rank, for ornamenting purses, shoes, caps,

    fans, and other appendages of the dress of both sexes, and in

    working shawls, table covers, etc., for exportation, furnishes

    employment to myriads of men and women. The fj’ame is

    placed on pivots and the pattern marked out upon the plain

    surface. There are many styles, with thread, braid, or floss,

    and an infinite variety in the quality, pattern, and beauty of the

    work ; it is the art of Chinese women, and every young lady is

    expected to know how to do it. (3n fire screens the design appears

    the same on both sides, the ends of the threads being

    neatly concealed. This mode of embroidery seems also to have

    been known among the Hebrews, from the expression in Deborah’s

    song (Judges V. 30), “Of divers colors of needle-work

    on both sides,” which Sisera’s mother vainly looked for him to

    bring home as spoil for her. Books are prepared for emljroiderers

    containing patterns for their imitation or combination.

    The silk used is of the finest kind and colqr, gold and silver

    thread being introduced to impart a lusti’e to the figures on

    caps, purses, and shoes. Tassels and twisted cords for sedans

    or lanterns, knobs or buttons worn on the winter caps, and elegant

    fan and pipe-cases, purses or fobs, constitute only a few

    of the products of their needles. Spangles are made from

    brass leaves by cutting out a small ring by means of a doubleedged

    stamp, which at one drive detaches from the sheet a

    wheel-shaped circle ; these are flattened by a single stroke of

    the hammer upon an anvil, leaving a minute hole in the centre.

    Another way of making them is to bend a copper wire into a

    circle and flatten it. Their own needles are very slender, and

    are rapidl}’ giving way to the foreign article ; in sewing the

    tailor holds it between the forefinger and thumb, pressing

    against the thimble on the thumb as he pushes it into the cloth.

    Our ascertaining the date of the introdnctioii of cotton as a

    textile plant into China depends very nmch on the meaning of

    certain words rendered eofton. by some amiotators in the Slia

    King. The weight of proof is, however, strongly adverse to

    this view ; but a historical notice dated about a.d. 500 plainly

    COTTON-GROWING AND MANUFACTURE. 37

    refers to cotton robes ; in a.d. G70 it was called by a foreign

    name kih-pei, a contracted foi”m of the Sanscrit name harjya-n.

    The present name of nuen-hwa^ or ‘ cotton Hower,’ was naturally

    given to it from the resemblance of its seed envelope to

    the silky covering of the seeds of the muh-iriien shu^ or tree

    cotton {Boniba.i’), common in Southern China. It was, however,

    one thing to admire cotton cloth brought as tribute, and

    quite another to introduce cotton-growing into China, which

    does not seem to have been attempted until the Sung dynasty.

    Early in the eleventh century the plant was brought over and

    cultivated in the northwestern provinces by persons from

    Khoten, where it M’as grown. If this tardy adoption seems

    difficult to explain, the still slower introduction of silk-growing

    (in A.D. 550) into Asia Minor from Cliina, twelve centuries

    after her fabrics had been seen there, is more surprising. The

    opposition to cotton cultivation on the part of silk and hemp

    growers was so persistent that the plant had not fairly won its

    way into favor until the Yuen dynasty ; and this was owing to

    a public-spirited woman, Lady Hwang, who distributed seeds

    throughout Kiangnan, now the great cotton region.

    The duvable cotton cloth made in the central provinces, called nankeen by foreigners, because Kanking is famous for its manufacture, is the chief produce of Chinese looms. It is now seldom sent out of the country, and the natives are even taking to the foreign fabric in its stead. Cotton seed in that part of China is sown early in June, about eighty pounds to an acre ; in a good year the produce is about two thousand pounds, diminishing to one-half in poor seasons. It is manured with liquid bean-cake, often hoed, and the bolls gathered in October, usually by each family in its own plot. The seeds are separated by passing the pods between an iron and wooden roller on a frame, which presses out the seeds and does not break them. The cleaned cotton is then bowed ready for spinning,

    and the cloth is woven in sinq^le looms by the people who are

    to wear it after it is dyed blue. The looms used in weaving

    cotton vary from twelve to sixteen inches in M’idth ; they are simple

    in their construction ; no figures are woven in cotton fabrics,

    nor have the Chinese learned to print them as chintz or calico. Whether the varied articles from the west now brought into close competition with this primitive Chinese manufacture will finally captivate the consumer’s choice, and neutralize its production, depends chiefly on what can be substituted therefor. At present, such is the extent of the native crop that prices would not probably advance ten per cent, if the whole foreign importation of raw and manufactured cotton should suddenly stop. The only attempt to estimate the product has been in Kiangnan, at The Cobbler and his Movable Workshop.

    twenty-eight thousand five hundred tons, a figure below rather

    than above the truth.”

    Leather is used to protect the felt soles of shoes and make saddles, bridles, quivers, harness, etc., but the entire consumption is small, and the leather extremely poor. Buffalo and horse-hides are tanned for sole leather, and calf-skin for upper leather to supply shoes for foreigners at the ports. Alum, saltpetre, gandjicr, and urine are the tanning materials employed, and the rapid manner in which the process is completed renders the leather both porous and tender.

    ‘ Journal N. G. Dr. li. A. 8. (1859); Ghinese Repository, XVIII., pp. 449-469; N. Rondot, Counnnre de In Oliiiie, 1849, p. 72; Fortune, WanderiiKja,Chap. XIV. (18.47) ; Grosier, Ilidolrc dc la Chine, Toiiiu 111., pp. 193-204.

    LKATIIEK AND WOOLLEN FABRICS. 39

    Cobblers go about the streets plying their trade, provided with a few bits of nankeen, silk, and yellowish sole leather with which to patch their customers’ shoes. It is no small convenience to a man, as he passes along the street, to give his old shoe to a cobbler and his ragged jacket to a seamstress, while he calls the barber to shave him as he waits for them ; and such a trio at work for a man is not an unconnnon sight.

    The chief woollen fabrics produced are felts of different qualities

    and rngs or carpets woven from coarse camel’s-hair yarn.

    Tanned sheep-skins furnish the laboring poor in the northern

    provinces with clothing, and elsewhere felt supplies them with

    material for shoes, hats, and carpets. The fulling process is

    not very thoroughly done, and the fabric soon disintegrates

    unless protected by matting or cotton. The consumption of the

    good qualities for hats is large among out-door workmen, who

    prefer the doubled kind made in the shape of a hollow cycloid,

    so that it can be turned inside out. Camel’s-hair rugs supply

    a durable and cheap covering for the brick divans and tiled

    floors in the colder districts, but the thick soles of Chinese shoes

    obviate the need of additional protection to the feet. Some of

    these rugs are fine specimens of art in their arrangement of patterns

    and figures in colored woollen yarns, though far inferior

    to the Persian. Pretty rugs are also made of dog, deer, and foxskins

    sewed together in a kind of mosaic. Knitting and ornamental

    works in wool are unknown, since the far more elegant

    and durable embroidery in silk takes the place of these as fancy

    work amoneo; dames of hioC*-h and low deiOiiee.

    The subject of tea culture and the preparation of its leaf

    have engaged the attention of writers among the Chinese and

    Japanese ; while its effects on the human system as a beverage

    have been discussed most carefully by eminent western chemists

    and pathologists. Its virtue in restoring the energies of the

    body and furnishing a drink of the gentlest and most salubrious

    nature has been fully tested in its native land for many centuries,

    and is rapidly becoming known the world over. The

    following are some of the leading facts relating to the plant and

    the preparation and nature of the leaf, derived from pei’sonal

    observation in the country or from the writings of competent

    observers.

    Tea does not grow in the northern provinces of China and Japan ; its range lies between the twenty-third and thirty-fifth degrees of latitude, and reaching in longitude from Yedo to Assam. No accounts have come to us of the tea shrub being cultivated for its infusion till a.d. 350. The people in different

    parts of China gave different names to the successive pickings

    of the leaves, which have now become disused. Our word tea

    is derived from the common sound of the character for the

    pla!it at the city of Anioy, where it is tay ; at Canton and Peking

    it is clta, at Shanghai dzo, at Fuhchau ta. The Russians and

    Portuguese have retained the word cha, the Spanish is te or tay,

    and the Italians have both te and cha. Tea is so nearly akin to

    the various species of camellia that the Chinese have only one

    name for alL The principal difference to the common observer

    is in the thin leaf of the tea and the leathery glabrous leaf of

    the beautiful Camellia Japonica. When allowed to grow they

    both become high trees. The tea flower is small, single, and

    y white, has no smell, and soon falls; its petals are less erect than

    the camellia. The seeds are three small nuts, like filberts in

    color, enclosed in a triangular shell which splits open when ripe,

    with valves between the seeds. Its taste is oily and bitter. Two

    species of camellia are cultivated for their oily seeds, the oil

    being known as tea-oil among the natives ; it is used for lamps

    and cooking. There is probably only one species of the tea

    plant, and all the varieties have resulted from culture ; but the

    Thea vh’idls is most cultivated. The nuts are ripe in October.

    They are put in a mixture of sand and earth, dampened to keep

    them fresh till spring ; they generate heat and spoil if not thus

    separated. In March they are sown in a nursery, and the

    thrifty shoots transplanted the next year in rows about four feet

    apart. Leaves are collected when the plant is three years old,

    and this process is continued annually to a greater or less extent,

    according to the demand and strength, until the whole

    bush becomes so weak and diseased that it is j)ulled up for firewood

    to give place to a new shoot. On the average this is about

    the eighth year. The plants seldom exceed three feet; most

    of them ai’C half that height, straggling and full of twigs, often

    covered with lichens, but well hoed and clean around their roots.

    TEA CULTURE. 4J

    All tea plantations are merely patches of the shrnbs cared for by small fanners, who cultivate the plants and sell the leaves to middle-men, or more often pick the crop themselves if they can afford to do so. The great plantation or farm, with its landlord and the needy laborer, each class trying to get as nmch as possible out of the other, are unknown in China ; the farmer has not there learned to employ skill, machinery, and capital all for his own advantage, but each farmstead is worked by the family, who rather emulate each other in the reputation of their tea. Tea is cultivated on the slopes or bases of hills, where the drainage is quick and the moisture unfailing. This

    is of more consequence than the ingredients of the soil, but

    plants so continually depauperated and stripped require rich

    manure to supply their waste. In Japan the tea shrubs are

    sometimes grown as a hedge around a garden lot, but such

    plants are not stripped in this way. In gathering the earliest

    leaves, the pickers are careful to leave enough foliage at the end

    of the twigs ; and the spring rains are depended on to stimulate

    the second and full crop of leaves. When these are scant or

    fail the tea harvest diminishes, and the regularity of the rains

    is so essential to a profitable cultivation that it will be one of

    the causes of failure whei-e everything else in soil, climate, manuring,

    and manufacture may be favorable.

    The first gathering is the most carefully done, for it goes to make the best sorts of black and green tea ; and as the greatest part of the leaves are still undeveloped, the price must necessarily be very much higher. Such tea has a whitish down, like that on young birch leaves, and is called ijecoe, or ‘ white hair,’ and is most of it sent to England and Russia. In the last century, the green tea known as Young Ilyson was made of these

    half-opened leaves picked in April and named from two words

    meaning ‘ rains before.’ The second gathering varies somewhat

    according to the latitude—May 15th to June, when the foliage

    is fullest. This season is looked forward to by women and

    children in the tea districts as their working time ; they run in

    crowds to the middle-men, who have bargained for the leaves on

    the plants, or apply to farmers who have not hands. The average

    produce is from sixteen to twenty-two ounces of green leaves for the healthiest plants, down to ten and eight ounces. The tea when cured is about one-fifth of its first weight, and one thousand square yards will contain about three hundred and fifty plants, each two feet across. They strip the twigs in the most summary manner, and fill their baskets with healthy leaves as they pick out the sticks and yellow leaves, for they are paid

    in this manner. Fifteen pounds is a good day’s work, and six to

    eight cents is a day’s wages. The time for picking lasts only

    ten or twelve days. There are curing houses, where families

    who grow and pick their own leaves bring them for sale at the

    market rate. The sorting emploj’S many hands, for it is an important

    point in connection with the purity of the various descriptions,

    and much care is taken by dealers, in maintaining the

    quality of their lots, to have them cured carefully as well as

    sorted properly.

    The management of this great branch of industry exhibits some of the best features of Chinese country life. It is only over a portion of each farm that the plant is grown, and its cultivation requires but little attention compared with rice and vegetables. The most delicate kinds are looked after and cnred by priests in their secluded temples among the hills; these often have many acolytes who aid in preparing small lots to be sold at a high price.

    When the leaves are brought in to the curers they are thinly spread on shallow trays to dry off all moisture by two or three hours’ exposure. Meanwhile the roasting pans are heating, and W’hen properly warmed some handfuls of leaves are thrown on them, and rapidly moved and shaken up for four or five minutes.

    The leaves make a slight crackling noise, become moist and flaccid as the juice is expelled, and give off even a sensible vapor. The whole is then poured out upon the rolling table, where each workman takes up a handful and makes it into a manageable ball, which he rolls back and forth on the rattan table to get rid of the sap and moisture as the leaves are twisted. This operation chafes the hands even with great precaution.

    THE MANUFACTUKE OF TEA. 43

    The balls are opened and shaken out and then passed on to other workmen, who go through the same operation till they reach the headnum, who examines the leaves to see if they have become curled. When properly done, and cooled, they are returned to the iron pans, under which a low cliarcoal fire is burning in the brickwork which supports them, and there kept in motion by the hand. If they need another rolling on the table it is now given them ; an hour or more is spent in this manipung Tea.

    lation, when they are dried to a dull green color, and can be

    put away for sifting and sorting. This color becomes brighter

    after the exposure in sifting the cured leaves through sieves of

    various sizes ; they are also winnowed to separate the dust,

    and afterward sorted into the various descriptions of green tea.

    Finally, the finer kinds are again fired three or four times, and the coarse kinds, as Twankay, Hyson, and Hj’son Skin, once. The others furnish the Young Hyson, Gunpowder, Imperial, etc. Tea cured in this way is called luh cha^ or ‘green tea,’ by the Chinese, while the other, or black tea, is termed hung cha, or ‘red tea,’ each name being taken from the tint of the infusion.

    After the fresh leaves are allowed to lie exposed to the air

    on the bamboo trays over night or several hours, they are

    thrown into the air and tossed about and patted till they become

    soft ; a heap is made of these wilted leaves and left to

    lie for an hour or more, when they have become moist and

    dark in color. They are then thrown on the hot pans for

    five minutes and rolled on the i-attan table, previous to exposure

    out-of-doors for three or four hours on sieves, during which

    time they are turned over and opened out. After this they get

    a second roasting and rolling to give them their final curl. When

    the charcoal fire is ready, a basket shaped something like an

    hour-glass is placed endwise over it, having a sieve in the

    middle on which the leaves are thinly spread. AYlien dried

    five minutes in this way they undergo another rolling, and are

    then thrown into a heap, nntil all the lot has passed over the

    fire. When this firing is finished, the leaves are opened out

    and are again tliinly spread on the sieve in the basket for a few

    minutes, which finishes the drying and rolling for most of the

    heap, and nuxkes the leaves a uniform black. They are now

    replaced in the basket in greater mass, and pushed against its

    sides by the hands in order to allow the heat to come up

    through the sieve and the vapor to escape ; a basket over all

    retains the heat, but the contents are turned over until perfectly

    dry and the leaves become uniformly dark.

    GREEN AND BLACK TEAS. 45

    It will be seen frojn this that green tea retains far more of the peculiar oil and sap in tlie leaves than the black, which undergo a partial fermentation and emit a sensibly warm vapor as they lie in heaps after the first roasting. They thus become oxidized by longer contact in a warm moist state with the atmosphere, and a delicate analysis will detect lants, as hemlock, belladonna, etc., for the

    apothecary’s shop.

    Green teas are mostly produced in the region south of the

    Yangtsz’ River and west of Kingpo among the hills as one goes

    toward the Poyang Lake in Chehkiang and Xganhwui. The

    black tea comes from Fuhkien in the southeast and llupeh and

    Hunan in the central region ; Kwangtung and Sz’chuen provinces

    produce black, green, and brick teas. While the leaves of each

    species of the shrub can be cured into either green or black tea,

    the workmen in one district are able, by practice, to produce

    one kind in a superior style and quality ; those in another region

    will do better with another kind. Soil, too, has a great influence,

    as it has in grape culture, in modifying the produce. Though

    the natives distinguish onl}^ these three kinds, their varieties are

    far too numerous to remember, and the names are mostly unknown

    in commerce.

    Of black teas, the great mass is called Congou^ or the ‘ wellworked,’

    a name which took the place of the Bohea of one hundred

    and fifty years ago, and is now itself giving way to the term

    English Breakfast tea. The finest sorts are either named from

    the place of their growth, or jnore frequently have fancy appellations

    in allusion to their color or form. Orange Pekoe is

    named ” superior perfume ;” pure Pekoe is ” Lau-tsz’ eyebrows ;”

    “carnation hair,” “red plum blossom,”” “lotus kernel,” “sparrow’s

    tongue,” ” dragon’s pellet,” ” dragon’s whiskei-s,” ” autumn

    dew,” ” pearl flower,” or Chilian, are other names ; Souchong

    and Pouidiong refer to the modes of packing.

    In the trade, teas are more commonly classified by their locality

    than their names, as it is found that well-marked differences in

    the style of the produce continue year after year, all ecpially

    well-cured tea. These arise from diversities in soil, climate,

    age, and manufacturing, and furnish materials for still further

    nuiltiplying the sorts by skilfully mixing them. Thus in black

    teas we have Ilunan and llupeh from two provinces, just as

    Georgia uplands and Sea Island indicate two sorts of cotton ;

    Ningyong, Kai-sau, Ho-hau, Sing-chune-ki, etc., and many

    others, which are unknown out of Ohina, are all names of places.

    One gentleman has given a list of localities, each furnishing its quota and peculiar product, amounting in all to forty-five for black and nine for green. The area of these regions is about four hundred and seventy thousand square miles.

    It will have been seen already that the color of green tea, as

    well as its quality, depends very much on rapid and expert drying.

    When this kind is intended for home consumption soon

    after it is made, the color is of little consequence ; but when the

    hue influences the sale, then it is not to be overlooked by the

    manufactui’er or the broker. The first tea brought to Europe

    was from Fuhkien and all black ; but as the trade extended probably

    some of the delicate Hyson sorts were now and then seen

    at Canton, and their appearance in England and Holland appreciated

    as more and more was sent. It was found, however,

    to be very difficult to maintain a uniform tint. If cured too

    slightly, the leaf was liable to fermentation during the voyage ;

    if cured too much, it was unmarketable, which for the manufacturer

    was worse yet. Chinese ingenuity was equal to the call.

    Though no patent office was at hand to register the date when

    coloring green tea commenced, it is probably more than one

    hundred j-ears since. The three hundred and forty-two chests and

    half chests wdiich were so summarily opened on board the Dartmouth,

    the Eleanor, and the Beavei”, when their contents were

    thrown overboard in Boston harbor, on December 16, 1773,

    furnishes probably no index of the consumption of tea in New

    England at that time. It was all called Bohea by John Adams,

    who speaks of three cargoes, as if the vessels had nothing

    else of note in their holds.

    Dr. Holmes, in his ballad on the Boston Tea Party at its

    centennial celebration, says in the last verse:
    The waters in the rebel bay
    Have kept the tea-leaf savor—
    Our old North Enders in their spray
    Still taste a Hyson flavor ;
    And Freedom’s teacup still o’erflows
    With ever fresh libations,
    To cheat of slumber all her foes
    And cheer the wakening nations.

    COLORING GREEN TEAS, 47

    It has been noticed that emigrants to Au^^tralia, who had seldom tasted green tea before leaving England, usually prefer it in their new homes, as new settlers do in tins country. The prevailing notion that green tea is cured on copper arose, no doubt, from the conclusion that real verdigris was the only source of a verdigris color, and the astringent taste confirmed the wrong idea. A more difficult question to answer is the inquiry, Why is it still believed ?

    The operation of giving green tea its color is a simple one.

    A quantity of Prussian blue is pulverized to a very fine powder,

    and kept ready at the last roasting. Pure gypsum is

    burned in the charcoal fire till it is soft and fit foi easily triturating.

    Four parts are then thoroughly mixed with three parts

    of Prussian blue, making a light blue powder. About five

    minutes before finally taking off the dried leaves this powder

    is sprinkled on them, and instantly the whole panful of two or

    three pounds is turned over by the workman’s hands till a

    uniform color is obtained, llis hands come out quite blue, but

    the compound gives the green leaves a brighter green hue. The

    quantity is not great, say about half a pound in a hundred of

    tea ; and as gypsum is not a dangerous or irritating substance,,

    being constantly. eaten by the Chinese, the other ingredient remains

    in an almost infinitesimal degree. If foreigners preferred

    yellow teas no doubt they coiild be favored, for the Chinese

    are much perplexed to account for this strange predilection, as

    they never drink this colored or faced tea. Turmeric root has

    been detected, too, in a very few analj’ses, but probably these

    were lots that needed to be refined at Canton to cover up mildew

    or supply a demand. The reasons for not drinking this

    tea are, however, owing more to the nature than the color of

    the leaf. The kinds of green tea are fewer than the black, and

    the regions producing it are less in area. Gunpowder and Imperial

    are foreign-made terms ; the teas are known as siau elm

    and ta chu by native dealers. The first is rolled to resemble shot

    or coarse gunpowder; the other is named “sore crab’s eyes,”

    “sesamura seeds,” and “pearls.” Ilyson is a corruption of yutsieny

    ‘ before the rains,’ and of Ili-chun, meaning ‘ flourishing

    spring.’ The last is alleged to be the name of a maiden who suggested

    to her father as long ago as 1700, or thereabouts, a better

    mode of sorting tea, and his business increased so much as his fine Hyson became known that he gave it her name. Members of this same family are still engaged in making this same tea, and the chop, known as the Ut Yih-hing, or ‘ Li’s Extra Perfume,’ is now in market, and has maintained its reputation for nearly two hundred years. Oolong is obtained in Fuhkien—a black tea

    with a green tea flavor, named Black Dragon from a story

    tliat Su was struck with the fragrance of the leaf from a plant

    Mdiere a black snake was found coiled. The great mart for

    green tea is Twankay, in Chehkiang province.

    A chop is a well-known term in the tea trade ; it is derived

    from the Chinese word ehoj), or ‘ stamp’, such as an ofiicial uses,

    and in the tea trade denotes a certain number of packages from

    the same place, and all of the same quality. In the course of years

    the uniform excellence of a certain chop, like that of a certain

    vineyard, gives it a marketable value. A laAvsuit arose in 1873

    between two American houses at Canton in regard to the right to

    a certain chop of tea, among two brokers, each of whom claimed

    to sell the genuine lot. Such chops range from fifty to one thousand

    two hundred chests, averaging six hundred. English teatasters

    have learned that an admixture of scented teas in common

    sorts of Congou adds much to the flavor and sale. This is

    not often done for native-drank tea, and is chiefly practised at

    Canton. The flowers used are roses, Olea fragrans, tuberose,

    orange, jasmine, gardenia, and azalea. The stems, calyx, and

    other parts are carefully sorted out, so that only the petals remain.

    When the tea is ready for packing, dry and warm, tlie

    fresh flowers are mixed with it (forty pounds to one liundred

    pounds for the orange), and left thus in a mass for twenty-four

    hours ; it is then sifted and winnowed in a fanning mill till

    the petals are separated. If the odor is insuflicient, the operation

    may be repeated with the jasmine or orange. The proportion

    of jasmine is a little more than orange ; of the azalea,

    nearly half and half. The length of time required to obtain

    the proper smell from these flowei-s difi’ers, and among them all

    tea scented with the azalea is said to keep its perfume the longest.

    The mode of scenting tea diifei-s somewhat according to the

    flower itself, for the small blossom of the Qloa cannot be

    separated by sifting as rose or jasmine leaves can. Tea thus

    SCENTED AND ADULTERATED TEAS. 49

    perfumed is sent to England as Orange Pekoe and Scented Caper.

    It is mixed witli fiiu; teas ; and there is much to commend

    in thus increasing tlie aroma and taste of this healthy beverage.

    The Scented Caper comes in the form of round pellets, which

    are made of black tea softened by sprinkling water on it until

    it is pliable ; it is then tied in canvas bags and rolled with the

    feet by treading on it for a good while till most of the quantity

    takes this form ; as soon as perfumed it is packed for shipment.

    When rolled and dried, such tea needs only a facing to make it

    into Impei-ial and Gunpowder among the green teas.

    The Chinese have been charo;ed with adulteratino; their tea

    by mixing in other leaves with the true tea-leaf, and adding

    other ingredients far vvoi-se than rose, jujube, and fern leaves,

    and the cases which have been proved of lie-tea being sent off

    have been applied to the entire export. The stimulus for some

    of this adulteration has come from the foreigner, who desires

    to get good pure tea at half its cost of manufacture. The foregoing

    details will plainly show that an article which has to go

    through so many hands before its infusion is poured out of the

    teapot on the other side of the world, and where the only machinery

    used is a fanning mill and a roasting pan, cannot be furnished

    at much under twenty-five cents a pound for the common

    sorts. The villanous mixture known at Shanghai as ma-hi cha^

    or ‘ race-course tea,’ was the answer on the part of the native

    manufacturer to the demand for cheap tea, mitil the consumers

    in Great Britain protested at the deception put on them, and

    its importation was prohibited. Which of the parties was most

    blameworthy may be left for them to settle, but in our own

    papers, of course, most of the blame rested on the tempted party.

    It is not to be inferred, however, that all cheap tea is adulterated.

    The process of manufacture leaves a large percentage of broken

    material, which can be worked into passable tea ; the produce

    of many regions has not the flavor of the finest sorts, and, as it

    is with wines, will not bear so much cost in curing. The tea

    brokers know this, and things equalize themselves. The dust,

    the leaf ribs, and the siftings are all consumed by the poor natives,

    who mix other leaves, too, with the real leaf. Tea can perhaps bear comparison with any other great staple of food in this respect ; and when we can fairly estimate the consumption of tea sent out of China and Japan at more than three hundred millions of pounds, it must be conceded that it is a very pure article—not as much, probably, as even five per cent, of false leaf.

    One mode of using tea known among Tibetans and Mongols

    remains to be noticed. The rich province of Sz’chuen, in the

    w-estern part of China, furnishes an abundance of good tea’; much

    of which is exported to Ilussia by way of Si-ngan fu and Kansuh,

    to supply the inhabitants of Siberia. This brick tea is cured

    by pressing the damp leaves into the form of a brick or tile,

    varj’ing in size and weight, eight to twelve inches long and one

    thick ; in this form it is far more easily carried than in the leaf.

    In Tibet, as we have seen, it appears more as a soup than an infusion.

    The brick tea is composed of coarse leaves, or of stalks moistened

    by steaming over boiling water, and then pressed till dry

    and hard. When used, a piece is broken off and simmered with

    milk and butter and water, with a touch of vinegar or pepper.

    The dish is not inviting at first, but Abbe Hue endorses its

    refreshing qualities in restoring the failing energies. The pressing

    and drying is assisted by sprinkling the mass with ricewater

    as it is forced into the moulds. The Chinese mix other

    leaves with real tea to eke it out, in districts where it is not

    commonly grown, but they do not regard this as adulteration.

    Willow leaves are common in such mixtures. Large caravans

    cross the plateau laden with brick tea.

    Packing tea is mostly done in the interior, where it is cured.

    The large dry leaves frequently found inside are usually furnished

    by a peculiar species of bamboo ; the lead is made into

    thin sheets by pouring the melted metal on to a large square

    brick, covered with several thicknesses of paper, and letting

    another brick drop down instantly on it. In order to test the

    honesty of the packing, the foreign merchant often walks over

    the three hundred to six hundred chests which make a chop,

    and selects any foui* or five he may choose for examination. If

    they stand the inspection the whole is taken on their guaranty,

    and are then -weighed, papered, labelled, and mottoed ready for

    shipping. In all these matters the Chinese are very expert. It

    INTRODUCTION OF TEA INTO EUROPE. 61

    is impossible to calculate the number of persons to whom the

    tea trade furnishes employment ; nor could machinery well

    come into use to displace human labor.

    The introduction of tea among western nations was slow at

    first. Marco Polo has no notice of its use. The Dutch brought

    it to Europe in 1591 according to some accounts ; but a sample

    or two did not make a trade, and there would have been reference

    to it if it had been used. In 1G60 Samuel Pepys writes,

    September 28th : “I did send for a cup of tea (a China drink),

    of which I had never drank before.” Nearly seven ^-ears after

    he says : ” Home, and thei-e find my wife making of tea, a drink

    which Mr. Pellin, the pothicai-y, tells her is good for her cold

    and defluxions.” In 1670 the importation into England was 79

    pounds ; in 1685 it was 12,070 pounds ; most of it came from

    Batavia and sold for a long time between £10 and £5 a pound

    weight. In 1657 Mr. Garney opened a shop in London to sell

    the infusion, and paid an excise of 8d. per gallon ; the present

    duty is 2s. Id. per pound, or 4^ pounds to each person in a year,

    nearly all of which, as it is in Europe and elsewhere, is black

    tea. In 1725 only 375,000 pounds were consumed in Great

    Britain. The actual quantity now in the United Kingdom is

    126,000,000 pounds, besides much on the way. The importation

    into the United States is worth $18,000,000 to $19,000,000,

    say 60,000,000 pounds. Russia takes more good tea than any

    other nation and pays more for it, because the former overland

    trade to Siberia could not afford to transport pooi- tea. The export

    from Assam is now 20,000,000 pounds, but those sorts are

    too strong for the public taste when used alone, and are consumed

    in mixtures. Tea is a native of Assam, but its discovery

    only dates from 1836 or thereabouts. It is cultivated in Java

    and Brazil, but there is not much to encoui’age the manufacturer

    in any country where coffee supplies a similar beverage,

    and the price of labor makes it equal to the imported article.

    The remarkable work on agriculture of Paul Sii, a convert to

    Christianity in 1620, contains a brief account and directions for

    cultivating tea. In concluding the chapter he urges the greater

    use of tea as against spirits. ” Tea is of a cooling nature, and if

    drunk too freely will produce exhaustion and lassitude. Country people before drinking it add ginger and salt to eoiniteract this cooling property. It is an exceedingly useful plant ; cultivate it and the benefit will be widely spread ; drink it and the animal spirits will be lively and clean. The chief rulers, lords, and

    great men esteem it ; the lower people, the poor and beggarly,

    will not be destitute of it ; all use it daily and like it.”

    The chemical analyses which have made known to us the

    components of the four or five substances used as warm beverages,

    viz., tea, coffee, mate, cocoa, guarana, and kola, indicate

    three constituents found in them, to which, no doubt, their virtues

    are owing.

    A volatile oil is observed when tea is distilled with water; about one pound conies from one hundred pounds of dried tea, possessing its peculiar aroma and flavor to a high degree. Much of it is pressed from the leaves when rolled and cured, but little as still remains, its effects upon the human system are noticeable

    and sometimes powerful. Tea-tasters who continually taste the

    rpiality of the various lots submitted by sample for their approval,

    do so by breathing upon a handful of leaves and instantly

    covering the nose, so as to get this volatile aroma as one important

    test. They also examine the infusion in several diffei’ent

    ways, by its taste, color, and strength. Long practice in this

    business is alleged to have deleterious influence upon their nervous

    systems. The other beverages we drink, as well as tea,

    derive their peculiar and esteemed flavor and aroma from

    chemical substances produced in them during the process of

    drying and roasting; at least nothing of them can be perceived

    in their natural state. Another substance in tea regarded as

    the chief inducement and reward in its effect on the system is

    the peculiar pi’inciple called theine. If a few finely powdered

    leaves are placed on a watch-glass, covered with a paper cap

    and placed on a hot plate, a white vapor slowly rises and

    condenses in the cap in the form of colorless crystals. They

    exist in different proportions in the different kinds of tea, from

    one and one-half to five or six per cent, in green tea. Theine

    lias no smell and a slightly bitter taste, and does not therefore

    attract us to drink the infusion ; but the chemists tell us that

    it contains nearly thirty per cent, of nitrogen. The salts in

    CONSTITUENTS AM) EFFECTS OF TEA. 53

    other beverages, as coffee and cocoa, likewise contain nnicli nitrogen,

    and all tend to repair the waste going on in the human

    system, reduce the amount of solid food necessary, diminish too

    the wear and tear of the body and consequent lassitude of the

    mind, and maintain the vigor of both upon a smaller amount

    of food. Tea does this more pleasantly, perhaps, than any of

    the others ; but it does more than they do for old people in

    supplementing the impaired powers of digestion, and helping

    them to maintain their flesh and uphold the system in health

    longer than they otherwise would. It is no wonder, therefore,

    that tea has become one of the necessaries of life ; and the

    sexagenarian invalid, too poor to buy a bit of meat for her

    meal, takes her pot of tea with M’liat she has, and knows that

    she feels lighter, happier, and better fitted for her toil, and enjoys

    life more than if she had no tea. Unconsciously she

    echoes what the Chinese said centuries ago, ” Drink it, and the

    animal spirits will be lively and clear.”

    The third substance (which is contained in tea more than in the

    other beverages mentioned) forms also an important ingredient

    in l)etel-nut and gaml)ier, so extensively chewed in Southern

    Asia, viz., tannin or tannic acid. This gives the astringent

    taste to tea-leaves and their infusion, and is found to amount

    to seventeen per cent, in well-dried l)lack tea, and much more

    than that in green tea, especially the Japan leaf. The effects

    of taimin are not clearly ascertained as apart from the oil

    and the tlieine, but Johnston considei-s them as conducing

    to the exhilarating, satisfying, and narcotic action of the beverage.

    A remaining ingredient worthy of notice in tea, in common

    with other food-plants, is gluten. This fornjs one-fourth of the

    weight of the leaves, but in oi’der to derive the greatest good

    from it which proper methods of cooking might bring out, we

    must contrive a mode (»f eating the leaves. The nutritious

    property of the gluten accounts for the general use of brick tea

    throughout the Asiatic plateau. Hue says he drank the dish

    in default of something better, for he was unaccustomed to

    it, but his cameleers would often take twenty to forty cups

    a day.

    If the sanitary effects of tea upon the system are so great and

    wholesome, its inliuence since its general introduction among

    occidentals cannot be overlooked. The domestic, quiet life and

    habits of the Chinese owe much of their strength to the constant

    use of this beverage, for the weak infusion which they sip

    allows them to spend all the time they choose at the tea-table.

    If they were in the habit of sipping even their weak whiskey

    in the same way, misery, poverty, quarrels, and sickness would

    take the place of thrift, quiet, and industry. The general temperance

    seen among them is owing to the tea nmch more than any

    other cause. It has, moreover, won its way with us, till in the

    present generation the associations that cluster around the teatable

    form an integral part of the social life among Englishspeaking

    peoples. One of the most likely means to restrict the

    use of spirits among them is to substitute the use of warm

    beverages of all kinds by those whose s^-stem has not become

    vitiated. Tea is one of the greatest benefits to the Chinese,

    Japanese, and Mongols, and its universal use, for at least fifteen

    centuries, throughout their territories has proven its satisfaction

    as a nervine, a stimulant, and a beverage. If one passing

    through the streets of Peking, Canton, or Ohosaka, and seeing

    the good-natured hilarity of the groups of laborers and loiterers

    around the cha-hwan and the cha-ya of those cities, doubts

    the value of tea as a harmonizer and satisfier of hmnan wants

    and passions, it must be taken as a proof of his own unsatisfied

    cravings.

    It is a necessary of life to all classes of natives, and that its

    use is not injurious is abundant!}^ evident from its general acceptance

    and increasing adoption ; the pi-ejudice against the

    beverage out of China may be attributed chiefly to the use of

    strong green tea, which is no doubt prejudicial. If those who

    have given it up on this account will adopt a weaker infusion

    of black tea, general experience is proof that it will do them no

    harm, and they may be sure that they will not be so likely to

    be deceived by a colored article. iS’either the Chinese nor

    Japanese use milk or sugar in their tea, and the peculiar taste

    and aroma of the infusion is much better perceived without

    those additions. Tea, when clear, cannot be drunk so strong

    PREPARATION OF CASSIA AND CAMPHOR. 55

    without tasting an unpleasant bitterness, which tliese diluents

    partly hide.’

    Among other vegetable productions whose preparation affords

    employment are cassia and camphor. The cassia ti-ee

    {Cinnamomuvi cassia) grows connnonly in Ivwangsi, Yunnan,

    and further south ; the leading mart for all the varieties of this

    spice in China is Ping-nan, in the former of tliese provinces.

    The kind known as l”wei-jA, or ‘ skhiny cassia,’ affords the principal

    part of that spice nsed at the west. The bark is stripped

    from the twigs by running a knife along the branch and gradually

    loosening it ; after it is taken off it lies a day in the sun,

    when the epidermis is easily scraped off, and it is dried into the

    quilled shape in which it comes to market. The immatm-e

    flowers of this and two other species of Cinnamonnnn are

    also collected and dried nnder the name of cassia IjiuIk^ and often

    packed with the bark ; they re<|uire little or no other preparation

    than simple drying. The leaves and bark of the tree

    are also distilled, and furnish oil of cassia, a powerful and

    pleasant oil employed by perfumers and cooks. • Few genera of

    plants are more useful to man than those included under the

    old name of Laurus, to which these fragrant spices of cassia

    and cinnamon belong; their wood, bark, buds, seeds, flowers,

    leaves, and oil are all used by the Chinese in carpentry, medicine,

    perfumery, and cookery. The confusion arising from

    using the term cassia for the spice instead of confining it to the

    medicine {Cassia senna) has been a constant source of error.

    The camphor tree {Cam])1ioi’a ojjicinarum) is another species

    of Laurus, found along the southern maritime regions and Formosa,

    and affords both timber and gum for exportation and domestic

    use. The tree itself is large, and furnishes excellent

    planks, beams, and boards. The gum is procui’ed from the

    branches, roots, leaves, and chips by soaking them in water until

    the liquid becomes saturated ; a gentle heat is then applied

    to this solution, and the sublimed camphor received in inverted

    cones made of rice-straw, from which it is detached in impure

    ‘Fortune’s Tea DistricU (1852); Chinme Ticpositwy, Vol. VIII., pp. 182-164, Vol. XVIII., pp. 13-18; Davis’ ChiiicHC, Vol. II., pp. 336-449; Chineim Cominercial Guide (1863), pp. 141-148 ; Ball’s Tea Vulture and Manufacture.

    grains, resembling unrefined sugar in colore Grosier describes

    another mode of getting it by Taking out the coagulum inspissated

    from the solution into an iron dish and covering M’ith

    powdered earth ; two or three layers are thus placed in the dish,

    when a cover is luted on, and by a slow heat the camphor sublimes

    into it in a cake. It comes to market in a crude state,

    and is refined after reaching Europe. The preparation of the

    gum, sawing the timber for trunks, articles of furniture, and

    vessels in whole or in part, occupies great numbers of carpenters,

    Bhipwrights, and boat-buildci*s. The increasing demand for

    the gum and boards has caused the rapid destruction of so

    many trees in Formosa that there is some ground for fear lest

    they ere long be all cut off.

    Many of the common ni;uii])ulations of Chinese ^vorkmen afford

    good examples of their ingenious modes of attaining th©

    same end which is elsewhere reached by complex machinery.

    For instance, the l)aker places his fire on’ a large iron plate

    worked by a crane, and swings it over a shallow pan embedded

    in masonry, in* which the cakes and pastry are laid and

    soon baked. The price of fuel compels its economical use

    wherever it is em}>loyed ; in the forge, the kitchen, the kiln, or

    the dwelling, no waste of wood or coal is seen. As an instance

    in point, the mode of burning shells to lime affords a good example.

    A low wall encloses a space ten or twelve feet across,

    in the middle of which a hole connnunicates underneath the

    wall through a passage to the pit, where the fire is urged by a fan

    turned by the feet. The wood is loosely laid over tlie bottom

    of the area, and the fire kindled at the orifice in the centre and

    fanned into a blaze as the shells are rapidly thrown in until the

    wall is filled up ; in twelve hours the shells are calcined.

    Toward evening scores of villagers collect around the burning

    pile, bringing their kettles of rice or vegetables to cook. The

    good-humor manifested by these gi’oups of old and young is a

    pleasing instance of the sociability and equality witnessed

    among the lower classes of Chinese. The lime is taken out

    next morning and sifted for the mason.

    Handicraftsmen of every name are content with coarse-looking

    tools compared with those turned out at Sheflield, but the

    APPLIANCES OF CHINESK WORKMEN. 67

    work prodnced by some of tliem is far from conteiriptible.

    The bench of a carpenter is a low, narrow, inclined form, like a

    urawing-knife fi’ame, upon which he sits to plane, groove, and

    work his boards, using his feet and toes to steady them. His

    augurs, bits, and gimlets are worked with a bow, but most of

    the edge-tools employed by him and the blacksmith, though

    similar in shape, are less convenient than our own. They are

    sharpened with hones or grindstones, and also with a cold steel

    like a spoke-shave, with which the edge is scraped thin. The

    aptitude of Chinese workmen has often been noticed, and

    Travelling Blacksmith and Equipment.

    among tliem all the travelling blacksmith takes the palm for his

    compendious establishment. ” T saw- a blacksmith a few days

    since,” writes one observer, ” mending a pan, the arrangement

    of w’hose tools was singularly compact. His fire was held in an

    iron basin not unlike a coal-scuttle in shape, in the back corner

    of which the mouthpiece of the bellows entered. The anvil

    was a small scpiare mass of iron, not very unlike our own, placed

    on a block, and a partition basket close by held the charcoal

    and tools, with the old iron and other rubbish he carried. The

    water to temper his iron was in an earthen pot, which just at

    this time was most usefully employed iii boiling his dinner

    over the forge fire After he had done the job he took off his dinner, threw the water on the fire, picked out the coals and put

    them back into the basket, threw away the ashes, set the anvil

    astride of the bellows, and laying the tire-pan on the basket,

    slung tlie bellows on one end of his pole and the basket on the

    other, and walked off.” ‘ The mode of mending holes in castiron

    pans here noticed is a peculiar operation. The smith first

    files the lips of the hole clean, and after heating the dish firmly

    * C,

    I 11 111

    Itinerant Dish-nnender

    places it on a tile covered with wet felt. He then pours the

    liquid iron, fused in a crucible by the assistance of a flux, upon

    the hole, and immediately patters it down with a dossil of felt

    until it covers the edges of the pan above and below, and is

    then, while cooling, hannnered until firndy fixed in its ]>lace.

    Another ingenious and effectual method of mending porcelain

    and all manner of crockery ware is performed by itinerant

    workmen, who travel about with their workshop on their

    * Chinese Repository, Vol. X., j). 473.

    WOOD AND IVORY CARVING. 59

    shoulders, as seen in tlio cut. By means of minute copper

    clamps, even the most delicate article of China-ware may be repaired

    and made to answer the purpose of a new piece ; since

    no cement is used in this style of mending, it has the additional

    advantage of standing innnei’sioiv in water.

    The great number of craftsmen who ply their vocations in

    the street, as well as the more mmierous class of hucksters

    who supply food as they go from house to house, furnish mucli

    to annise and interest. Each of them has a peculiar call. The

    barber twangs a sort of tweezers like a long tuning-fork, the

    peddler twirls a hand-drum with clappers strung on each side,

    the refuse-buyer strikes a little gong, the fruiterer claps two bamboo

    sticks, and the fortune-teller tinkles a gong-bell ; these, with

    the varied calls and cries of beggars, cadgers, chapmen, etc., fill

    the streets with a concert of strange sounds.

    The delicate carving of Chinese workmen has often been described; many specimens of it are annually sent abroad. Few products of their skill are more rcnuxrkable than the balls containing ten or twelve separate spheres one within another. The manner of cutting them is ingenious. A piece of ivory or wood is first made perfectly globular, and then several conical holes are bored into it in such a manner that their apices all meet at the centre, which becomes hollow as the holes are bored into it. The sides of each having been marked with

    lines to indicate the number of globes to be cut out, the w^orkman

    inserts a chisel or burin with a semicircular blade, bent so

    that the edge cuts the ivory, as the shaft is worked on the

    pivot, at the same depth in each hole. By successively cutting

    a little on the inside of each conical hole, the incisures meet,

    and a sphericle is at last detached, which is now turned over

    and its faces one after another brought opposite the largest

    hole, and firmly secured by wedges in the other a})ertures, while

    its surfaces are smoothed and carved. When the central sphere

    is done, a similar tool, somewhat larger, is again introduced

    into the holes, and another sphere detached and smoothed in

    the same way, and then another, until the whole is completed,

    each being polished and carved before the next outer one is

    connnenced. It takes three or four months to complete a ball with fifteen inner globes, the price of which ranges from twenty to thirty dollars, according to the delicacy of the carving. Some writers have asserted that these curious toys were made of semi spheres nicely luted together, and they have been boiled in oil for hours in order to separate them and solve the mystery of their construction.

    Fans and card-cases are carved of wood, ivory, and mother-of-pearl in alto-relievo, with an elaborateness which shows the great skill and patience of the workman, and at the same time his crude conception of drawing, the figures, houses, trees, and other objects being grouped in violation of all propriety and perspective. Beautiful ornaments are made by carving roots of plants, branches, gnarled knots, etc., into fantastic groups of birds or animals, the artist taking advantage of the natural form of his material in the arrangement of his figures. Models of pagodas, boats, and houses are entirely constructed of ivory, even to representing the ornamental roofs, the men working at the oar, and women looking from the balconies. Baskets of elegant shape are woven from ivoiy splinths; and the shopmen at Canton exhibit a variety of seals, paper-knives, chessmen, counters, combs, etc., exceeding in finish and delicacy the same kind of work found anywhere else in the world. The most

    elaborate coat of arms, or complicated cypher, will also be imitated

    by these skilful carvers. The national taste prefers this

    style of carving on plane surfaces ; it is seen on the walls of

    houses and granite slabs of fences, the woodwork of boats and

    shops, and on articles of furniture. Most of it is pretty, but the

    disproportion and cramped position of the figures detract from

    its beauty when judged by strict rules of western art.

    The manufacture of enamels and cloisonne wares has lately

    received a great stimulus from their foi’eign demand. A copper

    vase is formed of the desired shape by hammering and soldering,

    on whose clean surface the figures to be enamelled are

    etched to show where the strips of copper are to be soldered

    before their interspaces are enamelled. This solder is made of

    borax and silver, and melts at a higher temperature than the

    enamel, which is reduced to a paste and filled into each cell of

    the pattern by brushes and styles, until the whole design is

    MANUFACTURE OF CLOlSONNfi, MATS, ETC. 61

    gone over. Tlie various colored liao, or ingredients, are prepared

    in cakes by artists who keep their composition secret, but

    all the substances occur in China. The (piality of the ware

    depends on the skill in mixing these cakes and fusing the colors

    in a charcoal fire, into which the piece is placed ; imperfection^

    and holes are covered and tilled up when it is cooled, and the

    piece is again and again exposed to the fire. After the third ordeal it is ground smooth and polished on a lathe, and the brass work gilt. The specimens now made show very fine work, but their coloring hardly equals those of Kienlungs reign or still earlier in the Ming dynasty.

    Fancy Carved Work.

    Much inferior work has also been palmed off for that of the golden period of this art. The manufacture of mats for sails of junks and boats, floors, bedding, etc., employs thousands. A sail containing nearly four hundred square feet can be obtained for ten dollars. The rolls are largely exported, and still more extensively used in the country for covering packages for shipment. A stouter kind made of bamboo splinths serves as a material for huts, and fulfils many other purposes that are elsewhere attained by boards or canvas. Rattans are largely worked into mats, chairs, baskets, and other articles of domestic service. Several branches of manufacture have entirely grown up, or been much encouraged by the foreign trade, among which the preparation of vermilion, beating gold-leaf, cutting pearl buttons, dyeing and trimming pith-paper for artificial flowers, weaving and painting fancy window-blinds, and the preparation of sweetmeats are the principal. The beautiful vermilion exported from Canton is prepared by triturating one part of quicksilver with two of sulphur until they form a blackish powder, which is put into a crucible having an iron lid closely luted down. When the fire acts on the mixture the lid is cooled to effect the sublimation ; the deposit on the top is cinnabar and that on the sides is vermilion, according

    to the Chinese ; all of them are powdered, levigated, decanted,

    and dried on tiles for use in painting and pharmacy, coloring

    candles and paper, and making red ink. The excellence of Chinese vermilion depends on the thoroughness of the grinding.’

    ‘ Compare an article by Julien in the Nouv. Journ. Asiatique, Tome V., 1830,pp. 208 ff.

    PHASES OF CHINESE INDUSTRIAL LIFE. 63

    It has often been said that the Chinese are so averse to change and improvement that they will obstinately adhere to their own modes, but, though slow to alter well-tried methods, such is not the case. Three new manufactures have been introduced during the present century, viz., that of glass, bronze-work, and Prussian blue. A Chinese sailor brought home the manufacture of the latter, which he had learned thoroughly in London, and the people now supply themselves. Works in bronze and brass have of late been set up, and watches and clocks are both extensively manufactured, with the exception of the springs. Fire-engines in imitation of foreign hand-engines are gradually eomino; into use. Brass cannon were made durins; the war with England in imitation of pieces taken from a wreck, and the frames of one or two vessels to be worked with wheels by men at a crank, in imitation of steamers, were found on the stocks at Ningpo Mdien the English took the place. Since then the establishment of government arsenals at Fuhchau, Shanghai, Xanking, and Tientsin has stimulated and suggested as well as taught the people many applications of machinery. Yet until they can see their Avay clear to be remunerated for their outlay, it is unwise to urge or start doubtful experiments. This was shown at Canton ten years ago when a native company was formed to spin cotton yarn by steam machinery, and when the apparatus was all ready for work the cotton flowers were quite unwilling to trust their raw cotton out of their hands. Moreover, it should be observed that few have taken the trouble to explain or show them the improvements they are supposed to be so disinclined to adopt. Ploughs have been given the farmers near Shanghai, but they would not use them, which, however, may have been as much owing to the want of a proper harness, or a little instruction regarding their use, as to a dislike to take a new article.

    The general aspect of Chinese society, in an industrial point

    of view, is one of its most pleasing features. The great body of

    the people are obliged to engage in manual labor in order to

    subsist, yet only a trifling proportion of them can be called

    beggars, while still fewer possess such a degree of wealth that

    they can live on its income. Property is safe enough to afford

    assurance to honest toil that it shall generally reap the reward

    of its labors, but if that toil prosper beyond the usual limits,

    the avarice of officials and the envy of neighbors easily find a

    multitude of contrivances to harass and impoverish the fortunate

    man, and the laws are not executed with such strictness as to

    deter them. The mechanical arts supply their wants, but having

    no better models before them, nor any scientific acquaintance

    with elementary principles and powers applicable to a great

    number of purposes, these arts have remained stationary. The

    abundance of labor must be employed, and its cheapness obviates

    the necessity of finding substitutes in machinery. The adoption

    of even a few things from abroad might involve so many

    changes, that even those intelligent natives who saw their

    advantages would hesitate in view of the momentous contingencies

    of a failure. The conflict between capital and labor in its various phases and struggles is becoming more and more marked the world over as civilization advances, and the Chinese polity is destined to endure its greatest strain in adjusting their forces among its industrious millions.

    Imitation is a remarkable trait in the Chinese mind, though invention is not altogether wanting; the former leads the people to rest content with what they can get along with, even at some expense of time and waste of labor, where, too, an exhibition of ingenuity and science would perhaps be accompanied with suspicion, expense, or hindrances from both neighbors and rulers.

    The existence of the germ of arts and discoveries, whose development would liave brought witli them so many advantages

    and pointed to still further discoveries, leads one to inquire the

    reason why they were not carried out. Setting aside the view,

    which may properly be taken, that the wonderful discoveries

    now made in the arts by Europeans form part of God’s great

    plan for the redemption of the race, the want of mutual confidence,

    insecurity of property, and debasing effects of heathenism

    upon the intellect will explain much of the apathy shown

    toward improvement. Invention among them has rather lacked

    encouragement than ceased to exist :—more than that, it has

    been checked by a suspicious, despotic sway, while no stimulus

    of necessity has existed to counterbalance and urge it forward,

    and has been stunted by the mode and materials of education.

    It was not till religious liberty and discussion arose in Europe that the inhabitants began to improve in science and arts as well as morals and good government ; and when the ennobling and expanding principles of an enlarged civilization find their way into Chinese society and mind, it may reasonably be expected that rapid advances will be made in the comforts of this life, as well as in adopting the principles and exhibiting the conduct which prove a fitness for the enjoyments of the next.

    CHAPTER XVI. SCIENCE AMONG THE CHINESE

    That enlargement of the mind which results from the collection and investigation of facts, or from extensive reading of books on whose statements reliance can be placed, and which leads to the cultivation of knowledge for its own sake, has no existence in China. Sir John Davis justly observes that the Chinese ” set no value on abstract science, apart from some obvious and immediate end of utility;” and he properly compares the actual state of the sciences among them with their condition in Europe previous to the adoption of the inductive mode of investigation. Even their few theories in explanation of the mysteries of nature are devoid of all fancy to make amends for want of fact and experiment, so that in reading them we are neither amused by their imagination nor instructed by their research. Perhaps the rapid advances made by Europeans, during the two past centuries, in the investigation of nature in all her departments and powers, has made us somewhat impatient of such a parade of nonsense as Chinese books exhibit.

    In addition to the general inferiority of Chinese mind to European in genius and imagination, it has moreover been hampered by a language the most tedious and meagre of all tongues, and wearied with a literature abounding in tiresome repetitions and unsatisfactory theories. Under these conditions, science, whether mathematical, physical, or natural, has made few advances during the last few centuries, and is now awaiting a new impulse from abroad in all its departments.

    Murray’s China (Vol. III., Chap. IV.) contains a fair account of the attainments of the Chinese in mathematics and astronomy.

    The notation of the Chinese is based on the decimal principle, but as their figures are not changed in vahie by position, it is difficult to write out clearly the several steps in solving a problem.

    Experiments have shown that it is easy encmgh to perform them with Chinese figures used in our way, omitting the characters for 100, 1,000, and 10,000 {2)ch, tslcn, and wan) ; but it will be long before the change will become general, even if it be desirable. Arithmetical calculations are performed with the assistance of an abacus, called a stranjxin, or ‘counting board’, which is simply a shallow case divided longitudinally by a bar and crossed by several wires ; on one side of this bar the wires bear five balls, on the other two. The five balls stand for nnits, the two balls behig each worth five units. When the

    balls on any wire are taken for nnits, those next to the right

    stand for tens, the thii’d for hundreds, and so on ; while those

    on the left denote tenths, hundredths, etc. Simple calculations

    are done on this machine with accuracy and rapidity, but as it

    is only a convenient index for the progress and result of a calculation

    performed in the head, if an error be made the whole

    must be performed again, since the result only appears when

    the sura is finished. There are three sorts of figures, partly answering

    to the English, Itoman, and Arabic forms—as Seven,

    VII., and T—the most connnon of which are given on page 619

    of Yol. I. ; the complicated form is used for securit}- in drafts

    and bills, and the abbreviated in common operations, accounts,

    etc., and in setting down large amounts in a more compact form

    than can be done by the other characters. This mode of notation

    is employed by the Japanese and Cochinchinese, and possesses

    some advantages over the method of using letters practised

    by the Greeks and Romans, as well as over the counters

    once employed in England, but falls far behind the Arabic system

    now in general use in the west.

    CHINESE MATHEMATICS. G7

    Treatises on arithmetic are common, in which the simple rules are explained and illustrated by examples and questions. One of the best is the Sinan-fdh Tung T,Httng, or ‘ General Gomprehensive Arithmetic,’ in five volumes, octavo, the author of which, Cliing Yu-sz’, lived in the Ming dynasty. The Tsu-wei-shan Fang Sho ITioh, or ‘Mathematics of the Lagerstra’mia Hill Institution,’ in thirty-eight books, octavo, 182S, contains a complete course of mathematical instruction in geometry, trigonometry, mensuration, etc., together with a table of natural sines and tangents, and one of logarithmic sines, tangents, secants, etc., for every degree and minute. Both these compilations derive most of their value from the mathematical writings of the Roman Catholic missionaries ; it is stated in the latter work that “• the western scholar, John Kapier, made logarithms.”

    The study of arithmetic has attracted attention among the Chinese from very early times, and the notices found in historical works indicate some treatises even extant in the Han dynasty, followed by a great number of general and particular works down to the Sung dynasty. One author of the Tang dynasty, in his problems on solid mensuration, offered one thousand taels of silver to whoever found a single word of error in the book. The Hindu processes in algebra were known to Chinese mathematicians, and are still studied, though all intellectual intercourse between the countries has long ceased. Down to the end of the Ming dynasty, these branches made slow progress.

    Since foreigners have begun to apply western science, the development has been rapid. Mr. Wylie has given, in his Notes 0)1 Chinese Literature (pp. 86-104), a digested account of the most valuable native works on astronomy and mathematics. One very comprehensive work on them is the Thesaurus of Mathematics and Chronology, published by imperial order about 1750.

    The knowledge of mathematics, even among learned men, is

    very small, and the common people study it only as far as their

    business requires ; the cumbersome notation and the little aid

    such studies giv^e in the examinations doubtless discourage men

    from pursuing what they seem to have no taste for as a people.’

    A curious fact regarding the existence of six errors in these

    tables, discovered by Bal)bage to have been perpetuated in most

    of the European logarithmic tables since the publication of the

    Trigonometria Artijicialis of Vlacq in 1633, proves the source

    whence the Chinese derived them, and their imitative fidelity

    in copying them. Chinese authors readily acknowledge the superiority of western inatlieinaticians, and generally ascribe their advances in the exact sciences to them.

    ‘ See Notes and Queries on C. and /., Vol. I., p. 166, and Vol. III., p. 153.

    The attaiinnents made by the ancient Chinese in astronomy

    are not easily understood from their scanty records, for the

    mere notice of an eclipse is a very different thing from its calculation

    or description. They have been examined recently

    with renewed interest and care in view of the discoveries at

    ]S”ineveh, which have furnished so many reliable notices in

    “Western Asia of early days, and may lend some rays of light

    to illustrate the history and condition of Eastern Asia when

    more fully studied. The Booh of liecords contains some notices

    of instructions given by Yao to his astronomers Hi and IIo to

    ascertain the solstices and e(|uinoxcs, to employ intercalary

    months, and to tix the four seasons, in order that the husbandman might know when to commit his seed to the ground. If the time of the deluge be reckoned, according to Hales, at b.c.3155, there will be an interval of about eight centuries to the days of Yao, ];.<•. 2357 ; this would be ample time for the observation that the primitive sacred year of three hundred and sixty days in Noah’s time was wrong; also that the lunar year of about three hundred and fifty-four days was (piite as incorrect, and required additional correction, which this ancient monarch is said to have made by an intercalation of seven lunar months in nineteen years. It is remarkable, too, that the time given as the date of the commencement of the astronomical observations sent to Aristotle from Babylon by command of Alexander should be b.c. 2233, or only a few years after the death of Yao ; at that time the five additional days to complete the solar year were intercalated by the Chaldeans, and celebrated as days of festivity. Dr. Hales, who mentions this, says that many ancient nations, and also the Mexicans, had the same custom, but there are no traces of any particular observance of them by the Chinese, who, indeed, could not notice them in a lunar year.

    DIVISIONS OF THE YEAR. 60

    The intercalation made by Yao has continued with little variation to this day. The Romish missionaries rectified the calendar during; the i-eio;n of Kan2;hi, and have contimied its preparation since that time. The adoption of the Julian solar year of three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days at this remote period is far fioni certain, though the fact of its existence among nations in the west is’ mentioned hy the commentator upon the Iloolx of liecordH, who tlonrislied a.d. 1200. The attention the Chinese paid to the hniar year, and the very small difference their seven intercahitions left between the true haimonizing of the lunar and solar years (only Ih. 27m. 32s.), would not derange the calculations to a degree to attract their notice. The period of the adoption of the cycle of sixty years, called In/i-sJiiJt hwa hiah-tsz\ cannot be ascertained even with any close approach to probability. Though negative evidence is always the poorest basis on which to found a theory in any branch of knowledge, it still bears great influence in early Chinese history and science, and in no department more than astronomy. This sexagenary cycle, the Chinese assert, was contrived nearly three centuries before the time of Yao (b.c. 2637), and seems to have been perfectly arbitrary, for no explanation now exists of the reasons which induced its inventor, HuangDi, or his minister, Kao the Great, to select this number. The years have each of them a separate name, formed by taking ten characters, called shih Jicuu or ‘ ten stems,’ and joining to them twelve other characters, called the shih-‘ih c7ii, or ‘twelve branches,’ five times repeated.

    These two sets of horary characters are also applied to

    minutes and seconds, honrs, days, and months, signs of the

    zodiac, points of the compass, etc. By giving the twelve

    branches the names of as many animals and apportioning the

    ten stems in couplets among the five elements, they are also

    made to play an important part in divination and astrology.

    The present year (1882) is the eighteenth year of the seventysixth

    cycle, or the four thousand five hundred and eighteenth

    since its institution ; but no trace of a serial nnmbering of the

    sexagenary periods has yet been found in Chinese writings. The

    application of the characters to hours and days dates from about

    B.C. 1752, according to the Shu Klmj, pei’haps even before they

    were combined in a cyclic arrangement. This sexagenary division

    existed in India in early times, too, and is still followed

    there, where it is named the Cycle of Jupiter, ” because the length of its years is measured by the passage of that phiiict, by its mean motion, through one sign of the zodiac.” liev. E. Ihirgess, in his translation of “the Surija jSuld/ianta, says that the length of Jupiter’s years is reckoned in that book at 361d.

    Oh. 38m., and adds : ” It was doubtless on account of the near

    coincidence of this period with the true solar year that it was

    adopted as a measure of time ; but it has not been satisfactorily

    ascertained, as far as we are aware, “where the cycle originated,

    or what is its age, or why it was made to consist of sixty

    years, including five whole revolutions of the planet.” It is

    not improbable, therefore, that the cycle, the two sets of characters,

    the twenty-four solar terms, witli the twelve and twentyeight

    lunar mansions or zodiacal asterisms, all of which play

    such an important part in Chinese astrology and astronomy,

    will be found to have been derived from the Chaldeans, and not

    from the Hindus, as has been confidently asserted. Though

    confessedly ancient in both India and China, their adoption was

    slow in its growth, while some striking similarities indicate a

    common origin, and so remote that its genesis is all a mystery.

    The year is lunar, but its commencement is regulated by the sun. New Year falls on the first new moon after the sun enters Aquarius, which makes it come not before January 21st nor after February lOtli. Besides the division into lunar months, the year is apportioned into twenty-four jieqi, or ‘ terms,’ of about fifteen days each, depending upon the position of the sun; these are continued on from year to year, irrespective of the intercalations, the first one commencing about February 6th, when the sun is 15° in Aquarius. Their names have reference to the season of the year and obvious changes in nature at the time they come round, as rain-vxtter, vernal-eqitifiox, spikedgrain, little-heat, etc.

    The Chinese divide the zodiac(huang dao, or ‘yellow road’) into twenty-eight siu or I’ung, ‘ constellations’ or ‘lunar mansions’, but instead of an equable allotment, the signs occupy from 1° up to 31°; the Hindus arrange them nearly in spaces of 13° each. Their names and corresponding animals, with the principal stars answering to each asterism, are given in the table.

    DIVISIONS OF THE ZODIAC. 71

    •of one of the twenty-eight lunar mansions is given to every day in the year in perpetual rotation, consequently the same day of our week in every fourth week has the same character applied ro it. The days are numbered from the first to the last day of the month, and the months from one to twelve through the year, except the intercalaiy month, called jun yueJi y and there is also a trine division of the month into decades.’

    The astronomical ideas of the common Chinese are vague and

    inaccurate. Tlie knowledge contained in their own scientific

    hooks has not been taught, and they still believe the earth to be

    a plain surface, measuring each way about one tliousand five

    hundred miles; around it the sun, moon, and stars revolve, the

    first at a distance of four tliousand miles. This figure comes so

    near the earth’s radius that it is reasonable to infer, with Chalmers,

    that it was calculated from the different elevation of the sun

    in dift’erent latitudes. The distance of the heavens from the earth

    was ascertained by one observer to be 81,304 //’, and by another

    subsequent to him to be 216,781 li, or about 73,000 miles; all of which indicates the lack of careful observation. The constellation of the Peh Tao, or Dipper, plays an important part in popular astronomy; the common saying is:

    ‘ When the handle of the Northern Peck points east at nightfall, it is spring over the land ; when it points south, it is summer ; and when west or north, it is respectively autumn and winter.’ The Dipper

    has become a kind of natm-al clock from this circumstance, and

    as its handle always points to the bright stars in Scorpio, these

    two constellations are among the most familiar. These popular

    notions must not, however, be taken as a test of what was known

    in early times; it is quite as just to their scientific attainments

    in this branch to give them credit (as Wjdie does) for having

    known more than has come down to our days; as to deny belief

    in the little that remains, because it presents some insoluble

    difificulties, as Chalmers is disposed to do.

    ‘ Chinese Eepositorii, Vol. IX., pp. 573-584. De Giiignes’ V»i/iif/rs, Vol. II., p. 414. Chinese ChrcHtoriutthy. Legge’s Shoo Kinn, passim. Chalmers, On the Astronomy of the Ancient Chinese. Journal of the Am. Oriental Society, Vol. VI., Art. III., and Vol. VIII., Arts. I. and VII. Whitney’s Orientaland Linfjuisiie Studies, Art. XII. North China Br. R. A. S. Journal, Nos. III. and IV.

    CHINESE NOTIONS OF ASTRONOMY. 73

    Astronomy has been studied by the Chinese for astrological

    and state pur{)oses, and their recordetl oI)servatioMS of eclipses,

    comets, etc., have no small value to European astronomers and

    chronologists. Mailla has collected the notices of 460 solar

    eclipses, extending from n.c. 2151) to a.d. 1699, and Wylie furnishes

    a careful list of 925 solar and 574 lunar eclipses, extracted

    from Chinese works, observed between 2150 and a.d. 1785.

    Comets have been carefully noted whenever their brilliancy has enabled them to be seen, for they are regarded as portents by the people, and their course among the stars somewhat determines their influence. A list of 373 comets mentioned in Chinese records has been published by John Williams,’ mostly extracted from Ma Twan-lin’s Antiquarian Researches, and the Shi K’i. They extend from b.c. 611 to a.d. 1621 ; the general value of these records is estimated by the learned author as entitling them to credence. The curious and intimate connection between geomancy, horoscopy, and astrology, which the Chinese suppose exists, has a powerful influence in maintaining their errors, because of its bearing on every man’s luck. Even with all the aid they have derived from Europeans, the Chinese

    seem to be unable to advance in the science of astronomy, when

    left to themselves, and to cling to their superstitions against

    every evidence. Some clouds having on one occasion covered

    the sky, so that an eclipse could not be seen, the courtiers joyfully

    repaired to the Emperor to felicitate him, that Heaven,

    touched by his virtues, had spared him the pain of witnessing

    the “eating of the sun.” A native writer on astronomy, called

    Tsinglai, who published several works under the patronage of

    Yuen Yuen, the liberal-minded governor of Kwangtungin 1820,

    even at that late day, ” makes the heavens to consist of ten concentric hollow spheres or envelopes; the first contains the moon’s orbit ; the second that of Mercury ; those of Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the twenty-eight constellations, follow; the ninth envelops and binds together the eight interior ones, and revolves daily ; while the tenth is the abode of the Observations of Comef.,% from b.c. Gil to a.d. 1640. Extracted from the Chinese Annuls. Loudon, 1871.

    Celestial tSovereit’n, the Great Ruler, with all the ii^ods and sao’es where they enjoy eternal tranquility.” lie further says, “there are two north and two south poles, those of the equator and those of the ecliptic. The poles of the ecliptic regulate the varied machinery of the heavenly revolutions, and turn round unceasingly. The poles of the equator are the pivots of the primitive celestial body, and remain permanently unmoved.

    What are called the two poles, therefore, are really not stars, but two immovable points in the north and in the south.*’ ‘ The author of this astute cosmogony studied under Europeans, and published these remarks as the fruit of his researches.

    The action and reaction of the elements furnish a satisfactory

    explanation to Chinese philosophers of the changes going on in

    the visible universe, for no possible contingencj’ can arise which

    they are not prepared to solve by their analysis of the evolution

    of its powers. Through their speculations by this curious system

    they have been led away from carefully recording facts and

    processes, and have gone on, like a squirrel in a cage, making

    no progress tow^ard the real knowledge of the elements they

    treat of. The following table contains the leading elementary

    correspondences which they use, but a full explanation would be out of place here.

    This fanciful system is more or less received by their most intelligent mcTi ; and forms a sort of abracadabra in the hands of geomancers and future-tellers, by which, with a show of great learning, they impose on the people. The sun, moon, and planets influence sublunary events, especially the life and death of human beings, and changes in their color menace approaching calamities. Alterations in the appearance of the sun announce misfortunes to the state or its head, as revolts, famines, or the death of the Emperor; when the moon waxes red, or turns pale, men should be in awe at the unlucky times thus fore-omened.

    Chinese ChrcHtoiiuitlii/, p. 391

    ACTION AND UEACTIOX OF THE ELEMENTS. 75

    O 5H I-:; < H P3 O a: o I— (HO !^ P P^ Q ;?;

    The sun is symbolized by the figure of a raven in a circle, and the moon by a rabbit on his hind legs pounding rice in a mortar, or by a three-legged toad. The last refers to the

    legend of an ancient beauty, Cliang-ngo, who drank the liquor

    of imniortality and straightway ascended to the moon, where

    she was transformed into a toad, still to be traced in its face.

    It is a special object of worship in autumn, and moon-cakes

    dedicated to it are sold at this season. All the stars are i-anged

    into constellations, and an emperor is installed over them, who

    resides at the north pole ; five monarchs, also, Yivc in the five

    stars in Leo, where is a palace, called Wu Tl tao^ or ‘Throne of

    the Five Emperors.’ In this celestial government there is also

    an heir-apparent, empresses, sons and daughters, tribunals, and

    the constellations receive the names of men, animals, and other

    terrestrial objects. The Dipper is worshipped as the residence

    of the fates, where the duration of life, and other events relating

    to mankind, are measured and meted out. Doolittle’s Social

    Life contains other popular notions connected with the stars,

    showing the ignorance still existing, and the fears excited by

    unusual phenomena among the heavenly bodies. Both heaven

    and the sun are worshipped by the government in appropriate

    temples on the west and east sides of Peking. The rainbow is

    the product of the impure vapors ascending from the earth

    meetino; those descendino; from the sun.

    If their knowledge of astronomy can be criticised as being

    anything but an exact science, the Chinese should not be denied

    credit for a certain amount of beauty in what may be called the

    romantic side of this study. In the myths and legends which

    have clustered about and doubtless in many cases perverted

    their observations of the stars, there are the sources of fetes

    and subjects for pictorial illustration Mithout number. One of

    these stories, forming the motive of a bowl decoration given

    upon the opposite page, is the fable of Aquila (;^/’i’/.) and Vega,

    known in Chinese and Japanese mytliX)logy as the Herdsman

    and Weaver-girl. The latter, the daughter of the sun-god, was

    so continually busied with her loom that her father became wor-

    I’ied at her close habits and thought that by marrying her to a

    neighbor, who herded cattle on the banks of the Silver Stream

    of Heaven (the Milky Way), she might awake to a brighter

    manner of living.

    FABLE OF THE HERDSMAN AND WKAVEIt-GIRL. 77

    ” No sooner did the maiden become wife than her habits and character utterly changed for the worse. She became not only very merry and lively, but quite forsook loom and needle, giving up her nights and days to play and idleness; no silly lover could have been more foolish than she. The sun-king, in great wrath at all this, concluded that the husband was the cause of it and determined to separate the couple. So he ordered him to remove to the other side of the river of stars, and told him that hereafter they should meet only once a year, on the seventh night of the seventh month. To make a brids-e over the flood of stars, the sun-king called myriads of magpies, which thereupon flew together, and, making a bridge, supported the poor lover on their wnngs and backs as if it were a roadway of solid land. So bidding his weeping wife farewell, the lover husband sorrowfully crossed the River of Heaven, and all the magpies instantly flew away. But the two were separated, the one to lead his ox, the other to ply her shuttle during the long hours of the day wdth diligent toil, and the sun-king again rejoiced in his daughter’s industry.

    “At last the time for their reunion drew near, and only one

    fear possessed the loving wife. AVhat if it should rain ? For

    the River of Heaven is always full to the brim, and one extra

    di’op causes a flood which sweeps away even the bird l)ridge.

    But not a drop fell ; all the heavens were clear. The magpies

    flew joyfully in myriads, making a way for the tiny feet of the

    httle lady. Trembling with joy, and with heart fluttering more

    than the bridge of wings, she crossed the River of Heaven and

    was in the arms of her husband. This she did every year.

    The husband staid on his side of the river, and the wife came

    to him on the magpie bridge, save on the sad occasion when it

    rained. So every year the people hope for clear weather, and

    the happy festival is celebrated alike by old and young.” ‘

    ‘ Somewhat abridged from Mr. W. E. Griffis’ Japdneae Fairy Worhl, a book which has given us the cream of a great variety of stories from Eastern won’ der-lore.

    DIVISIONS OF THE DAY—THE ALMANAC. 79

    These two constellations are worshipped principally by women, that they may gain cumiing in the arts of needlework and making of fancy flowers. Watermelons, fruits, vegetables, cakes, etc., are placed with incense in the reception-room, and before these offerings are performed the kneelings and knoekings in the usual wav.

    The entire day is divided into twelve two-hour periods called shin., coumiencing at eleven o’clock, p.m.; each hour is further subdivided into kik, or eighths, equal to fifteen of our minutes, and receives the same characters. There are various means employed to measure time, but the people are rapidly learning to reckon its progress by watches and clocks, and follow our divisions in preference to their own. A common substitute for watches are tl/ne-sticks, long round pieces of a composition of clay and sawdust, well mixed and wound in a spiral manner; the lapse of time is indicated by its equable slow combustion from one hour mark to another, until the whole is consumed, which in the longest is not less than a week. Dials are in

    common use, and frequently attached to the mariner’s compass,

    by making the string which retains the cover in its place cast a

    shadow on the face of it. This lesson in dialing, Davis supposes

    they learned from the Jesuits. Clepsydras of various forms

    were anciently employed, some of which, from their description,

    were so disproportionately elegant and costly for such a

    clumsy mode of noting time, that their beauty more than their

    use was perhaps the principal object in preparing them.

    The almanac holds an important place, its preparation having

    been early taken under the special cal-e of the government,

    which looks upon a present of this important publication as one

    of the highest favors which it can confer on tributary vassals

    or friendly nations. It is annually prepared at Peking, under

    the direction of a bureau attached to the Board of Rites, and,

    by making it a penal offence to issue a counterfeit or pirated

    edition the governmental astrologers have monopolized the

    management of the superstitions of the people in regard to the

    fortunate or unlucky conjunctions of each day and hour. Besides

    the cabalistic part of it, the ephemeris also contains tables

    of the rising of the sun according to the latitudes of the principal

    places, times of the new and full moon, the beginning

    and length of the twenty -four terms, eclipses, application of the

    horary characters, conjunction of the planets, etc. Two or three editions are published for the convenience of the people, the prices of which vary from three to ten cents a copy. No one ventures to be without an ahuanac, lest he be liable to the greatest misfortunes, and run the imminent hazard of undertaking important events on black-balled days. The Europeans who were employed for many years in compiling the calendar were not allowed to interfere in the astrological part ; it is to the discredit of the Chinese to aid thus in perpetuating folly and ignorance among the people, when they know that the whole system is false and absurd. Such governments as that of China, however, deem it necessary to uphold ancient superstitions, if they can thereby influence their security, or strengthen the reverence due them.

    If their astronomical notions are vague, their geographical

    knowledge is ridiculous. The maps of their own territories are

    tolerably good, being originally drawn from actual survej’s by

    nine of the Jesuits, between the years 1708-1718, and since

    that time have been filled up and changed to conform to the

    alterations and divisions. Their full survey’s were engraved on

    copper at Paris, by order of Louis XIV., on sheets, measuring

    in all over a hundred square feet, and have formed the basis of

    all subsequent maps. The Chinese do not teach geography in

    their schools, even of their own empire. The conimon people

    have no knowledge, therefore, of the form and divisions of the

    globe, and the size and position of the kingdoms of the earth.

    Their common maps delineate them very erroneously, not even

    excepting their own possessions in Mongolia and tli—scattering

    islands, kingdoms, and continents, as they have heard of their

    existence, at haphazard in various corners beyond the frontiers.

    The two Americas and Africa are entirely omitted on most of

    them, and England, Holland, Portugal, Goa, Lugonia, Bokhara,

    Germany, France, and India, are arranged along the western

    side, from north to south, in a series of islands and headlands.

    The southern and eastern sides are similarly garnished by islands, as Japan, Lewchew, Formosa, Siam, Pirmah, Java, the Sulu Islands, and others, while Russia occupies the whole of the northern frontier of their Middle Kingdom.

    GE0(4KAnTICAL KNOWLEDGK OF THE CHINESE. 8\

    The geographical works of Tsinglai are not (juite so erroneous as his astronomical, but the uneducated peoj^lc, notwithstanding Ills efforts to teach them better, still generally suppose the earth to be an inniiense extended stationary plain. Their notions of its inhabitants are equally whimsical, and would grace the pages of Sir fJohn Mandeville. In some parts of its surface they imagine the inhabitants to he all dwarfs, who tie themselves together in bunches for fear of being carried away by the eagles; in others they are all women, who conceive by looking at their shadows ; and in a third kingdom, all the people have holes in their breasts, through which they thrust a pole, when carrying one another from place to place. Charts for the guidance of the navigator, or instruments to aid him in determining his position at sea, the Chinese are nearly or quite destitute of; they have retrograded rather than advanced in navigation, judging from the accounts of Fa-hian, Ibn Batuta, and other travellers, when their vessels frequented the ports in the Persian Gulf and on the Malabar coast, and carried on a large trade with the Archipelago. Itineraries are published, containing the distances between places on the principal thoroughfares throughout the provinces, and also lists of the ports, harbors, and islands on the coast, but nothing like sailing directions accompany the latter, nor do maps of the routes illustrate the former. Such knowledge as they have on these points is hidden away in their libraries, as the Latin and Greek classics were in European convents and castles a thousand years ago.

    In the various branches of mensuration and formulae used to describe the dimensions and weight of bodies, they have reached only a practical medioci’ity. With a partial knowledge of trigonometry, and no instruments for ascertaining the heights of

    objects or their distances fi’om the observer, still their lands are

    well measured, and the area of lots in towns and cities accurately

    ascertained. The cht/i or foot is the integer of length, but its

    standard value cannot be easily ascertained. In the Chinese

    Commercial Ouide^ p. 285, is a table of eighty-four observations

    on this point, taken at different times and places in China, whose

    extremes differ more than six inches. It is fixed by the Board

    of Works at 13^ in. English, but tradesmen at Canton employ

    foot measures varying from 14.625 to 14.81 in. ; according

    to the tariff, it is reckoned at 14.1 in. English, and the ehang of ten chih at Z\\ yds. During the past thirty years, the tariff weights and measures have gradually obtained acceptance as the standards, and this will probably result in securing uniformity in course of time. The chih is subdivided into ten tsun or puntos, and each tsun into teny^n. The I’l is used for distances, and is usually reckoned at 1,825.55 ft. English, which gives 2.89 I’l to an English mile ; this is based on the estimate of 200 I’l to a degree, but there were only 180 li to a degree before Europeans came, which increases its length to 2,028.39 ft. or 2.6 Vi to a mile, which is nearer the common estimate. The French missionaries divided the degree into 250 li (each being then exactly 1,460.44 ft. English, or one-tenth of a French astronomical league), and also into sixty minutes and sixty seconds, to make it correspond to western notation ; this measure has not been adopted in common use. The present rulers have established

    post-houses very generally, at intervals of ten li^ or about a

    league. The land measures are the mao and l:’in<j ; the former

    measures 6,000 square <?/«’A, or 808.6 square yaixls, and a hundred

    of them make a king. Taxes are collected, land is leased,

    and crops are estimated by the mao and its decimal parts ; but

    examination has shown that the actual area of a inao grows less

    as one goes north ; in Canton, it is about 4.76 ‘tnao to an acre,

    and at Peking it is six, and even smaller.

    The weights and measures of the Chinese are twenty-four in

    all, and vary in their value even more than those of long measure.

    The common weights are called tael^ catty^ 2i\\^^ecul by

    foreigners ; their values are respectively \\ oz. av., 1|^ lb. av.,

    and 1331^ lbs. av., and thus roughly correspond to the English

    ounce, pound, and hundredweight. The Chinese deal in many

    articles l)y weight which among western nations are sold according

    to their quality—such as M’ood, silk, oil, whiskey, cloth, grain,

    poultry, etc.—so that it has been humorously observed that the

    Chinese sell everything by -weight, except eggs and children.

    Their common measures correspond nearly to our gill, half-pint,

    pint, and peck, and are used to retail rice, beans, etc. The smaller

    ones are not very accurately constructed from bamboo-joints,

    but the peck measure, or tec, shaped like tlie frustum of a

    pyramid, must be olRcially examined and sealed before it can

    MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. SIl

    be used; at Canton it contains 6^ catties weiglit, or about 1.13

    gallon. The decimals of the tael, called riiace^ eamlareen, and

    cash {tsitn, /an, and li), are employed in reckoning bullion,

    pearls, gems, drugs, etc.; ten cash making one candareen, ten

    candareens one mace, etc. The proportions between the Chinese

    and American moneys and weights is such that so many

    taels per pecul, or candareens per catty, is the same as so many

    dollars per hundredweight, or cents per pound.’

    The monetary system is arranged on the principle of weight,

    and the divisions have the same names, fael, mace, candareen,

    and cash. The only native coin is a copper piece called tsien,

    because it originally weighed a mace ; it is thin and circular,

    rather more than an inch in diameter, with a square hole in the

    middle for the convenience of stringing. The obverse bears

    the word ])ao, or ‘ current,’ and the name of the province in

    Manchu, on each side of the square hole ; the reverse has four

    words, Taulnran’j, tun’j^pno, i.e., ‘money current [during the

    reign of] Taukwang.’ Mints for casting cash are established

    in each provincial capital under the direction of the Board of

    lievenue. The coin should consist of an alloy of copper, 50 ;

    zinc, ^\\ ; lead, 6^ ; and tin, 2 ; or of equal parts of copper

    and zinc ; but it has been so debased by iron and reduced in

    size during the last fifty years that it does not pay to counterfeit

    it. Each piece should weigh 58 grains troy, or 3.78

    grammes, but most of those now in circulation are under 30

    grains, and the rate of exchange varies in different parts of the

    land from 900 to 1,800 for a silver dollar.

    The workmen in the mint are required to remain within the

    building except wdien leave of absence is obtained, but in spite

    of all the efforts of government, private coinage is issued to a

    great amount, and sometimes with the connivance of the mintmaster.

    ^ Chinese Repository, Vol. X.,p. 050; Chinese Chrestomathy ; Chinese Commercml Guide, Fifth Ed., pp. 2G5-288 ; Rondot, Commerce de la Chine, 1819.

    Neither silver nor gold has ever been coined to any extent in China. In seeking for the cause of this difference from all other Asiatic nations, it seems to lie in the commercial freedom which has done so much to elevate them. The government on the one hand is not strone; enono;]i to restrain counterfeiters, and not honest enough, on the other hand, to issue pieces of uniform standard for a series of years till it has obtained the (ioniidence of its subjects. It will not receive base metal for taxes, and cannot force merchants to accept adulterated coins. As its foreign relations extend it will no doubt be

    obliged to issue a better national currency in the three metals.

    Attempts have been made to introduce a silver piece of the size

    of a tael, and specimens were made at Shanghai in 1856. A

    large coinage of native dollars was attempted in Fuhkien and

    Formosa, about 1835, to pay the troops on that island. One of

    them indicated that the piece was ” pure silver for current use

    from the Chang-chau Commissariat ; [weight] seven mace two

    candareeiis^” The other was of the same weight and purity

    (417.4 grains troy), and besides the inscription in Chinese on

    the obverse, and in Mancliu on the reverse, it had an etfigy of

    the god of Longevity on the head and a tripod on the tail, to

    authenticate its official origin. These pieces were either melted

    or counterfeited to such an extent on their appearance, that they

    soon disappeared.

    Foreign dollars are imported in great quantities from Mexico

    and San Francisco, and form the medium of trade at the open

    ports. They are often stamped by the person who pays them

    out, which soon destroys thein as a coin, and they are then

    melted and refined to be cast into ingots of bullion, called shoes

    of sijcee, from sl-s.z’ or ‘fine floss’ ; these weigh from five mace

    to fifty taels, the larger pieces being stamped with the district

    magistrate’s title and the date, to verify them. They are from

    ninety-seven to ninety-nine per cent, pure silver, but small ingots

    of ten or fifteen taels weight are less pure than the large

    shoes, as they are called from their shape. Gold bullion is cast

    into “bars like cakes of India-ink in shape, weighing about ten

    taels, or hammered into thick leaves which can be examined but

    not separated by di-iving a punch through a pile of a hundred

    or more—a precaution against cheating. Large quantities are

    sent abroad in this shape.

    Taxes and duties are paid in sycee of ninety-eight per cent,

    fineness, and licensed bankers are connected with the revenue

    BANKING SYSTEM AND TAPER MONEY. 85

    department to wlioni tlie proceeds are paid, and who are allowed

    a small percentage for relining and becoming resjjonsible for its

    purity. Dollars and ingots are counterfeited, and all classes

    have them inspected by shrofs, who, by practice, are able to

    decide by the sight alone npon tiie degree of alloy in a piece of

    silver, though usually they employ touchstone needles to assist

    them, different degrees of fineness imparting a different color to

    the needle. Books are prepared as aids to the detection of counterfeit

    dollars ; in these the process of manufacture is carefully

    described ; some of the pieces are marvels of skill in forgery.

    Chartered banking companies are unknown, for a government

    warrant or charter would carry no weight with it, but

    private bankers are found in all large towns. Paper money

    was issued in immense quantities under the Mongol dynasty,

    and its convenience is highly praised by Marco Polo, who

    looked upon its emission by the Grand Khan as the highest

    secret of alchemy. Polo’s ideas of this operation would please

    the ‘* greenbackers ” in the United States. He says, when describing

    Kublai’s purchases : ” So he buys such a quantity of

    those precious things every year that his treasure is endless,

    while all the while the money he pays away costs him nothing

    at all. If any of those pieces of paper are spoilt the

    owner cariies them to the mint, and by paying three per cent,

    on the value he gets new pieces in exchange.” The total issues

    of this highest secret of alchemy during Kublai’s reign of tliirtyfour

    years are reckoned by Pauthier, the Yueji Annals, at equal

    to $624,135,500. The Khan’s successors, however, overdid the

    mamifacture, and when the people found out that they had

    nothing but paper to show for all the valuables they had parted

    with to the Mongols, it added strength to the rebellion of Ilungwu

    (a.d. 1359), which ended in their expulsion nine years afterward.

    The new dynasty was, nevertheless, obliged to issue its

    notes at tirst, but the mercantile instincts of the people soon

    asserted their power, and as industry revived they were superseded

    about 1455. The Manchus did not issue any Governmental

    paper till 1S5S, during the Tai-ping rebellion, and its circulation

    was limited to the capital from the first ; seeing that even then it was known to have no basis of credit or funds.

    A bank can be opened by any person or company, subject to certain laws and payments to Government, on reporting its organization. The number of these offices of deposit and emission is large in proportion to the business of a town, but their capital averages only two or three thousand taels; the number in Tientsin is stated at three hundred, at Peking it is less than four hundred, of which scores in each are mere branches. The check on over-issue of notes lies in the

    control exercised by the cleai’ing-house of every city, where the

    standing of each bank is known by its operations. The circulation

    of the notes is limited in some cases to the street or neighborhood

    wherein the establishment is situated ; often the

    payee has a claim on the payer of a bill for a full day if it be

    found to be counterfeit or worthless—a custom which involves

    a good deal of scribbling on the back of the bill to certify the

    names. Proportionally few counterfeit notes are met with, owing

    nioi’e to the limited range of the bills, making it easy to ask

    the bank, which recognizes its own paper by the check-tallies,

    of which the register contains two or three halves printed across

    the check-book. When silver is presented for exchange, the

    bills are usually, in Peking, iilled up and dated as the customer

    wishes while he waits for them. Their face value ranges from

    one to a hundred tiao, or strings of cash, but their worth depends

    on the exchange between silver and cash, and as this

    fluctuates daily, the bills soon And their way home. These

    notes are unknown in the southern provinces, where dollars

    have long circulated; but their convenience is so great that

    people are willing to run slight risks on this account. Hongkong

    bills circulate on the mainland to very remote districts.

    PAWNSHOPS AND POPULAR ASSOCIATIONS. 87

    Banks issue circular letters of credit to travel through the Empire, and the system of remittance by drafts is as complete as in Europe ; the rates charged are high, however, and vast sums of silver are constantly on the move. The habit of pawning goods is very general, and carries its disastrous results among all classes. There are three kinds of pawnshops, and the laws regulating them are strict and equitable ; the chief evil arising from their number is the facility they give to thieves. Pawn tickets are exposed for sale in the streets, and form a curious branch of traffic. These establishments are generally very extensive, and the vast amount of goods stored in them, especially garments and jewelry, shows their universal patronage.

    One pawnbroker’s warehouse at Tinghai was used by the English forces as a hospital, and accommodated between two and three hundred patients. The insecurity of commercial operations involves, of course, a high rate of interest, sometimes up to three per cent, a month, lowering according to circumstances to twelve or ten per cent, per annum. The legal pawnshops(tang ])iC) are allowed three years to redeem, and give three years’ notice of dissolution. The restrictions on selling pawned articles works injuriously to the shops, in consequence of rapid depreciation or risks to the articles. If a fire occurs on the premises the pawner claims the full amount of his pledge ; only one-half is paid if it communicates from a neighbors house.’

    One characteristic feature of Chinese society cannot be omitted

    in this connection, namely, its tendency to associate. It

    is a fertile principle ap[)lied to every branch of life, but especially

    conspicuous in all industrial operations. The people

    crystallize into associations ; in the town and in the country, in

    buying and in selling, in studies, in tights, and in politics, everybody

    must co-operate with somebody else—women as well as

    men. To belong to one or more hioui, and be identified with

    its fortunes, and enlisted in its struggles, seems to be the

    stimulus to activity, resulting from the democratic element in

    the Chinese polity, to M’hicli we are to refer the continuity as

    well as many singular features of the national character. In

    trade capitalists associate to found great banks, to sell favorite

    medicines, or engross leading staples ; little farmers club together

    to buy an ox, pedlers to get the custom of a street, porters

    to monopolize the loads in a ward, or chair-bearers to furnish

    all the sedans for a town. Beggars are allotted to one or two streets by their hicul, and driven off another’s beat if they encroach. Each guild of carpenters, silknien, masons, or even of physicians and teachers, works to advance its own interests, keep its own nienibei’S in order, and defend itself against its opponents. Villagers form themselves into organizations against the wiles of powerful clans ; and unscrupulous officials are met and balked by popular unions when they least expect it. Women and mothers get up a couipany to procure a trousseau, to buy an article of dress or furniture, to pay for a son’s wedding.

    ‘ Ed. Biot in Journcd Asiatiqw, 1837, Tome III., p. 422, and Tome IV., pp.97, 209; Cfatime CommercM Gnklf, 1863, pp. 264-275; N. C As. Journal,No. VI , pp. 52-71 ; Yule’s Marco Polo, 1871, Vol. I., p. 378-^85; Pauthier Le Litre de M. Polo, Cap. XCV., p. 319 ; Vissering On Chinese Currency, 1877,-Chinese Reipository, Vol. XX., p. 289 ; Doolittle’s Social Life, Vol. II., pp. 138-247; Notes and Queries on C- and J., Vol. II., p. 108.

    Associations are limited to a year, to a month, to a decade, according to their design. These various forms of co-operation teach the people to know each other, while they also furnish agencies for unscrupulous men to oppress and crush out their enemies, gratify their revenge, and intimidate enterprise. Nevertheless, until the people learn higher principles of morality, these habits of combining themselves bring more benefits to the whole body than evils, at the same time quickening the vitality of the mass, without which it would die out in brigandage and despair.’

    ‘ For an account of the money hwiii and details of their system, see M. Eug. Simon, Les Petites Societes d’Argent en Chine, N. C. Br. B. As. Soe. Journal No. v., Art. I. (1868).

    MILITARY SCIENCE AND IMPLEMENTS OF WAR. 89

    The theory of war has received more attention among the Chinese than its practice, and their reputation as an unwarlike people is as ancient and general among their neighbors as that of their seclusion and ingenuity. The Mongols and Manchus, Huns and Tartars, all despised the effeminate braggadocio of Chinese troops, and easily overcame them in war, but were themselves in turn conquered in times of peace. Minute directions are given in books with regard to the drilling of troops, which are seldom reduced to practice. The puerile nature of the examinations which candidates for promotion in the army pass through, proves the remains of the ancient hand-to-hand encounter, and evinces the low standard still entertained of what an officer should be. Personal courage and brawn are highly esteemed, and the prowess of ancient heroes in the battle-field is lauded in songs, and embellished in novels. The arms of the Chinese still consist of bows and arrows.

    spears, matchlocks, swords, and cannon of various sizes and

    lengths. The bow is used more for show in the military examinations,

    than for service in battle. Rattan shields, painted

    with tigers’ heads, are used on board the revenue cutters to turn

    the thrust of spears, and on ceremonial occasions, when the

    companies are paraded in full uniforms and equipments. The

    imiform of the difterent regiments of the luh-tjin<j or ‘ native

    army,’ consists of a jacket of brown, yellow, or blue, bordered

    with a wide edging of another color ; the trowsers are usually

    blue. The cuirass is made of quilted and doubled cotton cloth,

    and covered with iron plates or brass knobs connected by copper

    bands ; the helmet is iron or polished steel, sometimes inlaid,

    weighing two and one-fourth pounds, and has neck and ear lappets

    to protect those parts. The back of the jacket bears the

    word yung, ‘ courage,’ and on the breast is painted the service

    to which the corps is attached, whether to the governor, commandant,

    or Emperor. The exhibition of courage among Chinese

    troops is not, however, always deferred to the time when

    they run away, spite of the disparaging reputation they have

    obtained in this i-espect from their British conquerors—who

    have, nevertheless, on more than one occasion, been led to adujire

    the cool pluck of the same men when led by competent

    officers.

    The matchlock is of wrought iron and plain bore ; it has a

    longer barrel than a musket, so long that a rest is sometimes

    attached to the stock for greater ease in firing ; the match is

    a cord of hemp or coir, and the pan must be uncovered with the

    hand before it can be fired, which necessarily interferes with,

    and almosts prevents its use in wet or windy weather. The

    cannon are cast, and although not of very uniform calibre from

    the mode of manufacture, are serviceable for salutes. The

    ginjal ic a kind of swivel from six to fourteen feet long, resting

    on a tripod ; being less liable to burst than the cannon, it is the

    most effective gun the Chinese possess.

    Gunpowder was probably known to the Chinese in the latter

    part of the II an dynasty (a.d. 250), but its application in firearms

    at that time is not so plain. The exploits of Kung-ming

    in that period owe their interest to his use of gunpowder in modes like the Greek fire of the Byzantines, though the animated narratives of Lo Kwan-chung (a.d. 1300) in his History of the Three States, are not reliable history in this particular.

    Grosier (Vol. VIL, pp. 176-200) has adduced the evidences proving the use of powder at or before the Christian era. The inferences that Europe obtained it from India rather than China have, however, a good deal of weight. Early Arab historians refer to it as Chinese snow and Chinese salt—a fact which only shows its eastern origin—while the Chinese comx^und term of hioo-yioh, or ‘ fire drug,’ rather indicates a foreign source than otherwise.

    Mr. W. F. Mayers has searched out and collated a considerable

    mass of evidence from Chinese sources bearing upon the

    introduction of explosives in native warfare and ordinary life.

    The conclusions of this writer point both to a foreign origin of

    gunpowder in China, and a nnicli later use of the compound

    among their warriors than has generally been supposed. Coming,

    probably, from India or Central Asia about the fifth century

    A.D. the invention, he says, ” perhaps found its way into

    China in connection with the manufacture of fireworks for purposes

    of diversion ; and supplanting at some unascertained

    period the jiractice of producing a crepitating noise by burning

    bamboos as a charm against evil spirits.” No evidence exists

    of the use of gunpowder as an agent of warfare until the middle

    of the twelfth century, nor did a knowledge of its propulsive

    effects come to the Chinese until the reign of Yungloh, in the

    fifteenth century—a thousand years after its first employment

    in fire-crackers.’

    Fire-arms of large size were introduced toward the end of the

    Ming dynasty by foreign instructors ; ginjals and matchlocks

    were known four centuries earlier in all the eastern and central

    regions of Asia, but none of those people could forge or cast

    large artillery, owing to their imperfect machinery. The gunpowder

    is badly mixed and ti’itui-ated, though the proportions

    are nearly the sauje as our own. The native arms are now

    ‘ JVm’th CJiina Br. Royal Aniutic iSoc. JouriMl, 1870, No. VI., Art. V. Com

    pare Notes and Queries on G. and J.

    INVENTION AND USE OF GUNP0\YDER. 91

    rapidly giving place to foreign in the imperial army, and the

    establishment of four or live arsenals under the numagement of

    competent instructors, where implements of warfare of every

    kind are manufactured, will, ere long, make an entire change in

    Chinese weapons and tactics. Some of their brass guns were of

    • enormous size and great strength, but were of little use for

    practical warfare, owing to the bad carriages and rude means of

    working them.

    The uniforms of Chinese troops are not even calculated to

    give them a iine appearance when drawn up for parade, and

    no one, looking at them, can believe that men dressed in loose

    jackets and trousers, with heavy shoes and bamboo caps, could

    be trained to cope with western soldiers. Fans or umbrellas

    are often made use of on parade to assuage the heat or protect

    from the i-ain, while the chief object of these reviews is to

    salute and knock head before some high officer. In order to

    repress insurrection, the government has been frequently compelled

    to buy off turbulent leaders with office and rewards, and

    thus disorganize and scatter the enemy it could not vanquish.

    But however ridiculous the army and navy of the Chinese

    were half a century ago, in the isolation and ignorance which

    then held them, it cannot be alleged of what has been attempted

    within twenty 3’ears, and the promise of wdiat may be

    done in as numy more. The following resume of the qualities

    of the Chinese soldier, from experience with Col. Gordon^s

    “Ever Victorious Force” during the Tai-ping insurrection will

    be a, 2}roj)os of this subject to which this work cannot devote

    further space. ” The old notion is pretty well got rid of, that

    they are at all a cowardly people when properly paid and efticiently

    led ; while the regularity and order of their habits,

    whicli dispose them to peace in ordinary times, give place to a

    daring bordering upon recklessness in time of war. Their intelligence

    and capacity for remembering facts make them well

    fitted for use in modern warfare, as do also the coolness and

    calmness of their disposition. Physically they are on the

    average not so strong as Europeans, but considerably more

    30 than most of the other races of the East ; and on a cheap

    diet of rice, vegetables, salt fish, and pork, they can go through a vast amount of fatigue, whether in a temperate climate or a tropical one, where Europeans are ill-fitted for exertion. Their wants are few; they have no caste prejudices, and hardly any appetite for intoxicating liquors. Being of a lymphatic or lymphatic-bilious temperament, they enjoy a remarkable immunity from inflannnatory disease, and the tubercular diathesis is little known amongst them.””

    Their progress in real civilization is not to be fairly measured

    by their attainments in war, although it has been said that the

    two best general criteria of civilization among any people are

    superior skill in destroying their fellow men, and the degree of

    respect they pay to women. China falls far behind her place

    among the nations if judged by these tests alone, and in reality

    owes her present advance in numbers, industry, and wealth

    mainly to her peaceful character and policy. She would have

    probably presented a spectacle similar to the disunited hoi’des

    of Central Asia, had her people been actuated by a warlike

    spirit, for when divided into fifty or more feudal states, as was

    the case in the days of Confucius, she made no progress in the

    arts of life. The Manchu Emperors have endeavored to conquer

    their neighbors, the Birmans and Coreans, but in both

    cases had to be satisfied with the outward homage of a ]votou\

    and a few articles of tribute, when a formal embassy presented

    itself in Peking. The Siamese, Cochinchinese, Coreans, Tibetans,

    Lewchewans, and some of the tribes of Turkestan, are

    nominally vassals of the Son of Heaven, and their names remain

    on the roll of feifs. The first two have ceased to tsin

    hung, or send tribute, since about 1860 ; and the Lewchewans

    are not likely to revisit their old quarters at Peking in any capacity

    ; while the others derive advantage from the facilities of

    traffic which they are unwilling to give up.

    ‘Andrew Wilson, The ”Ever Victorious Army.” A RiHtory of the Chinese Vu»ip(.ii(/n under Lieut. -Vol.- (Jordou. London, lb08, p. 2G9.

    CHINESE POLICY AND PKACTICE IN WARFARE. 93

    The precepts of Confucius taught the rulers of China to conquer their neighbors by showing the excellence of a good government, for then their enemies would come and voluntarily range themselves vmder their sway; and although the kindness of the rulers of China to those fully in their power is as hypocritical as their rule is unjust, those nations who pay them this homage do it voluntarily, and experience no interference in their internal affairs. The maxims of Confucian polity, aided by the temper of the people, have had some effect, in the lapse of years, upon the nature of this quasi feudality. The weaker nations looked up to China, since they could look no higher, and their advances in just government, industry, and arts, is not a

    little owing to their political intercourse during past centuries.

    The Chinese Empire is a notable example of the admirable

    results of a peaceful policy ; and the sincere desire of every

    well-wnsher of his race doubtless is that this mighty mass of

    human beings may be Christianized and elevated from their

    present ignorance and weakness by a like peaceful infusion of

    the true principles of good order and liberty.

    Many treatises upon the art and practice of war exist, one of

    which, called the Soldier’s Manual^ in eighteen chaptei’s, contains

    some good directions. The lirst chapter treats of the

    mode of marching, necessity of having plans of the country

    through which the army is to pass, and cautions the troops

    against harassing tlie people unnecessarily—not a useless admonition,

    fur a body of Chinese soldiers is too often like a

    swarm of locusts upon the land. The second chaj)ter teaches

    the mode of buildino- bridges, the need there is of cautious explorations

    in marching, and of sending out scouts ; this subject

    is also continued in the next section, and directions given about

    castrametation, placing sentries, and keeping the troops on the

    alert, as well as under strict discipline in camp. The rest of

    the book is chiefly devoted to directions for the management of

    an actual battle, sending out spies beforehand, choosing positions,

    and bringing the various parts of the army into action at

    the best time. The hope of reward is held out to induce the

    soldier to be brave, and the threats of punishment and death if

    he desert or turn his back in time of battle.

    ‘ Chinese Eepositoi-y, Vol. XI., p. 487.

    The utility of music in encouraging the soldiers and exciting them to the charge is fully appreciated, but to our notions it no more deserves the name of music tliaii the collection ol half-drilled louts in petticoats does that of an arnn’, when compared with a European force. Still, its antiquity, if nothing else, renders it a subject of great interest to the musical student, while its power over the people seems to be none the less because it is unscientific. However small their attainments in the theory and practice of music, no nation gives to this art a higher place. It was regarded by Confucius as an essential part in the government of a state, harmonizing and softening the relations between the different ranks of society, and causing them all to move on in consentaneous accord. It is remarked of the sage himself that having heard a tune in one of his ramblings, he did not know the taste of food for three weeks after—but, with all deference to the feelings of so distinguished a man, we cannot help thinking his food might have been quite as palatable without music, if it was no better then than it is at the present day. The Chinese never had anything like the musical contests among the Greeks, and their efforts have been directed to develop instrumental rather than vocal music.

    The names and characters used for notes in vocal music are here given, though their real tone cannot be accurately represented by our staff. The second octave is denoted by affixing the sign jin, ‘a man,’ to the simple notes, or as shown in the second c7te, by a peculiar hooked bottom.

    -^ ng Tj j: K i fL 7*; ^ fL ji: J^i^h

    CHINESE MUSICAL NOTATION. 93

    Barrow says that the Chinese learned this mode of writing music from Pereira, a llomaii Catholic missionary, in 1670, but its existence in Japan and Corea invalidates this statement.

    There are two kinds of nmsic, known as the Southern and Northern, which differ in their character, and are readily recognized by the people. The octave in the former seems to have had only six notes, and the songs of the Miaotu and rural people in that portion of China are referable to such a gamut, while the eight-tone scale generally prevails in all theatres and more cultivated circles. Further examination by competent observers who can jot down on such a gamut the airs they hear in various regions of China, is necessary to ascertain these interesting points, which now seem to carry us back to remote antiquity, and have been noticed in other countries than China.

    In writing instrumental music, marks, meaning io jmsh^Jilli^p, hool; etc., are added to denote the mode of playing the string; the two are united into very complicated combinations. For instance, in writing a tune for the lute or kin, ” each note is a chister of characters ; one denotes the string, another the stud, a third informs you in what manner the lingers of the right hand are to be used, a fourth does the same in reference to the left, a fifth tells the performer in what way he must slide the hand before or after the appropriate sound has been given, and a sixth says, perhaps, that two notes are to be struck at the same time.” These complex notes are difficult to learn and remember, therefore the Chinese usually play by the ear. This mode of notation, in addition to its complexity, must be varied by nearly every kind of instrument, inasmuch as the combinations fitted for one instrument are inapplicable to another; but music is written for only a few instruments, such as the lute and the guitar.

    These notes, when simply written without directions condiined with them as described above, indicate only their pitch in a certain scale, and do not denote either the length or the absolute pitch ; they are written perpendicularly, and various marks of direction are given on the side of the column regarding the proportionate length of time in which certain notes are to be played, others to be trilled or repeated once, twice, or more times, and when the performer is to pause. Beats occur at regular intervals in some of the written tunes ; all muisic is in common time and no triple measures are used, yet time is pretty well observed in orchestras. Of harmony and counterpoint they know nothing ; the swell, diminish, flat, sharp, appogiatura, tie, and other marks which assist in giving expression to our written music, are for the most part unknown, nor are tunes set to any key. The neatness and adaptation of the European notation is better appreciated after studying the clumsy, imperfect mode which is here briefly described.’

    No description can convey a true idea of Chinese vocal music, and few persons are able to imitate it when they have heard it. De Guignes says, ” It is possible to sing a Chinese song, but I think it would be very difficult to give it the proper tone without having heard it by a native, and I rather believe that no one can perfectly imitate their notes.” They seem, in some cases, to issue from the larynx and nose, the tongue, teeth, and lips having little to do with them, the modulation being made mostly with the muscles of the bronchia ; at other times, the

    enunciation of the words requires a little more use of the lips

    and teeth. Singing is generall}’ on a falsetto key ; and this

    feature prevails throughout. Whether in the theatre or in the

    street, about the house or holding the guitar or lute, both men

    and women sing in this artificial tone somewhere between a

    squeal and a scream, and which no western musical instrument

    is able to imitate. Its character is plaintive and soft, not full

    or exhibiting much compass, though when two or three females

    sing together in recitative, not destitute of sweetness. Bass and

    tenor are not sung by men, nor a second treble by females, and

    the two performers are seldom heard together among the thousands

    of street musicians who get a precarious living by their

    skill in this line, as they accompany the guitar or rebeck. The

    chanting in Buddhist services resembles the Ambrosian and early

    Gregorian tones, and is accompanied only by striking a block

    ‘ Compare Dr. Jenkins in the Jmimal N. C. Br. R. A. S., Vol. V., 1868, pp.30 ff., and Rev. E. W. Syle in ib. Vol. II., 1859, p. 17G ; Pere Amiot in Mem.mnc. les CMnois, Vol. VI., pp. 1 ff.; Notes <ind Queries on C. and «/., Vol. IV.,Arts. 2 and ;}. Pt-rny Did., app. No. XIV., p. 443.

    CHINESE TUNES. 97

    and marking the time; the tenor voices of boys make a strong contrast to the gruff bass voices of the men in this service; some of the latter will carry their part as low as an octave below C or D in the bass, sounding most sepulchrally, like a trombone.

    Three of the tunes insei’ted in Barrow’s Travels are here quoted as specimens of Chinese airs The first is the most popular, the second, conmion at Shanghai, is called Liih ixvn^ or ‘ Six Boards,’ it has a strain at the beginning and end additional to the usual form.

    MOH-Ll HWA ; OR, THE JASMINE FLOWER.

    ^^^^xjimt^-

    Hao ye to sien hva, Yu chao yu jih

    How sweet this branch of fresh flower?, On the morn of the day

    I W=^

    e.^EiE^EfeiEi^^±^2

    loh tsai ICO kia,

    ’twas dropped in my house ;

    IVo pun tai puh chu mun,

    I’ll wear it myself, yet not out of doors,

    ^ ^^^P 3^ W

    Tui choh sien hira, ^rh loh.

    But will match it with others, and make myself glad.

    Hao ye to Moh-l’i hica,

    Miran yuen hwa kai sho puh kwei la,

    Wo pun tai tsz^ ye ta,

    Tai yu kung kan hira jin ma.

    How sweet this sprig of the jasmine flower!

    Through the whole plat there’s none to equal it;

    I myself will wear this new plucked sprig,

    Though I fear all who sec it will envy me.

    LUH PAN ; OK, THE SIX BOAKDS.

    ^

    ^^^^m^

    ^^^i^S^^^^^

    ^^^^^

    -^-

    aij=a- ^^^^^^^^

    ^=^ ^^^^^^s

    ^^^^^^^1^

    STRINGED INSTRUMENTS OF MUSIC. 99

    The literature on the art of music is large. One treatise on heating drums scientilically dates from ahom tne year 860 A D , and contains a list of about one hundred and twenty-nine symphonies, nuxny of which are of Indian origin Among the seventy-two instruments hriefly described in the C7unese Chrestoraathj, there are seventeen kinds of drums, from the large ones suspended in temples to assist in worship to others of lesser size and diverse shape used in war, in theatres, and in bands.

    Gongs, cjnibak, tambourines, and musical vases are also described

    in considerable variety ; the last consisting of a curious

    arrangement of twelve cups, more or less filled with water, and

    struck with rods. The Chinese are fond of the tinkling of

    small pieces of sonorous glass, caused by the wind striking them

    against each other as they are suspended from a frame or lamp.

    The simple succession of sounds arising from striking upon a

    liarmonicon, jingling these glasses together, or touching different

    sized cymbals suspended in a frame, is a favorite species of

    music.

    The stringed instruments to be played by thrumming are not as numerous as those of percussion, but they display more science. Nothing resembling the harp or Apollo’s lyre has been observed among them. The Z///, or ‘scholar’s lute,’ is considered as the most finished, and has received more attention than any other orchestral implement ; to excel in playing it is regarded as a scholarly accomplishment. A work entitled The Lute-l*laijcr”s Easy Lesmns, in two volumes, contains explanations of one hundred and nine terms and is illustrated by twenty nine pictures of the position of the hands to aid in a full understanding of the twenty-three sets of tunes given in the second volume. This lute, it may be added, is of very ancient origin and derives its name from the word Jcin, ‘ to prohibit,’ ” because it restrains and checks evil passions and corrects the human heart.” It is a board about four feet in length and eighteen inches wide, convex above and flat beneath, where are

    two holes opening into hollows. There are seven strings of silk,

    which pass over a bridge near the wide end through the board,

    and are tightened by nuts beneath ; they are secured on two

    pegs at the smaller end. The sounding-board is divided by

    thirteen studs, ” so placed that the length of the strings is

    divided first into two equal parts, then into three, etc., up to

    eight, with the omission of the seventh. The seven sti-ings inclose

    the compass of a ninth or two-fifths, the middle one being

    treated like A upon the violin, viz., as a middle string, and each

    of the outer ones is tuned a fifth from it. This interval is treated like our octave in the violin, for the compass of the Idn is made up of fifths. Each of the outer strings is tuned a fourth from the alternate string within the system, so that there is a major tone, an interval tone less than a minor third, and a major tone in the fifth. The Chinese leave the interval entire, and skip the half tone, while we divide it into two unequal parts. It will therefore readily appear that the mood or character of the music of the hln must be very different from that of western instruments, so that none of them can exactly do justice to the Chinese airs. One of the peculiarities in performing on the lute is sliding the left hand fingers along the string, and the trilling and other evolutions they are made to execute.”

    There are other instruments similar to the hin^ one with thirty, and another with thirteen strings, played with plectrums. The number of instruments resembling the guitar, lute, cithern, spinet, etc., is cousiderable, some with silken, others with wire strings, but none of catgut. The balloon-shaped guitar, or 2nj>c(-, has four strings arranged and secured like those of a violin; it is about three feet lung, and the unvarnished upper table has twelve frets to guide the performer. The strings are tuned at the intervals of a fourth, a major tone, and a fourth, so that the outer strings are octaves to each other; but the player generally avoids the semitones. The j’U”^ frequently accompanies the songs of strolling musicians and ballad singers. The san hlen, or ‘three-stringed guitar’, resembles a rebeck in its contour, but the neck and head is three feet long, and the body is cylindrical and hollow, usually covered with snake’s skin, upon

    which the bridjire is set. The strini:;s are tuned as fourths to

    each othei’, and in this respect it seems to be the counterpart of

    the Grecian mercurian ; their sound is low and dull, and the

    instrument is sometimes played in company with the 2n2>a.

    Another kind of guitar, called yueh kin, or ‘ full moon guitar,’

    has a large round belly and short neck, resembling the theorbo

    or arch lute of Europe, but with only four strings, while that

    had ten or more. These four strings stand in pairs that are

    unisons with each other, having an interval of a fifth interposed

    between the pairs. Tiie sound is smarter than that from the

    pij[)a or Jiin, and it is used in lively tunes, the strings being

    WIND INSTRUMENTS. 101

    struck briskly witli the iniil or .a plectriiin. Similar in its construction

    to the san hien is the rebeck, or two-stringed fiddle,

    tlie rude appearance of which corresponds to the thin grating

    sounds which issue from it. This instrument is merely a

    bamboo stick thrust into a cylinder of the same material, and

    having two strings fastened at one end of the stick on pegs, and

    passing over a bridge on the cylinder to the other end ; they

    are tuned at intervals of a fifth. The bow passes between the

    two sti-ings, and as they are near each other, much of the skill

    required to play it is exhibited in wielding the bow so as not to

    make discord by scraping it against the wrong string while tvying

    to produce a given sound. Europeans wonder how the Chinese

    can be delighted with the harsh gratings of this wretched

    machine, but none of their musical instruments are more popular,

    and the skill they exhibit in playing it deserves a better

    reward in the melody of the notes. A modification of it, called

    ti kin, or ‘crowing lute,’ is made by employing a cocoanut for

    the belly ; its sounds are, if anything, more dissonant.

    The 1/ang hin is a kind of dulcimer, consisting of a greater or

    less number of brass wires of different lengths, tuned at proper

    intervals, and fastened upon a sounding-board ; it is played with

    light hammers, and forms a rudimentary piano-forte, but the

    sounds are very attenuated. The samj is in like manner the

    embryo of the organ ; it is a hollow conical-shaped box, which

    corresponds to a wind -chest, having a mouthpiece on one side,

    and communicating with thirteen reeds of different lengths inserted

    in the top ; some of the tubes are provided with valves,

    part of them opening upward and part downward, so that some

    of them sound when the breath fills the wind-box, and others

    are only heard when it is sucked out and the air rushes down

    the tubes to refill it. The tubes stand in groups of four, four,

    three, two, around the top, and those having ventiges are placed

    so that the performer can open or close them at pleasure as he

    holds it. By covering the first set of holes and gently breathing

    in the mouthpiece, a sweet concert of sounds is produced,

    augmented to the octave and twelfth as the force of the breath

    is increased. By stopping certain groups, other notes, shriller

    and louder, are emitted ; and any single tube can be sounded by inhaling the wind from the wind-box and stopping the other holes. It is a simple thing and no doubt among the most ancient of musical instruments, but it possesses no scope nor means of varying the tone of the tubes. Mr. Lay thinks it to be identical in principle and form with the organ invented by Jubal ; the Chinese regard it more as a curious instrument than one possessing claims to adnuration or attention.

    Their wind instruments are numerous, but most of them are

    remarkable rather for clamor than sweetness or compass. The’

    h icang tih^ or flute, is about twice the length of our fife, and made

    of a bamboo tube neatly prepared and pierced with ten holes,

    two of which ai’e placed near the end and unused, and one midway

    between the enibouchuro and the six equidistant ones for the

    fingers. This additional hole is covered with a thin film ; the

    mouth-hole is bored about one-third of the way from the top.

    Tliei’e are no keys, and the performers generally blow upon the

    embouchure so violently that the sounds are shrill and harsh, but

    when several of them play together the concert is more agreeable.

    The congener of the flute is the iiliii tlh, or clarinet, which takes

    the lead in all musical performances, as it does in western bands.

    It has seven effective lioles, one of which is stopped by the thumb,

    but no kej-s; the bell is of coppor and sits loose upon the end,

    and the copper mouthpiece is ornamented Mith rings, and blown

    through a reed. The tones produced by it are shrill and deafening,

    and none of their instruments better characterize Chinese

    musical taste. A smaller one, of a sweeter tone, like a flageolet,

    is sometimes fitted with a singular shaped reed, so that it can be

    played upon by the nose. Street musicians sometimes endeavor

    to transform themselves into a travelling orchestra. One of

    these peripatetic Orpheuses will fit a flageolet to his nose, sling

    a small drum under one shoulder, and suspend a framework of

    four small cymbals upon the breast; the man, thus accoutred,

    aided by a couple of monkeys running after him, or sitting on

    his head and shoulders, goes from street to street singing a ])liiintive

    ditty, and accompanying his voice with his instruments,

    and drawing a crowd with his moidceys.

    The horn i-csenibles a trombone in principle, for the shaft is

    retractible within the cylindrical copper bell, and can be lengthtup:

    horn, gong, etc. 103

    ened at pleasure. The sound is very grave, and in processions

    its hollow booming forms a great contrast to the shrill clarinets

    and cymbals. Another kind of horn, less grave, is made of a

    crooked stem expanding into a small l)ell at tlie end ; the shaft

    is of two parts, one drawing into the other, so that the depth of

    tone can be modified. A long straight horn, resembling the

    funeral pipe of the Jews, is sometimes heard on funeral occasions,

    but this and the clarion, ti-umpet, and other kinds of pipes of

    ancient and modern make are not common.

    The Zo, or gong, is the type of Chinese music : a crashing harangue of rapid blows upon this sonorous plate, with a rattling accompaniment on small drums, and a crackling symphony of shrill notes from the clarinet and cymbal, constitute the chief features of their musical performances. The Emperor Kanghi endeavored to introduce foreign tunes and instruments among his courtiers, and the natives at Macao have heard good music from the Portuguese bands and choirs in that city from childhood, but not an instrument or a tune has been adopted by them.

    It seems to be a rule in Chinese music that the gong should only vary in rapidity of strokes, while the alternations of time into agreeable intervals are left to the drums. ” This want of perception as to what is pleasing in i-hythmical succession of sounds,” Lay well observes, ” is connected with another fact—the total absence of metrical effect in national poetry. The verses contain a particular number of words and set pauses in each line, but there is nothing like an interchange of long and short sounds. Among the Greeks the fall of the smith’s hammer, the stroke of the oar, and the tread of the soldier in armor suggested some poetic measure, and their music exhibits a world of curious metres. But nothing of the sort can be heard in China, amid all the sounds and noises that salute the ear in a noisy country.” It is probable that the impracticable, monosyllabic nature of the language has contributed to this result; though the genius and temperament of the people are the chief reasons.

    A Chinese orchestra or band, when in full note, strikes upon the ear of a European as a collection of the most discordant sounds, and he immediately thinks of Hogarth’s picture of the Enraged Musician, as the best likeness of its dissonance. It seems, when hearing them, as if each performer had his own tune, and was trying to distinguish himself above his competitors by his zeal and force ; but on listening carefully he will observe, amid the clangoi’, that they keep good time, one taking the octave, and the different instruments striking in with some regaj’d to parts, only, however, to confound the confusion still more because they are not tuned on the same key. Bands and orchestras are employed on occasions of marriages and funerals, theatrical exhibitions, religions or civic processions, and reception of officers, but not to a very great extent in temples or ancestral worship ; no nation makes more use of such music as they have than the Chinese. The people have an ear for music, and young men form clubs to learn and practise on various instruments and fit themselves for playing at weddings or birthday festivals. In respect to adopting foreign harmonies, which youths soon learn to appreciate when taught in mission schools, there is likely to be no competition, owing to the great differences between them. ‘

    From this account of Chinese mnsic, it may be readily inferred

    that it is not of such a character as to start the hearers off in a

    lively dance. A sort of nnimmer or posture-making is practised

    by persons attached to theatrical companies, and pantomimic

    art seems to have been understood in ancient times, but the

    exhibitions of it were probably as jejune as the caperings of

    puppets. As acrobats the Chinese are equal to any nation, and

    companies have performed in many western capitals within a

    few years past. Some of their performances are highly exciting,

    as throwing sharp cleavers at a man fastened to a post, till he

    cannot stir without cuttinji; himself afirainst their blades, is a

    common exhibition. To go through the tragedy of trying, con-

    ‘ Chinese as Ihey Are, Chap. VIII. Chinese Repository, Vol. VIII., pp. 30-54. Chinese Chrestouyithy, pp. 85G–3G5. Journal N. C. Br. R. A. Soc, No. II., 1859,p. 176 ; No. v., 1808, p. 30. Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Japan, 1877, Vol.v., pp. 170-179. German Asiatic Soc. of Japan, 1876. Grosier, Description fjenerale (U la Chine, Tome VI., p. 258. Doolittle, Soricd TAfe, Vol. II., p. 216. Barrow’s Travels, pp. 313-323. Memoires cone, les Chinois, Tomes I., III.,VI., etc.; for ancient musical knowledge, the last still furnishes the best analysis yet made.

    DANCING AND THE FINK ARTS. 105

    delnning, and killing a boy by stabbing him in the belly is not

    so connnon ; the imitation of the gasping chest and pallid death

    hue are wotiderfnlly natural. Ventriloquism, writing answers

    to questions asked of the spirits by means of rods moving over

    a dusted table, and other black art or magical tricks have long

    been known. In dancing and other forms of graceful motion

    they are entirely wanting, and one would almost as soon think

    of associating music and medicine as that Chinese music should

    be accompanied by quadrilles and cotillons, or that men witli

    shoes like pattens could lead off women with feet like hoofs

    through the turns and mazes of a waltz or fandango.

    Their deficiencies in music will not lead us to expect much from them in painting or sculpture, for all flow so much from the same general perception of the beautiful in sound, form, and color, that where one is deficient all are likely to be unappreciated.

    This want in Chinese mind (for we are hardly at liberty to call it a defect) is, to a greater or less degree, observable in all the races of Eastern Asia, none of whom exhibit a high appreciation of the beautiful or sublime in nature or art, or have produced much which proves that their true principles were ever understood. Painting is rather behind sculpture, but neither can be said to have advanced beyond rude imitations of nature.

    Even the best painters have no proper idea of perspective or

    of blending light and shade, but the objects are exhibited as

    much as possible on a flat surface, as if the painter drew his

    picture from a balloon, and looked at the country with a vertical

    sun shining above him. As might be inferred from their

    deficiencies in linear drawing and landscapes, they eminently

    fail in delineating the human figui-e in its right proportions,

    position, and expressions, and of grouping the persons introduced

    into a piece in natural attitudes. The study of the human

    figure in all its proportions lias not been attended to by

    painters any more than its anatomy has by surgeons. Shadows

    upon portraits are considered a great defect, and in order to

    avoid them a front view is usually taken. Landscapes are also

    painted without shading, the remote objects being as minutely

    depicted as those in the foreground, and the point of view in pieces of any size is changed for the nearer and remote pavts. There is no vanishing point to their pictures, as might be inferred from their ignorance of perspective and the true elements of art.

    Representation of a Man Dreaming.

    Outline drawing is a favorite style of the art, and the wealthy adorn their houses with rough sketches in ink of figures and landscapes; but the humblest of such compositions as are common in the galleries and studios of western countries have never been produced by Chinese artists. Some of their representations of abstract ideas are at least singular to us, and, like many other things brought from their country, attract notice from their oddity.

    ATTAINMENTS IN DRAWING AND COLORING. 107

    Their coloring is executed with great skill and accuracy—too much, indeed, in many cases, so that the painting loses something of the effect it would otherwise have from the scrupulous minuteness of the detail, though it looks well in paintings of flowers, animals, costumes, ornaments, and other single objects where this filling up is necessary to a true idea of the original. The tints of the Innnan countenance are no better done, however.

    than its liueaiiieiits, aiul the lifeless opacity suggests the idea

    that the artist was not called in until his patron was about to

    be entombed from the sight of his soi-rowing family. The

    paintings obtained at Canton may, some of them, seem to disprove

    these opinions of the mediocrity attained by the artists

    in that country, but the productions of the copyists in that city

    are not the proper criteria of native uneducated art. Some of

    them have had so nnich practice in copying foreign productions

    that it has begun to cori-ect their own notions of designing.

    These constitute, however, a very small proportion of

    the whole, and have had no effect on national taste. The designs

    to 1)0 seen on plates and bowls are, although not the best,

    fairer specimens of art than the pieces sometimes procured at

    Canton. The beautiful fidelity with which engravings are

    copied at Canton is well seen in the paintings on ivory, especially

    miniatures and figures, some of which fully equal similar

    productions made elsewhere.’

    As samples of Chinese illustrative art, the two adjoining

    wood-cuts may be considered as quite up to the average of

    their fairest achievements. The story of the first in bi-ief is as

    follows: In the district of Tsungngan lived a crafty plebeian,

    who, envying the good fortune of all about him, became especially

    covetous of the burial ground of his district magistrate

    Chu. Hoping to gain a surreptitious benefit from the

    felicitous luck of the plat, he secretly buried his own tombstone

    there, and at the end of several years brought suit for its

    recovery. Unable to comprehend the affair, Chu repaired to

    the burial spot, where indeed the geomancy of the grave was

    found to be entirely in accord with the rules, but upon removing

    the earth the stone of his enemy’s remote ancestry was disclosed.

    ‘ Compare Owen Jones, Grammnr of Ornament, Chap. XIV. , and Examples of CMiieHe Ornament (London, 18()7). Gazette des Beaux-Artu for October and November, 187:5, and January, 1874.

    The Vengeance of Heaven upon the False Grave.

    EXAMPLES OF CHINESE ILLUSTRATIVE ART. 109

    The suit was in consequence declared against him, Chu removed his residence to the black tea country, and his envious neighbor entered in triumph upon possession of the graveyard. Not so readily, however, did the powers above condone this iniquity. One night there arose a tempest of unheard-of violence, when the thunder iuul lightning were indescribable, the hideons roar and Hash of which terrified the countiy far and near, boding no good to its wretched inhabitants. The following morning the grave was discovered in ruins, stone and epitaph uprooted, even the corpse and coffin missing. The vengeance of liea\eu had repaired tlu; injustice of man.

    The illustration which depicts the tempest personified in its

    full terror shows us the Lai Kttiuj, or God of Thunder, almost

    the only Chinese mythological deity who is drawn with wings.

    The cock’s head and claws, the hammer and chisel, representing

    the splitting peal attending a flash, the circlet of fire encompassing

    a number of drums to typify the reverberating thunder

    and the ravages of the irresistible lightning, present a grotesque

    ensemble which is quite unique even among the Vizarrerie of

    oriental figures ; the somewhat juvenile attempts of the artist

    to sketch the destruction and rifling of the grave are much less

    notable.

    Concerning the subject of the second illustration (taken, with the other, from the Sacred Edict of Kangxi), we are told that one Yuen, having conceived a violent hatred against an acquaintance, set out one morning, knife in hand, with the purpose of killing him. A venerable man sitting in a convent saw him pass, and was amazed to observe several scores of spirits closely following him, some of whom clutched his weapon, while others seemed endeavoring to delay his progress. “About A would-be Assassin followed by Spirits.

    SYMBOLISM OF THE CHINESE. Ill

    the space of a meal-time” the patriarch noticed Yueirs return, accompanied this time by more than a hundred spirits wearing golden caps and bearing banners raised on high. Yuen himself appeared with so happy a face, in place of his gloomy countenance of the early morning, that the old man sadly concluded that his enemy must be dead and his revenge gratified. ” When you passed this way at daybreak,” he asked, ” where were you going, and how do you return so soon ? ” ” It was owing to my quarrel with Miu,” said Y^ien, ” that made me wish to kill him. But in passing this convent door better thoughts came to me as I pondered upon the stress his wife and children would come to, and of his aged mother, none of whom had done me wrong. I determined then not to kill him, and return thus promptly

    from my evil purpose.” It hardly needed the sage’s commendations

    to increase the reformed murderer’s inner contentment,

    imparted by the train of ghostly helpers ; he continued on his

    way rejoicing. The reader may notice a pictoi-ial idea as well

    as a moral not unlike those of more western countries.

    The syml)olisni of the Chinese has not attracted the notice of

    foreign writers as much as it deserves. It meets us everywhere—

    on plates and crockery, on carpets, rugs, vases, wall

    pictures, shop signs, and visiting cards. Certain animals stand

    for well-understood characters in the language, and convey

    their sense to the native without any confusion. Owing to the

    similarity of sound, fuh denotes hat and ha_i>p\nem, and luh

    stands for deer and official emolument. The cliaracter shao,

    mtaning ‘longevit}’,’ is represented in many ways—an old man

    leaning on his staff; a pine tree cut into the form of the character;

    a tortoise, which is among the longest-lived reptiles; a

    stork, supposed to be a bird which attains a great age, and a

    fabulous peach which is a thousand years ripening. A dragon

    and a phoenix, c^x fung-iokang, are emblems of a newly wedded

    pail*, and various modes of combination are adopted to represent

    marriage relations.

    A rug w’ill sometimes tell a story very neatly to the eye. In the centre is the Raxtstica, or ‘hammer of Thor,’ which denotes all., and symbolizes all happiness that humanity desires. On the right is the luh, or ‘deer,’ which denotes honor and success in study, carrying the yii-‘i, or Buddhist scepter, in its mouth, meaning success in literary labors. On the left is pictured a goose, indicating domestic felicity, and two bats complete the rug, with its good wishes.

    In the plate represented in the picture the central figure is clad in the ancient costume of officials bearing the insignia or baton of a minister of State. The old man, with his gourd and peach, indicates an extreme and happy old age; and the figure with the basket corresponds to the cornucopia of western emblems. The five bats symbolize the wufu, or ‘five happinesses,’ which all mankind desires— riches, longevity, sound body, love of virtue, and a peaceful end.

    Symbols of Happiness and Old Age. (From a plaque.)

    The visiting card and note paper often indicate in their adornments a good wish and a motto which does credit to the taste and heart of the designer. A most graceful and not nncommon way of wishing a guest good luck is to depict some happy emblem or a sentence of the language with a fortunate meaning on the bottom of his tea-cup. The characters ” May your happiness know no bounds ” frequently occur in this position, and the oft-recurring five bats or three peaches can be employed with like signification. The mandarin duck is a well understood emblem for conjugal affection ; again, a cock and hen standing on an artificial i”ock-work symbolize the pleasures of a country life. Sometimes the eight symbols peculiar to the Buddhist sect, or the pah s/’en (‘ eight genii’) indicative of their protection, are seen in the border of a plaque amid a device of running arabesques. The favorite dragon, in an infinite diversity of shapes, adorns the fiiici- qualities of cups, plates, bowls, and vases, to represent imperial grandeur, but common people are not wont to use such patterns.

    PAINTING ON PITir-I’ArER AND LEAVES. 113

    The brilliant paintings on pith-paper, or rice-paper as it is commonly but incorrectly called, deserve special mention for their singular delicacy and spirit. This substance, whose velvety surface contrasts so admirably with bright colors, is a delicate vegetable film, consisting of long hexagonal cells, whose length is parallel to the surface of the film, and which are filled with air when the film is in its usual state ; the peculiar softness

    which so well adapts it for receiving colors is owing to tliis

    structure. It is obtained from the pith of a species of Fatsia, a

    plant allied to the Aralia, growing in Formosa and Yunnan, in

    nuirshy districts. It is cultivated to some extent, but mostly

    gathered \i\ cutting the branches of the wild plants, which resemble

    the elder. This pitli forms a large item in the internal

    trade of China, and is worked up into toys as well as cut into

    sheets. The fragments are used to stuff pillows or fill up the

    soles of shoes, or wherever a light, dry material is needed. The

    largest and best sheets (ten l)y fifteen inches) are selected for

    the painters at Hongkong and Canton, where many hundreds

    of workmen are employed in making them. Under the direction

    of foreign ladies at Amoy and elsewhere, most accurate

    imitations of flowers and bouquets are now made I)y natives out

    of pith-paper. The pieces are cut nearly a foot long, and the

    pith is forced out by driving a stick into one end ; it is then wet

    and put into bamboos, where it swells and dries straight. If

    too short to furnish the i-equired breadth, several bits are pressed

    together until they adhere and make one long straight piece.

    The paring knife reseml)lcs a butcher’s cleaver, a thin find

    sharp l)]ade, which is touched u]) on a block of iron-wood at the

    last moment. The pith is pared on a square tile, having its

    ends guarded by a thin strip of ])rass, on which the knife rests.

    The pith is rolled over against its edge with the left hand ; the

    right firmly holds it, slowly moving it leftward, as the workman

    pulls and rolls the pith in the same direction, as far as the tile

    allows. The pared sheet runs under the knife, and the paring

    goes on until only a center three or four lines thick is left ; and this remnant the thirifty workmen use or sell for an aperient The paring resembles the operation of cutting out corks, and

    produces a smooth slieet about four feet long, the first half foot

    being too much grooved to be of use. The fresh sheets are

    pressed in a pile, smoothed by ironing and their fractures

    mended with mica. Most of the paper is trimmed into square

    sheets for the makers of artificial fiowers, and sold in Formosa

    at about eight cents for five hundred sheets. An India-ink outline

    is first transferred l)y dampening and pressing it upon the

    paper, when the ink strikes off sufliciently to enable the workman

    to fill up the sketch ; one outline will serve for limning

    several copies, and in large establishments the separate colors

    are laid on by different workmen. The manufacture of these

    paintings at Canton employs between two and three thousand

    hands.

    Another tissue sometimes used by the Chinese for painting,

    more remarkable for its singularity than elegance, is the reticulated

    nerve-work of leaves, the parenchyma of the leaf having

    been removed by maceration, and the membrane filled with

    isinglass. The appearance of a painting on this transparent

    substance is pretty, but the colors do not retain their brilliancy.

    The Chinese admire paintings on glass, and some of the moonlight

    scenes or thunderstorms are good specimens of their art.

    The clouds and dark parts are done with India-ink, and a dark

    shade well befitting the subject is imparted to the whole scene

    by underlaying it with a piece of blackish paper. Portraits and

    other subjects are also done on glass, but the indifferent execution

    is rendered still more conspicuous by the transparency of

    the ground ; the Hindus purchase large quantities of such glass

    pictures of their gods and goddesses. Looking-glasses are also

    painted on the back with singular eifect by removing the quicksilver

    with a steel point according to a design previously sketched, and then painting the denuded portion.

    CHINESE SCULPTURE AND CARICATURE. 115

    Statuary is confined (thiefiy to molding idols out of clay or cutting them from wood, and carving animals to adorn balus’ trades and temples. Idols are generally made in a sitting posture and dressed, the face and hands being the only parts of the body seen, so that no opportunity is afforded for imitating the muscles and contour of tlie figure. The hideous monsters which

    guard the entrance of temples often exhibit more artistic skill

    than the unmeaning images enshrined within, and some even

    display much knowledge of character and proportion. Among

    their best performances in statuettes are the accurate baked and

    painted models of different classes of people ; Canton and Tientsin

    artists excel in this branch.

    Animals are sculptured in granite and cast in bronze, showing

    great skill and patience in the detail work ; deformity in the

    model has resulted in the production of such animals, indeed, as

    were probably never beheld in any world. Images of lions,

    tigers, tortoises, elephants, rams, and other animals ornament

    bridges, temples, and tombs. The elephants in the long avenue

    of warriors, horses, lions, etc., leading up to the tomb of the

    Emperor Ilungwu at Xanking are the only tolerable representations

    of their originals ; the gigantic images guarding the

    tomb of Yungloh, his son, at Changping, near Peking, are

    noticeable for size alone. The united effect of the elaborate

    carving and grotesque ornaments seen upon the roofs, woodwork,

    and pillars of buildings is not devoid of beauty, though in their

    details there is a great violation of the true principles of art,

    just as the expression of a face may please which still has not a

    handsome feature in it. Short columns of stone or wood, surmounted by a lion, and a dragon twining around the shaft, the whole cut out of one block ; or a lion sejant with half a dozen cubs crawling over his body, are among the ornaments of temples and graves which show the taste of the people.

    The Chinese have a sense of the ridiculous, and exhibit it

    both in their sculpture and drawing in many ways. Lampoons,

    pasquinades, and caricatures are common, nor is any pei’son

    below the dragon’s throne spared by their pens or pencils, though

    they prefer subjects not likely to involve the authors—as in the

    one here selected from the many elicited during the war of 1840.

    By far the best specimens of sculpture are their imitations of

    fruits, flowers, animals, etc., cut out of many kinds of stone,

    from gnarled roots of bamboo, wood, and other materials ; but

    in these we admire the unwearied patience and cunning of the

    workmen in making gi’otesque combinations and figures out of apparently intractable materials, and do not seek for any indications of a pni’e taste or embodiment of an exalted conception.

    Inscriptions of a religions or geomantic cliai’acter are often cntnpon the faces of rocks, as was tlie case in India and Arabia,* and tlie pictnrescpie characters of the language make a pretty appearance in such situations.

    Caricature of an English Foraging Party.

    The small advances made in architecture have already been noticed in Chapter XIII.—a deficiency exhibited in the Iluns and other nations of the Mongolian stock long after they had settled in Europe and Western Asia ; nor was it imtil their amalgamation with the imaginative nations of Southern Europe

    had changed their original character that grand performances

    in architecture appeared among the latter. If the Chinese had

    a model of the Parthenon or the Pantheon in their own

    country, belike they would measurably imitate it in every part,

    but they would erect dozens in the same fashion. Perhaps

    an infusion of elegance and taste would liave been imparted to

    them if the people had had frequent intercourse witii more im-

    ‘ Compare Job XXX., 24.

    LIMITATIONS OF TIIKIll AlinilTKOTURE. 117

    ainiiative nations, 1)ut wlicn tlici’c wei-c no models of this superior

    kind to follow there was no likelihood of their originatihg

    them. In lightei’ edifices, as ])avilions, rest-houses, kiosks,

    and arbors, there is, however, a degree of taste and adaptation

    that is umisual in other buildings, and (juite in keeping with

    their fondness for tinsel and gilding rather than solidity and

    grandeur. On this point Lay’s remark on the characteristics of

    the Attic, Egyptian, Gothic, and Chinese styles is apposite.

    ” If we would see beauty, size, and proportion in all their excellence,

    we should look for it among the models of Greece ; if

    we desire something that was wild and stupendous, we should

    find it in Egypt ; if grandeur with a never-sated minuteness of

    decoration please us, we need look no further than to a cathedral

    ; and lastly, if the romantic and the old-fashioned attract

    our fancy, the Chinese can point us to an exhaustless store in

    the recesses of their vast Empire. A lack of science and of conception

    is seen in all their luiildings, but fancy seems to have

    had free license to gambol at pleasure ; and wdiat the architect

    wanted in developing a scheme he made up in a redundancy of

    imagination.”

    The Chinese have made but little progress in investigating the principles and forces of mechanics, but have practically understood most of the common powers in the various applications of which they are capable. The lever, wheel and axle, wedge and pinion, are all known in some form or other, but the modification of the wedge in the screw is not frequent. The sheave blocks on board their vessels have only one pulley, but they understand the advantages of the windlass, and have adopted the capstain in working vessels, driving piles, raising timber, etc. They have long understood the mode of raising weights by a hooked pulley running on a rope, attached at each end to a cylinder of unequal diameters; by this contrivance, as the rope wound around the larger diameter it ran off the snuiller one, raising the weight to the amount of the difference between the circumference of the two cylinders at a very small expense of strength. The graduations of the weighing-beam indicate their acquaintance with the relations between the balance and the weight on the long and short arm of the lever, and this mode of weighing is preferred for gold, pearls, and other valuable things. The overshot water-wheel is used to turn stones for grinding wheat and set in motion pestles to hull rice and press oil from seeds, i’,nd the undershot power for raising water.

    There is a great expenditure of human strength in most of their contrivances; in many, indeed, the object seems to have been rather to give a direction to this strength than to abridge it. For instance, they put a number of slings under a heavy stone and carry it off bodily on poles, in preference to making a low car to roll it away at half the expense of human power.

    In other departments of science the attainments of the people are few and imperfect. Chemistry and metallui’gy are unknown as sciences, but many operations in them are performed with a considerable degree of success. Sir J, Davis gives the detail of some experiments in oxidizing quicksilver and preparation of mercurial medicines which were performed by a native in the presence and at the request of Dr. Pearson at Canton, and ” afforded a curious proof of similar results obtained by the most different and distant nations possessing very unequal scientific attainments, and bore no unfavorable testimony to Chinese shrewdness and ingenuity in the existing state of their knowledge.” ‘ The same opinion might be safely predicated of their metallurgic manipulations; the character of the work is the only index of the efficacy of the process. In bronzes they take a high place, and the delicacy of their niello work in gold and silver, upon wood as well as metal, caimot be surpassed.

    ‘ The Chinese, Vol. II., pp. 260-270, 28G.

    IDEAS ON Till-: STKUt’TUIlE OF TIIK IIFMAN HODY. 119

    This compendious review of the science of the Chinese can be brought to a close by a brief account of their theory and practice of medicine and surgery. Although they are almost as superstitious as the Hindus or North American Indians, they do not depend upon inc^antations and charms for relief in case of sickness, but resort to the prescriptions of the physician as the most reasonable and likely way to recover; mixed up, indeed, with many strange practices to assist the efficacy of the doses. These vary in every part of the Empire, and show the power of ignorance to perpetuate and strengthen the strangest superstitions where health and life are involved. Doolittle has collected many instances, and the experience of medical missionaries is uniform in this matter.

    The dissection of the human hody is never attempted, though

    some notions of its internal structure are taught in medical

    works, which are published in many forms. Mr. Wylie notices

    fifty-nine treatises of a medical and physiological character in

    his Notes on Chinese Literature. They contain references to

    a far greater number of authors, some of whom flourished in

    the earliest days of China, and many of whose writings exhibit

    good sense and sound advice amid the strangest theories. Dr.

    Harland has deseril)ed the Chinese ideas of the organization of

    the body and the functions of the chief viscera in a lucid manner,

    and the diagram shown on p. 120 presents the popular

    opinions on this subject, for whatever foreigners may have imparted

    to them has not yet become generally known.

    The Chinese seem to have no idea of the distinction between venous and arterial blood, nor between muscles and nerves, applying the word hin to both tendons and nerves. According to these physiologists, the brain (A) is the abode of the yln principle in its perfection, and at its base (B), where there is a reservoir of the marrow, communicates through the spine with the whole body. The larynx (C) goes through the lungs directly to the heart, expanding a little in its course, while the pharynx(D) passes over them to the stomach. The lungs («, «, r/, a^ a, a) are white, and placed in the thorax; they consist of six lobes or leaves suspended from the spine, four on one side and two on the other; sound proceeds from holes in them, and they rule the various parts of the body. The centre of the thorax (or pit of the stomach) is the seat of the breath; joy and delight emanate from it, and it cannot be injured without danger. The heart {h) lies underneath the lungs, and is the prince of the body ; thoughts proceed from it. The pericardium {<) comes from and envelops the heart and extends to the kidneys.

    There are three tubes communicating from the heart to the spleen, liver, and kidneys, but no clear ideas are held as to their office. Like the pharynx, they pass through the diaphragm, which is itself connected with the spine, ribs, and bowels. The Chinese Notions of the Internal Structure of the Human Body.

    /I,/?—The brain. C—Larynx. D—Pharynx. a,a,«,«,rt,

    a—Lungs. 6—Heart, c—Pericardium. U—Bond of connection

    with tho spleen, e—The (Esophagus. /—Boiidnf

    connection with the liver, (j—Bond of connection with

    the kidneys, h—The diaphragm, i—Cardiac extremity.

    ;—The spleen, i—The stomach. /—Omentum. »«—The

    pylorus. n,n,n,n,n.v—The liver, o—The gall-blndder.

    ;>—The kidneys, q—The small intestines, r—The largo

    intestines, s—Caput coli. i—Thc navel, m—The blad

    tier. ?’—The “gate of life.”‘ sometimes iiUu-ed in the

    right kidney, zo—The rectum, x, y—The urinal and

    foecal passages.

    liver (??, ;?, ??, 71, v, 71) io

    on the right side and has

    seven lobes ; the soul resides

    in it, and schemes

    emanate from it ; tlie

    gall-bladder (0) is below

    and projects npward into

    it, and when the person

    is angry it ascends ; courage

    dwells in it ; hence

    the Chinese sometimes

    procure the gall-bladder

    of animals, as tigers and

    bears, and even of men,

    especially notorious bandits

    executed for their

    crimes, and eat the bile

    contained in them, under

    the idea that it will impart

    courage. The spleen

    {J) lies between the stomach

    and diaphragm and

    assists in digestion, and

    the food passes from it

    into the stomach {k), aud

    hence through the pylorus

    {m) into the large intestines.

    The omentum [l) overlies the stomach, but its office is unknown, and the mesentery and pancreas are entirely omitted.

    TIIEOKIES REGARDING OSTEOLOGY AND CIRCULATION. 121

    The small intestines {(j) are connected with the heart, and the urine passes through them into the bladder, separating from the food or fseces at the caput coli iV), where they divide from the larger intestines.

    The large intestines (/) are connected with the lungs and

    lie in the loins, having sixteen convolutions. The kidneys {j))

    are attached to the spinal marrow, and resemble an egg in shape,

    and the subtle genei-ative fluid is eliminated by them above to the

    brain and belo\v to the spermatic cord and sacral extremity ; the

    testes, called wal shin, or ‘outside kidneys,’ communicate with

    them. The right kidney, or the passage from it (v), is called

    the ” gate of life,” and sends forth the subtle fluid to the spermatic

    vessels. The bladder (u) lies below the kidneys, and receives

    the urine from the small intestines at the iliac valve.

    The osteology of the frame is briefly despatched : the pelvis, skull, forearm, and leg are considered as single bones, the processes of the joints being quite dispensed with, and the whole considered merely as a kind of internal framework, on and in which the necessary fleshy parts are upheld, but with which they have not much more connection by muscles and ligaments than the post has with the pile of mud it upholds. The TaiYiYuan, or Medical College at Peking, contains a copper model of a man, about six feet high, on which are given the names of the pulses in different places ; it is pierced with many small holes. In a.d. 1027 the Emperor had two anatomical figures made to illustrate the art of acupuncture, which is still practised. The irrigation of the body with blood is rather complicated, and authors vary greatly as to the manner in which it is accomplished. Some pictures represent tubes issuing from the fingers and toes, and running up the limbs into the trunk, where the}’ are lost, or reach the heart, lungs, or some other organ as well as they can, wandering over most parts of the body in their course.

    Theories are furnished in great variety to account for the nourishment of the body and the functions of the viscera, and upon their harmonious connection with each other and the five metals, colors, tastes, and planets is founded the well-being of the system; with all they hold an intimate relation, and their actions are alike built on the all-pervading functions of the yin and yang—those universal solvents in Chinese philosophy. The pulse is very carefully studied, and its condition regarded as the

    Bar,

    mp:dical puactice of the Chinese. 123

    The practice of the Chinese is far in advance of their theory, and some of their treatises on dietetics and medical practice contain good advice, the result of experience. Dr. W. Lockhart has translated n native treatise on midwifery, in which the author, conlining himself principally to the best modes of treatment in all the stages of parturition, and dwelling brieii}’ on the reasons of things, has greatly improved upon the physiologists.

    This branch of the profession is almost entirely in the hands of

    women. Sui-gical operations are chietly confined to removing a

    tooth, puncturing sores and tumors with needles, or trying to

    reduce dislocations and reunite fractures by pressure or bandaging.

    Sometimes they successfully execute more difficult

    cases, as the amputation of a finger, operation for a harelip,

    and insertion of false teeth. In one case of dentistry four incisor

    teeth made of ivory were strung upon a piece of catgut

    and secured in their place b}- tying the string to the eye-teeth ;

    they were renewed quarterly, and served their purpose tolerably

    M’ell. The practice of acupuncture has some good results among

    the bad ones.* That of applying cauteries and caustics of various

    degrees of power is more general, and sometiuies entails

    shocking distress upon the patient. Cases have presented themselves

    at the hosj)itals, where small sores, by the application of

    escharotics, have extended until a large part of the tissue, and

    even important organs, have been destroyed, the charlatan

    amusing his suffering patient by promises of ultimate cure.

    The moxa, or burning the fiovvers of the amaranthus upon the

    skin, is attended with less injury.

    ‘Compare Ri’mnsat {Xoiiveau.r Melangen Asiatiqves, Tome I., pp. 358-380),

    Tui-ning in of the eyelashes is a common ailment, and native practitioners attempt to cure it by everting the lid and fastening it in its place by two slips of bamboo tightly bound on, or by a pair of tweezers, until the loose fold on the edge sloughs off: the eye is, however, more frequently disfigured by this clumsy process than is the trouble remedied. Poultices made of many strange or disgusting substances are applied to injured parts, who says that the first notion of acupuncture as practised in China was brought into Europe by one Ten-Rhyue, a Dutch surgeon, at the end of the seventeenth century.

    Dr. Parker mentions the case of a man who, having injured

    tlie iris by a fall, was ordered by his native physician to cut a

    chicken in halves, laying one portion on the eye as a cataplasm

    and eating the other as an internal cure. Venesection is rarely

    attempted, but leeches and cupping are employed to remove the

    blood from a particular spot. Blood-letting is disapproved in

    fevers, ” for,” says the Chinese reasoner, ” a fever is like a pot

    boiling ; it is requisite to reduce the fire and not diminish the

    liquid in the vessel if we wish to cure the patient.”

    Many of the operations in cases of fracture present a strange

    mixture of folly and sense, proceeding from their ideas of the

    internal structure of the human body conliicting with those

    which common sense and experience teach. Pere Ripa’s description

    of the treatment he underwent to prevent the ill effects

    of a fall will serve as an illustration. Having been thrown

    from his horse and left fainting in the street, he was carried

    into a house, wdiere a surgeon soon visited him. ” He made

    me sit up in bed, placing near me a large basin filled with

    water, in which he put a thick piece of ice to i-educe it to a

    freezing point. Then stripping me to the waist, he made me

    stretch my neck over the basin, while he continued for a good

    while to pour the water on my neck with a cup. The pain

    caused by this operation upon those nerves which take their

    rise from the pia mater was so great and insufferable that it seemed to me unequalled, but he said it would stanch the blood and restore me to my senses, which was actually the case, for in a short time my sight became clear and my mind resumed its powers. He next bound my head with a band drawn tight by two men who held the ends, while he struck the intermediate parts vigorously with a piece of wood, which shook my head violently, and gave me dreadful pain. This, he said, was to set the brain, which he supposed had been displaced, and it is true that after the second operation my head felt more free.

    THE PKACTICK OF CHINESE PHYSICIANS. 125

    A third operation was now performed, during which he made me, still stripped to the waist, walk in the open air supported by two persons; and while thus walking he unexpectedly threw a basin of freezing cold water over my breast. As this caused me to draw my breath with great vehemence, and as my chest had been injured b)- the fall, it may easily be imagined what were my sufteriiigs under this inlliction ; but I was eonsoled by the information that if any i-ib had been dislocated,

    this sudden and hard breathing would restoie it to its natui-al

    position. The next ])roceeding was not less painful and extravagant.

    The operator made me sit on the ground, and, assisted

    by two men, held a cloth upon my mouth and nose till I was

    almost suffocated. ‘ This,’ said the Chinese Esculapius, ‘ by

    causing a violent heaving of the chest, will force back any rib

    that may have been dislocated.’ The wound in my head not

    being deep, he healed it by stuffing it with burnt cotton. He

    then ordered that I should continue to walk much, supported

    by two persons ; that I should not sit long, nor be allowed to

    sleep till ten o’clock at night, at which time I should eat a little

    thin rice soup, lie assured me that these walks in the open

    air while fasting would prevent the blood from settling upon

    the chest, where it might corrupt. These remedies, though

    barbarous and excruciating, cured me so completely that in

    seven days I was able to resume my journey.” ‘

    The active daily practice of a popular Chinese doctor may be

    very well illustrated from Dr. Ilobson’s description of one Ta

    wang siensang, or ‘ Dr. Hhubarb,’ a medical practitioner in

    Canton. This man, after prescribing for the sick at his office

    until the hour of ten in the morning, would commence his rounds

    ” in the sedan chair carried in great haste by three or four men.

    Those patients were visited first who had their names and

    residences first placed in the entry book, and as the streets were

    narrow and crowded, to avoid trouble in finding the house, a

    copy of the doctor’s sign-board would be posted up outside the

    patient’s door, so that the chairmen should be able at once to

    recognize the house without delay.”

    ‘ Pere Ripa, Memoirs and Residence ai Peking^ translated by F. Prandi, Loudon,1844, p. G7.

    The doctor being ushered into the hall, or principal room, is met with bows and salutations by the father or elder brother of the family. Tea and pipes are offered in due form, and he is requested to feel his patient’s pulse’; if a male, he sits opposite to him; if a female, afcreeii of bamboo intervenes, which is only removed in case it is requisite to see the tongue. The right hand is placed upon a book t»^ steady it, and the doctor, with much gravity and a learned look, places his three fingers upon the pulsating vessel, pressing it alternately with each finger on the inner and outer side, and then making with three fingers a steady pressure for several minutes, not with watch in hand, to note the frequency of its beats, but with a thoughtful and calculating mind, to diagnose the disease and prognosticate its issue. The fingers being removed the patient immediately stretches out the other hand, which is felt in the same manner.

    Perhaps certain cpiestions are asked of the father or mother concerning the sick person, but these are usually few, as it is presumed the pulse reveals everything needful to know. Ink and paper are produced and a prescription is written out, which consists of numerous ingredients, but there are one or two of only prime importance —the rest are servants or adjuvants. They are all taken from the vegetable kingdom, and are mostly simples of little efficacy. The prescription is taken to a di-nggist to be dispensed; the prescriber seldom makes up the medicine himself, and as large doses are popular (a quid j»;yv’ J^^^), so the decoction made from the whole amounts to pints or even quarts, which are swallowed in large portions with the greatest ease; powders, boluses, pills, and electuaries are also use(). If the patient is an officer of the government or a wealthy person, the nature of the disease, prognosis, and treatment are written down for the inspection of the family ; for this the doctor’s fee is a dollar. But generally speaking, both the doctor and the patient’s friends are quite satisfied with a verbal communication; and if the man has a gift for speaking and has brass enough to use it to his advantage (both of which are seldom wanting in timeserving men), he will describe with a learned, self-satisfied air the ailment of the patient, and the number of days it will take to cure him. The fee is wrapped up in red paper, and called “golden thanks,” varying, in amount from fifteen to seventy cents or more, according to the means of the patient; the chair bearers being paid extra. The doctor returns to make another visit if invited, but not otherwise. It is more common, if the patient is not at once benefited by the prescription, to pall in another, then a third, then a fourth, and even more, until tired of physicians (for the Chinese patience is soon exhausted, and their faith by no means strong in all their doctors’ asseverations) they have, as a last resort, application made to one of the genii, or a god possessing wonderful healing powers. The result is that the patient dies or lives, not according to the treatment received, for that must be generally inefficacious, but according as his natural strength is equal to surmount the difficulties by which he is surrounded.’

    ‘ Dr. James Henderson in Journal of the N. C. Br. of Royal Asiatic Society,1864, No. r, p. 54.

    Dr. Hobson has given an analysis of 442 medicinal agents enumerated in one of the popular dispensatories; of the whole number, 314 are vegetable, 50 mineral, and 78 animal. The author gives the name of each one, the organ it affects, its properties, and lastly the mode of its exhibition. Medicines are arranged under six heads—tonics, astringents, resolvents, purgatives, alteratives of poisonous humors, and of the blood. Among the agents employed are many strange and repulsive substances, as snake-skins, fossil bones, rhinoceros or hart’s horn shavings, silk-worm and liuinan secretions, asbestos, moths, oyster-shells, etc. Calomel, vermilion, red precipitate, minium, arsenic, plumbago, and sulphate of copper are among the metallic medicines used by physicians ; Dr. Henderson enumerates thirty three distitu’t mineral medicines. The number of apothecary shops in towns indicates the great consumption of medicine; their arrangement is like the druggist shops in the west, though instead of huge glass jars at the windows filled with bright colored liquids, and long rows of vials and decanters in glass cases, three or four branching deer’s horns are suspended from the walls, and lines of white and black gallipots cover the shelv’es. Hartshorn is reduced to a dust by filing, for exhibition in consumption. Many roots, as rhubarb, gentian, etc., are prepared by paring them into thin laminae; others are powdered in a mortar with a pestle, or triturated in a narrow iron trough in which a close-fitting wheel is worked. The use of acids and reagents is unknown, for they imply more knowledge of ciiemistry than the Chinese possess. Vegetable substances, as camphor, myrrh, ginseng, rhubarb, gentian, and a great variety of roots, leaves, seeds, and barks, are generally taken as pills or decoctions. Many valuable I’ecipes will probably be discovered in their books as soon as the terms used are accurately ascertained, and a better acquaintance with the botany and mineralogy enables the foreign student to test them intelligently.

    The people sometimes cast lots as to which one of a dozen doctors they shall employ, and then scrupulously follow his directions, whatever they may be, as a departure therefrom would vitiate the sortilege. Sometimes an invalid will go to a doctor and ask for how much he will cure him, and how soon the cure can be performed. He states the diagnosis of his case, the pulse is examined, and every other symptom investigated, when the bargain is struck and a portion of the price paid. The patient then receives the suitable medicines, in quantity and variety better fitted for a horse than a man, for the doctor reasons that out of a great number it is more likely that some will prove efficacious, and the more he gets paid for the more he ought to administer. A decoction of a kettleful of simples is drunk down by the sick man, and he gives up both working and eating; if, however, at the expiration of the time specified he is not cured, he scolds his physician for an ignorant charlatan who cheats him out of his money, and seeks another, with whom he makes a similar bargain, and probably with similar results. Sagacious observance of cause and effect, symptoms and pains, gradually give a shrewd physician great power over his ignorant patients, and some of them become both rich and influential; a skillful physician is termed the “nation’s hand.”

    DISEASES PREVALENT IN CHINA. 129

    A regular system of fees exists among the profession, but the remuneration is as often left to tiie generosity of the patient. New medicines, pills, powders, and salves are advertised and pufPed by flaunting placards on the walls of the streets, some of them most disgustingly obscene; but the Chinese do not puff new nostrums by publishing a long list of recommendations from patients. The various ways devised by persons to dispose of their inediciiies exhibit much ingenuity. Sometimes a man, having spread a mat at the side of the street, and marshalled his gallipots and salves, will commence a hai-angne npf>n the goodness and efficacy of his preparations in loud and eloquent tones, until he has collected a crowd of hearers, some of whom he manages to persuade will he the better for taking some of his potions. He will exhibit their efficacy by first pounding his naked breast with a brick till it is livid, and then immediately healing the contusion by a lotion, having previously fortified the inner parts with a remedy; or he will cut open his tiesh and heal the wound in a few moments by a wonderful elixir, which he alone can sell. Others, more learned or more professional, erect a pavilion or awning, fluttering with signs and streamers, and quietly seat themselves under it to wait for customers; or content themselves with a flag perched on a pole setting forth the potency of their pills. Dentists make a necklace of the rotten teeth they have obtained from the jaws of their customers, and perambulate the streets with these trophies of their skill hanging around their necks like a rosary. In general, however, the Chinese enjoy good health, and when ill from colds or fevers, lie abed and suspend working and eating, which in most cases allows nature to work her own cure, whatever doses they may take. They are perhaps as long-lived as most nations, though sanatory statistics are wanting to enable us to form any indisputable conclusions t)n this head.

    The classes of diseases which most prevail in China are ophthalmic,

    cutaneous, and digestive ; intermittent fevers are also

    connnon. The great disproportion of affections of the eye has

    often attracted observation. Dr. Lockhart ascribes it partly to

    the inflammation which often comes on at the commencement

    of winter, and which is allowed to run its course, leaving the

    organ in an ujiliealthy condition and very obnoxious to other

    diseases. This inflammation is beyond the skill of the native

    practitioners, and sometimes destroys the sight in a few days.

    Another fruitful source of disease is the practice of the barbers

    of turning the lids over and clearing their surfaces of the mucus

    which may be lodged there, lie adds: ”If the person’s eyes be

    examined after this process, they will be found to be very red

    and irritated, and in process of time chronic conjunctivitis supervenes,

    wliicli being considered proof of insutiicient cleansing,

    the practice is persisted in, and the inner surface of the lid becomes

    covered with granulations. In other cases it becomes

    indurated like thin parchment, and the tarsal cartilages contract

    and induce entropium.” Dense opacity of the cornea itself is

    frequently caused by this harherous practice, or constant pain

    and weeping ensues, both of which materially injure the sight,

    if the patient does not lose it. The practice of cleansing the

    ears in a similar way frequently results in their serious injury,

    and sometimes destruction. When the ill effects of such treatment

    of these delicate organs must be plain to eveiy obser\ing

    person in his own case, it is strange that he should still allow the

    operation to be repeated.

    The physicians in charge of the missionary hospitals successfully

    established at so many cities in Eastern China have

    attended more to tumors, dislocations, wounds, and surgical

    cases, ophthalmic and cutaneous diseases, than to common clinical

    ailments. The hospitals here spoken of are little more than

    dispensaries, with a room or two for extreme or peculiarly interesting

    cases ; there is little visiting the natives at their own houses.

    Asthma, even in boys, is common at Amoy, and consumption

    at Canton and Chusan. Intermittent fevers prevail more

    or less wlierever the cultivation of rice is carried on near villages

    and towns. Elephantiasis is known between Shanghai and

    Canton, but in the southern provinces leprosy seems to exist as

    its equivalent. This loathsoma disease is regarded by the

    Chinese as incurable and contagious. Lazar-houses are provided

    for the residence of the infected, but as the allowance of poor

    patients is insuthcient for their support, they go from street to

    street soliciting alms, to the great annoyance of every one. As

    soon as it appears in an individual, he is immediately separated

    from liis family and driven forth an outcast, to herd with others

    similarly afPected, and get his living from precarious charity.

    The institution of lazarettoes is ])raisewortliy, hut they fail of

    affording relief on account of the mismaiiagonient and peculation

    of those who have their supervision ; and those who cannot get

    DISEASES PREVALENT IN CHINA. 131

    in are obliged to live in a village set apart for tliein north of

    the city. Lepers can intermarry among themselves, but on

    account of })overty and other causes they do not often do so,

    and the hardships of their lot soon end their days. This disease

    will probably exist among the Chinese until houses are

    built more above the ground, better ventilation of cities and

    improvement in diet are adopted, when it will disappear as it

    has in Southern Europe.

    Diseases of an inilammatoiy nature are not so fatal or rapid

    among the Chinese as Europeans, nor do consumptions carry

    off so large a proportion of the inhabitants as in the United

    States. Dyspepsia has been frequently treated ; it is ascribed

    by Dr. Hepburn to the abundant use of salt provisions, pickled

    vegetables, and fish, irregularity in eating, opium smoking, and

    immoderate use of tea ; though it nuiy be questioned whether

    the two last reasons are more general and powerful at Amoy

    than Canton, where dyspepsia is comparatively rare. The surgeons

    at the latter place have successfully treated hundreds of

    cases of stone, losing less than fifteen per cent, of all. Some of

    the patients were under ten years, and a few of the calculi

    weighed nearly half a pound. This malady is almost md^nown

    in Xorthern China. The diseases which result from intemperate

    and licentious habits are not as violent in their effects as

    in countries where a greater use of animal food and higher living

    render the system more susceptible to the noxious consequences

    of the virus.

    The existence of tumors and unnatural growths in great abundance and variety is satisfactorily accounted for by the inability of the native practitioners to remove them. Those which had a healthy growth increased until a moi-bid action supervened, and consequently sometimes grew to an enormous size. A peasant named IIu Lu went to England in 1831 to have an abdominal tumor extirpated weighing about seventy pounds; he died under the operation. No patients bear operations with more fortitude than the Chinese, and, owing to their hnnphatic temperament, they are followed with less inflammation than Is usual in European practice. CToitre is very common in the mountainous regions of the northern provinces ; Dr. Gillan estiniatcd that nearly one-sixth of the inhahitants met In the villages on the high land between Peking and Jeh ho were atflicted witli this deformity, which, however, is said not to be so considered by the vilLigers themselves.

    The Asiatic cholera has been a great scourge in China, but does not often become an epidemic anywhere, though sporadic cases constantly occur. It raged at Ningpo in May, 1S20, and an intelligent native doctor informed Mr. Milne ‘ that it was computed that ten thousand persons were carried off by it in the city and department of Kingpo during the summers of 1820-23. In 1842 it prevailed at Amoy and Changchau and their vicinity ; more than a hundred deaths daily occun-ed at the former place for six or seven weeks. It raged violently at Hangchau in Chehkiang during the years 1821 and 1 822, persons dropping down dead in the streets, or dying within an hour or two after the attack ; many myriads were computed to have

    fallen victims, and the native doctoi’s, finding their remedies

    useless, gave up all treatment. It carried off multitudes in

    Shantung and Iviangsu during the same years, and was as titful

    in its progress in China as in Europe, going from one city to

    another, passing by towns apparently as obnoxious as those

    visited. The plague is said to have existed in KSouthern China

    about the beginning of the sixteenth centui-y, but it has not

    been heard of lately.

    ‘ Chinese llepository, Vol. XII., p. 487.

    XATIVE TREATISES 0\ MKDICINE. 133

    Small-pox is a terrible scath, and although the practice and utility of vaccination have been known for fifty years past at Canton, its adoption is still limited even in that city. It was introduced in 1820 by Dr. Pearson, of the East India Company’s establishment, and native assistants were fully instructed by him in the practice. Vaccination has now extended over all the Eighteen Provinces, and the government has given its sanction and assistance; it is chiefly owing to the heedlessness of the people in not availing themselves of it in time that it has, done no more to lessen the ravages of the disease. Where children were gratuitously vaccinated it was found almost impossible to induce parents to bring them ; and Mdien the children had been va(!cinated it was increasingly difficult to get them to return to allow the physician to see the result of the operation. Inoculation has long been practised by inserting a pledget in the nostrils containing the virjs; this mode is occasionally adopted in vaccination. The slovenly habits of the people, as well as insufficient protection and unwholesome food, give rise to many diseases of the skin, some of them incurable.

    The science of medicine attracted very early attention, and there are numerous treatises on its various branches. But the search for the liquor of immortality and the philosopher’s stone, with careful observations on the pulse as the leading tests of diseases, have led them astray from accurate diagnosis age after affe. The common classification of diseases is under nine heads, viz., those which affect the pulse violently or feebly, those arising from cold, female and cutaneous diseases, those needing acupunetui-e, and diseases of the eyes, the mouth and its parts, and the bones. A professor of each of these classes is attached to the imperial family, who is taken from the Medical College at Peking; but he has no. greater advantages there than he could get in his own reading and practice. Xo museums of morbid or comparative anatomy exist in the country, nor are there any lectures or dissections ; and the routine which old custom has sanctioned will go on until modern practice, now rapidly taking its place, wins its way. Section CCXCYII. of the code orders that ” whenever an unskillful practitioner, in administering medicine or using the puncturing needle, proceeds contrary to the established forms, and thereby causes the death of a patient, the magistrate shall call in oilier practitioners to examine the medicine or the wound, and if it appear that the injury done was unintentional, the practitioner shall then be treated according to the statute for accidental homicides, and shall not be any longer allowed to practise medicine.

    But if designedly he depart from the established forms, and deceives in his attempt to cure the malady in order to obtain property, then, according to its amount, he shall be treated as a thief; and if death ensue fmiu his malpractice, then, for having thus used medicine with intent to kill, he shall be beheaded.” ‘ This statute is seldom carried into execution, however, and the doctors are allowed to kill and cure, secundum, artem., as their patients give them the opportunity, Natural history, in its various branches of geologj, botany, zoology, etc., has received some attention, because the objects which come under it could not escape the notice of all the writers in Chinese literature. As sciences, however, none of them have an existence, and they are studied chiefly for their assistance in furnishing articles for the materia medica of the native physician. To these persons nothing comes amiss, and, like the ingredients of the bubbling, bubbling caldron of Macbetli’s witches, the stranger it is the more potent they think a dose will be ; in this particular they now act very much as the faculty did in England two centuries ago. It is to be regretted that their investigation should have taken such a direction, but the man of commanding influence has not yet arisen to direct their researches into nature and divert them from the marvelous and theoretical. On the whole, it may be said that in all departments of learning the Chinese are unscientific ; and that while they have collected a great variety of facts, invented many arts, and brought a few to a high degree of excellence, they have never pursued a single subject in a way calculated to lead them to a right understanding of it, or reached a proper classification of the information they possessed relating to it.
    ‘ Chinese CJirestomnthy, Chap. XVI., pp. 497-532. Asiatic Soc. Transactions, Hongkong, Art. III., 1847; No. III., 1852, Art. III. Jour. iV. C Br. R. A. Soc, No. I., 1864, and No. VI., 1809. W. Lockhart, Medical Missionary in China, 1861. Chinese Repository, passim. Porter Smitli’s Contributions to Chinese Materia Medira, Shanghai, 1871. Fliickiger & Hanbnry,Pharmacofiraphia, London, 1874. China Retieir, Vol. I., p. 176; Vol. III.,p. 224. J. Dudgoon, The Diseases of China, Glasgow, 1877; id. iu the Chinese Recorder, Vols. U., III., and IV., passim.

    CHAPTER XVII. HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY OF CHINA

    The history of the Chinese people has excited less attention among western scholars than it deserves, though in some respects no nation offers more claims to have its chronicles carefully and fairly examined. The belief is generally entertained that their pretensions to antiquity are extravagant and ridiculous, and incompatible with the Mosaic chronology ; that they not only make the world to have existed myriads of years, but reckon the succession of their monarchs far beyond the creation, and ascribe to them a longevity that carries its own confutation on its face. In consequence of this opinion, some have denied the credibility of native historians altogether, and the whole subject of the settlement and early progress of this ancient race has been considered beyond the reach, and almost unworthy the attempt, of sober investigation. This erroneous and hasty conclusion is gradually giving way to a careful inquiry into those histories which show that the early records of the sons of Han contain much which is worthy of credence, and much more that is highly probable. A wide field is here opened for the researches of a Gibbon or a Kiebuhr; for as long as we are destitute of a good history of China and its connections with other Asiatic nations, we shall not only be unable to form a correct opinion respecting the people, but shall lack many important data for a full illustration of the early history of the human race. It is easy to laud the early records of the Chinese to the skies, as French writers have done ; and it is quite as easy to cry them down as worthless—manufactured in after ages to please the variety of their writers. The reputation both people and records have received is owing, in some measure, to this wulue laudation and depreciation, as well as to the intrinsic merits and defects of their histories. These, however, still mostly remain in their originals, and will require the united labors of many scholars to be full}’ brought to light and made a part of the world’s library.

    The enormous difficulties arising from the extent and tedious minuteness of native historians, coupled with the scarcity of translators competent or willing to undertake the labor of even such a resume of these works as will satisfy rational curiosity, are now being slowly overcome, both by Chinese and foreign students. These researches, it is to be earnestly hoped, will be rewarded by promoting a juster estimate in the minds of both classes of their relative positions among the nations of the earth.

    China, like other countries, has her mythological history, and it should be separated from the more recent and received, as her own historians regard it, as the fabrication of subsequent times. She also has her ancient history, whose earliest dates and events blend confusedly with the mythological, but gradually grow more credible and distinct as they come down the stream of time to the beginning of modern history. The early accounts of every nation whose founding was anterior to the practice of making and preserving authentic records nnist necessarily be obscure and doubtful. What is applicable to the Chinese has been true of other ancient people : ” national vanity and a love of the marvelous have intiuenced them all, and furnished materials for many tales, as soon as the spirit of investigation has supplanted that appetite for wonders which marks the infancy of nations as well as of individuals.”‘ The ignorance of the ” art preservative of all arts ” will greatly explain the subsequent record of the wonderful, without supposing that the infancy of nations partook of the same traits of weakness and credulity as that of individuals. There is neither space nor time in this work to give the details concerning the history and succession of dynasties that have swayed the Middle Kingdom, for to one not specially engaged in their examination their recital is proverbially dry ; the array of uncouth names destitute of lasting interest, and the absence of the charm of association with western nations render them nnin\ iting to the general reader. Some account of the leading events and changes is all that is necessary to explain what has been elsewhere incidentally referred to.’

    THE STUDY OF EARLY CHINESE HISTORY. 137

    Chinese historians have endeavored to explain the creation and origin of the world around them ; but, ignorant of the sublime fact that there is one C^reator who upholds his works by the word of his power, they have invented various modes to account for it, and wearied themselves in theorizing and disputing with each other. One of them, Yangtsz’, remarks, in view of these conflicting suppositions: “Who knows the affairs of remote antiquity, since no authentic records have come down to us? He who examines these stories will find it difficult to believe them, and careful scrutiny will convince him that they are without foundation. In the primeval ages no historical records were kept. Why then, since the ancient books that described those times were burnt by Tsin, should we misrepresent those remote ages, and satisfy ourselves with vague fables? However, as everything except heaven and earth must have a cause, it is clear that they have always existed, and that cause produced all sorts of men and beings, and endowed them with their various qualities. But it must have been man who in the beginning produced all things on earth, and who may therefore be viewed as the lord, and from whom rulers derive their dignities.”

    This extract is not a bad example of Chinese writers and historians ; a mixture of sense and nonsense, partially laying the foundation of a just argument, and ending with a tremendous non-se(putur, apparently satisfactory to themselves, but showing pretty conclusisely how little pains they take to gather facts and discuss their bearings. Some of these writers imagine that the world owes its existence to the retroactive agency of the dual powers yhi and yang, which first formed the outline of the universe, and were themselves influenced by

    ‘ Among the works which will repay perusal on this topic are Mailla’s //?’.’»’tfdre (le l<i Chwe and Pauthier’s Cliinr, in Frendi, and Du Halde’s Jl/sfnry.

    translated into English ; besides the briefer compilations of Murray, (irosier,Chitzluff, Davis, and more recently of Boulger and llichthofeii, Band I.

    their own creations. One of the most sensible of their aatliors says: Heaven was formless, an utter chaos ; the whole mass was nothing but confusion. Order was first produced in the pure ether, and out of it the universe came forth ; the universe produced air, and air the milky-way. When the pure male principle yang had been diluted, it formed the heavens ; the heavy and thick parts coagulated, and formed the earth. The refined particles united very soon, but the union of the thick and heavy went on slowly; therefore the heavens came into existence first, and the earth afterward.

    From the subtle essence of heaven and earth, the dual principles yia and yang were formed ; from their joint operation came the four seasons, and these putting forth their energies gave birth to all the products of the earth. The warm effluence of the yang being condensed, produced fire ; and the finest parts of fire formed the sun. The cold exhalations of the yin being likewise condensed, produced water ; and the finest parts of the watery substance formed the moon. By the seminal influence of the sun and moon, came the stars.

    Thus heaven was adorned with the sun, moon, and stars ; the earth also received rain, rivers, and dust.’ But this acute explanation, like the notions of Ilesiod among the Greeks, was too subtle for the common people ; they also

    wanted to personify and deify these powers and operations, but

    lacking the imaginative genius and fine taste of the Greeks,

    their divine personages are outrageous and their ideal beings

    shapeless monsters. No creator is known or imagined who,

    like Brahm, lives in space, ineffable, formless ; but the first

    being, Pwanku, had the herculean task to mould the chaos

    which produced him and chisel out the earth that was to contain

    him. One legend is that ” the dual powers were fi.xed

    when the primeval chaos separated. C’haos is bubbling turbia

    water, which enclosed and mingled with the dual powers, like

    a chick in ovo, but when their offspring Pwanku appeared their

    distinctiveness and operations were apparent. Pwdn means a

    ‘ basin,’ referring to the shell of the egg ; lu means ‘ solid,’ ‘ to

    secure,’ intending to show how the first man Pwanku was

    hatched from the chaos by the dual powers, and then settled

    and exhibited the arrangement of the causes which produced

    him.”

    Chinese Repositoin/, Vol. III., p. 55.

    CHINESE COSMOGONY. 139

    The Pationalists have penetrated furthest into the Daedalian mystery of this cosniogoiiy,’ and they go on to show what Pvvanku did and how he did it. They picture him holding a chisel and niahet in his hands, splitting and fashioning vast Pwanku Chiselling Out the Universe.

    ‘ For the Buddhist notions of cosmography and creation, see Remusat,Melattges PoHthmneii, pp. G5-131.

    masses of gvanite lioating confusedly in space. Behind the openings his powerful hand has made are seen the sun, moon, and stars, monuments of his stupendous labors; at his right hand, inseparable companions of his toils, but whose generation is left in obscurity, stand the dragon, the phoenix, and the tortoise, and sometimes the unicorn, divine types and progenitors with himself of the animal creation. His efforts were continued eighteen thousand years, and by small degrees he and his work

    increased ; the heavens rose, the earth spread out and thickened,

    and Pwanku grew in stature, six feet evevy day, till, his labors

    done, he died for the benefit of his handiwork. His head

    became mountains, his breath wind and clouds, and his voice

    thunder ; his limbs were changed into the four poles, his veins

    into rivers, his sinews into the undulations of the earth’s surface,

    and his flesh into fields ; his beard, like Berenice’s hair,

    was turned into stars, his skin and hair into herbs and trees,

    and his teeth, bones, and marrow into metal?, rocks, and precious stones ; his dropping sweat increased to rain, and lastly (nascltur ridiculus mus) the insects which stuck to his body were transformed into people!

    Such was Pwanku, and these Mere his works. But these grotesque myths afford none of the pleasing images and personifications of Greek fable or Egyptian symbols ; they fatigue without entertaining, and only illustrate the children imagination of their authors. Pwanku was succeeded by three rulers of monstrous forms called the Celestial, Terrestrial, and Human sovereigns, impersonations of a trinity of powers, whose traces and influences run through Chinese philosophy, religion, and politics ; their acts and characters are detailed with the utmost gravity, and more than Methusalean longevity allowed them to complete their plans. Their reigns continued eighteen thousand years (more or less according to the author quoted), during which time good government commenced, men learned to eat and drink, the sexes united, sleep was invented, and other improvements adopted. One would think, if the subjects of these wonderful beings were as long-lived, great perfection might have been attained in these and other useful arts; but the mysterious tortoise, conq)anion of Pangu, on whose carapace was written, in ta<l])olo-headed characters, the history of the anterior world, did not survive, and their record has not come doM’u. After them flourished two other niouai’chs, one of them called

    MYTHS OF THE CREATION. Hi

    Youchao, which means ‘having a nest’, and the other Suiren, or ‘match-man’. Whether the former invented nests for the abodes of his subjects, such as the Indians on the ()i’iuo(;o have, is not stated ; but the hitter brought down tire from heaven for them to cook with, and became a second, or rather the first, Prometheus.

    These fancies are gathered from a popuhir summary of knowledge, called the Coral Forest of Ancient Matters and from the opening chapters of history Made Easy. A higher style of philosophizing is found in C’liu Ill’s disquisition, from which an extract has been given in Chapter XII. Another on Cosmogony will show that he comes no nearer to the great fact of creation than ancient western writers.

    In the beginning heaven and earth were just the light and dark air. This one air revolved, grinding round and round. When it ground quickly much sediment was compressed, which, having no means of exit, coagulated and formed the earth in the center. The subtle portion of the air then became heaven and the sun, moon, and stars, which unceasingly revolve on the outside. The earth is in the center and motionless ; it is not below the center.

    Heaven revolving without ceasing, day and night also revolve, and hence the earth is exactly in the centre. If heaven should stand still for one moment, then the earth must fall down ; but heaven revolves quickly, and hence much sediment is coagulated in the centre. The earth is the sediment of the air; and hence it is said, the light, piu-e air became heaven, the heavy, muddy air became earth.

    At the beginning of heaven and earth, before chaos was divided, I think there were only two things—fire and water; and the sediment of the water formed the earth. When one ascends a height and looks down, the crowd of hills resemble the waves of the sea in appearance : the water just flowed like this. I know not at what period it coagulated. At first it was very soft, but afterward it coagulated and became hard. One asked whether it resembled sand thrown up by the tide ? He replied. Just so ; the coarsest sediment of the water became earth, and the purest portion of the fire became wind, thunder, lightning, sun, and stars.

    Before chaos was divided, the Yin-Yang, or light-dark air, was mixed up and dark, and when it divided the centre formed an enormous and most brilliant opening, and the two ‘c or principles were established. Shao Kang-tsieh considers one hundred and twenty-nine thousand six hundred years to be a yyn, or kalpa; then, before this period of one hundred and twenty-nine thousand six hundred years there was another opening and spreading out of the world ; and before that again, there was another like the present ; so that motion and rest, light and darkness, have no beginning. As little things sha<l”>w forth great things, this may be illustrated by the revohitions of day and night.

    Kang-tsieh says, Heaven rests upon form, and earth reclines upon air.

    The reason why he repeats this frequently, and does not deviate from the idea, is lest people should seek some other place beyond heaven and earth. There is nothing outside heaven and earth, and hence their form has limits, while their air has no limit. Because the air is extremely condensed, therefore it can support the earth ; if it were not so the earth would fall down.’

    A third belief respecting the position of the earth in the centre of the universe derives great strength in the opinion of intelligent natives from these speculations of Chn III. His theory considers the world to be a plane surface, straight, square, and large, measuring each way about 1500 miles (5600 Li), and bounded on the four sides by the four seas. The sun is estimated to be about 4,000 miles from the earth. Another calculation made it 81,394 Zi, and a third 216,T81| li.

    One thing is observable in these fictions, characteristic of the Chinese at the present day : there is no hierarchy of gods brought in to rule and inhabit the world they made, no conclave on Mt. Olympus, nor judgment of the mortal soul by Osiris ; no transfer of human love and hate, passions and hopes, to the powers above ; all here is ascribed to disembodied agencies or principles, and their works are represented as moving on in quiet order. There is no religion, no imagination ; all is impassible, passionless, uninteresting. It may perhaps, be considered of itself as sensible as the Greek or Egyptian mythology, if one looks for nense in such figments ; but it has not, as in the latter countries, been explained in sublime poetry, shadowed forth in gorgeous ritual and magnificent festivals, represented in exquisite sculptures, nor preserved in faultless, inqjosing fanes and temples, filled with ideal creations. P^or this reason it appears more in its true colors, and, when compared with theirs, ” loses discountenanced and like folly shows “—at least to us, who can examine both and compare them with the truth.

    Canon McClatchie’s Confucian CoKiumjoiiy, pp. 5:5-59.

    CHINESE AND WESTERN CHRONOLOGY. 143

    Their pure mythological history ends with the appearance of Fuh-hi, and their chronology has nothing to do with the long periods antecedent, varying from forty-five to five hundred thousand years. These periods are, however, a mere twinkling compared with the kulpas of the Hindus, whose highest era, called the Unspeakably Inexpressible, requires four million four hundred and fifty-six thousand four hundred and forty-eight cyphers following a unit to represent it. If the epoch of Fuh-hi could be ascertained with any probability by comparison with the history of other nations, or with existing remains, it would tend not a little to settle some disputed chronological points in other countries ; but the isolation of the Chinese throughout their whole existence makes it nearly impossible to weave in the events of their history with those of other nations, by comparing and verifying them with biblical, Egyptian, or Persian annals. Perhaps further investigations in the vast regions of Eastern and Central Asia may bring to light corroborative testimony as striking and unexpected as the explorations in Mosul, Persepolis, and Thebes.

    The accession of Fuh- hi is placed in the Chinese annals b.c.2852,’ and with him commences the period known among them as the ” highest antiquity.” The weight of evidence which the later chronological examinations of Hales and Jackson have brought to bear against the common period of four thousand and four years prior to the Advent, is such as to cast great doubt over its authenticity, and lead to the adoption of a longer period in order to afford time for many occurrences, which otherwise would be crowded into too narrow a space. Chinese chronology, if it be allowed the least credit, strongly corroborates the results of Dr. Hales’ researches, and particularly so in the date of Fuh-hi’s accession. This is not the place to discuss the respective claims of the two eras, but by reckoning, as he does, the creation to be live thousand four hundred and eleven years, and the deluge three thousand one hundred and fifty-five years, before the Advent, we bring the commencement of ancient Chinese history three hundred and three years subsequent to the deluge, forty seven before the death of Xoah, and about three centuries before the confusion of tongues. If we suppose that the ante-

    ‘ Or 3322, according to Dr. Legge, whose date has been used elsewhere in this work, and has probably quite as much authority as the one above.

    diliivians possessed a knowledge of the geography of the world,

    and that ^’oah, regarding himself as the monarch of the whole,

    divided it among his descendants before his death, there is

    nothing improbable in the further supposition that the progenitors

    of the black-haired race, and t)thers of the house and

    lineage of Sliem, found their way from the valley of the

    Euphrates across the defiles and steppes of Central Asia, to the

    fertile plains of China before the end of the third diluvian century.

    Whether the surface of the world was the same after the cataclysm as before does not aifect this point ; there was ample time for the multiplication of the species with the blessing promised by God, sufficient to form colonies, if there was time enough to increase to such a multitude as conspired to build the tower of Babel.

    The views of Dr. Legge, that the present Chinese descend from settlers who came through Central Asia along the Tarim Valley and across the Desert into Kansuh, about b.c. 2200, and settled around the elbow of the Yellow River, under the leadership of Yao, Shun, Yu, and others, are very reasonable.

    These settlers found the land at that time occupied with tribes, whom they partly merged with themselves or drove into mountain recesses in Kweichau, where some of their descendants perhaps still remain. These earlier tribes may have furnished the names and reigns prior to Yao, and the later Chinese annalists incorporated them into their own histories, taking everything in early times as of course belonging to the U imn, or ‘ ])lackliaired race.’ The lapse of a millennium between the Deluge and Yao allows plenty of time for several successive emigrations from Western and Central Asia into the inviting plains of China, which, through the want of a written language o>* the destruction of records, have come down to us in misty, doubtful legends.

    THE EIGHT EARLY MONARCHS. 145

    Fuli-hi and his seven successors are stated to have reigned seven hundred and forty-seven years, averaging ninety-three each. Those who follow Usher consider these monarchs to be Chinese travesties of the eight antediluvian patriarchs; and Marquis d’TTrban has gone so far as to write what he calls the Antediluvian History ^y CV/Y’/ic/, collecting all the notices history affords of their acts. The common chronology brings the delude about thirteen years after the accession of Yao and the death of Shmi (the last of the eight), b.c. 2205, or twenty-live years after the confusion of tongues. According to Hales, the last epoch is one hundred and twelve years before the call of Abraham, and these eight Chinese monarchs are therefore contemporaries of the patriai’chs who lived between Shem and Abraham, commencing with Salah and ending with Xahor.

    The duration of their reigns, moreover, is such as would bear the same proportion to ages of five hundred years, which their contemporaries lived, as the present average of twenty and twenty -five years does to a life of sixty. The Assyrian tablets, deciphered by George Smith, contain a reference to the twenty eighth century b.c, as the founding of that monarchy ; which is a notice of more value as a chronological epoch than anything in Chinese annals, indeed, and may help to countenance a date that had before been regarded as mythological.

    Supposing that the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, knowing from their fathers and grandfather, that the void world was before them, began to colonize almost as soon as they began to form families, three centuries would not be too long a time for some of them to settle in China, perhaps offsetting from Elam and Asshur, and other descendants of Shem in Persia. The capital of Fuh-hi slightly indicates, it may be thought, their route through Central Asia across the Desert to Kiayli kwan in Kansuh, and then down the Yellow River to the Great Plain near Kaifung. But these suppositions are only by the way, as is also the suggestion that teaching of fishing and grazing, the regulation of times and seasons, cultivation of music, and establishment of government, etc., compare well enough with the duties that might reasonably be supposed to belong to the founder of a colony and his successors, and subsequently ascribed to them as their own inventions. The long period allotted to human life at that date would allow these arts and sciences to take root and their memory to remain in popular legends until subsequent historians incorporated them into their writings. The Chinese annalists fill up the reigns of these chief?, down to the time of Yao, with a series of inventions and improvements in the arts of life and good government, sufficient to bring society to that degree of comfort and order they suppose consonant with the character of the monarchs. The earliest records of the Chinese correspond much too closely with their present character to receive full belief ; but they present an appearance of probability and naturalness not possessed by the early annals of Greece. No one contends for their credibility as history, but they are better than the Arabian Nights.

    The commencement of the sexagenary cycle’ in the sixty first year of Ilwangtfs reign (or b.c. 2037), five hundred and eighteen years after the deluge, eighty-two years after the death of Arphaxad, and about that time before the confusion of tongues, is worthy of notice. The use of the ten horary characters applied to days in order to denote their chronological sequence dates from the reign of Yu in the twentieth century b.c, and there are other passages in the Shu KIikj showing similar application.

    Sz’ma Tsien’s history now contains the first attempt to arrange the years in cycles of sixty; but he cannot fairly be claimed as the inventor of this system. he might almost as well be regarded as the inventor of his whole annals, for all the materials out of which he compiled them have now perished except the canonical books. The mention of the individual Xao the Great, who invented it, and the odd date of its adoption in the middle of a reign, do not weaken the alleged date of its origin in the minds of those who are inclined to take a statement of this kind on its own basis.

    Three reigns, averaging eighty years’ duration, intervened between that of Huangdi and Yao, whose occupants were elected by the people, much as were Shemgar, Jephthah, and cttlier judges in Israel, and probably exercised a similar sway. The reigns and characters of Yao and Shun have been immortalized by Confucius and Mencius; whatever was their real history, those sages showed g]-eat sagacity in going back to those remote times for models and fixing upon a period neither fabulous nor certain, one which preventel alike the cavils of scepticism and the appearance of complete fabrication,

    ^ Journal Asiatique, Avril, 183G, p. 394.

    THE DELUGE OF YAO. 147

    A tremendous deluge occurred during the reign of Yao, b.c. 2293, caused, it is said, by the overflowing of the rivers in the north of China. Those who place the Xoachic dehige b.c.2348 regard this as only a different version of that event; Klaproth, who favors the Septuagint chronology, says that it is nearly synchronous with the deluge of Xisutlirus, b.c. 2297, a name derived, as is reasonably inferred by George Smith, from the Assyrian name Ilasisadra, the ancient hero who survived the deluge. The record of this catastrophe in the Shu King is hardly applicable to an overwhelming flood : ” The Emperor said. Oh! chief of the four mountains, destructive in their overthrow are the waters of the inundation. In their vast extent they embrace the mountains and overtop the hills, threatening the heavens with their floods, so that the inferior people groan and murmur. Is there a capable man to whom I can assign the correction of this calamity? ” ‘ They presented Kwan as a proper man, but he showed his inefficiency in laboring nine years without success to drain off the waters. Yao was then advised to employ Shun, who called in Yu, a son of Kwan, to his aid, and the floods were assuaged by deepening the beds of the rivers and opening new channels. These slight notices hardly comport with a flood like the Xoachic deluge, and are with much greater probability referred to an overflow or a change in the bed of the Yellow River from its present course into the Gulf of Pechele through Chihli northeast, to its recent one along the lowlands of Kiangsu. The weight of topographical evidence, combined with the strong chronological argument, the discussions in council said to have taken place regarding the disaster, and the time which elapsed before the region was drained, all pre-suppose and indicate a partial inundation, and strengthen the assumption that no traces of the Deluge exist in the histories of the Chinese. In our view of the chronology of the Bible, as compared with the Chinese, it requires a far greater constraint upon these records to bring them to refer to that event, than to suppose they allude to a local disaster not beyond the power of remedy.

    ‘ Legge’s Shu King^ p. 24, Hongkong, 1867.

    THE RECORDS OF YAO AXD YU. 149

    The series of chieftains down to the accession of Yu may here be recapitulated. The entirely fabulous period ends with Sui-jin, and legendary history commences with Fuh-ln’, who with four of his successors (Nos. 2, 3, 7, and 8) are commonly known as the Five Sovereigns, follows:

    Their names and reigns are as Buflficient to have deepened the channel of a river or raised dikes to restrain it. The glorious reigns and spotless characters of these three sovereigns are looked upon by the Chinese with much the same feelings of veneration that the Jews regard their three patriarchs ; and to have had, or to have imagined, such progenitors and heroes is, to say the least, as much to their credit as the Achilles, Ulysses, and llomulus of the Greeks and Romans, A curious analogy can also be traced between the scheming Ulysses, warlike liomulus, and methodical Yao, and the

    subsequent character of the three great nations they represent.

    Chinese historians supply many details regarding the conduct

    of Yu and Kieh Kwei, the first and last princes of the house of

    Ilia, all the credible particulars of which are taken from the

    Book of Records and the Bauihoo Annah. Dr. Legge candidly

    weighs the arguments in respect to the eclipse mentioned in the

    Y^uli C/ilng, and gives his opinion as to its authenticity, even

    if it cannot yet be certainly referred to the year b.c. 2154. One

    such authentic notice lends strer.gth to the reception of many

    vague statements, which are more likely to be the relics of fuller

    documents long since lost than the fabrications of later writers,

    such as were the Decretals of Isidore in the Middle Ages. In

    giving a full translation of the Bamhoo Books in the prolegomena

    of the Sh u Klng^ Dr. Legge has shown one of the sources

    of ancient Chinese liistory outside of that work. There were

    many other works accessible to Sz’ma Tsien, nearly four centuries

    before they were discovered (a.d. 279), when he wrote

    his Annals. Pan Ku gives a list of the various books recovered

    after the death of Tsin Chi Ilwangti, amounting in all to thirteen

    thousand two hundred and nineteen volumes or chapters

    contained in six huudi-ed and twenty different works. Well

    does Pauthier speak of the inestimable value which a similar

    catalogue of the extant literature of Greece and Pome at that

    epoch (b.(\ 100) would now be.

    One of the alleged records of the reign of Yu is an inscription traced on the rocks of Ivau-lau shaii, one of the peaks of Mount llano; in Ilunan, relatinjij to the inundation. It contfiins seventy-seven characters only, and Amiot, who regarded it as genuine, has given its sense as follows: The venerable Emperor said, Oli I aid and councillor! Who will help me in administiM-ing my affairs V The great and little islets (the inhabited places) even to their summits, the abodes of the beasts and birds, and all beings are widely inundated. Advise, send back the waters, and raise the dikes. For a long time, J have quite forgotten my family ; I repose on the top of the mountain Yoh-lu. By prudence and my labors, I have moved the spirits ; I know not the hours, but repose myself only in my incessant labors. The mountains Hwa, Yoh, Tai, and Ilang, have been the beginning and end of my enterprise; when my labors were completed, I offered a thanksgiving sacrifice at the solstice. My affliction has ceased ; the confusion in nature has disappeared; the deep currents coming from the south flow into the sea ; clothes can now be made, food can be prepared, all kingdoms will be at peace, and we can give ourselves to continual joy.’

    Since Amiot’s time, however, further opportunities have offered

    for more tliorongh inquiry into this relic by foreigners,

    and the results of their researches throw much doubt upon its

    authenticity, though they do not altogether destroy it. In the

    Introduction to the S/iu King, Dr. Legge discusses the value

    of this tablet among other early records of that reign, and

    comes to the conclusipn that it is a fabrication of the Han

    dynasty, if not later. The poet Han Yu (a.d. 800) gave it

    wide notoriety by his verses about its location and nature ; but

    when he was there he could not iind it on the peak, and cited

    only a Taoist priest as having seen it. More than three centuries

    afterward Chu Hi M^as equally unsuccessful, and his opinion

    that it was made by the priests of that sect has had nnich

    weight with his countrymen. It was not till one Ho Chi wont

    to Mount Hang, about a.d. 1210, and took a copy of the inscription

    from the stone then in a Taoist temple, that it was

    actually seen ; and not till about 1510, that Chang Ki-wrm,

    another antiquary of Hunan province, published his copy in

    the form now generally accepted. In 1660 one Mao Tsangkien

    again found the tablet on the summit of Kau-lau, but

    reached it with nnich difficulty by the help of ladders and

    hooks, and found it so broken that the inscription could not

    be made out. A reduced fae-siitnle of Mao’s copy is given by

    ‘ Pauthier, Lit Chine, p. 53; J. Hager’s Inscription of Yv, Paris, 1802;

    Legge’s Sim Kinr/, pp. G7-74 ; TrdiisdctimiH of flic X. C. Br: Ji. A. Soc, No.

    v., 1809, pp. 78-84; Journal Aniaiiqiu’, 18G7, Tome X., jjp. 197-337.

    THE TABLET OF YU. 161

    Dr. Legge, whose translation differs from Amiot’s in some particulars.

    I received the irords of i\\9 Emperor, saying, ” Ah \ Associate helper, aiding noble! The islands and islets ma/ now be aseended, thut were doors for the birds and beasts. Tou devoted your person to the great overflowings, and with the daybreak yon rose up. Long were you abroad, forgetting your family ; you lodged at the mountain’s foot as in a hall ; your wisdom schemed; your body was broken ; your heart was all in a tremble. You went and sought to produce order and settlement. At Hwa, Yoh, Tai, and Hang, by adopting the principle of dividing the tcaters, your undertakings were completed.

    With the remains of a taper, you offered your pure sacrifice. There were entanglement and obstruction, being swamped, and removals. The southern river flows on its course ; for ever is the provision of food made sure ; the myriad States enjoy repose ; the beasts and birds are for ever fled away.”

    The characters in which this tablet is written are of an ancient tadpole form, and so difficult to read that grave doubts exist as to their proper meaning—^and even as to which of two or three forms is the correct one. Since the copy of Mao was taken, the Manchu scholar Ivwan-wan, when Governor-General of Liang Hu in 1868, erected a stone tablet at Wu-chang, in the Pavilion of the Yellow Stork, upon the eminence overlooking the Yangtsz’. This he regarded as a true copy of the authentic Yu Pal, or ‘ Tablet of Yu.’ A fac-slmile of this tablet, and of another rubbing from a stone now existing at the foot of Mount Hang (which is alleged to be an exact reproduction of the original on its top), was published by W. H. Medhurst in the A^. C. Asiatic Society Journal for 1869. A comparison of these three will give the reader an idea of the difficulties and doubts attending the settlement of the credibility of this inscription. A living native writer quoted by Mr. Medhurst says that the earliest notice of the tablet is by Tsin Yung of the Tang dynasty, about a.d. TOO, from which he infers that the people of the time of Tung must have seen the rock and its inscription. lie regards the latter as consisting of fairy characters, utterly unreadable, and therefore all attempts to decipher them as valueless and misleading.

    Amid so many conflicting opinions among native scholars, the verdict of foreigners may safely await further discoveries. and the day when competent observers can examine these localities and tablets for themselves. Without exaggerating the importance and credibility of the S/tu, K’nvj and other ancient Chinese records, they can be received as the writings of a very remote period ; and while their claims to trustworthiness would be fortified if more intimations had been given of the manner in which they were kept dniing the long period antecedent to the era of Confucius, they still deserve a more respectful consideration than some modern writers are disposed to allow them.

    For instance, Davis remarks: ” Yu is described as nine cubits in height, and it is stated that the skies rained gold in those days, which certainly (as Dr. Morrison observes) lessens the credit of the history of this period.” Now, without laying too much stress upon the record, or the objections against it, this height is but little more than that of Og of Bashan, even if we adopt the present length of the cubit fourteen and one-tenth inches, English ; and if Zv’w, here called <j<)ld, be translated metal (which it can just as well be), it may be a notice of a meteoric shower of extraordinary duration. Let these venerable ‘writings be investigated in a candid, cautious manner, weighing their internal evidence, and comparing their notices of those remote periods as much as they can be with those of other nations, and they will illustrate ancient history and customs in no slight degree.

    Mr. Murray has given a synopsis from Mailla of what is recorded of the Ilia dynasty, which will fairly exhibit the matter of Chinese history. It is here introduced somewhat abridged, with dates inserted.

    The accession of Yu (B.C. 2205) forms a romarkable era in Chinese history.

    EARLY HISTORY OF TUi: TIIA DYNASTY. 153

    The throne, which hitherto liad been more or less ek’ctive, became from this period hereditary in the eldest son, with only those occasional and violent interrujitions to which every despotic government is liable. The national annals, too, assume a more regular and authentic shape, the reigns of the sovereigns being at the same time reduced to a probable duration. Yu justly acquired a lasting veneration, but it was chiefly by his labors under his two predecessors. When he himself ascended the throne, age had already overtaken him ; still the lustre of his government was supported by able councillors, till it closed with bis life at the end of seven years. Many of the grandees wished, according to former practice, to raise to the throne Pi-yih, his first minister, and a person of distinguished merit; but regard for the father, in this case, was strengthened by the excellent ijualities of his son Ki, or Ti Kf (/.<?., the Emperor Ki), and even Pi-yih insisted that the prince should be preferred (2197). Hi.s reign of nine years was only disturbed by the rebellion of a turbulent subject, and he was succeeded (2188) by his son, Tai Kang. But this youth was devoted to pleasure; music, wine, and hunting entirely engrossed his attention. The Chinese, after enduring him for twenty nine years, dethroned him (2159), and his brother, Chung Kaug, was nominated to succeed, and lield th:> reins of government for thirteen years with a vigorous liand. He was followed l / his son, Siang (2140), who, destitute of the energy his situation required, gave himself up to the advice of his minister Yeh, and was by him, in connection with his accomplice, Ilantsu, declared incapable of reigning. The usurper ruled for seven years, when he was Idlled ; and the rightful monarch collected his adherents and gave battle to Ilantsu and the son of Yeh in the endeavor to regain his throne. Siang was completely defeated, and lost both his crown and life ; the victors immediately marched to the capital, and made so general a massacre of the family that they believed the name and race of Yu to be for ever extinguished.

    ‘J’he Empress Min, however, managed to escape, and tied to a remote city, where she brought forth a son, called Shau Kang ; and th better to conceal his origin, she employed him as a shepherd boy to tend flocks. Reports of the existence of such a youth, and his occupation, at length reached the ears of Hantsu, who sent orders to bring him, dead or alive. The royal widow then

    placed her son as under-cook in the liousehold of a neighboring governor,

    where the lad soon distinguished himself by a spirit and temper so superior to

    this humble station, that the master’s suspicions were roused, and obliged him

    to disclose his name and birth. The officer, being devotedly attached to the

    house of Yu, not only kept the secret, but watched for an opportunity to reinstate

    him, and meanwhile gave him a small government in a secluded situation,

    which he prudently administered. Yet he was more than thirty years

    old before the governor, by engaging other chiefs in his interest, could assemble

    such a force as might justify the attempt to make head against tlie usurper.

    The latter hastily assembled his troops and led them to the attack, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the young prince Chu himself ; and Shau Kang, with his mother, returned with acclamations to the capital. His reign is reckoned to have been sixty-one years’ duration in the chronology of the time, which includes the usurpation of forty years of Hantsu.

    The country was ably governed by Shau Kang, and also by his son, Chu(2057), who ruled for seventeen yearr: ; but the succeeding sovereigns, in many instances, abandoned themselves to indolence and pleasure, and brought the kingly name into contempt. From Hwai to Kieh Kwei, a space of two hundred and twenty-two years, between B.C. 2040 and 1818, few records remain of the nine sovereigns, whose bare names succeed each other in the annals. At length the throne was occupied by Kieh Kwei (1G18), .. prince who is represented as having, in connexion with his consort, Mei-hi, practised ‘,’very kind of violence and extortion, in order to accumulate treasure, which they spent in unbridled voluptuousness. They formed a large pond of wine, deep enough to float a boat, at which three thousand men drank at once. It was surrounded, too, by pyramids of delicate viands, which no one, however, was allowed to taste, till he had first intoxicated himself out of the lake. The drunken quarrels which ensued wer« their favorite amusempiit. In the intrrior o” the jialaci’ Die vilest orgies were celebrated, and the venerable ministers, wlio attempted to remonstrate against these excesses, were either put to deatlx or exiled. The people were at once indignant and grieved at such crimes, which threatened the downfall of the dynasty ; and the discarded statesmen put themselves under the direction of the wise I Yin, and advised Chingtang, the ablest of their number, and a descendant of Huangdi, to assume the reins of government, assuring him of their support. He with reluctance yielded to their solicitations, and assembling a force marched against Kieh Kwei, who came out to meet him at the head of a numerous army, but fled from the contest on seeing the defection of his troops, and ended his days in despicable obscurity, after occupying the throne fifty two years.’

    Chinese annals are generally occupied in this way ; the Emperor and his ministers fill the whole field of historic vision; little is recorded of the condition, habits, arts, or occupations of the people, who are merely considered as attendants of the monarch, which is, in truth, a feature of the ancient records of nearly all countries and people, Monarchs controlled the chronicles of their reigns, and their own vanity, as well as their ideas of government and authority led them to represent the people as a mere background to their own stately dignity and acts.

    The Shang dynasty began b.c. 1760, or about one hundred and

    twenty years before the Exodus, and maintained an unequal sway

    over the feudal States composing the Empire for a period of six

    hundred and forty-four years. Its first monarch, Chingtang, or

    Tang the Successful, is described as having paid religious worship

    to Shangti, under which name, perhaps, the true God was

    intended. On account of a severe drought of seven years’

    duration, this monarch is reported to have prayed, saying,

    ” 1 the child Li presume to use a dark colored victim, and

    announce to thee, O Shang-tien Ilao (‘High Heaven’s Ruler’).

    I«[ow there is a great drought, and it is right I should be held

    responsible for it. I do not know but that I have offended

    the powers above and below.” AVith regard to his own conduct,

    he blamed himself in six particulars, and his words

    were not ended when the rain descended copiously.

    The fragmentary records of this dynasty contained in the

    Shu King are not so valuable to the student who wishes merely

    ‘Hugh Murray, China, Vol. I., pp. 51-55 (edition of 1843),

    TIIK SIIAXa DYNASTY. 155

    to learn the succession of luoiiarclis in tliose (l:ijs, as to one who

    inquires what were the principles on which they ruled, wliat

    were the polity, the religion, the jurisdiction, and the checks of

    the Chinese government in those remote times. The regular

    records of those days will never he recovered, hut the preservation

    of the hist two parts of the Shic Kiiuj indicates their

    existence by fair inference, and encourages those who try to reconstruct

    the early annals of China to give full value even to

    slight fragments. But these parts have been of great service to

    the people since they were written, in teaching them by precept

    and example on what the prosperity of a State was founded, and

    how theii- rnlers could bring it to ruin. In these respects there

    are no ancient works outside of the Bible w^ith which they can

    at all be compared. The later system of examination has given

    them an unparalleled intluonce in molding the national character

    of the Chinese. Of the eleven chapters now remaining all are

    occupied more or less with the relative duties of the prince and

    rulers, enforcing on each that the w-elfare of all was bound up

    with their faithfulness. One quotation will give an idea of

    their instructions. ” Order your affairs by righteousness, order

    your heart by propriety, so shall you transmit a grand example

    to posterit3\ I have heard the saying. He who finds instructors

    for himself comes to the supreme dominion ; he wlft> says that

    others are not equal to himself comes to ruin. He who likes to

    ask becomes enlarged ; he who uses only himself becomes small.

    Oh ! he who would take care for his end must be attentive to

    his beginning. There is establishment for the observers of propriety,

    and overthrow for the blinded and wantonly indifPerent.

    To revere and honor the way of Heaven is the way ever to

    preserve the favoring regard of Heaven.” ‘

    ‘Part IV., Book II., Chap. IV., 8-9. •

    The chronicles of the Shang dynasty, as gathered from the Bamboo Books and other later records, resemble those of the Hia in being little more than a mere succession of the names of the sovereigns, interspersed here and there with notices of some remarkable events in the natural and political world. Luxurious and despised princes alternate with vigorous and warlike ones who coiiiinaiuled respect, :uul the coiiditiunof the State measura.’ bly C’ori’espoiid.s with the character of the monarchs, the feudal barons soinetiines increasing in power and territory by encroacliiug on their neighbors, and then snitering a reduction from some new State. The names of twenty-eight princes are given, the accounts of whose reigns are indeed fuller than those of the dukes of Edom in Genesis, but their slight notices would be more interesting if the same confidence could be reposed in them.

    The bad sovereigns occupy more room in these^fasti than the

    good ones, the palm of wickedness being given to Chau-sin, with

    whom the dynasty ended. The wars which broke out during

    this dynasty were numerous, but other events also find a place,

    though hardly anything which throws light on society or civilization.

    Droughts, famines, and other calamities were frequent

    and attended by dreadful omens and fearful sights ; this fancied

    correlation between natural casualties and political convulsions

    is a feature running through Chinese history, and grows out of

    the peculiar position of the monarch as the vicegerent of heaven.

    The people seem to have looked for control and protection

    more to their local masters than to their lord paramount,

    ranging themselves under their separate banners as they weve

    bidden. The History Made Easy speaks of the twenty-fifth

    monarch, Wu-yih (e.g. 1198), as the most wicked of them all.

    ” Having made his images of clay in the shape of human beings,

    dignified them with the name of gods, overcome them at gambling,

    and set them aside in disgrace, he then, in order to complete

    his folly, made leathern bags and filled them with blood,

    and sent them up into the air, exclaiming, when his arrows hit

    them and the blood poured down, ‘ I have shot heaven,’ meaning,

    I have killed the gods.”

    The names of Chau-sin and Tan-ki are coupled w’ith those

    of Kieh and Mi-hi of the Ilia dynasty, all of them synonymous

    in the Chinese annals for tlie acme of cruelty and licentiousness

    —as are those of Xero and Messalina in Koman history. Chausin

    is said one winter’s morning to have seen a few women

    walking barelegged on the banks of a stream collecting shellfish,

    and ordered their legs to be cut off, that he might see the

    CHAU-SIN—RISE OF TIFE ClIAU DYNASTY. 157

    marrow of persons who could resist cold so fearlessly. The

    heart of one of his reprovers was also hrought him, in order to

    see wherein it differed from that of cowardly ministers. The

    last Booh of Shang contains the vain i-emonstrance of another

    of them, who tells his sovereign that his dynasty is in the condition

    of one crossing a large stream who can iind neither ford

    nor bank. Many acts of this natnre alienated the hearts of the

    people, nntil Wan wang, the leader of a State in the northwest

    of China, nnited the principal men against his misrule ; hut

    dying, bequeathed his crown and power to his son, Wu wang.

    He gradually gathered his forces and met Chau-sin at the head

    of a great army at Muli, near the junction of the rivers Ki and

    Wei, north of the Yellow River in llonan, where the defeat of

    the tyrant was complete. Feeling the contempt he was held in,

    and the hopeless struggle before him, he lied to his palace and

    burned himself with all his treasures, like another Sardanapalus,

    though his immolation (in b.o. 1122) preceded the Assyrian’s by

    five centuries.

    Wu wang, the martial king, the founder of the Chan dynasty,

    his father. Wan wang, and his brother, Duke Chan, are among

    the most distinguished men of antiquity- for their erudition,

    integrity, patriotism, and inventions. AViln wang. Prince of

    Chan, was prime minister to Tai-ting, the grandfather of Chausin,

    but was imprisoned for his fidelity. His son obtained his

    liberation, and the sayings and acts of both occupy al)()ut twenty

    books in Part V. of the Shu King. Duke Chan survived his

    brother to become the director and support of his nephew ; his

    counsels, occupying a large part of the history, are full of wisdom

    and equity. Book X. contains his warning advice about drunkenness,

    which has been remarkably influential among his counti-vmen

    ever since. Ko period of ancient Chinese history is mora

    celebrated than that of the founding of this dynastv, chieflv

    because of the high chai’acter of its leading men, who Avere

    regarded by Confucius as the impersonations of everything wise

    and noble. Wu wang is represented as having invoked the

    assistance of Shangti in his designs, and, when he was successful,

    returned thanks and offered prayers and sacrifices. He

    removed the capital from the province of Honan to the present Si-ngan, in Shensi, where it remained for a long period. This prince committed a great political blnnder in dividing the Empire

    into petty states, thus destroying the ancient pure monarchy,

    and leaving himself only a small portion of territory and power,

    which were (piite insufficient, in the hands of a weak prince, to

    maintain either the state or authority due the ruling sovereign.

    The number of States at one time was one hundred and twentyfive,

    at another forty-one, and, in the time of Confucius, about

    six hundred years after the establishment of the dynasty, fiftytwo,

    some of them large kingdoms. From about b.c. 7U0 the

    imperial name and power lost the allegiance and respect of the

    feudal princes, and gradually became contemptible. Its nominal

    sway extended over the country lying north of the ITangtsz

    kiang, the regions on the south being occupied by tribes of whonj

    no intelligible record has been preserved.

    The duration of the three dynasties, the Ilia, Shang, and

    Chau, comprises a long and obscure period in the history of the

    world, extending from b.c. 2205 to 249, from the time when

    Terah dwelt in (Jharran, and the sixteenth dynasty of Theban

    kings ruled in Egypt, down to the reigns of Antiochus Soter

    and Ptolemy Philadelphus and the ti-anslation of the Septuagint.

    I.—The IliA dynasty, founded by Yu the Great, existed four

    Inmdred and thirty-nine years, down to n.o. lT<!r>, under seventeen

    monarchs, the records of whose reigns are veiy brief.

    Among contemporary events of importance are the call of

    Abraham, in the year b.c. 2003, Jacob’s flight to Mesopotamia

    in 1016, Joseph’s elevation in Egypt in 1885, and his father’s

    arrival in 1863.

    II.—The SuANG dynasty began with Tang the Successful, and continued six hundred and forty-four years, under twenty eight sovereigns, down to b.c. 1122. This period was characterized by wars among I’ival princes, and the power of the sovereign depended chiefly upon his personal character. The principal contemporary events were the Exodus of the Israelites in 1648, their settlement in Palestine in 1608, judgeship of Othniel, 1564 ; of Deborah, 1406 ; of Gideon, 1350 ; of Sam son, 1202 ; and death of Samuel in 1122.

    CREDIBILITY OF THESE EAULV RECORDS. 159

    III.—The CuAU dynasty began with Wu wang, and continued for eight hundred and seventy-three years, under thirty five monarchs, down to b.c. 249, the longest of any recorded in history. The sway of many of these was little more than nominal, and the feudal States increased or diminished, according to the vigor of the monarch or the ambition of the princes.

    In B.C. 770 the capital was removed from Kao, near the River Wei in Shensi, to Luoyang, in the western part of Honan; this divides the house into the Western and Eastern Chan. The contemporary events of these eight centuries are too numerous to particularize. The accession of Saul in 1110; of David, 1070 ; of Rehoboam, 990 ; taking of Troy, 1084; of Samaria, 719 ; of Jerusalem, 586 ; death of Nebuchadnezzar, 501 ; accession of Cyrus and return of the Jews, 551 ; battle of Marathon, 490 ; accession of Alexander, 235 ; etc. The conquest of Egypt by Alexander in 322 brought the thirty-first and last dynasty of her native kings to an end, the first of which had begun under Menes about b.c. 2715, or twenty-two years after the supposed accession of Shinnung.

    The absence of any great remains of human labor or art

    previous to the Great Wall, like the Pj’i-amids, the Temple of

    Solomon, or the ruins and mounds in Syria, has led many to

    doubt the credibility of these early Chinese records. They ascribe

    them to the invention of the historians of the llan dynasty,

    working up the scattered relics of their ancient books into a

    readable nari-ative, and therefore try to bring every statement

    to a critical test for which there are few facts. The analogies

    between the records in the Shu King and the Aryan myths

    are skilfully explained by Mr. Kingsmill by reference to the

    meanings of the names of persons and places and titles, and a

    connection shown which has the merit at least of ingenuity and

    beauty. Almost the only actual known relic of these three

    dynasties is the series of ten stone drums [sMh ktt) now in the

    Confucian temple at Peking. They were discovered about a.d.

    600, in the environs of the ancient capital of the Chau dynasty,

    and have been kept in Peking since the year 1126. They are

    irregularly shaped pillars, from eighteen to thirty-five inches

    high and about twentj^-eight inches across ; the inscriptions are

    much worn, but enough remains to show that they commemo rate a great hunt of Siien wang (b.c. 827) in the region where they were found.’

    AmohiT the feudal States under the house of Chau, that of

    Tsin, on the northwest, had long been the most powerful, occupying

    nearly a iifth of the country, and its inhabitants forming

    a tenth of the whole population. One of the princes, called

    Chausiang wang, carried his encroachments into the acknowledged

    imperial possessions, and compelled its master, Tungchau

    kiun, the last monarch, to humble himself at his feet. Although,

    in fact, master of the whole Empire, he did not take the title,

    but left it to his son, Chwangsiang wang, who exterminated the

    blood royal and ended the Chau dynasty, yet lived only three

    years in possession of the supreme power.

    The son carried on his father’s successes until he had reduced

    all the petty States to his sway. lie then took the name of Chi

    Hwangti (‘ Emperor First’) of the Tsin dynasty, and set himself

    to regulate his conquests and establish his authority by securing

    to his subjects a better government than had been experienced

    during the feudal times. He divided the country into

    thirty-six provinces, over which he placed governors, and went

    throughout them all to see that no injustice was practised.

    This monarch, who has been called the Napoleon of China,

    was one of those extraordinary men who turn the course of

    events and give an impress to subsequent ages; Ivlaproth gives

    him a high ciuiracter as a prince of energy and skill, but native

    historians detest his name and acts. It is recorded that at his

    new capital, Ilienyang, on the banks of the Ilwai, he constructed

    a palace exactly like those of all the kings who had submitted

    to him, and ordered that all the precious furniture of each and

    those persons who had inhabited them should be transported to it, and everything rearranged. The whole occupied an immense space, and the various parts communicated with each other by a magnificent colonnade and gallery. He made progresses through his dominions with a splendor hitherto unknown, accompanied by officials and troops from all parts, thus making

    ‘ Journrd of the N. C. Branch of II. A. Society, Vols. VII., p. 137 ; VIII., pp.23, 133. In the last paper, by Dr. Bnshell, translations and fac-similes of the inscriptions are givoii, with many historical uotictjs.

    TSIX nil IIWANGTI, THE ‘ EMPEROK FIRST.’ IGl

    the people interested in each otlier and consenting to liis sway.

    He also built public edifices, opened roads and canals to facilitate

    intercourse and trade between the various provinces, and

    repressed the incursions of the Iluns, driving them into the wilds

    of Mongolia. In order to keep them out effectually, he conceived

    the idea of extending and uniting the short walls which

    the princes of some of the Xortherii States had erected on their

    frontier into one grand wall, stretching across the Empire from

    the sea to the Desert. This gigantic undertaking was completed

    in ten years (b.c. 20-i), at a vast expense in men and material,

    and not until the family of its builder had been destroyed.

    This mode of protecting the country, when once well begun,

    probably commended itself to the nation. It is impossible, indeed,

    to imagine otherwise how it could have been done, for

    the people were required to supply a quota of men from each

    place, feed and clothe them while at work, and continue this

    expense until their portion was built. Xo monarch could have

    maintained an army which could force his sul)jects against their

    \vill to do such a work or carry it on to completion after his

    death. It is one of the incidental proofs of a great population

    that so many laborers were found. However ineffectual it was

    to preserve his frontiers, it has made his name celebrated

    throughout the world, and his dynasty Tsin has given its name

    to China for all ages and nations.’

    The vanity of the new monarch led him to endeavor to destroy

    all records written anterior to his own reign, that he might

    be by posterity regarded as the first Emperor of the Chinese

    race. Orders were issued that every book should be burned,

    and especially the writings of Confucius and Mencius, explanatory

    of the /Shu King upon the feudal States of Chau, whose

    remembrance he wished to blot out. This strange command

    was executed to such an extent that many of the Chinese literati

    believe that not a perfect copy of the classical works escaped

    destruction, and the texts were only recovered by rewriting

    them from the memories of old scholars, a mode of reproduction

    ‘ Pautliier, La Chine, pp. 30, 221 ; Mem. cone, les Chinois, Tome III., p.183.

    that does not appear so singular to a Chinese as it does to ua

    If the same literary tragedy should be re-enacted to-day, thousands

    of persons might easily be found in China M’ho could rewrite

    from memory the text and commentary of their nine

    classical works. ” Nevertheless,” as Ivlaproth remarks, ” they

    were not in fact all lost : for in a country where writin”: is so

    connnon it was almost impossible that all the copies of works

    universally respected should be destroyed, especially at a time

    when the material on which they were written was very durable,

    being engraved with a stylet on bamboo tablets, or traced upon

    them with dark-colored varnish.” The destruction was no doubt

    as neai’ly complete as possible, and not only were many works

    entirely destroyed, but a shade of doubt thereby thrown over

    the accuracy of others, and the records of the ancient dynasties

    rendered suspicious as well as incomplete. Not only were books

    sought after to be destroyed, but nearly live hundred literati

    were buried alive, in order that no one might remain to reproach,

    in their writings, the Emperor First with having committed

    so barbarous and insane an act.

    The dynasty of Qin, set up in such cruelty and blood, did not long survive the death of its founder; his son was unable to maintain his rule over the half-subdued feudal chieftains, ftnd after a nominal reign of seven years he was overcome by Liu Bang, a soldier of fortune, who, having been employed by one of the chiefs as commander of his forces, used them to support his own authority when he had taken possession of the capital. Under the name of Kautsu he became the founder of the Han dynasty, and his accession is regarded as the commencement of modern Chinese history. The number and character of its heroes and literati are superior to most other periods, and to this day the term IIa)i-ts2\ or ‘ Sons of Han,’ is one of the favorite names by which the Chinese call themselves.

    THE HOUSE OF TTAN. 163

    The first fourteen princes of this dynasty reigned in Shensi, but Jvwangwu removed the capital from (^hang-an to Lohyang, as was done in the Chau dynasty seven centuries b f :re, the old one being ruined. During the reign of Ping i {or ‘he ‘Emperor ]*eacc’) the Prince of Peace, our Lord Jesus Christ, was boiii in Judea, a renuirkable coincidence which has often attracted notice. During the reign of Ming ti, a.d. 65, a deputation was sent to India to obtain the sacred books and authorized teachers of Buddhism, which the Emperor intended to publicly introduce into China. This faith had already widely spread among his subjects, but henceforth it became the popular belief of the Chinese and extended eastward into Japan. This

    monarch and his successor, Chang ti, penetrated with their armies

    as far westward as the Caspian Sea, dividing and overcoming the

    various tribes on the confines of the Desert and at the foot of the

    Tien shan, and extending the limits of the monarchy in that direction

    farther than they are at present. The Chinese sway was

    maintained with varied success until toward the third century,

    and seems to have had a mollifying effect upon the nomads of

    those regions. In these distant expeditions the Chinese heard of

    the Romans, of whom their authors speak in the highest terms :

    ” Everything precious and adnnrable in all other countries,” say

    they, “comes from this land. Gold and silver money is coined

    there; ten of silver are worth one of gold. Their merchants

    trade by sea with. Persia and India, and gain ten for one in their

    traffic. They are simple and upright, and never have two prices

    for their goods ; grain is sold among them very cheap, and large

    sums are embarked in trade. Whenever ambassadors come to the

    frontiers they are provided with carriages to travel to the capital,

    and after their arrival a certain number of pieces of gold are furnished

    them for their expenses.” This description, so characteristic

    of the shop-keeping Chinese, may be compared to many

    accounts given of the Chinese themselves by western authors.

    Continuing the resume of dynasties in order

    lY.—The TsiN dynasty is computed to end with Chwangsiang by the authors of the Illstonj Made Easy, and to have existed only three years, from b.c. 249 to 246.

    Y.—The After Tsin dynasty is sometimes joined to the preceding, but Chi riwangti regarded himself as the first monarch, and began a new house, which, however, lasted only forty-four years, from b.c. 246 to 202. The connnotions in the farthest East during this period were not less destructive of life than the wars in Europe between the Carthaginians and Romans, andthe Syrians, Greeks, and Egyptians.

    VL, YII. The Han and Eastern Han dynasties.—Liu Bang took the title of Han for his dynasty, after the name of his principality, and his family swayed the Middle Kingdom from B.C. 2U2 to A.D. 221, under twenty-six monarchs. The Han dynasty was the formative period of Chinese polity and institutions, and an instructive parallel can be drawn between the character and acts of the Emperors who reigned four hundred years in China, and the numerous consuls, dictators, and emperors

    who governed the Roman Empire for the same period

    from the time of Scipio Africanus to Ileliogabalus. The founder

    of the Han is honored for having begun the system of competitive

    examinations for office, and his successors. Wan ti,

    Wu ti, and Ivwang-wu, developed literature, commerce, arts,

    and good government to a degree unknown before anywhere in

    Asia. In the West the Ilomans became tlie great vrorld power,

    and the advent of Christ and establishment of His church within

    its borders only, render this period the turning epoch of progress

    among niankind.

    The period between the overthrow of the Han dynasty, a.d.

    190, and the establishment of the Eastei-n Tsin, a.d. 317, is

    one of the most interesting in Chinese historj^, from the variety

    of characters which the troubles of the times developed. The

    distractions of this period are described in the Histori/ of the

    Tliree States, but this entertaining work cannot be regarded as

    much better than a historical novel. It has, however, like

    Scott’s stories, impressed the events and actors of those days

    upon the popular mind more than any history in the language.

    VIII.—The Aftkk IIan dynasty began a.d. 211, and continned

    forty-four years, under two princes, to a.d. 205. The

    country was divided into three principalities, called Wei, Wu,

    and Shuh. The first, under the son of Tsao Tsao, ruled the

    whole northern counti’y at Lohyang. and was the most powerful

    of them for about forty years. The second, under Sinn Kien,

    occupied the eastern provinces, from Shantung and the Yellow River down to the mountains of Fuhkien, holding his court at Nanking. The third, under Liu Pi, is regarded as the legitimate dynasty from his affinity with the Han ; he had his capital at Chingtu fii, in Sz’chuen.

    r:6sume of the dynasties. 165

    IX.—The TsiN dynasty was foimded by Sz’ma Chao, a general

    in the employ of llau of tlie last house, who seated himself on

    the throne of his master a.d. 265, the year of the latter’s death.

    His son, Sz’ma Yen, took his place and extended his power over

    the whole Empire by 280. The inroads of the Huns and internal

    commotions were fast ]-educing the people to barbai’ism. Four

    Emperors of this house held their sway at Lohyang during iiftytwo

    years, till a.d. 317. The Iluns maintained their sway in

    Shensi until a.d. 352, under the designations of the Ilan and

    Chau dynasties. It is related of Liu Tsung, one of this barbaric

    race, that he built a great palace at Chang-an, where he gathered

    a myriad of the lirst subjects of his kingdom and lived in

    luxury and magnificence quite unknown before in China. Among

    his attendants was a body-guard of elegantly dressed women, many of whom were good musicians, which accompanied liirn on his progresses.

    X.—The Eastern Tsin is the same house as the last, but Yuen ti having moved his capital in 317 from Luoyang to Xanking, his successors are distinguished as the Eastern Tsin. Eleven princes reigned during a period of one hundred and three years, down to a.d. 420. Buddhism was the chief religion at this time, and the doctrines of Confucius were highly esteemed; “children of concubines, priests, old women, and nurses administered the government,” says the indignant annalist. At this period twelve independent and opposing kings struggled for the ascendency in China, and held their ephemeral courts in the north and west. It was at this time that Constantino moved the capital of the Roman Empire in 328, and the nations of northern Europe under Attila invaded Italy in 410.

    XL—The ScNG, or Northern Song dynasty, as it is often called to distinguish it from the XXIId dynasty (a.d. 970), is the first of the four dynasties known as the JVan-peh C/iao, or ‘ South-north dynasties,’ which preceded the Sui. It was founded by Liu Yu, who commanded the armies of Tsin, and gradually subdued all the opposing States. Displeased at the weakness of his master, Xgan ti, he caused him to be strangled, and placed his brother, Kung ti, upon the throne, who, fearing a like fate, abdicated the empty crown, and Liu Yu became monarch under the name of Kaiitsu, A.n. 420. Eight princes held the throne till a.d. 479, many of them monsters of ernelty, and soon cut off, when Sian Tau-cliing, Duke of Tsi, the prime minister, recompensed them as their ancestor had those of Tsin.

    XII. Qi dynasty.—The new monarch took the name of Kan ti, or ‘ High Emperor,’ bnt enjoyed his dignity only four years. Four princes succeeded him at iS’anking, the last of wdiom, Ilo ti, was besieged in his capital by a faithless minister, assisted by the pi’ince of Liang, who overthrew the dynasty a.d. 502, after a duration of twenty-three years.

    XIII. Liang dynasty.—The first Emperor, Wu ti, reigned forty-eight years, and reduced most of his opponents ; his dominions are described as being mostly south of the Yangtsz’ River, the Wei ruling the regions north of it. Wu ti did much to restore literature and the study of Confucius ; envoys from India and Persia also came to his court, and his just sway allowed the land to recruit. In his latter days he was so great a devotee of Buddhism that he retired to a monastery, like Charles Y., but being persuaded to resume his crown, employed his time in teaching those doctrines to his assembled courtiers. Three successors occupied the throne, the last of whom, King ti, was killed A.D. 557, after surrendering himself, by the general of the troops, wdio then seized the crown.

    XIY. Chen dynasty.—Three brothers reigned most of the time this house held its sway. During this period and that of the three preceding families, the Ilunnish kingdom of Wei ruled the northern parts of China from a.d. 380 to 534, under eleven monarchs, when it was violently separated into the Eastern and Western Wei, and a third one called Chau, which ere long destro\’ed the last AVci at (‘hang-an and occupied northwest China. It is probable that the intercoui-se between China and

    other parts of Asia was more extensive and complete during

    the Wei dynasty than at any other period. Its sovereigns had

    preserved peaceful rehitions with their ancestral seats, and with

    tlie ti-ibes beyond Lake Baikal and the Obi River to the North

    Sea. Trade seems to have flourished throughout the regions

    lying between the Caspian Sea and Corea, and tlie records of

    this period present accounts of the State in this vast tract to be

    found nowhere else. One of these works referred to by Rcnriiisat is the report of officers sent by Tai-wii during his reign to travel through his dominions (424-451) and give full accounts of them.

    One of the sovereigns of Chan, Wu ti (a.d. 561-572), had given his daughter in marriage to Yang Kien, the Prince of Sui, one of his ministers, who, gradually extending his influence, took possession of the throne of his master Tsiiig ti in 580. In a few years he restored order to a distracted land by bringing the several States under his sway and reuniting all China under his hand a.d. 589, after it had been divided nearly four centuries.

    THE SUI AND TANO DYNASTIES. I67

    XV. Sui dynasty.—The founder of this house has left an enduring name in Chinese annals by a survey of his dominions and division of them into interdependent vhau^ klun, and hleii^ with corresponding officers, an arrangement which has ever since existed. lie patronized letters and commerce, and tried to introduce the system of caste from India. After a vigorous reign of twenty-four years he was killed by his son Yang ti, who carried on his father’s plans, and during the fourteen years of his reign extended the frontiers through the Tarim Yalley and down to the Southern Ocean. His murder by one of his generals was the signal for several ambitious men to rise, but the Prince of Tang aided the son to rule for a year or two till he was removed, thus bringing the Sui dynasty to an end after thirty-nine years, but not before its two sovereigns had taught their subjects the benefits of an undivided sway.

    XYI. Tang dynasty.—This celebrated line of princes began

    its sway in peace, and during the two hundred and eightj’-sevcn

    years (018 to 90S) they held the throne China was probably the

    most civilized country on earth ; the darkest days of the West,

    when Europe was wrapped in the ignorance and degradation of

    the Middle Ages, formed the brightest era of the East. They

    exercised a humanizing effect on all the surrounding countries,

    and led their inhabitants to see the benefits and understand the

    management of a government where the laws were above the

    officers. The people along the southern coast were completely

    civilized and incorporated into the Chinese race, and mark the change by always calling themselves Tang Jin, or ‘ Men of

    Tang/ An interesting work on the trade and condition of

    China at this time is the AMihar-al-Syn oual-Hind, or ‘ Observations

    on China and India,’ by two Arab travellers to those

    lands in the years 851 and 878, compiled by Abu Zaid and

    translated by lieinaud in 1845.’ Li Shi-mii], the son of Li Ynen

    the founder of this dynasty, may be regarded as the most accomplished monarch in the Chinese annals—famed alike for his

    wisdom and nobleness, his conquests and good government, his

    temperance, cultivated tastes, and patronage of literary inen.

    AVhile still Prince of Tang he contributed greatly to his father’s

    elevation and to the extension of his sway over the regions of

    Central Asia. When the house of Tang was fully acknowledged,

    and the eleven rival States which had started up on the

    close of the house of Sui had been overcome, the capital was

    removed from Lohyang back to Chang-an, and everything done

    to compose the disordered country and reunite the distracted

    State under a reo-ular and vigorous administration. Feeline:

    himself unequal to all the cares of his great office, Li Yuen,

    known as Kau-tsu Shin Yao ti (lit. ‘ High Progenitor, the Divine Yao Emperor ‘), resigned the j^ellow in favor of his son, who took the style of Chlng hioan {‘ Pure Observer ‘) for his reign, though his posthumous title is Tai-tsung Wan-w^i ti (‘ Our Exalted Ancestor, the Literary-Martial Emperor ‘), a.d. 627, and still further extended his victorious arms. One of his first acts was to establish schools and institute a s^’^stem of literary examinations ; he ordered a complete and accurate edition of all the classics to be published under the supervision of the most learned men in the Empire, and honored the memory of Confucius with special ceremonies of respect. Extraordinary pains were taken to prepare and preserve the historical records of former days and draw up full annals of the recent dynasties; these still await the examination of western scholars.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 6; Reinaud, Relations des Voyages, 2 Vols..Paris, 1845. Yule, CatJiay and the Way Thithtr, Introd., p. cii.

    TAI-TSLTN(J, FOUNDER OF THE HOUSE OF TAXG. 169

    lie constructed a code of laws for the direction of his high officers in their judicial functions, and made progresses through

    lii.s doiniiiions to inspect the condition of the people. During

    liis reign the limits of the Enipii-e were extended over all the

    Turkisli tribes lying west of Kiinsuh and south of the Tien

    shan as far as the Caspian Sea, which were placed nnder four

    satrapies or residences, those of Kuche, Pisha or Khoten, Ilarashar,

    and Kashgar, as their names are at present. West of the

    last many smaller tribes submitted and rendered a partial subjection

    to the Emperor, who arranged them into sixteen governments

    under the management of a governor-general over theiiown

    chieftains. His frontiers reached from the borders of

    Persia, the Caspian Sea, and the Altai of the Kirghis steppe,

    along those mountains to the north side of Gobi eastward to

    the Inner Iling-an. Sogdiana and part of Khorassan, and the

    regions around the llindu-kush, also obeyed him. The rulers

    of Xipal and Magadha or Bahar in India sent their salutations

    by their ambassadors, and the Greek Emperor Theodosius sent

    an envoy to Si-ngan in 643 carrying presents of rubies and

    emeralds, as did also the Persians. The IS^estorian missionaries

    also presented themselves at court. Tai-tsung received them

    with respect, and heard them rehearse the leading tenets of

    their doctrine ; he ordered a temple to be erected at his capital,

    and had some of their sacred books translated for his examination,

    though there is no evidence now remaining that any portion

    of the Bible was done into Chinese at this time.

    Near the close of his life Tai-tsung undertook an expedition against Corea, but the conquest of that country was completed by his son after his death. A sentiment has been preserved at this time of his life which he uttered to his sons while sailing t)n the River Wei :

    “‘ See, my children, the waves which lloat our fragile bark are able to submerge it in an instant ; know assuredly that the people are like the waves, and the Emperor like this fragile bark.” During his reign his life was attempted several times, once by his own son, but he was preserved from these attacks, and died after a reign of twenty-three years, deeply lamented by a grateful people. The Chinese accounts state that the foreign envoys resident at his court cut off their hair, some of them disfigured their faces, bled themselves, and sprinkled the blood around the bier in testimony of their grief.

    Whatever may have been the truth in this respect, many proofs exist of the distinguished character of this monarch, and that the high reputation he enjoyed during his lifetime was a just tribute to his excellences, he will favorably compare with Akbar, Marcus Aurelius, and Kanghi, or with Charlemagne and llarun Al Ilaschid, who came to their thrones in the next century.^

    Tai-tsung was succeeded by his son Kau-tsung, whose indolent imbecility appeared the more despicable after his father’s vigor, but his reign fills a large place in Chinese history, from the extraordinary career of his Empress, Wu Tsih-tien, or Wu hao(‘ Empress “Wu ‘) as she is called, who by her blandishments obtained entire control over him. The character of this woman has, no doubt, suifered much from the bad reputation native historians have given her, but enough can be gathered from their accounts to show that with all her cruelty she understood how to maintain the authority of the crown, repress foreign invasions, quell domestic sedition, and provide for the wants of the people. Introduced to the harem of Tai-tsung at the age of

    fourteen, she was sent at his death to the retreat where all his

    women were condemned for the rest of their days to honorable

    imprisonment. While a member of the palace Kau-tsung had

    been charmed with her appearance, and, having seen her atone

    of the state ceremonies connected with the ancestral worship,

    bi’ought her back to the palace. His queen, Wang-shi, also

    favored his attentions in order to draw them off from another

    rival, but Wu Tsih-tien soon (obtaining entire sway over the

    moiuirch, united both women against her ; she managed to

    fill the principal offices with her friends, and by a series of

    manonivres supplanted each in turn and became Empress. One

    means she took to excite suspicion against Wang-shi was, on

    occasion of the birth of her first child, after the Empress had

    visited it and before Kau-tsung came in to see his offspring, to

    strangle it and charge the crime upon her Majesty, which led

    to her trial, degradation, and impi-isonment, and ere long to her

    death.

    THE EMPRESS WU TSIH-TIEN. 171

    As soon as she became Empress (in O,”),”)), Wu began gradually to assume more and more authority, until, long before the Emperor’s death in 684, she engrossed the whole management of affairs, and at his demise opeidy assumed the reins of government, which she wielded for twenty-one years with no weak hand. Her generals extended the limits of the Empire, and her officers carried into effect her orders to alleviate the miseries of the people. Her cruelty vented itself in the nnirder of all who opposed her will, even to her own sons and relatives; and her pride was rather exhibited than gratified by her assuming the titles of Queen of Heaven, Holy and Divine Ttuler, Holy Mother, and Divine Sovereign. When she was disabled by age her son, Chung-sung, supported by some of the first men of the land, asserted his claim to the throne, and by a palace conspiracy succeeded in removing her to her own apartments, where she died aged eighty-one years. Her character has been blackened in native histories and popular tales, and her conduct held up as an additional evidence of the evil of allowing women to meddle with governments.’

    A race of twenty monarchs swayed the sceptre of the house

    of Tang, but after the demise of the Empress Wu Tsih-tien

    none of them equalled Tai-tsung, and the Tang dynasty at last

    succumbed to ambitious ministers lording over its imbecile

    sovereigns. In the reign of IHuen-tsung, about the year 722,

    the population of the Fifteen Provinces is said to have been

    52,884,818. The last three or four Em])erors exhibited the usual

    marks of a declining house—eunuchs or favorites promoted by

    them swayed the realm and dissipated its resources. At last,

    Li TsQen-chung, a general of Chau-tsung, whom he had aided

    in quelling the eunuchs in 904, rose against his master, destroyed

    him, and compelled his son, Chau-siuen ti, to abdicate, a.d. 907.

    XYH. After Liang dynasty.—The destruction of the famous

    dynasty loosened the bonds of all government, and nine separate

    kings struggled for its provinces, some of whom, as Apki

    over the Kitan in the north-east, succeeded in founding kingdoms.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. III., p. 543 ; Canton MisceUany, No. 4, 1831, pp24Gfif.

    The Prince of Liang, the new Emperor, was unable to extend his sway beyond the provinces of Honan and Shantung. After a short reign of six years lie was killed by his brother, Liang Chn-tien, who, on his part, fell under the attack of a Turkish general, and ended this dynasty, a.d. 923, after a duration of sixteen years.

    XVIII. Aftek Tang dynasty.—The conqueror called himself

    (Jhwang-tsung, and his dynasty Tang, as if in continuation of

    that line of princes, but this mode of securing popularity was

    unsuccessful. Like Pertinax, Aurelian, and others of the Roman

    emperors, he was killed by his troops, who chose a successor,

    and his grandson, unable to resist his enemies, burned himself

    in his palace, a.d. 930, thus ending the weak dynasty after

    thirteen years of struggle.

    XIX. After Tsin dynasty.—The Kitan or Tartars of Liautimg, who had assisted in the overthrow of the hist dynasty, compelled the new monarch to subsidize them at his accession, A.D. 93G, by ceding to them sixteen cities in Chihli, and promising an annual tiibute of three hundred thousand pieces of silk. This disgraceful submission has ever since stigmatized Tien-fuh(‘ Heavenly Happiness’) in the eyes of native historians. IBs nephew who succeeded him is known as Chuh ti (the ‘Carried away Emperor’), and was removed in 9J:7 by those who put him on the throne, thus ending the meanest house which ever swayed the black-haired people.

    XX. AFrKu Hax dynasty.—The Tartars now endeavored to subdne the whole country, but were repulsed by Liu Clii-yuen, a loyal general who assumed the yellow in 947, and called his dynasty after the renowned house of Han; he and his son held sway four years, till a.d. 951, and then were cut olf.

    THE WU TAI, on FIVE DYNASTIES. 173

    XXI. Afti:u Chau dynasty.—Ko Wei, the successful aspirant to the throne, maintained his seat, but died in three years, leaving his power to an adopted son, Shi-tsung, whose vigorous rule consolidated his still unsettled sway. His early death and the youth of his son decided his generals to bestow the sceptic upon the lately appointed tutor to the monarch, which closed the After Chau dynasty a.d. 900, after a brief duiation of nine years. He was honored with a title, and, like Richard ( h’omwell, allowed to live in quiet till his death in 973, a fact creditable to the new monarch. These short-lived houses between a.d. 907-9G0 are known in Chinese history as the WuDai, or ‘ Five Dynasties.’ While they stiiiggled for supremacy in the valley of the Yellow River, the regions south and west were portioned among seven houses, who ruled them in a good degree of security.

    Fuhkien was held l)y the King of Min, and Kiaiignan by the King of Wu ; the regions of Sz’chuen, Xganhwui, and Kansuh were held by generals of note in the service of Tang ; another general held Kwangtung at Canton through two or three reigns; and another exercised sway at Kingchau on the Yangzi River. It is needless to mention them all. During this period Europe was distracted by the wars of the Normans and Saracens, and learning there was at a low ebb.

    XXIL—SrxG dynasty began A.D. 9TU, and maintained its power

    over the whole Empire for one hundred and fifty-seven years, till

    A.D. 1127. The mode in which its founder, Chan Kwang-yun, was

    made head of the State, reminds one of the way in which the

    Pmetorian guards sometimes elevated their chiefs to the throne of

    the Caisars. After the military leaders had decided upon their

    future sovereign they sent messengers to announce to him his new

    honor, who found him drunk, and “before he had time to reply

    the yellow robe was already thrown over his person.” At the

    close of his reign of seventeen years the provinces had mostly submitted to his power at Kaifnng, but the two Tartar kingdoms of

    Liau and Jlia remained independent. This return to a centralized government proves the unity of the Chinese people at this time in their own limits, as well as their inability to induce their

    neighbors to adopt the same system of government. The successors

    of Tai-tsu of Sling had a constant struggle for existence

    with their adversaries on the north and west, the Liau and Ilia,

    whose recent taste of power under the last two dynasties had

    shown them their opportunity. On the return of prosperity under

    his brother’s reign of twenty-two years, the former institutions

    and political divisions were restored throughout the southern half

    of the Empire ; good government was secured, aided by able

    generals and loyal ministers, and the rebels everywhere quelled.

    Chin-tsung was the third sovereign, and his reign of forty-one

    years is the brightest portion of the house of Sung. The kings

    of Ilia in Kansuh acknowledged themselves to be his tributaries, but he bought a cowardly peace with the Liau on the north-east.

    During his reign and that of his son, Tin-tsung, a violent controversy arose among the literati and officials as to the best mode of conducting the government. Some of them, as Sz’ma Kwang the historian, contended for the maintenance of the old principles of the sages. Others, of whom Wang i^gan-shi was the distinguished leader, advocated reform and change to the entire overthrow of existing institutions. For the first time in the history of China, two political parties peacefully struggled for supremacy, each content to depend on argument and truth for the victory. The contest soon grew too bitter, however, and the accession of a new monarch, Shin-tsung, enabled AVang to dispossess his opponents and manage State affairs as he pleased.

    After a trial of eight or ten years the voice of the nation restored the conservatives to power, and the radicals were banished beyond the frontier. A discussion like this, involving all the cherished ideas of the Chinese, brought out deep and acute inquiry into the nature and uses of things generally, and the Avriters of this dynasty, at the head of Avhom was Cliu Hi, made a lasting impression on the national mind.

    The two sons of Shin-tsung were unable to oppose the northern

    hordes of Liau and Ilia, except by setting a third aspirant against

    both. These were the Niu-chih or Kin,’ the ancestors of the

    present Man’chus, who carried away llwui-tsung as a captive in

    1125, and his son too the next year, pillaging Lohyang and

    possessing themselves of the region north of the Yellow Kiver.

    This closed the Northern Sung. The Kin established themselves

    at Peking in 1118, whence they were driven in 1235 by Genghis

    Khan, and fled back to the ancestral haunts on the Songari and

    Liau Itivers,

    XXIII.

    Southern Song dynasty forms part of the preceding, for Kao-tsung, the brother of the last and ninth monarch of the weakened house of Northern Song, seeing his capital in ruins, fled to Nanking, and soon after to the beautiful city of Hangzhou on the eastern coast at the mouth of the Qiantang River.

    ‘ Two graves of the Kin monarchs exist on a hill west of Fangshan hien, fifty miles south-west of Peking; they were repaired by Kanghi. Dr. Busliell visited them in 1870.

    THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN SUNG. 175

    Nanking was pillaged by the Kin, but Ilangeliau was too far for

    tliem. It gradually grew in size and strength, and became a

    famous capital. Kao-tsung resigned in liG2, after a reign of

    tliirty-SiX years, and survived his abdication twenty-four years.

    The next Emperor was Iliao-tsung, who also resigned the yellow

    to Kwang-tsung, his son, and he again yielded it to his son Ningtsung.

    This last, in his distress, called the rising Mongols into his

    service in 1228 to help against the Kin. The distance from the

    northern frontier, wdiere the Mongols were flushed with their

    successes over the Tangouth of Ilia at Kinghia in 1226, was too

    far for them to aid Xing-tsung at this time. He was, however,

    relieved from danger to himself, and the Mongols deferred their

    intentions for a few years. From this date for about fifty years

    the Sung grew weaker and weaker under the next five sovereigns,

    until the last scion, Ti Ping, was drowned with some of

    his courtiers, one of whom, clasping him in his arms, jumped

    from the vessel, and ended their life, dignity, and dynasty together.

    It had lasted one hundred and fifty-two years under nine monarchs, who showed less ability than those of Northern Song, and were all much inferior as a whole to the house of Tang. Their patronage of letters and the arts of peace was unaccompanied by the vigor of their predecessors, for they were unwilling to leave the capital and risk all at the head of their troops. It is the genius and philosophy of its scholars that has made the Sung one of the great dynasties of the Middle Kingdom.

    XXIV.—The Yuan dynasty was the first foreign sway to which the Sons of IJan had submitted; their resistance to the army, which gradually overran the country, was weakened, however, by treachery and desultory tactics until the national spirit was frittered away. During the interval between the capture of Peking by Genghis and the final extinction of the Sung dynasty, the whole population had become somewhat accustomed to Mongol rule. Having no organized government of their own, these khans were content to allow the Chinese the full exercise of their own laws, if peace and taxation were duly upheld.

    Kublai had had ample opportunity to learn the character of his new subjects, and after the death of Mangu khan in 1260 and his own establishment at Peking in 1261, he in fifteen years brought his vast dominions under a nietliodical sway and developed their resources more than ever. Though faihng in his attempt to eon(pier Japan, ho enlarged elsewhere his vanishing frontiei’S (hiring his life till they could neither be dehned nor governed. His patronage of merit and scholarship proves the good results of his tu*:elage in China, while the short-lived glory of his administration in other hands chielly proved what good material he

    had to work with in China in comparison with his own race.’

    He was a vigorous and magnificent prince, and had, moreover,

    the advantage of having his acts and splendor related by Marco

    Polo—a chronicler worthy of his subject. The Grand Canal,

    which was deepened and lengthened during his reign, is a lasting

    token of his sagacity and eidightened policy. An interesting

    monument of this dynasty, erected in 1315, is the gat^

    way in the Kii-yung kwan (pass) of the Great Wall north of

    Peking. Upon the interior of this arch is cnt a Buddhist charm

    in six different kinds of character—Mongolian, Chinese, Oigour,

    antifjue Devanagari, Niu-chih, and Tibet m.”

    After the Grand Khan’s death the ]^[ongols retained their power under the reign of Ching-tsung, or T’imur khan, a grandson of Kublai, and Wu-tsung, or Genesek khan,’ a nephew of the former, but their successors met with opj^osition, or were destroyed by treachery. The offices were also filled with Mongols, without any regard to the former mode of conferring rank according to literary qualifications, and the native Chinese began to be thoroughly dissatisfied with a sway in which they had no part.

    The last and eleventh, named Ching-tsung, or Tohan-Timur, came to the throne at the age of thirteen, iind gave himself up to pleasure, his eunuchs and ministers dividing the possessions and offices of the Chinese among themselves and their adherents.

    ‘See ‘Remusa.t,’ JVbuvemix Melanges, Tomes I., p. 437; TI., pp. 64, 88, and SOOT, for a series of notices concerning the Mongol generalii and history.

    ‘Compare Wylie in the R. A. Sor. Join;, Vol. V. (N.S ), i>. 14; Fergusson, Hint. Ind. iind Kitxt. Airhittrtiirc, p. 708 ; YuU^^’s Polo, I., pp. ’28, 400.

    ^ This should be Kaishaii-kuUuk klian, caUed Kdi-mnrj in (Jhinese. Remusat, Nouveaux MelanycH, Tome II., pp. 1-4.

    <iATEWAY OF THE YUEN UYNASTV, KL-YUNti KWAN, OKEAT WALL THE Sin’REMACY OF THE MONGOLS. 177

    This conduct aroused his subjects, and Chu Vuen-cluing, a plebeian by birth, and formerly a i)riest, raised the standard of revolt, and finally expelled the Mongols, a.d. 136S, after a duration of eighty-nine years.’

    Like most of the preceding dynasties, the new one established

    itself on’ the misrule, luxury, and weakness of its predecessors;

    the people submitted to a vigorous rule, as one which exhibited

    the true exposition of the decrees of Heaven, and npheld its

    laws and the harmony of the universe ; while a weak sovereign

    plainly evinced his usurpation of the ” divine utensil ” and unfitness

    for the post by tlie disorders, famines, piracies, and

    insurrections which afflicted the mismanaged State, and which

    were all taken by ambitious leaders as evidences of a change in

    the choice of Heaven, and reasons for their carrying out the new

    selection which had fallen on them. Amid all the revolutions

    in China, none have been founded on principle ; they were mere

    mutations of masters, attended with more or less destruction of

    life, and no better appreciation of the rights of the subject or

    the powers of the rulers, Xor without some knowledge of the

    high obligations man owes his Maker and himself is it easy to

    see whence the sustaining motive of free religious and political

    institutions can be derived.

    XXY. The Ming, i.e., ‘ Bright dynasty.’—The character of Hongwu, as Zhu Yuan-zhang called his reign on his accession, has been well drawn by Remusat, who accords him a high rank for the vigor and talents manifested in overcoming his enemies and cementing his power. He established his capital at banking, or the ‘ Southern Capital,’ and after a reign of thirty years transmitted the sceptre to his grandson, Kienwtin, a youth of sixteen. Yungloh, his son, dissatisfied with this arrangement, overcame his nephew and seized the crown after five years, and moved the capital back to Peking in 1403. This prince is distinguished for the code of laws framed under his auspices, which has, with some modifications and additions,

    ever since remained as the basis of the administi-ation. During

    the reign of Kiahtsing the Portuguese came to China, and in that

    of Wanleih, about 1580, the Jesuits gai-ned an entrance into the

    ‘ One of the causes of their easy overthrow is stated to have been the enormous robbery of the people by the lavish issue of paper money, which at last became worthless.

    country. In his time, too, the Niu-cliih, or Kin, whom Gen*

    ghis liad driven away in 1235, again became numerous and

    troublesome, and took possession of the northern frontiers.

    The first chieftain of the Manchus who attained celebrity was

    Tienming, who in 1618 published a manifesto of his designs

    against the house of Ming, in which he announced to Heaven

    the seven things he was bound to revenge. These consisted of

    petty oppressions upon persons passing the frontiers, assisting

    his enemies, violating the oath and treaty of peace entered intc

    between the two rulers, and killing his envoys. The fierce nomad

    had already assumed the title of Emperor, and ” vowed to celebrate the funeral of his father with the slaughter of two hundred thousand Chinese.” Tienming overran the north-eastern parts of China, and committed unsparing cruelties upon the

    people of Liautung, but died in 1627, before he had satisfied

    his revenge, leaving it and his army to his son Tientsung.

    The Chinese army fought bravely, though unsuccessfully,

    against the warlike Manchus, whose chief not only strove to

    subdue, but endeavored, by promises and largesses, to win the

    troops from their allegiance. The apparently audacious attempt

    of this small force to subdue the Chinese was assisted by numerous

    bodies of rebels, who, like wasps, sprung up in various

    parts of the country, the leaders of each asserting his claims to

    the throne, and all of them i-endering their common country an

    easier prey to the invader. One of them, called Li Zhi-cheng, attacked Peking, and the last Emperor Hwai-tsung, feeling that he had little to hope for after the loss of his capital, and had already estranged the affections of his subjects by his ill conduct, first stabbed his daughter and then hung himself, in 1643, and ended the house of Ming, after two hundred and seventy six years. The usurper received the submission of most of the eastern provinces, but the Chinese general. Wu San-gui, in command of the army on the north, refused to acknowledge him, and, making peace with the Manchus, invoked the aid of Tsungteh in asserting the cause of the rightful claimant to the throne. This was willingly agreed to, and the united army marched to Peking and speedily entei-cd the capital, which the rebel chief had left a heap of ruins when he took away his booty. The Manchus now declared themselves the rulers of the Empire, but their chief dying, his son Shunzhi, who at the age of six succeeded his father in 16-1-t, is regarded as the Urst Emperor; his uncle, Aina-wang, ruled and reorganized the administration in his name.

    TTIE :\IINrr DYNASTY. ^79

    XXVI. The Qing,’ i.e. ‘ Pure dynasty.’—During the eighteen

    years he sat upon the throne Shunchi and his officers subdued

    most of the northern and central provinces, but the maritime

    regions of the south held out against the invaders, and

    one of the leaders, by means of his fleets, carried devastation

    along the whole coast. The spirit of resistance was in some

    parts crushed, and in others exasperated by an order for all

    Chinese to adopt as a sign of submission the Tartar mode of

    shaving the front of the head and braiding the hair in a long

    queue. Those M’ho gave this order, as Davis remarks, must

    have felt themselves very strong before venturing so far upon

    the spirit of the conquered, and imposing an outward universal

    badge of surrender upon all classes of the people. ” Mar.y are

    the changes which may be made in despotic countries, without

    the notice or even the knowledge of the larger portion of the

    community ; but an entire alteration in the national costume

    affects every individual equally, from the highest to the lowest,

    and is perhaps of all others the most open and degrading mark

    of conquest.” This order M’as resisted by many, who chose to

    lose their heads rather than part with their hair, but the mandate

    was gradually enforced, aud has now for about two centuries

    been one of the distinguishing marks of a Chinese, though

    to this day the natives of Fuhkien near the seaboard wear a

    kerchief around their head to conceal it. The inhabitants of

    this province and of Kwangtung held out the longest against

    the invaders, and a vivid account of their capture of Canton,

    Kovember 20, 1650, where the adherents of the late dynasty had

    intrenched themselves, has been left us by Martini, an eyewitness.

    Some time after its subjugation a brave man, Ching Chi-hmg, harassed them by his fleet ; and his son, Ching

    ‘ For the origin of the Manchus see Klaproth, Memoires sur VAsie, Tome I.,p. 441.

    (“]iirio:-kniiir, or Koxiiiiia, molested the coast to fiicli a dcijiee

    that the Emperor Kanghi, in 1665, ordered all the people to retire

    three leagues inland, in order to prevent this heroic man

    from reaching them. This command was generally obeyed,

    and affords an instance of the singular nnxture of power and

    weakness seen in many parts of Chinese legislation ; for it

    might be supposed that a government which could compel its

    maritime subjects to leave their houses and towns and go into

    the country at great loss, might have easily armed and equipped

    a fleet to have defended those towns and homes. Koxinga,

    finding himself unable to make any serious impression upon

    the stability of the new government, went to Formosa, drove

    the Dutch out of Zealandia, and made himself master of tho

    island.’

    Shunchi died in 1661 and was succeeded by his son Kanghi/

    who was eight years old at his accession, and remained under

    guardians till he was fourteen, when he assumed the reins of

    government, and swayed the power vested in his liands with a

    prudence, vigor, and success that have rendered him more celebrated

    than almost any other Asiatic monarch. It was in 1661

    that Louis XIY. had assumed the sovereignty of France at al)out

    the same age, and for fifty -four years the reigns of these two

    monarchs ran paralleL During Kanghi’s unusually long reign

    of sixty-one years (the longest in Chinese annals, except Taimao

    of the Shang dynasty, b.c. 1637-1562), he extended his dominions

    to the borders of Kokand and Badakshan on the west, and to the confines of Tibet on the south-west, simplifying the administration and consolidating his power in every part of his vast dominions. To his regulations, perhaps, are mainly owing the unity and peace which the Empire has exhibited for more than a century, and which has produced the impression abroad of the unchangeableness of Chinese institutions and character.

    ‘ Compare tho interesting translation from a Chinese record of the capture of Fort Zealandia, by H. E. Ilobson, Journal of JV. C. Br. /?. A. Society, Xo. XL, Art. L, 1876.

    – Rimusat, Nouveaiu Mehinges, Tome II., pp. 21-44 : Bouvet, FAfe of Kany hi; Gutzlaff, Life of Kanghi.

    THE MANCIIUS—THE EMPEROP. KAXOIlf. 181

    This may be ascribed, chiefly, to his indefatigable application to all affairs of State, to his judgment and penetration in the choice of officers, his economy in regard to himself and liberal magnificence in everything that tended to the good of his dominions, and his sincere desire to promote the happiness of his people by a steady and vigorous execution of the laws and a continual watchfulness over the conduct of his hiirh officers. These qualities have perhaps been unduly extolled hy his foreign friends and biographers, the liomish missionaries, and if their expressions arc taken in their strictest sense, as we understand them, they do elevate him too high. lie is to be

    compared not with Alfred or AVilliam III. of England, Louis IX.

    or Henry TV. of France, and other European kings, hut with

    other Chinese and Asiatic princes, few of whom equal him.

    The principal events of his long reign are the conquest of the

    Eleuths. and subjugation of several tribes lying on the north and

    south of the Tien shan ; an embassy across the Kussian Possessions

    in 1713 to the khan of the Tourgouth Tartars, preparatory

    to their return to the Chinese territory ; the settlement of

    the northern frontier between himself and the czar, of which

    Gerbillon has given a full account ; the survey of the Empire by

    the Romish missionaries ; and the publication of a great thesaurus

    of the language. In many things he showed himself liberal toward foreigners, and the country was thrown open to their commerce for many years.

    His son Yungching succeeded in 1T22, and is regarded by many natives as superior to his father. He endeavored to suppress Christianity and restore the ancient usages, which had somewhat fallen into desuetude during his father’s sway, ami generally seems to have held the sceptre to the benefit of his subjects. Yungching is regarded as an usurper, and is sr.id to have changed the figure four to fourteen on the billet of nomination, himself being the fourteenth son, and the fourth being absent in Mongolia, where he was soon after arrested and imprisoned, and subsequently died in a palace near Peking; whether he was put to death or not is uncertain. Kienlung succeeded Yungching in 1736, and proved himself no unworthy descendant of his grandfather Ivanghi ; like him he had the singular fortune to reign sixty years, and for most of that period in peace’ Some local insurrections disturbed the general trauquilliry, principally among the al)(»rigiiies in I-‘ormosa and Tvweiclian, and in an nnprovolved attack upon IJirmali his armies sustained a signal defeat and were obliged to retreat. The incursions of the Xipalese into Tibet induced the Dalai Lama to apply to him for assistance, and in doing so he contrived to establish a guardianship over the whole country, and place bodies of troops in all the important positions, so that in effect lie annexed that vast region to his Empire, but continued the lamas in the internal administration.

    During his long reign Xieidnng exhausted the resources of

    his Empire by building useless edifices and keeping up large

    armies. lie received embassies from the liussians, Dutch, and

    English, bv which the character of the (“hinese and the nature of

    their country became better known to western nations. These

    end)assies greatly strengthened the im|)ression on the side of the

    Chinese of their superiority to all other nations, for they looked

    upon them as a(;knowledgments on the })art of the governments

    Avho sent them of their allegiance to the court of Peking. The

    presents were regarded as tribute, the ambassadors as deputies

    from their masters to acknowledge the su]’)reniacy of the Emperor,

    and the requests they made for trade as rather another form

    of receiving presents in return than a mutual arrangement for a

    trade equally beneficial to both. Ivienlung abdicated the throne

    in favor of his fifth son and retired with the title of S’fjwe/Jie

    Km/peroi\ while liis son, Kiaking, had that of Enq)eror.

    The character of this prince was dissolute and superstitious, and his reign of twenty- five years was much disturbed by secret combinations against the government and by insurrections* and

    ‘ His character and enthusiasm for literary pursuits merit, on the whole, the lines inscribed by the Roman Catholic missionaries beneath his portrait in the Memoircs cone, leu Ghinois:

    Occup sans relache a touts les soins divers

    D’lin gouvcrncment qu’on admire,

    Le i)lus gran<l potentat qui soit dans I’univors

    Et le mcillcur l(>ttr6 qui soit dans son Empire.

    ‘ Among the most serious of these was the revolt oP the Peh lien kiao. Zr<-tres EfHpirdcx, Tome III., pp. 201-29S, ;55;5, 879, etc. In 1789 the ladronea infested the southern coasts. //>., Tome II., p. 493.

    THE llEIGNS OF KIEXLUNG AND TAUKWANG. ]83

    pirates in and about the Empire. A conspiracy’ against him

    broke out in tlie pahice in 1813, where he was for a time in

    some danger, but was rescued by the courage of his guard and

    family ; one of liis sons, Mien-ning, was designated as his successor

    for liis bravery on this occasion. A fleet of about sixhundred

    piratical junks, under Ching Yih and Chang Pan, infested

    the coasts of Kwangtung for several years, and were at

    last put down in ISIO by the provincial government taking

    advantage of internal dissensions between the leaders. The

    principal scene of the exploits of this fleet was the estuary of

    the Pearl lliver, whose numerous harbors and chaimels afforded

    shelter and escape to their vessels when pursued by the imperialists,

    while the towns upon the islands were plundered and

    the inhabitants killed if they resisted. The internal government

    of this audacious band was ascertained by two Englishmen,

    Mr. Turner and Mr. Glasspoole, who at different times fell into

    their hands and were obliged to accompany them in their marauding

    expeditions. To so great a height did they proceed

    that the governor of Canton went to Macao to reside, and entered

    into some arrangements with the Portuguese for assistance

    in suppressing them. The piratical fleet was attacked and blockaded

    for ten days by the combined forces, but without much

    damage ; there was little prospect of overcoming them had not

    rivalry between the two leaders gone so far as to result in a

    severe engagement and loss on both sides. The conquered pirate

    soon after made his peace with the government, and the

    victor shortly afterward followed the same course. The story

    of those disturbed times to this day affords a fj-equent subject

    for the tales of old people in that region, and the same waters

    are still infested by the ” foam of the sea,” as the Chinese term

    these freebooters.

    The reign of Kiaking ended in 1820; by the Emperor’s will his second son was appointed to succeed him, and took the style Taukwang. lie exhibited more energy and justice than his father, and his efl^orts purified the administration by the personal supervision taken of their leading members. His reign was marked by many local insurrections and disasters in one quarter or another of his vast dominions. A rebellion in Turkestan in 1S28 was attended with great cruelty and treachery on the part of the Chinese, and its leader, Jehangir, was murdered, in v^iolation of the most solenm promises. An insurrection in Formosa and a rising among the mountaineers of Kwangtung, in 1830-32, were put down more by money than by force, but as peace is both the end and evidence of good government in China, the authorities are not very particular how it is brought about.

    The rapid increase of opium-smoking among his people led

    to many efforts to restrain this vice by prohibitions, penalties,

    executions, and other means, but all in vain. The Emperors

    earnestness was stimulated by the death of his three eldest sons

    from its use, and the falling off of the revenue by smuggling

    the pernicious drug. In 1837-38 the collective opinion of the

    highest officials was taken after hearing their arguments for

    legalizing its importation ; it was resolved to seize the dealers in

    it. The acts of Commissioner Lin resulted in the war with

    Great Britain and the opening of China to an extended intercourse

    with other nations. Defeated in his honest efforts to

    protect his people against their bane, the Emperor still fulfilled

    Ids treaty obligations, and died in 1850, just as the Tai-ping rebellion

    broke out.

    His fourth son succeeded him under the style of Hienfung,

    but without his father’s earnestness or vigor when the State

    required the highest qualities in its leader. The devastations

    of the rebels laid waste the southern half of the Empire, and

    their approach to Peking in 1853 was paralyzed by tioods and

    want of supplies more than by the imperial troops. A second

    war with Great Britain, in 1858-60, completely broke down the

    seclusion of China, and at its conclusion an inglorious reign of

    eleven years ended at Jeh-ho in August, 1860. His only son

    succeeded to the throne at the age of five years, under the style

    of Tungchi ; the government being under the control of two

    Empress-regents and Prince Kung, his uncle. During his reign

    of twelve years the vigor of the new authoi’ities succeeded in

    completely quelling the Tai-ping rebellion, destroying the Mohammedan

    rising in Yunnan and Kansidi, and opening up

    diplomatic intercourse with the Treaty Powers. Just as the

    IIEIGNS AND EVENTS OF RECENT YEARS. 185

    Emperor l)e<;un to exercise his authoi’ity, lie died in JamuuT,

    1875, without issue. The vacant “utensil” has been filled by

    the appointment of his cousin, a boy of four yeai’s, whose reii^n

    was styled Kwangsii. Affairs continue to be conducted by

    the same regency as before, now still more conversant with the

    new relations opening up with other lands. The real Enipressilowager, or Tioig Kung^ died April IS, 1881.

    So far as can be judged from the imperfect data of native

    historians of former days, compai’ed with the observations of

    foreigners at present, there is little doubt that this enormous

    population has been better governed by the Manchus than under

    the princes of the Ming dynasty; there has been more vigor in

    the administration of government and less palace favoritism

    and intrigue in the appointment of officers, more security of

    life and property from the exactions of local authorities, bands

    of robbers, or processes of law ; in a word, the Manchu sway

    has well developed the industry and resources of the country,

    of which the population, loyalty, and content of the people are

    the best evidences.

    The sovereigns of the Ming and Tsing dynasties, being more

    frequently mentioned in history than those of former princes,

    are here given, with the length of their reigns. For convenience

    of reference a table of the dynasties is appended, taken

    from the author’s SijllabiG Dlctionanj of the Chinese Language.

    In this list, compiled from a Chinese work (the Digest of the

    Reigns of Emperors and Kings\ the Tsin and After Tsin dynasties

    are joined in one (No. 4), making a total of twenty-six dynasties.’

    The whole number of acknowledged sovereigns in the twentysix

    dynasties, according to the recei\ned Chinese chronology,

    from Yu the Great to Kwangsii, is 238, or 246 commencing with

    Fuh-hi ; by including the names of some ursurpers and moribund

    claimants, the first number is increased to 250. From Yu

    the Great lo th-^ accession of Kwangsii (b.c. 2205 to a.d. 1875)

    is 4,080 years, which gives to each dynasty a duration of 157

    ‘ Compare the Chinese Chronological Tables by W. P. Mayers in N. C Br. R. A. S. Journal, No. IV., Art. VIII. , 1867.

    Kwoh Hiao, or Reigiiing Title.

    Miao Hiao, or Temple Title.

    Began ‘Length

    I

    to I of

    I

    Reign. Reign.

    Contemporary Monarchs.

    1. Hungwu

    2. Kieiiwan. . ..

    3. Yungloh . . ..

    4. Hunglii

    5. Siuentih

    6. Chingtung .

    7. Kingtai

    8. Chinghwa. ..
    9. Hungchi
    10. Chingtih….
    11. Kiahtsing. .
    12. Lungking…
    13. Wanleih ….
    14. Taichang ..
    15. Tienki
    16. Tsungching
    1. Shunchi’ …

    .’. Kanghi

    “. Yimgching .

    . Kienlung . .

    i. Kiaking

    6. Taukwaiig..

    7. Hienfuiig . .

    S. Tungchi

    .). Kwangsii – .

    Taitsu

    Kienwan ti . .

    ,

    Taitsnng

    Jintsung

    Siuentsung. . .

    .

    Yingtsung . . .

    ,

    Kingti ,

    Hientsung . . .

    ,

    Hiaut.suiig . . .

    VVutsung

    Shi’tsung

    Muhtsung. …

    Shintsung

    Kwangtsung .

    Hitsung ,

    Hwaitsung. .

    .

    Chang hwaiigti.

    Jin hwangti . .

    Hien hwangti .

    .

    8hun hwangti.

    Jui hwangti . . .

    Ching hwangti .

    Hien hwangti .

    1368

    1398

    1403

    1425

    1426

    1436

    1457

    1465

    1488

    1506

    1522

    1567

    1573

    1620

    1621

    1638

    1644

    1()62

    1723

    1736

    1796

    1821

    1851

    1862

    1875

    30

    5

    22

    1

    10

    21

    8

    23

    18

    16

    45

    6

    47

    1

    7

    16

    18

    61

    13

    60

    25

    30

    11

    12

    Tamerlane, Richard II., Robert II.

    Manuel-Paleologus, Henrj’ IV. of Eng.

    Jame.s I., Henry V., Martin V.

    \ Amuratli II., Henry VI., Charles VII.

    ‘( Albert II., Cosmo de Medicis.

    James II., Fred. III. of Aus., Nich. V.

    Mahomet II , Edward IV., SixtuslV.

    JamesIII. ,Ferd. and Isabella, Lonis XI.

    Bajazet II., James IV., Henry VII.

    James V., Henry VIII., Charles V.

    Solyman II.,^lary, Philip II., Henry IL

    yelim II., Klizabeth, Cregory 111.

    James I., Henry IV., Louis XIII.

    Othman II., Philip IV., Gregory XV.

    Amurath IV., Charles I., Urban VIII

    Innocent X., Frederick the Great.

    Mahomet IV., Cromwell. Louis XIV.

    Charles II., Clement IX.. Sobioskv.

    Mahomet V., George II.. Lonis XV.

    Osman III., George III., Clement XIV

    Seiim III., Napoleon, Fred. Wm. II.

    Mahmoud, George IV., Louis XVIII.

    Mahmond, Victoria, Louis XVIII.

    I Napoleon III., Alexander II.

    Dynasty.

    1. Hla

    2. Shang

    3. Chau

    4. Tsin

    r). Han

    6. East Han . .,

    7. After Han.

    8. T.sin ,

    9. East Tsin .

    10. Sung

    11. Tsi

    12. Liang

    13 Chin

    14. Sui

    15. Tang

    16. After Liang

    17. After Tang

    18. After T.sin.

    19. After Han.

    20. After Chau

    21. Sung

    22. South Sung

    23. Yuen

    24. Ming

    25. Tsing

    Number of Sovereigns. Began. Ended. Duration

    Seventeen, averaging 26 years to each monarch’s reign

    Twenty-eight, averaging 23 years

    Thirtj’- four, averaging 253.j years

    Two, one reigning 37 years, the second 3 years.

    Fourteen, averaging 163,., years

    Twelve, averaging 16’^ years

    Two, one reigning 2, the other 41 years

    Four, averaging 1 4}{ years

    Eleven, averaging about 9J^ years

    Eight, averaging 7}£ years

    Five, averaging 4% years

    Four, one 48 years, and thiee together 7 years.

    Five, averaging about 6 ‘ ., years

    Three, one reigning 16, another 12, and another 2 years . . . :

    Twenty, averaging 1 43^ years

    Two. one 8 and one 7 years

    Four, averaging 33^ years

    Two, one 7 ami one 3 years

    Two, one 3 years, another 1 year

    Three, averaging 3 years

    Nine, averaging 183^2 years

    Nine, averaging 17 years

    Nine, averaging \)% years

    Sixteen, averaging 1 7 years

    Eight up to 1875, averaging nearly 30 years .

    .B.C.;3205 1766 1122 255 206 221 265 323 420 4791 5021 557 589 I

    620 i 907 923 936 947

    951 960

    1127

    1280

    1368

    1644

    n.c.

    1766

    1122

    255

    206

    .D. 25

    231

    264

    322

    419

    478

    502

    556

    589

    619

    907

    923

    936

    946

    951

    960

    1127

    1280

    1368

    1644

    439

    644

    807

    40

    231

    196

    43

    57

    106

    58

    23

    54

    32

    30

    287 16 13 10 4 9 167 153 88 276

    ‘ ShuiK^hi and the four fiiUowinpr monarchs are namwd in Manchu, Chidzuoldimbiikh6, Elkhetaitin, ivhowaligiisDMii tob, Abkai wekhiyekhu, and Siiichunga fungchuii, respectively.
    ‘^ Kwangsu was born August 14, 1871.

    TABLES OF M0NARCTI3 AND DYNASTIES. ]y7

    years, and to eacli moiiarcli an average of 17] years. From Wu wang’s accession to Kwangsii is 2,1>UT years, giving an avei-age of 125 years to a dynasty and 151 toeacli sovereign. From the days of Menes in Egypt, n.c. 2710 to 331, Manetlio reckons 31 dynasties and 378 kings, which is about 77 years to each family and G^ to each reign. In England the 34 sovereigns from William I. to Victoria (a.d. lOGO to 1837) averaged 22| years each; in Israel, the 23 kings from Saul to Zedekiah averaged 22 years during a monarchy of 50 7 years.

    CHAPTER XVIII.  RELIGION OF THE CHINESE

    As results must have their proportionate causes, one wishes to know what are the reasons for the remarkable duration of the Chinese people. Why have not their institutions fallen into decrepitude, and this race given place to others during the forty centuries it claims to have existed? Is it owing to the geographical isolation of the land, which has prevented other nations easily reaching it? Or have the language and literature unified and upheld the people whom they have taught? Or, lastly, is it a religious belief and the power of a ruling class working together which has brought about the security and freedom now seen in this thrifty, industi-ions, and practical people? Probably all these causes have conduced to this end, and our present object is to outline what seems to have been their mode of operation.

    The position of their country has tended to separate them from other Asiatic races, even from very early times. It compelled them to work out their own institutions without any hints or modifying interference from abroad. They seem, in fact, to have had no neighbors of any importance until about the Christian era, up to which time they occupied chiefly the basin of the Yellow River, or the nine northern provinces as the Empire is now divided. Till about b.c.220 feudal States covered this region, and their quarrels only ended by their subjection to Tsin Chi Ilwangti, or the ‘Emperor First,’ whose strong hand molded the people as he led them to value security and yield to just laws. He thus prepared the way for the Emperors Wan ti (B.C. 179-1.50) and Wu ti (b.c. 140-86), of the Han dynasty, to consolidate, during their long reigns of twenty-nine and fifty four years, their schemes of good government.

    ISOLATION OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 189

    The four northern provinces all lie on the south-eastern slope of the vast plateau of Central Asia, the ascent to which is confined to a few passes, leading nj) live or six thousand feet through mountain defiles to the sterile, bleak plains of Gobi. This desolate region has always given subsistence to wandering nomads, and enough to enable traders to cross its o;i’assv M’astes. When their numbers increased they burst their borders in periodical raids, ravaging and weakening those M’hom they were too few to conquer and too ignorant to govern. The Chinese were too unwarlike to keep these tribes in subjection for long, and never themselves colonized the region, though the attempt to ward off its perpetual menace to their safety, by building the Great Wall to bar out their enemies, proves how they had learned to dread them. Yet this desert waste has proved a better defense for China against armies coming from the basin of the Tarini River than the lofty mountains on its west did to ancient Persia and modern Russia. It was easier and more inviting for the Scythians, Iluns, Mongols, and Turks successively to push their arms westward, and China thereby remained intact, even when driven within her own borders.

    The western frontiers, between the Kiayil Pass in Kansuh, at the extreme end of the Great Wall, leading across the country south to the island of Hainan, are too wild and rough to be densely inhabited or easily crossed, so that the Chinese have always been unmolested in that direction. To invade the eastern sides, now so exposed, the ancients had no fleets powerful enough to attack the Middle Kingdom ; and it is only within the present century that armies carried by steam have threatened her seaboard.

    The Chinese have, therefore, been shut out by their natural defenses from both the assaults and the trade of the dwellers in India, Tibet, and Central Asia, to that degree which would have materially modified their civilization. The external influences which have molded them have^ been wholly religious, acting through the persistent labors of Buddhist missionaries from India. These zealous men came and went in a ceaseless stream for ten centuries, joining the caravans entering the northwestern marts and ships trading at southern ports.

    In addition to this geographical isolation, the language of the Chinese has tended still more to separate them intellectually from their fellow-men. It is not strange, indeed, that a symbolic form of writing should have arisen among them, for the Egyptians and Mexicans exhibit other fashions of ideographic writing, as well as its caprices and the difficulty of extending it. But its long-continued use by the Chinese is hardly less remarkablethan the proof it gives of their independence of other people in mental and political relations. Outside nations did not care to study Chinese books through such a medium, and its possessors had, without intending it, shut themselves out of easy interchange of thought. This shows that they could not have had much acquaintance in early times with any alphabetic writing like Sanscrit or Assyrian, for it is almost certain that, in that case, they would soon have begun to alter their ideographs into syllables and letters as the Egyptians did ; while the manifest advantages of the phonetic over the symbolic principle would have gradually insured it:j triumph. In that case, howevei”, the rivah’ies of feudal States would have resulted, as in Europe, in the formation of different languages, and perhaps prevented the growth of a great Chinese race. In Jajmi: and Corea the struggle between symbols and sounds has long existed, and two written languages, the Chinese and a derivel demotic, are now used side by side in each of those kingdoms.

    Tills isolation has had its disadvantageous effects on the people thus cut off from their fellows, but the results now seen could not otherwise have been attained. Their literary teiulencies could never have attained the strength of an institution if they had been surrounded by more intelligent nations ; nor would they have tilled the land to such a degree if they had been forced to constantly defend themselves, or had imbibed the lust of conquest. Either of these conditions would probably have brought their own national life to a premature close.

    ITS PEOPLE UNAFFECTED BY FOREIGN THOUGHT. 101

    Isolation, however, is merely a potential factor in this question. It does not by itself account for that life nor furnish the reasons for its uniformity and endurance. These must be sought for in the moral and social teachino:s of their sages and great rulers, who have been leaders and counsellors, and in the character of the political institutions which have grown out of those teachings. A comparison of their national characteristics with those of other ancient and modern people shows four striking contrasts and deductions. The Chinese may be regarded “^ “^Xj as the only pagan nation which has maintained democratic “•^’^ -‘^- habits under a purely despotic theoiy of government. This government has respected the rights of its subjects by placing

    them under the protection of law, with its sanctions and tribu- ~”-^-^-a,^;_

    iials, and nuxking the sovereign amenable in the popular mind -^i-^T-,^.,.^

    for the continuance of his sway to the approval of a higher ^^

    Power able to punish him. Lastly, it has prevented the doniina- ^f*

    tion of all feudal, hereditary, and priestly classes and interests by

    making the tenure of officers of government below the throne

    chiefly depend on their literary attainments. Kot a trace of

    Judaistic, Assyrian, or Persian customs or dogmas appears in

    Chinese books in such definite form as to suggest a western

    origin. All is the indio-enous outcome of native ideas and habits.

    The real religious belief and practices of a heathen people are

    hard to describe intelligibly to those who have not lived among

    them. Men naturally exercise much freedom of thought in such

    matters, and feel the authority of their fellow-men over their

    minds irksome to bear ; and though it is comparatively easy to

    depict their religious ceremonies and festivals, their real belief

    —that which constitutes their religion, their trust in danger and

    guide in doubt, their support in sorrow and hope for future I’c

    ward—is not rpiickly examined nor easily described. The want

    of a well understood and acknowledged standard of doctrine,

    and the degree of latitude each one allows himself in his observance

    of rites or belief in dogmas, tends to confuse the inquirer

    ; while his own diverse views, liis imperfect knowledge,

    and misapprehension of the eifect which this tenet or that ceremony

    has upon the heart of the worshipper, contribute still

    further to embarrass the subject. This, at least, is the case with

    the Chinese, and notwithstanding what has been -written upon

    their religion, no one has very satisfactorily elucidated the true

    nature of their belief and the intent of their ritual. The reason

    is owing partly to the indefinite ideas of the people themselves

    upon the character of their ceremonies, and their consequent inability to give a clear notion of them ; partly also to the

    variety of observances found in distant parts of the country, and

    the discordant opinions entertained by those belonging to the

    same sect ; so that what is seen in one district is sometimes

    utterly unknown in the next province, and the opinions of one

    man are laughed at by another.

    Before proceeding with the present outline two negative featni’es of Chinese religion deserve to be noticed, which distinguish it from the faith of most other heathen nations. These are the absence of human sacrifices and the non- deification of vice. The prevalence of human offerings in almost all ages of the world, and among nations of different degrees of civilization, not only widely separated in respect of situation and power, but flourishing in ages remote from each other, and having little or no mutual influence, has often been noticed. Human sacrifices are offered to this day in some parts of Asia, Africa, and Polynesia, which the extension of Christian instruction and power has, it is to be hoped, greatly reduced and almost accomplished the extinction of; but no clear record of the sacrificial innnolation of man by his fellow, “offering the fruit of his body for the sin of his soul,” has been found in Chinese annals in such a shape as to carry the conviction that it formed part of the belief or practice of the people—although the Scythian custom of burying the servants and horses of a deceased prince or chieftain

    with him was perhaps observed before the days of Confucius,

    and may have been occasionally done since his time. This feature,

    negative though it be, stands in strong contrast with the

    appalling destruction of human life for religious reasons, still

    existing among the tribes of Western and Central Africa, and

    recorded as having been sanctioned among Aztecs and Egyptians,

    Hindus and Carthaginians, and other ancient nations, not

    excepting Syrians and Jews, Greeks and Romans.

    The other, and still more remarkable trait of Chinese idolatry,

    is that there is no deification of sensuality, which, in the name

    of religion, could shield and countenance those licentious rites

    and orgies that enervated the minds of worshippers and polluted

    their hearts in so many other pagan countries. No Aphrodite

    or Lakshmi occurs in the list of Chinese goddesses ; no weeping

    VICE NEYEE SAXCTIFTED. 193

    for Thaiiinmz, no exposure in the temple of Mylitta or obscene rites of tlie Durga-puja, have ever been required or sanctioned by Chinese priests ; no nautch girls as in Indian temples, or courtesans as at Corinth, are kept in their sacred buildings. Their speculations upon the dual powers of the yln and yang have never degenerated into the vile worship of the linya and yonl of the Hindus, or of Amun-kem, as pictured on the ruins of Thebes.

    Although they are a licentious people in word and deed, the

    Chinese have not endeavored to lead the votaries of pleasure,

    falsely so called, further down the road of ruin, by making its

    path lie through a temple and trying to sanctify its acts by pntting

    them under the protection of a goddess. Nor does their

    mythology teem with disgusting relations of the amours of

    their deities ; on the contrary, like the Romanists, they exalt and

    deify chastity and seclusion as a means of bringing the soul and

    body nearer to the highest excellence. Vice is, in a great

    degree, kept out of sight, as well as out of religion, and it may

    be safely said tluit no such significant sign as has been uncovered

    at Pompeii, with the inscription IIlc habitat felioitas, was ever

    exhibited in a Chinese city.

    To these traits of Cliinese character may be added the preservative features of their regard for parents and superiors and their general peaceful industry. If there be any connection between the former of these virtues and the promise attached to the fifth commandment, ” That thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee,” then the long duration of the Chinese people and Empire is a stupendous monument of the good effects of even a partial obedience to the law of God, by those who only had it inscribed on their hearts and not written in their hands.

    The last point in the Chinese polity which has had great nifluence in preserving it is the religious beliefs recognized by the people and rulers. There are three sects (san jiao), which are usually called Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism, or Rationalism; the first is a foreign term, and vaguely denotes the belief of the literati generally, including the State religion. These three sects do not interfere with each other, however, and a man may worship at a Buddhist shrine or join in a Taoist festival while he accepts all the tenets of Confucius and worships him on State occasions ; much as a lawyer in England may attend a Quaker meeting or the Governor of a State in America may be a Methodist minister. In China there is no generic term for

    religion in its usual sense. The word I’kio, which means ‘ to

    teach,’ or ‘doctrines taught,’ is applied to all sects and associations

    having a creed or ritual ; the ancestral worship is never

    called a Mao, for everybody observes that at home just as much

    as he obeys his parents ; it is a duty, not a sect.

    Xo religious system has been found among the Chinese which

    taught the doctrine of atonement by the shedding of blood ; an

    argument in favor of their antiquity. The State religion of

    China has had a remarkable history and antiquity, and, though

    modified somewhat during successive dynasties, has retained its

    main features during the past three thousand years. The simplicity’

    and purity of this w^orship have attracted the notice of

    irjany foreigners, who have disagreed on various points as to its

    nature and origin. Their discussions have brought out sundry

    most interesting details respecting it ; and whoever has visited

    the great Altar and Temple of Heaven at Peking, where the

    Emperor and his courtiers worship, must have been impressed

    with its simple grandeur. What \vas the precise idea connected

    svith the words tien, ‘heaven,’ and hirang tien, ‘imperial

    heaven,’ as they were used in ancient times, is a very difficult

    point to determine ; the worship rendered to them was probably

    of a mixed sort, the material heavens being taken as the most

    sublime manifestation of the power of their Maker, whose

    character was then less obscured and unknown than in after

    times, when it degenerated to Sabianism.

    These discussions are not material to the present subject, and

    it is only needful to indicate the main results. The prime idea

    in this worship is that the Emperor is Tien-tsz\ or ‘ Son of

    Heaven,’ the coordinate with Heaven and Earth, from whom he

    directly derives his right and power to rule on earth among\

    mankind, the One Man who is their vicegerent and the third of

    the trinity {san tsai) of Heaven, Earth, and Man. With these

    ideas of his exalted position, he claims the homage of all his

    fellow-men. He cannot properly devolve on any other mortal

    THE 8TATK KKLKilOX OF CIIIXA. 195

    his functions of their high priest to offer the oblations on the

    altars of Heaven and Earth at Peking at the two solstices, lie

    is not, therefore, a despot bj mere power, as other rulers are,

    but is so in the ordinance of nature, and the basis of his authority

    is divine. lie is accountable personally to his two superordinate

    powers for its record and result. If the people suffer from

    pestilence or famine he is at fault, and must atone by prayer, sacrifice, and reformation as a disobedient son. One defect in all human governments—a sense of responsibility on the part of rulers to the God who ordains the powers that be—has thus been partly met and supplied in China. It has really been a check, too, on their tyranny and extortion; for the very books which contain this State ritual intimate the amenability of the sovereign to the Powers who appointed him to rule, and hint that the people will rise to vindicate themselves. The officials, too, all springing from the people, and knowing their feelings, hesitate to provoke a wrath which has swept away thousands of their number.

    The objects of State worship are chiefly things, although persons

    are also included. There are three grades of sacrifices, the

    great, medlinn, and inferior, the last collectively called klun sz\

    or ‘ the crowd of sacrifices.’ The objects to which the great

    sacrifices are offered are only four, viz.: t’ten, the heavens or sky,

    called the imperial concave expanse ; t’l, the earth, likewise

    dignified with the appellation imperial ; tai Triiao, or the great

    temple of ancestors, wherein the tablets of deceased monarchs

    of this dynasty are placed ; and, lastly, the t^hii t-n/i, or gods of

    the land and grain, the special patrons of each dynasty. The

    tablets representing these four great objects are placed on an

    equality by the present monarchs, which is strong presumptive

    proof that by tien is now meant the material heavens.

    The medium sacrifices are offered to nine objects: The sun,

    or ” great light,” the moon, or ” night light,” the manes of the

    emperors and kings of former dynasties, Confucius, the ancient

    patrons of agriculture and silk, the gods of heaven, earth, and

    the cyclic year. The first six have separate temples erected for

    their worship in Peking. The inferior herd of sacrifices are

    offered to the ancient patron of the healing art and the innumerable spirits of deceased pliilanthropists, eminent statesmen, martyrs to virtue, etc.; clouds, rain, wind, and tlnnider; the five celebrated mountains, four seas, and four rivers; famous hills, great watercourses, flags, triviaj, gods of cannon, gates, queen goddess of earth, the north pole, and many other things.

    The State religion has been so far corrupted from its ancient simplicity, as given in the Shic King and Li K’i, as to include gods terrestrial and stellar, ghosts infernal, flags, and cannon, as well as idols and tablets, the efiigies and mementoes of deified persons.

    The personages who assist the Emperor in his worship of the four superior objects, and perform most of the ceremonies, belong to the Imperial Clan and the Board of Rites; but while they go through with the ceremony, he, as pontifex maxinnis^ refuses to pay the same homage that he demands of all who approach him, and puts off these superior Powers with three kneelings and nine profound bows. When he is ill, or in his minority, these services are all forborne, for they cannot properly be done by a substitute. When he worships Heaven he wears robes of a blue color, in allusion to the sky; and when he worships earth he puts on yellow to represent the clay of this earthly clod ; so, likewise, he wears red for the sun and pale

    white for the moon. The princes, nobles, and officers who assist

    are clad in their usual court dresses, but no priests or women

    are admitted. The worship of Yuenfi, the goddess of silk, is

    alone, as we have seen, conducted by the Empress and her court.

    The temple of the sun is east, and that of the moon west of the

    city, and at the eqninoxes a regulus, or prince of the Impei’ial

    Clan, is commissioned to perform the requisite ceremonies and

    oft’er the appointed sacrifices.

    The winter solstice is the great day of this State worship.

    The Emperoi- goes from his palace the evening before, draM-n

    by an elephant in his state car and escorted by about two thousand

    grandees, princes, musicians, and attendants, down to the

    Tem})le of Tlcaveii. The cortege passes out by the southern

    road, reaching the Ching Yang Gate, opened only for his Majesty’s

    use, and through it goes on two miles to the Tien Tan.

    ile first repairs to the Chai Ktmg, or ‘ Palace of Fasting,’

    WORSHIP OF IIKAVEX BY THE KMFEKOR. 197

    where he prepares himself by lonely meditation for his duty;” for the idea is that if there be not pious thoughts in his mind the spirits of the unseen will not come to the sacrifice.”

    To assist him he looks at a copper statue, arraj-ed like a Taoist priest, whose mouth is covered by three fingers, denoting silence, while the other hand bears a tablet inscribed with ‘ Fast three days.’ When the worship commences, and all the officiating attendants are in their places, the animals are killed, and as the odor of their burning flesh ascends to convey the sacrifice to the gods, the Emperor begins the rite, and is directed at every step by the masters of ceremonies. The worship to Heaven is at midnight, and the numerous poles around the great altar, and the fires in the furnaces shedding their glare over the marble terraces and richly dressed assembly, render this solemnity most striking.’

    The hierophants in this worship of nature, so lauded by some

    infidels, are required to prepare themselves for the occasion by

    fasting, ablutions, change of garments, separation from their

    wives and pleasurable scenes, and from the dead ; “for sickness

    and death defile, while banqueting dissipates the mind and unfits

    it for holding communion with the gods.” The sacrifices

    consist of calves, hares, deer, sheep, or pigs, and the offerings

    of silks, grain, jade, etc. Xo garlands are placed on the victim

    when its life is taken, nor is the blood sprinkled on any particular

    spot or article. ” The idea is that of a banquet ; and when

    a sacrifice is performed to the supreme spirit of Heaven, the

    honor paid is believed by the Chinese to be increased by inviting

    other guests. The Emperors invite their ancestors to sit at

    the banquet with Shangti. A father is to be honored as heaven,

    and a mother as earth. In no way could more perfect revei’-

    ence be shown than in placing a father’s tablet on the altar with

    that of Shangti.” To these remarks of Dr. Edkins explanatory

    of this union of the objects worshipped, it may be added that the

    Emperors regard their predecessors of every dynasty as still invested

    with power in Hades, and therefore invoke their blessing

    and presence by sacrifice and prayers.

    ‘ Compare the frontispiece of Volume I. ; also ibid. , p. 76.

    The statutes annex penalties of fines or blows in various degrees of punishment in case of informality or neglect, but “in these penalties there is not the least allusion to any displeasure of the things or beings worshipped ; there is nothing to be feared but man’s wrath—nothing but a forfeiture or a fine.”

    Heavier chastisement, however, awaits any of the common people or the unauthorized who should presume to state their wants to high Heaven or worship these objects of imperial adoration; strangulation or banishment, according to the demerits of the case, would be their retribution. The ignob’de vulyus may worship stocks and stones in almost any form they please, but death awaits them if they attempt to join the Son of Heaven, the Vicegerent of Heaven and Earth, in his adorations to the supposed sources of his power.’

    In his capacity of Vicegerent, High Priest, and Mediator between his subjects and the higher Powers, there are many points of similarity between the assumptions of the Emperor and of the Pope at Rome. The idea the Chinese have of heaven seems to be pantheistic, and in worshipping heaven, earth, and terrestrial gods they mean to include and propitiate all superior powers. If, as seems probable, the original idea of Shangti, as it can be imperfectly gleaned from early records, was that of a supreme Intelligence, it has since been lost. Of this worship, the effects in China upon the nation have been both positive and negative. One of the nearative influences has been to dwarf the State hierarchy to a complete nullity—to prevent the growth of a class which could or did use the power of the monarchy to strengthen its own hold upon the people as their religious advisers, and on the government as a necessary aid to its efiiciency.

    ^ Chinese ‘Repomtory, Vol. III., pp. 49-5:?. Dr. J. Edkins, Rcl/’r/innfi of China, Chap. II. ; this chapter, on Imperial Worship, gives a good account of these ceremonies.

    NO STATE IIIEKARCIIY IN CHINA. 199

    The High Priests of China love power and adulation too well to share this worship with their subjects, and in engrossing it entirely they have escaped the political evils of a powerful hierarchy and the people the combined oppressions of a church

    Legge’s NotioriH of the Chinese concerning God and Spirits, pp. 23-36»41-43, for the forms of pra_)er used

    and State. We have seen that the popular rights which are so plainly taught in the classics have been inculcated and perpetuated by the common school education ; we shall soon see, moreover, that the ancestral worship could not admit the interference of priest, altar, or sacrifice outside of the door-posts. Yet it is probable that all combined would have been too weak to resist

    the seductive influence of a hierarchy in some form, if it had not

    been that the Emperor himself would yield his own unapproachable

    grandeur to no man. Being everything in his own person,

    it is too much to expect that he is going to vacate or reduce his

    prerogative, surrender his right to make or degrade gods of every

    kind for his subjects to M’orship, weaken his own prestige, or mortify

    the pride of his fellow-worshippers, the high ministers of

    State. The chains of caste woven in India, the fetters of the Inquisition

    forged in Spain, the silly rites practised by the augurs

    in old Rome, or the horrid cruelties and vile worship once seen

    in Egypt and Syria—in each case done under the sanction of the

    State—have all been wanting along the Yellow River, and

    spread none of their evils to hamper the rule of law in China.

    This State religion is, therefore, a splendid and wonderful

    pageant ; but it can no more be called the religion of the Chinese

    than the teachings of Socrates could be termed the faith

    of the Greeks. It is, however, intimately connected with the

    Ju klao, or ‘ Sect of the Learned,’ commonly called Confucianists

    by foreigners, because all its members and priests are

    learned men who venerate the classical writings. It is somewhat

    inappropriate to designate the Ju Mao a religious sect, or

    regard it otherwise than as a comprehensive term for those who

    adopt the writings of Confucius and Chu Hi and their disciples.

    The word jtt denotes one of the literati, and was first adopted a.d. 1150, as an appellation for those who followed the speculations of Chu Hi regarding the tal I’ih, or ‘ Great Extreme.’ This author’s comments on the classics and his metaphysical writings have had greater influence on his countrymen than those of any other person except Confucius and Mencius; whose works, indeed, are received according to his explanations.

    The remarks of Confucius upon religious subjects were very few ; he never taught the duty of man to any higher power than the head of the State or family, though he supposed himself commissioned by heaven to restore the doctrine and usages of the ancient kings. lie admitted that he did not understand much about the gods ; that they were beyond and above the comprehension of man ; and that the obligations of man lay I’ather in doing his duty to his relatives and society than in worshipping spirits unknown, “Not knowing even life,” said he, “how can we know death ? ” and when his disciples asked him in his last illness whom he would sacrifice to, he said he had already worshipped. Chu Hi resolved the few and obscure references to Shangti in the S/m Ivlng into pure materialism; making nature to begin with the tal I’lh, cidlcd pre7)iierjjrlnci2)e v/afe/’ui by the French, which operating upon itself resolved itself into the dual powers, the i/ln. and yM>(/.

    Sir John Davis compares this production of the yin and yan^ to the masculo-feminine principle in the development of the mundane egg in the Egyptian cosmogony, and quotes an extract showing that the idea was entertained among the Hindus, and that the androgyn of Plato was only another form of this myth. The Chinese have also the notion of an egg, and that the iai k’lh was evolved from it, or acted like the process of hatching going on in it, though it may be that with them the introduction of the egg is more for the sake of illustration than as the form of the cause. Some of Chu Hi’s philosophical notions have already been quoted in Volume I.’ His system of materialism captivates his countrymen, for it is far nioi’c thoroughly worked out than any other, and allows scope for the vagaries of every individual who thinks he understands and can apply it to explain whatever phenomena come in his M-ay. Heat and cold, light and darkness, fire and water, mind and matter, every agent, power, and substance, known or supposed, are regarded as endued with these principles, which thus form a simple solution for every question.

    ‘ Pp. 68? ff. CaiioD McClatrhic lias made a careful iraiif^lation of Chapter XLIX. of his works, giving hi^ views on cosmogony.

    THE JU KIAO, OR SECT OF THE LEARNED. 201

    The infinite changes in the universe, the multiform actions and reactions in nature, and all the varied consequences seen and unseen are alike easily explained by this form of cause and effect, this ingenious theory of evolution. With regard to the existence of gods and spirits, Chu Hi affirmed that sufficient knowledge was not jiossessed to say positively that they existed, and he saw no difficulty in omitting the subject altogether—a species of agnosticism or indifferentism, therefore, which has become the creed of nearly the entire body of educated men in the Empire.

    His system is also silent respecting the immortality of the soul, as well as future rewards and punishments. Virtue is rewarded and vice is punished in the individual or in his posterity on earth ; but of a separate state of existence he or his disciples do not speak.

    Tn thus disposing of the existence of superior powers, the philosophers do not shut out all intelligent agencies, but have instituted a class of sages or pure-minded men of exalted intellects and simple hearts, wdio have been raised up from time to time by Heaven, Shangti, or some other power, as instructors and examples to mankind, and who therefore deserve the reverence of their fellows. The office of these shing jin, ‘perfect men’ or saints, is to expound the will of heaven and earth ; they did not so much speak their own thoughts as illustrate and settle the principles on which the world should be governed ; they were men intuitively wise without instruction, while common people must learn to be wise. Of all the saints in the calendar of the f/w Jciao Confucius is the chief ; with him are reckoned the early kings, Yao and Shun, with King Wan and his two sons Kuig AVu and Duke Chau; but China has produced no one since the “most holy teacher of ancient times” whom his proud

    disciples are willing to regard his equal—Mencius being only a “number two saint.” The deceased Emperors of the reigning dynasty are canonized as its efficient and divine patrons, but a new line of monarchs would serve them as they did their predecessors, by reducing them to mere spirits. The demonolatry of the learned has gradually become so incorporated with popular superstitions that there is now little practical distinction; every one is willing to worship whatever can promise relief or afford assistance.

    A student of the classical works naturally adopts theit views on these points, without supposing that they militate against worshipping his ancestors, joining the villagers in adoring the goddess of Mercy or any other Buddhistic idol, or calling in a Rationalist to write a charm. He also, on coming into office, expects to perform all the ex-officio religious ceremonies required of him, and add the worship of the Emperor to the rest.

    Every magistrate is officially required to perform various idolatrous

    ceremonies at the temples. The objects of worship arc

    numerous, including many others besides those forming tlio

    ” herd of inferior sacrifices/’ and new deities are frequently made

    by the Emperor, on the same principle that new saints are canonized

    by the Pope. The worship of certain hills and rivers, and

    of spirits supposed to preside over particular cities and districts,

    has prevailed among the Chinese from ancient times, long before

    the rise of Rationalism or introduction of Buddhism, and is no

    doubt the origin of this official worship. In every city the

    Chiny-hivcmg miao, i.e., ‘ City and Moat Temple,’ contains the

    tutelar divinity of the city called Ching-hwang, with other gods,

    and here on the solstices, equinoxes, new and full moons, etc.,

    officers repair to sacrifice to it and to the gods of the land and

    grain. Over the door of the one in Canton is written, “Right*

    and wrong, truth and falsehood are blended on eai’th, but all are

    most clearly distiiiguished in heaven.” C^apt. Loch thus describes

    the Ching-hwang miao at Shanghai, as it stood in’ 1842: In the centre of a serpentine sheet of water there is a rocky island, and on it a large temple of two stories, litted up for the accommodation of the wealthy puhlic Pillars of carved wood support the roof, fretted groups of uncouth figures fill up the narrow spaces, while movable lattices screen the occupants from the warmth of the noonday sun. Nothing can surpass the beauty and truth to nature of the most minutely carved flowers and insects prodigally scattered over every screen and cornice. This is the central and largest temple. A number of other light aerial-looking structures of the same form are perched upon the corners of artificial rocky precipices and upon odd little islands. Light and fanciful wooden bridges connect most of these islands, and are thrown across the arms of the serpentine water, so that each secjuestered spot can be visited in turn. At a certain passage of the sun the main temple is shaded in front by a rocky eminence, tht^ large masses of which are connected with great art and propriety of taste, but in shape and adjustment most studiously grotesque.

    RELKilors DCTIKS OF MAGISTRATES. 203

    Trees and flowers and tufts of grass are planted where art must have been taxed to the utmost to procure them a lodgment. In another part of the garden there is a miniature wood of dwarf trees, with a dell and waterfall; the leaves, fruit, and blo.ssoms of the trees are proportionate to their size. Tortuous pathways lead to tlu> toj) of tlic artificial mountain, each turn formed with studied art to surprise and charm by offering at every point fresh views and objects. Flowers and creepers sprout out from crevices, trees hang over the jutting crags, small pavilions are seen I’roni almost every vista, while grottoes and rocky recesses, shady bowers and labyrinths, are placed to entrap the unwary, each with an appropriate motto, one inviting the wanderer to repose, another offering a secluded retreat to the philosopher.’

    Official Chinese records euunierate 1560 temples dedicated to Confucius attached to the examination halls, the offerings presented in which are all eaten or used by the worshippers; there are, it is said, 02,006 pigs, rabbits, sheep, and deer, and 27,000 pieces of silk, annually offered upon their altars.^ The municipal temple is not the only one where officers worship, but, like the connnon people, they bow before whatever they think can aid them in their business or estates. It has already been stated that the duty of Chinese officers extends to the securing of genial seasons by their good administration, and consequently if bad harvests ensue or epidemics rage the fault and removal of the calamity belong to them. The expedients they resort to are both ludicrous and melancholy. In 1835 the prefect of Canton, on occasion of a distressing drousi-ht of eio;ht months, issued the following invitation, which would have better befitted a chieftain of the Sechuanas:

    Pan, acting prefect of Kwangchau, issues this inviting summons. Since for a long time there has been no rain, and the prospects of drought continue, and supplications are unanswered, my heart is scorched with grief. In the whole province of Kwangtung, are there no extraordinary persons who can force the dragon to send rain V Be it known to you, all ye soldiers and people, that if there be any one, whether of this or any other province, priest or such like, who can by any craft or arts bring down abundance of rain, I respectfully request him to ascend the altar [of the dragon], and sincerely and reverently pray. And after the rain has fallen, I will liberally reward him with money and tablets to make known his merits.

    ‘ Events in China, p. 47. London, 1843.

    – During the Han dynasty (a.d. 59) wine was drunk and sacrifices made to Confucius in the study halls. The victim offered was a dog. Biot, Eumi»ur VTmtructiou eii Chine, p. 168.

    This invitation called forth a Buddhist priest as a “rain maker,” and the prefect erected an altar for him before his own office, upon which the man, armed with cymbal and wand, for three days vainly repeated his incantations from morning to night, exposed bareheaded to the hot sun, the butt of the jeering crowd. The prefect himself was lampooned by the people for his folly, the following quatrain being pasted under a copy of his invitation :

    Kwangchaii’s grecat protector, the magnate Pan,
    Always acting without regard to reason ;
    Now prays for rain, and getting no reply,
    Forthwith seeks for aid to force the dragon.

    The unsuccessful eiforts of the priest did not render the calamity less grievous, and their urgent necessities led the people to resort to every expedient to force their gods to send rain. The authorities forbade the slaughter of animals, or in other words a fast was proclaimed, to keep the hot winds out of the city, the southern gate was shut, and all classes flocked to the temples. It was estimated that on one day twenty thousand persons went to a celebrated shrine of the goddess of Mercy, among whom were the Governor and Prefect and their suites, who all left their sedans and walked with the multitude. The Governor, as a last expedient, the day before rain came, intimated his intention of liberating all prisoners not charged with capital offences. As soon as the rain fell the people presented thank-offerings, and the southern gate of the city was opened, accompanied by an odd ceremony of burning off the tail of a live sow^ while the animal was held in a basket.

    The officers and literati, though acknowledging the folly of

    these observances, and even ridiculing the worship of senseless

    blocks, still join in it. As an example of this : In 18G7 a

    severe drought near Peking called forth a suggestion from a

    censor that if a white tiger were sacrificed by the Emperor to

    the dragon the rain would be libei-ated ; for ” it was his powerful

    enemies which kept the rain-god fi’oni acting.’” Wrmsiang

    was deputed to perform the rite ; rain came not many days

    later. The offieci- laughed, indeed, at the fancy, yet could not

    disenthrall himself from some degi-ee of belief in its efficacy.

    Devotees sometimes become ii-ritated against theii- gods, and

    resort to sunnnary means to force them to hear their petitions.

    STATE KELIGION AND THE CLASSICS. 205

    It is said that the Governor in Canton, having I’epeatedly ascended

    in a time of drouglit to the temple of the god of Ilaia

    dressed in his burdensome robes, through the heat of a tropical

    sun, on one of his visits said : ” The god supposes I am

    lying when I beseech his aid ; for how can he know, seated in

    his cool niche in the temple, that the ground is parched and the

    sky hot V Whereupon he ordered his attendants to put a rope

    around his neck and haul his godship out of doors, that he

    might see and feel the state of the weather for himself. After

    his excellency had become cooled in the temple the idol was

    reinstated in its shrine, and the good effects of this treatment

    were deemed to be fully proved by the copious showers which

    soon after fell. The Emperor himself on such occasions resorts

    to unusual sacrifices, and sends his relatives and courtiers almost

    daily to various temples to pray and burn incense. Imperial

    patronage of the popular superstitions is sought after by the

    officers in one way and another to please the people, but it does

    not involve much outlay of funds.’ One connnon mode is to

    solicit his Majesty for an inscription to be placed over the doorway

    of a temple, or memorialize him to confer a higher title upon the god. On occasion of a victory over the rebels in Kwangtung in 1822, the shrine of a neighboring deity, supposed to have assisted in obtaining it, received a new title commemorative of the event, and a temple was built for him at the expense of government.

    The combined effect of the State religion and classical writings, notwithstanding their atheism and coldness, has had some effect in keeping the people out of the swinish ditch of pollution. It is one of their prime tenets that human nature is originally virtuous, and becomes corrupt entirely by bad precept and example.

    ‘Klaproth cites (among many) an instance of the manner in which favorable angnries are regarded and made use of by officials. Memoiren siir l*Asu’, Tome T., p. 459.

    This is taught children from their earliest years, and officers refer repeatedly to it in their exhortations to obedience; its necessary results of happiness, if carried out, are illustrated by trite comparisons drawn from common life and general experience. The Chinese seldom refer to the vengeance of tha gods or future punishment as motives for reform, but to the well-being of individuals and good order of society in this world.

    Examples of this type of human perfection, fully developed, are constantly set before the people in Confucius and the ancient kings he delineates. The classical tenets require duties that carry their own arguments in their obedience, as well as afford matter of thought, while the standard books of Buddhists and Rationalists, where they do not reiterate the same obligations, are mostly filled with unprofitable speculations or solemn nonsense.

    Consequently the priests of those sects had only the superstitious fear of the people to work wpon where reason was at fault, and so could not take the whole man captive ; for his reason accorded with the teaching of the classics as far as they went, and only took up with divination and supplication of higher powers where their instructions ceased. The government, therefore, being composed chiefly of such people, educated to venerate pure reason, could not be induced to take the initiatory step of patronizing a religion of such an uncertain character, and confessedly inferior in its moral sanctions to what they already possessed. The current has, more or less, always set this way, and the two other sects have been tolerated when they did not interfere with government. It is too true that the instructions of Confucius and his school are imperfect and erroneous when measured by the standard of revelation, and the people can never emerge from selfish atheism and silly superstition as long as they have nothing better; but the vagaries of the Buddhists neither satisfy the reason nor reprove vice, nor does their celibate idleness benefit society. If the former be bad, the latter is worse.

    SECT OF RATIONALISTS, OR TAO KIA. 207

    The sect of the nationalists, or Tao I’la^ is derived from Lautsz’, or Lau-kiun. According to the legends he was born bTc.004, in Ku, a hamlet in the kingdom of Tsu, supposed to lie in Luh-yeh hien, in the provin(!e of Ilonan. His birth was fiftyfour years before Confucius. The story is that he had white hair and eyebrows at his birth, and was carried in the womb eighty years, whence he was called Lau-tsz\ the “old boy,’ and Lau-kiun, the ‘venerable prince.’ Nothing reliable about hia early life has come down to us, but, as was the case with Hesiod, his disciples have enveloped his actions and cliaracter in a nimbus of wonders. M. Julien has given a translation of their history, dated about a.d. 350, in liis version of the Tao Teh King.

    Pauthier says he was appointed librarian by the Emperor, and diligently applied himself to the study of the ancient books, becoming acquainted with all the rites and histories of former times. During his life he is repoi’ted to have journeyed west-ward, but the extent and duration of his travel are not recorded, and even its occurrence is reasonably doubted. De Guignes says he went to Ta Tsin, a country under the rule of the Romans, but he forgets that the Romans had not then even concpiered Italy ; some suppose Ta Tsin to be Judea. His only extant work, the Tao Teh King, or ‘ Canons of Reason and Virtue,’ ‘ was written in Ling-pao, in Honan, before his travels, but whether the teachings contained in it are entirely his own or were derived from hints imported from India or Persia cannot be decided. It contains only five thousand three hundred and twenty characters, divided into eighty one short chapters; the text of one edition is said to have been found in a tomb A.D. 574. It has been translated by Julien, Chalmei’s, and von Strauss. A parallel has been suggested between the sects of the Rationalists of China, the Zoroastrians of Persia, Essenes of Judea, Gnostics of the primitive church, and the eremites of the Thebaid, but a common source for their similarity—the desire of their members, after the sect had become recognized, to live without labor on the credulity of their fellowmen—explains most of the likeness, without supposing thafc their tenets were derived from each other.

    ‘ Perhaps this may be rendered as the Logos of Plato, as near as any dogma can be compared to it.

    The teachings of Lao-zi are not unlike those of Zeno; botji recommend retirement and contemplation as the most effectual means of purifying the spiritual part of our nature, annihilating the passions, and finally returning to the bosom of Dao. His teachings on the highest subjects of human thought have furnished his countrymen ample materials for the most diverse views on these same themes according to their various fancies.

    In his striving after the infinite he can only describe Dao by what it is not and delineate 71A as an ideal virtue which no man can attain to. In Chapter XXI. they are thus blended: “The visible forms of the highest Teh only proceed from Tao^ and Tao is a thing impalpable, indefinite. How indefinite! How impalpable ! And [yet] therein are forms indefinite, impalpable! and [yet] therein are things (or entities). Profound and indistinct too, and [yet] therein are essences. These essence; are profoundly real, and therein faith is found. From of old till now its name has never passed away. It gives issue to all existences at their beginnings. How [then] can I know the manner of the beginning of all existences ? I know it by this

    lTa6\P

    Such teachings are susceptible of almost any explanation, and Julien’s extracts from the commentaries give one some idea of their diversity, though probably much well worth reading still lies buried in their pages. The names of sixty-four commentators are known, of whom three were reigning emperors ; and their explanations have given their countrymen veiy doubtful guidance through this mystic book. To those who can compare its aspirations and dogmas with the speculations of Greek and Roman writers, the teachings of the Zendavesta, and the declarations of the Bible, the work of Lao-Zi becomes of immense interest.

    His countrymen, however, to whom these great writers were all unknown, have looked upon this system of philosophy rather as the reveries of a wise man than the instructions of a practical thinker.

    In Wiapter I. he tries to define tao. It is reaching after the

    imknown. ” The too which can be expressed is not the eternal

    tao- the name which can be named is not the etei’nal name. The

    Nameless [being] is before heaven and earth ; when named it

    is the mother of all things. Therefore, to be constantly passionless

    is to be able to see its spiritual essence; and to be constantly

    passionate is to see the forms (or limits) [of tao’\. These two

    conditions are alike but have different names ; they can both be

    called a mystery. The more it is examined into the moi’O

    mysterious it is seen to be. It is the gate of all spiritual

    things.” By the phrases “constantly passionless” and “constantly passionate ‘ are denoted non-existence and existence, according to the commentators.

    THE TAO-TKir KING OF LAU-TSZ’. 209

    In Chapter LXV. there is a similar striving to describe teh.

    ” In olden times those who practised tdo did not do so to enlighten

    the people, but rather to render them simple-minded.

    When the people have too mnch worldly wisdom it makes them

    hard to govern. lie who encourages this worldly wisdom in

    the government of a State is its misfortune ; as he who governs

    without it is its blessino-. To know ario;lit these two things is to have a model State; and the constant exhibition of this ideal is what I call sublime tc/t. This sublime virtue [teh] is profound, is incommensurable, is opposed to time-serving plans. If followed it will bring about a state of general accord.”

    In Chapter XX. the lonely cynic seems to utter his sad cry at

    the little progress of his teachings. “All men are full of ambitious

    desires, like those greedy for the stalled ox, or the high

    delights of spring time. 1 alone am calm ; my affections have

    not yet germinated ; I am as a new-born babe which has not yet

    smiled on its mother. I am forlorn as one who has no home.

    All others have and to spare, I alone am like one who has lost

    all. In mind I am like a fool ; I am all in a maze. Common

    people are bright enough ; I am enveloped in darkness. Common

    people are sagacious enough ; I am in gloom and confusion.

    I toss about as if on the sea ; I float to and fro as if I was never

    to rest. Others have something they can do ; I alone am good

    for nothing, and just like a lout. I am entirely solitary, differing from other men in that I glory in my Mother who nurses [all beings].”

    The main object kept in view throughout this work is the inculcation of personal virtue, and Lao-zi founds his argument for its practice in the fitness of things, as he tries to prove by referring all the manifestations and laws of mind and matter to the unknown factor Dao. In Chapter IV. he attempts to embody lus struggling thoughts in these few words describing Dao:

    ” Tao is a void ; still if one uses it, it seems to be inexhaustible.

    How profound it is ! It seems like the patriarch of all things.

    It softens sharp things, loosens tangled things, harmonizes bril

    liant things, and assimilates itself to worldly things of the dust.

    How tranquil it is ! It seems to endure perpetually. I know

    not whose son it is. It seems so have existed before T’l [or

    Shangti].”

    Such utterances as these carry neither comfort nor repentance to the sorrowing, sinful heart of man ; he cannot go to such an abnegation for guidance or relief in his troubles, and therefore the maxims of Lau-tsz’ have fallen on callous hearts. Another extract. Chapter XLIX., is, however, more practical ; it is not the only one which furnishes instruction of the highest character.

    ” The perfect man [.s/iui(/Ju)’] has no immutable sentiments of

    his own, [for] he makes the mind of mankind his own. He who

    is good, I would meet with goodness ; and he who is not good,

    I would still also meet with goodness ; [for] teh is goodness.

    He who is sincere I would meet with sincerity ; and he who is

    insincere, I would still also meet with sincerity ; [for] teh is

    sincerity. The perfect man dwells in the world calm and reserved,

    his soul preserving the same I’cgard for all mankind.

    The people all turn their eyes and ears toward him, and he regards them alike as his children.”

    In order to better understand these aphorisms, they need to be read with the help of the various commentaries ; these furnish us with a better estimate of their value than any other guides. Foreign writers necessarily judge such a work by their own higher standard; as does M. Pauthier when he remarks upon the last extract : ” La sagesse humaine ne pent ctre jamais exprime des paroles plus saintes et plus profondes.” He compares Lau-tsz’ to his own countryman Rousseau—and these two had a good deal in common in their sad reflections upon the evils of the times. In another place the French author goes

    even farther, and regards the vague expressions in Chapter XLH.,

    “which show their derivation from the Yi/i K’in<i—viz. : ” Tao

    produced one, one produced two, two produced thiee, and three

    produced all things “—as the Asiatic form of the docti-ine and

    procession of the Holy Trinity and the biblical idea of the reunion

    of good men with their Maker I

    ITS SPECULATIONS AND APHORISMS. 211

    One more extract from the Tao teh K’ukj will till the space at command ; but sententious apothegms like these in Chapter XXXIII. are scattered throughout the book : ” He who knows men is wise ; [while] he who knows himself is perspicacious. He who conquers men is strong ; [while] he who conquers himself is mighty. lie who knows when he has enough is rich. He who acts energetically has a fixed purpose in view. He who does not miss his nature endures ; [while] he who deceases and still is not extinct has immortality “—referring, as the commentators agree, to the life of the soul after it leaves the body.

    Such a work can hardly be accurately translated into a European language ; a perusal of all the translations enables one to appreciate this point. Some translators have missed the point of Lau-tsz’s teachings by not attending to the parallelisms running through them, where one limb of the couplet illustrates and defines the other. In conclusion, it is still true that the absence of clear exposition on the duties of men in their marital, parental, and fraternal relations ; the want of all instruction upon their obligations and rights as members of the family, the village, and the State ; and lastly, his silence upon the voice of conscience and the effects of sin upon the soul of man, show that Lau-tsz’ was more an ascetic than a philanthropist, more of a metaphysician than a humanitarian.

    Mr. Samuel Johnson has indicated the high position this ancient relic holds in his examination of its tenets. ” Nothing like this book exists in Chinese literature ; nothing, so far as yet known, so lofty, so vital, so restful at the roots of strength; in structure as wonderful as in spirit ; the fixed syllabic characters, formed for visible and definite meaning, here compacted into terse aphorisms of a mystical and universal wisdom, so subtly translated out of their ordinary spheres to meet a demand for spiritual expression that it is confessedly almost impossible to render them with certainty into another tongue. … It is a book of wonderful ethical and spiritual simplicity, and deals neither in speculative cosmogony nor in popular superstitions.

    It is not the speculations of an old philosopher, as Chalmers calls it. It is in practical earnest, and speaks from the heart and to the heart. Its religion resembles that of Fenelon or Thomas a ICeinpis, combined with a perceptive rationalism of which they were iu)t masters.” ‘

    The historian Sima Qian relates an interview which Confucius had with LaoZi when, at the age of thirty-four (u.c. 517), he visited the capital to study the ritual of ^tate worship, at which time the latter would be eighty-seven years old. Dr. Legge gives an account of this meeting, which it is to be wished could be better known, for the account is not very certain. The legendary history amplifies it largely, but in no extravagant style, and quite consonant to their diiferent characters. Si’ma Qian makes the elder lecture the younger philosopher in the following style: “Those whom you talk about are dead, and their bones mouldered to dust ; only their words remain. When the superior man gets his time, he mounts aloft; but when the

    time is against him, he moves as if his feet were entangled. I

    have heard that a good merchant, though he has rich treasures

    deeply stored, appears as if he were poor ; and that the superior

    man whose virtue is complete is yet to outward seeming stupid.

    Put away your proud air and many desires, your insinuating

    habit and wild will. They are of no advantage to you. This

    is all which I have to tell you.” To the reply of Confucius,

    that he liad sought to get tao for twenty years, and had sought

    in vain, Lau-tsz’ rejoined in a strain worthy of Diogenes, which

    Chwang-tsz’ thus reports : ” If tao could be offered to men,

    thei’e is no one who would not willingly offer it to his prince;

    if it could be presented to men, everybody would like to present

    it to his parents; if it could be announced to men, each man

    woul^l gladly announce it to his brothers; if it could be handed

    down to men, who would not wish to transmit it to his children ? Why theii can you not obtain it ? This is the reason. You are incapable of giving it an asyhnn in your heart.”‘

    ‘ Johnson, Oriental Relujions : China, pp. 862-8G5. Pautliier, La Chine, pp. 110-120. Chahuers, Speculations of the Old Plnkisopher. Julien, J^a, JAvrcde la Vote et de la Vertu, Paris, 1859 ; this last is the most scholarly work on tliia classic which has yet appeared. R. von Reinhold, Dcr TlVr/ zur Tagend, Leipzig, 1870. Victor von Strauss, Lao-TsVs Tao Te King, Ans deni ChineS’ imhen ins Deutsche ilhersetzt, Leipzig, 1870. See also Doolittle’s Vocalndanj, Vol. II., Part III. T. Watters, Lao-Tzu, A Study in Chinese Philosophy, Hongkong, 1870. Dr. Edkins in Transactions of N. C. Br. R A. S. for 1H.’)5, Art. IV. F. H. Balfour, Chiianfj 7’sze’s Divine Cktssic of Nan-hi/ d, i^ha.uii\ia.\, 1881.

    INTEP.VIEW 75ETAVKEN LAU-TSZ’ AND CONFUCIUS. 213

    Such speculative teachings and waiting till the times were

    good were not adapted to entertain or benefit, and Confucius

    understood his countrymen and his own duty nmch better than

    Lau-tsz\ in doing all he could by precept and practice to show

    them the excellence of what he believed to be right. The divergence

    of these two great men sprung from the diiferences in

    human minds in all climes and ages. The teachings of the

    Tao-teh King, however, are no more responsible for the subsequent

    organization and vagaries of the sect of Taoists down to

    the present time than the New Testament is for the legends of

    monkery or the absurdities of mystics. M. Bazin has endeavored

    to show that in China there has been, from early times,

    a progression from magic to mythology, from mythology to

    philosophy ; and when philosophy began to crystallize into parties

    and take on an organized discipline of sects, during and

    after the Ilan dynasty down to the Tang, they took up the old

    native mj’thology against the newly arrived Buddhists, and imitated

    them by adopting Lau-tsz’ as their god and his book as the

    foundation of their tenets. Previous to this period he was one

    among the philosophers of the Flowery Land ; in time he has

    been taken as the founder of a system of religion. If the Gnostics

    had deified Lucretius and taken his poem as their text-book

    the cases would have been similar.

    The earliest writers on Taoism are Chwang-tsz’ and Lih-tsz’ in

    the fourth century, Avho have been amplified by their followers.

    It is, as Wylie well observes, diflficult to educe a well-ordered

    system out of the motley chaos of modern Taoism, Mdiere the

    pursuit of immortality, the conquest of the passions, a search

    after the philosopher’s stone, the use of amulets, and the observance

    of fasts and sacrifices before gods, are mixed with the

    profound speculations of recluses upon abstruse questions of

    theology and philosophy. Some of the later writers of the

    Taoists discourse upon Reason in a way that would please

    Brownson and befit the pages of the Dial. The teachings of

    the ancient and modern transcendentalists are alike destitute of common sense and unproductive of good to their fellow-men.

    ‘ Legge, CMnese Classics, I. Proleg., p. C5. Julieii, Tno-te King, Int., p. xxvii.

    Dr. Medlmrst quotes one of the Chinese nationalists, who praises reason in a marvelous rhapsody :
    What is there superior to heaven, and from which heaven and earth sprang ? Nay, what is there superior to space and which moves in space ?

    The great Tao is the parent of space, and space is the parent of heaven and

    earth, and heaven and earth produced men and things. . . . The venerable

    prince -(Reason) arose prior to the great original, standing at the commencement

    of the mighty wonderful, and floating in the ocean of deep obscurity.

    He is spontaneous and self-existing, produced before the beginning of emptiness,

    commencing prior to uncaused existences, pervading all heaven and

    earth, whose beginning and end no years can circumscribe.

    The sectarians suppose their founder was merely an impersonation

    of this power, and that he whom they call ” the venerable

    prince, the origin of primary matter, the root of heaven

    and earth, the occupier of infinite space, the commencement of

    all things, farther back than the utmost stretch of numbers can

    reach,” created the universe. They notice three incarnations

    of him during the present epoch, one during the Shang dynasty,

    B.C. 1407, one at the time of Confucius, and a third about A.n.

    623, when a man of Shansi reported having seen an old man

    who called himself Lau-kiun. Only the priests of this sect are

    regarded as its members; they live in temples and small communities

    with their families, cultivating the grotmd attached to the

    establishment, and thus perpetuate their body ; many lead a

    wandering life, and derive a pi-ecarious livelihood from the sale

    of chariris and medical nostrums. They shave the sides of the

    head and coil the rest of the hair in a tuft upon the crown,

    thrusting a pin through it, and are I’cadily recognized by their

    slate-colored robes. They study astrology and profess to have

    dealhigs with spirits, their books containing a gi-eat variety of

    stories of priests who have done wonderful acts by their help.

    The Pastimes of the Study^ already noticed, is one of these books,

    and Davis introduces a pleasant story of (^hwang and his wife

    from another work.’ They long endeavored to find a beverage

    ‘ The Chinese, Vol. II., pp. 118-128. Wylie, Notes on Chinese Literature, p173. Giles, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, 1880.

    RITES AND MYTHOLOGY OF THE TAOISTS. 210

    which would insure immortality, and during the Tang dynasty

    the Emperor and highest officers were carried away with their

    delusions. The title of ‘ Heavenly Doctors ‘ was conferred on

    them, and a superb temple erected to Lau-tsz’ in Chang-an, containing his statue ; examinations were ordered in a.d. 674, to

    be held in the Tao-teh JClng, and some of the priests reached

    the highest honors in the State, Since that time they have

    degenerated, and are now looked upon as ignorant cheats and

    designing jugglers, who are quite as willing to use their magical

    powers to injure their enemies as to help those who seek their aid.

    In some places the votaries of Tao, on the third day of the third month, go barefoot over ignited charcoal ; and on the anniversary of the birthday of the High Emperor of the Sombre Heavens, ” they assemble together before the temple of this imaginary being, and having made a great fire, about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, go over it barefoot, preceded by the

    priests, and bearing the gods in their arms. The previous ceremonies

    consist in chanting prayers, ringing bells, sprinkling holy

    water, blowing horns, and brandishing swords in and over the

    flames in order to subdue the demon, after which they dart

    through the devouring element. They firmly assert that if they

    possess a sincere mind they will not be injured by the fire, but

    both priests and people get miserably burnt on these occasions.’

    Yet such is the delusion, and the idea the people entertain of

    the benefit of these services, that they willingly contribute large

    sums to provide the sacrifices and pay the performers.” “^

    This ceremony is practised in Fuhkien and at Batavia, but

    is not very general, for the Chinese are the antipodes of the

    Hindus in their endurance and relish for sufferingsand austerities

    in the hope of obtaining future happiness. The Rationalists

    worship a great variety of idols, among which ITuh-liioang

    Shangtl is one of the highest ; their pantheon also includes

    genii, devils, inferior spirits, and numberless other objects of worship. The Siu. Shin JTi, or ‘ Records of Researches concerning the Gods,’ contains an account of the birth of the deitj whose anniversary is celebrated as above described.

    ‘ Compare Escayrac de Lauture, Memoire sur la Chine, Religion, pp. 87, 102.Yule’s Mdiro Polo, Vol. I., p. 286. Also Bode’s Bokhara, p. 271, for a similai practice among the Moslems.
    “^ Medliurst’s China, its Shite and Prospects, p. 168.

    There was once a childless emperor called Tsingtili (‘ Pure Virtue’), who snmmoiied a large company of Tao priests to perform their rites in his behalf, and continued their worship half a year. The Empress Pao Yueh-kwang(‘ Gemmeous Moonlight’) on a night dreamed that she saw the great and eminent Lau-kiun, together with a large number of superior deities, riding in parti-colored carriages with vast resplendent banners and shaded by bright variegated umbrellas. Here was the great founder Lau-kiun sitting in a dragon carriage, and holding in his arms a young infant, whose body was entirely covered with pores, from which unbounded splendors issued, illuminating the hall of the palace with ever}’ precious color. Banners and canopies preceded Lau-kiun as he came floating along. Then was the heart of the Empress elated with joy, and reverently kneeling before him, said: “At present our monarch has no male descendants, and I wishfully beseech you for this child that he may become the sovereign of our hearts and altars. Prostrate I look up to your merciful kindness, earnestly imploring thee to commiserate and grant my request.”

    He at once ausw(n’ed, ” It is my special desire to present the boy to

    you ; ” whereupon she thankfully received him, and immediately returned from

    the pursuit of the dream, and found herself advanced a year in pregnancy. ,

    When the birth took place a resplendent light poured forth from the child’s

    body, which filled the whole country with brilliant glares His entire countenance

    was super-eminently beautiful, so that none became weary in beholding

    him. When in childhood he possessed the clearest intelligence and compassion,

    and taking the possessions of the country and the funds of the treasury,

    he distributed them to the poor and afflicted, the widowers and widows, orphans

    and childless, the houseless and sick, halt, deaf, blind, and lame.

    Not long after this the demise of his father took place, and he succeeded to the

    government ; but reflecting on the instability of life, he resigned his throne

    and its cares to his ministers, and repaired to the hills of Fuming, where he gave

    himself up to meditation, and being perfected in merit ascended to heaven to

    enjoy eternal life. He however descended to earth again eight hundred times,

    and became the companion of the common people to instruct them in his doctrines.

    After that he made eight hundred more journeys, ejigaging in medical

    practice and successfully curing the people ; and then another similar series,

    in which he exercised universal benevolence in hades and earth, expounded

    all aljstract doctrines, elucidated the spiritual literature, magnanimously promulged

    tlie renovating ethics, gave glory to the widely spread merits of the

    gods, assisted the nation, and saved the people. During another eight hundred

    descents he exhibited ])atient suffering; though men took his life, yet he parted with his fU^sh and blood. After this he became the first of the verified golden genii, and was denominated the pure and immaculate one, self-existing, of highest intelligence.’

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 306.

    THE SECT OF FUII, OR BUDDHISTS. 217

    These figments are evidently a reprotl notion of the vagaries

    of llindn theosophists, and not the teachings of Ldu-tsz’, bnt they

    annise his followers, to whom his own abstruse utterances are

    (juite unintelligible. The learned Confucianists laugh at their

    fables, but are still so much the prey of fears as to be often

    duped by them, and follow even when sure of being deceived.

    The organization of the Rationalists is a regular hierarchy. It

    is under the supervision of the government, which holds the

    chiefs responsible for the general conduct and teachings of the

    members. The head resides at Lung-hu Shan in Kiangsi, where

    is a large establishment, resorted to by many votaries, and

    gathering in a large ]-evenue from their offerings. When he

    dies a piece of iron is cast into a well near by, and when it floats

    the name of his successor is found to be written on it. By their

    extravagant professions and pretences the priests of this sect

    maintain their influence over a laity as ignorant and credulous

    as themselves ; their power to delude will only wane with the progress of truth and Christianity. The full history of the authors, divinities, vagaries, and varied fortunes of the Nationalists has yet to be written ; when this is done it will illustrate the question King David asked six centuries before Lau-tsz’ lived: Who will show us any good ? And when his followers are able to say. Lord, lift thou up the light of thy countenance upon us, they will know why he failed to find La Yoie et la Yertu.’^

    The most popular religious sect is that of the followers of

    Full, Fo, Fat, Hwut, or Fuh-tu, as it is called in different dialects

    in imitation of the Hindu word Bodh, or Truth ;” this name is

    sometimes confounded with that of Fuh-hi, one of the early

    rulers in Chinese history. Their tenets had been promulged in

    ( ‘entral Asia for centuries, and were known in Western China,

    but during the long period of disorders previous to the Han dynasty they found little favor. In a.d. 65 the Emperor Mingti sent an embassy to India, in consequence—as the Chinese historians say—of having dreamed that he saw the image of a foreign god. The embassy returned in a.d. 67, bringing with it some teachers of the faith to Lohyang. One cannot tell whether it was sent at first at the suggestion of the nationalists, to seek for a wise man said to liave appeared there^ or whether, according to others, it arose from the i-emarkable expression of Confucius, already quoted, ” The people of the west have sages[or a sage].” It may have been that this mission was excited by some indistinct tidings of the advent and death of Christ, though there is no trace of such a rumor havino- reached the land of Sinim. At that epoch they might have heard of or met the Apostles in their first tours through the Roman Empire and Syria.

    ‘ Douglas, Taouism, London, 1879 ; this is by far the most readable account of it. Edkius, Journal of Shaiif/hai Scien. and Lit. Sor. , No. III. , 1859, pp. 309-314. Slayers, No. Ch. Br. Roij. As. Soc.,\o\. VI., 1870, pp. 31-44. Bazin, Recherrhes stir Vorifjinr, Vhistoire, et la conditutioii des ordres reli(jieu.v dans Vemjnre Chinots, Paris, 1856, p. 70. Johnson, Oriental Eelirjions : China, Part V-, pp.859-904. Nevius, C’?iina and tlie Chinese, Chap. IX., New York, 1869. Dr. W. A. P. Martin, The Chinese, p. 97, etc.
    ‘ Hardy enumerates fifty-six modes of writing the name. Manual, p. 354

    The incidents in the life of Buddha have been enveloped in so much legendary narrative by his followers in India that the Chinese have placed his birth much too early—b.v. 1027—while the true date is n.o. 623 according to the best authorities; but when his actual mortal life is regarded as one in a series of incarnations, no surprise need be felt at these discre})ancies. He was the son of Suddhodana, king of Ivapilavastu, a city and country near Nipal, subject to the king of Magadha, now a part of Bahar. His mother, TMaj’a, or Maha-maya deva, died ten days after his birth, which, according to the legends, was accomplished without pain and acconq^anied by amazing wonders. His name was ISiddhai’ta, or the ‘ Establisher,’ until he became a Buddha, i.e.,h’nn In’ whom truth is known. The name Gotama, or Samona-Godam, is a patronymic better known in Siam than China, where another family or clan name, Sakya-muni, is more common. At the age of fifteen he was nuide heir-apparent ; at seventeen he was married to Yashodara, a Brahmin maiden of the Sakya clan, and his son Bahula was born the next year. At twenty-five he determined to become a recluse, and left his prospects and his father’s court for an abode in the forest beyond Kapilavastu, in solitary spots ” trying various methods to attain mental satisfaction, but in vain.” After five years of this ascetic life ” he came to the perception of the true condition and wants of mankind,” and began his ministry of forty-nine years. He was now a Buddha^ which is described as ” entering into a state of reverie, emitting a bright light and retieeting on the four modes of truth.”

    LIFE OF GOTAMA BUDDHA. ^19

    He began his preaching at Benares by discourses on the four truths, which was termed the revolving of the wheel of the law. He formed his first disciples into a connnunity, to whom he gave their rules, and when the number increased to fifty-six be sent them over the land to give instruction in \\\qfour miseries^ and carry out the system by which all his disciples were taught they could attain final happiness in nirvana. This system, which exists in full strength to this day, is founded on

    monastic vows for the individual, living in spiritual communities

    for the disciples, voluntary poverty and universal preaching,

    Sakya-numi infused such energy into his followers that in a

    few years India was covered with their communities ; and he

    developed rules for instruction, employment, punishment, and

    promotion, which have served ever since. His own life, after

    his visit to his father in the year 586, when thirty-seven years

    old, was passed mostly in delivering the sidras, or laws, thirtyfive

    discourses in all ; these are reverenced by all Buddhists, and

    copies are held to have moral and hygienic effects on those who

    do so, and bring good luck to the family and the State. As

    Sakya-muni lived long enough to see and correct the dangers of

    his system, at his death, in the year 543, he was able to confer

    much of his authority on his two chief disciples, Ananda and

    Kashiapa, and thus hand down the organization to posterity.

    The few facts here stated respecting this remarkable man are

    selected from Hardy’s Manual of Buddhistn, where is given a

    good digest of the Hindu writers respecting their sage. One

    thing impresses the readei- of this work as a peculiarity of Sakyamuni’s

    teaching, and standing in strong contrast to the Brahminic

    system that followed it: it is the manner in which he has

    weakened and almost destroyed the power of the unseen world

    and of spiritual beings as agencies of restraint upon the heart

    of man, and of assistance in seeking after good. By his system of

    good works and self-denials, his followers are brought into such

    close relationship with the whole creation of invisible beings, into whose presence and fellowship they can enter by their own efforts and mediation, that the moral sanctions of a Supreme Ruler and God over all are neutralized, and the sense of sin in the human conscience done away with. Its removal is put under

    the control of the soul, and the degree of happiness and power

    attained in the future world depends on the individual—so

    many prayers, alms, austerities, and obediences result in so much

    honor, power, and enjoyment in the coming infinite. The past

    infinite is also made part of the conscious present, and moral

    fate worked like physical attraction, innumerable causes producing

    retributive results for rewards or for punishments. In such

    a theology, salvation by faith is rendered impossible, and sacrifice

    for sin by way of atonement useless. In this feature the

    ancient worship of China and the teachings of Confucius rise

    superior to Buddhism, and leave the soul of man more open to

    rnoral law.

    The personal life and character of Buddha presents a wonderful

    exhibition of virtues, and one is not disposed to weigh the testimony

    of their reality as di’awn out in Hardy’s 2LtnH((l so carefully

    as to neutralize the effect; but the glowing picture oi his

    good actions for his fellow-nicn given in the fervid lines of

    Arnold’s JJyJd ofAsia, takes one quite into the realm of fable,

    engendering the wish that the ( onfiician Analects and their matter-

    of-fact details could have been imitated by the disciples of

    Siddharta. In regard to both these great teachers, Confucius

    and Buddha, however, one may gladly adopt Dean Stanley’s remark,

    ” that it is difficult for those who believe the permanent

    elements of the Jewish and Christian religion to be universal

    and divine, not to hail these corresponding forms of truth or

    goodness elsewhere, or to recognize that the mere appearance of

    such saintlike or godlike characters in other parts of the earth,

    if not preparing the way for a greater manifestation, illustrates

    that manifestation by showing how mighty has been the witness

    borne to it even mider circumstances of such discouragement,

    and even with effects inadequate to their grandeur.”‘

    INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM AMONG THE PEOPLE. 221

    Buddhist priests are more numerous in China than the Tao sz’, and they obtained influence more rapidly over the people. Their demonolatry allows the incorporation of the deities and spirits of

    Other religions, and goes even further, in permitting the priests

    to worship the gods of other pantheons, so that they could adapt

    themselves to the popular superstitions of the countries they went

    to, and ingraft all the foreign divinities into their calendar they

    safw fit. The Emperors at various times have, moreover, shown

    great devotion to their ceremonies and doctrines, and have built

    costly temples, and supported more priests than ever Jezebel

    did ; but the teachings of Confucius and Mencius were too well

    understood among the people to be uprooted or overridden. The

    complete separation of the State religion from the worship of the

    common people accounts for the remarkable freedom of belief

    on religious topics. Mohammedanism and Buddhism, Taoist

    ceremonies and Lama temples, are all tolerated in a certain way,

    but none of them have in the least interfered with the State religion

    and the autocraay of the monarch as the Son of Heaven.

    They are, as every one knows, all essentially idolatrous, and the

    coming struggle between these various manifestations of error

    and the revealed truths and requirements of the Bible has only

    begun to cast its shadow over the land. The more subtile conflict,

    too, between the preaching of the Cross and faith alone in

    its sacrifice for salvation, and reliance on good works, and pi-iestly

    interference in every fonn, has not yet begun at all.

    The power of Buddhism in China has been owing chieily to

    its ability and offer to supply the lack of certainty in the popular

    notions respecting a future state, and the nature of the gods

    who govern man and creation. Confucius uttered no speculations

    about those unseen things, and ancestral worship confined

    itself to a belief in the presence of the loved ones, who were

    ready to accept the homage of their children. That longing of

    the soul to know something of the life beyond the grave was

    measurably supplied by the teachings of Sakya-muni and his

    disciples, and, as was the case with Confucius, was illustrated

    and enforced by the earnest, virtuous life of their founder.

    Though the sect did not receive the imperial sanction till about

    A.D. 65, these teachings must have gradually grown familiar

    during the previous age. The conflict of opinions which ere long

    arose between the definite practical maxims of the Confucian

    moralists, and the vague speculations, well-defined good works and hopeful tliongli unproved promises of future well-being, set

    forth by the Hindu missionaries, has continued ever since. It

    is an instructive chapter in human experience, and affords another

    illustration of the impossibility of man’s answering Job’s

    great question, ” But how shall num be just with God?” The

    early sages opened no outlook into the blank future, offered no

    hopes of life, love, happiness, or reunion of the friends gone before,

    and their disciples necessarily fell back into helpless fatalism.

    Buddhism said. Keep my ten connnandnients, live a life

    of celibacy and contem{)lation, pray, fast, and give alms, and according

    to your works you will become pure, and be rewarded

    in the serene nirvana to which all life tends. But the Buddhist

    priesthood had no system of schools to teach their peculiar tenets,

    and, as there is only one set of books taught in the common

    schools, the elevating precepts of the sages brought forth their

    proper fruit in the tender mind. Poverty, idleness, and vows

    made by parents in the day of adversity to dedicate a son or a

    daughter to the life-long service of Buddha, still supply that

    priesthood with most of its members. The majority are unable

    to nnderstand their own theological literature, and far more is

    known about its jieculiar tenets in Europe than among the mass

    of the Chinese. Tiie CVjufucianist, in his pride of office and learning, may lidicule their mummeries, but in his hour of weakness, pain, and death he turns to them for help, for he has nowhere else to o;o. Both are ii»;norant of the life and liojht revealed in the gospels, and cry out, ” Who will show us any good ?”

    If the mythology of Buddhism M’as trivial and jejune, as we

    judge it after comparing it with the beautiful imagerj- and art

    of Greece and Egypt, it brought in nothing that was licentious in

    its rites or cruel in its sacrifices. Coming from India, where

    M’orship of the gods involved the prostitution of Avomen, the

    adoration of the lingam, and the sacrifice of human beings.

    Buddhism was remarkably free from all revolting features. If

    it had nothing to offer the Chinese higher in morals or more

    exalted or true in its conception of the universe or its Maker, it

    did not sanction impurity or murder, or elevate such atrocities

    above the reach of law by making them sacred to the gods.

    IT ENTERS INTO THEIR RELIGHOUS LIFE. 223

    This last outrage of the Prince of Darkness on tlie soul of man,

    so common in Western Asia, has never been known or accepted

    to any great extent in the Middle Kingdom.

    But, while it is true that Buddhism gave them a system of

    precepts and observances that set before them just laws and high

    motives for right actions, and proportionate rewards for the good

    works it enjoined, it could not furnish the highest standards,

    sanctions, and inducements for holy living. On becoming a

    part of the people, the Buddhists soon entered into their religious

    life as acknowledged teachers. They adapted their own

    tenets to the national mythology, took its gods and gave it theirs,

    acted as mediators and interpreters between men and gods, the

    living and the dead, and shaped popular belief on all these

    mysteries. The well-organized hierarchy numbered its members

    by myriads, and yet history records no successful attempts on its

    part to usurp political power, or place the priest above the laws.

    This tendency was always checked by the literati, who really

    had in the classics a higher standard of ethical philosophy than

    the Buddhists, and would not be driven from their position

    by imperial orders, nor coaxed by specious arguments to yield

    their ground. Constant discussions on these points have served

    to keep alive a spirit of inquiry and rivalry, and preserve butli

    from stagnation. Though Buddhism, in its vagaries and willworship,

    gave them nothing better than husks, put hypocrisy

    in place of devotion, taught its own dogmas instead of truth,

    and left its devotees with no sense of sin against any law, yet

    its salutary inJiuence on the national life of China cannot be

    denied.

    The worship of ancestors and of good and bad spirits supposed

    to pervade and rule this world was perfectly compatible with

    the reception of Buddhism ; thus its priests gradually became the

    high priests of the popular superstition, and have since remained

    so. They first ingratiated themselves by making their services

    useful in the indigenous ritual, and were afterwards looked upon

    as necessary for its execution. They propagated their doctrines

    principally by books and tracts, rather than by collecting schools

    or disciples in their temples ; the quiet, indolent life they led,

    apparently absorbed in books and worship, and yet not altogether estranged from the world, likewise held out charms to some people.

    China is full of temples, in most of which Buddhist priests are found, hut it is not quite the true inference to suppose that all the buildings were erected or the priests hired, because the people wish to do reverence to Buddha. It is impossible to state the proportion in which Buddhist temples are found ; there are one hundred and twenty-four in Canton alone, containing idols of every name and attribute, in most of which they live and act as the assistants of whoever comes to worship.

    The tenets of Buddhism require a renunciation of the world

    and the observance of austerities to overcome evil passions and

    fit its disciples for future happiness.’ A vow of celibacy is

    taken, the priests dwelling together for mutual assistance in

    attaining perfection by worship of Buddha and calling upon his

    name. They shave the entire head as a token of purity, but not

    the whole body, as the ancient Egyptian priests did ; they profess

    to eat no animal food, wear no skin or woollen garments,

    and get their living by begging, by the alms of worshippers, and

    the cultivation of the grounds of the temple. Much of their

    supj)ort is derived from the sale of incense sticks, gilt paper, and

    candles, and from fees for services at funerals. In the great

    monasteries, like the ilai-chwang sz’ at Canton, the priests perform

    the whole service ; but in other temples they contrive to

    gain a livelihood, and many of those better situated derive a large

    })ortion of their income from entertaining strangers of wealth

    and disthiction. The sale of charms, the profits of theatrical

    exhibitions, the fees paid by neighborhoods for feeding hungry

    ghosts on All-Souls’ day, and other incidental services performed

    for the living or the dead, also furnish resources. Their largest

    monasteries contain extensive libraries, and a portion of the

    fraternity are well acquainted with letters, though most of them

    are ignorant even of their own books. Their moral character,

    as a class, is on a par with their countrymen, and nuiny of them

    are respectable, intelligent, and sober-minded persons, who seem

    ‘ Remusat terms these tenets not inaptly “a mixture of pantheism, rationalism, and idolatry.” In Hardy {Mitinud, p. 212) we find that the Wh-Uikj xz^ to five hundred Lo-h;in is to honor five hundred rahats. In India this number seems to stand for all.

    TENETS AND LITURGY OF THE BUDDHISTS. 225

    to be sincerely desirous of making themselves better, if possible, by their religious observances.

    The liturgy is in Sanscrit transliterated in Chinese characters with which priest and people are alike unacquainted, nor are there now any bilingual glossaries or dictionaries to explain the words. Dr. Milne, speaking of the use of unknown tongues in liturgies, remarks : ” There is something to be said in favor of those Christians who believe in the magic powers of foreign words, and who think a prayer either more acceptable to the Deity, or more suited to common edification, because the people do not generally understand it. They are not singular in this belief. Some of the Jom’s had the same opinion ; the followers of Buddha and Mohammed all cherish the same sentiment. From the chair of his holiness at Rome, and eastward through all Asia to the mountain retreats of the Yama-bus in Japan, this opinion is espoused. The bloody Druids of ancient Europe, the gymnosophists of India, the Mohammedan hatib, the Buddhists of China, the talapoins of Siam, and the bonzes of Japan, the Tlomish clerg}’, the vartabeds of the Armenian church, and the

    priests of the Abyssinian and Greek communions, all entertain

    the notion that the mysteries of religion will be the more revered

    the less they are understood, and the devotions of the

    people (performed by proxy) the more welcome in heaven for

    being dressed in the garb of a foreign tongue. Thus the synagogue

    and mosque, the pagan temple and Christian church, seem all to agree in ascribing marvellous efiicacy to the sounds of an unknown language ; and, as they have Jews and Mohammedans,

    Abyssinians and pagans, on their side, those Christians

    who plead for the use of an unknown tongue in the services of

    religion have certainly the majority. That Scripture, reason,

    and common sense should happen to be on the other side is indeed

    a misfortune for them, but there is no help for it.”

    The following canon for exterminating misfortune is extracted

    from the Buddhist liturgy, but it is as unintelligible to the Chinese

    as it will be to the English reader. While repeating it

    ‘ Encyclopcedin Britannim, Art. Buddhism. TndocMnese Gleaner, Vol. III., p. 141. Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 640. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p200, and passim.

    the priest strikes upon a sounding board called mu yu, or ‘wooden fish,’ sliaped somewhat like a skull, in order to mark the time of his monotonous chant: Nan-mo O-mi’-to po-ye, to-ta-kia to-ye, to-ti-ye-ta 0-mi-li-to po-kwilii, 0-mili-to, sieli-tan-po-kwaii, O-iiii-li-to, kwan-kia-lan-ti 0-mi-li-to, kwan-kia-lan-ti; kia-mi-ni kia-kia-na, chih-to-kia-li i)o-po-ho.

    Similar invocations, with the name O-iivi-to’^ Full (Amida Baddha), are repeated thousands and myriads of times to attain perfection, affording a good illustration of the propriety of our Saviour’s direction, ” When ye pray, use not vain repetitions as the heathen do; for they think they shall be heard for their much speaking.” A plate in one Buddhistic work contains five thousand and forty-eight open dots, arranged in the shape of a pear ; each dot to be filled up when the name of Buddha has been repeated a hundred or a thousand times, and then the paper to be burned to pass into the other world to the credit of the devotee.

    The Buddhists have a system of merits and demerits, of which Sir John Davis remarks that ” this method of Ixeejumj a score with heaven is as foolish and dangerous a system of morality as that of penances and indulgences in the Romish church.”

    ‘ 0-im-to is derived from aniiiitr, or ‘deathless.’ Hardy, Manual, p. 355.

    OrPOSITIOX OF THE LITEPvATI TO BUDDHISM. 227

    In this Buddhist scale of actions, to repair a road, make a bridge, or dig a well, ranks as ten ; to cure a disease, or give enough ground for a grave, as thirty ; to set on foot some useful scheme ranks still higher. On the other hand, to reprove another unjustly counts as three on the debtor side ; to level a tomb, as fifty ; to dig up a corpse, as one hundred ; to cut off a man’s male heirs, as two hundred, and so on. This notion of keeping accounts with heaven prevails among all classes of the Chinese, and the score is usually settled about the end of the year by fasting and doing chai”ital)l(‘ acts, such as making a piece of road, repairing a temple, or distributing food, to prove their repentance and benefit tlie world. Festival days are chosen by devout people to distribute alms to the poor, and on such occasions troops of beggars cluster about their doors, holding clap-dishes in their outstretched hands, while the donor stands behind the luilf-opened door dealing out rice to the chunorous crowd which he dares not trust inside.

    Considerhig how few restraints this religion imposes on the

    evil propensities of tlie human lieart, and how easily it provides

    for the expiation of crimes, it is surprising that it has not had

    as great success among the Chinese as among the Tibetans, Birmese,

    and Siamese. The thorough education in the reasonable

    teachings of the classics, and the want of filial duty shown by

    celibates to their parents in leaving them to take care of themselves,

    have had their effects in maintaining the purer but

    heartless moralities of the Confucianists. The priests have

    always had the better judgment of the people against them,

    and being shut out by their profession from entering into society

    as companions or equals, and regarded as servants to be sent for

    when their services were M’anted, they can neither get nor maintain

    that influence over their countrymen which would enable

    them to form a party or a powerful sect. One of the officers

    in the reign of Chingtih of the Ming dynasty, Wang Yang-ning,

    who addressed a remonstrance to his sovereign against sending

    an embassy to India to fetch thence Buddhist books and priests,

    relies for his chief argument on a comparison between the precepts

    and tendency of that faith and the higher doctrines of the

    classics, proving to his own satisfaction that the latter contained

    all the good there was in the former, without its nonsense and

    evil. The opposition to Buddhism on the part of the literati has

    been in fact a controversy between common sense (imperfectly

    enlightened indeed) and superstitious fear; the first inclines the

    person to look at the subject with reference to the principles

    and practical results of the system, as exhibited in the writings

    and lives of its followers, while, not having themselves anything

    to look forward to beyond the grave, they are still led to entertain

    some of its dogmas, because there may be something in

    them after all, and they have themselves nothing better. The

    result is, as Dr. Morrison has observed, ” Buddhism in China is

    decried by the learned, laughed at by the profligate, yet followed

    by all.”

    The paraphrase and commentary on the seventh of Kanghi’s maxims against strange religions present a singular anomaly; for while the Emperor Yungching in the paraphrase decries Buddhism and Rationalism, and exalts the “orthodox doctrine,” as he terms the teachings of the classics, he was himself a daily worshipper of Buddhist idols served by the lamas.

    He inveighs against selling poor children to the priests in no

    measured terms, and shows the inutility and folly of repeating

    the books or reciting the unintelligible charms written by the

    priests, where the person never thought of performing what

    was good. lie speaks against the promiscuous assemblage of

    men and women at the temples, which leads to unseemly acts,

    and joins in with another of his own class, who remarked, in

    reference to a festival, that ” most of the worshippers are women,

    who like these worshipping days, because it gives them an opportunity

    to see and l)e seen in their fine clothes; and most of

    the men who go there, go to amuse themselves and look at the

    M’omen.’” “The sum of the whole is, these dissolute priests of

    Buddha are lazy ; they will neither labor in the fields nor traffic

    in the markets, and being without food and clothing, they set

    to work and invent means of deceiving people.” But though

    this upholder of the good old way well exhibits the follies of

    these idolatrous sects, he has nothing better to present his countrymen

    than ” the two living divinities placed in the family,*’

    nothing to lead their thoughts beyond this world. His best

    advice and consolation for their troubled and wearied souls is,

    ” Seek not for happiness beyond your own sphere ; perfoi-m not

    an action beyond the bounds of reason ; attend solely to your

    own duty ; then you will receive the protection of the gods.”

    The instructions of Sakya-muni himself have noM^ become so

    interwoven in the additions, ritualism, and errors of his followers

    during the ages since he died, that he is charged with many

    things which he probably never taught. T^nlike the founders

    of Islamism and Zoroastrianism, his personlil influence and identity

    have been lost amid the fables which have enveloped his

    acts, and the diversities of worship and doctrine baffle all explanation.

    “When the patriarchs and missionaries of the sect

    ‘ Milne’s Sacred Edict, pp. 133-143. Chinese Bepository, Vol. I. , p. 207 ; Vol.II., p. 265.

    LIMITATIONS TO ITS POWEll IN CHINA. 220

    began to increase in Central Asia and Cliina after the embassy

    of Ming tt, they were obliged to defend, exphiin, and develop

    their tenets against the Chinese literati, and also commend them

    to the observance of the i)eople. In the former region their

    coiupiests were complete, and the Alotigols stdl hold to the Bnddhist

    faith as completely as the Knropean nations did to popery

    until the Reformation. The histoiy of Chinese Buddhism down

    to the present day has not yet been folly examined, but much

    has been done within the past few years by Julien, Beal, Edkins,

    Watters, Neumann, Koeppen, and others to make it known.

    Translations from Chinese Buddhistic travellers and moralists

    liave brought out nuiny obscure opinions and unexpected events

    in this branch of religious thought and missionary work, during

    a period of the world’s history hitherto quite unknown to Europeans.’

    The mutual forbearance exhibited by the different sects in

    China is owing a good deal to apathy, for where there is nothing

    to reach thei’e is little to stimulate to effort. The government

    tolerates no denomination suspected of interfering with its

    own inlluence, and as none of the sects have any State patronage,

    none of them liokl any power to wield for persecution, and the

    people soon tire of petty annoyances and unavailing invectives.

    The Buddhist priesthood is perpetuated mostly by the children

    given by parents who have vowed to do so in their distress, and

    by others purchased for serving in large monasteries. Persons

    occasionally enter late in life, weary with the vexations of thi3

    world ; Mr. Milne was accpuiinted with one who had two sons

    when he took the vows upon him, but gave himself no care as

    to what had become of them. The only education which most

    of the acolytes receive consists in memorizing the prayers in the

    liturgy and reading the canonical works. A few fraternities

    have tutors from whom they receive instruction.

    ‘See Alabaster’s Wheel of the Lair, pp. 228-241, for a well-digested Life of Buddha, from the Siamese. Beal’s Romantic History of Buddha, and Caten(( (f Buddhist Scriptures. Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, Chaps. I to VI., gives a good resume of the early progress of the faith. G. Biihler, Three Neic Edicts of A’ioka, London (Triibner).

    Nunneries also exist, most of them under the patronage of the IIolj Mother, Queen of Heaven. The priests advocate their establishment as a good means of working upon the feelings of the more susceptible part of society, to whom they themselves cannot get admittance. The succession among the “sisters “is kept up by purchase and by self-consecration ; the feet of children bought young are not bandaged. The novice is not admitted to full orders till she is sixteen, though previous to this she adopts the garb of the sisterhood ; the only difference consists in the front part of the head being shaved and the hair plaited in a queue, while nuns shave the whole. It is not easy to distinguish monks from nuns as they walk the streets, for both have natural feet, wear clumsy shoes, long stockings drawn over full trousers, short jackets, and bald pates. Like her sister

    in Romish countries, the Chinese nun, when her head has been

    shaved—the opposite of taking the veil, though the hair of both

    is sacrificed—is required to live a life of devotion and mortification,

    eat vegetables, care nothing for the world, and think only

    of her eternal canonization, keeping herself busy with the service

    of the temple. ” Daily exercises are to be conducted by her ;

    the furniture of the small sanctuary that forms a part of the

    convent must be looked after and kept clean and orderly ; those

    women or men who come to worship at the altars, and seek

    guidance and comfort, must be cared for and assisted. “When

    there is leisure the sick and the poor are to be visited ; and all

    who have placed themselves nnder her special direction and

    spiritual instruction have a strong claim upon her regard. That

    she may live the life of seclusion and self-denial, she must vow

    perpetual virginity. The thought of marriage should never

    enter her head, and the society of men must be shunned. On

    her death she will be swallowed up in nihility ! ” In Fuhchau

    the nunneries were all summarily abolished nearly fifty years

    ago by an officer who learned the dissolute lives of their inmates.

    They have not since been reopened for their residence, though

    this official provided husbands for most of their nuns. Such a

    proceeding would have been impossible in almost any other

    country, and shows the functions of Chinese officials for the

    welfare of society.

    BUDDHIST NUNS AND NUNNERIES. 231

    Most of them are tauo-ht to read the classics as well as their

    own liturgies, and a few of the sisterhood are said to be well

    read in the loi*e of the country. Each nun has her own disciples

    among the laity, and cultivates and extends her acquaintances as

    much as she can, inasmuch as upon them her support principally

    depends. Each of her patrons, whether male or female,

    receives a new name from her, as she herself also did when her

    head was shaven. Contributors’ names are written or engraved

    in conspicuous places in the building ; casual fees or donations

    go to the general expenses. Each nun also receives ten cents

    when public masses are recited for those who have engaged

    them. Their moral character is uniformly represented as dissolute,

    but while despised for their profligacy they are dreaded for the supposed power they can exert by means of their connection with spirits. The number of nunneries in the department of Ningbo is stated to be thirty, and the sisterhood in them all to amount to upward of three hundred persons.”

    The numerous points of similarity between the rites of the Buddhists and those of the Romish church early attracted attention. Abbe Hue enumerates many of them : ” The cross, the mitre, the dalmatica, the cope which the lamas wear on their journeys, or when performing some ceremony out of the temple; the service with double choirs, the psalmody, the exorcisms, the censer suspended from five chains, which you can open or close at pleasure ; the benedictions given by extending the right hand over the heads of the faithful ; the rosary, ecclesiastical celibacy, spiritual retirement, worship of the saints; the fasts, processions, litanies, and holy water—all these are analogies

    between ourselves and the Buddhists.” In addition to these, the

    institution of nuns, worship of relics, masses for the dead, and

    burning of candles and incense, with ringing of bells during

    worship, are prominent usages common to both. Their priests

    alike teach a purgatory from which the soul can be released by

    their prayers ; they also conduct service in a dead language, and

    pretend to miracles. Lastly, the doctrine of the perpetual virginity

    of Maya, the mother of Sakya-nmni, is an article taught

    ‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. XIII., pp. 93-98. Doolittle’s Social Life, I., p. 253 WAn^^i Life in Chimi, pp. 134-146. Gray’s China, I., pp. 105, 131-135.

    by the Mongol Buddhists, who also practise a form of infant

    baptism, in which the lama dips the child three times imder the

    water as he pronounces its name and j^ives it a blessing.

    These mimerous and striking resemblances led the Roman

    Catholic missionaries to conclude that some of them had been

    derived from the papal or Syrian priests who entered China

    before Xublai khan. M. Hue brings forward his hypotliesis

    that Tseng Kaba, the teacher of the Buddhist reformer in Mongolia

    about that time, had adopted them from some of the J2uropeans

    who taught him the Christian doctrines.’ Others refer

    them to St. Thomas, but Premare ascribes them to the devil,

    who had thus imitated holy mother church in order to scandalize

    and oppose its rites. But as Davis observes, ” To those

    who admit that most of the Romish ceremonies are borrowed

    directly from paganism, there is less difficulty in accounting for

    the resemblance.”’ On this point it will be impossible to reach

    certainty. There have probably been some tilings borrowed by

    each from the other at various ages, without either knowing

    from whence they came or what were their tendencies. Fergusson

    shows the great probability that the monastic S3-stem,

    celibacy, and ascetic good works wei’e adopted in the Eastern

    church from India ; but the want of reliable records on either

    side hitherto has left much to inference and conjecture.

    Tlie worship is similar and equally imposing. One eye-witness

    describes the scene he saw in a Buddhist temple: “There

    stood foui’teen priests, seven on each side of the altar, erect,

    motionless, witii clasped hands and downcast eyes, their shaven

    heads and flowing gray robes adding to their solemn appearance.

    The low and measured tones of the slowdy moving chant they

    ‘ Hue’s Trarels in Tartnry, II., p. 50. Hardy’s Mantial, p. 142. Missionary Recorder, III., pp. 142, 181. Eitel, Lectures on BnMlmm, and HnvrVmok for the Btmleut of Chinese Buddhism, Hongkong, 1870. James Fergusson, Hist. Indian and Eastern Arc7iit£ci>ire, Introduction. Remusat, Melamjei Posthumes, p. 44. Klaproth in Journal Asiatique, Tome VII. (18:51), p. 190; also Tome XT. (IV– Ser.), 1848, p. 535. Prof. E. E. Salisbiu-y in Jonrnal Am. Or. ,S<jc., Vol. I., No. II., 1844. Jour, of tlie R. As. Soc, passim. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 406; also CatJuty and the Way Thithrr, II., p. 551. W. Wordsworth, The Church of Thibet and the Historical Analoyies of Buddhism and Christianity, London, 1877.

    THE ROMANIST AND BUDDHIST RITUALS. 233

    were singing might have awakened solemn emotions, too, and

    called away the thonghts from worldly objects. Three priests

    kept time with the mnsic, one beating an immense drum, another

    a large iron vessel, and a thiid a wooden ball. After chanting,

    they kneeled upon low stools and bowed before the colossal

    image of Buddha, at the same time striking their heads upon the

    ground. Then rising and facing each other, they began slowly

    chanting some sentences, and rapidly increasing the music and

    their utterance until both were at the climax of rapidity, they

    diminished in the same way imtil they had returned to the

    original measure. In the meantime, some of the number could

    not restrain their curiosity, and, even M’hile chanting and counting

    their beads, left their places to ask for books. The whole

    service forcibly renunded me of scenes in Romish chapels ; the

    shaven heads of the priests, their long robes, mock solemnity,

    frequent prostrations, chantings, beads—yea, and their idol, too,

    all suggested their types, or their antitypes, in the apostate

    church.”‘

    The expulsion of Buddhism from India, after its triumphs in the reign of Asoka, King of Majadha, was so complete that it hence forth divided into the northern and southern schools, the first taking Sanscrit and the other Pali as its sacred language. In the course of time the divergencies became fixed, and thus, without any actual schism, the Buddhists of Ceylon and Ultra Gane-es have come to differ from those of Central Asia and China. The form of Buddhism prev-ailing among the Mongols and Tibetans differs more in its state and powder than in its doctrines; it is called Shamanism, or IhiMng Jiao (‘Yellow Sect’) in Chinese, from the color of the priestly robes—a Shaman being one who has overcome all his passions ; it is a Hindu word.

    ‘ Foreifjn Missionary Clironide, Vol. XIV., p. 300.

    – I’or his origin see Klaprotli, Memoircs stir PAsie, Tome II., p. 90. Also Remusat, 3fel((/iges Posfhi/i/irs, pp. 1-04, for some observations on this faith in a review of De Guigues’ Huns. E. Schhigintweit. BudiUiiint in Tlbi’i, with folio atlas of plates, Leipzig, 180:3. J. Summers in llie Phceniv, I., 1870, pp 9-11,

    The Dalai-Lama at Il’lassa, in the great monastery of the Butala, is the pope of the religion, the abode of deity.* Mongolia swarms with lamas, and the government at Peking aids in supporting them in order to maintain its sway more easily over the tribes, though the Manclius have endeavored to supplant* the civil authority of the Dalai-Lama and banehin-erdeni, by partially aiding and gradually subdividing their power. The ritual of the Shamans, in which the leading tenets taught by the lamas are exhibited, contains their ten principal precepts, or decalogue, viz. : 1. Do not kill. 2. Do not steal. 3. Do not connnit fornication. 4. Speak not falsely. 5. Drink no wine nor eat tlesh. 6. Look not on gay silks or necklaces, use no perfumed ointment, and paint not the body. 7. Neither sing nor dance, and do no sleight of hand tricks or gymnastic acts, and go not to see or

    hear them. 8. Sit not on a high large couch. 9. Do not eat out

    of time. 10. Do not grasp hold of living images, gold, silver,

    money, or any valuable thing.’ The book contains also twentyfour

    sections of directions as to the conduct to be observed in

    various places, and before different persons. When using the

    sacred books the devotee must consider himself to be in the

    presence of Buddha, and he is forbidden to study books of

    divination, physiognomy, medicine, drawing lots, astronomy,

    geography, alchemy, charms, magic, or poetry. Xo wonder the

    priests are ignorant when almost every source of instruction is

    thus debarred them. The number of temples scattered over

    Mongolia and Tibet and the proportion of priests are far greater

    than in China, and the literature is not less enormous for bulk

    than are the contents of the volumes tedious and uninstructive.’

    A good device for a religion of formality to economize time and

    accommodate ignoi-ance is adopted by the lamas, which is to

    write the pi-ayers on a piece of ])aper and fasten them to a wheel

    carried round by the wind or twirled by tlie liand ; chests are

    also set up in temples having prayers engraved on the outside

    in large letters, and the prayer is repeated as often as the wind or the hand revolves the wheel or ohest.

    ‘ Annnles He la Foi, Tome IX., p. 400.

    ^”The dreariest literature, perhaps,” says Professor Whitney, “that was ever painfully scored down, and patiently studied, and religiously preserved “(Oriental and lyhujuixtir Stiidifn, Second Series, p. i)8). For foreign bibliographies of Buddhism the reader may be referred to L^Il/’ntoire de (Jakya-Mount, par Foucaux (ad fin ), and Otto Kistner, Buddha and Ids Doctrines : A Bdjliographical Emuiy, London, 18G’J. See also Triibuer’s Record for 1869, p513.

    SHAMANISM, THE BUDDHISM OF TIBET. 235

    The Buddhist temples present nuich nniformity in their arrant »-enient, and some of the monastic establishments are amono; the finest buildings in China. No cave temples are known, but caves have been turned into temples in many places, and miserable places they are for worship. On entering a Buddhist temple, one sees four colossal statnes of the Four Great Kings who are supposed to govern the continents on each side of Mount Sumeru and guard or reward the devotees who honor their Lord ; they have black, blue, red, and white faces, and usually hold a sword, guitar, nmbrella, and snake in their hands. Opposite the door is a shrine containing an image of Maitreya Buddha, or the Merciful One, a very fat, jolly personage, who is to have an avatar three thousand years hence ; images of Kwanti, the God of War, and of Wei-to, a general nnder the Four Kings, clad in armor, are often seen near the shrine. Going behind a screen, the next great hall contains a high gilded image of Sakya-muni sitting on a lotns flower, with smaller statues of Ananda and

    Kashiapa on his sides ; their shrine often has standing images

    of attendants. In this hall are other images or pictures of the

    Eighteen Arhans, deified missionaries who propagated their

    faith early in China. In the rear of these is represented some

    form of Kwanyiu, the Goddess of Mercy, the popular idol of the

    sects. In large temples the live hundred Arhans, placed on as

    many seats, each having some distinguishing attribute, fill a large

    hall. Besides these occur the disciples of Buddha listening to

    his teachings, the horrible punishments of hell, and various

    honored deities, sages, or local gods, so that few temples are

    alike in all respects. In all of them are guest-chambers of

    various sizes, refectories, study rooms, and cloisters, according to

    the wants and resources of the fraternity.

    The hold of the Buddhist priesthood upon the mass of Chinese

    consists far more in the position they occupy in relation to the

    rites performed in honor of the dead than in their tenets. This

    brings us to the consideration of the real relio-ion of the Chinese,

    that in which more than anything else they trust, and to which

    they look for consolation and reward— the worship of deceased ancestors. The doctrines of Confucius and the ceremonial of the State religion, exhibit the speculative, intellectual dogmas of the educated literati and thinkers, who have early been taught the high ideal of tlie Princely Man set forth by their sages.

    The tenets of Lau-tsz’ and the sorcery and incantations of his

    followers show the mystic and marvellous part of the popular

    belief. Buddhism takes hold of the connnon life of man, offers

    relief in times of distress, escape from a future hell at a cheap

    rate, and employment in a round of prayers, study, or work,

    ending in the nirvana. But the heart of the nation reposes

    more upon the rites offered at the family shiine to the two

    “living divinities” who preside in the hall of ancestors than to

    all the rest. This sort of family worship has been popular in

    other countries, but in no part of the world has it reached the

    consequence it has received in Eastern Asia ; every natural

    feeling serves, indeed, to strengthen its simple cultus.

    In the Shh King, whose existence, as we have already pointed

    out, is coeval with Samuel or earlier, are many references to this

    worship, and to certain rites connected with its royal observance.

    At some festivals the dead were personated by a younger relative,

    who was supposed to be taken possession of by their spirits,

    and thereby became their visible image. He was placed on

    higli, and the sacrificer, on appearing in the temple, asked him

    to be seated at his ease, and urged him to eat, thereby to prepare

    himself to receive the liomage given to the dead. When he had

    done so he gave the response in their name ; the defied spirits

    returned to heaven, and their personator came down from his

    seat. \\\ one ode the response of the ancestors through their

    personator is thus given:

    What said the message from your sires ?
    *’ VoGKols r.nd gifts are cleans
    And all your friends, assisting you,
    Bchav) with reverent mien.
    ‘ Most reverently you did your part,
    And reverent by your side
    Your son appeared. On you henceforth
    Shall ceaseless blessings bide.
    ” What shall the ceaseless blessings be ?
    That in your palace high,
    For myriad years you dwell in peace,
    Rich in posterity.” ‘

    ANCESTRAL WORSHIP THE RELIGION OF THE FAMILY. 237

    The teachings of this ancient book intimate that the protecting favor of the departed could be lost by the vile, cruel, or unjust conduct of their descendants—thus connecting ancestral worship and reward with personal character. Another ode sums up this idea in the expression, ” The mysterious empyrean is able to strengthen anything ; do not disgrace your imperial ancestors,

    and it will save your posterity.” Many stories occur in

    the native literature exemplifying this idea by actual experiences

    of blessing and cursing, all flowing from the observance or

    neglect of the required duties.

    The great sages Confucius and Mencius, with the earlier rulers,

    King Wan and Duke Chan, and their millions of followers, have

    all upheld these sentiments, and those teachings and examples

    are still as powerful as ever. In every household, a shrine, a

    tablet, an oratory, or a domestic temple, according to the position

    of the family, contains the simple legend of the two ancestral

    names written on a slip of paper or carved on a board. Incense

    is burned before it, daily or on the new and full moons ; and in

    April the people everywhere gather at the family graves to

    sweep them, and worship the departed around a festive sacrifice.

    To the children it has all the pleasant associations of our Christmas

    or Thanksgiving; and all the elder members of the family

    who can do so come toorether around the tomb or in the ancestral

    hall at the annual rite. Parents and children meet and bow before

    the tablet, and in their simple cheer contract no associations

    with temples or idols, monasteries or priests, processions, or flags

    and nuisic. It is the family, and a stranger intermeddleth not

    with it ; he has his own tablet to look to, and can get no good

    by worshipping before that bearing the names of another family.

    As the children grow up the worship of the ancestors, whom

    they never saw, is exchanged for that of nearer ones who bore

    and nurtured, clothed, taught, and cheered them in helpless

    ‘ Legge’s She Kiruj, p. 309, London, 1876.

    childhood and hopeful youth, and the whole is thus rendered more

    personal, vivid, and endearing. There is nothing revolting or

    cruel connected with it, but everything is orderly, kind, and

    simple, calculated to strengthen the family relationship, cement

    the affection between brothers and sisters, and uphold habits of

    filial reverence and obedience. Though the strongest motive

    for this worship arises out of the belief that success in worldly

    affairs depends on the support given to parental spirits in hades,

    who will resent continued neglect by withholding their blessing,

    yet, in the course of ages, it has intluenced Chinese character, in

    promoting industry and cultivating habits of domestic care and

    thrift, beyond all estimation.

    It has, moreover, done much to preserve that feature of the government which grows out of the oversight of heaven as manifested to the people through their Emperor, the Son of Heaven, whom they regard as its vicegerent. The parental authority is also itself honored by that peculiar position of the monarch, and the child grows up with the habit of yielding to its injunctions, for to him the family tablet is a reality, the abode of a personal Being who exerts an influence over him that cannot be evaded, and is far more to him as an individual than any of the popular gods. Those gods are to be feared and their wrath deprecated, but the ” illustrious ones who have completed their probation ” represent love, care, and interest to the worshippers if they do not fail in their duties.

    Another indirect result has been to define and elevate the position of the wife and mother. All the laws which could be framed for the protection of women would lack their force if she were not honored in the household. As there can be only one ” illustrious consort ” {liien p’l) named on the tablet, there is of course only one wife {Ul) acknowledged in the family.

    There are concubines (tsieh), whose legal rights are defined and secured, and who form an integral part of the family ; but they are not admitted into the ancestral hall, and their children are reckoned with the others as Dan and Asher were in Jacob’s household.

    ITS EFFECTS UPON CHINESE SOCIETY. 239

    Polygamous families in China form a small proportion of the whole; and this acknowledged parity of the mother with the father, in the most sacred position she can be placed, has done much to maintain the purity and right influence of woman amid all the degradations, pollutions, and moral weakness of heathenism. It is one of the most powerful supports of good order. It may even be confidently stated that woman’s legal, social, and domestic position is as high in China as it has ever been outside of Christian culture, and as safe as it can be without the restraints of Christianity. Another benefit to the people, that of early marriages, deriv^es much of its prevalence and obligation from the fear that, if neglected, there may be no heirs left to carry on the worship at the family tomb.

    The three leading results here noticed, viz., the prevention of

    a priestly caste, the confirmation of parental authority in its own

    sphere, and the elevation of the woman and wife to a parity

    with the man and husband, do much to explain the perpetuity

    of Chinese institutions. The fact that filial piety in this system

    has overpassed the limit set by God in his Word, and that deceased

    parents are worshipped as gods by their children, is both

    true and sad. That the worship rendered to their ancestors by

    the Chinese is idolatrous cannot be doubted ; and it forms one

    of the subtlest phases of idolatry—essentially evil with the guisf

    of goodness—ever established among men.

    The prevalence of infanticide and the indifference with which

    the crime is regarded may seem to militate against this view of

    Chinese social character, and throw discredit on the degree of

    respect and reverence paid to parents ; for how, some will ask,

    can a man thus worship and venerate parents who once imbrued

    their hands in his sister’s blood ? Such anomalies may be found

    in the distorted minds and depraved hearts educated under the

    superstitions of heathenism in every country, and the Chinese

    are no exception. It is exceedingly difiicult, however, to ascertain

    the extent of infanticide in China, and all the reasons which

    prompt to the horrid act. Investigations have been made about

    Canton, and evidence obtained to show tiiat it is comparatively

    rare, and strongly discountenanced by public opinion ; though by

    no means unknown, nor punished by law when done. Similar

    investigations at Amoy have disclosed a fearful extent of murders

    of this nature ; yet while the latter are believed, the assertions

    of the former are regarded as evasions of the truth from the fear of being reproached for it or a sense of shame. The whole nation has been branded as systematic murderers of their children from the practice of the inhabitants of a portion of two provinces, who are generally regarded by their countrymen as among the most violent and poorest fraction of the whole. Sir John Barrow heard that the carts went about the streets of Peking daily to pick up dead and dying infants thrown out by their unnatural parents, but he does not mention ever having seen a single corpse in all his walks or rides about the capital.

    It has now been ascertained tliat this cart contains so many dead

    bodies of both sexes, that the inference by Dr. Dudgeon that

    not one in a hundred was killed seems to be sustained. The

    bodies of children are not as often seen in the lanes and creeks

    of Canton as those of adults, and’the former are as likely to have

    died natural deaths as the latter.

    In Fuhkien province, especially in the departments of Tsiuenchau

    and Changchau, infanticide prevails to a greater extent

    than in any other part of the Empire yet examined. Mr. Abeel

    extended his inquiries to forty different towns and villages lying

    in the first, and found that the percentage was between seventy

    and eighty down to ten, giving an average of about forty per

    cent, of all girls born in those places as being murdered. In

    Changchau, out of seventeen towns, the proportion lies between

    one-fourth and three-tenths in some places, occasionally rising

    to one-third, and in others sinking to one-fifth, making an average

    of one-fourth put to death. In other departments of the

    province the practice is confessed, but the pi-oportion tliought

    by intelligent natives to be less, since there is less poverty and

    fewer people than formerly. The examination was conducted

    in as fair a inanner as ]K>ssiblo, and {K’rsoiis of all classes were

    questioned as to the number of children they had killed themselves,

    or knew had been killed by their relatives or neighbors.

    One of eight brothers told him that only three girls were left’

    among all their children, sixteen having been killed. On one

    occasion he visited a small village on Anioy Island, called Bo-au,

    where the whole population turned out to see him and Dr. Cnmming, the latter of whom had recently cut out a large tumor from a fellow villager, he says:

    PKEVALENOE -OF INFATs’q’lCIDE IN CHINA. 241

    From till’ immljor of women in tlic crowd which turned out to greet; is. we were pretty well persuaded that they were under as little restraint as the men Irom indulging their curiosity ; and upon inquiry, found it to be so. We were conducted to a small temple, when 1 had the opportunity of conversing with many who came around us. On a second visit, while addressing them, one man held up a child, and publicly acknowledged that he bad killed five c,2 the helpless beings, having pre.served but two. I thought he was jesting, but as no surprise or dissent was expressed by his neighbors, and as there was an air of simplicity and regret in the individual, there was no reason to doubt its truth. After repeating his confession he added with affecting simplicity, “It was before I heard you speak on this subject ; I did not know it was wrong; I would not do so now.” Wishing to obtain the testimony of the assembled

    villagers, I put the question publicly, ” What number of female infants in this

    village are destroyed at birth V ” The reply was, “More than one-half.” As

    there was no discussion among them, which is not tlie case when they differ in

    opinion, and as we were fully convinced from our own observation of the numerical

    inequality of tlie sexes, the proportion of deatlis they gave did not

    strike us as extravagant.

    The reasons assigned for committing the unnatural deed are

    various. Poverty is the leading cause ; the alternative being, as

    the parents think, a life of infamy or slaverj”, since if they cannot

    rear their offspring themselves they must sell them. The

    fact of the great numbers of men who emigrate to the Archipelago

    from the coast districts has no doubt also had its effect in

    inducing parents to destroy daughters for v/hom they had little

    expectation of finding husbands if they did rear thein. Many

    who are able to support their daughters prefer to destroy them

    rather than incur the expenses of their marriage, but the investigation

    showed that the crime was rather less among the educated

    than the ignorant, and that they had done something to dissuade

    their poor neighbors from putting their girls to death. In the

    adjoining departments of Chauchau and Kiaying in Kwangtung,

    the people admit the practice, and, as their circumstances are

    similar, it is probable that it is not much less than around Amoj’

    Dr. Dudgeon, of Peking, has had very favorable opportunities

    for prosecuting inquiries in that region, and has shown that the

    stories formerly credited are wrong, and that most of the children

    thus disposed of are born of nuns. Inquiries instituted at

    Hankow by Dr. F. P. Smith, of the hospital, showed a wide

    prevalence of the crime among the poor and rural population, for which he ascribes several reasons ; the proportion of the sexes is ten men to seven women.

    While one of the worst features of the crime is the little degree of detestation everywhere expressed at it, vet the actual proportion is an important inquiry, and this, taking the whole nation, has been much exaggerated, chiefly from applying such facts and estimates as the preceding to the whole country. The governor of Canton once issued a dissuasive exhortation on this subject to the people, telling them that if they destroyed all their daughters they would soon have no mothers. Until investigations have been made elsewhere, it is not fair to charge all the Chinese with the atrocities of a small portion, nor to disbelieve the affirmations of the inhabitants of Canton, Ningbo, and Shanghai, and elsewhere, that they do not usually put their daughters to death, until we have overwhelming testimony that they deny and conceal what they are ashamed to confess.’

    Comparing their lamentable practice with those of other and

    European nations, we find, according to Hume, that “the exposure

    of new-born infants was an allowed practice in almost all

    the States of Greece and Rome ; even among the polite and civilized

    xVthenians, the abandoning of one’s child to hunger or wild

    beasts was regarded M-ithout blame or censure. This practice

    was very common ; and it is not spoken of by any author of

    those times with the horror it deserves, or scarcely even with

    disapprobation. Plutarch, the humane, good-natured Plutarch,

    mentions it as a merit in Attains, king of Pergannis, that he

    murdered, or, if you will, exposed all his own children, in order

    to leave his crown to the son of his brother Eumenes. It was

    Solon, the most celebrated of the sages of Greece, that gave

    parents permission by law to kill their children.” Aristotle

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XVII., p. 11, for a native essay against it; Vol.XVI., p. 513; Vol. XII., pp. 540-548.; Vol. XL, p. 508 ; Vol. VII., p. 54.

    Bishop Smith’s China, p. 443. Report of Pekiny Ilospital, 1865. Dr. F. P.

    Smith’s Fire Annual Reports of ITankow Hoapit/d, 1870, pp. 45-52. Doolittle,

    Social Life, 11. , pp. 203-209. Notes and Queries on C. amlJ., Vol. III., pp.

    156, 172. Ij infanticAde et VOeuvre de la Ste.-Enfance en Chine, par Pere G.

    Palatre, Changhai. Autof/raphie. de la Mission Catholique a Vorphelinat de Tou^

    se-tce, 1878. M. E. Martin, Etade Medico-Legale sur I’Infanticide et VAtorte’

    ment dans VEmpire Chinois, Paris, 1872.

    COMPARISON^ WITH GREECE AND ROME. 243

    thought it should be encouraged by the magistrates, and Plato maintained the same inhuman doctrine. It was complained of as a great singularity that the laws of Thebes forbade the practice. In all the provinces, and especially in Italy, the crime was daily perpetrated.’

    The ceremonies attendant upon the decease of a person vary

    in different parts of the country, though they are not necessarily

    elaborate or expensive anywhere, and all the important ones can

    be performed by the poorest mourner. The inhabitants of

    Fuhkien put a piece of silver in the mouth of the dying person,

    and carefully cover his nose and ears. Scarcely is he dead when

    they make a hole in the roof to facilitate the exit of the spirits

    proceeding from his body, of which they imagine each person possesses

    seven animal senses which die with him, and three souls,

    one of which enters elysium and receives judgment, another abides

    M’ith the tablet, and a third dwells in the tomb. In some places,

    as a man approaches his last hour, the relatives come into the

    room to array him in his best garments and carry him into the

    main hall to breathe his life away while dressed in the costume

    with which he is to appear in Hades. The popular ideas regarding

    their fate vary so much that it is difficult to describe the national

    faith in this respect; transmigration is more or less believed

    in, but the detail of the changes the good or evil spirit undergoes

    before it is absorbed in Buddha varies almost according to the

    fancy of the worshipper. Those who are sent to hell pass through

    every form of suffering inflicted upon them by hideous monsters,

    and are at last released to wander about as houseless demons to

    torment mankind, or vex themselves in the bodies of animals

    and reptiles.

    When the priests come the corpse is laid out upon the floor

    in the principal room, and a tablet set up by its side ; a table is

    near, on which are placed meats, lamps, and incense. While

    the priests are reciting prayers to deliver the soul from purgatory

    and hell, they occasionally call on all present to weep and

    lament, and on these occasions the females of the household are

    particularly clamorous in their grief, alternately uttering the

    ‘ Mcllvaine, Evidences of Christianity, p. 291.

    most dolefiii accents, nnd then tittei’injx with some of the new

    coiners. Papers having figni-es on tliein and Peter’s pence in

    the form of paper money are hnrned ; white lanterns, instead of

    tlie common red ones, and a slip of paper containing the name,

    titles, age, etc., of the dead arc lumg at the door; a mat [)orch

    is pnt np for tlie musicians and the priests.” The sonl, liaving

    crossed the l)ridge leading out of hell with the aid of the priests,

    gets a letter of recommendation from them to he admitted into

    the western heavens.

    Previous to burial a lucky place for interment, if the family

    have moved away from its paternal sepulchre, must be found.

    The body is coffined soon after death, arrayed in the most splendid

    habiliments the family can afford ; a fan is put in one liand

    and a prayer on a piece of paper in the other. The form of a

    Chinese coffin resembles the trunk of a tree ; the boards are

    three or four inches thick and rounded on top (from Avhence a

    coffin is called ” longevity boards “), making a very substantial

    case. When the corpse is put in it is laid in a bed of lime or

    cotton, or covered with quicklime, and the edges of the lid are

    closed with mortar in the groove so that no smell escapes; the

    coffin is varnished if it is to remain in the house before burial.

    The Chinese often expend large sums in the purchase and preparation of a coffin during their lifetime; the cheapest are from five to ten dollars, and upward to five hundred and even two thousand dollars, according to the materials and ornamenting. Bodies are sometimes kept in or about the house for many years and incense burned morning and evening. They are placed either on trestles near the doorway and protected by a covering in the principal hall, or in the ancestral chamber, where they remain until the fortunes of the family improve so as to enable them to bury the remains, or a lucky place is found, or until opportunity and means allow the survivors to lay them in their patrimonial sepulchre.

    The lineal relatives of the deceased are informed of his death,

    ‘ Ball says that money is put into the month of the dead by rich people to buy favor and passage into heaven ; others affirm that the money is to make the spirit ready o? speech. The phrase “no silver to hit the mouth ” has r^ference to this custom.

    FUXKIiAL CUSTO^rs AXI) (^EMEMONIES. 245

    and as many as can do so repair to the liouse to condole with

    and assist tlie family. The eldest son or the nearest descendant

    repairs to an adjoining river or well with a bowl in his hand, and

    accompanied by two relatives, to ” buy water ” with money

    M’hich he carries and throws into it. Upon the way to the well

    it is customary to carry lanterns—even at noon—and to make a

    great wailing: with the water thus obtained he washes the

    corpse before it is dressed. After the body is laid in the coffin

    and before interment the sons of the deceased among the poor

    are frequently sent around to the relatives and friends of the

    family to solicit subscriptions to buy a grave, hire mourners, or

    provide a suitable sacrifice, and it is considered a good act to

    assist in such cases ; perhaps fear of the ill-will of the displeased

    spirit prompts to the charity. The coffin is sometimes seized

    or attached by creditors to compel the relatives to collect a sum

    to release it, and instances of filial sons are mentioned who have

    sold themselves into temporary or perpetual slavery in order to

    raise money to bury their parents. In other cases a defaulting

    tenant will retain a cofiin in the house to forestall an ejectment

    for the back rent. On the day of burial an offering of cooked

    provisions is laid out near the coffin. The chief mourners,

    clothed in coarse white sackcloth, then approach and kneel

    before it, knocking their heads up.on the ground and going

    through with the full kotow ; two persons dressed in mourning

    hand them incense-sticks, w^liieh are placed in jars. After the

    male mourners have made their parting prostrations the females

    perform the same ceremonies, and then such friends and relations

    as are present ; during these observances a band of nuisic

    plays. The funeral procession is formed of all these persons

    the band, the tablets, priests, etc. In Peking, where religious

    processions are prohibited, great display is made in funerals

    according to the means and raidc of the deceased. The coffin

    is borne on an nnwieldy bier carried by sixty-four men or moi-e

    and covered by a richly embroidered catafalque, attended by

    musicians, mourners, priests, etc. Sometimes the carts are covered

    with white cloth and the mules wear white harness.

    Burial-places are selected by geomancers, and their location

    has important results on the prosperity of the living. The supposed connection between these two things has influenced the science, religion, and cnstoms of the Chinese from very early days, and nnder the name oi feng-shui, or ‘ wind and water’ rules, still contains most of their science and explains most of their superstitions. As true science extends this travestie of natural philosophy will fade away and form a subject of fascination among the people as it now does a source of terror. Every strange event is interpreted hy fung-shid, and its professors employ the doctrines of Buddhists and Taoists to enforce their

    dicta, as they do their little knowledge of astronomy, medicine,

    and natural science to explain them. The whole has gradually

    grown into a system of geomancy, involving, however, their cosmogony,

    natural philosophy, spiritualism, and biology so far as

    they have these sciences. It was in the twelfth century that it

    became systematized, and its influence has spread ever since.

    Were it only a picturesque kaleidoscope of facts and fancies it

    would be a harndess pastime ; but it now enters into every act

    of life, since the human soul and body, Mdiether in this M’orld

    or the next, are regarded as constantly influenced by their actions,

    their relatives, and their locations. Thus the choice of a

    burial-place is supposed to affect the past, present, and future,

    and the fung-shui sicnsdng^ or ‘ wind and water doctors,’ know

    therein how to benefit their customers and themselves.

    Hcgarding all nature as a living organism and each person surrounded

    by invisible beings, the Chinese try to propitiate these

    essences through their departed relatives. They consider them

    as restrained by their animal nature to the tomb where their

    bodies lie, while the spiritual nature seeks to hover about its

    old scenes and children. If a tomb is placed so that the spirit

    dwelling therein is comfortable, the inference is that the deceased

    will grant those who supply its wants all that the spirit

    world can grant. A tomb located where no star on high or

    dragon below, no breath of nature oi- malign configuration of

    hills, can disturb the repose of the dead, must therefore be

    lucky, and M’orth great effoi-t to secure.

    The principles of geonuuicy depend nuich on two supposed

    currents running through the earth, known as the dragon and

    the tiger ; a propitious site has these on its left and right. A

    INFLUENCE OF FUN(i-SIIUI. 247

    skilful observer can detect and describe them, with the help of

    the compass, direction of the watercourses, shapes of the male

    and female ground, and their proportions, color of the soil, and

    the permutations of the elements. The common people know

    nothing of the basis on which tliis conclusion is founded, but

    give their money as their faith in the priest or charlatan increases.’

    At the south, uncultivated liills are selected because they are

    dry and the white ants will not attack the coffin ; and a hillside

    in view of water, a copse, or a ravine near a hill-top, arc all

    lucky spots. At the north, where ants are unknown, the dead are

    buried in fields ; but nowhere collected in graveyards in cities or

    temples. The form of the grave is sometimes a simple tumulus

    with a tonibstone at the head ; in the southern provinces oftener

    in the shape of the Greek letter fi, or that of a huge arm-chair.

    Tiie back of the supposed chair is the place for the tombstone,

    while the body is interred in the seat, the sides of which are

    built around with masonry and approach each other in front.

    A tomb is occasionally built of stone in a substantial manner,

    and carved pillars are placed at the corners, the whole often

    costing thousands of dollars. The case of one necromancer

    is recorded, who, after having selected a grave for a family, was

    attacked with ophthalmia, and in revenge for their giving him

    poisonous food which he supposed had caused the malad^^, hired

    men to remove a large mass of rock near the grave, whereby its

    efficacy was completely spoiled. The position is thought to be

    the better if it command a good view. Some of the graves occupy

    many hundred square feet, the corners being defined by

    low stones bearing two characters, importing whose chih, or

    ‘ house,’ it is. The shapes of graves vary more at the north ;

    some are conical mounds planted with shrubs or flowers, others

    made of mason-work shaped like little houses, others mere

    square tombs or earthly tunuili ; not a few coffins are simply left

    upon the ground. It is seldom the Chinese hew graves out of

    ‘ Compare Dr. Edkins in the Chineie Recorder, Vol. IV., 1871-72. Fengshui; or the Rudiments of Natural Science in China, by Ernest J. Eitel, London, 1878. The CornhiU Magazine for March, 1874 Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. II., p. 69.

    the rock or dig large vaults; their care is to make a showv

    grave, and at the same time a convenient one for performing

    the prescribed rites. The mausolea of emperors and grandees

    occnpv vast enclosures laid out as parks and adorned with ornamental

    buildings to which lead avenues of stone guardians.”

    The tomb of Yungloh (a.d, 1403-1425) is reached through a

    dwmos of gigantic statues nearly a mile long—two pairs each of

    lions, unicoi’ns, elephants, camels, and horses, one erect, the

    other couchant, and six pairs of civil and military officers; each

    fio;ure is a monolith. The orii2;in of this custom can be traced

    back nearly to the tenth century, but was probably known in the

    Tang dynasty. Officials are allowed to erect a few statues to

    become their guardians.’

    AYhen the day of interment arrives, which is usually the

    nearest lucky day to the third seventh after death, the friends

    assemble at the house. A band of musicians accompanies the

    procession, in which is also carried the ancestral tablet of the

    deceased in a separate sedan, accompanied sometimes by a sacrifice

    and the red tablets of the offices held by the family. The

    mourners are dressed entirely in white, or wear a white fillet

    ai’ound the head ; the sons of the deceased nnist put on the expression

    and habiliments of woe, and the eldest one is at times

    supported along the street to the grave in all the eloquence and

    attitude of grief, although it may have been years since liis

    father went to ” wander among the genii.” The women and

    children of the family follow, and at intervals cry and wail. A

    man goes ahead and scatters paper money to purchase the goodwill

    of such stray spirits as are prowling about. Diiferent

    figures and banners are carried according to the means and rank

    of the family, which, M’ith the friends and crowd attracted by

    the show, sometimes swell the train to a great length. The

    grave is deep, and lime is freely mixed with the earth thrown

    ‘ In the Yih cliin the custodian n>i)orte(i in the Peking Oazette of January

    3, 1871, that there were !)’J, (>!)() trees, mostly lir, pine, elm, etc. The people in

    chart,’e of such grounds are used to girdling the timber, in order afterward to

    get tlie dead trees as firewood for themselves.

    -‘ Mayens in North (Jltina Jh’. Royal Asiatic Society Journal, No. XII., 1878

    Doolittle, Social Life, II., p. 3;37.

    CUSTOMS OF INTERMENT AND MOURNING. 249

    in ; a body is never pnt into an old grave while anything remains

    of the former occupant ; crackers are fired, libations

    poured out, prayers recited, and finally paper models of houses,

    clothes, horses, money, and everything he can possibly want in

    the land of shadows (which Davis calls a loise economy) are

    burned. The tablet and sacrifice are then carried back ; the

    family feast on the latter or distribute it among the poor around

    the door, while the former is placed in the ancestral hall. The

    married daughters of the dead are not considered part of the

    famil}’, and wear no mourning ; nor are they invited to their

    father’s funeral.

    The period of mourning for a father is nominally three years,

    but actually reduced to twenty-seven months ; the persons required

    to observe this are enumerated in the Code, and Sections

    CLXXIX.-CLXXXI. contain the penalties for concealing

    the death of a parent, or misrepresenting it, and of omitting the

    proper formalities. Burning the corpse, or casting it into the

    water, unfeelingly exposing it in the house longer than a year,

    and making the funeral ceremony and feast an occasion of

    merrymaking and indecorous meeting of males and females,

    are also prohibited. For thirty days after the demise the

    nearest kindred must not shave their heads nor change their

    dress, but rather exhibit a slovenly, slipshod appearance, as if

    grief had taken away both appetite and decorum. In the

    southern districts half-mourning is bine, usually exhibited in a

    pair of blue shoes and a blue silken cord woven in the queue,

    instead of a red one ; grass shoes neatly made are now and then

    worn. In the northern provinces white is the only mourning

    color seen. The visiting cards also indicate that the time of

    mourning has not passed. The expenses incurred by the rich

    are great, and the priests receive large sums for masses, ten

    thousand dollars being often spent. In the north still greater

    expenses are incurred in buying a piece of land for a burial plot

    and its glebe. Here they erect a lodge, where the keeper of the

    grave lives, cultivating the land and keeping the tomb in order.’

    When the Empress dies ofiicers put on mourning, take the

    » Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 352; Vol. II., p. 499.

    buttons and fringes from their caps, stamp their seals with bhie

    ink, and go through a prescribed set of ceremonies ; they must

    not shave their lieads for a hundred days, nor the people for a

    month. Full details of the ceremonies ordered on the occasion

    of the decease of the Empress, or ” interior assistant, who for

    thirteen years had held the situation of earth to lieaven,” were

    published in 1833, in both Manchu and Chinese. When the

    Emperor dies all his subjects let their hair grow for a hundred

    days, marriages are postponed, theatres and sports disallowed,

    and a ceremonial gloom and dishabille pervades the Empire.

    On the morning after the death of the Emperor Tungchi, January

    12, 1875, the streets of Peking presented a surprising contrast

    to their usual gaiety in the removal of everything red. In

    early times human beings were immolated at the obsequies of

    rulers, and voluntary deaths of their attendants and women are

    occasionally mentioned. De Guignes says that the Emperor

    Shunchi ordered thirty persons to be immolated at the funeral

    of his consort ; but Kanghi, his son, forbade four women from

    sacrificing themselves on the death of his Empress.’

    The hall of ancestors is found in the house of almost every

    member of the family, but always in that of the eldest son. In

    rich families it is a separate building ; in others a room set apart

    for the purpose, and in many a mere shelf or shrine. The tablet,

    or shlii chu, is a boai’d about twelve inches long and three wide,

    placed upright in a block. The inscriptions on two are like the

    following: “The tablet of Hwang Yung-fuh (late (1iiiig-teh),

    the head of the family, who finished his probation with honor

    during the Imperial Tsing dynasty, reaching a sub-magistracy.”

    His wife’s reads : ” The tablet of Madame, originally of the

    noble family Chin, who would have received the title of lady,

    and in the Imperial Tsing dynasty became his illustrious consort.”

    A receptacle is often cut in the back, containing pieces

    of paper bearing the names of the higher ancestors, or other

    members of the family. Incense and papers are daily burned

    before them, accompanied by a bow or act of homage, forming

    ‘iV. C. Br. R. As. Soc. Journal, No. II., 18C5, pp. 173 ff. De Guignes’Voyages, Tome II., p. 304. ^fe)lloires cone, les Cliinois, Tome \^., pp. 346 ff Chinese and Japanese llepository for May, 1864.

    THE WORSHIP OF ANCESTRAL TABLETS. 251

    in fact a sort of family prayer. The tablets are ranged in

    chronological order, those of the same generation being placed

    in a line. When the hall is large, and the family rich, no pains

    are spared to adorn it with banners and insignia of wealth and

    rank, and on festival days it serves as. a convenient place for

    friends to meet, or for any extraordinary famil}^ occasion. A

    person residing near Macao spent aljout one thousand live hnn-

    Ancestral Hall and Mode of worshipping the Tablets.

    dred dollars in the erection of a hall, and on the dedication day

    the female members of his family assembled with his sons and

    descendants to assist in the ceremonies. The portraits of the

    deceased are also suspended in the hall, but effigies or images

    are not now made.

    In the wood-cut adjoining, the tablets are arranged on the same level, and the sacrifice laid uu the altar before them ; the character shao, ‘longevity,’ is drawn on the wall behind. During the ceremonies fire-crackers are let off and papers burned; after it the feast is spread.

    In the first part of April, one hundred and six days after the

    winter solstice, during the term called Uing-ming, a general

    worship of ancestors is observed. In Kwangtung this is commonly

    called j?a?^’ shan, or ‘ worshipping on the hills,’ but the

    general term is slu fan ti, or ‘ sweeping the tombs.’ The whole

    population, men, women, and children, repair to their family

    tombs, carrying a tray containing the sacrifice, libations for

    offering, and candles, paper, and incense for burning, and there

    go through a variety of ceremonies and prayers. The grave is

    at this season repaired and swept, and at the close of the service

    three pieces of turf are placed at the back and front of the

    grave to retain long strips of red and white paper ; this indicates

    that the accustomed rites have been performed, and these fugitive

    testimonials remain fluttering in the wind long enough to

    announce it to all the friends as well as enemies of the family ;

    for when a grave has been neglected three 3’ears it is sometimes

    dug over and the land resold. The enormous amount of litio’ation

    connected with sepulchral boundaries, transfer of grave

    glebes or sale of the ancient plats, injury, robberj^ and repairs

    of tombs, all indicate the high importance of this kind of

    property.

    ” Such are the harmless, if not meritorious, forms of respect

    for the dead,” says Davis, ” which the Jesuits wisely tolerated

    in their converts, knowing the consequences of outraging their

    most cherished prejudices ; but the crowds of ignorant monks

    who flocked to the breach which those scientific and able men

    had opened, jealous, perhaps, of their success, brought this as a

    charge against them until the point became one of sei-ious controversy

    and reference to the Pope. His Holiness espoused the

    bigoted and unwiser part, which led to the expulsion of the

    monks of all varieties.” And elseAvhere he says the worship

    paid to ancestoi-s is ” not exactly idolatrous, for they sacrifice

    to the invisible spirit and not to any representation of it in the

    fijijure of an idol.” This distinction is much the same as that

    IDOLATRY OF THE RITES. 253

    alleged by the Greek clmrcli, mIucIi disallows images but permits

    gold and silver pictures having the face and hands only painted,

    for Sir John Davis, himself being a Protestant, probably admits

    that worship paid to any other object besides the true God is

    idolatry ; and that the Chinese do trnly worship their ancestors

    is evident from a prayer, such as the following, offered at the

    tombs: Taukwang, 12th year, 8d moon, 1st day. I, Lin Kwang, the second son of the third generation, presnme to come before the grave of my ancestor, Lin

    Kung. Revolving years have brouglit again the season of spring. Clierisliing

    sentiments of veneration, I look up and sweep your tomb. Prostrate I pray

    that you will come and be present, and that you will grant to your posterity

    that they may be prosperous and illustrious. At this season of genial sliowers

    and gentle breezes I desire to recompense the root of my existence and exert

    myself sincerely. Alwaj-s grant your safe protection. My trust is in your

    divine spirit. Reverently I present the five-fold sacrifice of a pig, a fowl, a

    duck, a goose, and a fish ; also an offering of five plates of fruit, with libatnns

    of spirituous liquors, earnestly entreating that you will come and view them.

    With the most attentive respect this annunciation is presented on higli.

    It is not easy to perceive, perhaps, why the Pope and the

    Dominicans were so much opposed to the worship of ancestral

    penates among the Chinese when they pei-formed much the

    same services themselves before the images of Mary, Joseph,

    Cecilia, Ignatius, and hundreds of other deified mortals; but it

    is somewhat surprising that a Protestant should describe this

    worship as consisting of ” harmless, if not meritorious, forms of

    respect for the dead.” Mr. Fortune, too, thinlcs ” a considerable

    portion of this worship springs from a higher and purer source

    than a mere matter of form, and that when the Chinese periodically

    visit the tombs of their fathers to worship and pay respect

    to their memory, they indulge in the pleasing reflection that

    when they themselves are no more their graves will not be neglected

    or forgotten,” This feeling does actuate them, but there

    can be no dispute, one would think, about its idolatrous character.

    The Chinese who have embraced the doctrines of the Xew

    Testament, and who may be supposed qualified to judge of their

    own acts and feelings, regard the rites as superstitious and sinful.

    It is a form of worship, indeed, which presents fewer revolting features than most systems of false religion—consisting merely of pouring out libations and burning paper and candles at the grave, and tlien a family meeting at a social feast, with a few simple prostrations and petitions. No bacchanalian companies of men and women run riot over the hills, as in the Eleusinian mysteries, nor are obscene rites practised in the house ; all is pleasant, decorous, and harmonious. The junior members of the family come from a distance, sometimes two or three hundred miles, to observe it, and the family meeting on this occasion is looked forward to by all with much the same feelings that Christmas is in Old England or Thanksgiving in New England.

    Brothers and sisters, cousins and other relatives join in the worship and feast, and it is this pleasant reunion of dear ones, perhaps the most favorable to the cementing of family affection to be found in heathen society, which constitutes nnich of its power and will present such an obstacle to the reception of the Gospel and removal of the “two divinities” from the house.

    The funeral ceremonies here described are performed by sons

    for their parents, especially for the father ; but there are few or

    no ceremonies aiul little expense for infants, unmarried children,

    concubines, or slaves. These are coffined and buried without

    parade in the family sepulchre ; the poor sometimes tie them up

    in mats and boards and lay them in the fields to shock the eyes

    and noses of all who pass. The nnmici{)al authorities of Canton

    issued orders to the people in 1S82 to bring such bodies as had

    no place of burial to the potter’s field, where they M’ould l)e

    interred at public expense; societies, moreover, exist in all the

    large cities whose object is to bury poor people. In some pai’ts

    the body is wrapped in cloth or coffined and laid in graveyards

    on the surface of the ground. When one dies far away from

    home the coffin is often lodged in lamrmnis, or public depositories

    maintained by societies, where they remain many years.

    Few acts during the war of 1841 irritated the people about

    Canton against the English more than forcing open the coffins

    found in these mausolea and mutilating the corpses. One building

    contained hundreds of coffins ffom which, when ojiened, a

    pimgent aromatic smell was perceptible, while the features of

    the corpses presented a dried appearance. One traveller tells a

    story of his guide, when he was condncthig him over the hills

    DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. 255

    in Hupeb, ordering him to conceal his blue e^^es by putting on

    green spectacles as they were approaching some houses, and

    describes his surprise at finding them all filled with coflins

    arranged in an orderly manner. Graves are not enclosed ; cattle

    pasture among them and paths lead over and through them.

    Tombstones are usually made of granite and their inscriptions

    soon become defaced. Epitaphs are short, giving the name of

    the dynasty, his place of birth, number of his generation in the

    family, and his temple name. Laudatory expressions are rare,

    and quotations from the classics or stanzas of poetry to convey

    a sentiment entirely unknown. The corpses of ofiiceis who die

    at their stations are carried to their paternal tombs, sometimes

    at public expense. Tlie Emperor, in some instances, orders the

    funeral rites of distinguished statesmen to be defi-ayed. This

    was done during the war with England in the cases of Commissioner

    Yukien and General Hailing, who burned himself at

    Chinkiang fu.’

    Besides these funeral rites and religious ceremonies to their

    departed ancestors the Chinese have an almost infinite variety

    of superstitious practices, most of which are of a deprecatorv

    character, growing out of their belief in demons and genii who

    trouble or help people. It may be said that most of their religious

    acts performed in temples are intended to avert misfortune

    i-ather than supplicate blessings. In oi-der to ward off malignant

    influences amulets are worn and charms hung up, such as moneyswords

    made of coins of different monarchs strung together in

    the form of a dagger; leaves of the sweet-flag {Aco/-us) and Artemisia

    tied in a bundle, or a sprig of peach-blossoms ; the first

    is placed near beds, the latter over the lintel, to drive aM’ay demons.

    A man also collects a cash or two from each of his

    friends and gets a lock made which he hangs to his son’s neck

    in order to lock him to life and make the subscribers surety for

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII., pp. 363-384. Doolittle, Socinl Life, II., pp. 45-48. M. T. Yates, Ancestral Worship, Mism»ini-y Conference (of 1867), p. 367 Johnson, Oi-ienUd Bclif/ions : China, pp. 693-708. Gray’s China, I.,pp. 320-328. China Reiiew,Yo\. IV., p. 296. P. D. de Thiersant, La Piete Filiule en ChinCf Paris, 1877. E. Faber in the Chinese Recorder, Vol. IX., pp.’J29, 401.

    his safety ; adult females also wear a neck lock for the same

    purpose. Charms are common. One bears the inscription,

    ” May you get the three viamjs and the nine Jik’es; ” another,

    ” To obtain long eyebrowed longevity.” The three manijn are

    man}’^ years of happiness and life and many sons. Old brass

    mirrors to cure mad people are hung up by the rich in their

    halls, and figures or representations of the unicorn, of gourds,

    Buddhist Priests.

    tigers’ claws, or the eight diagrams, are worn to insure good

    fortune or ward off sickness, fire, or fright. Stones or pieces

    of metal with short sentences cut upon them are almost always

    found suspended or tied al)out the persons of children and

    M’omen, which are supposed to have great efficacy in preventing

    evil. The rich pay large sums for rare objects to promote thifl

    end.

    CHARMS AND AMULETS. 257

    In addition to their employment in tlic worship and burial of

    the dead and cultivation of glebe lands (some of which are very

    extensive’), priests resort to many expedients to increase their

    incomes, few of which have the improvement of their countrymen

    as a ruling motive. Some go around the streets collecting

    printed or written paper in baskets, to burn them lest the venerable

    names of Confucius or Buddha be defiled ; others obtain a

    few pennies by writing inscriptions and charms on doors ; and

    many in rural places get a good living off the lands owned by

    their temples. The priests of both sects are under the control

    of officials recognized by and amenable to the authorities, so that

    the vicious and unprincipled among them are soon restrained.

    The Buddhists issue small books, called Girdle Classics, containing

    prayers addressed to the deity under whose protection

    the person has phiced himself. Spells are made in great variety,

    some of them to be worn or pasted up in the house, while others

    are written on leaves, paper, or cloth, and burned, and their

    ashes thrown into a liquid for the patient or child to drink.

    These spells are sold by Rationalists, and consist of characters,

    like /^/A (‘ happiness ”) or shao (‘ longevity ‘), fancifully combined.

    The god of doors, of the North Pole, Pwanku, the heavenly astronomer,

    the god of thunder and lightning, or typhoons, the god

    of medicine, demigods and genii of almost every name and

    power, are all invoked, and some of them by all persons. In

    shops the word shin is put up in a shrine and incense placed

    before it, all objects of fear and worship being included under

    this general term. The threshold is peculiarly sacred, and incense-

    sticks are lighted morning and evening at its side.”*

    The Chinese dread wandering and hungry ghosts of wicked

    men, and the priests are hired to celebrate a mass called ta tsiao,

    to appease these disturbers of human happiness, which, in its

    general purport, corresponds to All Souls’ Day, and from its

    splendor and the general interest taken in its success is very popular.

    The streets at Canton are covered with awnings, and

    ^Lettres EclififinUs, Tome ITT., p. 33.

    ‘^LettreH E’l/fmiti’s, Tome IV., p. 310—where other ceremonies of the TaoistS; to ward o’H pestilence, are described.

    festoons of cheap silk, of brilliant colors, are hung across and

    along the streets. Chandeliers of glass are suspended at short

    intervals, alternating with small trays, on which j^aper figures in

    various attitudes, intended to illustrate some well-known scene

    in history, amuse the spectators. At night the glare of a thousand

    lamps shining through niyriads of lustres lights up the

    whole scene in a gorgeous manner. The priests erect a staging

    somewhere in the vicinit}’^, for the rehearsal of prayers to Yen

    iiHouj (Yama or Pluto), and display tables covered with eatables

    for the hungry ghosts to feed on. Their acolytes mark the time

    when the half-starved ghosts, who have no childi-en or friends

    to care for them, rush in and shoulder the viands, which they

    carry off for their year’s supply. Bands of music chime in from

    tiuie to time, to refresh these hungry spirits with the dulcet

    tones they once heard ; for the Chinese, judging their gods by

    themselves, provide what is pleasing to those who pay for the

    entertainment, as well as to those who are supposed to be benefited

    by it. After the services are performed the crowd carry

    off what is left, but when this is permitted the priests sometimes

    cheat them with merely a cover of food on the tops of the

    baskets, the bottoms being filled with shavings.

    Another festival in August is connected with this, called .shau

    i, or ‘ burning clothes,’ at which pieces of paper folded in the

    form of garments are burned for the use of the suffering ghosts,

    with a large quantity of what maybe properly caWcdJiat money,

    paper ingots which become valuable chiefly when they are

    burned. Paper houses with proper furniture, and puppets to

    represent household servants, are likewise made. IMedhurst adds

    that ” writings are drawn up and signed in the presence of witnesses

    to certify the conveyance of the property, stipulating

    that on its arrival in hades it sliall be duly made over to the individuals

    specified in the bond ; the houses, servants, clothes,

    money and all are then burned with the bond, the worshippers

    feeling confident that their friends obtain the benefit of what

    they have sent them.” Thus ” they make a covenant with the

    grave, and with hell they are at agreement.” This festival, like

    all others, is attended with feasting and nmsic. In order still

    further to provide for childless ghosts, their ancestral tablets are

    FESTIVALS FOR WANDERING GHOSTS. 259

    collected in temples and placed together in a room set apart for

    the purpose, called irio sz’ tan, or ‘orbate temple,’ and a man

    hired to attend and burn incense before them. The sensationa

    which arise on going into a room of this sort, and seeing one or

    two hundred small wooden tablets standing in regular array, and

    knowing that each one, or each pair, is like the silent tombstone

    of an extinct family, are such as no hall full of staring idols can

    ever inspire. The tablets look old, discolored, and broken, covered

    with dust and black with smoke, so that the gilded characters

    are obscured, and one cannot behold them long in their

    silence and forgetfulness without almost feeling as if spirits still

    hovered around them. All these ghosts are supposed to be propitiated by the sacrifices on All Souls’ Day.

    The patronage given to idolatry and superstition is constant

    and general among all classes, and thousands of persons get their

    livelihood by shrewdly availing themselves of the fears of their

    countrymen. The peepul, j)^^-^’^ {Fimi.s rdigiosa) at the south

    and the Sophora at the north, w’itli perhaps other aged trees,

    are worshipped for long life.’ Special efforts are made from

    time to time to build or repair a temple or pagoda, in order to

    insure or recall prosperity to a place, and large sums are subscribed

    by the devout. A case occurred in 1843, which illustrates

    this spirit. One of the English officers brought an image

    of Wa-kvxing, the god of fire, from Chinkiang fu, which he

    presented as a curiosity to a lady in Macao. It remained in her

    house several months, and on the breaking up of the establishment,

    previous to a return to India, it was exposed for sale at

    auction with the furniturb. A large crowd collected, and the

    attention of the Chinese was attracted to this image, wdiich they

    examined carefully to see if it had the genuine marks of its ordination

    upon it ; for no image is supposed to be properly an

    object of worship until the spirit has been inaugurated into it

    by the prescribed ceremonies. Having satisfied themselves, the

    idol was purchased for thirty dollars by two or three zealous

    ‘ Compare C. F. Koeppen, Die Relujwn des Buddha, Berlin, 1857, who describes the peepul (Bodhi) tree—the “symbol of the spread and growth of the Buddhist church “—in India. E. Bernouf, Introduction a Vhistoire du Buddhisme Indien, Paris, 1844. Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. III., p. 100.

    persons, and carried off in trininpli to a shop and respectfully

    installed in a room cleared for the purpose. A public meeting

    was shortly after called, and resolutions passed to improve the

    propitious opportunity to obtain and preserve the protecting

    power of so potent a deity, by erecting a pavilion where he

    would have a respectable lodgment and receive due worship.

    A subsci’iption was thereupon started, some of its advocates putting

    down fifty and others thirty dollars, until about one thousand

    two hundred dollars were raised, with which a small lot was

    purchased on the island west of Macao, and a pavilion or tenr

    pie erected where Wa-hwang was enshrined with pompous

    parade amid theatrical exhibitions, and a man hired to keep

    him and his domicile in good order.

    No people are more enslaved by fear of the unknown than the Chinese, and none resort more frequently to sortilege to ascertain whether an enterprise will be successful or a proposed remedy avail to cure. This desire actuates all classes, and thousands and myriads of persons take advantage of it to their own profit. The tables of fortune-tellers and the shops of geomancers are met at street corners, and a strong inducement to repair to the temples is to cast lots as to the success of the prayers offered. One way of divining is to hold a bamboo root cut in

    halves, resembling in size and color a common potato, and let it

    drop as the petition is put up. Sometimes the worshipper drops

    it many times, in order to see if a majority of trials will not be

    favorable, and when disappointed the first time not unfrequently

    tries again, if mayhap he can force the gods to be more propitious.

    The devotee may determine himself what position of the blocks

    shall be deemed auspicious, but usually one face up and one doAvn

    is regarded as pi-omising. The countenances of worshippers as

    they leave the shrines, some beaming with hope and resolutioii

    to succeed, and others, notwithstanding their repeated knocking^

    and divinings, going away Avith vexation and gloom written on

    their faces at the ol)duracy of the gods and sadness of tlieir prospects,

    offer a study not less melancholy than instructive. ” Such

    is the weakness of mortals : they dread, even aftei- mature reflection,

    to undertake a project, and then entei- blindly upon it

    at a chance after consultin<r chance itself as blind.”’

    SORTILEGE AND FOHTrXK-TELLING, 2G1

    The fortune-tellers also consult fate by means of bamboo slips bearing certain characters, as the sixty-four diagrams, titles of poetical responses, or lists of names, etc. The applicant* comes up to the table and states his desire ; he wishes to know whether it will be fair weather, which of a dozen doctors shall be selected to cure his child, what sex an unborn infant will be, where his stolen property is, or any other matter. Selecting a slip, the diviner dissects the character into its component parts, or in some other way, and writes the parts upon a board lying before him, joining to them the time, the names of the person, live planets, colors, viscera, and other heterogeneous things, and from them all, putting on a most cabalistic, sapient look, educes a sentence which contains the required answer.

    Consulting a Fortune-teller.

    The man receives it as confidently as if he had entered the

    sybil’s cave and heard her voice, pays his fee, and goes away.

    Others, less shrewd, refer to books in which the required answ^er

    is contained in a sort of equivocal delphian distich. The Chinese

    method of sortilege is not far different from that practised by the

    ancient Romans. ” The lots preserved at Preneste were slips

    of oak with ancient characters engraved on them. They were

    shaken up together by a boy, and one of them was drawn for the

    person who consulted the oracle. They remind us of the Runic

    staves. Similar divining lots Avere found in other places.” *

    ‘ Niebuhr, History of Rome, Vol. I., p. 246. See, further, Doolitlle’s Sncia).

    Life, Vol. II., Chap. IV. Gray’s China, Chap. XII. Prof. Douglas, China,

    Chap. XV.

    The purchase of a building lot, and especially the selection

    of a grave, involve much expense, sortilege, and inquiry.

    When a succession of misfortunes comes upon a family, they

    will sometimes disinter all their relatives and bury them in a

    new place to remov’e the ill luck. I’efore a house is built a

    written prayer is tied to a pole stuck in the ground, petitioning

    for good luck, that no evil spirits may arise from beneath ;

    when the ridge-pole is laid another prayer is pasted on and

    charms hunc; to it to insure the building against fire ; and

    lastly, when the house is done it is dedicated to some patron,

    and petitions offered for its safety. Prayers are sometimes offered

    according to forms, at others the suppliant himself speaks.

    Two middle-aged women, attended by a maid-servant, were once

    found opposite (^anton in the fields among the graves. They

    had placed a small paper shrine upon a tomb near the pathway,

    and one of them was kneeling before it, her lips moving in

    prayer ; there was nothing in the shrine, but over it M’as written

    the most common petition known in China, “Ask and ye

    shall receive.”

    Answers are looked for in various \vays. A man was once

    met at dusk repairing a lonely grave before which candles were

    burning and plates of rice and cups of spirits arranged. lie

    knelt, and knocking his head began to repeat some words in a

    half audible manner, when he M-as asked if the spirits of his

    ancestors heard his supplications. At the instant a slight puff

    of air blew the candles, when he replied, ” Yes; see, they have

    come; don’t interrupt me.” Contingent vows are often made,

    and useful acts performed in case the answer be favorable. A

    sick man in Macao once made a vow that if he recovered he

    would repave a bad piece of road—which he actually performed,

    aided a little by his neighboi-s ; but it Mas deemed eminently

    unlucky that a toper who was somewhat flustered, passing soon

    after, should fall into the public well. Persons sometimes insult

    the gods, spit at them or whip them, or even break the

    ancestral tablets, in their vexation at having been deluded

    into foolish deeds or misled by divination. Legends are told

    of the vengeance which has followed such impiety, as well r$

    the rewards attending a different course; and tlio Kanyinc

    WORSHIPPEIJS AT W AYSIDK SIIlilNKS, 263

    Pien^ or ‘ Tlook of Rewards and Punishments,’ has strengtliened

    tliese :«entiinents by its stories of the results of human

    acts.

    The worship of street divinities is not altogether municipal

    ;

    some of the shrines in Canton are resorted to so much by

    women as to obstruct the patli. The unsocial character of

    heathenism is observable at such places and in temples ; however

    great the crowd may be, each one worships b}’ himself as

    much as if no one else were present. Altars are erected in

    fields, on which a smooth stone is placed, where offerings are

    presented and libations poured out to secure a good crop. Few

    farmers omit all worship in the spring to the gods of the land

    and grain ; and some go further and present a thanksgiving

    after harvest. Temples are open night and da}’, and in towns

    are the resort of crowds of idle fellows. Worshippers go on

    with their devotions amid all the hubbub, strike the druin

    and bell to arouse the god, burn paper prayers, and knock their

    heads upon the ground to implore his blessing, and then retire.

    The Chinese collectively spend enormous sums in their idolatry,

    though they are more economical of time and money than

    the Hindus. Rich families give much for the services of

    priests, papers, candles, etc., at the interment of their friends,

    but when a large sacrifice is provided none goes to the priests,

    who are prohibited meat. The aggregate outlay to the whole

    people is very large, made up of repairs of temples, purchasing

    idols, petty costs, such as incense-sticks, candles, paper, etc.,

    charms and larger sacrifices prepared from time to time. The

    sum cannot of course be ascertained, but if the daily expenditure

    of each person be estimated at one-third of a cent, or four

    cash, the total will exceed four hundred millions of dollars per

    annum, and this estimate is more likely to be under than over

    the mark, owing to the universality and constancy of the daily

    service,

    This brief sketch of Chinese religious character will be incomplete without some notice of the benevolent institutions found among them. Good acts are required as proofs of sincerity; the classics teach benevolence, and the religious books

    of the Buddhists JTiculcate coiiipassioii to the poor and relief of

    tlie sick. I’rivate alms of rice or clothes are fre(|uently given,

    and tlie modes of collecting the poor-tax are very direct and

    economical, bringing the lionseholders into some intercourse

    with the beggars in their neighborhoods, but offering no rewards

    to tramps and idlers. A retreat for poor aged and infirni

    or blind people is situated near the east side of Canton, the expenses

    of which are stated at about seven thousand dollars, but

    the number of persons relieved is not mentioned. The pecuhition

    and bad faith of the managci-s vitiate many of these institutions,

    and indispose the charitable to ]iatronize them. La.-

    zarettos are established in all large towns in Southern China,

    where a large entrance fee will secure a comfortable living for

    these outcasts to the end of their days ; the prevalence of the

    disease leads everybody to aid the measures taken to restrict its

    ravages. A full account of the report issued by the directors

    of a long-established foundling hospital in Shanghai is given

    in the Ckinese Repository (Vol. XIY.), and shows the methodical

    character of the people, and that no pi-iests ai-e joined in

    its management. In the report full credit is given to the benefactors,

    and an appeal made for funds to cany it on, as it is

    nearly out of supplies. A^arious modes of raising money are

    proposed, and arguments are brought forward to induce people

    to give, all in the same manner as is common with charitable

    institutions in western lands, as its closing paragraph shows: If, for the extension of kindness to our fellow creatures, and to those poor .ind destitute who have no father and mother, all the good and benevolent would daily give one cash (n^rn of a<l()llai), it would V)e sufficient for the maintenance of the foundlings one day. Let no one consider a.small good unmeritorious, nor a small subscription as of no avail. Either you may induce others to subscribe by the vernal breeze from your month, or you may nourish the blade of benevolence in the field of happiness, or cherish the already sprouting bud. Thus by taking advantage of opportunities as they present tliemfielves, and using your endeavors to accomplish your object, you may immeas’ urably benefit and extend the institution.

    The deaths are reported as being nearly one-half of the admissions,

    and the number of inmates about one hmidred and thirty

    in all. The details of the receipts and expenditures are given

    BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS IN CHINA. 265

    at the end of the report in a business-like manner. The annual

    disbursement was about one thousand live hundred and fifty dollar:^,

    and the receipts from all sources more than that, so that a

    balance of five thousand dollars is reported on hand, four-fifths

    of whicli was derived fi-om interest on subscriptions invested

    and on wares from pawnbrokers.

    Similar establishments are found in all large towns, some of

    them partly supported by the government. That in Canton

    was founded in 1698, and contains accommodations for three

    liundred children, wliose annual support was reckoned at three

    thousand five hundred dollars in 1833, at which date the money

    was filched from foreigners by a tax on their ships. These hospitals

    seem to be of modei’u origin, less than two centuries old,

    and may have been imitated from or suggested by the Roman

    Catholics. Candida, a distinguished convert about 1710, did

    much to establish them and show the excellence of the religion

    she professed. Mr. Milne, who visited one at IS^ingpo, says,

    after entering the court : ” A number of coarse-looking women

    were peeping through the lattice at us, with squallababies at

    their breasts and squalid boys and girls at their heels ; these

    Nvomen are the nurses, and these children are the foundlings,

    each woman having two or three to look after. But I have

    rarely beheld such a collection of filthy, nnwashen, ragged

    brats. There are at present between sixty and seventy children,

    the boys on one side, the girls on the other. Boys remain here

    till the age of fourteen, when they are hired out or adopted ;

    girls stay till sixteen, when they are betrothed as wives or taken

    as concubines or servants. It is supported by the rental of lands

    and houses, and by an annual tax of thirty-six stone or shiJi

    (about five hundred pounds) of rice from each district in the department.”

    In large towns other voluntary societies are found, having

    for their object the relief of suffering, which ought to be mentioned,

    as the Chinese have not been fairly credited with what

    they do in this line. Humane societies for restoring life to persons

    rescued from the water, and providing coflins if they are

    dead, exist along the riverine towns. Associations to give decent

    interment to the poor in a public potter’s field are found in large cities, where gi-atiiitons vaccination is often given to all who apply. Soup-kitchens are constantly opened as cold weather comes on, and houses prepared for vagrants and outcasts who have been suddenly reduced. Societies for the relief of indigent and virtuous widows are of long standing, and a kind of savings bank for the purpose of aiding a man to get married or to bury his parent exists among the people.’

    Charity is a virtue which thrives poorly in the selfish soil of

    heathenism, but even badly managed establishments like these

    are praiseworthy, and promise something better when higher

    teachings shall have been engrafted into the public mind. The

    government is obliged to expend large sums almost every year

    for relieving the necessities of the starving and the distressed,

    and strong calls are made on the rich to give to these objects.

    During the great famine in 1877-78 in the north-eastern provinces,

    the common hal)its of industry, thrift, and order were

    united with these practices of voluntary benevolence among the

    people, and aided greatly in enabling those who distributed

    food and money to reach the greatest number possible with the

    means. The sufferers had already learned that violence and

    robbery would only increase their miseries and liasten their

    end.

    The general condition of religion among the Chinese is effete;

    and the stately formalities of im])eri:d worship, the doctrines of

    Confucius, the ceremonies of the Buddhists, the sorceries of the

    Rationalists, alike fail to comfort and instruct. But the fear of

    evil spirits and the worship of ancestoi’s, the two beliefs which

    hold all ranks and abilities in their thrall, are still strong ; and

    the principal sway the two sects exert is owing to the connection

    of their priests M’ith the ceremonies of burial. Each

    has exerted its greatest possible power over the })eople, but

    all have failed to impart present happiness or assure future

    joy to their votaries. Confucianism is cold and unsatisfactoiy

    to the affectionate, the anguished, or the in(]uiring mind, and

    the transcendentalism of Rationalism or the vagaries of Bud’

    ^Chineae Reponitary, Vol. XTV., pp. 177-195. Lockhart, Medical Missionary

    in China, Cliapter II., Lundoii, 18()1.

    SECRET SOCIETIES. 267

    dhisin are a little worse. All classes are the prey of unfounded

    fears and superstitions, and dwell in a mist of ignorance and

    error which the light of true religion and knowledge alone can

    dissipate.

    Besides the two leading idolatrous sects, there are also many

    comhinations existing among the people, partly religious and

    partly political, one of which, the Plh-lien Mao, or the Triad

    Society, has already been mentioned in Chapter VIII. The

    Wan klang, or ‘ Incense-burning sect,’ is also denounced in the

    Sacred Commands, but has not been mentioned in late times.

    The Triad Society is comparativelj’ peaceful throughout China

    Proper in overt acts, the members of the auxiliai’y societies contenting

    themselves with keeping alive the spirit of resistance to

    the Manchus, getting new members, and countenancing one

    another in their opposition ; but in Siam, Singapore, Malacca,

    and the Archipelago, it has become a powerful body, and great

    cruelties are committed on those who refuse to join. The members

    are admitted with formalities bearing strong resemblance to

    those of the Freemasons, and the professed objects of the society

    are the same. The novice swears before an idol to maintain

    inviolate secrecy, and stands under naked swords while

    taking the oath, which is then read to him ; he afterward cuts

    off a cock’s head, the usual form of swearing among all Chinese,

    intimating that a like fate awaits him if treacherous. There

    are countersigns known among the members, consisting of grips

    and motions of the fingers. Such is the secrecy of their operations

    in Cliina, however, that very little is known of their numbers,

    internal organization, or character ; the dislike of their

    machinations is the best security against their ultimate success.

    Local delusions, caused by some sharp-witted fellow, now and

    then arise in one part and another of the country, but they are

    speedily put down or dissipate of themselves. There has transpired

    not an item of news concerning any of these seditious

    organizations since the suppression of the Tai-ping rebellion in

    1868. None of them are allowed to erect temples or make a

    public exhibition or procession, and exhortations are from time

    to time issued by the magistrates against them ; while the penalties

    annexed to the statute against all illegal associations give the rulers great power to crush whatever they may deem suspicious or treasonable.’

    The introduction of Islamism into China was so gradual that

    it is not easy to state the date or manner. The trade between

    China and ports lying on the Arabian Sea early attracted its

    adherents (called Ilwai-hwul I’lao) to the Middle Kingdom,

    and as long ago as the Tang dynasty its missionaries came to

    the seaports, especially of Canton and Hangchau. They likewise

    formed a large portion of the caravans which went to and

    fro through Central Asia, and seem to have been received without

    resistance, if not with favor, until they grew by natural

    increase to be a large and an integral })art of the population.

    Mosques were built, schools taught, pilgi’iuuiges made, books

    printed, and converts allowed to exercise their rites without

    serious hindrance almost from the first. The two great features

    of the faith—the existence of one only true God and the M-ickedness

    of idolatry—have not been kept hidden ; but, though

    promulgated, the}’ have not been accepted outside of the sect

    and have not made the least impression upon the State religion.

    The reasons for this are not far to seek. The jigid rule that

    the Koran must not be translated has kept this book out of

    reach of the literati, and the faithful could not even appeal to

    it in support of their belief, for not one in thousands know how

    to read it. The Chinese naturally neither could nor would

    learn Arabic, and there was no sword hanging over them, as

    was the case in Persia, to force them into Moslem ranks. The

    simplicity of the State religion and ancestral worship gave very

    little handle to icronoclasts to declaim against polytheism and

    idolatry. The })rohibition of pork to all true believers seemed

    a senseless injunction among a frugal people which depended

    largely on swine for meat and had never felt any the worse,

    bodily or mentall}’, from its use. The inhibition of wine, moreover,

    was needless among so temperate a race as the Chinese.

    Those who liked to keep Fridays or other days as fasts, ])ractisG

    circumcision as a symbol of faith, and worship in a temple with<

    ‘ Compare the Chinese ‘Repository, Vol. XVIII., p. 281.

    MOHAMMEDANISM IN CHINA. 269

    out images, could do so if tliey chose ; but they must obey the

    laws of the laud and honor the Eni})ei-or as good subjects. They

    luive done so, and, generally speaking, have never been molested

    on account of their beliefs. Their chief strength lies in the

    northern part. The recent struggle in the north-western provinces,

    which cost so many lives, began almost wholly at the instigation

    of Turk or Tartar sectaries, and was a simple trial of

    strength as to who should rule. While cities and towns in

    Kansuh occupied by them were destroyed (in lSGO-73), the two

    liundred thousand Moslems in Peking remained perfectly quiet

    and were unmolested by the authorities.

    Some hold office, and pass through the examinations to obtain

    it, most of them being military men. In their mosques they exliibit

    a tablet with the customary ascription of reverence to the

    Emperor, but place the Prophet’s name behind. They have no

    images or other tablets in the mosques, but suspend scrolls referring

    to the tenets of the faith. The Plain Pagoda in Canton

    was built during the Tang dynasty and called ‘ Remember-the-

    Iloly Temple ; ‘ it is one hundred and sixty-five cubits high ; it

    was built by foreigners, who used to go to the top during the

    fifth and sixth moons at dawn and pray to a golden weathercock

    there, crying out in a loud voice. These notices are taken from

    the native Tojxxjraphij, where also is reference to the tomb of

    a maternal uncle of IMohammed buried north of the city. The

    mosques throughout China are similar in their arrangement and

    resemble temples in many respects, the large arches and inscriptions

    in Arabic on the walls forming the chief peculiarities.

    Arabic is studied under great difficulties by the mollahs, and

    few of the faithful can read or speak it, contenting themselves

    with observing its ritual relating to circumcision, abstinence

    from pork, and idolatry. So fai- as can be seen, their worship

    of the true God under the name of Chu^ or Lord, has not had

    the least influence on the polytheism of the nation or in elevating

    the tone of morals. A well-digested summaiy of their

    tenets has been published at Canton by an unknown author

    under the title of True Coinineids on the Correct Doctrine, in

    two volumes, pp. 240, 1801. Ko restrictions have been laid on

    this sect by the government during the present dynasty; the struggle which continued during the last twenty years between them was simply a question of dominion, not of religion.

    Mr. Milne visited the mosque in Ningbo and made the acquaintance

    of the mollah. “lie is a man about forty-five years

    of age, of a remarkably benign and intelligent countenance and

    {gentlemanly bearing. His native place is Shantung, but his

    ancestors came from Medina, lie readily reads the Arabic

    scriptures and talks that language fluently, but can neither read

    nor write Chinese, which is somewhat surprising considering he

    can talk it well, was liorn in China, and is a minister of religion

    among the Chinese. His supporters number between twenty

    and thirty families, and one or two of his adherents are officers.

    He took me into the place of worship which adjoins his apartments.

    A flight of steps leads into a room, covered with a plain

    roof, on either side of which lay a mass of dusty furniture and

    agricultural implements ; the pillars are ornamented with sentences

    out of the Koran. Facing you is an ornamented pair of

    small doors hung upon the wall, within which the sacred seat is

    supposed to lie, and on one side is a convenient bookcase containing

    their scriptures. He showed me his usual officiating

    dress—a white robe with a painted tui-ban—but he never wears

    this costume except at service, appearing hi the Chinese habit at

    other times. They have a weekly day of rest, which falls on

    our Thursday. On asking if I might be permitted to attend any

    of their services, he replied that if their adherents had business

    on that day they did not trouble themselves to attend. The

    stronghold of his religion is in Ilangchau fu, where are several

    mosques, but the low state of Moluunmedanism seemed to

    dampen liis spirits. Happening to see near the entrance a

    tablet similar to that found in every other temple, with the

    inscription, ‘The Enq)eror, ever-living, maybe live forever!’

    I asked him how he could allow such a blasphemous monument

    to stand in a spot which he regarded as consecrated to the worship

    of Aloha, as he styles the true God. He protested he did

    not and never could worship it, and pointed to the low })lace

    given it as evidence of this, and added that it was only for the

    sake of expediency it was allowed lodgment in the building, for

    if they wei-e ever charged with disloyalty by the enemies of

    JEWS IN CHINA. 271

    their faith they could appeal to it ! His reigning desire was to

    make a pilgrimage to Mecca, and he inquired particularly respecting

    the price of a passage.” ‘

    Since the introduction of steamers great numbers of pilgrims

    visit Mecca, who cannot fail to extend the knowledge of western

    lands as they return among their people. The Mohammedan

    inhabitants of Turkestan and 111 are distinguished into three

    classes by the color and shape of their turbans ; one has red and

    another white sugar-loaf, tlie third the common iirab turban.

    The number throughout the region north of the Yangtsz’ liiver

    cannot be stated, but it probably exceeds ten millions. In

    some places they form a third of the population ; a missionary

    in Sz’chuen reckons eighty thousand living in one of its

    cities.”

    The existence of Jews in China has long been known, but

    the information possessed relative to their past number, condition,

    and residences is very imperfect. They were once numbered

    by thousands, and are supposed by Mr. Finn to have

    belonged to the restoration from Chaldea, as they had portions

    of Malachi and Zechariah, adopted the era of Seleucus, and

    had many rabbinical customs. They probably entered China

    through the north-western route, and there is no good reason

    for rejecting their own date, during the llan dynasty. Witliin

    the last three centuries all have lived in Kaifung, the capital

    of Honan, wherever they may have lived in earlier days. Marco

    Polo just mentions their existence at (^and)aluc, as do John of

    Montecorvino and Marignolli about the same time, and Ibn

    Batuta at an earlier date. In the Chinese annals of the Mongol

    dynasty the Jews are first referred to in 1329, and again

    in 135-1, when they were invited to Peking in the decline of

    its power to join the army of the Imperialists, They are styled

    Shic-htvuh, or Jehudi, and must have been numerous enough

    ‘ Compare Milne’s Life in China, p. 96, London, 1857.

    ‘ Chtnem Repository, Vols. XIII., p. ;i’2 ; XX., pp. 77-84; II., p. 250. De

    Guignes, Voyar/ex d Pekinf/, Tome II., p. 08. Gray, China, I., pp. 137-142.

    Edkins, IMirjion.H in China, Chap. XV. Annules de la Foi, II., p. 245. Ret

    uaud, Relation des Voyages d la Chine.«

    to make them worth noticing with Aloluunmedans, and their help in men and means implored ; hut no hint is given of their places of ahode. Further research into Chinese histories may disclose other notices of their existence.

    The Jews were early known hy the term of Tiao-Jcin hiaOj

    or the ‘ sect which pulls out the sinew.’ Do Guignes says they

    are also called Laa-niao Iltoul-tsz\ or ‘ Mohammedans with

    Blue Caps,’ because they wore a blue cap in the synagogue ; but

    this latter must be a local name. The first description of this

    colony was written by the Jesuit Gozani, about the year 1700,

    and shows that the Tsing-cMn sz\ or ‘ Pure and True Temple,’

    Avas then a large establisliment consisting of four separate

    courts, various buildings enclosed for residence, worship, and

    work. The Li-jpai ss\ or Synagogue, measured about sixty

    by forty feet, having a portico with a double row of four columns

    before it. In the centre of the room, between the I’ows of pillars,

    is the throne of Moses, a magnificent and elevated chair

    with an embroidered cushion, upon which they place the book

    of the law while it is read.

    This account of Gozani remained as the latest information

    until Bishop Smith sent two native Christians from Shanghai

    to Kaifung to learn the present condition of the Jews. They

    were ignorant of llebi-ew, but had been instructed hoM^ to copy

    the letters, and did their work very creditably, bringing away

    with them some portions of the Old Testament wi-itten on

    vellum-like paper of an old date. The synagogue had suffered

    during the great inundation of 18-fi>, and the colony of two

    hundred individuals was found in abject poverty, ignorance, and

    dejection. Not on6 of them knew a word of Hebrew, and

    many of their buildings had been sold for the matei’ials to support

    their lives.

    In February, ISGG, Rev. W. A. P. Mai’tin, President of the

    Tung-wun Kwan at Peking, visited Kaifung, and learned that

    during the interval of fifteen years they had become still more

    imj)overished. Having learned from the mollah of a mosque

    where they lived, he ” passed through streets crowded Mith curious

    spectators to an open square, in the centre of wliich there

    stood a solitary stone. On one side was an inscription connnemTHEIR

    MISEUAHLK CONDITION. 273

    orating the erection of the synagogue in a.d. 11S3, and on the

    other of its rebuilding in 14SS. . . . ‘Are there among

    you any of tlie family of Israel ‘(‘ J inquired. ‘ I am one,’ responded

    a young man, whose face corroborated his assertion ; and

    then another and another stepped forth, until I saw before me

    representatives of six of the seven families into which the

    colony is divided. There, on that melancholy spot where

    the very foundations of the synagogue had been torn from

    tlie ground, and there no longer I’emained one stone upon

    another, they confessed, with shame and grief, that their lioly

    and beautiful house had been demolished by their own hands.

    It had long been, they said, in a ruinous condition ; they had

    no money to make repairs. They liad lost all knowledge of

    the sacred tongue ; the traditions of the fathers were no longer

    handed down, and their ritual worship had ceased to be observed.

    They had at last yielded to the pressure of necessity,

    and disposed of the timbers and stones of the venerable edifice

    to obtain relief for their bodily wants.”

    They estimated their number at between thi-ee hundred

    and four hundred persons, all of them poor, and, now that

    the centre of attraction had disappeared, likely to become dispersed

    and lost. The entrance tablet in gilt characters, stating

    that the building was “Israel’s Possession,” had been

    placed in a mosque, and some of the colony had entered its

    worship.

    Since that date one of their own race, now Bishop Schereschewsky,

    of Shanghai, has also visited them, but the literati

    of the city refused to allow him to remain among them. A

    company of the colony came up to Peking about twelve

    years ago, but, finding that no money was to be obtained

    for their support, ere long went back. It is probable that in

    a few years their unity will be so desti-oyed in the removal

    of their synagogue that they will be quite mingled with their

    countrymen. One or two are now Buddhist priests, others

    are literary graduates, and all of them are ignorant of their

    peculiar rites and festivals. Like the Mohammedans, they

    have never translated their sacred books into Chinese ; but

    during their long existence in China they have remained indeed, as Dr. Martin says, like “a rock rent from the sidea of Mount Zion by some great national catastrophe, and projected into the central Plain of China, which has stood there while the centm-ies rolled by, sublime in its antiquity and solitude.”

    ‘> CUnese liepository, Vol. XX., pp. 4:^6-466. Yule’s Marco Polo, 1871, Vol.I., p. 809. Cathay, pp. 225, 341, 497. James Finn, Jews in Cliina, 1843. Bp.Smith, Mission of Inquiry to Jeics at Kai-funy, 1851. Dr. Martin, The Chinese,N. Y., 1881. Journal of Royal Geog. Soc, London, Vol. XXVII., p. 297.Versuch einer Geschkhtc der JiuJen in Sina, nelisf P. J. Kof/ler^s Rschreibung ihrer ?ieiligen Bucher, herausg. von C. G. von Murr, Halle, 180G. Milne,Life in China, p. 403.

  • WELLS WILLIAMS《The Middle Kingdom》10-14

    CHAPTER X. STRUCTURE OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE

    It might reasonably be inferred, judging from the attention paid to learning, and the honors conferred upon its successful votaries, that the literature of the Chinese would contain much to repay investigation. Such is not the case, however, to one already acquainted with the treasures of Western science, and, in fairness, such a comparison is not quite just. Yet it has claims to the regard of the general student, from its being the literature of so vast a portion of the human species, and the result of the labors of its wisest and worthiest minds during many successive ages. The fact that it has been developed under a peculiar civilization, and breathes a spirit so totally different from the writings of Western sages and philosophers, perhaps increases the curiosity to learn what are its excellences and defects, and obtain some criteria by which to compare it with the’ literature of other Asiatic or even European nations. The language in which it is written—one peculiarly mystical and diverse from all other media of thought—has also added to its singular reputation, for it has been surmised that what is ” wrapped up ” in such complex characters must be pre-eminently valuable for matter or elegant for manner, and not less curious than profound. Although a candid examination of this literature will disclose its real mediocrity in points of research, learning, and genius, there yet remains enough to render it worthy the attention of the oriental or general student.

    Some of its peculiarities are owing to the nature of the language, and the mode of instruction, both of which have affected the style and thoughts of writers : for, having, when young, been taught to fonii their sentences upon the models of anti(juity, their efforts to do so have nioiikled their thoughts in the same channoL Imitation, from beiiii;- a chity, soon became a necessity.

    INFLUEXCJ’; OF THE LANGUAGE UPON LITERATURE. 579

    The Chinese scholar, forsaking the leadings of his own genius, soon learned to regard his models as not only being all truth themselves, but as containing the sum total of all things valuable. The intractable nature of the language, making it impossible to study other tongues through the medium of his own, moreover tended to repress all desire in the scholar to become acquainted with foreign books ; and as he knew nothing of them or their authors, it was easy to conclude that there was nothing worth knowing in them, nothing to repay the toil of study, or make amends for the condescension of ascertaining.

    The neighbors of the Chinese have unquestionably been their inferiors in civilization, good government, learning, and wealth; and this fact has nourished their conceit, and repressed the wish to travel, and ascertain what there was in remoter regions. In judging of the character of Chinese literature, therefore, these circumstances among others under which it has risen to its present bulk, must not be overlooked; we shall conclude that the uniformity running through it is perhaps owing as much to the isolation of the people and servile imitation of their models, as to their genius: each has, in fact, mutually acted upon and influenced the other.

    The ” homoglot ” character of the Chinese people has arisen more from the high standard of their literature, and the political institutions growing out of its canonical books (which have impelled and rewarded the efforts of students to master the language), than from any one other cause. This feature offers a great contrast to the polyglot character which the Romans possessed even to the last, and suggests the cause and results as interesting topics of inquiry. The Egyptian, Jewish, Syriac, Greek, and Latin languages had each its own national literature, and its power was enough to retain these several nations attached to their own mother tongue, while the Clauls, Iberians, and other subject peoples, having no books, took the language and literature of their rulers and conquerors. Thus the kingdom, “part iron and part clay,” fell apart as soon as the grasp of Rome was weakened ; while the tendency in China always has been to reunite and homologate.

    In this short account of the Chinese tongue, it will be sufficient to give such notices of the origin and construction of the characters, and of the idioms and soimds of the written and spoken language, as shall convey a general notion of all its pai’ts, and to show the distinction between the spoken and written media, and their mutual action. They are both archaic, because the symbols prevented all inHexion and agglutination in the sounds, and all signs to indicate what part of speech each belonged to. They are like the ten digits, containing no vocable and imparting their meaning more to the eye than the ear.

    Chinese writers, unable to trace the gradual formation of their characters (for, of course, there could be no intelligible historical data until long after their formation), have ascribed them to llwangti, one of their primeval monarchs, or even earlier, to Fuli-hi, some thirty centuries before Christ ; as if they deemed writing to be as needful to man as clothes or marriage, all of which came from Fuli-hi. A mythical personage, Tsangkieh, who flourished about b.c. 2700, is credited with the invention of symbols to represent ideas, from noticing the marking on tortoise shell, and thence imitating common objects in nature.

    The Japanese have tried to attach their Txana to the Chinese characters to indicate the qase or tense, but the combination looks incongruous to an educated Chinese. We might express, though somewhat crudely, analogous combinations in English by endeavoring to wa*ite l-^5y, l-;^(“6′-s’, \-ted^ for unity, oneness, united, or 3-1 God for triune God.

    ORIGIN OF THE LANGUAGE. 581

    At this crisis, when a medium for conveying and giving permanency to ideas was formed, Chinese historians say : ” The heavens, the earth, and the gods, were all agitated. The inhabitants of hades wept at night ; and the heavens, as an expression of joy, rained down ripe grain. From the invention of writing, the machinations of the human heart began to operate; stories false and erroneous daily increased, litigations and imprisonments sprang up ; hence, also, specious and artful language, which causes so much confusion in the world. It was for these reasons that the shades of the departed wept at iiiglit.

    But from the invention of writing, polite intercourse and music proceeded; reason and insticc were made manifest; the rehations of social life were ilhistiated. and laws became fixed.

    Governors had laws to which they might refer; scholars had authorities to venerate; and hence, the heavens, delighted, rained down ripe grain. The classical scholar, the historian, the mathematician, and the astronomer can none of them do without wn-iting ; were there no written language to afford proof of passing events, the shades might weep at noonday, and the heavens rain down blood.” ‘ This singular myth may, perhaps, cover a genuine fact worthy of more than passing notice—indicatiuii; a consentaneous effort of the early settlers on the Yellow River to substitute for the purpose of recording laws and events something more intelligible than the knotted cords previously in use. Its form presents a curious contrast to the personality of the fable of Cadmus and his invention of the Greek letters.

    The date of the origin of this language, like that of the letters of western alphabets, is lost in the earliest periods of postdihivian history, but there can be no doubt that it is the most ancient language now spoken, and along with the Egyptian and cuneiform, among the oldest written languages used by man. The Ethiopic and Coptic, the Sanscrit and Pali, the Syriac, Aramaic, and Pehlvic, have all become dead languages; and the Greek, Latin, and Persian, now spoken, differ so much

    ‘ Professor H. A. Sayce, o: Oxford, in reference to a suggested possible connection between the Chinese and primitive Accadian population of Chaldea, says in a letter to the London Timcts : ” I would mention one fact which niay certainly be considered to favor it. The cuneiform characters o. Eabylonia and Assyria are, as is well known, degenerated hieroglyphics, Hive the modern Chinese characters. The original hieroglyphics were invented by the Accadians before they descended into Babylonia from the mountains of Elam, and I have long been convinced that they were originally written in vertical columns. In no other way can I explain the fact that most of the pictures to which the cuneiform characters can be traced back stand upon their sides.

    There is evidence to show that the inventors of the liieroslyphics iised papyrus, or some similar vegetable substance, for writing purposes before the alluvial plain of Babylonia furnished them with clay, and the use of such a writing material will easily account for the vertical direction in which the characters were made to run.” from the ancient style, as to require special study to understand the books in them: while during successive eras, the written and spoken language of the Chinese has undergone few alterations, and done nnieh to deepen the broad line of demarkation between them and other branches of the hunuin race. The fact, then, that this is the only living language which has survived the lapse of ages is, doubtless, owing to its ideographic character and its entire absence of sound as an integral factor of any symbol. Their form and meaning were, therefore, only the more strongly united because each reader was at liberty to sound them as he pleased or had been taught by local instructors, lie was not hindered, on account of his local Itrogue^

    from counmmicating ideas with those who employed the same

    signs in writing. Upon the subsequent rise t)f a great and valuable

    literature, the maintenance of the written language was

    the chief element of national life and integrity among those

    peoples who read and admired the books. Nor has this language,

    like those of the Hebrews, the Assyrians, and others

    already mentioned, ever fallen into disuse and been supplanted

    by the sudden rise and physical or intellectual vigor of some

    neighboring community speaking a jKitois. For we find that

    alphabetic languages, whose words represent at once meaning

    and sound, are as dependent upon local dialects as is the

    Chinese tongue upon its symbols ; consequently, when in the

    former case the sounds had so altered that the meanings were

    obscured, the mode of writing was likely to be changed. The

    extent of its literature and uses made of it were then the only

    safeguard of the written forms ; while as men learned to read

    books they became more and more prone to associate sense and

    form, regarding the sound as traditionary. AVe have, in illustration

    of this, to look no further than to our own language,

    whose cumbersome spelling is in a great measure resulting from

    a dislike of changing old associations of sense and form which

    would be involved in the adoption of a phonetic sj’stem.

    The Chinese have had no inducement, at any stage of their

    existence, to alter the forms of their symbols, inasmuch as no

    nation in Asia contiguous to their own has ever achieved a literature

    which could rival theirs ; no conqueror came to impose

    IDEOGRAPHIC NATURE OF THE SYMBOLS. 583

    his tongue upon them ; tlieir language completely isolated them

    from intellectual intercourse with others. This isolation, fraught

    with many disadvantages in the contracted nature of their literature,

    and the reflux, narrowing influence on their minds, has

    not been without its compensations. A national life of a

    unique sort has resulted, and to this self- nurtured language

    may be traced the origin of much of the peace, industry, population,

    and healthy pride of the Chinese people.

    The Chinese have paid great and praiseworthy attention to their language, and furnished us with all needed books to its study. Premising that the original symbols were ideographic, the necessities of the case compelled their contraction as much as possible, and soon resulted in arbitrary signs for all common uses. Their symbols varied, indeed, at different times and in different States ; it was not until a genuine literature appeared and its readers multiplied that the varients were dropped and uniformity sought. The original characters of this language are derived from natural or artificial objects, of which they were at first the rude outlines. Most of the forms are preserved in the treatises of native philologists, where the changes they have gradually undergone are shown. The number of objects chosen at first was not great ; among them were symbols for the sun, moon, hills, animals, parts of the body, etc. ; and in drawing them the limners seem to have proposed nothing further than an outline sketch, which, by the aid of a little explanation, would be intelligible. Thus the picture ^ would probably be recognized by all who saw it as representing the moon ; that of ^ as a fish / and so of others. It is apparent that the number of pictures which could be made in this manner would beai” no proportion to the w’ants and uses of a language, and therefore recourse must soon be had to more complicated symbols, to combining those already understood, or to the adoption of arbitrary or phonetic signs. All these modes have been more or less employed.

    Chinese philologists arrange all the characters in their language into six classes, called Liushu, or ‘six writings’. The first, called slang king, morphographs. or ‘ imitative symbols,’ are those in which a plain resemblance can be traced between the original form and the object represented ; they are among the first characters invented, although the six hundred and eight placed in this class do not include all the original symbols, These pristine forms have since been nioditied so much that the resemblance has disappeared in most of them, caused chiefly by the use of paper, ink, and pencils, instead of the iron style

    and bamboo tablets formerly in use for writing ; circular strokes

    being more distinctlj^ made with an iron point upon the hard

    wood than with a hair ])encil upon thin paper ; angular strokes

    and square forms, therefore, gradually took the place of round

    or curved ones, and contracted characters came into use in place

    of the oi’iginal imitative symbols. In this class such characters

    as the followin<r are ijiven :

    ^^A^-^t^^ tortoise,

    altered to chariot. child, elephant, deer, vase, hill, eye.

    kwei, chi,

    The second class, only one hundred and seven in number, is

    called chi S3\ i.e., ‘ symbols indicating thought.’ They differ

    from the preceding chiefly in that the characters are formed by

    combining previously formed symbols in such a way as to indi«

    cate some idea easily deducible from their position or combination,

    and pointing out some property or relative circumstance

    belonging to them. Chinese philologists consider these two

    classes as comprising all the symbols in the language, which

    depict objects either in whole or in part, and whose meaning is

    apparent from the resemblance to the object, or from the posi-

    Moii of the ])ai’ts. Among those; placed in this class are,

    ^ moon half appearing, signili(;s e\ening ; now written ^

    O sun above the horizon, denotes nn)rning ; now written J9.

    y something in the mouth, meaning sweet ; now written ^

    SIX CLASSES OF CHARACTERS. 585

    The third class, amounting to seven Iiundred and forty characters,

    is called hioid i, i.e., ‘ combined ideas,” or ideographs, and

    comprises characters made up of two or three symbols to foi-m a

    single idea, whose meanings are dcdiieible either from their position,

    or supposed relative intiuence upon each other. Thus the

    union of the sun and moon, ^ luuttj, expresses brightness; ^

    lien, a piece of wood in a doorway, denotes obstruction ; two

    trees stand for a forest, as ^^ lin ; and three for a thicket, as ^^-^

    mil ; two men upon the ground conveys the idea of sitting ; a

    ‘mouth in a doof signifies to ask ; man and words means truth

    and to believe ; heart and death imports forgetfulness ; dog and iiioidh means to bark ; woman and hfoom denotes a wife, referring to her household duties ; i)encil and to speah is a book, or to write. But in none of these compounded characters is there anything like that perfection of picture writing stated by some writers to belong to the language, which will enable one unacquainted with the meaning of the separate symbols to decide upon the signification of the combined group. On the contrary

    it is in most cases certain that the third idea made by combining

    two already known symbols, usually required more or less

    explanation to fix its precise meaning, and remove the doubt

    which would otherwise arise. For instance, the combination of

    the sun and moon might as readily mean a solar or lunar eclipse,

    or denote the idea of time, as brightness. A piece of wood in a doorway would almost as naturally suggest a thre-shold as an ohstr actioIt / and so of others, A straight line in a doorway would more readily suggest a closed or bolted door, which is the signification of p^ shan, anciently written f\^ ; but the idea intended to be conveyed by these combinations would need prior explanation as much as the primitive symbol, though it would thenceforth readily recur to mind when noticing the construction.

    It is somewhat singular that the opinion should have obtained so much credence, that their meanings were easily deducible from their shape and construction. It might almost be said, that not a single character can be accurately defined from a mere inspection of its parts ; and the meanings now given of some of those which come under this class are so arbitrary and far-fetclied, as to show that Chinese characters have not been formed by rule and plummet more than words in other languages. The mistake which Du Ponceau so learnedly combats arose, probably, from confounding sound with construction and inferring that, because persons of different nations, who used this as their written language, could understand it when written, though mutually unintelligible when speaking, that it addressed itself so entirely to the eye, as to need no previous explanation.

    The fourth class, called chuen chu, ‘ inverted significations,’

    includes three hundi-ed and seventy-two characters, being such

    as b}^ some inversion, contraction, or alteration of their parts,

    acquire different meanings. This class is not large, but these

    and other modifications of the original symbols to express abstract

    and new ideas show that those who used the language

    either saw at once how cumbrous it would become if they went

    on forming imitative signs, or else that their invention failed,

    and they resorted to changes more or less arbitrary in characters

    already known to furnish distinctive signs for different

    ideas. Thus yu j^ the hand, turning toward the right means

    the right; inclined in the other direction, as tso ‘\ it means

    the left. The heart placed beneath slave, i^ signifies anger;

    threads obstructed, as || , means to sunder ; but turned the

    other way, as H , signifies continuous.

    The fifth class, called hml shing, i.e., ‘ uniting sound symbols,’

    or phonogram, contains twenty-one thousand eight hundred

    and ten characters, or nearly all in the language. They

    are formed of an imitative symbol united to one which merely

    imparts its sound to the compound ; the former usually partakes

    more or less of the new idea, while the latter loses its

    own meaning, and gives only its name. In this respect, Chinese

    cliaracters are superior to the Arabic numerals, inasmuch

    as combinations like 25, 101, etc., although conveying the same

    meaning to all nations using them, can neiier indicate sound.

    This plan of forming new conjbinations by the union of symbols

    expressing idea and sound, enables the Chinese to increase

    the mnnber of charactei’s without multiplying the original symbolcj;

    but these compoundfe, or lcx’i<jraj_>hs^ us \j\\. I’ouceau callji

    METHOD OF FORMING PHONETIC CHARACTERS. 587

    tlieni, do nut increase very rapidly. In Annum they liave become

    so numerous in the course of years that the Chinese

    books made in that country are hard to i-ead. The probable

    mode in wliich this arose can best be explained by a case which

    occurred at Canton in 1832. Innnature locusts were to be described

    in a proclamation, l)ut the word nan, by which they

    were called, was not contained in any dictionary. It would be

    sufficient to designate this insect to all persons living where it

    was found by selecting a well-understood character, like ^

    south, having the exact sound nan, by which the insect itself

    was called, and joining it to the determinative symbol clmnfj

    ^ insect. It woidd then signify, to every one who knew the

    sound and meaning of the component parts, the insect nan ^

    and be read nan, ^ meaning this very insect to the people in

    Kwangtung. If this new combination was carried to a distant

    part of the country, where the insect itself was unknown, it

    would convey no more information to the Chinese who sav:) the

    united symbol, than the sounds insect nan would to an Englishman

    who heard them ; to both persons a meaning must be

    given by describing the insect. If, however, the people living

    in this distant region called the phonetic part of the new character

    by another sound, as oiam, nein, or lam, they would attach

    another name to the new compound, but the people on the

    spot would, perhaps, not understand them when they spoke it

    by tliat name. If they wrote it, however, both would give it

    the same signification, but a different sound.

    In this way, the thousands of characters under this class have probably originated. But this rule of sounding them according to the phonetic part is not in all cases certain; for in the lapse of time, the sounds of many characters have changed, while those of the parts themselves have not altered ; in other cases, the parts have altered, and the sounds remained ; so that now only a great degree of probability as to the correct sound can be obtained by inspecting the component parts. The similarity in sound between most of the characters having the same phonetic part is a great assistance in reading Chinese, though very little in understanding it, and has had much influence in keeping the sounds unchanged.

    There are a few instances of an almost inadvertent arrival at a true syllabic system, Ijy which the initial consonant of one part, Avhen joined to the final vowel of the other, gives the sound of the character; as ina andy?’, in the character j|l, when united in this way, make ml. The meanings of the components are hemp and not, that of the compound is extradayant, ‘wasteful, etc., showing no relation to the primary signification.

    The number of such characters is veiy small, and the syllabic composition here noticed is probably fortuitous, and not intentional. The sixth class, called hla tsle, i.e., ‘borrowed uses’, includes metaphoric symbols and combinations, m which the meaning is deduced by a somewhat fanciful accommodation ; their number is five hundred and ninety-eight. They differ but little from the second class of indicative symbols. For instance, the symbol ‘”f^ or j^, meaning a written character, is composed of a child under a shelter—characters being considered as the well-nurtured offspring of hieroglyphics. The character for hall means also mother, because she constantly abides there. The word for ‘//dnd or heart is sin ^, originally intended to represent that organ, but now used chiefly in a metaphorical sense. Chinese grammarians find abundant scope for the display of their fancy in explaining the etymology and origin of the characters, but the aid which their researches give toward understanding the language as at present used is small. This classification under six lieads is modern, and was devised as a means of arranging what existed already, for they confess that their characters were not formed according to fixed rules, and have gradually undergone many changes.

    MODES OF AKHANGING CIIAKACTERS. 589

    The total number in the six classes is twenty-four thousand two hundred and thirty-five, being many less than are found in KangXi’s Dictionary, which amount to forty-four thousand four hundred and forty-nine ; but in the larger sum are included the obsolete and synonymous characters, which, if deducted, would reduce it to nearly the same number. It is probable that the total of really different characters in tlie language sanctioned by good usage, does not vary greatly from twenty-five thousand, though luithors have stated them at from fifty-four thousand four hundred and nine, as Magaillaus does, up to two hundred and sixty thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine, as Montueci.

    The Chinese editor of the hirge lexicon on which Dr. Morrison founded his Dictionary, gives it as his opinion that there are fifty thousand characters, including synonyms and different forms; and taking in every variety of tones given to the words, and sounds for which no characters exist, that there are five thousand different words. But even the sum of twenty-five thousand different characters contains thousands of miusual ones which are seldom met with, and which, as is the case with old words in English, are not often learned.

    The burden of remembering so many complicated symbols,

    whose form, sound, and meanings are all necessary to enable the

    student to read and write intelligibly, is so great that the result

    has been to diminish those in connnon nse, and increase their

    meanings. This course of procedure really occurs in most languages,

    and in the Chinese greatly reduces the labor of acquiring

    it. It may be safely said, that a good knowledge of ten

    thousand characters will enable one to read any work in Chinese,

    and write intelligibly on any subject ; and Premare says a

    good knowledi2;e of four or five thousand characters is sulficient

    for all connnon purposes, while two-thirds of that number might

    in fact suffice. The troublesome ones are either proper names

    or technics peculiar to a particular science. The nine canonical

    works coi^.tain altogether oidy four thousand six hundred and

    one dljfevent characters, while in the Five Classics alone there

    are over two hundred thousand words. The entire number of

    different characters in the code of laws ti-anslated by Staunton is

    under two thousand.

    The invention of printing and the compilation of dictionaries

    have given to the form of modern characters a greater degree

    of certainty than they had in ancient times. The vai-iants of

    some of the most common ones were exceedingly numerous before

    this period ; Callery gives forty-two different modes of

    writing pao^ ‘ precious ; ‘ and forty-one for writing tsun, ‘honorable

    ; ‘ showing the absence of an acknowledged standard, and the

    slii»:ht intercourse between learned men. The best mode of arranging: the characters so as to find them easily, has been a subject of considerable trouble to Chinese lexicographers, and the various methods they have adopted renders it difficult to consult their dictionaries without considerable previous knowledge of the language. In some, those having the same sound are grouped together, so that it is necessary to know what a character is called before it can be found ; and this arrangement has been followed in vocabularies designed principally for the use of the common people. One well-known vocabulary used at Canton, called the Fan Yan^ or ‘ Divider of Sounds,’ is arranged on this plan, the words being placed under thirty-three orders, according to their terminations. Each order is subdivided into three or four classes according to the tones, and all the characters having the same tone and termination are placed together, as kam^ lam^ tarn, nam, etc. As might be supposed, it requires considerable time to find a character whose tone is not exactly known ; and even with the tone once mastered, the uncertainty is equally troublesome if the termination is not familiar: for singular as it may seem to those who are acquainted only with phonetic languages, a Chinese can, if anything, more readily distinguish between two words %ning and fining, whose tones are unlike, than he can between *^mmg and ^nieng, fining or thing, where the initial or final differs a little, and the tones are the same.

    An improvement on this plan of arrangement was made by adopting a mode of expressing the sounds of Chinese characters introduced by the Buddhists, in the Yah Plen, published a.d. 5-43, and ever since used in all dictionaries. This takes the initial of the sound of one character and the final of another, and combines them to indicate the sound of the given character ; as from U-qw and y-ing to form ling. There are thirty-six characters chosen for the initial consonants, and thirty-eight for the final sounds, but the student is perplexed by the different characters chosen in different works to represent them.’ The inhabitants of Amoy use a small lexicon called the Shih-‘wu

    Yin, or ‘ Fifteen Sounds,’ in which the characters are classified

    ‘ Biot has a brief note upon the metliods emplo^’ed by native scholars fd

    studying pronunciation. Esaai sur Vinstruction en Chine, p. 597.

    CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO COMPOSITION. 591

    on this principle, by first arranging them all nnder fifty finals,

    and then placing all those having the same termination in a

    regular series under fifteen initials. Su])posing a new character,

    chien, is seen, whose sound is given, or the word is heard in

    conversation and its meanings are wanted, the person turns to

    the part of the hook containing the final ien, which is designated

    perhaps by the character I’un, and looks along the initials

    until he comes to cA, which is indicated by the character chany.

    In this column, all the words in the book I’ead or spoken chien^

    OS whatever tone they may be, are placed together according to

    their tones ; and a little practice readily enables a person speaking

    the dialect to use this manual. It is, however, of little or no

    avail to persons speaking other dialects, or to those whose vernacular

    differs much from that of the compiler, whose own ear

    was his only guide. Complete dictionaries have been published

    on the phonetic plan, the largest of which, the ^Vu Che Tun

    Fu^ is arranged with so much minuteness of intonation as to

    puzzle even the best educated natives, and consequently abridge

    its usefulness as an expounder of words.

    The unfitness of either of these modes of arrangement to find an unkno\\Ti character, led to another classification according to their composition, by selecting the most prominent parts of each character as its key, or radical, and grouping those together in which the same key occurred. This plan was adopted subsequently to that of arranging the characters according to the sounds, about a.d. S-IS, when their number was put at

    five hundred and forty-two ; they were afterward reduced to

    tlii-ee hundred and sixty, and toward the close of the Ming dynasty

    finally fixed at two hundred and fourteen in the Tsz* Lui.

    It is now in general use from the adoption of the abridged dictionary, the Kanghi Ts^ Tien / though this number could have been advantageously reduced, as has been shown by Gon^alves, its universal adoption, more than anything else, renders it the best system. All characters found under the same radical are placed consecutively, according to the number of strokes necessary to write them, but no regularity is observed in placing those having the same number of strokes. The term j)rrmitiv6 has been technically applied to the remaining part of the character, which, though perhaps no older than the radical, is conveniently denoted by this word. The characters selected for the radicals are all common ones, and among the most ancient in the language ; they are here grouped according to their meanings in order to show something of the leading ideas followed in combination.

    Corporal.—Body, corpse, head, hair, down, whiskers, face, eye, ear, nose, mouth, teeth, tusk, tongue, hand, heart, foot, hide, leather, skin, wings, feathers, blood, flesh, talons, horn, bones.

    Biological.—Man, woman, child ; horse, sheep, tiger, dog, ox, hog, liog’a head, deer ; tortoise, dragon, reptile, mouse, toad ; bird, gallinaceous fowls; fish ; insect.

    Botanicul. — Herb, grain, rice, wheat, millet, hemp, leeks, melon, pulse, bamboo, sacrificial herb ; wood, branch, sprout, petal.

    Mineral.—Metal, stone, gems, salt, earth.

    Meteorological.—Rain, wind, fire, water, icicle, vapor, sound ; sun, moon, evening •, time.

    Utewtils.—A chest, a measure, a mortar, spoon, knife, bench, couch, crockery, clothes, tiles, dishes, napkin, net, plough, vase, tripod, boat, carriage, pencil ; bow, halberd, arrow, dart, ax, musical reed, drum, seal.

    Descriptives.—Black, white, yellow, azure, carnation, sombre ; color ; high, long, sweet, square, large, small, strong, lame, slender, old, fragrant, acrid, perverse, base, opposed.

    Actions.—To enter, to follow, to walk slowly, to arrive at, to stride, to walk, to run, to reach to, to touch, to stop, to fly, to overspread, to envelop, to encircle, to establish, to overshadow, to adjust, to distinguish, to divine, to see, to eat, to speak, to kill, to fight, to oppose, to stop, to embroider, to owe, to compare, to imitate, to bring forth, to use, to promulge.

    Miscellaneous.—A desert, cave, field, den, mound, hill, valley, rivulet, cliff, retreat. A city ; roof, gate, door, portico. One, two, eight, ten. Demon ; an inch, mile ; without, not, false ; a scholar, statesman, letters ; art, wealth; motion ; self, myself, father ; a point ; again ; wine ; silk ; joined hands ; a long journey ; print of a bear’s foot ; a surname ; classifier of cloth.

    The number of characters found under each of these radicals

    in Kanghi’s Dictionary varies from five up to one thousand three

    hundred and fifty-four. The radical is not uniformly placed,

    but its usual position is on the left of the primitive. Some occur

    on the top, others on the bottom ; son)e inclose the primitive,

    and many have no fixed place, making it evident that no uniform

    plan was adopted in the original construction. They must be

    thoroughly learned before the dictionary can be readily used.

    RADICALS AND PRIMITIVES. 593

    and some practice had before a cliaracter can be qnickly found.’

    Tlie groups occurring under a niajoi-ity of tlie radicals are more

    or less natural in their general meaning, a feature of the language

    wbich has already been noticed (page 375), Some of

    the radicals are interchanged, and characters having the same

    meaning sometimes occur under two or three different ones—

    variations which seem to have arisen from the little importance

    of a choice out of two or three similar radicals. Thus the same

    word tsien. ‘a small cup,’ is written under the three radicals

    gein^ jmreelain^ and liorn^ originally, no doubt, referring to the

    material for making it. This interchange of radicals adds

    greatly to the number of duplicate forms, which are still further

    increased by a similar interchange of primitives having the

    same sound. These two changes very seldom occur in the same

    character, but there are numerous instances of synonymous

    forms under almost every radical, arising from an intei”change

    of primitives, and also under analogous radicals caused by their

    reciprocal use. Thus, from both these causes, there are, under

    the radical riia^ ‘ a horse,’ one hundred and eighteen duplicate

    forms, leaving two hundred and ninety-three different words ;

    of the two hundred and four characters under nm, ‘an ox,’

    thirty-nine are synonymous forms ; and so under other radicals.

    These characters do not difFer in meaning more thanfavor and

    favour, or lady and larhje ; they are mere variations in the

    form of writing, and though apparently adding greatly to the

    number of characters, do not seriously increase the difficulty of

    learning; the language.

    Variants of other descriptions frequently occur in books,

    which needlessly add to the labor of learning the language.

    Ancient forms are sometimes adopted by pedantic writers to

    show their learning, while ignorant and careless writers use

    abridged or vulgar forms, because they either do not know the

    correct form, or are heedless in using it. AVhen such is the

    case, and the character cannot be found in the dictionary, the

    reader is entirely at fault, especially if he be a foreigner^

    though in China itself he would not experience much difficulty

    ‘ Easy Lessons in Chinese, pp. 8-29 ; Chinese Repository, Vol. III. , pp. 1-37Vol. I.—38

    where the natives were at liaiid to refer to. Vulgar forms are

    very commori in cheap books and letters, which are as unsanctioned

    by the dictionaries and good nsage, as cockney

    Dhrases or miner’s slang are in pure English. They arise,

    either from a desire on the part of the writer to save time by

    makinsr a contracted form of few strokes instead of the correct

    character of many strokes ; or he uses common words to express

    an energetic vulgar phrase, for which there are no authorized

    characters, but which will be easily understood phonetically by

    his readers. These characters would perchance not be understood

    at all outside of the range of the author’s dialect, because

    the phrase itself was new ; their individual meaning, indeed,

    has nothing to do with the interpretation of the sentence, for in

    this case they are merely signs of sound, like words in other languages, and lose their lexigraphic character. For instance,

    the words Ma-fi for coffee, hajMan for captain, ml-sz” for Mr ,

    etc., however they were written, would be intelligible to a

    native of Canton if they expressed those sounds, because he was

    familiar with the words themselves ; but a native of Shensi

    would not understood them, because, not knowing the things

    intended, he would naturally refer to the characters themselves

    for the meaning of the phrase, and thus be wholly misled.

    In such cases, the characters become mere syllables of a phonetic

    word. Foreign names are often transliterated by writers

    on geography or history, and their recognition is no easy task

    to their readers.’

    In addition to the variations in the forms of characters, there

    are six different styles of writing them, which correspond to

    black-letter, script, italic, roman, etc., in English. The first is

    called Chuen shu (from the name of the person who invented it),

    which foreigners have styled the seal cliaractet^ from its use in

    seals and ornamental inscriptions. It is next to the picture hieroglyphics,

    the most ancient fashion of writing, and has undergone

    many changes in the course of ages. It is studied by those who

    cut seals or inscriptions, but no books are ever printed in it.

    ‘ One may gain some idea of this difficulty by referring to the geographical names contained in the Russo-Chinese Treaty, quoted on page 215.

    EI Bm 13 HI EJ 5t EI J3H 5? Q Q B a nB[$1

    SIX STYLES OF ClIINESK CIIAIJACTEKS. 597

    The second is the 11 shi, or style of official attendants, which

    was introduced about the (-hristian era, as an elegant style to be

    employed in engrossing docuinonts. It is now seen in prefaces

    and formal inscriptions, and re(|uires no special study to read it,

    as it differs but sliglitly from the following.

    The third is the Jiial ^s/^ //, or pattern style, and has been gradually

    formed by the improvements in good writing. It is the

    usual form of Chinese characters, and no man can claim a literary

    name among his countrymen if he cannot write neatly and

    correctly in this style.

    The fourth is called king shu, or running hand, and is the common hand of a neat writer. It is frequently used in prefaces and inscriptions, scrolls and tablets, and there are books prepared in parallel columns having this and the pattern style arranged for school-boys to learn to write both at the same time. The running hand cannot be read without a special study ; and although this labor is not very serious when the language of books is familiar, still to become well acquainted with l^oth of them withdraws many days and months of the pupil from progress in acquiring knowledge to learning two modes of writing the same word.

    The fifth style is called t.’^ao tsz\ or plant character, and is a

    fi-eer description of running hand than the preceding, being full

    of abbreviations, and the pencil runs from character to character,

    without taking it from the paper, almost at the writer’s fancy.

    It is more difficult to read than the preceding, but as the abbreviations

    are somewhat optional, the tsao tsz’ varies considerably,

    and more or less resembles the running hand according to the

    will of the writer. The fancy of the Chinese for a ” flowing

    pencil,’” and a mode of writing where the elegance and freedom of

    the caligraphy can be admired as much or more than the style or

    sentiment of the writing, as well as the desire to contract their

    nuiltangular characters as much as possible, has contributed to introduce

    and perpetuate these two styles of writing. How much

    all these varieties of form superadd to the difficulty of learning

    the mere apparatus of knowledge need hardly be stated.

    The sixth style is called Sung shu, and was introduced under

    the Sung dynasty in the tenth century, soon after printing on wooden blocks was invented. It differs from the third style, merely in a certain squareness and angularity of stroke, which transcribers for the press only are obliged to learn. Of these six forms of writing, the pattern style and running hand are the only two which the people learn to any great extent, although many acquire the knowledge of some words in the seal character, and the running hand of every person, especially those engaged in business, approaches more or less to the plant character. But foreigners will seldom find time or inclination to learn to write more than one form, to be able to read and communicate on all occasions.

    Besides these styles, there are fanciful ones, called * tadpole charactei’s,’ in imitation of various objects ; ‘ the Emperor Kienhmg brought together thirty-two of them in an edition of his poem, the Elegy ujwn the City of Mukden.^

    All the strokes in the characters are reduced to eight elementarv

    ones, which are contained in the single character ^yung, ‘eternal.’

    A dot, a line, a perpendicular, u hook, a siiikc, ;i sweep, ii sroke, a dash-line.

    Each of these is subdivided into many forms in copy-books,

    having particular names, with directions how to write them,

    and numerous examples introduced under each stroke/

    ‘ The writer has an edition of the Thouftdnd Chnradcv Clitsxtr, containing each couplet or eight words in a different form of character, making one hundred and twenty-five styles of type—too grotesque to be imitated, and probably never actually in use.

    •’ See page TJ3. In order that the Manchu portion of this famous poem might not appear inferior to the Chinese, the Emperor ordered thirty-two varieties of Manchu characters to be invented and published in like manner with the others. Remusat, Melanges, Tome II., p. 59. Pere Amiot, El/)ge de la ViUe de Moiikden. Trad, eii frant^oin. Paris, 1770.

    • Chinese Chrestomatlii/, Chap. I., Sees. 5 and 6, where the rules for writing

    Chinese are given in full with numerous examples; Easy Lessons in Chinese,

    ‘a 59; Chinese liepositvrj/, Vol. III., p. 37.

    ELEMENTARY STROKES OF THE CHARACTERS, 599

    The Chinese regard their characters as highly elegant, and

    take unwearied pains to learn to write them in a beautiful,

    uniform, well-proportioned manner. Students are provided

    with a painted board upon which to practise with a brush

    dipped in blackened water. The articles used in writing, collectively

    called wan fang sz’ jpao^ or ‘ four precious things of

    the library,’ are the pencil, ink, paper, and ink stone. The

    best pencils ai’e made of the bristly hair of the sable and fox,

    and cheaper ones from the deer, cat, wolf and rabbit ; camel’s

    hair is not used. K combination of softness and elasticity is

    required, and those who are skilled in their use discern a difference

    and an excellence altogether imperceptible to a novice.

    The hairs are laid in a regular manner, and when tied up are

    brought to a delicate tip ; the handle is made of the twigs of

    a bamboo cultivated for the purpose. The ink, nsually known

    as India ink, is made fi-om the soot of burning oil, pine, fir,

    and other substances, mixed with glue or isinglass, and scented.

    It is formed into oblong cakes or cylinders, inscribed with the

    maker’s name, the best kinds being put up in a very tasteful

    manner. A singular error formerlv obtained credence”regarding

    this Ink, that it was inspissated from the fluid found in the

    cuttle-fish. When used, the ink is rubbed with water upon

    argillite, marble, or other stones, some of which are cut and

    ground in a beautiful manner. Chinese paper is made from

    bamboo, by triturating the woody fibre to a pulp in mortars

    after the pieces have been soaked in ooze, and then taking it

    up in moulds ; the pulp is sometimes mixed with a little cotton fiber. Inferior sorts are made entirely from cotton refuse; and in the North, where the bamboo does not grow, the bark of the Brotissonetia, or paper mulberry, furnishes material for a tough paper used for windows, wrappings, and account

    books, etc. Bamboo paper has no sizing in it, and is a frail

    material for preserving valuable writings, as it is easily destroyed

    by insects, mildew, or handling.’

    ‘ Journal Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Vol. III. (Sept., 1834), p. 477. S. Julien in the Revue de I’ Orient et de VAlyerie, XX., p. 74, 1856.

    In the days of Confucius, pieces of bamboo pared thin, palm leaves, and reeds, were all used for writing upon with a sharp stick or stile. About the third century before Christ, silk and cloth were employed, and hair pencils made for writing. Paper was invented about the first century, and cotton-paper may have been brought from India, where it was in use more than a hundred years before. India ink was manufactured by the seventh century ; and the present mode of printing upon blocks was adopted from the discovery of Fungtau in the tenth century, of taking impressions from engraved stones. In the style of their notes and letters, the Chinese show both neatness and elegance; narrow slips of tinted paper are employed, on which various eml)leniatic designs are stamped in water lines, and enclosed in fanciful envelopes. It is common to affix a cipher instead of the name, or to close with a periphrasis or sentence well understood by the parties, and thereby avoid any signature; this, which originated, no doubt, in a fear of interception and unpleasant consequences, has gradually become a common mode of subscribing friendly epistles.

    The mode of printing is so well litted for the language that

    few improvements have been made in its manipulations, while

    the cheapness of books brings them within reach of tfie poorest.

    Cutting the blocks, and writing the characters, form two distinct

    branches of the business : printing the sheets, binding the

    volumes, and publishing the books, also furnish employment to

    other craftsmen. The first step is to write the characters upon

    thin paper, properly ruled with lines, two pages being cut upon

    one block, and a heavy double line surrounding them. The

    title of the work, chapter, and paging are all cut in a central

    column, and wdien the leaf is printed it is folded through this

    column so as to bring the characters on the edge and partly on

    both pages. Marginal notes are placed on the top of the page ;

    comments, when greatly extended, occupy the upper part, separated

    from the text by a heavy line, or when mci-e scholia, are

    interlined in the same column in characters of half the size.

    Sometimes two works are printed togethei-, one running through

    the volume on the upper half of the leaves, and separated from

    that occupying the lower half by a heavy line. Illustrations

    usually occupy separate pages at the connnencement of the

    PAPER AND PRINTING. 60l

    Look, but there are a few works with woodcuts of a wretched

    description, inserted in tlie body of the page. In books printed

    by government, each page is sometimes surrounded with dragons,

    or the title page is adorned in red by this emblem of imperial

    authority.

    When the leaf has been written out as it is to be printed, it

    is turned over and pasted upon the block, face downward.

    The wood usually used by blockcutters is pear or plum ; the

    boards are half or three-fourths of an inch thick, and planed

    fur cutting on both sides. The paper, when dried upon the

    board, is carefully rubbed off with the wetted finger, leaving

    every character and stroke plainly delineated. The cutter then,

    with his chisels, cuts away all the blank spots in and around

    the characters, to the depth of a line or more, after which the

    block is ready for the printer, whose machinery is very simple.

    Seated before a bench, he lays the block on a bed of paper so

    that it will not move nor chafe. The pile of paper lies on

    one side, the pot of ink before him, and the pressing brush on

    the other. Taking the ink brush, he slightly rubs it across the

    block twice in such a way as to lay the ink e(juably over the

    surface ; he then places a sheet of paper upon it, and over that

    another, which serves as a tympanum. The impi-ession is

    taken with the fibrous bark of the gonuiti palm ; one or two

    sweeps across the block complete the impression, for only one

    side of the paper is printed. Another and cheaper method in

    common use for publishing slips of news, court circulars, etc.,

    consists in cutting the characters in blocks of hard wax, from

    which as many as two hundred impi-essions can often be taken

    before they become entirely illegible. The ink is manufactured

    from lampblack mixed with vegetable oil ; the printers

    grind it for themselves.

    The sheets are taken by the binder, who folds them through

    the middle by the line around the pages, so that the columns

    shall register with each other, he then collates them into volumes,

    placing the leaves evenly by their folded edge, when the

    whole are arranged, and the covers ])asted on each side. Two

    pieces of paper stitch it through the back, the book is triinmed,

    and sent to the bookseller. If required, it is stitched firmly with thread, but this part, as well as writing the title on the bottom edges of the volume, and making the pasteboard wrapper, are usually deferred till the taste of a purchaser is ascertained.

    Books made of such materials are not as dm-able as European

    volumes, and those who can afford the expense frequent!}’ have

    valuable works inclosed in wooden boxes. They are printed of

    all sizes between small sleeve editions (as the Chinese call 2-i

    and 32 mos) up to quartos, twelve or fourteen inches square,

    larger than which it is difficult to get blocks.

    The price varies from one cent—for a brochure of twentyfive

    or thirty pages—to a dollar and a half a volume. It is

    seldom higher save for illustrated works. A volume rarely

    contains more than a hundred leaves, and in fine books their

    thickness is increased by inserting an extra sheet inside of each

    leaf. At Canton or Fuhchau, the ITlstopy of the Three States^

    bound in twenty-one volumes 12mo, printed on white paper, is

    usually sold for seventy-five cents or a dollar per set.

    Kanghfs Dictionary, in twenty-one volumes 8vo, on yellow

    paper, sells for four dollars ; and all the nine classics can be

    purchased for less than two. Books are hawked about the

    streets, circulating libraries are carried from house to house

    upon movable stands, and booksellers’ shops are frequent in

    large towns. No censorship, other than a prohibition to write

    about the present dynasty, is exercised upon the pi-ess ; nor are

    authors protected by a copyright law. Men of wealth sometimes

    show their literary taste by defraying the expense of getting

    the blocks of extensive works cut, and publishing them

    Pwan Sz’-ching, a wealthy merchant at Canton, published, in

    1846, an edition of the Pei Wan Yun Fu, in one hundred and

    thirty thick octavo volumes, the blocks for which nnist have

    cost him more than ten thousand dollars. The number of good

    impressions which can be obtained from a set of blocks is about

    sixteen thousand, and by retouching the characters, ten thousand

    more can be struck off.

    The disadvantages of this mode of printing are that other

    languages cannot easily be introduced into the page with the

    Chinese characters; tlie blocks occupy mudi room, are easily

    spoiled (jr lost ; and are incapable of correction without much

    THE MANUFACTUKE OF CHINESE BOOKS. 603

    expense. It possesses some compensatory adv^antages peculiar

    to the Chinese and its cognate languages, Manchu, Corean, Japanese, etc., all of which are written with a brush and have few or no circular strokes. Its convenience and cheapness, coupled with the low rate of wages, will no doubt make it the common mode of printing Chinese among the people for a long time.

    The honor of being the first inventor of movable tj^pes undoubtedly

    belongs to a Chinese blacksmith named Pi Shing, who

    lived about a.d. 1000, and printed books with them nearly five

    hundred years before Gutenberg cut his matrices at Mainz.

    They were made of plastic clay, hardened by fire after the

    characters had been cut on the soft surface of a plate of clay in

    which they were moulded. The porcelain types were then set

    up in a frame of iron partitioned off l)y strips, and inserted in a

    cement of wax, resin, and lime to fasten them down. The printing

    was done by rubbing, and when completed the types were

    loosened by melting the cement, and made clean for another impression.

    This invention seems never to have been developed to any

    practical application in superseding block-printing. The Emperor

    Kanghi ordered about two hundi-ed and fifty thousand

    copper types to be engraved for pi-inting publications of the government,

    and these works are now highly prized for their beauty.

    The cupidity of his successors led to melting these types into

    cash, but his grandson Kienlung directed the casting of a large

    font of lead types for government use.

    The attention of foreigners was early called to the preparation

    of Chinese movable types, especially for the rapid manufacture

    of religious books, in connection with missionary work. The

    first fonts were made by P. P. Thoms, for the E, I. Company’s

    office at Macao in 1S15, for the purpose of printing Morrison’s

    Dictionary. The characters were cut with chisels on blocks of

    type metal or tin, and though it was slow work to cut a full

    font, they gradually grew in numbers and variety till they served

    to print over twenty dictionaries and other works, designed

    to aid in learning Chinese, befoi-e they were destroyed by fire

    in 1856. A small font had been cast at Serampore in 1815, and in 1838, the Rojal Printing Office at Paris had obtained a set of blocks engraved in China, fi-om which thick castings were made and the separate types obtained by sawing the plates.

    M. Le Grand, a type-founder in Paris, about the year 1836, prepared an extensive font of type with comparatively few matrices, by casting the radical and primitive on separate bodies; and the plan has been found, within certain limits, to save so much expense and room that it has been adopted in other fonts.

    These experiments in Europe showed the feasibility of making

    and using Chinese type to any extent, but their results as to elegance

    and accuracy of form were not satisfactory^, and proved

    that native workmen alone could meet the native taste. Pev.

    Samuel Dyer of the London Mission at Singapore began in

    1838, under serious disadvantages, for he was not a practical

    printer, to cut the matrices for tM’O complete fonts. He continued

    at his self-appointed task until his death in 18-±4r, having

    completed only one thousand eight hundred and forty-five

    punches. His work was continued by P. Cole, of the American

    Presbyterian Missions, a skilful mechanic in his line, and in

    1851 he was able to furnish fonts of two sizes with four thousand

    seven hundred characters each. Their form and style met every

    requirement of the most fastidious taste, and they are now in

    constant use.

    While Mr. Dyer’s fonts were suspended by his death, an attempt

    was made by a benevolent printer, Ilerr Peyerhaus of

    Berlin, to make one of an intermediate size on the Le Grand

    principle of divisible types ; his proposal was taken up by the

    Presbyterian Board of Missions in New York, and after many

    delays a beautiful font was completed and in use about 1859.

    At this time, Mr. W. Gamble of that Mission in Shanghai, carried

    out his plan of making matrices by the electrotype process,

    and completed a large font of small pica type in about as many

    months as Dyer and Beyerhaus had taken years. By means of

    these various fonts books are now printed in many parts of

    China, in almost any style, and type foundries cast in whatever

    quantities are needed. The government has opened an extensive

    printing office in Peking, and its example will encourage

    native booksellers to unite typography with xylographic print*

    MOVABLE CHINESE TYPES MADE BY FOREIGNERS. 6(>R

    ing. More than this as conducing to the diffusion of knowledge

    among the people is the stimulus these cheap fonts of type have

    given to the circulation of newspapers in all the ports ; but for

    their convenient and economical use (Hiinese newsjia}»ers could

    not have been printed at all. It will be quite within the reach

    of native workmen, who are skilled in electrotjping, stereotjp

    ing, and casting type, to make types of all sizes and styles for

    their own books, as the growing intelligence of the people creates

    a demand for illustrated and scientific publications, as well as cheap ones.’

    Nothing has conduced more to a misapprehension of the nature of the Chinese language than the way in which its phonetic character has been spoken of by different authors. Some, describing the primitive symbols, and the modifications they have undergone, have conveyed the impression that the whole language consisted of hieroglyphic or ideographic signs, which depicted ideas, and conveyed their meaning entirely to the eye, irrespective of the sound. For instance, Ilemusat says, ” The character is not the delineation of the sound, nor the sound the expression of the character ; ” forgetting to ask himself how or when a character in any language ever delineated a sound. Yet every Chinese character is sounded as much ;is the words in alphabetic languages, and some have more than one to express their different meanings ; so that, although the character could not delineate the sound of the thing it denoted, the sound is the expression of the character. Others, as Mr. Lay,* have dissected the characters, and endeavored to trace back some analogy in the meanings of all those in which the same primitive is found, and by a sort of analysis, to find out how much of the signification of the radical w^as infused into the primitive to form the present meaning. His plan, in general terms, is to take all the characters containing a certain primitive, and find out how much of the meaning of that primitive is contained in each one ; then he reconstructs the series by defining the primitive, incidentally showing the intention of the fraaners of the characters in choosing tliat particular one, and apportioning so much of its aggregate meaning to each character as is needed, and adding the meaning of the radical to form its whole signification. If we understand his plan, he wishes to construct a formula for each group containing the same primitive, in which the signification of the primitive is a certain function in that of all the characters containing it ; to add up the total of their meanings, and divide the amount among the characters, allotting a quotient to each one. Languages are not so formed, however, and the Chinese is no exception. Some of Mr. Lay’s statements are correct, but his theory is fanciful. It is impossible to decide what proportion was made by combining a radical and a primitive with any reference to their meanings, according to IVIr. Lay’s theory, and how many of them Mere simply phonetic combinations ; probably nine-tenths of the compound characters have been constructed on the latter principle.

    1 Chinese RepoHilorij, Vol. III., pp. 246-253, 528 ; Vol. XIV., p. 124; Mi*sionary Rerarder, Jamiiiry, 1875.•^ Cidnetie an They .l;-, ,”ciiap. XXXIV.

    The fifth class of syllabic symbols were formed by combining

    the symbolic and syllabic systems, so as to represent sound

    chiefly, but bearing in the construction of each one some reference

    to its general signification. The original hieroglyphics contained

    no sound, i.e., were not formed of phonetic constituents;

    the object depicted had a name, but there was no clue to it. It

    was impossible to do both—depict the object, and give its name

    in the same chai-acter. At first, the number of people using

    these ideographic symbols being probably small, every one

    called them by the same name, as soon as he knew what they

    represented, and began to read them. But when the ideas attempted

    to be \vritten far exceeded in number the symbols, or,

    what is more likely, the invention of the limmers, recourse was

    had to the combination of the symbols already understood to express

    the new idea. This was done in several modes, as noticed

    above, but the syllabic system needs further explanation, from

    the extent to which it has been carried. The character ^^ nan,

    to denote the young of the locust, has been adduced. The

    same principle would be applied in reading every new character,

    of which the phonetic primitive merely was recognized, although

    its mtaniny; mioht not 1)0 known. Probablv all the characters

    in the fifth class were sounded in strict accordance with their

    PHONETIC CHARACTER OF THE LANGUAGE. 607

    phonetic primitives when constructed, but usage has changed

    some of their sounds, and many characters belonging to other

    classes, apparently containing the same primitive, are sounded

    quite differentl}- ; this tends to mislead those who infer the

    sound from the primitive. This mode of constructing and

    naming the characters also explains the reason why there are S6

    few sounds compared with the number of characters ; the phonetic

    primitive perpetuated its name in all its progeny.

    More than seven-eighths of the characters have been formed from less than two thousand symbols, and it is ditScult to imagine how it could have been used so long and widely without some such method to relieve the memory of the burden of retaining thousands of arbitrary marks. But, until the names and meanings of the original symbols are learned, neither the sound nor sense of the compound characters will be more apparent to a Chinese than they are to any one else ; until those are known, their combinations cannot be understood, nor even then the meaning wholly deduced ; each character must be learned by itself, just as words in other languages. The sounds given the original symbols doubtless began to vary early after coming into use. Intercommunication between different parts of the country was not so frequent as to prevent local dialects from arising ; but however strong the tendency of the spoken monosyllables to coalesce into polysyllables, the intractable symbols

    kept them apart. It is surprising, too, what a tendency the

    mind has to trust to the eye rather than to the ear, in getting

    and retaining the sense of a book ; it is shown in many ways,

    and arises from habit more than any real difficulty in catching

    the idea viva voce. If the characters could have coalesced,

    their names would soon have run together, and been modified

    as they are in other languages. The classics, dictionaries, and

    unlimited uses of a written language, maintained the same meaning; but as their sounds must be learned traditionally, endless variations and patois arose. Moreover, as new circumstances and increasing knowledge give rise to new words in all countries, so in China, new scenes and expressions arise requiring to be incorporated into the written language. Originally they were unwritten though well understood sounds ; and when first writ;-ten must be explained, as is the case with foreign words like tahu, ukdse, visie?’, etc., ad injin., when introduced into English. Different writers might, however, employ different primitives to express the sound, not aware that it had already been written, and hence woidd arise synonyms ; the\’ might use dissimilar radicals, and this as well would increase the modes of writing the sound. But the inconvenience of thus nndtiplyhig characters would be soon perceived in the obscurity of the sentence, for if the new character was not in the dictionary, its sound and composition were not enough to explain the meaning. When the language had attained a certain copiousness, the mode of education and the style of literary works compelled scholars to employ such characters only as were sanctioned by good use, or else run the risk of not being understood.

    The unwritten sounds, however, could not wait for this slow mode of adoption, but the risk of being misunderstood by using characters phonetically led to descriptive terms, conveying the idea and not the sound. Where alphabetic languages adopt a technic for a new thing, the Chinese make a new phrase. This is illustrated by the terms Iluny-rnao jin, or ‘ lied Bristled men,’ for Englishmen ; llwa-Vi^ or ‘ Flowery Flag,’ for Americans; Sl-yany^ or ‘ Western Ocean,’ for Portuguese, etc., used at Canton, instead of the proper names of those countries. Cause and effect act reciprocally upon each other in this instance ; the effect of using unsanctioned characters to express unwritten sounds, is to render a composition obscure, while the restriction to a set of characters compels their meaning to be sufficiently comprehensive to include all occasions. Local, unwritten phrases, and unauthorized characters, are so common, however, owing to the partial communication between distant parts of so great a country and mass of people, that it is evident, if this bond of union were removed by the substitution of an alphabetical language, the Chinese would soon be split into many small nations. However desirable, therefore, might be the introduction of a written language less difficult of acquisition, and more flexible, there are some reasons for w-ishing it to be dela^’ed until more intelligence is diffused and juster principles of government obtain. When the people themselves feel the need of it, they M’ill contriv^e some better mediuni for the promotion of knowledge.

    MODES OF INCORPORATING NEW WORDS. 609

    The nionosjllabic sound of the primitive once imparted to the ideophonous compound, explains the existence of so many characters having the same sound. When these various characters were presented to the eye of the scholar, no trouble wf s felt in recognizing their sense and sound, but confusion was experienced in speaking. This has been obviated in two wavs.

    One is by repeating a word, or joining two of similar meanings

    but of different sounds, to convey a single idea ; or else by adding

    a classifying word to express its nature. Both these modes

    do in fact form a real dissyllable, and it would appear so in an

    alphabetical language. The first sort of these Jden-hioh sz\ or

    ‘ clam-shell words,’ as they are called, are not unfrequent in books,

    far more common in conversation and render the spoken more

    diffuse than tlie written language—more so, perhaps, than is the

    case in other tongues. Similar combinations of three, four, and

    more characters occur, especially where a foreign article or term

    is translated, but the genius of the language is against the use

    of polysyllables. Such combinations in English as household^

    house- tcarinin’j, JiouseirJfe, house-room, houseleeks, hot-house,

    icood-house, household-stuff, etc., illustrate these dissyllables in

    Chinese ; but they are not so easily understood. Such terms as

    uiulerstand, eourtshij), withdraw, iqyright, etc., present better

    analogies to the Chinese compounds. In some the real meaning

    is totally unlike either of the terms, as tunghia (lit. ‘ east liouse’),

    for master; tungsl {\\t. ‘east wesf), for thing; Txungchu (lit. ‘ lord ruler ‘), for princess, etc. The classifiers partake of the nature of adjectives, and serve not only to sort different words, but the same word when nsed in different senses. They correspond to such words in English as herd, feet, troop, etc. To say a fleet of cows, a troop of ships, or a herd of soldiers, would be ridiculous only in English, but a similar misapplication would confuse the sense in Chinese.

    The other M-ay of avoiding the confusion of homophonons monosyllables, which, notwithstanding the “clam-shell words,” and the extensive use of classifiei’s, are still liable to misapprehension, is by accurately marking its right shing or tone, but as nothing analogous to them is found in European languages, it is rather difficult to describe them. At Canton there are eight arranged in an upper and lower series of four each ; at Peking there are only four, at Nanking five, and at Swatow seven. The Chinese printers sometimes mark the shing on certain ambiguous characters, by a semicircle put on one corner; but this is rarely done, as every one who can read is supposed to know how to speak, and consequently to be familiar with the right tone.

    These four tones are called 2^’^^”J-> ^^””*^? ^’h ^n<3 j’^h meaning, respectively, the even^ asccnduiy, dejyarthuj^ and cnterhig tone. They are applied to every word, and have nothing to do either with accent or emphasis; in asking or answering, entreating or refusing, railing or flattering, soothing or recriminating, they remain ever the same. The unlettered natives, ev^en children and females, who know almost nothing of the distinctions into four, five, seven, or eight shiny, observe them closely in their speech, and detect a mispronunciation as soon as the learned man. A single illustration of them will suffice. The i:ven tone is the natural expression of the voice, and native writers consider it the most important. In the sentence, ” When I asked him, ‘ Will you let me see it ? ‘ he said, ‘ No, I’ll do no such thing, ‘” the different cadence of the question and reply illustrate the upper and lower even tone. The ascending tone is heard in exclamatory words as ah! indeed ! It is a little like the crescendo in music, while the departing tone corresponds in the same degree to the diminuendo. The drawling tone of repressed discontent, grumbling and eking out a reply, is not uidike the departing tone. The entering tone is nearly eliminated in the northern provinces, but gives a marked feature to speech in the southern ; it is an abrupt ending, in the same modulation that the even tone is, but as if broken off ; a man about to say hc1i\ and taken with a hiccup in the middle so that he leaves off the last two letters, or the final consonant, pronounces ihejuh shing.

    A few characters have two tones, which give them different meanings; the ^>/yi//.s’A7’r?^ often denotes the substantive, and the hil shing, the verb, but there is no regularity in this respect.

    “clam-shell words” and tones. 611

    The tones are observed by natives of all ranks, speaking all patois and dialects, and on all occasions. They present a serious difficulty to the adult foreigner of preaching or speaking acceptably to the natives, for although by a proper use of classifiers, observance of idioms, and multiplication of synonyms, he may be understood, his speech will be rude and his words distasteful, if he does not learn the tones accurate!}’. In Amoy and Fuhchau, he will also run a risk of being misunderstood. If the reader, in perusing the following sentence, will accent the italicized syllables, he will have an imperfect illustration of the confusion a wrong intonation produces : ” The ipresent of that object occasioned such a tvunsjwrt as to rtJstract my mind from all around.” In Chinese, however, it is not accent upon one of two syllables which must be learned, but the integral tone of a single sound, as much as in the musical octave.

    It is unnecessary here to enter into any detailed description or enumeration of the words in the Chinese language. One remarkable feature is the frequency of the termination mj preceded by all the vowels, which imparts a peculiar singing character to Chinese speech, as Kwangtung^ Yangtsz’ kiang^ etc. In a list of sounds in the court dialect, about one-sixth of the syllables have this termination, but a larger proportion of characters are found under those syllables, than the mere list indicates.

    In Morrison’s Dictionary the number of separate words in the court dialect is 411, but if the aspirated syllables be distinguished, there are 533. In the author’s Sgllahic Dictionary the number is 532 ; Wade reduces the Peking dialect to 397 syllables in one list, and increases it to 420 in another. In the Cantonese there are 707 ; in the dialect of Swatow, 674 ; at Amoy, about 900 ; at Fuhchau, 928 ; and 660 at Shanghai. All these lists distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated words, as ting and tHng^ jm and p’a, which to an English ear are nearly identical. The largest part of the sounds ai-e common to the dialects, but the distinctions are such as to render it easy to detect each when spoken ; the court dialect is the most mellifluous of the whole and easiest to acquire. All the consonants in English are found in one or another of the dialects, besides many not occurring in that language, as hii\ chit\ gw^ jw, Iw, mw^ nw, etc. There are also several imperfect vowel sounds not known in any European language, as hni or ‘in, hn or ‘/c, “^’a high nasal sound), s.i’, ‘/7^, cJi\ etc. The phrase ‘m ”ng tdk in the Canton dialect, meaning cannot hejmshed, or cliah^^ mai” lany^’ a blind man,’ in the x\moy, cannot be so accurately expressed by these or any other letters that one can learn the sound from them. If it is difficult for us to express their sounds by Roman letters, it is still stranger for the Chinese to write English words.

    For instance, ha2)tlze in the Canton dialect hecou\QB jKi-j/i-tai-sz’; flannel becomesfat-Ian-j/in ^’ stairs hecomes, sz’-ta-sz’ / imjypegnable becomes iin-pi-lak-na-jpu-Vi / etc. Such words as AVasliington, nihlslirpnian, tongue, etc., can be written nearer their true sound, but the indivisible Chinese monosyllables offer a serious obstacle in the way of introducing foreign words and knowledge into the language.

    The preceding observations explain how the numerous local variations from the general language found in all parts of China have arisen. Difficult as the spoken language is for a foreigner to acquire, from the brevity of the words and nicety of their tones, the variety of the local pronunciations given to the same character adds not a little to the labor, especially if he be situated where he is likely to come in contact with persons from different places. Amid such a diversity of pronunciation, and where one sound is really as correct as another, it is not easy to define what should constitute a dialect, a patois, or a corruption.

    COURT, OR MANDARIN DIALECT. 613

    A dialect in other languages is usually described as a local variation in pronunciation, or the use of peculiar words and expressions, not affecting the idiom or grammar of the tongue; but in the Chinese, where the written character unites the mass of people in one language, a dialect has been usually regarded by those who have written on the subject, as extending to variations in the idiom, and not restricted to differences in pronunciation and local expressions. According to this definition, there are only four or five dialects (which would in fact be as many languages if they were not united by the written character), but an endless variety of patois or local pronunciations. The Chinese have published books to illustrate the court, Changchau or Amoy, the Canton and Fuhchau dialects. The differences in the idiTHE oms and proiinnciatioii tire such as to render persons speaking them nnitnally nnintelligible, but do not affect the style of writing, wliose idioms are founded upon tlie usage of the best writers, and remain unchanged.

    The court language, the kivan hira, or mandarin dialect, is rather the proper language of the country—the Chinese language—than a dialect. It is studied and spoken by all educated men, and no one can make any pretence to learning or accomplishments who cannot converse in it in whatever part of the Empire he may be boni. It is the common language throughout the northeastern provinces, especially Honan, Shantung, and Xganhwui, though presetiting more or less variations even in them from the standard of the court and capital.

    This speech is characterized by its soft and mellifluous tones, the absence of all harsh, consonantal endings, and the prevalence of li(j[uids and labials. In parts of the provinces where it is spoken, as the eastern portions of Chehkiang and Kiangsu, gutturals are common, and the initials softened or changed.

    This tongue is the most ancient speech now spoken, for

    stanzas of poetry written twenty-five centuries ago, in the times

    previous to Confucius, are now i-ead with the same rhymes as

    when peimed. The expressions of the kwan hica, although resembling

    the written language more than the other dialects, are

    still unlike it, being moi’e diffuse, and containing many synonyms

    and particles not required to make the sense clear when

    it is addressed to the eye. The difference is such in this respect

    that two well-educated Chinese speaking in the terse style

    of books would hardly understand each other, and be ol)liged

    to use more words to convey their meaning when speaking than

    they would consider elegant or necessary in an essay. This is.

    to be sure, more or less the case in all languages, but from the

    small variety of sounds and their monosyllabic brevity, it is unavoidable in Chinese, though it must not be inferred that the

    language cannot be written so as to he understood when read

    off ; it call be written as diffusely as it is spoken, but such a

    style is not considered very elegant. There are books written

    in the colloquial, however, from which it is not difficult to learn the style of conversation, and such books are amons: the best to put into the hands of a foreigner when beginning the study.

    The local patois of a place is called tu tan, or hiang tan, i.e..,

    local or village brogue, and there is an interpreter of it attached

    to almost every officer’s court for the purpose of translating the

    peculiar phrases of witnesses and others brought before him.

    The term dialect cannot, strictly, in its previous definition, be

    applied to the tu tan, though it is usually so called; it is a

    patois or brogue. The Canton dialect is called by its citizens

    pak vm, ‘the plain speech,’ because it is more intelligible

    than the court dialect. It is comparatively easy of acquisition,

    and differs less from the kwan /tuca, in its pronunciation and

    idioms, than that of Amoy and its vicinity ; but the diversity

    is still enough to render it unintelligible to people from the

    north. A very few books have been written in it, but none

    which can afford assistance in learning it. A native scholar

    would consider his character for literary attainments almost degraded if he should write books in the provincial dialects, and

    forsake the style of the immortal classics. The principal feature

    in the pronunciation of the Canton dialect which distinguishes

    it from the general language, is the change of the abrupt

    vowel terminations, as lok, kiah, pih, into the well-defined

    consonants l;p, and t, as lok, kaj>, pit, a change that considerably

    facilitates the discrimination of the syllables. The idioms

    of the two cannot well be illustrated without the help of the

    written character, but the differences between the sounds of

    two or three sentences may be exhibited : The phrase, / do not

    understand what he says, is in the

    Court dialect : Wo minjmh tung teh ta kiang shim mo.

    Canton dialect : Ngo -m km k’d kong mat ye.

    The rice contains sand in it.

    Court dialect : JSTa, ko mi yu sha ts2\

    Canton dialect : Ko tlk mai yau sha tsoi noi.

    Kone of the provincial patois differ so much from the kwan

    hwa, and affoi-d so many pcculiai’ities, as those spoken in the

    province of Fuhkicn and eastern portions of Kwangtung. All

    of them are nasal, and, compared with those spoken elsewhere,

    harsh and rougli. They have a large number of unwritten

    DIALECTS OF CAT^TOTST ATVD AMOY. G15

    sounds, and so supply the lack ; the same cliaructcr often has

    one sound when read and another when spoken ; all of them

    are in common use. This cni’ioiis feature obli<ji;es the foreiirner

    to learn two parallel languages when studying this dialect, so

    intimate and yet so distinct are the two. The difference between

    them will be more apparent by quoting a sentence : ” He

    first performed that which was difficult, and afterward imitated

    what was easier.” The corresponding words of the colloquial

    are placed underneath the reading sounds.

    Sien kH su chi se Ian, ji ho fc’i hau chi se te.k.

    Tai seng cho i e su e se oh, ji tui ate k’w”ai e hau (jiciii e se iit lioh.

    The changes from one into the other are exceedingly various

    both in sound and idiom. Thus, Men chien, ‘ before one’s face,’

    becomes hm chan when spoken ; while in the phrase eheng jit,

    ‘ a former day,’ the same word chien becomes cheng and not

    chan ; hoe chu^ ‘ pupil of the eye,’ becomes ang a ; sit hioan.,

    ‘ to eat rice,’ becomes ehiah j>ui^. Their dialect, not less than

    their trafficking spirit, point out the Amoy people wherever

    they are met, and as they are usually found along the whole

    coast and in the Archipelago, and are not understood except by

    their provincial compatriots, they everywhere clan together and

    form separate communities. Dr. Medhurst published a dictionary

    of the Changchau dialect, in which the sounds of the characters

    are given as they are read. Dr. C. Douglas has gathered a

    great vocabulary of words and phrases used in the Amoy colloquial,

    in which he has attempted to reduce everything to the

    liomanized system of writing, and omitted all the characters.

    The dialects of Fuhchau, Swatow, and Canton have been similarly

    investigated by Protestant missionaries. Messrs. Mac! ay

    and Baldwin have taken the former in hand, and their work

    leaves very little to be desired for the elucidation of that speech.

    Goddard’s vocabulary of the Swatow has no examples ; and

    Williams’ Tonic Dictionary of the Canton dialect gave no characters

    with the examples. This deficiency was made up in

    Lobscheid’s rearrangement of it under the radicals.

    The extent to which the dialects are used has not been ascertained, nor the degree of modification each undergoes in those parts where it is spoken ; for villagers within a few miles, althono’h able to understand each other perfectly, still give different sounds to a few characters, and have a few local phrases, enough to distinguish their several inhabitants, while towns one or two hundred miles apart are still more unlike. For instance, the citizen of Canton always says shut for water, and tss’ for child, but the native of Macao says sal and cJd for these two words ; and if his life depended upon his utterhig them as they are spoken in Canton, they would prove a shibboleth which he could not possibly enunciate. Strong peculiarities of speech also exist in the villages between Canton and Macao which are found in neither of those places. Yet whatever sound they give to a character it has the same tone, and a Chinese would be much less surprised to hear water called ttchiimi^ than he would to hear it called \yshui in the lower even tone, instead of its proper ascending tone. The tones really approach vowels in their nature more than mere musical inflections ; and it is by their nice discrimination, that the people are able to understand each other with less difficulty than we might suppose amidst such a jargon of vocables.

    This accurate discrimination in the vowel sounds, and comparative

    indifference to consonants, which characterize the Chinese

    spoken languages, has arisen, no doubt, from the monosyllabic

    nature, and the constant though slight variations the names of

    characters undergo from the traditionary mode in which they

    must be learned. There being no integral sound in any character,

    each and all of them are, of course, equally coi-rect, ^<;^r se /

    but the various general and local dictionaries have each tended

    somewhat to fix the pronunciation, just as books and education

    have fixed the spelling of English words. Nor do the Chinese

    more than other people learn to pronounce their mother tongue

    from dictionaries, and the variations are consequently but partially

    restrained by them. It may truly be said, that no two

    Chinese speak all words alike, while yet, through means of the

    universally understood character, the greatest mass of human

    beings ever collected under one government are enabled to express

    themselves without difficulty, and carry on all the business

    and concerns of life.

    PRONUNCIATION AND GRAMMAR. 617

    The grammar of the Chinese language is unique, but those

    writers who say it has no grammar at all must have overlooked

    the prime signification of the word. There are in all languages words which denote things, and others which signify (jualities; words which express actions done by one or many, already done, doing or to be done ; actions absolute, conditional, or ordered.

    The circumstances of the doer and the subject of the action,

    make prepositions necessary, as well as other connecting words.

    Thus the principles of grammar exist in all intelligible speech,

    though each may require different rules. These rules the Chinese

    language possesses, and their right application, the proper

    collocation of words, and use of particles, which supply the

    place of inflection, constitute a difficult part in its acquisition.

    It has no etymology, properly speaking, for neither the characters

    nor their names undergo any change ; whether used as

    verbs or nouns, adjectives or particles, they remain the same.

    The same word may be a noun, a verb, an adverb, or any part

    of speech, nor can its character be certainly known till it is

    placed in a sentence, when its meaning becomes definite. Its

    grammar, therefore, is confined chiefly to its syntax and prosody.

    This feature of the Chinese language is paralleled in English by

    such words as lights used as a noun, adjective, and verb ; I’lke^

    used as a verb, adjective, and adverb ; she^jj and deei\ used both

    in the singular and plural ; /v«//, used in the past, present, and

    future tenses ; and in all cases without undergoing any change.

    But what is occasional and the exception in that tongue, becomes

    the rule in Chinese ; nor is there any more confusion in the last than in the first.

    A good summary of the principles of Chinese grammar is given by Kemusat, who says that generally, ” In every Chinese sentence, in which nothing is understood, the elements of which it is composed are arranged in the following order : the subject, the verb, the complement direct, and the complement indirect.

    ” Modifying expressions precede those to which they belong : thus, the adjective is placed before the substantive, sub’ect, or complement ; the substantive governed before the verb that governs it ; the adverb before the verb, the proposition incidental, circumstantial, or liypothctical, before the principal proposition, to which it attaches itself by a conjunction expressed or understood.

    ” The relative position of words and phrases thus determined, supplies the place often of every other mark intended to denote their mutual dependence! their character whether adjective or adverhial, positive, conditional, or circumstantial.

    “If the subject be understood, it is because it is a personal pronoun, or that it is expressed above, and that the same substantive that is omitted is found in the preceding sentence, and in the same quality of subject, and not in any other.’

    ‘ If the verb be wanting, it is because it is the substantive verb, or some other easily supplied, or one which has already found place in the preceding sentences, with a subject or complement not the same.’

    ‘ If several substantives follow each other, either they are in construction with each other, or they form an enumeration, or they are synonyms which explain and determine each other.

    ” If several verbs succeed each other, which are not synonyms and are not employed as auxiliaries, the first ones should be taken as adverbs or verbal nouns, the subjects of those which follow; or these latter as verbal nouns, the complements of those which precede.”

    Chinese grammarians divide all words into sMh iss’ and hie tsz\ i.e., essential words and particles. The former are subdivided into 83^ tsz^ and hwoh tsz\ i.e., nouns and verbs; the latter into initials or introductory words, conjunctions, exclamations, finals, transitive particles, etc. They furnish examples under each, and assist the student, with model books, in which the principles of tlie language and all rhetorical terms are explained.

    The number and variety of grammatical and philological works prove that they have not neglected the elucidation and arrangement of their mother tongue. The rules above cited are applicable to the written language, and these treatises refer entirely to that ; the changes in the phraseology of the colloquial do not affect its grammar, however, which is formed upon the same rules.

    PARTS OF SPEECH. 619

    Although the characters are, when isolated, somewhat indefinite, there are many ways of limiting their meaning in sentences. Nouns are often made by suflixing formative particles, diBmtJci, ‘ angry spirit,’ merely means anger ; i M, ‘ righteous spirit,’ is rectitude ; chin ”rh, ‘ needle child,’ is a needle, etc. ; the suffix, in these cases, simply materializing the word. Gender is formed by distinctive particles, prefixed or suffixed by appropriate words for each gender, or by denoting one gender always by a dissyllabic compound ; as inalehem^ji, for the masculine ; \\OY&e-sire, or \iov&Q-‘niother, foi- stallion or dam ; hero, heroine; emperor, empress, etc. ; and lastly as wany-Jatu, /’.c, ]<.mg-quee)t, for queen, while icany alone means Mikj. Xuniher is formed by prefixing a numeral, as ITiduj, Tsin, tioo men ; by suffixing a formative, rnun, tdtuj, and others, us Jt/)-td/uj, man-.w/’/, or men; tamun, he-.s’or they ; by repeating the word, •Asjin-jln, man-man or inen y ehu-cha, place-place, or places, i.e., everywhere ; and jastly, by the scope of the passage. The nominative, accusative, and vocative cases are commonly known by their position; the genitive, dative, and ablative are formed by appropriate prepositions, expressed or understood. The vocative is common in liii’ht reading and historical studies.

    Adjectives precede nouns, by which position they are usually determined. Comparisons are nuide iu many ways. JIau is good, Txdng hau is better, and chl Imu is best / sJiihfun hau lian is very good ; hau hau tih \s j^rettij good, eta. The position of an adjective determines its comparison, as chang yih chlh means

    longer by one cuhit • yih chih chang is a caJjit long. The comparison

    of ideas is made by placing the two sentences parallel to

    each other ; for instance, ” Entering the hills and seizing a tiger

    is easy, opening the mouth and getting men to lean to is difficult,”

    is the way of expressing the comparison, ” It is easier to

    seize a tiger in the hills, than to obtain the good offices of men.”

    The proper use of antithesis and parallelism is considered one of

    the highest attainments in composition. The numerals are thirteen

    in number, with the additioii of the character ^ ling to

    denote a cipher. All amounts are written just as they are to

    be read, as yih, pelt, sz’ nhih. mn, ~^ ^ IJI)-)-‘^ i.e., *one hundred

    four tens three.’ They are here introduced, with their

    pronunciation in three dialects.

    12 3 4 .5 6 7 8 9 10 100 1,000 10,000

    Dialect, y^^^ ‘*’^^ •”^” -^-‘ ‘^’^ ^”^i ^^^^^ l^(ih kill siiih peh tsien ivan.

    Dialect. .V«^ * -sa^i •’52’ ‘ng luk tsat pal kaii. i>hap pa/c Mn man.

    Dialect” *^ P ^um sii Hgou liok chif pat kill sip pek chien ban.

    The Chinese, like the ancient Greeks, enumerate only up to

    a myriad, expressing sums higher than that by stating how many

    myriads there are ; the notation of 362,447,180 is three myriads,

    six thousand, two hundred and forty -four myj’iads, seven tliousand,

    one hundred, and eighty. Pronouns are few in number,

    and their use is avoided wlienever the sense is clear witliout

    them. The personal pronoims are three, wo^ lu, and ta, but

    other pronouns can all be readily expressed by adjectives, by

    collocation, and by participial phrases. The classifiers sometimes

    partake of the nature of adjective pronouns, but usually are mere

    distributive or numerical adjectives.

    Verbs, or “living characters,” constitute the most important part of speech in the estimation of Chinese grannnarians, and the shun tu/t, or easy flow of expression, in their use, is carefully studied. The dissyllabic compounds, called dam-sliell words, are usually verbs, and are made in many ways ; by uniting two similar ^Yords, as kwei-Men (lit. peep-look), ‘to spy ;’ by doubling the verb, as h’ten-hien, meaning to look earnestly ; by prefixing a formative denoting action, as ta shioui (lit. strike sleep), ‘ to sleep ;’ by suffixing a modifying word, as grasp-halt, to grasp firmly; tJdnh-arise, to cogitate, etc. Xo part of the study requires more attention tban the right selection of these formatives in both nouns and verbs ; perfection in the shun tnh and use of antitheses is the result oidy of years of study.

    The various accidents of voice, mood, tense, number, and person,

    can all be expressed by corresponding particles, but the

    genius of the language disfavors their frequent use. The passive

    voice is formed by prefixing particles indicative of agency

    before the active verb, as “The villain ‘received my sword’s

    cutting^” for ” The villain was wounded by my sword.” The imperative,

    potential, and subjvmctive moods are formed by particles

    or adjuncts, but the indicative and infinitive are not designated,

    nor are the number and person of verbs usually distinguished.

    The number of auxiliaries, particles, adjuncts, and

    suffixes of various kinds, employed to express what in other

    languages is denoted by inflections, is really very moderate ; and

    a nice discrimination exhibited in their use indicates the finished

    scholar.’Chinese Tiepoaitory, Vol. VIII., p. Wil.

    DEFECTS IN THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 621

    The greatest defect in the Chinese language is the indistinct manner in which time is expressed ; not that there is any want of terms to denote its varieties, but the terseness of expression admired by Chinese writers leads them to discard every unessential word, and especially those relating to time. This defect is more noticed by the foreigner than the native, who has no knowledge of the precision of time expressed by inflection in other languages. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections are not distinguished by native grammarians ; the former are classed with adjectives, and the others are collectively called hu tss’—’empty words.’

    No distinction is made between proper and common names, and as every word can be employed as a name it becomes a source of confusion to the translator ; in some books a single line drawn on the side of characters denotes the names of persons, and a double line the names of places ; important words are denoted by commencing a new line with them, raised one or two characters above the other columns, which answers to capitalizing them. In most books an entire absence of all marks of punctuation, and divisions into sentences and paragraphs, causes needless doubt in the mind of the reader. The great convenience experienced in European languages from the use of capital letters, marks of punctuation, separation into sentences and paragraphs, and the distinction of time, is more plainly seen when a translation is to be made from languages like the Chinese and Japanese, in which they are disregarded. A false taste prevents them from using them ; they admire a page of plain characters so much that a student who should punctuate his essay would I’un a risk of l>einof ridiculed.

    It is not easy 3’et to decide on the best way to adapt the

    technical words in western science to the genius of this language.

    The vast terminology in natural history, with the still greater

    arraj’of scientific names, need not be introduced into it, but can

    remain in their original Latin and Greek, where Chinese scientists

    can consult them. Xew compounds have already been

    proposed for gases, metals, earths, acids, and other elementary

    substances, in which the radical and primitive ai’e chosen with

    reference to their meanings, the latter being more complicated than usual for this purpose. These will gradually get into use as the sciences are studied, and their number will not be troublesomely large.

    There are several distinct styles of composition recognized.

    The hu wdn^ or the terse antithetic style of the ancient classics,

    is considered as inimitable and unimprovable, and really possesses

    the qualities of energy, vivacity, and brevity in a superior degree

    ; the wan. chamj, or style of elevated composition, adopted

    in essays, histories, and grave works ; and the siao shwoh, or

    colloquial style, used in stories.

    If there are serious defects, this language also possesses some

    striking beauties. The expressive nature of the characters, after

    their component parts have become familiar, causes nuich of the

    meaning of a sentence to pass instantly before the eye, while

    the energy arising from the brevity attainable by the absence of

    all inflections and partial use of particles, add a vigor to the

    style that is hardly reached by any alphabetic language. Dr.

    Morrison observes that ” Chinese fine writing darts upon the

    mind with a vivid flash, a force and a beauty, of which alphabetic

    language is incapable.” It is also better fitted than any

    other for becoming a universal medium of comnnmication, and

    has actually become so to a much greater extent than any other ;

    but the history of its diffusion, and the modifications it has undergone among the five nations who use it, though presenting a curious topic for philological inquiry, is one far too extensive to

    be discussed here. So general a use of one wi-itten language,

    however, affords some peculiar facilities for the diffusion of

    knowledge by means of books as introductory to the general

    elevation of the people using it, and their preparation for substituting an alphabetic language for so laborious and unwieldy a vehicle of thought, which it seems impossible to avoid as Christian civilization and knowledge extend.

    METHOD OF STUDYIXG CHINESE. 0:23

    It is often asked, is the Chinese language hard to learn? The preceding account of it shows that to become familiar with its numerous characters, to be able to speak the delicately marked tones of its short monosyllables, and to compose in it with perspicuity and elegance, is the labor of years of close application.

    To do so in Greek, Latin, English, or any settled tongue, is also a toilsome task, and excepting the barren labor of renienibering so many different characters, it is not more so in Chinese than in others. But knowledge sufficient to talk intelligibly, to write perspicuously, and read with considerable ease, is not so herculean a task as some suppose, though this degree is not to be attained without much hard study. Moreover, dictionaries, manuals, and translations are now available which materially diminish the labor, and their number is constantly increasing.

    The rules for studying it cannot be laid down so that they

    will answer equally well for all persons. Some readily catch

    the most delicate inflections of the voice, and imitate and remember

    the words they hear ; such persons soon learn to speak,

    and can make themselves understood on common subjects with

    merely the help of a vocabulary. Others prefer to sit down

    with a teacher and learn to read, and for most persons this is

    the best way to begin. At first, the principal labor should be

    directed to the characters, reading them over with a teacher and

    learning: their form. Commence with the two hundred and

    fourteen radicals, and commit them to memory, so that they

    can be repeated and written in their order ; then learn the primitives,

    or at least become familiar with the names and meaning

    of all the common ones. The aid this preliminary study gives

    in remembering the formation of characters is worth all the

    time it takes. Students make a mistake if they begin with the

    Testament or a tract ; they can learn more characters in the

    same period, and lay a better foundation for acquiring others,

    by conunencing with the i-adicals and primitives. Meanwhile,

    they will also be learning sounds and becoming familiar with

    the tones, which should be carefully attended to as a particular

    study from the living voice.

    When these characters are learned, short sentences or reading lessons selected from good Chinese authors, with a translation attached, should be taken up and committed to memory. Phrases may also be learned at the same time, for use in conversation; an excellent way is to memorize one or two hundred common words, and then practise putting them together in sentences. The study of reading lessons and phrases, with practice in speaking and writing them, will prepare the way for commencing the study of the classics or other native authors. By the time the student has readied this point he needs no further directions; the path he wishes thenceforth to pursue can easily be marked out by himself. It is not amiss here to remark that many persons ardently desirous of fitting themselves soon for preaching or talking to the people, weary their minds and hinder their ultimate progress by too hard study at first upon the dry characters; others come to look upon the written language as less important so long as they can talk rapidly and well, but in the end find that in this, as in every other living tongue, there is no royal road which does not lead them through the grammar and literature.’

    PIGEOX-ENGLISII. 625

    This sketch of the Chinese language would be incomplete without a notice of the singular jargon which has grown up between the natives and foreigners along the coast, called j/Z^^o^i-J^nyUsh. It has been so long in use as the medium of traffic and household talk that it now bids fair to become an unwritten patois, of which neither the Chinese nor the English will own the parentage. The term jngeon^ a corruption from business, shows, in its transformation, some of the influences “which our words must undergo as they pass through the Chinese characters. The foreigners who first settled at Canton had no time nor facilities for learning the dialect, and the traders with whom they bargained soon picked up more foreign words than the former did native. The shopmen ere longformed vocabularies of foreign words obtained from their customers, and wrote the sounds as nearly as possible ; these were committed to memory and formed into sentences according to the idioms of their own language, and disregarding all our inflections, in which they had no instruction. Thus the two parties gradually came to understand each other enough for all practical ends ; the foreigners were rather pleased to talk’ Many aids in learning the general language and all the leading dialects have been prepared in English, French, German, and Portuguese, but several of the early ones, as Morrison, Gon(;alves, Medhurst, and Bridgman, are already out of print. The names of all of these may be found most easily in the first volume of M. Cordier’s exhaustive Diction uaire Bihlioijrnpldque den ouvrujjet relatifn d VEmpire chiiioiK, pp. 725-804. Paris, 1881.

    “broken China,”‘ as it was not iiia})tly called, and habit soon made it natural to a new-comer to talk it to the natives, and it obviated all necessity for studying Chinese. The body of the jargon is English, the few Chinese, Portuguese, and Malay words therein imparting a raciness which, with the novelty of the expressions, has of late attracted much attention to this new language. Though apparently without any rules, the natives are very liable to misapprehend what is said to them by their masters or customers, because these rules are not followed, and constant difficulty arises fi-om mutual misunderstanding of this sort. The widening study of Chinese is not likely to do away with this droll lingo at the trade ports, and several attempts have been made to render English pieces into it. On the other hand, in California and elsewhere, the Chinese generally succeed in learning the languages of their adopted countries better than in talking jngeon-English, or the similar mongrel vernacular spoken at Macao by the native-born Chinese.

    A knowledge of the Chinese language is a passport to the

    confidence of the people, and when foreigners generally learn it

    the natives \\\\\ begin to divest themselves of their prejndices

    and contempt. As an inducement to study, the scholar and

    the philanthropist have the prospect of benefiting and informing

    through it vast numbers of their fellow-men, of imparting

    to them what will elevate their minds, purify their hearts, instruct

    their understandings, and strengthen their desire for

    more knowledge ; the\’ have an opportunity of doing much to

    counteract the tremendous evils of the opium trade by teaching

    the Chinese the only sure grounds on which they can be restrained,

    and at the same time of making them acquainted with the discoveries in science, medicine, and arts among western nations.

    CHAPTER XI.  CLASSICAL LITERATURE OF THE CHINESE

    The literature contained in the language now briefly described

    is very ample and discursive, but wanting in accuracy

    and unenlivened by much variety or humor. The books of the

    Chinese have formed and coiiiirmed their national taste, which

    consequently exhibits a tedious uniformity. The unbounded

    admii’ation felt for the classics and their immaculate authors,

    fostered by the examinations, has further tended to this result,

    and caused these writings to become still more famous from

    the unequalled influence they have exerted. It may be veiy

    readily seen, then, with what especial interest the student of Chinese sociology turns to an investigation of their letters, the immense accumulation of forty centuries. AVere its amount

    and prominence the only features of their literature, these would suffice to make necessary some study thereof ; but in addition,

    continued research may reveal some further qualities of

    ” eloquence and poetry, enriched by the beauty of a picturesque

    language, preserving to imagination all its colors,” which will

    substantiate the hearty expressions used by Rdmusat when first

    he entered upon a critical examination of its treasures.

    THE YITI KTXC, OK BOOK OF CTIAXGES. 027

    In taking a survey of this literature, the -6V ITu Tsiuen Shu Tsumj-muh^ or ‘ Catalogue of all Books in the Four Libraries,’ will be the best guide, since it embraces the wdiole range of letters, and affords a complete and succinct synopsis of the contents of the best books in the language. It is comprised in one hundred and twelve octavo volumes, and is of itself a valuable work, especially to the foreigner. The books are arranged into four divisions, viz., Classical, Historical, and Professional writings, and Belles-lettres. This Catalogue contains about 3440 separate titles, comprising upward of 78000 books; besides these, G,T64 other works, rminl)ering 93242 books, have been described in other catalogues of the imperial collections. These lists comprise the bulk of Chinese literature, except novels, Buddhist translations, and recent publications.

    The works in the first division are ranged under nine sections; one is devoted to each of the five Classics (with a subsidiary section upon these as a whole), one to the memoir on Filial Duty, one to the P^our Books, one to musical works, and the ninth to treatises on education, dictionaries, etc.

    At the head of the ‘ Five Classics ‘

    ( Wu Kin(j) is placed the

    Yih King, or ‘ Book of Changes,’ a work which if not—as it

    has been repeatedly called—

    Antiquisshnus Sinaruin libey\ can

    be traced with tolerable accuracy to an origin three thousand

    years ago. It ranks, according to Dr. Legge, third in aiitiquity

    among the Chinese classics, or after the Shu and portions of

    the SKi King ; but if an unbounded veneration for enigmatical

    wisdom supposed to lie concealed under mystic lines be any

    just claim for importance, to this wondrous monument of literature

    may easily be conceded the first place in the estimation of

    Chinese scholars.

    While following Dr. Legge in his recent exposition of this

    classic,” a clearer idea of its subject-matter can hardly be given

    than by quoting his words stating that ” the text may be briefly

    represented as consisting of sixty -four short essays, enigmatically

    and symbolically expressed, on important themes, mostly

    of a moral, social, and political character, and based on the

    same number of lineal figures, each made up of six lines, some

    of which are whole and the others divided.” The evolution of

    the eight diagrams from two original principles is ascribed to

    Fuh-hi (B.C. 3322), who is regarded as the founder of the nation,

    though his history is, naturally enough, largely fabulous. From

    the Liang T, or ‘Two Principles’ (—) (- -), were fashioned the

    /&’ Siaruj, or ‘ Four Figures,’ by placing these over themselves

    and each of them over the other, thus :

    ‘ The Saered Books of China. The Texts of Confucianism. Translated by James Legge. Part II. The Ti King. Oxford, 1882.

    The same pairs placed in succession under the original lines formed eight trigranis called the PAH KWA of FUH-HI.

    ITS PIIILOSOl’IIICAL SYSTE:\r. 629

    is derived and on wliose changes it is founded.. This substance

    M answers sufticiently ch)sely to tlic animated air of the Grecian

    pliilosopher Anaximenes ; its divisions are a subtle and a coarse

    principle which, acting and reacting upon each other, produce

    four slang^ or ‘forms,’ and these again combine into eight Jiica^

    or trigrams. Fuh-hi is thus said to have arranged the iirst four

    of the Pah Kica under the Yaiuj (strong or hard) principle,

    and the last four under the Yhi (weak or soft) principle ; the

    former indicate vigor or authority, and it is their part to command,

    while of the latter, representing feebleness or submission,

    it is the part to obey.

    It was probably AVan Wang, King Wan, chief of the principality

    of Chan in 11S5 b.c, who when thro^vn into prison by his

    jealous suzerain Shau, the tyrant of Sliang, arranged and multiplied

    the trigrams—long before his time used for purposes

    of divination—into the sixty-four hexagrams as they now occur

    in tlie T7A King. His was a wholly different disposition, both

    of names, attributes, and the compass points, from the original

    trigrams of Fuh-hi ; again, he added to them certain social relations

    of father, mother, three sons, and three daughters, which

    has ever since been found a convenient addition to the conjuring

    apparatus of the M^ork. ” I like to think,” says Dr. Legge,

    ” of the lord of Chau, when incarcerated in Yii-li, with the

    sixty-four figures arranged befoi-e him. Each hexagram assumed

    a mystic meaning and glowed with a deep significance.

    He made it to tell him of the qualities of various objects of

    nature, or of the principles of human society, or of the condition,

    actual and possible, of the kingdom. He named the

    figures each by a term descriptive of the idea with which he

    had connected it in his mind, and then he proceeded to set that

    idea forth, now with a note of exhortation, now Avith a note of

    warning. It was an attempt to restrict the follies of divination

    within the l)ounds of reason. . . . But all the work of

    King Wan in the Ylli thus amounts to no more than sixty-four

    short paragraphs. We do not know what led his son Tan to

    ei\ter into his \vork and complete it as he did. Tan was a

    patriot, a hero, a legisla-tor, and a philosopher. Perhaps he

    took the lineal figures in hand as a tribute of filial duty. What liad been done for the whole hexagram he M-oiild do for each line, and make it clear that all the six lines ‘ bent oneway their precious inflnence,’ and blended their ravs in the globe of light

    which his father had made each figure give forth. 13ut his

    method strikes us as singular. Each line seemed to become

    living, and suggested some ])henomenon in nature, or some case

    of human experience, from which the wisdom or folly, the

    luckiness or unluckiness, indicated by it could be inferred. It

    cannot be said that the duke carried out his plan in a way likely

    to interest any one but a Men shung who is a votary of divination

    and admires the style of its oracles. According to our

    notions, a framer of emblems should be a good deal of a poet;

    but those of the Yih only make us think of a dryasdust. Out of more than three hundi-ed and fifty, the greater mmiber are only grotesque. We do not recover from the feeling of disappointment

    till M’C remember that both father and son had to

    M’rite ‘ according to the trick,’ after the uianner of diviners, as

    if this lineal augury had been their profession.”

    Such is the text of the Yih. The \vords of King Wan and

    his son are followed by commentaries called the SJtih Yi/t, or

    ‘ Ten Wings.’ These are of a much later period than the text,

    and are commonly ascribed to Confucius, though it is extremely doubtful if the sage was author of more than the sentences introduced by the oft-repeated formula, “The Master said,” occurring

    in or concluding many chapters of the ‘Wings.’ Without

    lingering over the varied contents of these appendices,

    more than to point out that the fifth and sixth Wings (‘Appended

    Sentences ‘), known as the ‘ Great Treatise,’ contains for

    the first time the character Y!//, or ‘Change,’ it will be necessary,

    before leaving this classic, to illustrate its curious nature by means of a single quotation.

    EXTKACT.S FUOM ‘I’HK YIII KIXG. 031

    Ilien indicates that [on the i’lillilniont of the conditions implied in it] there will he free course and success. Its advantageousness will depend on the being firm and correct, [as] in marrying a young lady. There will hi good fortune.
    1. The first line, divided, shows one moving his great toes.
    2. The second line, divided, shows one moving the calves of his leg. There will be evil. If he abide [quiet in his place] there will be good fortune.
    3. The third line, undivided, shows one moving his thighs, and keeping close hold of those whom he follows. Going forward [in this way] will cause regret.
    4. The fourth line, undivided, shows that firm correctness which will lead to good fortune and prevent all occasion for repentance. If its subject be unsettled in his movements, [only] his friends will follow his purpose.
    5. The fifth line, undivided, shows one moving the flesh along the spine above the heart. There will be no occasion for repentance.
    6. The sixth line, divided, shows one moving his jaws and tongue.

    An idea of the several commentaries, or ‘ Wings,’ upon sueli a

    passage may be gained from the following e.xcerpts. First

    comes the ‘ Treatise on the Twan,’ or King Wan’s paragraphs ;

    then the ‘ Treatise on the Symbols,’ consisting of observations

    on Duke Chan’s exposition.

    From the Second Wi»g.—
    1. Ilk’ii is here used in the sense of Kan, meaning [mutually] influencing.
    2. The weak [trigram] above, and the strong one below; their two influences moving and responding to each other, and thereby forming a union; the repression [of the one] and the satisfaction [of the other] ; [with their relative position] where the male is placed below the female — all these things convey the notion of ‘ a free and successful course [on t e fulfilment of the conditions], while the advantage will depend on being firm and correct, as in marrying a young lady, and there will be good fortune.’ . . . etc., etc.

    Fourth Wuiij.—[The trigram representing] a mountain and above it that for [the waters of] a marsh form Ilu’ii. The superior man, in accordance with this, keeps his mind free from preoccupation, and open to receive [the influences of] others.

    1. ‘ He moves his great toe ‘—his mind is set on what is beyond [himself].
    2. Though ‘ there would be evil, yet if he abide [quiet] in his place there will be good fortune ‘—through compliance [with the circumstances of his condition and place] there will be no injury.

    3. ‘He moves his thighs’—he still does not [want to] rest in his place. His will is .set on ‘ following others ;’ what he holds in his grasp is low.

    4. ‘ Firm correctness will lead to good fortune, and prevent all occasion for repentance ‘—there has not yet been any harm from [a selfish wish to] influence. ‘He is unsettled in his movements’—[his power to influence] is not yet either brilliant or great.

    5. ‘ He [tries to] move the flesh along the spine above the heart ‘—his aim is trivial.

    6. ‘ He moves his jaws and tongue ‘—he [only] talks with loquacious mouth.

    Sixth Wing (‘Appended Sentences’). —Chapter I.—
    1. The eight trigrams having been completed in their proper order, there were in each the [three] emblematic lines. They were then multiplied by a process of addition till the [six] component lines appeared.

    2. The strong line and the weak push themselves each into the place of the other, and hence the changes [of the diagrams] take place. The appended explanations attach to every form of them its character [of good or ill], and hence the movements [suggested by divination] are determined accordingly.

    3. Good fortune and ill, occasion for repentance or regret, all arise from these movements . . . etc., etc.

    The hundreds of fortune-tellers seen in the streets of Chinese

    towns, whose answers to their perplexed customers are

    more or less founded on these cabala, indicate their influence

    among the illiterate ; while among scholars, who have long

    since conceded all divination to be vain, it is surprising to remark

    the profound estimation in which these inane lines are

    held as the consummation of all w-isdom—the germ, even, of

    all the truths which western science has brought to light!

    Each hexagram is supposed to i-epresent, at any given time, six

    different phases of the primordial V>. ” As all the good and

    evil in the world,^’ observes McClatchie, ” is attributed by the

    Chinese philosophers to the purity or impurity of the animated

    air from which the two-fold soul in man is formed, a certain

    moral value attaches to each stroke, and the diviner prognosticates

    accordingly that good or evil luck, as the case may be,

    will result to the consulter of the oracle with reo-ard to the matter

    on which he seeks it. Xine is the number of Heaven, or

    the undivided stroke, and six is the number of Earth, or the

    divided stroke, and hence each stroke has a double designatiovi.

    The first stroke, if undivided, is designated ‘ First-T\ ine,’ but if

    divided it is designated ‘ First-Six,’ and so on. The second

    and fifth strokes in each diagram are important, being the centre

    or medium strokes of their respective lesser diagrams. The

    fifth stroke, however, is the most important in divination, as it

    represents that portion of the air which is the especial throne

    of the imperial power, and is the ‘ undeflected due medium.’

    Nothing but good luck can follow if the person divining with

    the straws obtains this stroke. Tao, or the Divine Heason,

    ITS CIIAKACTElt AND INFLUENCE. 633

    which is the supreme soul of tlie wliole Kosnios, animates the

    air, pervading its six phases, and thus giving power to the diagrams

    to make known future events to mankind.”

    Of course anything and everything could be deduced from

    such a fanciful groundwork, but the Chinese have taken up the

    discussion in the most serious manner, and endeavored to find

    the hidden meanino; and evolutions of the universe from this

    curious system. The diagrams have, moreover, supplied the

    basis for many species of divination by shells, letters, etc., by

    which means the mass of the people are deluded into the belief

    of penetrating futurity, and still more wedded to their superstitions.

    The continued influence of such a work as the Yih illustrates

    the national jjenchant for law^s and method, while

    equally indicating the general indifPerence to empiiical research

    and the facts deduced from study of natural history. If, from

    a philosophical standpoint, we consider the barrenness of its results,

    there is little, indeed, to say for tlie Yih King, save concurrence

    in Dr. Gustave Schlegel’s epithet, ” a mechanical play

    (jf idle abstractions ; ” nevertheless, this classic contains in its

    whimsical dress of inscrutable strokes nnich of practical wisdom,

    giving heed to which it is not hard to agree with Dr.

    Leo-oe in concludino; that ” the inculcation of such lessons cannot

    have been without good effect in China during the long

    course of its history.” ‘

    The second section of the Imperial Catalogue contains treatises

    upon the SJiio King, or ‘ Book of Records.’ This classic,

    ‘ Some fourteen hundred and fifty treatises on the I7A— consisting of memoirs,

    digests, expositions, etc. —are enumerated in the Catalogue. The foreign

    literature upon it has heretofore been scant. The only other translations of

    the classic in extenso, besides Dr. Legge’s, already quoted, are the Y-Kiiuj;

    Antiquissimus Sinarum liber quern e.v hiUn/i iiih’rpn’tadoiie ; P. Regis, (dicrrumqueex

    Soc. Jesu P.P., edidit SnWws Mohl, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1834-39; and

    A Iranslation of the Confrman Yih King, or the Chissic of Chuncje, by the

    Rev. Canon McClatchie, Shanghai, 1876 (with Chinese text). Compare further

    Notice du livre chinois nomme Y-kiiu/, aver des notes, pdr M Claude Visdelou,

    contained in Pere Gaubil’s Clwn kinq, Paris, 1843 ; Die verbogenen Alterthumerder

    Chiiieser ana deni undfen Burlte Yeking iinterfiHchet, von M. Joh. Heinrich

    Schuhmacher, Wolfenbiittel, 1763 ; Joseph Haas, in Notes and Queries on Vhinu and Japitn, Vol. III., 1869; China Revieip, Vols. I., p. 151; IV., p.257; and v., p. 132.

    first ill importance as it is in age among the live King, consists

    of a series of documents relating to the history of China from

    the times of Yao down to King Iliang, of the Chan dynasty

    (b.c. 2357-627). Its earlier chapters were composed at periods

    following the events of which they relate, but after the twentysecond

    century b.c. the SJiu comes to us, though in a mutilated

    condition, as the contemporary chronicle of proclamations, addresses,

    and principles of the early sovereigns. Internal evidence

    leads to the conclusion that Confucius acted chielly as

    editor of documents existing in his day ; he probably wrote the

    preface, but what alterations it received at his hand cannot now

    be ascertained. A¥hen it left his care it contained eighty -one

    documents in one hundred books, arranged under the five

    dynasties of Yao, Shun, Ilia, Shang, and Chan, the last one

    coming down to within two hundred and twenty-one years of

    his own birth. . Most of these are lost, and others are doubted

    by Chinese critics, so that now only forty-eight documents remain,

    thirty of them belonging to tlie CUiau, with the preface

    ascribed to Confucius. lie showed his estimate of their value

    by calling the whole Shang Shu, or the ‘ Highest Book,’ and we

    may class their loss witli that of other ancient works in Hebrew

    or Greek literature. The Shu King now contains six different

    kinds of state papers, viz., imperial ordinances, plans drawn up

    by statesmen as guides for their sovereign, instructions prepared

    for the guidance of the prince, imperial proclamations

    and charges to the people, vows taken before Sliangtl by the

    monarch when going out to battle, and, lastly, mandates, announcements, speeches, and canons issued to the ministers of state.’

    ‘ Several translations have been made by missionaries. One by P. Gaubil was edited by De Guignes in 1770; a second by Rov. W. H. Medhurst, in 1846; but the most complete by J. Legge, D.D., in 18G5, with its notes and text, has brought this lieconl better than ever before to the knowledge of western scholars.

    THE SIIU KING, OK HOOK OF UECORDS. 635

    The morality of the Shu King-, for a pagan work, is extremely good ; the principles of administration laid down in it, founded on a regard to the welfare of the people, would, if carried out, insure universal prosperity. The answer of Kaoyao to the monarch Yu is expressive of a mild spirit : ” Your virtue, O Emperor, is faultless. You condescend to your ministers with

    a liberal ease ; you rule the multitude with a generous forbearance.

    Your punishments do not extend to the criminal’s heirs,

    but your rewards reach to after-generations. Y’ou pardon inadvertent

    faults, however great, and punish deliberate crime,

    however small. In cases of doubtful crimes you deal with them

    lightly ; of doubtful merit, you prefer the highest estimate.

    Ilather than put to death the guiltless, you will run the risk of

    irregularity and laxity. This life-loving virtue has penetrated

    tlie minds of the people, and this is why they do not render

    themselves liable to be punished by your officers.” ‘

    In the counsels of Yu to Shun are many of the best maxims

    of good government, both for rulers and ruled, which antiquity

    has handed down in any country. The following are among

    them : ” Y’ih said, Alas ! Be cautious. Admonish yourself to

    caution when there seems to be no reason for anxiety. Do

    not fail in due attention to laws and ordinances. Do not find

    enjoyment in indulgent ease. Do not go to excess in pleasure.

    Employ men of worth without intermediaries. Put away evil

    advisers, nor try to carry out doubtful plans. Study that all

    your purposes may be according to reas(jn. Do not seek the

    people’s praises by going against reason, nor oppose the people

    to follow your own desires. Be neither idle nor wayward, and

    even foreign tribes will come nnder your sway.”

    The Shu King contains the seeds of all things that are valuable

    in the estimation of the Chinese ; it is at once the foundation

    of their political system, their history, and their religious

    rites, the basis of their tactics, music, and astronomy. Some

    have thought that the knowledge of the true God under the

    appellation of Shangti is not obscurely intimated in it, and the

    precepts for governing a country, scattered through its dialogues

    and proclamations, do their writers credit, however little they

    may have been followed in practice. Its astronomy has attracted

    much investigation, but whether the remarks of the

    commentators are to be ascribed to the times in which they

    ‘ Legge, The Chinese Claasks, Vol. III. Slioo King, p. 59.

    themselves iiourished, or to the knowledge they had of the ancient

    state of tlie science, is douhtfuL The careful and candid

    discussions by Legge in the introduction to his translation furnish

    most satisfactory conclusions as to the origin, value, and

    condition of this venerable relic of ancient China. For his

    scholarly edition of the Classics he has already earned the

    hearty thanks of every student of Chinese literature.’

    The third of the classics, the Shi King, or ‘ Book of Odes,’

    is ranked together with the two preceding, while its influence

    upon the national mind has been equally great ; a list of commentators

    upon this work fills the third section of the Catalogue.

    These poetical relics are arranged into four parts : The Ktvoh

    Fimy, or ‘ National Airs,’ numbering one hundred and fifty-nine,

    from fifteen feudal States ; the Siao Ya, or ‘ Lesser Eulogiums,’

    numbering eighty, and arranged under eight decades ; the Ta

    Ya, or ‘ Greater Eulogiums,’ numbering thirty-one, under three

    decades (both of these were designed to be sung on solemn occasions

    at the royal court) ; and the Sung, or ‘ Sacrificial Odes,’

    numbering foi’ty-one chants connected with the ancestral worship

    of the rulers of Chan, Lu, and Sliang. Out of a total number

    of three hundred and eleven now extant, six have only their

    titles preserved, while to a major part of the others native

    scholars give many various readings.

    In the preface to his careful translation Dr. Legge has collected

    all the important information concerning the age, origin,

    and purpose of these odes, as furnished by native connnentators,

    whose theory is that ” it was the duty of the kings to make

    themselves acquainted with all the odes and songs current in

    ‘ Chinese Bepository, Vol. VIII., p. 385 ; Vol. IX., p. 573. Le Clum-king,

    un des Livres Sarrh (frs Olilixm, qui renfcrme leu Fondementsde leur ancienne

    Ilistoirey etc. Traduit par Feu le P. Gaubil. Paris, 1770, in-4. La Morale

    du Chou-kiiKj on le Livre Sacredela Chine. (The same), Paris, 1851. Ancient

    China. The Shoo King, or tlie Ilistariced Cla.mr. : being the vnM ancient authentic

    Record of the AnnaU of the Chinese Empire, translated by W. H. Medliurst.

    Sen., Shanghae, 184G. Nouveem Journal Asiatique, Tomes V. (1830), p.

    401; VI., p. 401, and XIV. (1842), p. 153. China Beoiew, Vol. IV., p. 13.

    Dr. Legge’s translation has recently (1879) appeared, without the Chinese text,

    in Max Miiller’s series of Sacred Rwks of tlie East, Vol. III. Richthofen,

    China, Bd. I., ])p. 277-305, an exhaustive treatise on the early geography of

    ULiua, with valuable historical maps.

    THE SlII KING, OU BOOK OF ODES. 0:37

    the different States, and to judge from them of the cliaracter of

    the rule exercised by tlieir several princes, so that they might

    minister praise or blame, reward or punishment accordingly.”

    These odes and songs seem to hav^e been gathered by Wan

    Wang and Duke Chau at the beginning of the Chau dynasty

    (b.c. 1120), some of them at the capital, others from the feudal

    rulers in the course of royal progresses through the land, the

    royal music-master getting copies from the music-masters of the

    princes. The whole were then arranged, set to nnisic, too, it

    may be, and deposited for use and reference in the national

    archives, as well as distributed among the feudatories. Their

    ages are uncertain, but probably do not antedate b.c. 1719

    nor come after 585, or about thirty years before Confucius.

    Their number was not improbably at first fully up to the thi-ee

    thousand mentioned by the biographers of Confucius, but long

    before the sage appeared disasters of one kind and another had

    reduced them to nearly their present condition. What we have

    is, therefore, but a fragment of various collections made in the

    early reigns of the Chau sovereigns, which received, perhaps,

    larger subsequent additions than were preserved to the time of

    Confucius. He probably took them as they existed in his day,

    and feeling, possibly, like George Herbert, that

    ” A verse may finde liim, who a sermon flies,

    And turn delight into a sacrifice,”

    did everything he could to extend their adoption among his

    countrymen. It is difficult to estimate the power they have

    exerted over the subsequent generations of Chinese scholars

    nor has their influence ever tended to debase their morals, if it

    has not exalted their imagination. They have escaped the

    looseness of Moschus, Ovid, or Juvenal, if they have not attained

    the grandeur of Homer or the sweetness of Yirgil and

    Pindar. There is nothing of an epic character in them—nor

    even a lengthened narrative—and little of human passions in

    their strong development. The metaphors and illustrations are

    often quaint, sometimes puerile, and occasionally ridiculous.

    Their ackjiowledged antiquity, their religious character, and

    their illustration of early Chinese customs and feelings form

    638 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    their priiicipal claiius to our notice and appreciative study.

    M. Ed. JJiot, of Paris, was the first European scholar who studied

    them carefully in this aspect, and his articles in the Joarnal

    Asiatlque for 1S43 are models of analytic criticism and synthetic

    compilation, enabling one, as he says, ” to contemplate

    at his ease the spectacle of the primitive manners of society in

    the early age of China, so different from what was then found

    in Europe and “Western Asia.”

    An ode referred to the time of Wan Wang (a contemporary

    of Saul) contains a sentiment reminding us of Morris’ lines

    beginning ” Woodman, spare that tree. ” It is in Part I., Book

    II., and is called Kan-tawj, or the ‘ Sweet pear-tree.’

    1. O fell not that sweet pear-tree!

    See how its branches spread.

    Spoil not its shade,

    For Shao’s chief laid ^

    Beneath it his weary head.

    2. O clip not that sweet i)ear-tree I

    Each twig and leaflet spare

    ‘Tis sacred now,

    Since the lord of Shao,

    When weary, rested him there.

    3. O touch not that sweet pear-tree I

    Bend not a twig of it now ;

    There long ago,

    As the stories show,

    Oft halted tlie chief of Shao.’

    The eighth ode in Book III., called IRung CJu^ or ‘ Cock

    Pheasant,’ contains a wife’s lament on her husband’s absence.

    1. Away the startled pheasant flies.

    With lazy movement of his wings ;

    Borne was my heart’s lord from my eyes

    What pain the separation brings !

    2. The pheasant, though no more in view,

    Ilis cry below, above, forth sends.

    Alas! my princely lord, ’tis yon,

    Your absence, that my bosom rends.

    Dr. Legge, The She King, trduddted into Enylinh verse, p. 70. London, 1876.

    ii:xamplks of its lykic poetry. 63tJ

    3. At sun uiul moon I sit and gaze,

    In converse with my troubled heart.

    Far, far from me my husband stays !

    When will he come to heal its smart ?

    4, Ye princely men, who with him mate,

    Say, mark ye not his virtuous way ?

    His rule is, covet nought, none hate :

    How can Ins steps from goodness stray ? ‘

    From tlie same book we translate somewliat freely an example

    (Xo. IT) of love-song, or serenade, not uncommon among

    these odes.

    Maiden fair, so sweet, retiring,

    At tlie tryst I wait for thee ;

    Still I pause in doubt, inquiring

    Why thou triflest thus with me.

    Ah ! the maid so coy, so handsome,

    Pledged she with a rosy reed ;

    Than the reed is she more winsome.

    Love with beauty liard must plead

    !

    In the meadows sought we flowers.

    These she gave me—beauteous, rare

    :

    Far above the gift there towers

    The dear giver— lovelier, fair !

    Among the ‘ Lesser Eulogiums ‘ (Book IV., Ode 5) is one

    more ambitions in its scope, relating to the completion of a

    palace of King Sinen, about b.c. 800.

    1. On yonder banks a palace, lo ! upshoots.

    The tender blue of southern hill behind,

    Time-founded, like the bamboo’s clasping roots

    ;

    Its roof, made pine-like, to a point defined.

    Fraternal love here bears its precious fruits,

    And unfraternal schemes be ne’er designed 1

    2. Ancestral sway is his. The walls they rear

    Five thousand cubits long, and south and west

    The doors are placed. Here will the king appear,

    Here laugh, here talk, here sit him down and rest.

    <«”- — ——

    ‘/6.,p. 83.

    G40 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    3. To mould the walls, the frames they firmly tie ;

    The toiling builders beat the earth and lime

    ;

    The walls shall vermin, storm, and bird defy

    Fit dwelling is it for his lordly prime.

    4. Grand is the hall the noble lord ascends ;

    In height, like human form, most reverent, grand ;

    And straight, as flies the shaft when bow unbends

    ;

    Its tints like hiaes when pheasant’s wings expand.

    5. High pillars rise the level court around ;

    The pleasant light the open chamber steeps,

    And deep recesses, wide alcoves are found,

    Where our good king in perfect quiet sleeps.

    6. Laid is the bamboo mat on rush mat square ;

    Here shall he sleep ; and waking say, ‘

    ‘ Divine

    What dreams are good ? For bear and piebald bear,

    And snakes and cobras haunt this couch of mine.”

    7. Then shall the chief diviner glad reply,

    *’ The bears foreshow their signs of promised sons.

    The snakes and cobras daughters prophesy

    :

    These auguries are all auspicious ones.”

    8. Sons shall be liis— on couches lulled to rest

    ;

    The little ones enrobed, with sceptres play

    ;

    Their infant cries are loud as stern behest,

    Their knees the vermeil covers shall display.

    As king liereafter one shall be addressed ;

    The rest, our princes, all the States shall sway.

    9. And daughters also to him shall be born.

    They shall be placed upon the ground to sleep

    ;

    Their playthings tiles, their dress the simplest worn;

    Their part alike from good and ill to keep,

    And ne’er their parents’ hearts to cause to mourn

    ;

    To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep.

    The last two stanzas indicate tlie comparative estimate, in

    ancient days, of boys and girls born into a family ; and this estimate,

    still maintained, has been in a great degree upheld by

    this authority.. Another ode in the ‘ Greater Eulogies ‘ (Book

    III., Ode 10) deplores the misery that prevailed about b.c. 780,

    owing to the interference of women and eunuchs in the govern-

    >/(/., Tlie She KliKj, p. 332.

    VERSIFICATION OF THE Sill KIN(i. 641

    nieiit. Two stanzas only are quoted, which are supposed to

    have been specially directed against Pao Sz’, a mischief-maker

    in the court of King Yu, like Agrippina and Pulcheria in

    Koman and Byzantine annals.

    8. A wise man builds the city wall,

    But a wise woman throws it down.

    Wise is she ? Good you may her call

    ;

    She is an owl we should disown !

    To woman’s tongue let scope be given

    And step by step to harm it leads.

    Disorder does not come from Heaven ;

    ‘Tis woman’s tongue disorder breeds.

    Women and eunuchs 1 Never came

    Lesson or warning words from them !

    4. Hurtful and false, their spite they wreak

    ;

    And when exposed their falsehood lies—

    The wrong they do not own, but sneak

    And say, ” Xo harm did we devise.”

    *’ Thrice cent, per cent. ! ” Why, that is trade!

    Yet ‘twould the princely man disgrace.

    So public things to wife and maid

    Must not silkworms and looms displace.

    There are, however, numerous stanzas among the odes in tho

    ‘ National Airs ‘ which show their fairer side and go far to neutralize

    these, giving the same contrasts in female character

    which were portrayed by King Solomon during the same age.

    The versification in a monosyllabic language appears very

    tame to those who are only familiar with the lively and varied

    rhythms of western tongues ; but the Chinese express more

    vivacity and cadence in their ballads and ditties when sung than

    one would infer from these ancient relics when transliterated

    in our letters. As the young lad has usually committed all the

    three hundred and five odes to memory before he enters the

    Examination Hall, their influence on the matter and manner of

    his own future poetical attempts can hardly be exaggerated. It

    is shown throughout the thousands of volumes enumerated in

    the fourth division of the Imperial Catalogue. Most of the

    ‘ Id., The She King, p. 347.

    Vol. I.—41

    ^42 THE 3IIDDLE KINGDOM.

    >S/u King is written in tetrametres, and nothing can be more

    simple. They have been most unfortunately likened to the

    Hebrew Psalms by some of the early missionaries, but neither

    in manner nor matter is the comparison a happy one. One point

    of verbal resemblance is noticed by Dr. Legge between the first

    ode in Part III. and the one hundred and twenty-first psalm,

    where the last line of a stanza is generally repeated in the first

    line of the next, a feature something like the repetitions in Hiawatha.

    The rhymes and tones both form an essential part of

    Chinese poetry, one which can only be imperfectly represented

    in our language. The following furnishes an example of the

    general style, to which a literal rendering is subjoined

    :

    1. Nan yin kUw muh,

    Puh Wo Mu sill

    ;

    Han yin yin nu,

    Puh Wo kiu sz\

    Han clii kii^ang i,

    Puh Wo y11,11(1 sz’;

    Kianrj chi yung i

    Puh Wofang sz\

    2. Kiao kia,o Uo sin,

    Yen i ki chii,

    ;

    Chi tsz’ yii kwei

    Yen moh kl ma ;

    Han chi kwang i, etc.

    8. Kiao kiao tso sin,

    Yen i ki lao ;

    Chi tsz^ yiX kwei

    Yen moh ki kii.

    Han ch’i kwang i, etc.

    South has stately trees,

    Not can shelter indeed ;

    Han has rambling women,

    Not can solicit indeed.

    Han’s breadth l)e sure,

    Not can be dived indeed

    ;

    Kiang’s length be sure.

    Not can be rafted indeed.

    Many many mixed faggots,

    Willingly I cut the brambles ;

    Those girls going home.

    Willingly I would feed their horses

    ;

    Han’s breadth be sure, etc.

    Many many mixed faggots,

    Willingly I cut the artemisia

    ;

    Those girls going home,

    Willingly I would feed their colts

    ;

    Han’s breadth be sure, etc.

    The highest range of thought in the odes is contained in

    Part TY., but the whole collection is worthy of perusal, and

    thi-ough the labors of Dr. Legge has been made more accessible

    than it was ever before. The amount of native literature extant,

    illustrative, critical, and philological, referring to the

    Book of Odes ‘ is not so large as that on the Tik King ; but the

    ‘ A recent German translation of these odes has combined, with mucli accuracy

    and a smooth versification, the peculiar adaptability of that tongue to the

    THE THREE IIITUALS. 643

    fifty-five works quoted in his preface ‘ contain enough to indicate

    their industry and acumen. Tliese works will elevate the

    character of Chinese scholarsliip in the opinion of those foreigners

    who remember the disadvantaijces of its isolation from

    the literature of other lands, and the difficulties of a language

    which rendered that literature inaccessible.”

    The fourth section in the Catalogue contains the Tlituals and

    a list of their editions and commentators, but only one of the

    three is numbered among the Jvlng and used as a text-l»ook at

    the public examinations. Tliis is the lA Ki, or ‘ Book of Rites,’

    the Memorial des Jiitct^, as M. Callery calls it in his translation,^

    and one of the works which has done so much to mold

    and maintain Chinese character and institutions. It is not superior

    in any respect to the Chau Li and the /Z/’, but owes its

    influence to its position. They were all the particular objects

    of Tsin Chi IIwangti\s ire in his efforts to destroy every ancient

    literary production in his kingdom; the present texts

    were recovered from their hiding-places about b.c. 135. The

    Chmt LI, or ‘Ttitual of Chan,’ is regarded as the work of Duke

    Chau (b.c. 1130), who gives the detail of the various offices established

    under the new dynasty, in which he bore so prominent

    a part. The sections containing the divisions of the administrative

    part of the Chinese government of that day have

    furnished the types for the six boards of the present day and

    their subdivisions. So far as we now know, no nation then existing

    could show so methodical and effective a system of national

    polity.

    reproduction (in some degree) of sounds so foreign to tlie language as Chinese.

    Shi KiiKj. JJiiH iMuonisclis Liederbuch tier Gldiunen. Uehersctzt voii Victor

    von Strauss. Heidelberg, 1880.

    ‘ Ih” GJiiiifx:’. Glassies, Vol. IV., pp. 172-180. Hongkong, 1871.

    – Compare Confucii Ghi-l’ing site TAher Gartninum, ex latina P. Lacharme

    iiiU’vpretatiom edicUt J. Mohl, Stuttgart, 1830 ; Essai sur le GM-kiny, it sur

    Pancieiine poesir rlunoise, p(ir M. Brosset jeune, Paris, 1828 ; BihUotlteque oricnt(

    de, Vol.11., p. 247 (1872). Ghi-khni, on. TArre des Vns, Traduction de M. G.

    Pauthier; Gkina Rfvi>ir,Vo\. VI., pp. 1 ff. and Ififi ff. .Innud X. G. Br. R.

    As. &r., Vol. XII., pp. 97 ff.

    •” Li-ki on Memorial des BiU’s, tntduit pour la premiere fois du cJiinois, et (u>

    compagne de notes, de commentuires et du texte orifjinal, par J. M. Callery.

    Turin et Paris, 1853.

    644 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    The / L’l is a smaller work, treating of family affairs, and

    as its name, ‘Decorum Hitual,”‘ indicates, contains di)-ections

    for domestic life, as the other does for state matters. That is

    in forty-four sections and this is in seven, and both are now

    accepted as among the most ancient works extant. The former

    was translated by Ed. Biot,’ and remains a monument of his

    scholarship and research.

    The Li K’% owes its posititai among the classics to the belief

    that Confucius here gives his views on government and manners,

    although these chapters are not regarded as the same in

    their integrity as those said to have been found in the M-alls of his

    house, and brought to light in the second century p..r. by Ivao

    Tang of Lu, under the name of ^^^ L’l, or the ‘ Scholar’s Ritual.’

    In the next century Tai Teh collected all the existing

    docimients relating to the ancient rituals in two hundred and

    fourteen sections, oidy a portion of which M-ere then held to

    have emanated from the sage and recorded by his pupils. His

    work, in eighty-five sections, is called Ta Tai Li, or the

    ‘Senior Tai’s Hitual,’ to distinguish it from the Siiao Tai

    Ij^ or the ‘Junior Tai’s Tiitual,’ a work in forty-nine sections,

    by his nephew, Tai Sliing. This is the work now known as

    the Li Ki, M. Gallery’s translation of which contains the

    authorized text of Ivanghi according to Fan Tsz’-tang, in

    thirty-six sections, with many notes. His translation is wearisome

    reading from the multitude of parentheses interjected

    into the text, distracting the attention and Aveakening its contiruiity.

    Those who have read iVbbc Hue’s entertaining remarks on

    the Rites in China will find in these three works the reason and

    application of their details. In explanation of their importance,

    M. Callery shows in a few words what a wide field they

    cover : ” Ceremony epitomizes the entire Chinese mind ; and,

    in my opinion, the Li L\^l i&jyer se the most exact and complete

    monograph that China lias been able to give of itself to other

    nations. Its affections, if it has anv, are satisfied bv cere-

    ‘ Le TcJw/ni-Li on. Ritfs d^n Tcheou, trndvit pour la premiere foia du chinot8»

    par Feu fidouard Biot. 2 Tomes. Paris, 1851.

    THE Li Kl, OR 1500K OF IJITES. 645

    monj ; its duties are fulfilled by ceremony ; its virtues and

    vices are refen-ed to ceremony ; the natural relations of created

    beings essentially link themselves in ceremonial—in a word,

    to that people ceremonial is man as a moral, political, and religious

    being in his multiplied relations with family, country,

    society, morality, and religion.” This explanation shows, too,

    how meagre a rendering eereiiiony is for the Chinese idea of li,

    for it includes not only the extcriud conduct, but involves the

    right principles from which all true etiquette and politeness

    spring. The state religion, the government of a family, and

    the rules of society are all founded on the true li, or relations

    of things. Reference has already been made to this profoundly

    esteemed work (p. 520), and one or two more extracts will suffice

    to exhibit its spirit and style, singular in its object and

    scope among all the bequests of antiquity.

    Affection bet ipceii father and son.

    In the Domestic Rules it is said, “Men in serving their parents, at the first

    cock-crowing, must all wash their hands ; rinse their mouth ; comb their

    hair ; bind it together with a net ; fasten it with a bodkin, forming it into a

    tuft ; brush off the dust ; put on the hat, tying the strings, ornamented with

    tassels ; also the waistcoat, frock, and girdle, with the note-sticks placed in it,

    and the indispensables attached on the right and lelt ; bind on the greaves;

    and put on the shoes, tying up the strings. Wives must serve their husband’s

    father and mother as their own; at the first cock-crowing, they must wash

    their hands ; rinse their mouth ; comb their hair ; bind it together with a net

    ;

    fasten it with a bodkin, forming it into a tu-t ; put on their frocks and girdles,

    with the indispensables attached on the right and left; fasten on their bags of

    perfumery ; put on and tie up their shoes. Then go to the chamber of their

    father and mother, and father-in-law and mother-in-law, and having entered,

    in a low and placid tone they must in(pure wliether their dress is too warm or

    too cool ; if the parents have pain or itching, themselves must respect ully

    press or rub [the part aTected] ; and i: they enter or leave the room, themselves

    either going before or following, must respect “nlly support them. In

    bringing the apparatus for washing, the younger must present the bowl ; tlie

    elder the water, begging them to pour it and wash ; and alter they have

    washed, hand them the towel. In asking and respectl’uUy jjresenting what

    they wish to eat, they must cheer them by their mild manner ; and must wait

    till their father and mother, and father-in-law and mother-in-law have eaten,

    and then retire. Boys and girls, who have not arrived at the age of manhood

    and womanhood, at the first cock-crowing must wash their hands; rinse their

    mouth ; comb their hair ; bind it together with a net ; and form it into a tuft

    0’46 TIIK MIDDLK KINGDOM.

    I)rusli oPF the dust ; tie on their hags, having them well snpplied with perfumery

    ; then hasten at early dawn to see their parents, and inquire if they have

    eaten and drunk ; if they have, they must immediately retire ; but if not,

    they must assist their superiors in seeing that everything is duly made ready.”

    Of rejirociiKj jMreiits.

    ” When his parents are in error, the son with a liumble spirit, pleasing

    countenance, and gentle tone, must point it out to them. If they do not receive

    liis reproof, he must strive more <ind more to be dutiful and respectful

    toward them till they <ire pleased, and then he must again point out their

    error. But if lie does not succeed in pleasing them, it is better that he should

    continue to reiterate reproof, than permit them to do injury to the whole

    department, district, village, or neighborhood. And if the parents, irritated

    and displeased, chastise their son till the blood flows from him, even then he

    must not dare to harbor the least resentment ; hut, on the contrary, should

    treat them with increased respect and dutifulness.

    Respect to be paid jxirents in one^s conduct.

    ‘• Although your father and mother are dead, if you propose to yourself any

    good work, only reflect how it will make their names illustrious, and your

    purpose will be fixed. So if you propose to do Avhat is not good, only consider

    how it will disgrace the names of your father and mother, and you will desist

    from your purpose.” ‘

    These extracts sliow soinetlniig of tlie molding principles

    which operate on Chinese yontli from earliest years, and the

    scope given in his education to filial piety. From conning such

    precepts the lad is imbued with a respect for his parents that

    finally becomes intensified into a religious sentiment, and forms,

    as he increases in age, his only creed—the worship of ancestors.

    His seniors, on the other hand, have but to point to the textbooks

    before him as authority for all things they e.xact, and as

    being the only possible source of those virtues that conduct to

    happiness. The position of females, too, has remained, under

    these dogmas, much the same for hundreds of years. ISTor is it

    difticult to account for the influence whieli they have had.

    Those who were most aware of their excellence, and had had

    some experience in the tortuous dealings of the human heart,

    as husbands, fathers, mothers, officers, and seniors, were those

    who had the power to enforce obedience upon wives, children,

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. V., pp. 306-312.

    THE CHUX TSIU, OR SPRI^STG AND AUTUMX KECOKD. 647

    daughters, subjects, and juniors, as well as teach it to them.

    These must wait till increasing years brought about their turn

    to fill the upper rank in the social system, by wliich time habit

    would lead them to exercise their sway over the rising generation

    in the same manner. Thus it would be perpetuated, for

    the man could not depart from the way his childhood was

    trained ; had the results been more disastrous, it would have

    been easy for us to explain why, amid the ignorance, craft, ambition,

    and discontent found in a populous, nneducated, pagan

    country, such formal rules had failed of benefiting societ}^ to

    any lasting extent. We must look higher for this result, and

    acknowledge the degree of wholesome restraint upon the passions

    of the Chinese which the Author of whatever is good in

    these tenets has seen fit to confer upon them in order to the preservation

    of society.

    The fifth section contains the Chan Tslu, or ‘ Spring and

    Autumn Record,’ and its literature. This is the only one of

    the King attributed to Confucius, though whether we have in

    the Becord, as it now exists, a genuine compilation of the sage,

    does not appear to be beyond doubt. His object being to construct

    a narrative of events in continuation of the Shu King,

    he, with assistance from his pupils, drew np a history of his

    own country, extending from the reign of Ping AVang to about

    the period of his bii-th (b.c. T22 to 480). Inasmuch as the

    author of this chronicle confined himself to the relation of such

    facts as he deemed Avorthy to be recorded, and was not al)t)ve

    altering or concealing such details as in his private judgment

    appeared unworthy of the princes of his dynasty, this history

    cannot be regarded as exactly in conformity with modern notions

    of what is desirable in -works of this class. That Confucius

    wished to leave behind him a lasting monument to his own

    name, as well as a narration of events, we gather from mor.*

    than one of his utterances : ” The superior man is distressed

    lest his name slioulil not be honorably mentioned after death

    My principles do not make way in the world ; how shall T make

    myself known to future ages ? ” In order, therefore, to insure

    the preservation of his chef cVoeuvre to all time, he combines

    with the annals certain censures and rig-hteous decisions which

    648 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    should render it at once a liistoiy and a text-book of moral lessons

    ; and in giving tiie book to bis disciples, “It is bj the

    Chan. Tsiu,’” be said, ”that after-ages will know me, and also

    by it that thej will condemn me.”

    The title, ” Spring and Autumn,” is understood by many Chinese

    scholars to be a term for chronological annals ; in this case

    the name being explained “because their commendations are

    life-giving like spring, and their censures life-withering like

    autumn,”‘ or, as we find in the Trlnietricul Classic, ” which by

    praise and blame separates the good and bad.” ‘ A closer inspection

    of the CJiaii Tsin is sure to prove disappointing; spite

    of the glowing accounts of Mencius and its great reputation,

    this history is simply a bald record of incidents whose entire

    contents afford barely an hour’s reading. “Instead of a history

    of events,” writes Dr. Legge, ” woven artistically together,

    we find a congeries of the briefest possible intimations of matters

    in which the court and State of Lu were more or less concerned,

    extending over two hundred and forty-two years, without

    the slightest tincture of literary ability in the composition,

    or the slightest indication of judicial opinion on the part of the

    writer. The paragraphs are always brief. Each one is designed

    to conmiemorate a fact ; l>nt whether that fact be a display of

    virtue calculated to command our admiration, or a deed of

    atrocity fitted to awaken our disgust, it can hardly be said that

    there is anything in the language to convey to us the shadow of

    an idea of the author’s feelings about it. The notices—for we

    cannot call them narratives—are absolutely unimpassioned. A

    base murder and a shining act of heroism are chronicled just

    as the eclipses of the sun are chronicled. So and so took

    ‘ This somewhat fanciful explanation of. the title is from the Han commentators.

    Dr. Legge {(Jlassim, Vol. V., Prolegomena, p. 7) observes that “not

    even in the work do we find such ‘ censures ‘ and ‘ commendations ; ‘ and much

    less are they trumpeted in the title of it.” His interpretation that Spring and

    Autumn are put by synechdoche for all four seasons, i.e., the entire record of

    the year, appears to he a more natiu’al account. The same writer declines that

    ” the whole hook is a collection of riddles, to which there are as many answers

    as there are gnessers ” Tlie interesting chapters of his pmlejioniena to this

    translation, and his judicious criticisms on these early records, should tempt all

    sinologues to read them throughout.

    place; that is all. Xo details are given; no judgment is expressed.”

    So imperturbable a recital could hardly have been saved from

    extinction even by the great reputation of the sage, had it not

    been for the amplification of Tso, a younger contemporary or

    follower of Confucius, who lillel up the meagre sentences and

    added both flesh and life to the skeleton. It ‘n possible that

    the enthusiastic praises of Mencius are due to the fact that he

    associated the text and commentary as one work. The Chuen

    of Tso has indeed always been regarded as foremost among the

    secondary classics ; uor is it too much, considering his terse yet

    vivid and pictorial style, to call its author, as does Dr. Legge,

    ” the Froissart of China.” ‘ In addition to his purpose of explaining

    the text of the Chun Tuia, Tso’s secondary object was

    to give a general view of the history of China during the period

    embraced by that record ; unless he had put his living tableaiix

    into the framework of his uuister, there is grave reason to fear

    that many most important details relating to the sixth and seventh

    centuries b.c. would have been forever lost. Two other

    early commentaries, those of Kung Yang and Kidi Liang, dating

    from about the second century b.c, occupy a high position

    in the estimation of Chinese scholars as illustrative of the original

    chronicle. They do not compare with the Tf<o Chuen

    either in interest or in authority, though it may be said that a

    study of the Chun T^’iu can hardly be made unless attended

    with a careful perusal of their contents. It will not be without

    interest to give an example of the Record^ followed with elucidations

    of the text by these three aimotators. The second year

    of Duke Hi of Lu (b.c. G57) runs as follows

    :

    1. In thvi [duke’s] second year, in spring, in the king’s first month, we

    [aided in the] walling of Tsu-kin.

    2. In summer, in the fifth month, on Sin-sz’, we buried our duchess, Gai

    Kiang.

    3. An army of Yu and an army of Tsin extinguished Kia-yang.

    ‘ The same writer adds, in summing up the merits of tlie T,^o (lliuen : ” It

    is, in my opinion, tlie most precious literary treasure which has come down to

    posterity from the Chow dynasty.”

    (Jlaam’s, Vol. V., Proleg., p. 35.

    650 THE 3IIDDLE KIXGDO:\r.

    4. Ill autuiun, in the ninth month, the Marquis of Tsz’, tlie Duke of Sung

    an officer of Kiang, and an officer of Hwang, made a covenant in Kwan.

    5. Ill winter, in the tenth month, there was no rain.

    G. A body of men from Tsu made an incursion into Ching.

    Upon the tliird entry for tliis year tlie T.so Chuen enlarges

    :

    Seiin Seih, of Tsin, requested leave from the marquis to take his team of

    Kiuh horses and his J5e«7t of Chui-keih jade, and with tlieni borrow a way from

    Yu to march through it and attack Kwoh. “Tliey are the things I hold most

    precious,” said the marquis. Seih replied, “But if you get a way through

    Yu, it is but like placing them in a treasury outside the State for a time.”

    ” There is Kung Che-kl in Yu,” objected the duke. ” Kuug Clie-kl,” returned

    the other, ” is a weak man, and incapable of remonstrating vigorously. And,

    moreover, from his youth up he has always been with the Duke of Yu. who is

    so familiar with him that though he should remonstrate the duke will not

    listen to him.” The marquis accordingly sent Seun Seih to borrow a way

    through Yu with this message: “Formerly Ki, against right and reason, entered

    your State from Tien-ling, and attacked the three gates of Ming. It

    suffered for so doing, all through your grace. Now Kwoh, against right and

    reason, has been keeping guards about the travellers’ lodges, to make incursions

    from them into my southern l)orders, and I venture to beg a right of way

    from you to ask an account of its offence.” The Duke of Yu granted the request,

    and even asked to take the lead in invading Kwoh. Kung Clie-ki

    remonstrated with him, but in vain ; and he raised his army for the enterprise.

    In summer, Li Kill and Seun Seih brought on the army of Tsin, made

    a junction with that of Yu, and invaded Kwoh, when they extinguished Hiayang.

    The army of Yu is mentioned first, because of the bribes which the

    duke accepted.

    The coniiuentar}^ of Knng Yang says on tlie same paragraph :

    Yu was a small State ; why is it that it is here made to take precedence of

    a great one ‘? To make Yu take tlie lead in the wickedness.

    Why is Yu made to take the lead in the wickedness V Yu received the

    bribes with whicli those [wlio were going to] extinguish the State [of Kwoh]

    borrowed a way through it, and thus brought on its own ruin.

    IIow did it receive [those] bribes ‘i Duke Hieii [of Tsin] gave audience to

    his great officers, and asked them why it was that he had lain all night without

    sleeping One of them advanced and said, “Was it because you did not feel

    at ease [in your mind] ? or was it because your [proper] bedfellow was not by

    your side “‘. ” The duke gave no answer, and then Seun Seih came forward

    and said, “Was it because Yu and Kwoh were appearing to you ? ” The duke

    motioned to him to come [more] forward, and then went with him into an inner

    apartment to take counsel. ” I wish,” said he, ” to attack Kwoh, but Yu

    will go to its velief. and if I attack Yu Kwoh will succor it ; what is to be

    done ? I wish to consider the case with you.” Seun Seih replied, “If you

    will use my counsel, you shall take Kwoh to-day and Yu to-morrow ; why

    EXTRACTS FROM IJIK i’UUN TSIU. ‘ 651

    should your lordship he trouhled y ” ” IIow is this to he accomplished’:”‘

    asked the duke. ” Please let [me go toj Yu,” said the other, ‘” with your team

    01 Kiuh horses and your white peth or Chui-keih, and you are sure to get

    [what you wautj. It will only be taking your valuable {jai/t] Ironi your inner

    treasury and depositing it in an outer one ; your lor(l^^hip will lose nothing

    by it.” The duke said, “Yes; but Kung Che-ki is there. What are

    we to do with him ? ” Seun Seih replied, ” Kung Che-ki is indeed knowing ;

    but the Duke of Yu is covetous, and fond of valuable curios ; he is sure

    not to follow his minister’s advice. I beg you, considering everything, to let

    nie go.” . . . etc., etc.

    The following, as a l)rief sample of the Kiih Liang conmientaiy,

    takes up the narrative M’here we have broken off. There

    is so ninch that is similar in these two latter exegeses as to lead

    to the belief that they “were composed with reference to each

    other.

    On this Duke Hien soirght [in the way proposed] for a passage [through

    Yu] to invade Kwoh. Kung Che-ki remonstrated, saying, “The words of the

    envoy of Tsin are humble, but his oSFerings are great ; the matter is sure not

    to be advantageous to Yu.” The Duke of Yu, however, would not listen to

    him, but received the offerings and granted the passage through the State.

    Kung Che-ki remonstrated [again], suggesting that the case was like that in

    the saying about the lips being gone and the teeth becoming cold ; alter wliicli

    he fled with his wi^e and children to Tsao.

    Duke Hien then destroyed Kwoh, and in the fifth year [of our Duke Hi] he

    dealt in the same way with Yu. Seun Seih then had the horses led forward,

    while he carried the peih in his hand, and said : “The peih is just as it was,

    but the horses’ teeth are grown longer ! ” ‘

    Meagre as are the items <»f the text, they sliow, together with

    its copious commentaries, the methodical care of the early Chinese

    in preserving their ancient records. The hints which these

    and other books give of their intellectual activity during the

    eight centuries before C/hrist, naturally compel a higher estimate

    of their culture than we have hitherto allowed them.”

    The sixth section of the Catalogue has already been noticed

    as comprising the literature of the JTiao King.

    ‘ To this the Kung Yang commentator adds: “This he said in joke.”

    * Compare Tchun Tsieov, Jje Prinfemps cf- PAutomne, mi Anri/iles de la Pnneipaute

    (Je Loii, depuis 122 jusqu” en 481, etc. Traduites en fran^ow, purLQ

    Roux Deshauterayes. 1750. Dr. E. Bretschneider, in the Chinese BecordeVf

    Vol. IV., pp. 51-52, 1871.

    652 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    Tlie seventh section contains a list of works written to eluci^

    date tlie Five Classics as a whole, and if their character for

    orio-inality of thought, variety of research, extent of illustration,

    and explanation of obscurities was comparable to their size and

    numbers, no books in any language could boast of the aids possessed

    by the Wu Khvj for their right comprehension. Of

    these commentators, Chu Hi of Kiangsi, M’ho lived during the

    Sun<‘- dvnasty, has so greatly exceeded all others in illustrating

    and expounding them, that his explanations are now considered

    of almost equal authority with the text, and are always given

    to the beginner to assist him in ascertaining its true meaning.

    The eighth section of the Catalogue comprises memoirs and

    comments upon the &’ Shu^ or ‘ Four Books,’ which have been

    nearly as influential in forming Chinese mind as the Wu King.

    They are by different authors, and since their publication have

    perhaps undergone a few alterations and interpolations, but the

    changes either in these or the Five Classics cannot be very

    numerous or great, since the large body of disciples who followed

    Confucius, and had copies of his writings, would carefully

    preserve uncorrupt those which he edited, and hand do\\’n

    unimpaired those which contained his sayings. Xone of the

    Four Books were actually written by Confucius himself, but

    three of them are considered to be a digest of his sentiments ;

    they were arranged in their present form by the brothers Ching,

    who flourished about eight centuries ago.

    The first of the Four Books is the Ta Illoh, i.e., ‘ Superior’

    or ‘ Great Learning,’ which originally formed one chapter of

    the Book of Rites. It is now divided into eleven chapters,

    only the first of which is ascribed to the sage, the remainder

    forming the comment upon them ; the whole does not contain

    two thousand words. The argument of the Ta Ilioh is briefly

    summed up in four heads, ” the improvement of one’s self, the

    regulation of a family, the government of a state, and the rule

    of an empire.” In the first chapter this idea is thus developed in a circle peculiarly Chinese:

    The ancients, who wished to illustrate renovating virtue throughout the

    Empire, first ordered well their own states. Wishing to order well their

    states, they first regulated their lamilies. Wishing to regulate their families,

    THE GREAT LEARNING AND JUST MEDIUM. 653

    they first cultivated tlieir persons. Wishing to cultivate their person!’, they

    first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to

    be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their tlioughts, they

    first extended their knowledge to the utmost. Such extension oi.’ knowledge

    lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became-

    complete : knowledge being comi)lete, their thoughts were sincere : their

    thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified : their hearts being

    rectified, their persons were cultivated : their persons being cultivated, their

    families were regulated : families being regulated, states were rightly governed

    ; and states being rightly governed, the Empire was made tran(iuil.

    From the Son of Heaven to the man of the people, all must consider the

    cultivation of the person to be the foundation.

    The subsequent c]i;q)ters mainly consist of the terse sayings

    of ancient kings and authors gathered and arranged by Tsang

    and aftei’ward hy CJliu Hi, designed to ilhistrate and enforce

    the teachings of Confucius contained in the first. One quotation

    only can be given from Chapter X.

    In the Declaration of [tlio Duke of] Tsin, it is said : ” Let me have but one

    minister plain and sincere, not pretending to other abilities, but with a simple

    upright mind ; and possessed of generosity, regarding the talents of others as

    though he possessed them himself, and where he fintls accomplished and perspicacious

    men, loving them in his lieart more than his mouth expresses, and

    really sliowing himself able to avail himself of them ; such a minister will be

    able to preserve my descendants and the Black-haired people, and benefits to

    the kingdom might well be looked for. But if it be, when lie finds men of

    ability, he is jealous and hateful to them ; and when he meets accomplished

    and perspicacious men, he opposes theni and will not allow their advancement,

    showing that he is really not able to avail liimself of them ; such a

    minister will not be able to protect my descendants and the Black-haired

    people. May he not even be pronounced dangerous V

    Tt will be willingly allowed, ^^hen reading these extracts,

    that, destitute as they were of the higli sanctions and animating

    hopes and promises of the Word of God, these Chinese

    moralists began at the right place in tlieir endeavors to reform

    and benefit their countrymen, and that they did not fnlly succeed

    was owing to causes beyond their reforming power.

    The second of the Four Books is called CJnin’j Ynny, or the

    ‘ Just Medium,’ and is, in some respects, the most elaborate

    treatise in the series. Tt was composed by Kung Kih, the

    grandson of Confucius (better known hy his style Tsz’-sz’),

    about ninety years after tlie sage’s death. It once also formed part of the Vi Ki., from wliicli it, as well as the Ta Hioh.,

    Avere taken out by Chii Hi to make two of the Sz’ Shu. It

    lias thirty-three chapters, and has been the subject of numei’ous

    comments. The great purpose of the author is to illustrate the

    nature of human virtue, and to exhibit its conduct in the

    actions of an ideal Jiiun fs2\ or ‘princely man ‘ of immaculate

    propriety, who always demeans himself correctly, without going

    to extremes. He carries out the advice of Hesiod

    :

    ” Let every action prove a mean confess’d;

    A moderation is, in all, the best.”

    True virtue consists in never going to extremes, though it does

    not appear that by this the sage meant to repress acti\e benevolence

    on the one hand, or encourage selfish stolidity on the

    other. C/d/Kj, or uprightness, is said to be the basis of all

    things; and /to, harmony, the all-pervading principle of the

    universe ; ” extend uprightness and harmony to the utmost,

    and heaven and earth will be at rest, and all things be produced

    and nourished according to their nature.” The general character

    of the work is monotonous, but relieved with some animated

    passages, among which the description of the Mun tsz\ or

    princely man, is one. ” The princely man, in dealing with others, does not descend to anything low or improper. How unbending his valor ! He stands in the middle, and leans not to either side. The princely man enters into no situation where he is not himself. If he holds a high situation, he does not treat with contempt those below him ; if he occupies an inferior station, he uses no mean arts to gain the favor of his superiors. He corrects himself and blames not othei’S ; he feels no dissatisfaction.

    On the one hand, he nun-miirs not at Heaven ; nor, on the other, does he feel resentment toward man. Hence, the superior man dwells at ease, entirely waiting the will of Heaven.”‘

    ‘ Collie’s Foicr linakx, pp. 0-10.

    THE SAGE, OR PRINCELY MAN. 655

    Chinese moralists divide maidcind into three classes, on these principles : ” Men of the highest order, as sages, worthies, philanthropists, and lieroes, are good without instruction ; men of the middling classes are so after instruction, such as x^usbandnien, pliysicians, astrologers, soldiers, etc., while those of the lowest are bad in spite of instruction, as play-actors, pettifoggers, slaves, swindlers, etc.” The first are shing^ or sages; the second are Men, or worthies ; the last are yu, or worthless. Sir John Davis notices the similarity of this triplicate classification with that of Ilesiod. The Just Med’turii thus describes the first character:

    It is only the sage who is possessed of that clear discrimination and profound intelligence which fit him for filling a high station ; who possesses that enlarged liberality and mild benignity which lit him for bearing with others; who manifests that firmness and magnanimity that enable him to hold fast good principles ; who is actuated by that benevolence, justice, propriety, and

    knowledge which command reverence ; and who is so deeply learned in

    polite learning and good principles as to qualify him rightly to discriminate.

    Vast and extensive are the effects of his virtue ; it is like the deep and living

    stream which flows unceasingly ; it is substantial and extensive as Heaven,

    and profound as the great abyss. Wlierever ships sail or chariots run ; wherever

    the heavens overshadow and the earth sustains ; wherever the sun and

    moon shine, or frosts and dews fall, among all who have blood and breath,

    there is not one who does not honor and love him.

    Sincerity or conscientiousness holds a high place among the

    attributes of the superior or princely man ; but in translating

    the Chinese terms into English, it is sometimes puzzling enough

    to find those which will exhibit the exact idea of the original.

    For instance, sincerity is described as “the origin or consummation

    of all things ; without it, there would be nothing. It is

    benevolence by which a man’s self is perfected, and knowledge

    by which he perfects others.” In another place we read that

    ” one sincere w^ish would move heaven and earth.” The Ixlun tsz’

    is supposed to possess these qualities. The standard of excellence

    is placed so high as to be absolutely unattainable by unaided

    human nature ; and though Kih probably intended to

    elevate the character of his grandfather to this height, and thus

    hand him down to future ages as a sMng Jin, or ‘ perfect and

    holy man,’ he has, in the providence of God, done his countrymen

    great service in setting before them such a character as is

    ‘lb., p. 28.

    here given in the Chung Yung. Bj being made a text-book in the schools it has been constantly studied and memorized by generations of students, to their great benefit.

    The third of the Four Books, called the Lun Yu, or ‘ Analects of Confucius,’ is divided into twenty chapters, in which the collective body of his disciples recorded his woi’ds and actions, much in the same way that Boswell did those of Johnson.

    It has not, however, the merit of chronological arrangement,

    and parts of it are so sententious as to be obscure, if not

    almost unintelligible. This work discloses the sage’s shrewd

    insight into the character of his conntiymen, and knowledge of

    the manner in which they could best be approached and influenced.

    Upon the commencement of his career as reformer and

    teacher, he contented himself with reviving the doctrines of

    the ” Ancients ; ” but finding his influence increasing as he

    continued these instructions, he then—yet always as under their

    authority—engrafted original ideas and tenets upon the minds

    of his generation. Had even his loftiest sentiments been propounded

    as his own, they would hardly have been received in

    his day, and, perhaps, through the contempt felt for him by

    his contemporaries, have been lost entirely.

    Among the most remarkable passages of the Four Books are

    the following : Replying to the question of Tsz’-kung, ” Is there

    one word wliicli may serve as a rule of practice for all of one’s

    life?” Confucius said: “Is not .^ihu (‘reciprocity’) such a

    word ? What you do not want done to youi-self, do not do to

    others.” In a previous place Tsz’-kung had said : ” What I do

    not wish men to do to me, I also wish not to do to men.” Confucius

    replied : ” Tsz’, you have not attained to that.” The

    same principle is repeated in the C/t ung Yung, where it is said

    that the man who does so is not far from the path. Another

    is quoted in the Imperial Dictionary, under the word Fuh: ” The people of the west have sages,” or ” There is a sage (or holy man) among the people of the west,” where the object is to show that he did not mean Buddha. As Confucius was contemporary M’ith Ezra, it is not impossible that he had heard something of the history of the Israelites scattered throughout

    the one hundred and twenty-seven provinces of the Persian

    THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS, 657

    monarchy, or of the writings of their prophets, though there is not the least historical evidence that he knew anything of the countries in Western Asia, or of the books extant in their languages. Some idea of the character of the Lun Yu may be gathered from a few detached sentences, selected from Marshman’s translation.’

    Grieve uot that men know jou not, but be grieved that you are ignorant of men.

    Governing with equity resembles the north star, which is fixed, and all the stars surround it.

    Have no friends unlike yourself.

    Learning without reflection will profit nothing ; reflection without learningwill leave the mind uneasy and miserable.

    Knowledge produces pleasure clear as water ; complete virtue brings happiness solid as a mountain ; knowledge pervades all things ; virtue is tranquil and happy ; knowledge is delight ; virtue is long life.

    Without virtue, both riches and honor seem to me like the passing cloud.

    The sage’s conduct is affection and benevolence in operation.

    The man who possesses complete virtue wishes to fix his own mind therein, and also to fix the minds of others ; he wishes to be wise himself, and would fain render others equally wise.

    Those who, searching for virtue, refuse to stay among the virtuous, how can they obtain knowledge ? The rich and honorable are those with whom men desire to associate ; not obtaining their company in the paths of virtue, however, do not remain in it.

    In your appearance, to fall below decency would be to resemble a savage rustic, to exceed it would be to resemble a fop ; let your appearance be decent and moderate, then you will resemble the honorable man.

    When I first began with men, I heard words and gave credit for conduct; now I hear words and observe conduct.

    I have found no man who esteems virtue as men esteem pleasure.

    The perfect man loves all men ; he is not governed by private affection or interest, but only regards the public good or right reason. The wicked man, on the contrary, loves if you give, and likes if you commend him.

    The perfect man is never satisfied with himself. He that is satisfied with himself is not perfect.

    He that is sedulous and desires to improve in his studies is not ashamed to stoop to ask of others.

    Sin in a virtuous man is like an eclipse of the sun and moon ; all men

    gaze at it, and it passes away ; the virtuous man mends, and the world standsin admiration of his fall.

    ‘ The TFbrA’.* of Confucius ; containing the oi’i(jiiud text, %cith a Translation,by J. Marshman. Vol. I. Serampore, 1807.Vol. I.–43

    Patience is the most necessary thing to have in this world. A few facts respecting the life, and observations on the character, of the great sage of Chinese letters, may here be added, though the extracts already made from his writings are sufficient to show his style. Confucius was born b.c.551, in the twentieth year of the Emperor Ling (about the date at which Cyrus became king of Persia), in the kingdom of Lu, now included in Yenchau, in the south of IShantung. His father was a district magistrate, and dying when lie was only three years old, left his care and education to his mother, who, although not so celebrated as the mother of Mencius, seems to have nurtured in hiui a respect for morality, and directed his studies. During his youth he was remarkable fuj- a grave demeanor and knowledge

    of ancient learning, which gained him the respect and admiration

    of his townsmen, so that at the age of twenty, the year

    after his marriage, he was entrusted M’itli the duties of a subordinate

    office in the revenue department, and afterward appointed

    a supervisor of fields and herds. In his twenty-fourth

    year his mother deceased, and in conformity with the ancient

    usage, which had then fallen into disuse, he immediately resigned

    all his employments to mourn for her three years, during M’hicli

    time he devoted himself to study. This practice has continued

    to the present day.

    His examination of the ancient writings led him to resolve

    upon instructing his countrymen in them, and to revive the

    usages of former kings, especially in whatever related to the

    rites. His position gave him an entry to court in Lu, where

    he met educated and influential men, and by the time he was

    thirty he was already in repute among them as a teacher. His

    own king, Siang, gave him the means of visiting the imperial

    t’ourt at Lohyang. Here, together Avith his disciples, he examined

    everything, past and present, with close scrutiny, and returned

    home with renewed regard for the ancieiit founders of

    the House of Chau. His scholars and admirers increased in

    numbers, and a corresponding extension of fame followed, so

    that ere long he had an invitation to the court of the prince of

    Tsi, but on arrival there was mortified to learn that curiosity

    had been the prevailing cause of the invitation, and not a desire

    to adopt his principles. He accordingly left him and went

    LIFE OF CONFUCIUS. 659

    home, where the struggles between three rival families carried disorder and misery throughout the kingdom ; it was with the greatest difficulty that he remained neutral between these factions.

    His disciples were from all parts of the land, and public opinion began to be influenced by his example. At length an opportunity offered to put his tenets into practice. The civil strife had resulted in the flight of the rebels, and Lu was settling down into better government, when in b.c. 500 Confucius was made the magistrate of the town of Chung-tu by his sovereign, Duke Ting. He was now fifty years old, and began to carry out the best rule he could in his position as minister of crime. For three years he administered the affairs of State with such a mixture of zeal, prudence, severity, and

    regard for the rights and wants of all classes, that Lu soon

    became the envy and dread of all other States. He even

    succeeded in destroying two or three baronial castles M’hose

    chiefs had set all lawful authority at defiance. His precepts

    had been fairly put in practice, and, like Solomon, his influence

    in after-ages was increased by the fact of acknoM’ledged

    success.

    It was but little more than an experiment, however ; for Duke

    King of Tsi, becoming envious of the growing power of his

    neighbor, sent Ting a tempting present, consisting of thirty

    horses beautifully caparisoned, and a number of curious rai’ities,

    with a score of the most accomplished courtesans he could

    procure in his territories. This scheme of gaining the favor of

    the youthful monarch, and driving the obnoxious cynic from

    his counj3ils, succeeded, and Confucius soon after retired by

    compulsion into private life. He moved into the dominions of

    the prince of Wei, accompanied by such of his disciples as chose

    to follow him, where he employed himself in extending liis

    doctrines and travelling into the adjoining States.

    He Mas at times applauded and pati’onized, but quite as often

    the object of persecution and contumely ; more than once his

    life was endangered. He compared himself to a dog driven

    from his home : ” I have the fidelity of that animal, and I am

    treated like it. But what matters the ingratitude of men ?

    They cannot hinder me from doing all the good that has been appointed me. If my precepts are disregarded, I have the consolation of knowing in my own breast that I have faithfully performed my duty.” lie sometimes spoke in a manner that showed his own impression to be that heaven had conferred on him a special commission to instruct the world. On one or two occasions, when he was in jeopardy, he said : ” If IJeaven means not to obliterate this doctrine from the earth, the men of Kwang can do nothing to me.” And ” as Heaven has produced whatever virtue is in nie, what can Ilwan Tui do to me 5f ” In his instructions he improved passing events to afford useful lessons, and some of those recorded are at least ingenious. Observing a fowler one day soi’tinghis birds into different cages, he said, ” I do not see any old birds here ; Where have you put them ? ” ” The old birds,” replied the fowler, ” are too wary to be caught ; they are on the lookout, and if they see a net or cage, far from falling into the snare they escape and never return.

    Those young ones which are in company with them likewise escape, but only such as separate into a flock by themselves and rashly approach are the birds I take. If perchance I catch an old bird it is because he follows the young ones.”

    ” You have heard him,” observed the sage, turning to his disciples; “the words of this fowler afford us matter for instruction.

    LIFE OF CONFUCIUS. G61

    The young birds escape the snare oidy when they keep with the old ones, the old ones are taken when they follow the young ; it is thus with maidvind. Presumption, hardihood, want of forethought, and inattention are the principal reasons why young people are led astray. Inflated with their small attainments they have scarcely made a commencement in learning before they think they know everything; they have scarcely performed a few common virtuous acts, and straight they fancy themselves at the height of wisdom. Under this false impression they doubt nothing, hesitate at nothing, pay attention to nothing ; they rashly undertake acts without consulting the aged and experienced, and thus securely following their own notions, they are misled and fall into the flrst snare laid for ihem. If you see an old man of sober years so badly advised as to be taken with the sprightliness of a youth, attached tq him, and thinking and acting with him, he is led astray by him and soon taken in the same snare. Do not forget the answer of the fowler.””

    Once, when looking at a stream, he compared its ceaseless

    current to the transmission of good doctrine through succeeding

    generations, and as one race had received it they should liand

    it down to others. ” Do not imitate those isolated men [the

    Rationalists] who are wise only for themselves ; to communicate

    the modicum of knowledge and virtue we possess to others will

    never impoverish ourselves.” lie seems to have entertained

    only faint hopes of the general reception of his doctrine, though

    toward the latter end of his life he had as much encouragement

    in the respect paid him personally and the increase of his

    scholars as he could reasonably have wished.

    Confucius returned to his native country at the age of sixtyeight,

    and devoted his time to completing his edition of the

    classics and in teaching his now large band of disciples. He

    was consulted by his sovereign, who had invited him to return,

    and one of his last acts was to go to court to urge an attack on

    Tsi and punish the nnu’der of its duke. Many legends have

    gathered around him, so that he now stands before his countrymen

    as a sage and a demigod ; yet there is a remarkable

    absence of the prophetic and the miraculous in every event connected

    with these later writings. One story is that when he

    had finished his writings he collected his friends around him

    and made a solenm dedication of his literary labors to heaven

    as the concluding act of his life. ” he assembled all his disciples and led them out of the town to one of the hills where sacrifices had usually been offered for many years. Here he erected a table or altar, upon which he placed the books ; and then turning his face to the north, adored Heaven, and returned thanks upon his knees in a humble manner for having had life and strength granted him to enable him to accomplish this laborious undertaking ; he implored Heaven to grant that the benefit to his countrymen from so arduous a labor might not be small. He had prepared himself for this ceremony by privacy, fasting, and prayer. Chinese pictures represent the sage in the attitude of supplication, and a beam of light or a rainbow desceiiding from the sky upon the books, Avhile his scholars stand around in admiring wonder.” ‘

    A few davs before his death lie tottered about the house, sighing,

    Tai shan, ki tui Jiu!—Liang miih. hi liwai hit,

    !—Ch’ijin, ki wei hu!

    The great mountain is broken

    !The strong beam is thrown down !

    The wise man withers like a plant

    !lie died soon after, b.c. 478, aged seventy-three, leaving a

    single descendant, his grandson Tsz’-sz, thi-ougli whom the succession

    has been transmitted to the pi-esent day. During his

    life the return of the Jews from Bal)ylon, the invasion of

    Greece by Xerxes, and concjucst of Egypt l)y the Persians took

    place. Posthumous honors in great variety, amounting to idolatrous

    worship, have been conferred upon him. His title is the

    ‘Most Holy Ancient Teacher’ Kung tsz’, and the ‘Holy Duke.’

    In the reign of Kanghi, two thousand one hundred and fifty

    years after his death, there were eleven thousand males alive

    bearing his name, and most of them of the seventy-fourth generation,

    being undoubtedly one of the oldest families in the

    world. In the Sacrificial llitual a short account of his life is

    given, which closes M’ith the following pa^an :

    Confucius ! Confucius ! How great is Confucius !

    Before Confucius there never was a Confucius !

    Since Confucius there never has been a Confucius !

    Confucius ! Confucius ! How great is Confucius !

    The leading features of the })hilosophy of CVjnfucius are subordination

    to superiors and kind, upright dealing with our fellow-

    nien ; destitute of all reference to an iniseen Power to whom

    all men are accountable, they look only to this world for their

    sanctions, and make the monarch himself only partially amenable

    to a higher tribunal. It would indeed be hard to overestimate

    the influence of Confucius in his \^q,^ princelij scholar,

    and the power for good over his race this conception ever since

    has e.xerted. It might be compared to the glorious work of the

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XI., p. 421. Pauthier, La Chine, Paris, 1839,pp. 121-184.

    ClIAKACTEK OF THE CONFUCIAN SYSTEM. 663

    sculptor on tlie Acropolis of Athens—that matchless statue

    more than seventy feet in height, whose casque and spear of

    burnished brass glittered above all the temples and high places

    of the city, and engaged the constant gaze of the mariner on

    the near ^Egean ; guiding his onward course, it was still ever

    beyond his reach. Like the Athena Promachos to the ancient

    Attic voyager, so stands the klun-tsz” of Confucius among the

    ideal men of pagan moralists. The immeasurable influence

    in after-ages of the character thus portrayed proves how lofty

    was his own standard, and the national conscience has ever

    since assented to the justice of the portrait.

    From the duty, honor, and obedience owed by a child to his

    parents, he proceeds to inculcate the obligations of wives to their

    husbands, subjects to their prince, and ministers to their king,

    together with all the obligations arising from the various social

    relations. Political morality must be founded on private rectitude,

    and the beginning of all real advance was, in his opinion,

    comprised in nosce tei]_)Hiu)i. It cannot be denied that among

    much that is commendable there are a few exceptionable dogmas

    among his tenets, and Dr. Legge, as has already been seen,

    reflects severely on his disregard of truth in the Chun Tain

    and in his lifetime. Yet compared wdth the precepts of Grecian

    and Poman sages, the general tendency of his writings is good,

    while in adaptation to the society in which he lived, and their

    eminently practical character, they exceed those of western

    philosophers. lie did not deal much in sublime and unattainable

    descriptions of virtue, but rather taught how the common

    intercourse of life was to be maintained—how children should

    conduct themselves toward their parents, when a man should

    enter on office, when to marry, etc., etc., which, although they

    may seem somewhat trifling to us, were probably well calculated

    for the times and people among whom he lived.’

    ‘ Compare Dr. Legge’s lielirjions of Clnmi ; Prof. R. K. Douglas, Confucianism and Tuouism, London, 1879 ; S. Johnson, Orkntdl IMigions : China, Boston, 1877 ; A Systematical Digest of tfis Doctrines of Confiidus, according to the Analects, Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean, etc., by Ernst Faber. Translated from the German by MollendorfF, Hongkong, 1875 ; Histoire de Confucius, par J. Senamaud, Bordeaux et Paris, 1878.

    Had Confucius transmitted to posterity such works as the

    Iliad, the De Officiis, or the Dialogues of Plato, he would no

    doubt liave taken a higher rank among the commanding intellects

    of the world, but it may be well doubted whether his influence

    among his own countrymen would have been as good or

    as lasting. The variety and minuteness of liis instructions for

    the nurture and education of children, the stress he lays upon

    filial duty, the detail of etiquette and conduct he gives for the

    intercourse of all classes and ranks in society, characterize his

    writings from those of all philosophers in other countries, who,

    comparatively speaking, gave small thought to the education of

    the young. The Four Books and the Five Classics woukl not,

    80 far as regards their intrinsic character in comparison with

    other productions, be considered as anything more than curiosities

    in literature for their antiquity and language, were it not

    for the incomparable influence they have exerted over so many

    millions of minds ; in this view they are invested with an interest

    which no book, besides tlie Bible, can claim. The source

    and explanation of this influence is to be found in their use as

    text-books in the schools and competitive examinations, and

    well would it be for Christian lands if their youth had the same

    knowledge of the writings of Solomon and the Evangelists.

    Their freedom from descriptions of impurity and licentiousness,

    and alhisions to whatever debases and vitiates the heart, is a

    redeeming quality of the Chinese classics which should not be

    overlooked. Chinese literature contains enough, indeed, to pollute

    even the mind of a heathen, but its scum has become the

    sediment ; and little or nothing can be found in the writings

    that are most highly prized which will not bear perusal by any

    person in any country. Every one acquainted with the writings

    of Hindu, Greek, and Koman poets knows the glowing descriptions

    of the amours of gods and goddesses which fill their

    pages, and the purity of the Chinese canonical books in this

    respect must be considered as remarkable.

    For the most part the Chinese, in worshipping Confucius, content

    themselves with erecting a simple tablet in his honor ; to

    carve imaiires for the cult of the sage is uncommon. The incident

    represented in the adjoining wood-cut illustrates, however,

    WORSHIP OF CONFUCIUS. 665

    Worship of Confucius and his Disciples.

    an exception to the prevailing severity of this worship. A certain

    “Wei Ki, a scholar living in the Tang dynasty (a.d. 657), not

    content, it is said, with giving instruction in the classics, set np

    the life-size statues of Confucius and his seventy-two disciples

    in order to incite the enthusiasm of his own pupils. Into this

    sanctuary of the divinities of learning were wont to come the

    savant AYei and his scholars—among whom were numhered

    hoth his grandfather and several of his grandchildren—to prostrate

    themselves before the ancient worthies. ” But of his descendants,”

    concludes the chronicler, ” there were many who

    arose to positions of eminence in the State.”

    The last of the Fonr Books is nearly as large as the other

    three nnited, and consists entirely of the writings of Mencius,

    Mang tsz’, or Mang fu-tsz’, as he is called by the Chinese.’

    This sage flourished npward of a century after the death of his

    master, and although, in estimating his character, it must not

    be forgotten that he had the advantages of his example and

    stimulus of his fame and teachings, in most respects he displayed

    an oi-iginality of thought, inflexibility of purpose, and

    extensive views superior to Confucius, and must be regarded

    as one of the greatest men Asiatic nations have ever produced.

    Mencius was born b.c. 371,^ in the city of Tsau, now in the

    province of Shantung, not far from his master’s native district.

    He was twenty-three years t)ld when Plato died, and many

    other great men of Greece were his contemporaries. His

    father died earlj’^, and left the guardianship of the boy to his

    widow, Changshi. “The care -of this prudent and attentive

    mother,” to quote from Bemusat, ” has been cited as a model

    for all virtuous parents. The house she occupied was near that

    ‘ It may liere be remarked that the terms tsz’ or fu-tsz’ do not properly form a part of the name, but are titles, meaning rabhi or eminent teacher, and are added to the surnames of some of the most distinguished writers, by way of peculiar distinction ; and in the words Mencius and Confucius have been Latinized with Mang and Kung, names of the persons themselves, into one word. The names of other distinguished scholars, as Chu fu-tsz’, Ching fu-tsz’, etc., have not undergone this change into Chufucius, Chingfucius ; but usage has now brought the compellation for these two men into universal use as a distinctive title, somewhat like the term reneraUe applied to Bede.

    llemusat, Nouveuux MekuKjex, Tome II., pp. 115-129.

    LIFE OF MENCIUS. 667

    of a butcher ; she observed that at the first crj of the animals

    that were being slaughtered the little Mang ran to be present

    at the sight, and that on his return he sought to imitate what

    he had seen. Fearful that his heart might become hardened,

    and be accustomed to the sight of blood, she removed to another

    house wdiicli Avas in the neighborhood of a cemetery.

    The relations of those who were buried there came often to

    weep upon their graves and make the customaiy libations ; the

    lad soon took pleasure in their ceremonies, and amused himself

    in imitating them. This was a new subject of uneasiness to

    Changshi ; she feared her son might come to consider as a jest

    what is of all things the most serious, and that he would acquire

    a habit of performing with levity, and as a matter of

    routine merely, ceremonies which demand the most exact attention

    and respect. Again, therefore, she anxiously changed her

    dwelling, and went to live in the city, opposite to a school,

    where her son found examples the most worthy of imitation,

    and soon began to profit by them. I should not have spoken

    of this trifling anecdote but for the allusion which the Chinese

    constantly make to it in the common proverb, ‘ Formerly the

    mother of Mencius chose out a neighborhood.” ” On another

    occasion her son, seeing persons slaughtering pigs, asked her

    why they did it. ” To feed you,” she replied ; but reflecting

    that this was teaching her son to lightly regard tlie truth, went

    and bought some pork and gave him.

    Mencius devoted himself early to the classics, and probably attended the instructions of noted teachers of the school of Confucius and his grandson Ivih. After his studies were completed, at the age of forty, he came forth as a public teacher, and offered his services to the feudal princes of the country. Among others, he was received by Ilwui, king of Wei, but, though much respected by this ruler, his instructions were not regarded ; and he soon perceived that among the numerous petty rulers and intriguing statesmen of the day there was no prospect of restoring tranquillity to the Empire, and that discourses upon the mild government and peaceful virtues of Yao and Shun, King Wan and Chingtang, offered little to interest persons whose ininds were engrossed with schemes of conquest or pleasure, lie thereupon accepted an invitation to go to Tsi, the adjoining State, and spent most of his public life there; the records show that he was often called on for his advice by statesmen of many governments. As he went from one State to another his influence extended as his experience showed him the difficulties of gcwd government amidst the general disregard of justice, mercy, and frugality. His own unyielding character and stern regard for etiquette and probity chilled the loose,

    luiscrupulous men of those lawless times. At length he retired

    to his home to spend the last twenty years of his life in the

    society of his disciples, there completing the Mork which bears

    liis name and has made him such a power among his countrymen.

    He has always been an incentive and guide to popular

    efforts to assert the rights of the subject against the injustice

    of riders, and an encourager to rulers who have governed with

    justice. His assertion of the proper duties and prerogatives

    belonging to both parties in the State was prior to that of any

    M’estern writer; some of his principles of liberal govermnent

    were taught before their enunciation in Holy Writ. He died

    when eighty-four years old (b.c. 288), shortly before the death

    of Ptolemy Soter at the same age.

    After his demise Mencius was honored, by public act, with

    the title of ‘ Holy Prince of the country of Tsau,’ and in the

    temple of the sages he I’eceives the same honors as Confucius

    his descendants bear the title of ‘ Masters of the Traditions

    concerning the Classics,’ and he himself is called A-sMn//, or

    the ‘ Secondary Sage,’ Confucius being regarded as the first.

    His writings are in the form of dialogues held with the great

    personages of his tinae, and abound with irony and ridicule

    directed against vice and oppression, which only make his

    praises of virtue and integrity more weighty. After the manner

    of Socrates, he contests nothing with his adversaries, but,

    while granting their premises, he seeks to draw from them consequences

    the most absurd, which cover his opponents with confusion.

    The king of Wei, one of the turbulent princes of the time,

    was conq)laining to Mencius how ill he succeeded in his endeavors

    to make Ids people happy and his kingdom flourishing.

    PERSONAL CHARACTER OF HIS TEACHINGS. 669

    “Prince,” said the philosopher, “you love war; permit me to draw a comparison from thence : two armies are in presence; the chaige is sounded, the battle begins, one of the parties is conquered; half its soldiers have Hed a hundjed paces, the other half has stopped at fifty. Will the last have any right to mock at those mIio have fled further than themselves?*’

    “No,” said the king; “they have equally taken flight, and the same disgrace must attend them both.”

    ” Prince,” says Mencius quickly, ” cease then to boast of your efforts as greater than your neighbors’. You have all deserved the same reproach, and not one has a right to take credit to himself over another.” Pursuing then his bitter interrogations, he asked, “Is there a difference, O king! between killing a man with a chip or with a sword? ” ” No,” said the prince.

    “Between him who kills with the sword, or destroys by an inhuman tyranny?” “No,” again replied the prince.

    “Well,” said Mencius, “your kitchens are encumbered with food, your sheds are full of horses, while yonr subjects, with emaciated conntenances, are worn down with misery, or found dead of hunger in the middle of the fields or the deserts. What is this but to breed animals to prey on men ‘i And what is the difference between destroying them by the sword or by nnfeeling conduct ? If we detest those savage animals which mutually tear and devour eaclr other, how much more should we abhor a prince who, instead of being a father to his people, does not hesitate to lear animals to destroy them. What kind of father to his people is he who treats his children so nnfeelingly, and has less care of them than of the wild beasts he provides for ?”

    On one occasion, addressing the prince of Tsi, Mencius renuirked: ” It is not the ancient forests of a country which do it honor, but its families devoted for many generations to the duties of the magistracy. Oh, king ! in all your service there are none such ; those whom you yesterday raised to honor, what are they to-day ?”

    ” In what way,” replied the king, ” can I know beforehand that they are without virtue, and remove them ?”

    “In raising a sage to the highest dignities of the State,” replied the philosoplier, “ii king acts only as lie is of necessity bound to do. But to put a man of obscure condition over the nobles of his kingdom, or one of his remote kindred over princes more nearly connected with him, demands most careful deliberation. Do his courtiers imite in speaking of a man as wise, let him distrust them. If all the magistrates of his kingdom concur in the same assurance, let him not rest satisfied with their testimony, but if his subjects confirm the story, then let him convince himself; and if he finds that the individual is indeed a sage, let him ]-aise him to office and honor. So, also, if all his courtiers would f)ppose his placing confidence in a minister, let him not give heed to them; and if all the magistrates are of this opinion, let him be deaf to their solicitations; but if the people unite in the same request, then let him examine the object of their ill-will, and, if guilty, remove him. In short, if all the courtiers think that a minister should sufPer death, the prince must not content himself with their opinion merely. If all the high officers entertain the same sentiment, still he must not yield to their convictions ; but if the people declare that such a num is unfit to live, then the prince, inquiring himself and being satisfied that the charge is true, must condemn the guilty to death ; in such a case, we may say that the people are his judges. In acting thus a prince becomes the parent of his subjects.”

    The will of the people is always referred to as the supreme

    power in the State, and Mencius warns princes that they nnist

    both please and benefit their people, observing that ” if the

    country is not subdued in heart there will be no such thing as

    governing it; ” and also, ” He who gains the hearts of the people

    secures the throne, and he who loses the people’s hearts

    loses the throne.” A prince should ” give and take what is

    })leasing to them, and not do that wdiich they hate.” ” Good

    laws,” he further remarks, ” are not equal to winning the people

    by good instruction.” Being consulted by a sovereign, wdiether

    he ought to attempt the conquest of a neighboring territory, he

    answered : ” If the people of Yen are delighted, then take it ;

    but if otherwise, not.” lie also countenances the dethroning of

    a king who does not rule his people with a regard to their hap

    HIS ESTIMATE OF HUMAN NATURE. 671

    piness, and adduces the example of tije founders of the Shang

    and Chan dynasties in proof of its propriety. “Wlien the

    prince is gnilty of great errors,” is liis doctrine, “the minister

    should reprove him ; if, after doing so again and again, he does

    not listen, he ought to dethrone him and put another in his

    place.”

    His estimate of human nature, like many of the Chinese

    sages, is high, believing it to be originally good, and that ” all

    men are naturally virtuous, as all water flows downward. All

    men have compassionate hearts, all feel ashamed of vice.” But

    he says also, ” Shame is of great moment to men ; it is only the

    desig-nino; and artful that find no use for shame.” Yet human

    nature must be tried by suffering, and to form an energetic and

    virtuous character a man nnist endure much ; ” when Heaven

    was about to place Shun and others in important trusts, it first

    generally tried their minds, inured them to abstinence, exposed

    them to poverty and adversity ; thus it moved their hearts and

    taught them patience.” His own character presents traits

    widely differing from the servility and baseness usually ascribed

    to Asiatics, and especially to the Chinese ; and he seems to

    have been ready to sacrifice everything to his principles. ” I

    love life, and I love justice,” he observes, “‘ but if I cannot preserve

    both, I would give up life and hold fast justice. Although

    I love life, there is that which I love more than life; although

    I hate death, there is that which I hate more than death.” And

    as if referring to his own integrity, he elsewhere says: “The

    nature of the superior man is such that, although in a high and

    prosperous situation, it adds nothing to his virtue ; and although

    in low and distressed circumstances, it impairs it in nothing.”

    In many points, especially in the importance he gives to filial

    duty, his reverence for the ancient books and princes, and his

    adherence to old usages, Mencius imitated and upheld Confucius

    ; in native vigor and carelessness of the reproaches of his

    compatriots he exceeded him. Many translations of his work

    have appeared in European languages, but Legge’s ‘ is in most

    respects the best for its comments, and the notices of Men-CMnese Classics, Vol II. Hongkong, 1863. ciiis’ life and times, and a fair estimate of his character and in fiuence.

    KeLurning to the Imperial Catalogue, its ninth section contains a list of musical works, and a few on dancing or posture making; they hold this distinguished place in the list from the importance attached to music as employed in the State worship and domestic ceremonies.

    The tenth section gives the names of philological treatises and lexicons, most of them confined to the Chinese language, though a few are in Mancliu. The Chinese government has excelled in the attention it has given to the compilation of lexicons and encyclopaedias. The number of works of this sort here catalogued is two hundred and eighteen, the major part issued during this dynasty, and including only works on the general language, none on the dialects. For their extent of quotation, the variety of separate disquisitions upon the form, origin, and composition of characters, and treatises upon subjects connected with the language, they indicate the careful labor native scholars have bestowed upon the elucidation of their own tongue.

    One of them, the Pel Wan Yiin Fa, or ‘ Treasury of compared

    Characters and Sounds,’ is so extensive and profound as

    to deserve a short notice, which cannot be bettei’ made than by

    an extract from the preface of M. Callery to his prospectus to

    its translation, of which he only issued one livi-aison. He says

    the Emperor Kanglii, who planned its preparation, ” assembled

    in his palace the most distinguished literati of the Empire, and

    laying befoi-e them all the works that could be got, whether

    ancient or modern, commanded them carefully to collect all the

    words, allusions, forms and figures of speech of every style, of

    which examples might be found in the Chinese language ; to

    class the principal articles according to the pronunciation of the

    words ; to devote a distinct paragraph to each expression ; and

    to give in suppoi-t of every paragraph several quotations from

    the original works. Stimulated by the nuinificence, as well as

    the example, of the Emperor, who reviewed the performances

    of every day, seventy-six literati assembled at Peking, labored

    with such assiduity, and kept up such an active correspondence

    KANGIlfs DICTIONARY. 673

    \v »th the learned in all parts of the Empire, that at the end of

    eight years the work was completed (1711), and printed at the

    public expense, in one hundred and thirty thick volumes.” The

    peculiar natui-e of the Chinese language, in the formation of

    many dissyllabic compounds of two or more characters to express

    a third and new idea, renders such a work as this thesaurus

    more necessary and useful, perhaps, than it would be in any

    other lano;naoi;e. Under some of the common characters as

    many as three hundred, four hundred, and even six hundred

    combinations are noticed, all of which modify its sense more or

    less, and form a complete monograph of the character, of the

    highest utility to the scholar in composing idiomatic Chinese.

    This magnificent monument of literary labor reflects great

    credit on the monarch who took so much interest in its compilation

    (as he remarks in his preface), as to devote the leisure hours of every day, notwithstanding his manifold occupations, for eight years, to overlooking the labors of the scholars engaged upon it.Vol. L—43

    CHAPTER XII.  POLITE LITERATURE OP THE CHUSTESE

    The three remaining divisions of the Imperial Catalogue

    comprise lists of Historical, Professional, and Poetical works.

    The estimate made of their value will depend somewhat on the

    peculiar line of research of the student, and to give him the

    means of doing this would re([uire copious extracts from poetical,

    religious, topographical or moral writings. Those who

    have studied them the longest, as Remusat, Julien, Staunton,

    Pauthier, the two Morrisons, Legge, etc., speak of them with

    the most respect, whether it arose from a higher appreciation

    of their worth as they learned more, or that the zealousness of

    their studies imparted a tinge of enthusiasm to their descriptions.

    A writer in the Quarterly Hemeto gives good reasons

    for placing the polite literature of the Chinese first for the insight

    it is likely to give Europeans into their habits of thought.

    ” The Chinese stand eminently distinguished from other

    Asiatics by their early possession and extensive use of the important

    art of printing—of printing, too, in that particular shape,

    the stereotype, which is best calculated, by multiplying the

    copies and cheapening the price, to promote the circulation of

    eV’Cry species of their literature. Hence they are, as might be

    expected, a reading people ; a certain degree of education is

    connnon amono; even the lower classes, and amono- the hisfher it

    is superfluous to insist on the great estimation in which letters

    must be held under a system where learning forms the very

    threshold of the gate that conducts to fame, honors, and civil

    employment. Amid the vast mass of printed books which is

    the natural offspring of such a state of things, we make no

    CHINESE WORKS ON HISTORY. 675

    scruple to avow that the circle of their helles-lettres, comprised

    under the heads of drama, poetrv, and novels, has always possessed

    the highest place in our esteem ; and we must say that

    there appears no readier or more agreeable mode of becoming

    intimately acquainted with a people from whom Europe can

    have so little to learn on the score of either moral or physical

    science than by drawing largely on the inexhaustible stores of

    their ornamental literature.”

    The second division in the Catalogue, &’ Pu, or ‘ Historical

    Writings,’ is subdivided into fifteen sections. These writings

    are very extensive ; even their mere list conveys a high idea of

    the vast amount of labor expended upon them ; and it is impossible

    to withhold respect, at least, to the industry displayed in

    compilations like the Seventeen Histories^ in two hundred and

    seventeen volumes, and its continuation, the Twenty-two Histories^

    a still larger work. Though the entertaining episodes

    and sketches of character found in Herodotus and other ancient

    European historians are wanting, there is plenty of incident in

    court, camp, and social life, as well as public acts and royal

    biography. The dynastic records became the duty of special

    officers, and the headings adopted from the Sui, a.d. 590, have

    since been followed in arranging the historic materials under

    twelve heads. From the mass of materials digested by careful

    scholars have been compiled the records now known ; they

    form, with all their imperfections, the best continuous history

    of any Asiatic people. Popular abridgments are common,

    among which the Tung Klen Kang-muh, or ‘ General Mirror

    of History,’ and a compiled abridgment of it, the Kang Klen I

    Chi, or ‘ History made Easy,’ are the most useful.

    The earliest historian among the Chinese is Sz’maTsien,’ who

    flourished about b.c. 104, in which year he commenced the &’

    Kt, or ‘ Historical Memoirs,’ in one hundred and thirty chapters.

    . In this great work, which, like the Muses of Herodotus

    in Greek, forms the commencement of credible modern history

    with the Chinese, the author relates the actions of the Emperors

    ‘ Compare Remusat, Nouveaiix Mehinriefi, Tome II., pp. IBO ff., where there

    are excellent biographical notices of Sz’ma Tsieu and other native historians.

    676 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    in regular succession and the principal events which happened

    during their reigns, together with details and essays respecting

    mus’c, astronomy, religious ceremonies, weights, public works,

    etc., and the changes they had nndei-gone during the twentytwo

    centuries embraced in his Memoirs. It is stated by liemusat

    that there are in the whole work five hundred and twentysix

    thousand five hundred characters, for the Chinese, like the

    ancient Hebrews, number the words in their standard authors.

    The aSs’ Kl is in five parts, and its arrangement has served as

    a model for subsequent historians, few of whom have equalled

    its author in the vivacity of their style or carefulness of their

    research.

    The General Mh’ror to Aid in Governin/j, by Sz’ma Kwang,

    of the Sung dynasty, in two hundred and ninety-four chapters,

    is one of the best digested and most lucid amials that Chinese

    scholars have produced, embracing the period between the end

    of the Tsin to the beginning of the Sung dynasty (a.d. 313 to

    960). Both the historians Sz’ma Tsien and Sz’ma Ivwang filled

    high offices in the State, were both alternately disgraced and

    honored, and were mixed up with all the political movements

    of the day. Kemusat speaks in terms of deserved connnendation

    of their writings, and to a notice of their works adds some

    account of their lives. One or two incidents in the career of

    Sz’ma Kw^ang exhibit a readiness of action and freedom in expressing

    his sentiments which are more common among the

    Chinese than is usually supposed. In his youth he was standing

    with some companions near a large vase used to rear gold

    fish, when one of them fell in. Too terrified themselves to do

    anything, all but young Kwang ran to seek succor ; he looked

    around for a stone with which to break the vase and let the

    water flow out, and thus saved the life of his companion. In

    subsequent life the same common sense was joined with a boldness

    which led him to declare his sentiments on all occasions.

    Some southern people once sent a present to the Emperor of a

    strange quadruped, which his flatterers said was the mythological

    Jxi-lin of happy omen. Sz’ma Ivwang, being consulted on

    the matter, replied : ” I have never seen the ki-len, therefore I

    cannot tell wdiether this be one or not. What I do know is that

    THE HISTORIANS Sz’mA TSIEN AND SZ’mA KWANG. G77

    tlie i-eal JA-Un conkl iievei- ])e In-ought liitliei hy foi’eignors ; he

    appears of liiniself wlieii the State is well governed.” ‘ An extension

    of this great work hj Li Tao, of the Sung (Ivnasty, in

    five Imndrod and twenty books, gave their countrymen a fair

    account of the thirty-six centuries of their national fortunes ;

    and the digest under C’hu Ui’s direction has made them still

    more accessible and famous to succeed in<r a^es.

    Few works in Chinese literatui-e are more popular than a

    historical novel by Chin Shan, about a.d. 350, called the San

    Kiroh C/n, or ‘ History of the Three States ;’ its scenes are laid

    in the northern parts of China, and include the period between

    A.I). 170 and ‘j\7, when several ambitious chieftains conspii’ed

    against the indjecile ju-inces of the once famous Ilan dynasty,

    and, after that was overtlirown, fought among themselves until

    the Empire Avas again reconsolidated under the Tsin dynasty.

    This pei’formance, from its donl)le character and the long period

    over which it extends, necessarily lacks that unity which a novel

    should have. Its charms, to a Chinese, consist in the animated

    descriptions of plots and counterplots, in the relations of battles,

    sieges, and retreats, and the admirable manner in M-hicli the

    characters are delineated and their acts intermixed with entertaining

    episodes. The work opens with desci-ibing the -distracted

    state of the Empire under the misrule of Ling ti and

    Ilwan ti, the last two monarchs of the ILjuse of Ilan (147 to

    184), who were entirely swayed l)y eunuchs, and left the administration

    of government to reckless oppressors, until aml»itious

    men, taking advantage of the general <liscontent, raised

    the standard of rebellion. The leaders ordered their partisans

    to wear yellow head-dresses, whence the rebellion Avas called

    that of the Yellow Caj^s, and Avas suppressed only after several

    years of hard struggle by a few distinguished generals who upheld

    the throne. Among these was Tung Choh, who, gradually

    drawing to himself all the power in the State, therel)y arrayed

    against himself others equally ambitious and unscrupulous.

    Disorganization had not yet proceeded so far that all hope of

    supporting the rightful throne had left the minds of its adher

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., pp. 210, 274.

    078 THE middlj: kingdom.

    ents, among wlioiu was Wang Yun, a chancellor of the Empire,

    who, seeing the danger of the State, devised a scheme ta

    inveigle Tung Choh to his ruin, which is thus narrated

    :

    One day Timg Cholx gave a great entertainment to the officers of government.

    When the wine had circulated several times, Lii Pu (his adopted son)

    whispered something in his ear, whereupon he ordered the attendants to take

    Chang Wan from the table into the hall below, and presently one of them returned,

    handing up his head in a charger. The spirits of all present left their

    bodies, but Tung, laughing, said, ” Pra}’, sirs, do not be alarmed. Chang

    Wan has been leaguing with Yuen 8huh how to destroy me ; a messenger just

    now brought a letter for him, and inadvertently gave it to my son ; for which

    he has lost his life. You, gentlemen, have no cause for dread.” All the

    officers replied, ” Yes ! Yes ! ” and immediately separated.

    Chancellor Wang Yun returned home in deep thought : ” The proceedings of this day’s feast are enough to make my seat an uneasy one ;” and taking his cane late at night he walked out in the moonlight into his rear garden, when standing near a rose arbor and weeping as he looked up, he heard a person sighing and groaning within the peony pavillion. Carefully stepping and watching, he saw it was Tiau Chen, a singing-girl belonging to the house, who had been taken into his family in early youth and taught to sing and dance ; she was now sixteen, and both beautiful and accomplished, and Wang treated her as if she had been his own daughter.

    Listening some time, he spoke out, ” What underhand plot are you at now, insignificant menial ‘? ” Tiau Chen, much alarmed, kneeling, said, ” What treachery can your slave dare to devise ? ” “If you have nothing secret, why then are you here late at night sighing in this manner V ” Tiau replied, “Permit your handmaid to declare her inmost thoughts. I am very grateful for your excellency’s kind nurture, for teaching me singing and dancing, and for the treatment I have received. If my body should be crushed to powder [in your service], I could not requite a myriad to one [for these favors]. But lately I have seen your eyebrows anxiously knit, doubtless from some State affairs, though I presumed not to ask ; this evening, too, I saw you restless in your seat. On this account I sighed, not imagining your honor was overlooking me. If I can be of the least use, I would not decline the sacrifice of a thousand lives.” Wang, striking his cane on the ground, exclaimed, “Who would have thought the rule of Han was lodged in your hands ! Come with me into the picture-gallery.” Tiau Chen following in, he ordered his females all to retire, and placing her in a seat, turned himself around and did her obeisance. She, much surprised, prostrated herself before him, and asked the reason of such conduct, to which he replied, ” You are able to compassionate all the people in the dominions of Han.” His words ended, the tears gushed like a fountain. She added, ” I just now said, if I can be of any service I will not decline, though I should lose my life.”

    Wang, kneeling, rejoined, “The people are in most imminent danger, and

    the nobility in a hazard like that of eggs piled up ; neither can be rescued

    Without your assistance. The traitor Tung Choh wishes soon to seize the

    EXTRACT FROM THE HISTORY OF THE THREE STATES. 679

    throne, and none of the civil or military officers have any practicable means

    of defence. He has an adopted son, Lii Pu, a remarkably daring and brave

    man, wlio, like himself, is the slave of lust. Now I wish to contrive a scheme

    to inveigle them both, by first promising to wed you to Lii, and then offering

    you to Tung, while you must seize the opportunity to raise suspicions in them,

    and slander one to the other so as to sever them, and cause Lii to kill Tung,

    whereby the present great evils will be terminated, the throne upheld, and

    the government re-established. All this is in your power, but I do not know how the plan strikes you.” Tiau answered, “I have promised your excellency my utmost service, and you may trust me that I will devise some good scheme when I am offered to them.”

    ” You must be aware that if this design leaks out, we shall all be utterly exterminated.” “Your excellency need not be anxious, and if I do not aid in accomplishing your patriotic designs, let me die a thousand deaths.”

    Wang, bowing, thanked her. The next day, taking several of the brilliant pearls preserved in the family, he ordered a skillful workman to inlay there into a golden coronet, which he secretly sent as a present to Lii Pu. Highly gratified, Lti himself went to Wang’s house to thank him, where ar well-prepared feast of viands and wine awaited his arrival. Wang went out to meet him, and waiting upon him into the rear hall, invited him to sit at the top of the table, but Lii objected : “I am only a general in the prime minister’s department, while your excellency is a high minister in his Majesty’s court—why this mistaken re.spect V”

    Wang rejoined, “There is no hero in the country now besides you; I do not pay this honor to your office, but to your talents.” Lii was excessively pleased. Wang ceased not in engaging him to drink, the while speaking of Tung Choh’s high qualities, and praising his guest’s virtues, who, on his side, wildly laughed for joy. Most of the attendants were ordered to retire, a few waiting-maids stopping to serve out wine, when, being half drunk, he ordered them to tell the young child to come in. Shortly after, two pages led in Tiau Chen, gorgeously dressed, and Lii, much astonished, asked, “Who is this ?”

    ” It is my little daughter, Tiau Chen, whom I have ordered to come in and see you, for I am very grateful for your honor’s misapplied kindness to me, which has been like that to near relatives. ” He then bade her present a goblet of wine to him, and, as she did so, their eyes glanced to and from each other.

    Wang, feigning to be drunk, said : ” The child strongly requests your honor

    to drink many cups ; my house entirely depends upon your excellency.” Lii

    requested her to be seated, but she acting as if about to retire, Wang remarked,

    “The general is my intimate friend; be seated, my child; what are

    you afraid of V ” She then sat down at his side, while Lii’s eyes never strayed

    from their gaze upon her, drinking and looking.

    Wang, pointing to Tiau, said to Lii, ” I wish to give this girl to you as a concubine, but know not whether you will receive her ? ” Lii, leaving the table to thank him, said, ” If I could obtain such a girl as this, I would emulate the requital dogs and horses give for the care taken of them-“

    Wang rejoined, ” I will immediatcly select a lucky day, and send her to your house” Lii was delighted beyond measure, and never took his eyes off her, while Tiau herself, with ogling glances, intimated her passion. The feast shortly alter broke up, and Lii departed.

    The scheme here devised was successful, and Tung Choli was assassinated by his son when he was on his war to depose the monarch. His death, however, brought no peace to the country, and three chieftains, Tsau Tsau, Lin Pi, and Sun Iviuen, soon distinguished themselves in their struggles for power, and afterward divided the Empire into the three States of AVu, Shuh, and Wei, from which the work derives its name. Many of the personages who figure in this work have since been deified, among whom are Liu Pi’s sworn brother Kwan Yli, who is now the Mars (Kioan ti), and Ilwa To, the Esculapius, of Chinese mythology. Its scenes and characters have all been fruitful subjects for the pencil and the pen of artists and poetasters.

    One commentator has gone so far as to incorporate his reflections in the body of the text itself, in the shape of such expressions as ” Wonderful speech ! What rhodomontade ! This man was a fool before, and shows himself one now ! ” Davis likens this M’ork to the Iliad for its general arrangement and blustering character of the heroes ; it was composed when the scenes described and their leading actors existed chiefly in personal recollection, and the remembrances of both were fading away in the twilight of popular legends.

    Among the numerous historians of China, only a few would repay the labor of an entire translation, but many would furnish good materials for extended epitomes. Among these are the Tso Chtieriy already noticed ; the Anterior Ilan Dynasty by Pan Ivu and his sister ; the Wei /Shu, by Wei Shau (a.d.3SG-55C) ; and the works of Sz’ma Ivwang. In addition to the dynastic histories, numerous similar works classified under the heads of amials and complete I’ecords in two sections of this division would furnish nnich authentic material for the foreign archaeologist. The most valuable relic after the Chun Tsiu, of a historic character, is the ” Bamboo Books,” reported to have been found in a tomb in Ilonan, .\.d. 279 ; it gives a chronological list down to b.c. 299, with incidents interspersed, and bears many internal evidences of genuineness. Legge and Biot have each translated it.’

    BIOGPAPHIES A:SI) STATISTICS. 681

    Biographies of distinguished men and women are numerous, and their preparation forms a favorite branch of literary labor. It is noticeable to observe the consideration paid to literary women in these memoirs, and the praises bestowed upon discreet mothers whose talented children are considered to be the criteria of their careful training. One work of this class is in one hundred and twenty volumes, called Sifuj J^i/, but it does not possess the incident and animation which are found in some less formal biographical dictionaries. The Ziek Wil Chuen, or ‘Memoirs of Distinguished Ladies’ of ancient times, by Liu Iliang, B.C. 125, is often cited by writers on female education who wish to show how women were anciently trained to the practice of every virtue and accomplishment. If a Chinese author cannot quote a case to illustrate his position at least eight or ten centuries old, he thinks half its force abated by its

    youth. Biographical works are almost as numerous as statistical,

    and afford one of the best sources for studying the national

    character; some of them, like the lives of Washington or

    Cromwell in our own literature, combine both history and

    biography.

    Some of the statistical and geographical works mentioned in

    this division are noticed on p. 49. Among those on the Constitution

    is the ‘ Complete Antiquarian Besearches’ of Ma

    Twan-lin (a.d. 1275), in three hundred and forty-eight chapters.

    It forms a most extensive and profound work, containing i-esearches

    upon every matter relating to government, and extending

    through a series of dynasties which held the throne nearly

    forty centuries. Benmsat goes so far as to say : ” This excellent

    work is a library by itself, and if Chinese literature possessed

    no other, the language would l)e worth learning foi- the

    sake of reading this alone.” ]^o book has been more drawn

    upon by Europeans for information concerning matters relating

    to Eastern Asia than this ; Yisdelou and De Guignes took from

    ‘ Legge’s CMnese Classics, Vol. III. ; Proleqomenn, Chap. TV. E. Biot in

    the Jourtud Aaiatigrte, 2e Series, Tome? XII., p. 537, and XIII., pp. 203

    381.

    it much of their information relating to the Tartars and Huns; and Pingsc extracted his account of the comets and aerolites from its pages, besides some geographical and ethnographical papers. Remusat often made use of its stores, and remarks that many parts merit an entire translation, which can be said, indeed, of few Chinese authors. A supplement prepared and published in 1586 by AVang Ki brings it down to that date. A further revision was issued under imperial patronage in 1TT2, and a iinal one not long afterward, continuing the narrative to the reign of Kanghi.’ It elevates our opinion of a nation whose literature can boast of a work like this, exhibiting such patient investigation and candid comparison of authorities, such varied research and just discrimination of what is truly important, and so extensive a mass of facts and opinions upon every subject of historic interest. Although there be no quotations

    in it from Homan or Greek classic authors, and the ignorance

    of the compiler of what was known upon the same subjects in

    other countries disqualified him from giving his remarks the

    completeness they would otherwise have had, 3’et when the

    stores of knowledge from western lands are made known to a

    people whose scholars can produce such works as this, the Memoirs

    of Sz’ma Tsien, and others equally good, it may reasonably

    be expected that they will not lack in industry or ability to

    carry on their researches.

    The third division of Tsz* I^u, ‘ Scholastic ‘ or ‘ Professional Writings,” is arranged under fourteen sections, viz. : Philosophical, Military, Legal, Agricultural, Medical, Mathematical, and Magical writings, works on the Liberal Arts, Collections, Miscellanies, Encyclopedias, Novels, and treatises on the tenets of the Buddhists and Rationalists. The first section is called Jil Khi Lid, meaning the ‘ Works of the Literary Family,’ under which name is included those who maintain, discuss, and teach the tenets of the sages, although they may not accept all that Confucius taught. This class of books is worthy of far more examination than foreigners have hitherto given to it, and they will find that Chinese philosophers have discussed morals, government, cosmogony, and like subjects, with a freedom and acuteness that has not been credited to them.

    ‘ Compare Remusat, Melanges Asiatiques, Tome II., p. 166; Chinese Beposi'(ory. Vol. IX., p. 143 ; Wylie’s Notea, p. 55 ; Mayer’s Chinese Seader^s Manual,p. 149.

    CHINESE rJIILOSOPHICAL WKITINGS. 683

    It was during the Sung dynasty, when Eui’ope was utterly

    lethargic and unprogressive, that China showed a marvellous

    mental activity, and received from Ching, Chu, Chau, and their

    disciples a molding and conservative influence which has remained

    to this day. An extract from a discussion by Chu Hi

    will show the way in which he reasons on the i>ruiimn mohile.

    Under the whole heaven there is no primary matter (//) without the immaterial

    principle {kl), and no immaterial principle apart from the primary matter.

    Subsequent to the existence of the immaterial principle is produced

    primary matter, which is deducible from the axiom that the one male and the

    one female principle of nature may be dominated iao or logos (the active principle

    from which all things emanate) ; thus nature is sj^ontaneously possessed

    of benevolence and righteousness (which are included in the idea of tao).

    First of all existed ticn II (the celestial principle or soul of the universe), and then came primary matter ; primary matter accumulated constituted ridj,(body, substance, or the accidents and qualities of matter), and nature was arranged.

    Should any ask whether the immaterial principle or primary matter existed

    first, I should say that the immaterial principle on assuming a figure ascended,

    and primary matter on assuming form descended ; when we come to speak of

    assuming form and ascending or descending, how can we divest ourselves of

    tlie idea of priority and subsequence V When the immaterial 2:)rinciple does

    not assume a form, primary matter then becomes coarse, and forms a sediment.

    Originally, however, no priority or subsequence can be predicated of the

    immaterial principle and primary matter, and yet if you insist on carrying out

    the reasoning to the question of their origin, then you must say that the immaterial

    principle has the priority ; but it is not a separate and distinct thing ;

    it is just contained in the centre of the priniary nuitter, so that were there no

    primary matter, then this immaterial principle would have no place of attachment.

    Primary matter consists, in fact, of the four elements of metal, wood,

    water, and fire, while the immaterial principle is no other than the four cardinal

    virtues of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom.

    Should any one ask for an explanation of the assertion that the immaterial

    principle has first existence, and after that comes primary matter, I say, it is

    not necessary to speak thus : but when we know that they are combined, is it

    that the immaterial principle holds the precedence, and the primary matter

    the subsequence, or is it that the immaterial principle is subsequent to the

    primary matter V We cannot thus carry our reasoning ; but should we endeavor

    to form some idea of it, then we may suppose that the primary matter

    relies on the immaterial principle to come into action, and wherever the primary matter is coagulated, there the immaterial principle is present. For the primary matter can concrete and coagulate, act and do, but the immaterial principle has neither will nor wish, plan nor operation : but only where the primary matter is collected and coagulated, then the immaterial principle is in

    the midst of it. Just as in nature, men and things, grass and trees, birds and

    beasts, in their propagation invariably require seed, and certainly cannot without

    seed from nothingness produce anything ; all this, then, is the primary

    matter, but the immaterial principle is merely a pure, empty, wide-stretched

    void, without form or footstep, and incapable of action or creation ; but the

    primary matter can ferment and coagulate, collect and produce things. . . .

    Should any one ask, with regard to those expressions, ” The Supreme Ruler

    confers the due medium on the people, and when Heaven is about to send

    down a great trust upon men, out of regard to the people it sets up princes

    over them ;

    ” and, ” Heaven in producing things treats them according to their

    attainments : on those who do good, it sends down a hundred blessings, and

    on those who do evil, a hundred calamities;” and, “When Heaven is about

    to send down some uncommon calamity upon a generation, it first produces

    some uncommon genius to determine it ;” do these and such like expressions

    imply that above the azure sky there is a Lord and Ruler who acts thus, or is

    it still true that Heaven has no mind, and men only carry out their reasonings

    in this style ? I reply, these three things are but one idea ; it is that the immaterial

    principle of order is thus. The primary matter in its evolutions

    hitherto, after one season of fulness has experienced one of decay ; and after a period of decline it again flourishes ; just as if things were going on in a circle. There never was a decay without a revival.

    When men blow out their breath their bellies puff out, and when they inhale their bellies sink in, while we should have thought that at each expiration the stomach would fall in, and swell up at each inspiration ; but the reason of it is that when men expire, though the mouthful of breath goes out, the second mouthful is again produced, therefore the belly is puffed up ; and when men inspire, the breath which is introduced from within drives the other out, so that the belly sinks in. LaoZi said nature is like an open pipe or bag ; it moves, and yet is not compelled to stop, it is empty, and still more comes out ; just like a fan-case open at both ends.

    The great extreme (Taiji) is merely the immaterial principle. It is not an independent separate existence ; it is found in the male and female principles of nature, in the five elements, in all things ; it is merely an immaterial principle, and because of its extending to the extreme limit, is therefore called the (jredt extreme. If it were not for it, heaven and earth would not have been set afloat. . . . From the time when the great extreme came into operation, all things were produced by transformation. This one doctrine includes the whole ; it was not because this was first in existence and then that, but altogether there is only one great origin, which from the substance extends to the use, and from the subtle reaches to that which is manifest. Should one ask, because all things jiartake of it, is the great extreme split up and divided ?

    I should reply, that originally there is only one great extreme {(inima mimdi), of which all things partake, so that each mw is provided with a great extreme;

    CIIU HI ON THE GREAT EXTREME. 68o

    just as the moon in the heavens is only one, and ^-et is dispersed over the hills and Lakes, being seen from every place in succession ; still you cannot say that the moon is divided.

    The great extreme has neither residence, nor form, nor place which you can assign to it. If you speak of it before its development, then previous to that emanation it was perfect stillness ; motion and rest, with the male and female principles of nature, are only the embodiment and descent of this principle.

    Motion is the motion of the great extreme, and rest is its rest, but these same motion and rest are not to be considered the great extreme itself. Should any one ask, what is the great extreme ‘i I should say, it is simply the principle of extreme goodness and extreme perfection. Every man has a great extreme, everything has one ; that which Chao-tsz’ called the great extreme is the exemplified virtue of everything that is extremely good and perfect in heaven and earth, men and things.

    The great extreme is simply the extreme point, beyond which one cannot go ; that which is most elevated, most mysterious, most subtle, and most divine, beyond which there is no passing. Lienki was a’^raid lest people should think that the great extreme possessed form, and therefore called it the boundless extreme, a principle centred in nothing, and having an infinite extent.

    . It is the immaterial principle of the two powers, the four forms, and the eight changes of nature ; we cannot say that it does not exist, and yet no form or corporeity can be ascribed to it. From this point is produced the one male and the one female principle of nature, which are called the dual powers ; the four forms and eight changes also proceed from this, all according to a certain natural order, irrespective of human strength in its arrangement.

    But from the time of Confucius no one has been able to get hold of this idea.’

    And, it miglit be added, no one ever will be able to ” get hold ” thereof. Such discnssions as this have ocenpied the minds and pens of Chinese metaphysicians for centuries, and in their endeavors to explain the half-digested notions of the Bool’ of Ohaiujes^ they have wandered far away from the road which would have led them in the path of true knowledge, namely, the observation and record of the works and operations of nature around them ; and one after another they have continued to roll this stone of Sisyphns until fatigne and bewilderment have come over them all. Some works on female education are found in this section, which seems designed as much to include whatever philosophers wrote as all they wrote on philosophy.

    ‘ Translated by Rev. W. H. Medhurst, iu the OJiinese Hi’potiiUjvy, Vol. XIII.,pp. 552, 001) et seq.

    The second and third sections, on military and legal subjects, contain no writings of any eminence. The isolation of the Chinese prevented them from studying the various forms of government and jurisprudence observed in other countries and ages ; it is this feature of originality which renders their legislation so interesting to western students. Among the fourth, on agricultural treatises, is the Kdng Chili Tu Shi, or ‘ Plates and Odes on Tillage and Weaving,’ a thin quarlo, which was written a.d. 1210, and has been widely circulated by the present government in order ” to evince its regard for the people’s support.” The first half contains twenty-three plates on the various processes to be followed in raising rice, the last of which represents the husbandmen and their families returning thanks to the gods of the land for a good harvest, and offering a portion of the fruits of the earth ; the last plate in the second part of the work also represents a similar scene of returning thanks for a good crop of silk, and presenting an offering to the gods.

    The drawings in this work are among the best for perspective and general composition which Chinese art has produced; probably their merit was the chief inducement to publish the work at governmental expense, for the odes are too brief to contain much information, and too difficult to be generally understood.

    The Encydopedia of Agriculture, by Sii Kwang-ki, a high officer in 1600, better known as Paul Su, gives a most elaborate detail of farming operations and utensils existing in the Ming. Other treatises on special topics and crops have been written, but it is the untiring industry of the people which secures to them the best returns from the soil, for they o^ve very little to science or machinery.

    Among the numerous writings published for the iuiprovement

    and instruction of the people by their rulers, none have

    been more influential than the ShlngYu, or ‘ Sacred Commands,’

    a politico-moral treatise, which has been made known to English

    readers by the translation of Dr. Milne.’ The groundwork

    ‘ The Sacred Edict, London, 1817; a second edition of this translation appeared in Shanghai in 1870, and another in 1878. Compare Wylie’s JVotes, p.71 ; Sir G. T. Staunton’s MureUdneous Notm’n, etc., pp. 1-56 (1812); Le Saint Edit, Etude de JAUerature chinoixc, i)reparee par A. Tlieophile Piry, Shanghai, 1879.

    THE SACRED COMMANDS OF KANGHI, 687

    consists of sixteen apothegms, written bj the Emperor Kano-hi,

    containing general rules for the peace, prosperity, and wealth

    of all classes of his subjects. In order that none should })lead

    ignorance in excuse for not knowing the Sacred Commands, it

    is by law required that they be proclaimed throughout the Empire

    by tlie local officers on the first and fifteenth day of every

    month, in a public hall set apart for the purpose, where the

    people are not only permitted, but requested and encouraged,

    to attend. In point of fact, however, this political preaching,

    as it has been called, is neglected except in large towns, though

    the design is not the less commendable. It is highly praise-

    \vorthy to monarchs, secure in their thrones as Kanglii and

    Yungching were, to take upon themselves the teaching of

    morality to their subjects, and institute a special service every

    fortnight to have their precepts communicated to them. If,

    too, it should soon be seen that their designs had utterly failed

    of all real good results from the mendacity of their officers and

    the ignorance or opposition of the people, still the merit due

    them is not diminished. The sixteen apothegms, each consisting

    of seven characters, are as follows:
    1. Pay just regard to filial and fraternal duties, in order to give due importance to the relations of life.
    2. Respect kindred in order to display the excellence of harmony.
    3. Let concord abound among those who dwell in the same neighborhood, thereby preventing litigations.
    4. Give the chief place to husbandry and the culture of the mulberry, that adequate supplies of food and raiment be secured.
    5. Esteem economy, that money be not lavishly wasted.
    6. Magnify academical learning, in order to direct the scholar’s progress.
    7. Degrade strange religions, in order to exalt the orthodox doctrines.
    8. Explain the laws, in order to warn the ignorant and obstinate.
    9. Illustrate the principles of a polite and yielding carriage, in order to improve manners.
    10. Attend to the essential employments, in order to give unvarying determination to the will of the people.
    11. Instruct the youth, in order to restrain them from evil.
    12. Suppress all false accusing, in order to secure protection to the innocent.
    13. Warn those who hide deserters, that they may not be involved in their downfall.
    14. Complete the payment of taxes, in order to prevent frequent urging.
    15. Unite the pao and km, in order to extirpate robbery and theft.
    16. Settle animosities, that lives may be duly valued.

    The aniplilications of these maxims by Yungchiiig contain much information respecting the tlieoiy of his government, and the position of the writer entitles him to speak from knowledge; his amplification of the fourteenth maxim shows their character. From of old the country was divided into districts, and a tribute paid proportioned to the produce of the land. From hence arose revenues, upon which the expense of the five I’l and the whole charges of government depended.

    These expenses a prince must receive from the people, and they are what inferiors should offer to superiors. Both in ancient and modern times this principle has been the same and cannot be changed. Again, the expenses of the salaries of magistrates that they may rule our people ; o” pay to the army that they may protect them ; O- preparing for years o!; scarcity that they may be fed ; as all these are collected from the Empire, so they are all employed for its use. How then can it be supposed that the granaries and treasury of the sovereign are intended to injure the people that he may nourish himself ? Since the establishment of our dynasty till now, the proportions of the revenue have been fixed by an universally approved statute, and all unjust items completely cancelled ; not a thread or hair too much has been demanded from the people. In the days of our sacred Father, the Emperor Pious, his abounding benevolence and liberal favor fed this people upward of sixty years. Daily desirous to promote their abundance and happiness, he greatly diminished the revenue, not limiting the reduction to hundreds, thousands, myriads, or lacs of taels. The mean and the remote have experienced his favor ; even now it enters the muscles, and penetrates to the marrow.

    To exact with moderation, diminish the revenue, and confer favors on the multitude, are the virtues of a prince : to serve superiors, and to give the first place to public service and second to their own, are the duties of a people.

    Soldiers and people should all understand this. Become not lazy and trifling, nor prodigally throw away your property. Linger not to pay in the revenue, looking and hoping for some unusual occurrence to avoid it, nor entrust your imposts to others, lest bad men appropriate them to their own use.

    Pay in at the terms, and wait not to be urged. Then with the overplus you can nourish your parents, complete the marriages of your children, satisfy your daily wants, and provide for the annual feasts and sacrifices. District officers may then sleep at ease in their public halls, and villagers will no longer be vexed in the night by calls from the tax-gatherers ; on neither hand will any be involved. Your wives and children will be easy and at rest, than which you have no greater joy. If unaware of the importance of the revenue to government, and that the laws must be enforced, perhaps you will positively refuse or deliberately put off the payment, when the magistrates, obliged to balance their accounts, and give in their reports at stated times, must be rigorously severe. The assessors, suffering the pain of the whip, cannot help indulging their rapacious dtunands on you ; knocking and pecking at your doors like hungry luiwks, they will devise numerous methods of getting their wants supplied. These nameless ways o^ spending will probably amount to more than the sum which ought to have been paid, and that sum, after all, cannot be dispensed with.

    THEIR AMPLIFICATION BY YUNGCIIING. GSO

    We know not what benefit can accrue from this. Rather than give presents to satisfy the rapacity of policemen, how much better to clear off the just assessments ! Rather than prove an obstinate race and refuse the payment of the revenue, would it not be better to keep the law ? Every one, even the most stupid, knows this. Furthermore, when superiors display benevolence, inferiors should manifest justice ; this belongs to the idea of their being one body. Reflect that the constant labors and cares of the palace are all to serve the people. When freshes occur, dikes must be raised to restrain them ; ij! the demon of drought appear, prayer must be oTered for rain ; when the locusts come, they must be destroyed. If the calamities be averted, you reaji the advantage ; but if they overwhelm you, your taxes are forborne, and alms liberally expended for yon. If it be thus, and the people still can suffer themselves to evade the payment of taxes and hinder the supply of government, how, I ask, can you be easy ? Such conduct is like that o” an undutiful son. We use these repeated admonitions, only wishing you, soldiers and people, to think of the army and nation, and also of your persons and families.

    Then abroad you will have tlie fame of faithfulness, .and at home

    peacefully enjoy its fruits. Officers will not trouble yon, nor their clerks vex

    you—what joy equal to this ! O soldiers and people, meditate on these things

    in the silent night, and let all accord with our wishes. ^

    Wang Yu-pi, a liigh officer under Yiingching, paraphrased

    the anipliiications in a colloquial manner. His remarks on the

    doctrines of the Buddhists and nationalists will serve as an

    illustration ; the (juotation liere given is found under the seventh

    maxim.

    You simple people know not how to discriminate ; for even according to

    what the books of Buddha say, he was the first-born son of the king Fan ; but,

    retiring from the world, he fled away alone to the top of the Snowy Mountains,

    in order to cultivate virtue. If he regarded not his own father, mother, wi^’e,

    and children, are you such fools as to suppose that he regards the multitude

    of the living, or would deliver his laws and doctrines to you ? The imperial

    residence, the queen’s palace, the dragon’s chamber, and halls of state – if he

    rejected these, is it not marvellous to suppose that he should delight in the

    nunneries, monasteries, temples, and religious houses which you can build for

    .’lim ? As to the Gemmeous Emperor, the most honorable in heaven, if there

    ^if- indeed such a god, it is strange to think he should not enjoy himself at his

    own ease in the high heavens, but must have you to give him a body of molten

    gold, and build him a house to dwell in !

    All these nonsensical tales about keeping fasts, collecting assemblies,

    building temples, and fashioning images, are feigned by those sauntering,

    • Sacred Edict, pp. 254-259.

    Vol. I.—44

    690 THE MIDDLE KINGDOlVr.

    worthless priests and monks to deceive you. Still you believe them, and not

    only go yourselves to worship and burn incense in the temples, but also suffer

    your wives and daughters to go. With their hair oiled and faces painted,

    dressed in scarlet and trimmed with green, they go to burn incense in the

    temples, associating with the priests of Buddha, doctors of Reason and barestick

    attorneys, touching slioulders, rubbing arms, and pressed in the moving

    crowd. I see not where the good tliey talk of doing is ; on the contrary,

    tliey do many shameful things that create vexation, and give people occasion

    for laughter and ridicule.

    Further, there are some persons who, fearing that their good boys and

    girls may not attain to maturity, take and give them to the temples to become

    priests and priestesses of Buddha and Reason, supposing that after having removed

    them from their own houses and placed them at the foot of grandfather

    Fuh (Buddha), they are then sure of prolonging life ! Now, I would ask you

    if those who in this age are priests of these sects, all reach the .age of seventy

    or eighty, and if there is not a short-lived person among them y

    Again, there is anotlier very stupid class of persons who, because their

    parents are sick, pledge their own persons by a vow before the gods that if

    their parents be restored to health, they will worship and burn incense

    on the hills, prostrating themselves at every step till they arrive at the summit,

    whence they will dash themselves down ! If they do not lose their lives,

    they are sure to break a leg or an arm. They sa}’ to themselves, “To give

    up our own lives to save our parents is the highest display of liliahduty.”

    Bystanders also praise them as dutiful children, but they do not consider that

    to slight the bodies received from their parents in this manner discovers an

    extreme want of filial duty.

    Moreover, you say that serving Fiih is a profitable service ; that if you

    burn paper money, present offerings, and keep fasts before the face of your

    god Fuh, he will dissii^ate calamities, blot out your sins, increase your happiness,

    and prolong your age ! Now reflect : from of old it has been said, ” The

    gods are intelligent and just.” Were Buddha a god of this description, how

    could he avariciously desire your gilt paper, and your offerings to engage him

    to afford you protection ? If you do not burn gilt paper to him, and spread

    offerings on his altar, the god Fuh will be displeased with you, and send down

    judgments on you ! Then your god Fuh is a scoundrel ! Take, for example,

    the district magistrate. Should you never go to compliment and flatter him,

    yet, if you are good people and attend to your duty, he will pay marked attention

    to you. But transgress the law, commit violence, or usurp the rights

    of others, and though you should use a thousand ways and means to flatter

    him, he will still be displeased with you, and will, without fail, remove such

    pests from society.

    You say that worshipping Fuh atones for your sins. Suppose you have

    violated the law, and are hauled to the judgment-seat to be punished ; if you

    should bawl out several thousand times, ” O your excellency ! O your excellency

    ! ” do you think the magistrate would spare you ? Yoii will, however,

    at all risks, invite several Buddhist and Rationalist priests to your houses to recite

    their canonical books and make confession, siipposing that to chant their

    WANG YU-Pf S RIDICULE OF BUDDHISM. 691

    mummery drives away misery, secures peace, and prolongs happiness and life.

    But suppose you rest satisfied with merely reading over the sections of these

    Sacred Commands several thousands or myriads of times without acting conformably

    thereto ; would it not be vain to suppose that his Imperial Majestj’

    should delight in you, reward you with money, and promote you to office ?

    This ridicule of the popular superstitions has, no doubt, had

    some effect, repeated as it is in all parts of the country’ ; but

    since the literati merely tear down and build up nothing, giving

    the people no substitute for what thej take away, but rather,

    in their times of trouble, doing the things they decry, such

    homilies do not destroy the general respect for such ceremonies.

    The Shlng Yic has also been versitied for the benefit of children,

    and collo<piial explanations added, which has further

    tended to enforce and inculcate its admonitions. The praise

    bestowed on this work by Johnson, in his Oriental Ecllgmis^

    has a good degree of actual usefulness among the people to

    confirm his observations ; yet they are quite used to hearing

    the highest moral platitudes from their rulers, to whom they

    would not lend a dollar on their word.

    In the fifth section, on medical writings, separate works are

    mentioned on the treatment of all domestic animals; among

    them is one on veterinary surgery, whose writers have versified

    most of their observations and prescriptions. The Ilerhal of

    Li Shi-chin, noticed on p. 370, and monographs on special diseases,

    all show the industry of Chinese physicians to much better

    advantage than their science. Works on medicine and

    surgery are numerous, in which the surface of the body is

    minutely represented in pictures, together with drawings of

    the mode of performing various operations. Works on judicial

    astrology, chiromancy, and other .modes of divination, on the

    rules for finding lucky spots for houses, graves, and temples,

    are exceedingly numerous, a large number of them written by

    Rationalists.

    The eighth section, on art, contains writings on painting,

    music, engraving, writing, posturing, and archery, and they will

    doubtless furnish many new points to western artists on the

    > ^red Edict, p. 146.

    692 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    principles and attainments o£ the Chinese in these Inanchea

    wlien the works have been made better known.

    Tlie ninth section, entitled ‘Collections’ or ‘ llepertories,’ is

    divided into memoirs on antiques, swords, coins, and bronzes,

    and presents a field of interesting research to a foreign archaeologist

    likely to reward him. Another division, containing the

    monographs on tea, bamboo, floriculture, etc., is not so promising.

    The tenth section, on philosophical writings, having a tinge of

    heterodoxy, is a very large one, and offers a i-are opportunity of

    research to those curious to know what China can contribute to

    moral science. The writings of Roman Catholics and Moslems

    are included in this long catalogue.

    Under the head of encyclopa>dias, a list of sunnnaries, compends,

    and treasuries of knowledge is given, which for extent

    and bulkiness cannot be equalled in any language. Among

    them is the Tal Tlen^ or’ Great Record ‘ of the Euqjeror Yungloh

    (a.d. 1403), in twenty-two thousand eight hundred and

    sev^enty-seven chapters, and containing the substance of all classical,

    historical, philosophical, and scientific writings in the language.

    Parts of this compilation were lost, and on the accession

    of the Manchus one-tenth of it was missing ; but by means

    of the unequalled interest on the part of Yungloh in his

    national literature, three hundred and eighty-five ancient and

    rare works were rescued from destruction. The San Tsai Tu,

    or ‘ Plates [illustrative of the] Three Powers ‘ (?!.«?., heaven,

    earth, and man, by which is meant the entire universe), in one

    hundred and thirty volumes, is one of the most valuable compilations,

    by reason of the great number of plates it contains,

    which exhibit the ideas of the compilers much better than their

    descriptions.

    The twelfth section, containing novels and tales, called Sia/)

    Shinoh., or ‘Trifling Talk,’ gives the titles of but few of the

    thousands of productions of this class in the language. Works

    of fiction are among the most popular and exceptionable books

    the Chinese have, and those which are not demoralizing are,

    with some notable exceptions, like the Ten Talented Authors,

    generally slighted. The books sold in the streets are chiefly

    of this class of writings, consisting of tales and stories generally

    CYCLOPiEDIAS, NOVELS, ETC. 693

    destitute of all iutricaey of ])lot, fertility of illustration, or elevation

    of sentiment. They form the common mental aliment

    of the lower classes, being read by those who are able, and

    talked about by all ; their influence is consequently immense.

    Many of them are written in the purest style, among which a

    callection called L’lao Chat, or ‘Pastimes of the Study,’ in sixteen

    volumes, is pre-eminent for its variety and force of expression,

    and its perusal can be recommended to every one who

    wishes to study the copiousness of the Chinese language. The

    preface is dated in 1079 ; most of the tales are shoi’t, and few

    have any ostensible moi-al to them, while those which are objectionable

    for their immorality, or ridiculous from their magic

    whimsies, form a large proportion. A quotation or two will

    illustrate the author’s invention:

    A villager was once selling pinms in the market, which were rather delicions

    and fragrant, and high in price ; and there was a Tao priest, clad in

    ragged garments of coarse cotton, begging before his wagon. The villager

    scolded him, but he would not goolf ; whereupon, becoming angry, he reviled

    and hooted at him. The priest said, “The wagon contains manj hundred

    plums, and I have only begged one of them, which, for you, respected sir,

    would certainly be no great loss ; wh}^ then are yon so angry ‘i ” The spectators

    advised to give him a poor plum and send him away, but the villager

    would not consent. The workmen in the market disliking the noise and

    clamor, furnished a few coppers and bought a plum, which they gave the

    priest. He bowing thanked them, and turning to the crowd said, ” I do not

    wish to be stingy, and reqiiest you, my friends, to partake with me of this

    delicious plum.” One of them replied, ” Now you have it, why do you not eat

    it yourself V” “I want only the stone to plant,” said he, eating it up at a

    munch. When eaten, he held the stone in his hand, and taking a spade off

    his shoulder, dug a hole in the ground several Indies deep, into which he put

    it and covered it with earth. Then turning to the market people, he procured

    some broth with which he watered and fertilized it; and others, wishing to

    see what would turn up, brought him boiling dregs from shops near by, which

    he poured upon the hole just dug. Every one’s eyes being fixed upon the

    spot, they saw a crooked shoot issuing forth, which gradually increased till it

    became a tree, having branches and leaves ; flowers and then fruit succeeded,

    large and very fragrant, which covered the tree. The priest then approached

    the tree, plucked the fruit and gave the beholders ; and when all were consumed,

    he felled the tree with a colter— chopping, chopping for a good while,

    until at last, having cut it off, lie shouldered the foliage in an easy manner,

    and leisurely walked away.

    When first the priest began to perform his magic arts, the villager was

    also among the crowd, with outstretched neck and gazing eyes, and completely

    694 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    forgot his own business. When the priest had gone, he hegan to look int«

    liis wagon, and lo ! it was empty of plums ; and for the first time he perceived

    that wliat liad just been distributed were all his own goods. Moreover, looking

    narrowly about his wagon, he saw that the dashboard was gone, having

    just been cut ojE with a chisel. Much excited and incensed he ran after him,

    and as he turned the corner of the wall, he saw the board thrown down beneath

    the hedge, it being that with which the plum-tree was felled. Nobody

    knew where the priest had gone, and all the market folks laughed heartily.

    The Rationalists are considered as the chief magicians among

    the Chinese, and they figure in most of tlie tales in this work,

    whose object probably was to exalt their craft, and add to their

    reputation. Like the foregoing against liardheartedness, the

    following contains a little sidewise admonition against theft

    :

    On the west of the city in the hamlet of the White family lived a rustic

    who stole his neighbor’s duck and cooked it. At night he felt his skin itch,

    and on looking at it in the morning saw a thick growth of duck’s feathers,

    which, when irritated, pained him. He was much alarmed, for he had no

    remedy to cure it; but, in a dream ox the night, a man informed him, ” Your

    disease is a judgment from heaven ; you must get the loser to reprimand you,

    and the feathers will fall off.” Now this gentleman, his neighbor, was always

    liberal and courteous, nor during his whole life, whenever he lost anything,

    had he even manifested any displeasure in his countenance. The thief

    craftily told him, ” The fellow who stole your duck is exceedingly afraid of a

    reprimand; but reprove him, and he will no doubt then fear in future.” He,

    laughing, replied, “Who has the time or disposition to scold wicked men ?” and

    altogther refused to do so ; so the man, being hardly bestead, was obliged to

    tell the truth, upon which the gentleman gave him a scolding, and his disorder

    was removed.

    Remusat compares the construction of Chinese novels to those

    of Itichardson, in which the ” authors render their characters

    interesting and natural by reiterated strokes of the pencil, which

    finally produce a high degree of illusion. The interest in their

    pages arose precisely in proportion to the stage of my progress

    ;

    and in approaching to the termination, I found myself about to

    part with some agreeable people, just as I had duly learned to

    relish their society.” lie briefly describes the defects in Chinese

    romances as principally consisting in long descriptions of trifling

    particulars and delineations of localities, and the characters and

    circumstances of the interlocutors, while the thread of the narrative

    is carried on mostly in a conversational way, which, fronj

    CHARACTER OF CHINESE FICTION. 695

    its minuteness, soon becomes tedious. The length of their

    poetic descriptions and prolix display of the wonders of art or

    the beauties of nature, thrown in at the least hint in the narrative,

    or moral reflections introduced in the most serious manner

    in the midst of diverting incidents, like a long-metre psalm in

    a comedy, tend to confuse the main story and dislocate the unity

    requisite to produce an effect.

    Chinese novels, however, generally depend on something of

    a plot, and the characters are sometimes well sustained. ” Visits

    and the formalities of polished statesmen ; assemblies, and above

    all, the conversations which make them agreeable ; repasts, and

    the social amusements which prolong them ; M^alks of the admirers

    of beautiful nature ; journeys ; the manoeuvres of adventurers;

    lawsuits; the literary examinations; and, in the

    sequel, marriage, form their most fi-equent episodes and ordinary

    conclusions.” The hero of these plots is usually a young academician,

    endowed with an amiable disposition and devotedly

    attached to the study of classic authors, who meets with every

    kind of obstacle and ill luck in the way of attaining the literary

    honors he has set his heart on. The heroine is also well acquainted

    with letters ; her own inclinations and her father’s

    desires are that she may find a man of suitable accomplishments,

    but after having heard of one, every sort of difficulty is

    thrown in the way of getting him ; which, of course, on the

    part of both are at last happily surmounted.

    The adventures which distinguished persons meet in wandering

    over the countiy incognito, and the happy denouement of

    their interviews with some whom they have been able to elevate

    when their real characters have been let out, form the plan of

    other tales. There is little or nothing of high wrought description

    of passion, nor acts of atrocious vengeance introduced to

    remove a troublesome person, but everything is kept within the

    bounds of jirobability ; and at the end the vicious are punished

    by seeing their bad designs fail of their end in the rewards and

    success given those who have done well. In most of the stories

    whose length and style are such as to entitle them to the name

    of novel, and which have attained any reputation, the story is

    not disgraced by anything offensive ; it is rather in the shorter

    G96 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM,

    tales that decency is violated. Among tlieiu the Ilung La(s

    Jlfwyt^, or ‘ Dreams of the Red Chamber,’ is one of the most

    popular stories, and open not a little to this objection.

    The historical novels, of which there are many, would, if

    translated, prove more interesting to foreign readers than those

    merely describing manners, because they interweave much information

    in the story. The SJiui Hu Chnen, or ‘Narrative

    of the “Water Marshes,’ and ‘ The Annals of the Contending

    States,’ are two of the best written ; the latter is more credible

    as a history than any other work in this class.

    The fourth division of the Catalogue is called TkUi Pu, or

    ‘ Miscellanies,’ and the works mentioned in it are chieily poems

    or collections of songs, occupying nearly one-third of the whole

    collection. They arc arranged in five sections, namely : Poetry

    of Tsu, Complete Works of Individuals, and General Collections,

    On the Art of Poetry, and Odes and Songs. The most

    ancient poet in the language is Yuh Yuen, a talented Minister

    of State who flourished previous to the time of Mencius, and

    wrote the Li Sao, or ‘Dissipation of Sorrows.’ It has been

    translated into German and French. Ilis name and misfortunes

    are still commemorated by the Festival of Dragon-boats

    on the fifth day of the fifth moon. More celebrated in Chinese

    estimation are the poets Li Tai-peh and Tu Fu of the Tang

    djTiasty, and Su Tung-po of the Sung, who combined the three

    leading traits of a bard, being lovers of flowers, wine, and song,

    and attaining distinction in the service of government.’ The

    incidents in the life of the former of these bards were so varied,

    and his reckless love of drink brought him into so many scrapes,

    that he is no less famed for his adventures than for his sonnets.

    The following stoi-y is told of him in the ‘ Remarkable Facts

    of all Times,’ which is here abridged from the translation of

    T. Pavie :

    Li, called Tai-peli, or ‘Great-white,’ from the planet Venns, was endowed

    with a beautiful countenance and a well-made person, exhibiting in all liis

    ‘ The second of these, Tu Fu, is a poet of some distinction noticed by Eemusat

    {Koiivcdiix MeUoicicx, Tome II., p. 174). He lived in the eighth century

    A.I)., dying of hunger in the year 768. His writings are usually edited wit);

    those of Li Tai-peh.

    STORY OF LI TAI-PEII, THE POET. 697

    movements a gentle nobility which indicated a man destined to rise above his

    age. When only ten years old, he could read the classics and histories, and

    liis conversation sliowed the brilliancy of liis thoughts, as Avell as the purity

    ol his diction. He was, in consequence oi’ his precocity, called the Exiled

    Immortal, but named himself the Retired Scholar of the Blue Lotus. Some

    one having extolled the quality of the wine of Niauching, he straightway

    went there, although more than three hundred miles distant, and abandoned

    lumself to his appetite for liquor. While singing and carousing in a tavern,

    a military commandant passed, who, hearing his song, sent in to inquire who

    it was, and carried the poet off to his own house. Cn departing, he urged Li

    to go to the capital and compete for literary honors, which, he doubted not,

    couid be easily attained, and at last induced him to bend his steps to the capital.

    On his arrival there, he luckily met the academician Ho near the palace,

    who invited him to an alehouse, and laying aside his robes, drank wine with

    him till night, and then carried him home. The two were soon well acquainted,

    and discussed the merits of poetry and wine till they were much charmed with

    each other.

    As the day of examination approached. Ho gave the poet some advice.

    ” Ihe examiners for this spring are Yang and Kao, one a brother of the Empress,

    the other commander of his Majesty’s body-guard ; both of them love

    those who make them presents, and if you have no means to buy their favor,

    the road of promotion will be shut to you. I know them both very well, and

    will write a note to each of them, which may, perhaps, obtain you some

    favor.” In spite of his merit and high reputation, Li found himself in such

    circumstances as to make it desirable to avail of the good-will of his friend

    Ho ; but on perusing the notes he brought, the examiners disdainfully exclaimed,

    ” After having fingered his pi’oieije^a money, the academician contents

    himself with sending us a billet which merely rings its sound, and bespeaks

    our attention and favors toward an upstart without degree or title. On the

    day of decision we will remember the name of Li, and any composition signed

    by him shall be thrown aside without further notice.” The day of examination

    came, and the distinguished scholars of the Empire assembled, eager to

    hand in their compositions. Li, fully capable to go through the trial, wrote

    off his essay on a sheet without effort, and handed it in first. As soon as he

    saw the name of Li, the examiner Yang did not even give himself time to

    glance over the page, but with long strokes of his pencil erased the composition,

    saying, “Such a scrawler as this is good for nothing but to grind my ink !

    ” To grind your ink ! ” interrupted the other examiner Kao ; ” say rather he is

    only fit to put on my stockings, and lace up my buskins.”

    With these pleasantries, the essay of Li was rejected ; but he, transported

    with anger at such a contemptuous refusal at the public examination, returned

    liome and exclaimed, “I swear that if ever my wishes for promotion are accomplished,

    I will order Yang to grind my ink, and Kao to put on my stockings

    and lace up my buskins; then my vows will be accomplished.” Ho

    endeavored to calm the indignation of the poet: ” Stay here with me till a

    new examination is ordered in three years, and live in plenty ; the examiners

    will not be the same then, and you will surely succeed.” They therefore

    continued to live as they had done, drinking and making verses.

    69S THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    After many months had elapsed, some foreign ambassadors came to the

    capital charged with a letter from their sovereign, whom he was ordered to

    receive and entertain in the hall of ambassadors. Ihe next day the officers

    handed in their letter to his Majesty’s council, who ordered the doctors to opei»

    and read it, but they could none of them decipher a single word, humbly declaring

    it contained nothing but fly-tracks; “your subjects,” they added,

    “have only a limited knowledge, a shallow acquaintance with things ; they are

    unable to read a word.” On hearing this, the Emperor turned to the examiner

    Yang and ordered him to read the letter, but his eyes wandered over the

    characters as if he had been blind, and he knew nothing of them. In vain

    did his Maje.’ity addi’ess himself to the civil and military officers who filled the

    court ; not one among them could say whether the letter contained words of

    good or evil import. Highly incensed, he broke out in reproaches against the

    grandees of his palace : ” What ! among so many magistrates, so many scholars

    and warriors, cannot there be found a single one who knows enough to relieve

    us of the vexation of this affair ? If this letter cannot be read, how can it be

    answered ? If the ambassadors are dismissed in this style, we shall be the

    ridicule of the barbarians, and foreign kings will mock the court of Nanking,

    and doubtless follow it up by seizing their lance and buckler and join to invade

    our frontiers. What then ? If in three days no one is able to decipher this

    letter, every one of your appointments shall be suspended ; if in six days you

    do not tell me what it means, your offices shall every one be taken away ; and

    death shall execute justice on such ignorant men if I wait nine days in vain

    for its explanation, and others of our subjects shall be elevated to power whose

    virtue and talents will render some service to their country.”

    Terrified by these words, the grandees kept a mournful silence, and no one

    ventured a single reply, which only irritated the monarch the more. On hia

    return home. Ho related to his friend Li everything that had transpired at

    court, who, hearing him with a mournful smile, replied, ” How to be regretted,

    how unlucky it is that I could not obtain a degree at the examination last

    year, which would have given mo a magistracy ; for now, alas ! it is impossible

    for me to relieve his Majesty of the chagrin which troubles him.” “But

    truly,” said Ho, suddenly, ” I think you are versed in more than one science,

    and will be able to read this unlucky letter. I shall go to his Majesty and

    propose you on my own responsibility.” The next day he went to the

    palace, and passing through the crowd of courtiers, approached the throne,

    saying, ” Your subject presumes to announce to your Majesty that there is a

    scliolar of great merit called Li, at his house, who is profoundly acquainted

    with more than one science ; command him to read this letter, for there is

    notliing of which he is not capable.”

    This advice pleased the Emperor, who presently sent a messenger to the

    house of the academician, ordering him to present himself at court. But Li

    offered some objections : “I am a man still without degree or title; I have

    neither talents nor information, while the court abounds in civil and military

    officers, all equally famous for their profound learning. How then can you

    have recourse to sucli a contemptible and useless man as IV If I presume to

    accept this behest, I fear that I shall deeply offend the nobles of the palace”—

    referring especially to the premier Yang and the general Kao. When hisreplj^

    STOliY OF Li TAI-PEII, THE POET. 699

    was announced to the Emperor, lie demanded of IIo why his guest did not

    come when ordered. Ho replied, ” I can assure your Majesty that Li is a man

    of parts beyond all those of the age, one whose compositions astonish all who

    read them. At the trial of last year, his essay was marked out and thrown

    aside by the examiners, and lie himself shamefully put out of the hall. Your

    Majesty now calling him to court, and he having neitlier title nor rank, liis

    self-love is touched ; but if your Majesty would hear your minister’s prayer

    and shed your favors upon his friend, and send a high officer to him, I am

    sure he will hasten to obey the imperial will.” ” Let it be so,” rejoined the

    Lmperor ; ” at the instance of our academician, we confer on Li Peh the title

    of doctor of the first rank, with the purple robe, yellow girdle, and silken

    bonnet ; and herewith also issue an order for him to present himself at court.

    Our academician Ho will charge himself with carrying this order, and bring

    Li Peh to our presence without fail.”

    Ho returned home to Li, and begged him to go to court to read the letter,

    adding how his Majesty depended on his help to relieve him from his present

    embarrassment. As soon as he had put on his new robes, which were those

    of a high examiner, he made his obeisance toward the palace, and hastened to

    mount his horse and enter it, following after the academician. Seated on his

    throne, Hwantsung impatiently awaited the arrival of the poet, who, prostrating

    himself before its steps, went through the ceremony of salutation and

    acknowledgment for the favors he had received, and then stood in his place.

    The Emperor, as soon as he saw Li, rejoiced as poor men do on finding a treasure,

    or starvelings on sitting at a loaded table ; his heart was like dark clouds

    suddenly illuminated, or parched and arid soil on the approach of rain. “Fome

    foreign ambassadors have brought us a letter wliieli no one can read, and we

    have sent for you, doctor, to relieve our anxiety.” ” Your minister’s knowledge

    is very limited,” politely replied Li, with a bow, ” for his essay was rejected by

    the judges at the examination, and lord Kao turned him out of doors. Now

    that he is called upon to read this letter from a foreign prince, how is it that

    the examiners are not charged with the answer, since, too, the ambassadors

    liave already been kept so long waiting ? Since I, a student turned off from

    the trial, could not satisfy the wishes of the examiners, how can I hope to

    meet the expectation of your Majesty V ” ” We know what you are good for,”

    said the Emperor ; ” a truce to your excuses,” putting the letter into his hands.

    Running his eyes over it, he disdainfully smiled, and standing before the

    throne, read off in Cliinese the mysterious letter, as follows

    :

    “Letter from the mighty Ko To of the kingdom of Po Hai to the prince

    of the dynasty of Tang : Since your usurpation of Corea, and carrying your

    conquests to the frontiers of our States, your soldiers have violated our territory

    in frequent raids. We trust yon can fully explain to us this matter, and as we

    cannot patiently bear such a state of things, we have sent our ambassadors to

    announce to you that you must give up the hundred and sixty-six towns of

    Corea into our hands. We have some precious things to ofer you in compensation,

    namely, the medicinal plants from the mountains of Tai Peh, and the

    byssus from the southern sea, gongs of Tsiching, stags from Fuyu, and hor.ses

    from Sopin, silk of Wucliau, black fish from the river Mcito, prunes from

    700 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    Kiutu, and building materials from Loyu ; some of all these articles shall be

    sent you. If you do not accept these propositions, we shall raise troops and

    carry war and destruction into your borders, and then see on whose side victory

    will remain.”

    After its perusal, to which they had given an attentive ear, the grandees

    were stupefied and looked at each other, knowing how improbable it was that

    the Emperor would accept the propositions of Ko To. iMor was the mind of

    his Majesty by any means satisfied, and after remaining silent for some time,

    he turned himself to the civil and military officers about him, and asked what

    means were available to repulse the attacks of the barbarians in case their

    forces invaded Corea. Scholars and generals remained mute as idols of clay

    or statues of wood ; no one said a word, until Ho ventured to observe, *’ Your

    venerable grandfather Taitsung, in three expeditions against Corea, lost an untold

    number of soldiers, without succeeding in his enterprise, and impoverished

    his treasury. Thanks to Heaven Kai-su-wSn died, and profiting by the

    dissensions between the usurper’s sons, the glorious Emperor Taitsung confided

    the direction of a million of veterans to the old generals Li Sie and Pi Jinkwei,

    who, after a hundred engagements, more or less important, finally conquered

    the kingdom. But now having been at peace for a long time, we have

    neither generals nor soldiers ; if we seize the buckler and lance, it will not be

    easy to resist, and our defeat will be certain. I await the wise determination

    of your Majesty.”

    ” Since such is the case, what answer shall we make to the ambassadors ?

    said Hwantsung. ” Deign to ask Li,” said the doctor; ” he will speak to the

    purpose.” On being interrogated by his sovereign, LI replied, “Let not this

    matter trouble your clear mind. Give orders for an audience to the ambassadors,

    and I will speak to them face to face in their own language. The terms

    of the answer will make the barbarians blush, and their Ko To will be obliged

    to make his respects at the foot of your throne.” “And who is this Ko To ?

    demanded Hwantsung. “It is the name the people of Po Hai give to their

    king after the usage of their country ; just as the Hwui Hwui call theirs Kokan ;

    the Tibetans, T.sangpo ; the Lochau, Chau ; the Holing, Si-mo-wei ; each one

    according to the custom of his nation.”

    At this rapid flood of explanations, the mind of the wise Hwantsung experienced

    a lively joy, and the same day he honored Li with the title of an

    academician; a lodging was prepared for him in the palace of the Golden

    Bell ; musicians made the place re-echo with their harmony ; women poured

    out the wine, and young girls handed him the goblets, and celebrated the

    glory of Li with the same voic(?s that lauded the Emperor. What a delicious,

    ravishing banquet ! He could hardly keep witliin tlie limits of propriety, but

    ate and drank until he was unconscious of anything, when the Emperor ordered

    the attendants to carry him into the palace and lay him on a bed.

    The next morning, when the gong announced the fifth watch, the Emperor

    repaired to the hall of audience ; but Li’s faculties, on awaking, were

    not very clear, though the officers hastened to bring him. When all had gone

    through their pro.strations, Hwantsung called the poet near liim, but perceiv

    ing that the visage of the new-made doctor still bore the marks of his debaucli,

    STORY OF LI TAI-PEH, THE POET, 701

    and discovering the discomposure of Lis mind, he sent into the kitcVien for a little wine and some well-spiced fish broth, to arouse the sleepy bard. The servants presently sent it up on a golden tray, and the Emperor seeing the cup was fuming, condescended to stir and cool the broth a long time with the ivory chopsticks, and served it out himself to Li, who, receiving it on his knees, ate and drank, while a pleasing joy illumined his countenance. While this was going on, some among the courtiers were much provoked and displeased at the strange familiarity, while others rejoiced to see how well the Emperor knew to conciliate the good will of men. Ihe two examiners, Yang and Kao, betrayed in their features the dislike they felt.

    At the command of the Emperor, the ambassadors were introduced, and

    saluted his Majesty by acclamation, whilst Li Tai-peh, clad in a purple robe

    and silken bonnet, easy and gracious as an immortal, stood in the historiographer’s

    place before the left of the throne, holding the letter in his hand, and

    read it ol in a clear tone, without mistaking a word. Then tinning toward

    the frightened envoys, he said, ” Your little province has failed in its etiquette,

    but our wise ruler, whose power is comparable to the heavens for vastness, disdains

    to take advantage of it. This is the answer which he grants you : hear

    and be silent.” The terrified amljassadors fell trembling at the foot of the

    throne. The Emperor had already prepared near him an ornamented cushion,

    and taking a jade stone with which to rub the ink, a pencil of leveret’s hair

    bound in an ivory tube, a cake of perfumed ink, and a sheet of flowery paper,

    gave them to Li, and seated liim on the cushion ready to draw up the answer.

    ” May it please your Majesty,” objected Li, ” my boots are not at all suitable, for they were soiled at the banquet last evening, and I trust your Majesty in your generosity will grant me some new buskins and stockings fit for ascending the platform.” The Emperor acceded to his request, and. ordered a servant to procure them ; when Li resumed, “Your minister has still a word to add, and begs beforehand that his untoward conduct may be excused ; then he will prefer his request.” “Your notions are misplaced and useless, but I will not be ofended at them ; go on, speak,” said Hwantsung ; to which LI, nothing daunted, said, “At the last examination, your minister was turned off by Yang, and put out of doors by Kao. The sight of these persons here to-day at the head of the courtiers casts a certain discomposure over his spirits; let your voice deign to command Yang to rub my ink, whilst Kao puts on my stockings and laces iip my buskins ; then will my mind and wits begin to recover their energies, and my pencil can trace your answer in the language of the foreigners. In transmitting the reply in the name of the Son of Heaven, he will then not disappoint the confidence with which he is honored.” Afraid to displease Li when he had need of him, the Emperor gave the strange order ; and while Yang rubbed the ink and Kao put on the buskins of the poet, they could not help reflecting, that this student, so badly received and treated by them, only fit at the best to render such services to them, availed himself now of the sudden favors of the Emperor to take their own words pronounced against him as a text, and revenge himself upon them for past injuries. Rut what could they do ? They could not oppose the sovereign will, and if they did feel chagrined, they did not dare at least to express it. The proverb hath it true: Do not draw upon you a person’s enmity, for enmity is never appeased; injury returns upon him who injures, and sharp words recoil against him who says them.”

    The poet triumphed, and his oath was accomplished. Buskiued as he desired, he mounted the platform on the carpet and. seated himself on the cushion, while Yang stood at his side and rubbed the ink. Of a truth, the disparity was great between an ink-grinder and the magnate who counselled the Emperor.

    But why did the poet sit while the premier stood like a servant at his side ‘i It was because Li was the organ of the monarch’s words, while Yang, reduced to act the part o: an ink-rubber, could not request permission to sit.

    With one hand Li stroked his beard, and seizing his pencil in the other, applied it to the paper, which was soon covered with strange chai-acters, well turned and even without a fault or rasure, and then laid it lapon the dragon’s table. The Emperor gazed at it in amaze, for it was identical with that of the barbarians ; not a character in it resembled the Chinese ; and as he handed it about among the nobles, their surprise was great. When requested to read it, Li, placed before the throne, read in a clear loud tone the answer to the strangers:” The mighty Emperor of the Tang dynasty, whose reign is called Kiayuen, sends his instructions to Ko To of the Po Hai.

    “From ancient times the rock and the egg have not hit each other, nor the serpent and dragon made war. Our dynasty, favored by fate, extends its power, and reigns even to the four seas ; it has under its orders brave generals and tried soldiers, solid bucklers and glittering swords. Your neighbor, King Hiehli, who refused our alliance, was taken prisoner ; but the people of Putsau, after offering a present of a metal bird, took an oath of obedience.

    ” The Sinlo, at the southern end of Corea, have sent us praises written on the finest tissues of silk ; Persia, serpents which can catch rats ; India, birds that can speak ; and Rome, dogs which lead horses, holding a lantern in their month; the white parrot is a present from the kingdom of Koling, the carbuncle which illumines the night comes from Cambodia, and famous horses are sent by the tribe of Koli, while precious vases are brought from Nial : in short, there is not a nation which does not respect our imposing power, and does not testify their regard for the virtue which distinguishes us. Corea alone resisted the will of Heaven, but the divine vengeance has fallen heavily upon it, and a kingdom which reckoned nine centuries of duration was overthrown as in a morning. Why, then, do you not profit by the terrible prognostics Heaven vouchsafes yon as examples ‘? Would it not evince your sagacity ?

    “Moreover, your little country, situated beyond the peninsula, is little more than as a province of Corea, or as a principality to the Celestial Empire ; your resources in men and horses are not a millionth part those of China. You are like a cha’”ed locust trying to stop a chariot, like a stiff-necked goose which will not submit. Under the arms of our warriors your blood will run a thousand J’l. You, prince, resemble that audacious one who re”used our alliance, and whose kingdom became annexed to Corea. The designs of our Bage Emperor are vast as the ocean, and he now bears with your culpable anJ unreasonable conduct ; but hasten to prevent misfortune by repentance, and cheerfully pay the tribute of each year, and you will prevent the shame and opprobrium which will cover you and expose you to the ridicule of your neighbors. Reflect thrice on these instructions.”

    STORY OF Li TAI-PEH, THE POET. 703

    The reading of this answer filled the Emperor with joy, who ordered Li to make known its contents to the ambassadors ; he then sealed it with the imperial seal. The poet called Kao to put on the boots which he had taken off. and he then returned to the palace of Golden Bells to inform the envoys concerning his sovereign’s orders, reading the letter to them in a loud tone, while they heard tremblingly. The academician Ho reconducted them to the gates of the capital, and there the ambassadors asked who it was who had read the imperial instructions. ” He is called Li, and has the title of Doctor of the Hanlin.” ” But among so many dignitaries, M^hy did the first Minister of State rub his ink, and the general of the guards lace up his buskins ‘? ” ” Hear,” added Ho ; ” those two personages are indeed intimate ministers of his Majesty, but they are only noble courtiers who do not transcend common humanity, while Doctor Li, on the contrary, is an immortal descended from heaven on the earth to aid the sovereign of the Celestial Empire. How can any one equal him ? ” The ambassadors bowed the head and departed, and on their return rendered an account of their mission to their sovereign. On reading the answer of Li, the Ko To was terrified, and deliberated with his counsellors: “The Celestial Empire is upheld by an immortal descended from the .skies! Is it possible to attack it ‘/ ” He thereupon wrote a letter of submission, testifying his desire to .send tribute each year, which was thenceforth allowed. Li Tai-peh afterward drowned himself from fear of the machinations of his enemies, exclaiming, as he leaped into the water, ” I’m going to catch the moon in the midst of the sea !”

    The poetry of the Chinese has been investigated hy Sir Jolni

    Davis, and tlie republication of liis first paper in an enhirged

    fonn in 1870, with the versification of Legge’s translations of

    the Shi King by his nephew, and two volumes of ^’arious pieces

    by Stent, have altogether given a good variety/ Davis explains

    the principles of Chinese rhythm, touches upon the tones, notices

    the parallelisms, and distinguishes the various kinds of

    verse, all in a scholarly manner. The Avhole subject, however,

    stOl awaits more thorough treatment. Artificial poetry, where

    ‘ Davis, Poetry of (he Chinese, London, 1870 ; G. C. Stent, The Jade Chaplet,

    London, 1874; Entmnhed Alive, and other Verses, 1878; Le Marquis

    D’Hervey-Saint-Denys, Poesies de VEpoqne des Thanr/, Paris, 18G2. A number

    of extracts of classical and modern literature will be found in Confucius and

    the Chinese Classics, compiled by Rev. A. W. Loomis, San Francisco, 1867

    China Peview, Yols. I., p. 248, IV., p. 4G, and passim the sound and jingle is regarded more than the sense, is not uncommon; the great number of characters having the same sound enables versifiers to do this with greater facility than is possible in other languages, and to the serious degradation of all high sentiment. The absence of inflections in the words Clippies the easy flow of sounds to which our ears are familiar, but renders such lines as the following more spirited to the eye which sees the characters than to the ear which hears them: Liang kinuij, ming nuvrifi, yanr] hiang tsiang, Ki n’t, jn eJti, I’l M mi, etc.

    Lines consisting of characters all containing the same radical are also constructed in this manner, in which the sounds are subservient to the meaning. This bizarre fashion of writing is, however, considered fit only for pedants.

    The Augustan age of poetry and letters was in the ninth and

    tenth centui’ies, during the Tang dynasty, when the brightest

    day of Chinese civilization was the darkest one of European.

    Xo complete collection of poems has yet been translated into any

    Eui’opean language, and perhaps none would bear an entire version.

    The poems of Li Tai-peh form thirty volumes, and those

    of Su Tung-po are contained in one hundred and fifteen volumes,

    while the collected poems of the times of the Tang dynasty

    have been published by imperial authority in nine hundred

    volumes. The proportion of descriptive poetry in it is small

    compared with the sentimental. The longest poem yet turned

    into English is the Jlwa Tsien Ki, or ‘ The Flower’s Petal,’ by

    P. P. Thoms, nnder the title of Cldneae CouHsld]) ; it is in heptameter,

    and his version is quite prosaic. Another of much

    greater repute among native scholars, called Li Sao, or ‘ Dissipation

    of Sorrows,’ dating from about b.c. 314, has been rendered

    into French by D’llervey-Saint-Denys.’

    It is a common pastime for literary gentlemen to try their’ Chinese Courtship. In Verse. To wJiieJi is added an Appendix treating of the Jievenue of China, etc., etc., by Peter Perring Thorns, London, 1S24. Compare the Quarterly Review for 1827, pp. 49G ff. Lc Li-Sao, Poeme da III’ Siedeuvant noire ere. Traduit da Chinois, par le Marquis d’Hervey de Saiut<Denys, Paris, 1870.

    CHINESE SONGS AND BALLADS. 705

    skill in versification ; epigrams and pasquinades ai-e usually put into metre, and at the examinations every candidate must hand in his poetical exercise. Consequently, much more attention is paid by such rhymesters to the jingle of the words and artificial structure of the lines than to the elevation of sentiment or copiousness of illustrations ; it is as easy for them to write a sonnet on shipping a cargo of tea as to indite a love-epistle to their mistress. Extemporaneous verses are made on every subject, and to illustrate occurrences -that are elsewhere regarded as too prosaic to disturb the mnse.

    Still, human emotions have been the stimulus to their expression in verse among the Chinese as well as other people ; and all classes have found an ntterance to them. Ribald and impure ditties are sung by street-singers to their own low classes, but such subjects do not characterize the best poets, as they did in old Rome. A piece called ‘ Chang Liang’s Flute ‘ is a fair instance of the better style of songs:

    ‘Twas niglit—the tired soldiers were peacefully sleeping,
    The low hum of voices was hushed in repose ;
    The sentries, in silence, a strict watch were keeping
    ‘Gainst surprise or a sudden attack of their foes ;
    When a low mellow note on the night air came stealing,
    So soothingly over the senses it fell—
    So touchingh- sweet—so soft and appealing,
    Like the musical tones of an aerial bell.
    Now rising, now falling — now fuller and clearer—
    Now liquidly solt — now a low wailing cry,

    Now the cadences seem floating nearer and nearer—
    Now dying away in a whispering sigh.
    Then a burst of sweet music, so plaintively thrilling.
    Was caught up by the echoes which sang the refrains
    In their many-toned voices—the atmosphere filling
    With a chorus of dulcet mysterious strains.

    The sleepers arous(», and with beating hearts listen;
    In their dreams they had heard that weird music before ‘,
    It touches each heart—with tears their eyes glisten.
    For it tells them of those they may never see more.
    In fancy those notes to their childhood’s days brought them,
    To those far-away scenes they had not seen for years ;
    To those who had loved them, had reared them, and taught them,
    And the eyes of those stern men were wetted with tears.
    Bright visions of home through their mem’ries came thronging,
    Panorama-like passing in front of their view;
    They were lunne-mk—no power could withstand that strange yearning;
    The longer they listened the more home-sick they grew.

    Whence came those sweet sounds ‘?— who the unseen musician
    That breathes out his soul, which floats on the night breeze
    In melodious sighs—in strains so elysian
    As to soften the hearts of rude soldiers like these ?
    Each looked at the other, but no word was spoken.
    The music insensibly tempting them on :
    They must return home. Ere the daylight had broken
    The enemy looked, and behold ! they were gone.
    There’s a magic in music—a witchery in it,
    Indescribable either with tongue or with pen ;
    The tlute of Chang Liang, in one little minute,
    Had stolen the courage of eight thousand men I’

    The following verses were presented to Dr. Parker at Canton by a Chinese gentleman of some literary attainments, upon the occasion of a successful operation for cataract. The original may be considered as a very creditable example of extempore sonnet:

    A fluid, darksome and opaque, long time had dimmed my sight,
    For seven revolving, weary years one eye was lost to light;
    The other, darkened by a film, during three years saw no day,
    High heaven’s bright and gladdening light could not pierce it with its ray.

    Long, long I sought the hoped relief, but still I sought in vain,
    My treasures lavished in the search, brought no relief from pain;
    Till, at length, I thought my garments I must either pawn or sell,
    And plenty in my house, I feared, was never more to dwell.

    Th<m loudly did I ask, for what cause such pain I bore—
    For transgressions in a former life unatoned for before ?
    But again’ came the reflection how, of yore, oft men of worth.
    For slight errors, had borne sutf’ ring great as drew my sorrow forth.
    Stent’s Jiule Cluiplet.

    SPECIMEN OF AN EXTEMPORE SONNET. 707

    ” And shall not one,” said I then, ” whose worth is but as naught, Bear patiently, as heaven’s gift, what it ordains ‘i ” The thought Was scarce completely formed, when of a friend the footstep fell

    On my threshold, and I breathed a hope he had words of joy to tell.
    ‘* I’ve heard,” the friend who enter’d said, ” there’s come to us of late
    A native of the ‘ Flowery Flag’s ‘ far-ofi and foreign State ;
    O’er tens of thousand miles of sea to the Inner Land he’s come—
    His hope and aim to heal men’s pain, he leaves his native home.”

    I quick went forth, this man I sought, this gen’rous doctor found;
    He gained my heart, he’s kind and good ; for, high up from the ground,
    He gave a room, to which he came, at morn, at eve, at night—
    Words were but vain were I to try his kindness to recite.
    With needle argentine he pierced the cradle of the tear.
    What fears I felt ! Su Dong-po’s words rung threatening in my ear:
    ” Glass hung in mist,” the poet says, “take heed you do not shake ;
    “(The words of fear rung in my ear), “how if it chance to break I” The fragile lens his needle pierced : the dread, the sting, the pain, I thought on these, and that the cup of sorrow I must drain ; But then my mem’ry faithful showed the work of fell disease.

    How long the orbs of sight were dark, and I deprived of ease.

    And thus I thought : ” If now, indeed, I were to find relief,

    ‘Twere not too much to bear the pain, to bear the present grief.”

    Then the words of kindness which I heard sunk deep into my soul,

    And free from fear I gave myself to the foreigner’s control.

    His silver needle sought the lens, and quickly from it drew
    The opaque and darksome fluid, whose effect so well I knew;
    His golden probe soon clear’d the lens, and then my eyes he bound,
    And laved with water sweet as is the dew to thirsty ground.

    Three days thus lay I, prostrate, still ; no food then could I eat ;

    My limbs relax’d were stretched as though th’ approach of death to meet

    With thoughts astray—mind ill at ease —away from home and wife,

    I often thought that by a thread was hung my precious life.

    Three days I lay, no food had I, and nothing did I feel;

    Nor hunger, sorrow, pain, nor hope, nor thought of woe or weal;

    My vigor fled, my life seemed gone, when, sudden, in my pain,

    There came one ray—one glimm’ring ray,—I see,—^I live again !

    As starts from visions of the night he who dreams a fearful dream,

    As from the tomb uprushing comes one restored to day’s bright beam,

    Thus I, with gladness and surprise, with joy, with keen delight,

    See friends and kindred crowd around ; I hail the blessed light.

    With grateful hfart, with heaving breast, with feelings flowing o’er,

    I cried, ” O lead nie quick to him who can the sight restore !”

    To kneel I tried, but he forbade ; and, forcing me to rise,

    ” To mortal man bend not the knee ;

    ” then pointing to the skies:—

    ” I’m but,” said he, ” the workman’s tool ; another’s is the hand ;

    Before Jiis might, and in Im sight, men, feeble, helpless, stand :

    Go, virtue learn to cultivate, and never thou forget

    That for some work of future good thj life is spared thee yet !”

    The off’ring, token of my tlianks, he refused ; nor would he take

    Silver or gold—they seemed as dust ; ’tis but for virtue’s sake

    His works are done. His skill divine I ever must adore,

    Nor lose remembrance ox his name till life’s last day is o’er.

    Thus liave I told, in these brief words, this learned doctor’s praise:

    Well does his worth deserve tliat I should tablets to liim raise.

    In this facility of versification lies one of the reasons for the

    mediocrity of common Chinese poetry, but that does not prevent

    its power over the popular mind being very great. Men

    and women of all classes take great delight in recitation and

    singing, hearing street musicians or strolling play-actors ; and

    these results, whatever we may judge by our standards, prove

    its power and suitableness to infiuence them. One or two

    additional specimens on different subjects may be quoted, inasnnich

    as they also illustrate some of the better shades of feeling

    and sentiment. A more finished piece of poetry is one

    written about a.d. 370, by Su-IIwui, whose husband was banished.

    Its talented authoress is said to have written more than

    five thousand lines, and among them a curious anagram of

    about eight hundred characters, which was so disposed that it

    would make sense equally well when i-ead up or down, crosswise,

    backward, or forward.’ Nothing from her pen remains except this ode, interesting for its antiquity as well as sentiment.

    ‘ A translation is given in the Chinese lieposztori/ (Vol, IX., p. 508) of a supposed complaint made by a cow of her sad lot in being obliged to work hard and fare poorly during life, and then be cut up and eaten when dead; the ballad is arranged in the form of the animal herself, and a herdboy leading her, who in his own form praises the happiness of a rural life. This ballad is a Buddhist tractate, and that fraternity print many such on broad-.sheets; one common collection ol’ prayers is arranged like a pagoda, with images of Buddlia sitting in the windows of each story.

    LAMENT OF TUV: POETESS SIT-IIWUI. 709

    ODE OF RU-HWUI.

    When thou receiv’dst the king’s command to quiet tlie frontier,
    Together to the bridge we went, striving our liearts to cheer-

    Hiding our grief. These words I gasped upon that mournful day :

    ” Forget not, love, my fond embrace, nor tarry long away !”

    Ah ! Is it true that since tliat time no message glads my sight V

    Think you that 7io?p your lone wi’e’s heart even in bright spring delights ?

    Our pearly stairs and pleasant yard the foul weeds have o’ergrown ;

    Our nuptial room—and couch—and walls—are now with dust o’erstrown.

    Whene’er I think of our farewell, my soul with fear grows cold;

    My mind resolves what shape I’d take to see thee as of old.

    Now as I watch the deep-sea moon, I long her form to be;

    Again, the mountain cloud has filled my dull heart with envy.

    For deep-sea moon shines year by year upon the land abroad ;

    And ye, O mountain clouds, may meet the form of my adored!

    Aye, flying here and flying there, seek my beloved’s place.

    And at ten thousand thousand miles—speed !—gaze on his fair face.

    Alas ! for iiie the road is long, steep mountain peaks now sever

    Our loving souls. I can but weep—O ! may’t not be forever !

    The long reed’s leaves had yellow grown when we our farewell said ;

    Who then had thought the plum-tree’s bough so oft would turn to red ?

    The fairy flowers spreading their leaves have met the early spring—
    All, genial months, what time for love !—But who can ease my sting ?
    The pendant willows strew the court, for thee I pull them down ;
    The falling flowers enrich the earth, none pick these from the ground
    And scatter vernal growth, as once, before the ancestral tomb !
    Taking the lute o? Tsun I strive to chase away the gloom
    By thrumming, as I muse o? thee, songs of departed friends.

    Sending my inmost thoughts away, they reach the northern ends—

    Those northern bounds! —how far they seem, o’erpassed the hills and streams

    No news, no word from those confines to lighten e’en my dreams !

    My dress, my pillow, once so white, are deeply stained with tears ;

    My broidered coat with gilded flowers, all spotted now appears.

    The very geese and storks to me, when in their passage north.

    Seemed by their cries, my distant love, to tear my heartstrings forth.

    No more my lute —though thou wert strong, with passion was I wrung;
    My grief was its utmost bent—my song was still unsung.

    Ah ! husband, lord, thy love I feel is stable as the liills ;

    ‘Tis joy to think each hour of this—a balm for countless ills!

    I had but woven half my task—I gave it to his Grace :

    O grant my husband quick release, I pine for his embrace!

    Auioiig tlie best of Chinese ballads, if regard be had to the

    character of the sentiment and metaphors, is one on Picking

    Tea, wliich the girls and women sing as they collect the leaves.

    BALLAD OF THE TEA-PICKER.

    I.

    A\Tiere thousand hills the vale enclose, our little lu;t is there,
    And on the sloping sides around the tea grows everywhere ;
    And I must rise at early dawn, as busy as can be.
    To get my daily labor done, and pluck the leafy tea.

    II.

    At early dawn I seize my crate, and sighing. Oh, for rest!
    Thro’ the thick mist I pass the door, with sloven hair half drest;
    The dames and maidens call to me, as hand in hand they go,
    ” What steep do you, miss, climb to-day—what steep of high Sunglo?*

    III.
    Dark is the sky, the twilight dim still on the hills is set;
    The dewy leaves and cloudy buds may not be gathered yet:
    Oh, who are they, the thirsty ones, for whom this work we do,
    For whom we spend our daily toil in bands of two and two ?

    IV.
    Like fellows we each other aid, and to each other say,
    As down we pull the yielding twigs, ” Sweet sister, don’t delay ;
    E’en now the buds are growing old, all on the boughs atop.
    And then to-morrow—who can tell ?—the drizzling rain may drop.”

    V.
    We’ve picked enow ; the topmost bough is bare of leaves ; and so
    We lift our brimming loads, and by the homeward path we go;
    In merry laughter by the pool, the lotus pool, we hie.
    When hark ! tiprise a mallard pair, and hence affrighted Hy.

    VI.
    Limpid and clear the pool, and there how rich the lotus grows.
    And only lialf its opening leaves, round as the coins, it shows—
    I bend me o’er the jutting brink, and to myself I say,
    ” I marvel in the glassy stream, how looks my face to-day ?”

    VII.

    My face is dirty; out of trim my hair is, and awry;
    Oh, tell me, where’s the little girl so ugly now as I ?
    ‘Tis all because whole weary hours I’m forced to pick the tea.
    And driving winds and soaking showers have made me what von seet

    VIII.
    With morn again come wind and rain, and though so fierce and strong,
    With basket big, and little hat, I wend my way along;
    At home again, when all is picked, and everybody sees
    How muddy all our dresses are, and drabbled to the knees.

    IX.

    I saw this morning through the door a pleasant day set in;
    Be sure I quickly dressed my hair and neatly fixed my pin,
    And fleetly sped I down the path to gain the wonted spot,
    But, never thinking of the mire, my working shoes forgot!

    X.
    The garden reached, my bow-shaped shoes are soaking through and through;
    The sky is changed—the thunder rolls—and I don’t know what to do;
    I’ll call my comrades on the hill to pass the word with speed
    And fetch my green umbrella-hat to help me in my need.

    XI.

    But my little hat does little good ; my plight is very sad !
    I stand with clothes all dripping wet, like some poor fisher-lad;
    Like him I have a basket, too, of meshes woven fine—
    A fisher-lad, if I only had his fishing-rod and line.

    XII.
    The rain is o’er ; the outer leaves their branching fibres show;
    Shake down the branch, the fragrant scent about us ‘gins to blow;
    Gather the yellow golden threads that high and low are found—
    Oh, what a precious odor now is wafted all around !

    XIII.
    N^o sweeter perfume does the wild and fair Aglaia shed,
    Throughout Wu-yuen’s bounds my tea the choicest will be said;
    When all are picked we’ll leave the shoots to bud again in spring,
    But for this morning we have done the third, last gathering.

    XIV.

    Oh, weary is our picking, yet do I my toil withhold ?
    My maiden locks are all askew, my pearly fingers cold;
    I only wish our tea to be superior over all.
    O’er this one’s “sparrow-tongue,” and o’er the other’s “dragon-ball.”

    XV.

    Oh, for a month I weary strive to find a leisure day ;
    I go to pick at early dawn, and until dusk I stay ;
    Till midnight at the firing-pan I hold ray irksome place:
    But will not labor hard as this impair my pretty face ?

    XVI.

    But if my face be pomewhat lank, more firm shall be my mind;
    I’ll fire my tea that all else shall be my golden buds behind ;
    But yet the thought arises who the pretty maid shall be
    To put the leaves in jewelled cup, from thence to sip my tea.

    XVII.
    Her griefs all flee as she makes her tea, and she is glad ; but oh,
    Where shall she learn the toils of us who labor for her so ”.
    And shall she know of the winds that blow, and the rains that jiour their wrath,
    And drench and soak us thro’ and thro’, as plunged into a bath ?

    XVIII.
    In driving rains and howling winds the birds forsake the nest,
    Yet many a loving pair are seen still on the boughs to rest;
    Oh, wherefore, loved one, with light look, didst thou send me away?
    I cannot, grieving as I grieve, go through my work to-day.

    XIX.
    But though my bosom rise and fall, like T)ucket in a well.
    Patient and toiling as I am, ‘gainst work I’ll ne’er rebel;
    My care shall be to have my tea fired to a tender brown,
    And let the Jla(/ and aid, well rolled, display their whitish down.’

    XX.
    Ho ‘ for my toil ! Ho I for m\’ steps ! Aweary though I be.
    In our poor house, for working folk, there’s lots of work, I see ;
    When the firing and the drying’s done, off at the call I go,
    And once again, this very morn, I climb the high Sunglo.

    XXI.
    My wicker basket slung on arm, and hair entwined with flowers,
    To the slopes I go of high Sunglo, and pick the tea for hours;
    How laugh we, sisters, on the road ; what a merry turn we’ve got;
    I giggle and say, as I point down the way, There, look, there lies our cot!

    XXII.
    Your handmaid ‘neath the sweet green shade in sheltered cot abides.
    Where the pendant willow’s sweeping bough the thatchy dwelling hides;
    To-morrow, if you wish it so, my guests I pray you’ll be !
    The door you’ll know by the fragrant scent, the .scent of the firing tea.
    ‘ The ki, or ‘ flag,’ is the term by which the leaflets are called when they just begin to unroll ; the tfiiang, or ‘ awl,’ designates those lijaves which are still wrapped u]^ and which are somewhat sharp.

    XXIII.
    While ’tis cold, and then ’tis warm, when I want to fire iny tea,
    The sky is sure to shift and change— and all to worry me;
    When the sun goes down on the western hills, on the eastern there is rain I
    And however fair lie promises, he promises in vain.

    XXIV.
    To-day the tint of the western hills is looking bright and fair,
    And I bear my crate to the stile,’ and wait my fellow toiler there ;
    A little tender lass is she—she leans upon the rail
    And sleeps, and though I hail her she answers not my hail.

    XXV.
    And when at length to my loudest call she murmurs a reply,
    ‘Tis as if bard to conquer sleep, and with half-opened eye;
    Up starts she, and with straggling steps along the path she’s gone,
    She brings her basket, but forgets to put the cover on !

    XXVI.
    Together trudge we, and we pass the lodge of the southern bowers,
    Where the beautiful sea-pomegranate waves all its yellow Howers ;
    Fain would we stop and pluck a few to deck our tresses gay,
    But the tree is high, and ’tis vain to try and reach the tempting spray.

    XXVII.
    The pretty birds upon the boughs sing songs so sweet to hear.
    And the sky is so delicious now, half cloudy and half clear ;
    While bending o’er her work, each maid will prattle of her woe.
    And we talk till our hearts are sorely hurt, and tears unstinted flow.

    XXVIII.
    Our time is up, and yet not full our baskets to the mouth—
    The twigs anorth are fully searched, let’s seek them in the south;
    Just then by chance I snapped a twig whose leaves were all apair;
    See, with my taper fingers now I fix it in my hair.

    XXIX.
    Of all the various kinds of tea, the bitter beats the sweet,
    But for whomever either seeks, for him I’ll find a treat;
    Though who it is shall drink them, as bitter or sweet they be,
    I know not, my friend—but the pearly end of my finger only see!
    ‘ The ting is not exactly a stile, being a kind of shed, or four posts supporting
    a roof, which is often erected by villagers for the convenience of wayfarers,
    who can stop there and rest. It sometimes contains a bench or seat, and is usually over or near a spring of water.

    XXX.
    Ye twittering swallows, rise and fall in your flight around the hill,
    But when next I go to the high Sunglo, I’ll change my gown—I will;
    And I’ll roll up the cuff and show arm enough, for my arm is fair to see:
    Oh, if ever there were a fair round arm, that arm belongs to me 1

    CHINESE DRAMAS AND BUKLETTAS. 715

    In the department of plays and dramas, Chinese literature shows a long list of names, few or none of which have ever been heard of away from their native soil. Some of their pieces have been translated by Julien, Bazin, Davis, and others, most of which were selected from the Hundred Plays of Yuan. The origin of the present Chinese drama does not date back, according to M. Bazin, beyond the Tang dynasty, though many performances designed to be played and sung in pantomime had been written before that epoch. He cites the names of eighty-one persons, besides mentioning other plays of unknown authors, whose combined writings amount to five hundred and sixty-four separate plays ; all of whom flourished during the Mongol dynasty. The plays that have been translated from this collection give a tolerably good idea of Chinese talent in this difficult department; and, generally speaking, whatever strictures may be nuide upon the management of the plot, exhibition of character, unity of action, or illustration of manners, the tendency of the play is on the side of justice and morality. Pere Preraare first translated a play in 1731, under the title of the Orphan of Chau,^ which was taken by Voltaire as the groundwork of one of his plays. The Heir in Old Aye and the Sorrows of Han are the names of two translated by Sir J. F. Davis. The Oircle of CJialk was translated and published in 1832 by Julien, and a volume of Bazin, aine, containing the Tidrtgaes of an Ahiyail, the Coupared Tunic, the So)i(jstrcss, and Ilesentnierd of Tau JS^go, appeared in 1838, at Paris, None of these pieces exhibit much intricacy of plot, nor would the simple arrangements of Chinese theatres allow much increase to the dramatis personoi without confusion. M. Bazin, moreover, translated the Pi-pa Ki, or History of a Lide^ ‘ Tehiio-cM-cou-eulh, ou VOrphdin de la Maison de Telmo, tragedie chinoise, tradnile par le R. P. de Pr>’mare, Miss, de la Chine, 1755. Julien published a translation o2 the same, I’aris, iy34.

    a drama in twenty-four acts, of more pretensions, partaking of the novel as well as the drama; the play is said to have been represented at Peking in 1404, under the Ming dynasty.’

    Besides plays in the higher walks of the drama, which form the principal part of the performances at theatres, there are by-plays or farces, which, being confined to two or three interlocutors, depend for their attractiveness upon the droll gesticulations, impi’omptu allusions to passing occurrences, and excellent pantomimic action of the performers. They are usually brought on at the conclusion of the bill, and from the freedom given in them to an exhibition of the humor or wit of the players, are much liked by the people. A single illustration will exhibit the simple range and character of these burlettas.

    THE MENDER OF CRACKED CHINAWARE.

    DKAMATis PERSONS. \ ^f” ^^’^]’ ^ wandering tinker.

    ( narif/ jyutng A joung girl.

    Scene—A Street.

    Niu Chau enters—across his shoulder is a bamboo, to each end of which are

    suspended boxes containing the various tools and impleynenls of his trade,

    and a small stool. He is dressed meanly ; his face and head are painted

    and decorated in a fantastic manner.

    (Sings) Seeking a livelihood by the work of my hands,

    Daily do I traverse the streets of the city.

    {Speaks) Well, here I am, a mender of broken jars,

    An unfortunate victim of ever changing plans.

    To repair old fractured jars

    Is my sole occupation and support.

    ‘Tis even so. I have no other employment.

    (7’akes his bo.rcs from his shoulder, places tJiem on the ground^ sits

    beside them, and drawing out his fan, continues sjoeaking)—

    A disconsolate old man—I am a slave to inconveniences.

    For several days past I have been unable to go abroad,

    •Since the appearance of M. Bazin’s Theatre Chinois (Paris, 18B8) and Davis’ Sorroirs of Han (London, 1829), there has been astonishingly little done

    In the study of Chinese plays. Compare, for the rest, an article on this subject by J. J. AmpJre, in the Eevue des Deux Mondes, September, 1838 ; The Far East, Vol. I. (1876), pp. 57 and 90 ; Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 575 ; China Review, Vol. I., p. 2G ; also Lay’s Chinese as They Are, and Dr. Gray’s China, passim. Lieut. Kreitner gives an interesting picture of the Chinese theatre in a country town, together with a few pages upon the drama, of which his party were spectators. Lnfernen Osten, pp. 595-599.

    But, observing this morning a clear sky and fine air,
    I was induced to recommence my street wanderings.

    (Sings) At dawn I left my home,
    But as yet have had no job.
    Hither and yon, and on all sides,
    From the east gate to the west.
    From the south gate to the north,
    And all over within the walls,
    Have I been, but no one has called
    For the mender of cracked jars. Unfortunate man 1

    But this being my first visit to the city of Nanking,

    Some extra exertion is necessary ;

    Time is lost sitting idle here, and so to roam again I go.

    {8Jionlders Ids boxes and stuol, and walks about, ct^ying)-‘

    Plates mended ! Bowls mended !

    Jars and pots neatly repair’d !

    Lady Wang (fieard ‘mthin). Did I not hear the cry of the mender ot cracked jars ?

    I’ll open the door and look. {She enters, looking around.)

    Yes, there comes the repairer of jars.

    Niu Chau. Pray, have you a jar to mend ?

    I have long been seeking a job.

    Did you not call ?

    TMdy W. What is your charge for a large jar—

    And how much for a small one ?

    Kiu Chau. For large jars, one mace five.

    Lady W. And for small ones ‘?

    JV^iu Chau. Fifty pair of cash.

    Lady W. To one mace five, and fifty pair of cash.

    Add nine candareens, and a new jar may be had.

    liiu Chau. What, then, will you give ?

    Ljidy W. I will give one caudareen for either size.

    Niu Chau. Well, lady, how many cash can I get for this caudareen ?

    fjody W. Why, if the price be high, you will get eight cash.

    Niu Chau. And if low V

    Lady W. You will get but seven cash and a half.

    Niu Chau. Oh, you wicked, tantalizing thing!
    (Sings) Since leaving home this morning,

    I have met but with a trifler.

    Who, in the shape of an old wife.

    Tortures and gives me no job ;

    I’ll shoulder again my boxes, and continue my walk.

    And never again will I return to tli(* house of Wang.

    (Iffi moves off slowly.}

    Lady W. Jar-mender ! return, quickly return ; with a loud voice, I entreat

    you; for I have something on which I wish to consult with

    you.

    THE MENDER OF CHINAWARE—A FARCE. 717

    Hiu Chav. What is it on wliicli you wish to consult me ?

    Lady M’. I will give you a hundred cash to mend a large jar.

    Niu Chau. And for mending a small one V

    Lady W. And for mending a small one, thirty pair of cash.

    Niu Chau. One hundred, and thirty pair !—truly, lady, this is worth consulting about.

    Lady Wang, where shall I mend them ?

    Lady W. Follow me. {.They move toward tJie door of the house.)

    {Sings) Before walks the Lady Wang.

    Niti Chdu. And behind comes the jni-kany (or jar-mender).

    Lady W. Here, then, is the place.

    JVtu Chau. Lady Wang, permit me to pay my respects.

    {Bows reiwatedly in a ridiculotis manner.)

    We can exchange civilities.

    I congratulate 3’ou ; may you prosper—before and behind.

    Lady W. Here is the jar ; now go to work and mend it.

    {Takes the jar in his hand and tosses it about, examining it.)

    Niu Chan. This jar lias certainly a very appalling fracture.

    Lady W. Therefore, it requires the more care in mending.

    Niu Clmu. That is self-evident.

    ha^y W. Now, Lady Wang will retire again to her dressing room,

    And, after closing the door, will resume her toilet.

    Her appearance she will beautify ;

    On the left, her hair she will comb into a dragon’s head tuft,

    On the right, she will arrange it tastefully with flowers ;

    Her lips she will color with blood-red vermilion.

    And a gem of chrysoprase will she place in the dragon’s head tuft.

    Then, liaving completed her toilet, she will return to the door,

    And sit down to look at the jar-mender. {E.iit.)

    (Niu Ghausits dotcn, straps the jar on his knee, and arranges his tools before him, and as he drills holes for the clamps, sings)—

    Every hole drilled requires a pin.

    And every two holes drilled require pins a pair.

    As I raise my head and look around,

    (At this moment Lady Wang re-enters, beautifully dressed, and sits down by the door.)

    There sits, I see, a delicate young lady ;

    Before she had the appearance of an old wife,

    Now she is transformed into a handsome young girL

    On the left, her hair is comb’d into a dragon’s head tuft;

    On the right it is adorn’d tastel’ully with flowers.

    Her lips are like plums, her mouth is all smiles,

    Her eyes are as brilliant as the phamix’s ; and

    She stands on golden lilies, but two inches long.

    I look again, another look,—down drops the jar.

    {Tliejar at this moment falls, and is broken to pieces.]

    {Speaks) Heigh-ya ! Here then is a dreadful smash !

    Lady \V. You have but to replace it with another, and do so quickly.

    iVm Chau. For one that was broken, a good one must be given.

    Had two been broken, then were a pair to be supplied ;

    An old one being smashed, a new one must replace it.

    Lady W. You have destroyed the jar, and return me nothing but words.

    Give me a new one, then you may return home,—not before.

    Niu CJutu. Here upon my knees upon the hard ground, I beg Lady Wang,

    while she sits above, to listen to a few words. Let me receive

    pardon for the accident her beauty has occasioned, and I will-^’

    at once make her my wife.

    lAidy W. Impudent old man ! How presume to think

    That I ever can become your wife !

    Niu Cluiu. Yes, it is true, I am somewhat older than Lady Wang,

    Yet would I make her my wife.

    Lady W. No matter then for the accident, but leave me now at once.

    Niu Chau. Since you have forgiven me, I again shoulder my boxes,

    And I will go elsewhere in search of a wife.

    And here, before high heaven, I swear never again to come near the house of Wang.

    You a great lady ! Yon are but a vile ragged girl.

    And will yet be glad to take up with a much worse companion.

    (Going away, Tw suddenly thToimoffJds upper dress, and appears as a handsome young man.)

    Lady W. Henceforth, give up your wandering profession,

    And marrying me, quit the trade of a jar-mender.

    With the Lady Wang pass happily the remainder of your life.

    {They eiithrace, and exeunt.]

    DEFICIENCIES AND LIMITS OF CHINESE LITERATURE. 719

    Such is the general range and survey of Chinese literature, according to the Catalogue of the Imperial Libraries. It is, take it in a mass, a stupendous monument of human toil, fitly compared, so far as it is calculated to instruct its readers in useful knowledge, to their Great Wall, which can neither protect from its enemies, nor be of any real’ use to its makers. Its deficiencies are glaring. Ko treatises on the geography of foreign countries nor truthful narratives of travels abroad are contained in it, nor any account of the languages of their inhabitants, their history, or their governments. Philological works in other languages than those spoken within the Empire are unknown, and must, owing to the nature of the language, remain .so until foreigners prepare them. Works on natural history, medicine, and physiology are few and useless, while

    those on inatheiiiatics and the exact sciences are much less

    popular and useful than they might be ; and in the great range

    of theology, founded on the true basis of the Bible, there is

    almost nothing. The character of the people has been mostly

    formed by their ancient books, and this correlate influence has

    tended to repress independent investigation in the pursuit of

    truth, though not to destroy it. A. new infusion of science,

    religion, and descriptive geography and history will lead to

    comparison with other countries, and bring out whatever in it

    is good.

    A survey of this body of literature shows the effect of governmental

    patronage, in maintaining its character for what

    appears to ns to be a wearisome uniformity. Xew ideas, facts,

    and motives must now come from the outer world, which will

    gradually elevate the minds of the people above the same unvarying

    channel. If the scholar knows that the goal he strives

    for is to be attained by proficiency in the single channel of

    classicvJ knowledge, he cannot be expected to attend to other

    studies until he has secured the prize. A knowledge of mediciiiC,

    mathematics, geography, or foreign languages, might, indeed,

    do the candidate much more good than all he gets out

    of the classics, but knowledge is not his object ; and where all run the same race, all must study the same works. But let there be a different programme of themes and essays, and a wider range of subjects required of the students, and the present system of governmental examinations in China, with all its imperfections, can be made of great benefit to the people, if it is not put to a strain too great for the end in view.

    The Chinese are fond of proverbs and aphorisms. They employ them in their writings and conversation as much as any people, and adorn their houses by copying them upon elegant scrolls, carving them upon pillars, and embroidering them upon banners. A complete collection of the proverbs of the Chinese has never been made, even among the people themselves any more than among those of other lands. Davis published, in 1828, a volume called Moral Maxims, containing two hundred aphorisms ; P. Perny issued an assortment of four hundred and forty-one in 1869 ; and J. Duolittle collected several hundred proverbs, signs, couplets, and scrolls in his Vocahulaiy.

    CHINESE PROVERBS. 721

    Besides these, a collection of two thousand seven hundred and twenty proverbs was published in 1875 by W. 8carboi-ough, furnished with a good index, and, like the others noted here, with the original text. Davis mentions the 3I’h(/ Shi Pao Kien, or ‘Jewelled Mirror for Illumining the Mind,’ as containing a large number of proverbs. The Ku Ss* Kimig Lhi^ or ‘Coral Forest of Ancient Matters,’ is a similar collection; but if that be compared to a dictionary of quotations, this is better likened to a classical dictionary, the notes which follow the sentences leaving the reader in no doubt as to their meaning.

    Manuscript lists of sentences suitable for hanging upon doors or in parlors are collected by persons who write them at New Year’s, and whose success depends upon their facility in quoting elegant couplets. The following selection will exhibit to some extent this branch of Chinese wisdom and wit:
    Not to distinguish properly between the beautiful and ugly, is like attaching a dog’s tail to a squirrel’s body.
    An avaricious man, who can never have enough, is as a serpent wishing to swallow an elephant.
    While one misfortune is going, to have another coming, is like driving a tiger out of the front door, while a wolf is entering the back.
    The tiger’s cub cannot be caught without going into his den.
    To paint a snake and add legs. (Exaggeration.)
    To sketch a tiger and make it a dog, is to iniitatt’ a work of genius and spoil it.
    To ride a fierce dog to vaXx-\\ a huut^ rabbit. (Useless power over a contcni])- tible enemy.)
    To attack a thousand tigers with ten men. (To atteniiit a ditliculty with incommensurate means.)
    To cut off a hen’s head with a battle-axe. (Unnecessary valor.)
    To cherish a bad man is like nourishing a tiger ; if not well fed he will devour you: or like rearing a hawk ; if hungry he will stay by you, but lly away when fed.
    To instigate a villain to do wrong is like teaching a monkey to climb trees.
    To catch a fish and throw away the net ;—not to requite benefits.
    To take a locust’s shank for the shaft of a carriage;—an inefficient person doing important work.
    A pigeon sneering at a roc ;— a mean man despising a prince.
    To climb a tree to catch a fish, is to talk much and get nothing.
    To test one good horse by judging the portrait of another.
    A fish sports in the kettle, but his life will not be long.
    Like a swallow building her nest on a hut is an anxious statesman.
    Like a crane among hens is a man of parts among fools.
    Like a sheep dressed in a tiger’s skin is a superficial scholar.
    Like a cuckoo in a magpie’s nest is one who enjoy’s another’s labor.
    To hang on the tail of a beautiful horse. (To seek promotion.)
    Do not pull up your stockings in a melon field, or arrange your hat under a peach tree, lest people think you are stealing.
    An old man marrying a young wife is like a withered willow sprouting.
    Let us get drunk to-day while we have wine ; the sorrows of to-morrow may be borne to-morrow.
    If the blind lead the blind, they will both go to the pit.
    Good iron is not used for nails, nor are soldiers made of good men.
    A fair wind raises no storm.
    A little impatience subverts great undertakings.
    Vast chasms can be filled, but the heart of man is never satisfied.
    The body may be healed, but the mind is incurable.
    When the tree falls the monkeys flee.
    Trouble neglected becomes still more troublesome.
    Wood is not sold in tlie forest, nor fish at the pool.
    He who looks at the sun is dazzled, he who hears the thunder is deafened.(Do not come too near the powerful.)
    He desires to hide his tracks, and walks on the snow.
    He seeks the ass, and lo! he sits upon him.
    Speak not of others, but convict yourself.
    A man is not always known by his looks, nor the sea measured by a bushel.
    Ivory does not come from a rat’s mouth.
    If a chattering bird be not placed in the mouth, vexation will not sit between the eyebrows.
    Prevention is better than cure.
    For the Emperor to break the laws is one with the people’s doing so.
    Douiit and distraction are on earth, the brightness of truth in heaven.
    Punishment can oppose a barrier to open crime, laws cannot reach to secret offences.
    Wine and good dinners make abundance of friends, but in time of adversity not one is to be found.
    Let every man sweep the snow from before his own doors, and not trouble himself about the hoarfrost on his neighbor’s tiles.
    Better be upright with poverty than depraved with abundance. He whos’) virtue exceeds his talents is the good man; he whose talents exceed his virtues is the fool.
    Though a man may be utterly stupid, he is very perspicuous when reprehending the bad actions of others; though he may be very intelligent, he is dull enough when excusing his own faults: do you only correct yourselves on the same principle that you correct others, and excuse others on the same principles you excuse yourselves.
    ‘If I do not debauch other men’s wives, my own will not be polluted.
    Better not be than be nothing.
    The egg fights with the rock—hopeless resistance.
    One thread does not make a rope ; one swallow does not make a summer.
    To be fully fed and warmly clothed, and dwell at ease without learning, is little better than a bestial state.
    A woman in one house cannot eat the rice of two. (A wise woman does not marry again.)
    Though the sword be sharp, it will not wound the innocent.
    Sensuality is the chief of sins, filial duty the best of acts.
    Prosperity is a blessing to the good, but to the evil it is a curse.
    Instruction pervades the heart of the wise, but cannot penetrate the ears of a fool.
    The straightest trees are first felled ; the cleanest wells first drunk up.
    The yielding tongue endures ; the stubborn teeth perish.
    The life of the aged is like a candle placed between two doors—easily blown out.
    The blind have the best ears, and the deaf the sharpest eyes.
    The horse’s back is not so safe as the buffalo’s. (The politician is not so secure as the husbandman.)
    A wife should excel in four things : virtue, speech, deportment, and needlework.
    He who is willing to inquire will excel, but the self-sufficient man will fail.
    Anger is like a little fire, which if not timely checked may burn down flofty pile.
    Every day cannot be a feast of lanterns.
    Too much lenity multiplies crime.
    If you love your son, give him plenty of the cudgel; if you hate him, cram him with dainties.
    When the mirror is highly polished, the dust will not defile it; when the heart is enlightened with wisdom, impure thoughts will not arise in it.
    A stubborn wife and stiff necked son no laws can govern.
    He is my teacher who tells me my faults, my enemy who speaks my virtues.
    He has little courage who knows the right and does it not.
    To sue a flea, and catch a bite—the results of litigation.
    Would you understand the character of a prince, look at his ministers; or the disposition of a man, observe his companions; or that of a father, first mark his son.
    The fame of good deeds does not leave a man’s door, but his evil acts are known a thousand miles off.
    A virtuous woman is a source of honor to her husband, a vicious one disgraces him.
    The original tendency of man’s heart is to do right, and if well ordered will not of itself be mistaken.
    They who respect themselves will be honored, but disesteeming ourselves we shall be despised.
    The load a beggar cannot carry he himself begged.
    The happy-hearted man carries joy for all the household.
    The more mouths to eat so much the more meat.
    The higher the rat creeps up the cow’s horn the narrower he finds it.

    ‘ The commendation by Lord Brougham of this “admirable precept,” as he called it, is cited by Sir J. Davis.

    CHAPTER XIII.  ARCHITECTURE, DRESS, AND DIET OF THE CHINESE

    It is a sensible remark of De Guigues,’ that ” the habit we

    fall into of conceiving things according to the words which express

    them, often leads ns into error when reading the relations

    of travellers. Such writers have seen objects altogether new,

    but they are compelled, when describing them, to employ equivalent

    terms in their own language in order to be understood; while these same terms tend to deceive the reader, who imagines

    that he sees such palaces, colonnades, peristyles, etc., under

    these designations as he has been used to, when, in fact, they

    are (piite another thing.” The same observation is true of other

    things than architecture, and of other nations than the Chinese,

    and this confusion of terms and meanings proves a fruitful

    source of error in regard to an accurate knowledge of foreign

    nations, and a just perception of their condition. For instance,

    the terms a court of justice^ a common school^ jiolltenesa^^ leariiing^

    navy, houses, etc., as well as the names of things, like razor,

    shoe, cap’, hed, jj<3;?6’//, jxijjer, etc., ai’e inapplicable to the same

    things in England and China; M’hile it is plainly hnpossible to

    coin a new word in English to describe the Chinese article, and

    equally inexpedient to introduce the native term. If, for example,

    the utensil used by the Chinese to shave with were

    picked up in Portsmouth by some English navvy who had never

    seen or heard of it, he would be more likely to call it an oysterknife,

    or a wedge, than a razor ; while the use to which it is

    ‘ Voyage a Peking, Vol. II., p. 173.

    POPULAR EKRORS KEiiAUDING FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 725

    applied must of course give it that name, and would, if it were

    still more unlike the western article. So with other things.

    The ideas a Chinese gives to the terms htcangtl, kwanfa, jxio^

    2jih, and shu^ are very different from those conveyed to an

    American by the words envperor, inag1strate, cannon, jpoicil,

    and IjooJ^:. Since a person can only judge of what he hears or

    reads by what he knows, it is desirable that when he meets with

    western names ap])lied to their equivalents in eastern countries,

    the function of a different civilization, habits, and notions should

    not be overlooked in the opinion he forms. These remarks are

    peculiarly applicable to the domestic life of the Chinese, to their

    houses, diet, dress, and social customs; although careful descriptions

    may go a good way in conveying just ideas, it cannot be

    hoped that they will do what the most cursory examination of

    the ol)ject or trait would instantly accomplish.

    The notions entertained abroad on tliese particulars ai-e, it need

    hardly i)e remarked, rather more accurate than those the Chinese

    have of distant countries, and it is scarcely possible that

    they can lose their conceit in their own civilization and position

    among the nations so long as such ideas are entertained as the

    following extract exhibits. Tien Ivi-shih, a popular essayist of

    the last century, thus congratulates himself and his readers: ” I

    felicitate myself that I was born in China, and constantly think

    how very different it would have been with me if I had been

    born beyond the seas in some remote part of the earth, M’liere

    the people, far remov^ed from the converting maxims of the

    ancient kings, and ignorant of the domestic relations, are clothed

    with the leaves of plants, eat wood, dwell in the wilderness, and

    live in the holes of the earth ; though born in the world, in

    such a condition I should not have been different from the

    beasts of the field. But now, happily, I have been born in the

    Middle Kingdom. I have a house to live in ; have food and

    drink, and elegant furniture ; have clothing and caps, and infinite

    blessings : truly, the highest felicity is mine.” This extract

    well indicates the isolation of the writer and his race from their

    fellow-men ; among the neighboring nations even the Japanese

    would have shoAvn him his erroneous view. The seclusion which

    had been forced upon both these peoples, who closed their doors as the surest possible defence against aggression from foreign traders and sought in this fashion to remove all cause of quarrel, brought with it in time the almost equal dangers of ignorance and inability to understand their true position among the nations of the world.

    Diagram of Chinese Roof Construction. (From Fergusson.)

    ABSENCE OF GREAT ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS. 727

    The architecture of the Chinese suggests, in its general outline and the peculiar concave roof, a canvas tent as its primary motive, though there is no further proof than this likeness of its origin. From the palace to the hovel, in temples and in private dwellings, this type everywhere stands confessed,’ and almost nothing like a dome or cupola, a spire or a turret, is anywhere found. Few instances occur of an attempt to develop even this simple model into a grand or imposing building. While the Mogul princes in India reared costly mausolea and palaces to perpetuate their memory and the splendor of their reigns, the monarchs of China, with equal or greater resources at command, seldom indulged in this princely pastime, or even attempted the erection of any enduring monument to commemorate their taste or their splendor. Whether it was owing to the absence of the beautiful and majestic models seen in western countries, or to ignorance of the mechanical principles of the art, the fact is not the less observable, and the inference as to the advance made by them in knowledge and taste not less just.

    ‘ It is said that when Ghoimis in Lis invasion of Hiina took a city, his soldiers immediately set about pulling down the four walls of the houses, leaving the overhanging roofs supported by the wooden columns—by which process they converted them into excellent tents for themselves and their horses.—Encyclopedia Britannica : Art. China.

    Fergiisson has no doubt assigned one good reason for this fact, in that ” the Chinese never had either a dominant priesthood or a hereditary nobiHty. The absence of the former class is important, because it is to sacred art that architecture has owed its highest inspiration, and sacred art is never so strongly developed as under the influence of a powerful and splendid hierarchy. In the same manner the want of a hereditary nobility is equally unfavorable to domestic architecture of a durable description.

    Private feuds and private wars were till lately unknown, and hence there are no fortalices or fortified mansions, which by their mass and solidity giv^e such a marked character to a certain class of domestic edifices in the west.” ‘ These reasons have their weight, but they hardly cover the whole question, whose solution reaches into the well-known inertness of the imaginative faculty in the Chinese mind. It is nevertheless true that there is nothing in the whole Empire worthy to be called an architectural ruin, nothing which can inform us whether previous generations constructed edifices more splendid or more mean than the present.^

    Dwelling-houses are generally of one story, having neither

    cellars nor baseuients, and lighted by lattices opening into a

    court; they must not equal adjacent temples in height, nor

    possess the ornaments appropriated to palaces and religious establishments.

    ‘ James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, p. 687; compare also Minwires Concernant les Chinois, where Chinese architecture is treated of in almost every volume.

    ‘ The foreign literature upon this subject is as yet scant and unimportant. Compare the rare and costly Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, Dresses, etc., from Originals draicn in China by Mr. Chambers, London, 1757, folio; J. M. Callery, De VArchitecture Chinoise, in the Recue d*Architecture ; Wm. Simpson, in Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects, 1873-74,p. 33 , Notes and Queries on China arid Japan.

    The common building materials are bricks, adobie or matting for the walls, stone for the foundation, brick tiling for the roof, and wood only for the inner work ; stone and wooden houses are not unknown, but are so rare as to attract attention. The high prices of tinil)er and the very partial use of window-glass have both tended to modify and restrict the

    construction of dwelHngs. The id chuen, or sifted earth, is a

    compound of decomposed granite or gravel and lime mixed with

    water, and sometimes a little oil, of which durable walls are

    made by pounding it into a solid mass between planks secured

    at the sides and elevated as the wall rises, or by beating it into

    large blocks ; when stuccoed and protected from the rain this

    material gradually hardens into stone. In houses of the better

    sort the stone M’ork of the foundation rises three or four feet

    above the ground, and sometimes the finished surfaces, great

    size of the stones and the i-egularity of their arrangement make

    one regret that the same skill had nut been expended on large

    edifices. In towns their fronts present no opening except the

    door, and when the outer walls of sevei’al houses join those of

    gardens and enclosures, the sti-eet presents an uninteresting

    sameness, unrelieved by steps, windows, balconies, porticoes,

    or front yards. The walls are twenty -five or thirty feet high,

    usually hollow, or too thin to safely support the roof unaided.

    In the common buildings a framework of wood is erected on

    the foundation, which has large stones so arranged as to receive

    the posts, and on these rests the entire weight of the roof. The

    brick nogging fills up the intervals, but supports nothing ; it is

    sometimes solid, more frequently merely a face-work, and if the

    roof becomes leaky or broken a heavy rain will destroy the

    wall, as it soaks through the courses and washes out the mud

    within. In the central provinces common walls are often made

    of small bricks four inches square and one thick, which are laid

    on their edges in a series of hollows ; between the courses a

    plank sometimes adds greater strength to the wall. These cellular

    constructions are more durable than would be imagined provided

    the stucco remains uninjured.

    CONSTRUCTION OF CHINESE BUILDINGS. 729

    The bricks are the same size as our own, and usually burned to a grayish slate coloi- ; they are made by hand, and sell at a price varying from three dollars to eight dollars a thousand. In the sea-coast districts lime is cheaply obtained from shells, but in the interior from limestone calcined by anthracite coal; the people use it pure, only occasionally mixing sand with it for either mortar or stucco. The walls are often stuccoed, and when not thus covered the bricks are occasionally rubbed smooth and pointed with tine cement. In place of a broad coi-nice the top is frequently relieved by a pretty ornament of moulded work of painted clay figures in alto relievo, representing a battle scene, a landscape, clusters of flowers, or some other design, defended from the weather by the projecting eaves. A black painted baud, relieved by cornei-s and designs of flowers and scrolls, is a cheap substitute for the carved figures.

    The roofs are hipped in some provinces, but rarely in the north. They are steep, and if kept tight will last several years; the grass which is apt to spring up on them is a source of injury, and its growth or removal alike endangers the soundness

    of the construction. The yellow and green glazed tiles of public

    buildings add to their beauty, as do the dragon’s heads and

    globes on their ridge-poles ; these features, together with the

    earthen dogs at the corners of temples or official houses, make

    the structures exceedingly picturesque. In Peking the framework

    under the wide eaves of palaces is tastefully painted in

    green and gold, and protected by a netting of copper wire.

    Hoofs are made of earthen tiles laid on coarse clapboarding

    that rests on the purlines in alternate ridges and furrows. The

    under layer consists of square thin pieces, laid side by side in

    ascending rows with the lower edges overlapping ; the sides are

    covered by the serai-cylindrical tiles, which are further protected

    by a covering of mortar. In the northern provinces the tiles

    are laid in a course of mud resting on straw over the clapboarding.

    The workmen begin the tiling at the ridge-pole and finish as they come down to the eaves, so as not to walk over the tiles and crack them ; but such roofs easily leak in driving storms. No chimneys are seen ; the slope is steep, for quick discharge of rain and snow. Terraces are erected on shops, but balustrades or flat roofs are seldom seen. Occasionally the gable w^alls rise above the roof in degrees, imparting a singular, bow-like aspect to the edifice. The purlines and ridge-pole extend from wall to wall, and the i-afters are slender strips. In all roofs the principal weight rests on the two rows of pillars; it the sides, tliut iiphold the plates, and the aiitefixoe which support the broad eaves far beyond the walh A series of beams and posts above the phites and tie-beams make the roof very heavy but also secure; curb and mansard roofs are unknown.

    The pillars of stone or timber in Chinese temples are often

    noticeable, owing to their size or length as single pieces. They

    are, however, unadorned with either capital or carved base,

    though the shaft may be finely carved and painted, the color

    decoration being often upon a thick coating of ]_>aj)iei’-mac1iey

    laid on to protect the wood. In two-story houses the sleepers

    of the rioor are supported on tie-beams attached to the main

    posts if they do not rest on the wall. Posts form an element

    of all Chinese buildings, either to support the roof or the

    veranda. The entrance is on the sides, and the wall is set back

    from the outer line of the eaves so as to afford a shelter or porch.

    Hipped roofs enable the architect to encompass the entire

    building with a veranda, this being a common arrangement in

    the southern provinces. A slight ceiling usually conceals the

    tiling, but the apartment appears lofty owing to the cavity of

    the roof.

    The pavilion is a prominent feature of Chinese architecture,

    and its ornamentation calls out the best talent of the builder in

    making his edifice acceptable. One charming specimen of this

    style at the Emperor’s sunnner palace of Yuen-ming Yuen is

    already famous, its material being of pure copper ; it is about

    fourteen feet square and twenty high.

    Another beautiful structure which well exhibits the pavilion is shown in the adjoining cut. It is the Pih-yung Rang, or ‘Classic Hall,’ built by Kienlung adjacent to the Confucian Temple at Peking Tpage 74), and devoted to expounding the classics. This loftj^ building, which may be here seen through

    an ornamental arch across the court, is perfectly square, covered

    with a four-sided double roof, whose bright 3’ellow tiles and

    gilded ball at the apex produce a most brilliant effect in the

    sindight. The deep veranda, completely encircling the structure-

    and supported by a score of colored wooden pillars, very

    al)ly relieves the dead mass and heavy upper roof of the pavilion

    P1H-YU>G KUNG, OK ‘CLASSIC HALL,’ PEKING.

    ORNAMENTAL EDIFICES AND DWELLINGS. 731

    proper. Around flow the waters of a circular tank, edged witli

    marble balustrades and spanned by four bridges which form

    the approaches to each of the sides.

    The general disposition of a Chinese dwelling of the better

    sort is that of a series of rooms separated and lighted by intervening

    courts, and accessible along a covered corridor communicating

    with each, or by side passages leading through the courts.

    In cities, where the houses are cramped and the lots irregular

    in shape, there is more diversity in the arrangement and size

    of rooms ; and in the country establishments of wealthy families,

    where the gradual increase of the members calls for additional

    space, the succession of courts and buildings, interspersed

    with gardens and pools, sometimes renders the whole not a little

    complicated. The great expense of timber for floors, posts, and

    sleepers has been the chief reason for retaining the single

    story, rather than tlie awkwardness caused by cramping women’s

    feet. Xo contrivance for warming the rooms by means of

    chimneys or flues exists, except that found in the I’dng, or brick

    bed, on which the inmates lie and sit.

    The entrance into large mansions in the country is by a triple

    gate leading through a lawn or garden up to the hall ; in towns,

    a single door, usually elevated a step or two above the street,

    introduces the visitor into a porch or court. A wall or movable

    screen is placed inside of the doorway, and the intervening

    space is occupied by the porter ; upon the wall on the left is

    often seen a shrine dedicated to the gods of the threshold. In

    the liouses of oSicials, upon this wall is inscribed a list of dignities

    and offices which the master has held during his life. The

    door is solidly constructed, and moves upon pivots turning in

    sockets. Under the projecting eaves hang paper lanterns informing

    the passer-by of the name and title of the householder,

    and when lighted at night serving to illumine the street and

    designate his hal)itation ; for door-plates and numbers are unknown.

    The roughness of the gate is somewhat concealed by

    the names or grotesque representations of two tutelar gods,

    Shintu and Yuhlui, to whom the guardianship of the house is

    entrusted ; wliile the sides and lintel are embellished with felicitous

    quotations written upon red paper, or with sign-boards of official rank. The doorkeeper and other servants lodge in small rooms within the gateway, and above the porch is an attic containing one or two apartments, to be reached by a rude stairway.

    On passing behind the screen a court, occasionally adorned

    with flowers or a fancy fish-pool, is crossed before reaching the

    principal hall. Tlie upper end of the hall is furnished with a

    high table, on which incense vases, idolatrous utensils, and offerings

    are placed in honor of the divinities and lares worshipped

    there, whose tablets and names are on the wall. Sometimes the

    table merely contains flowers in jars, fancy pieces of white

    quartz, limestone or jade, or ornaments of various kinds. Before

    the table is a large couch, with a low stand in its centi’e,

    and a pillow for reclining upon. In front of it the chairs are

    arranged down the room in two I’ows facing each other, each

    pair having a small table between them. Tlie floors are made of

    thick, lai’ge tiles of brick or marble, or of hard cement. Even

    in a bright day the room is dim, and the absence of carpets and

    fireplaces, and of windows to afford a prospect abroad, renders

    it cheerless to a foreigner accustomed to his own glazed and

    loftier houses.

    A rear door near the side wall opens either into a kitchen or

    court, across which are the female apartments, or directly into

    the latter and the rooms for domestics. Instead of being always

    rectangular the doors are sometimes made round, leaf-shaped,

    or semi-circular, and it is thought desirable that they should not

    open opposite each other, lest evil spirits find their way in from

    tlie street. The rear rooms are lighted by skylights when

    other modes are unavailable, and along the southern sea-coasts

    the thin laminae of a species of oyster (Placuna) cut into small

    squares supply the place of window-glass. Commerce is gradually

    bringing this material into greater use all over the land,

    though the fear of thieves still limits it. (^orean paper is the

    chief substitute for glass in the north. The kitchen is a small

    affair, for the universal use of portable furnaces enables the

    imnates to cook M’herever the smoke will be least troulilesome.

    Warming the house, even as far north’as i^ingpo, is not frequent,

    as the inmates lely on their quilted and fur garments foi

    AHRAXGEMEXT OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 733

    protection. Tlie flue of tlio tiled-brick divan, or hoig^ is connected

    with a pit lined with brick dug in the floor in front; when the pot of coal is well lighted and placed near the opening, the draft carries the heat into the passages running under the surface, and soon warms the room without much smoke.

    The pot of burning coal furnishes all the cooking-fire the poor

    liave, and at night the inmates sleep on the warm bricks.

    The country establishments of wealthy men furnish the best

    expression of Chinese ideas of elegance and comfort. In these

    enclosures the hall of ancestors, library, school-room, and summer-

    houses are detached and erected upon low plinths, surrounded

    by a veranda, and frecpiently decorated with tracery

    and ornamental carving, l^ear the rear court are the female

    apartments and offices, many of the former and the sleeping

    apartments being in attics. Considerable space is occupied by

    the quadrangles, which are paved and embellished by fish-pools,

    flowering shrubs, and other plants. Mr. Fortune describes ‘ the

    house and garden of a gentleman at Kingpo as being connected

    by rude-looking caverns of rock-work, ” and what at first sight

    appears to be a subterranean passage leading from room to room,

    tln-ough which the visitor passes to the garden. The small

    courts, of which a gliinpse is caught in passing along, are fitted

    up with rock-work ; dwarf trees are planted here and there in

    various places, and graceful creepers hang down into the pools

    in front. These being passed, another cavernous passage leads

    into the garden, with its dwarf trees, vases, ornamented lattices,

    and beautiful shrubs suddenly opening to the view. By

    windings and glimpses along the rocky passages into other

    courts, and hiding the real boundary by masses of shrubs and

    trees, the grounds are made to appear much larger than they

    really are.”

    * Wanderings in China, p. 98.

    The houses of the poor are dark, dirty, low, and narrow tenements, where the floor is of earth covered with mats or tiled, and the doorway the only opening, on which a swinging mat conceals the interior. The whole family often sleep, eat, and live in a single room. Pigs, dogs, and hens dispute the space with cliiklron and fiiruitui-c—if a tublc and a few trestles and

    stools, pots and plates, deserve that name. The filthy street

    without is a counterpart to the gloomy, smoky abode within,

    and a single walk through the streets and lanes of such a neighborhood

    is sufficient to reconcile a person to any ordinary condition

    of life. On the outskirts of the town a still poorer class

    take up with huts made of mats and thatch npon the ground,

    through which the rain and wind find free course. It is surprising

    that people can live and enjoy liealth, and even be

    cheeriul, as the Chinese are, in such circumstances. Between

    these hovels and the abodes of the rich is a class of middle

    houses, consisting of three or four small rooms surrounding a

    court, each one lodging a family, which uses its portion of the

    quadrangle.

    The best furniture is made of a heavy w^ood stained to resemble,

    ebony ; camphor, elm, pine, aspen, and melia woods furnish

    cheaper nuiterial. Ornamental articles, porcelain vases, copper

    tripods or pots, stone screens, book-shelves, flowers in pots, etc.,

    show the national taste. Ink sketches of landscapes, gay scrolls

    inscribed with sentences suspended from the walls, and pretty

    lanterns relieve the baldness of the room; their combined effect

    is not destitute of vai’iety and elegance, though there is a lack of

    ‘:oriifort. l*artitions are sometimes fancifully made of latticework,

    with openings neatly arranged for the reception of boxes

    containing books. The bedrooms are small, poorly ventilated,

    and seldom visited except at night. A massive bedstead of

    costly woods, elaborately carved, and supporting a tester for

    the silk curtains and mosquito-bars, is often shown as the family

    ])ride and heirloom ; a scroll of fine writing adorns its fringe or

    valance. Mattresses or feather beds are not used, and the pillow

    is a liollow square frame of rattan or bamboo. The bed, wardrobe,

    and toilet usually complete the furniture of the sleeping

    apartments of the Chinese ; but if this is also the sitting room,

    the bed is rolled up so as often to furnish seats on its boards.

    The grounds of the rich are laid out in good style, and were

    not the tasteful arrangements aiul diversified shrubbery which

    would render them charming resorts almost always spoiled by

    geiieial bad keeping—neglect and ruin, if not nastiness and

    STYLE OF GAKDEXS. To.”)

    offals, being often visible—tliej would please the most fastidi

    ons. The necessity of having a place for the women and children

    to recreate themselves is one reason for having an open

    enclosure, even if it be only a plat of flo\vei-s or a bed of

    vegetables. In the imperial gardens the attempt to make an

    epitome of nature has been highly successful. De Guignes

    describes their art of gardening as ” imitating the beauties and

    producing the inequalities of nature. Instead of alleys planted

    symmetrically or uniform grounds, there are winding footpaths,

    trees here and there as if by chance, woody or sterile hillocks,

    and deep gulleys with narrow passages, whose sides are steep

    or rough with rocks, and presenting only a few miserable

    shrubs. They like to bring together in gardening, in the same

    view, cultivated grounds and arid plains ; to make the field

    uneven and cover it with artificial rock-work ; to dig caverns in

    mountains, on whose tops are arbors half overthrown, and around

    which tortuous footpaths run and return into themselves, prolonging, as it were, the extent of the grounds and increasing the pleasure of the w^alk.”

    A fish-pond, supplied by a rivulet running wildly through

    the grounds, forms a pretty feature of such gardens, in which,

    if there be room, a summer-house is erected on a rocky islet, or

    on piles over the water, accessible by a rugged causey of rockwork.

    The nelumbium lily, with its plate-like leaves and magnificent

    flowers, is a general favorite in such places ; carp and

    other fish are reared in their waters, and gold-fish in small

    tanks. AA^henever it is possible a gallery runs along the sides

    of the pond for the pleasure and use of the females in the household.

    A tasteful device in some gardens, which beguiles the

    visitor”s ramble, is a rude kind of shell or pebble mosaic iidaid

    in the g^’avelly paths, representing birds, animals, or other

    figures ; the time required to decipher them prolongs the walk,

    and apparently increases the size of the grounds. The pieces of

    rock-work are cemented and bound w-ith wire ; and in fish-pools,

    grottos, or causeways this unique ornament has a charming

    effect, the moss and plants which grow upon it adding rather to

    its appropriateness.

    The wood and mason work is unsubstantial, requiring con736

    THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    staiit repairs ; when new they present a pi-etty appearance, but

    both gardens and lionses, when neglected, soon fall into a ruinous

    condition. Some of the princi})al merchants at Canton, in

    the former days of the hong monopoly, had cultivated grounds

    of greater or less extent attached to their establishments. One

    of them, by way of variety, constructed a summer-house entirely

    of glass, this wonderful structure being made so that it

    could be closed and protected with shutters.

    The arrangement of shops and warehouses is modified by the

    uses to which they are applied, but they still i-esemble dwellinghouses

    more than is the case with stores in western cities. The

    rear room of the shop is a small apartment, used for a dormitory,

    store-room, or workshop, and sometimes for all these purposes

    together ; it is in most cases on an upper floor. Small

    ones are lighted from the street, but the lai-gest by a skylight,

    in whicli cases there is a latticed screen reaching across the

    room, to secure the inside from the street. The whole shopfront

    is thrown open by day and closed at uight by shutters

    running in grooves, and secured by heavy cross-bars to a row of

    posts whicli fit in sockets in the threshold and lintel. The doorway

    recedes a foot or two, and the projecting roof serves to protect

    customers, and such goods as are exposed, fi-om the rain and

    sun. In small shops there are two counters, a long one running

    back from the door, and another at right angles to it, reaching

    partly across the front. The shopman sits within the angle

    formed by these, and as they are low he can easily serve a customer

    in the street as well as in the shop. At night the smaller

    one often forms a lodging place for homeless beggars. The

    facing of the outer counter is of granite, and in Canton a niche

    containing a tablet inscribed to the god of wealth is cut in the

    end, where incense is burned. Another shrine is placed on

    liigh within the apartment,- dedicated to the deity of the place,

    whoever he may be.

    The loft is much contracted ; and that it may not intercept

    the skylight, it is usually a small chamber reached by a gallery,

    and lighted in front. Chinese tradesmen do not make nnich

    display in exhibiting their goods, and the partial use of glass

    renders it somewhat unsafe for them to do so. The want of a

    SHOPS AND THOROUGHFARES. 7H7

    yard compels theni to cook and wash either beliind or on top of

    tlie building ; clerks and workmen usually eat and sleep under

    the shop roof. In the densest parts of Canton the roofs are

    covered with a loose framework, on which firewood is piled,

    clothes washed and dried, and meals cooked ; it also affords a

    sleeping place in summer. In case of fire, however, these lumbered

    roofs become like so many tinder-boxes, and aid not a

    little to spread the flames.

    The narrowness of the streets in Chinese cities is a source of

    many inconveniences ; few exceed ten or twelve feet in width,

    and most of those in Canton are less than eight. No large

    squares having fountains and shrubbery, nor any open spaces

    except the areas in front of temples relieve the closeness of

    these lanes. The absence of horses and carriages in southern

    cities, and a custom of liuddling together, a desire to screen the

    thoroughfare from the sun, and ignoi-ance of the advantages

    of another mode, are among the leading reasons for making

    them so contracted ; while the difficulty of collecting a mob in

    them shoidd be mentioned as one point in their favor. In case

    of fire it is difficult to get access to the burning buildings, and

    dangerous for the inmates to move or save their property. At

    all times porters carrying burdens are impeded by the crowd

    of passengers, who likewise must pass Indian file lest they tilt

    against the porters. Ventilation is imperfect where the

    buildings are packed so closely, and the public necessaries and

    their olfal carried through the streets by the scavengers pollute

    the air. Drainage is very superficial and incomplete ; the sewers

    easily choke up or get broken and exude their contents over

    the pathway. The ammoniacal and other gases which are generated

    aggravate the ophthalmic diseases so prevalent ; and

    it is a matter of surprise that the cholera, plague, or yellow

    fever does not visit the inhabitants of such confined abodes,

    who breathe so tainted an atmosphere. The peculiar government

    of cities by means of wards and neighborhoods, each

    responsible to the officials, combined with the ignorance

    among all ranks of the principles of hygiene, will account for

    the evils so patent to one accustomed to the energetic sway o^

    a mayor and board of health in most European cities, whc

    Vol. I. -47

    738 THE CUDDLE KIX<,;l)OM.

    can bring knowledge and power to cooperate for tlie well-being

    of all.

    The streets are usnally paved with slabs of stone laid crosswise,

    and except near markets and wells are comparatively

    clean. They are not laid out straight, and some present a singularl}^

    irregular appearance from the slight angle which each

    house makes with its neighbors ; it being considered rather unlucky

    to have them exactly even. The names of the streets are

    written on the gateways crossing them, whenever they are

    marked at all ; occasionally, as at Canton, each division njakes

    a separate neighborhood and has its own name ; a single long

    street will thus have live, six, or more names. The general arrangement

    of a Chinese city presents a labyrinth of streets,

    alleys, and byways very perplexing to a stranger who has

    neither plan nor directory to guide him, nor numbers upon

    the houses and shops to direct him. The sign-boards are

    hung each side of the door, or securely inserted in stone sockets

    ; some of them are ten or fifteen feet high, and being gaily

    painted and gilded on both sides with picturesque characters, a

    succession of them as seen down a street produces a gay effect.

    The inscriptions simply mention the kind of goods sold, and

    “without half the puffing seen in western cities ; accounts sometimes

    given of the inscriptions on sign-boards in Chinese cities,

    as ” Ko cheating here,” and others, describe the exception and

    not the rule. The edicts of government, handbills of medicines

    and the famous doctors who make them, notices offering rewards

    for children who are lost or slaves escaped, new shops opened,

    houses to let, or other events, cover blank walls in great vaiiety,

    printed on red, black, white, or yellow paper ; the absence of

    newspapers leads shopmen to depend more for patronage upon

    a circle of customers and the distribution of cards than to spend

    much money in handbills. The shrines of the street gods occur

    in southern cities, located in niches in the wall, with altars

    before them.

    The temples and assembly-halls are the only public buildings

    in C’liinese cities belonging to the people. Their courts and

    cloisters, with such gardens, tea-houses, and pools as may be

    accessible, attract constant crowds, and furnish the only places

    CLUB-HOUSES AND TAVERNS. 739

    of common resort. The priests derive no small portion of their

    income from travellers, and their establishments are consequently

    made more commodious and extensive than the number

    of priests or the throng of worshippers require.

    The assembly-halls or club-houses form a peculiar feature of

    Chinese society. There are more than a hundred in Canton

    and many hundreds in Peking. They are built sometimes by a

    particular craft as its guildhall, or more commonly erected by

    persons resorting to the place for trade, study, or amusement,

    who subscribe to fit up a commodious establishment to accommodate

    persons coming from the same town. In this w^ay their

    convenience, assistance, oversight, and general safety are all increased.”

    All buildings pay a ground rent to the government,

    but no data are available for comparing this tax with that levied

    in western cities. The government furnishes the owner of the

    ground with ^ hung Vi, or ‘red deed,’ in testimony of his right

    to occupancj’, which puts him in possession as long as he pays

    the taxes. There is a record office in the local magistracy of

    such documents.

    Houses are rented on short leases, and the rent collected quarterly in advance ; the annual income from real estate is between nine and twelve per cent. The yearly rent of the best shops in Canton is from $150 to $400 ; there is no system of insuring against fire, which, with the municipal taxes and the difficulty of collecting bad rents, enhances their price. Such kind of property in China is liable to many risks.

    Compare pp. 76 and 167.

    The taverns are numerous and adapted for every calling. Though they will not bear comparison with western hotels, they are far in advance of the cheerless khans and caravansaries found in Western Asia. The traveller brings his own bedding, sometimes also his own provision, and when night comes spreads his mat upon the floor or divan and lies down in his clothes. The better sort of travellers order a room for themselves, but officials or rich men go to temples, or hire a boat in which to travel and sleep ; this usage takes off the best class of customers. One considerable source of income to innkeepers is the preparation of dinners for parties of men, who either come to the house or send to it for so many covers ; for when a gentleman

    invites his fi-iends to an entertainment it is common to serve it

    up at liis warehouse, or at an inn. In towns and cities thousands

    of men eat in the streets ; the number of eating and cooking-

    stalls produces a most lively impression upon a stranger.

    This custom has had a good effect in promoting the general

    courtesy so conspicuous among the people, and is increased by

    y-reat numbers of street story-tellers. The noisy hilaritv of

    the customers, as they ply their ” nimble lads,” or chopsticks,

    and the vociferous cries of the cooks recommending their cakes

    and dishes, with the steaming savor from the frying-pan and

    kettles, form only one of the many objects to attract the notice

    of the foreign observer. Their ap23earauce and the variety of

    bustling scenes and j)icturesque novelties presented to him afford

    constant instruction and entertainment. Those at Canton have been thus described by an eye-witness. The iiuinlMT of itinerant workmen of one kind or another which line the sides of the streets or occupy the areas before public buildings in Chinese towns is a remarkable feature. Fruiterers, pastrymen, cooks, venders of gimcracks, and wayside sho^nnen are found in other countries as well as China; but to see a travelling blacksmith or tinker, an itinerant glass-mender, a peripatetic repairer of umbrellas, a locomotive seal-cutter, an ambulatory barber, a migratory banker, a peregrinatory apothecary or druggist, or a walking shoemaker and cobbler, one must travel hitherward. These movable establishments, together with fortune-tellers, herb and booksellers, chiromancers, etc., pretty well fill up the space, so that one often sees both sides of the streets literally lined with the stalls, wares, or tools of persons selling or making something to eat or to wear. The money-changer sits behind a small table, on which his strings of cash are chained, and where he weighs the silver he is to change ; his neighbor, the seal-cutter, sits next him near a like fashioned table.

    The barber has his chest of drawers made to serve for a seat, and if he has not a furnace of his own he heats his water at the cook’s or the blacksmith’s fire near by, perhaps shaving his friend gratis by way of recompense.

    STREET SCENES IN CANTON AND PEKING. 741

    The herbseller chooses an open place where he will not be trampled on, and there displays his simples and his plasters, while the denti.st, with a ghastly string of fangs and grinders around his neck, testimonials of his skill, sits over against him, each with his infallible remedy. The book-peddler and chooser of lucky days, and he who searches for stolen goods by divination, arrange themselves on either side, with their tables and stalls, and array of sticks, l)en.:-ils, signs, and pictures, all trying to “catch a little jngeon.” The spectacle-mender and razor-grinder, the cutler and seller of bangles and bracelets, and tho uiakfi- <»’.’ clay jjiippcts or mender of old shoes, are not far off, all plying their callings as l)usily as it’ tln^y were in their own shops. Then, besides the hundreds of stalls for selling articles of food, dress, or ornament, there are innumerable hucksters going up and down with baskets and trays slung on

    their shoulders, each bawling or making his own peculiar note, which, with

    coolies transporting burdens, chair-bearers carrying sedans, and passengers following

    one another lik(! a stream, with here and there a woman among them,

    so till up the stre(4s that it is no easy matter to navigate one’s way. Notwitlistanding

    all these obstructions, it is worthy of note and highly praiseworthy

    to see these crowds jjass and repass with the greatest rapidity in the narrow

    streets without altercation or disturbance, and seldom with accident.

    Streets at the north present a somewhat different, and on the

    whole a less inviting becanse less entertaining and pictnresqne

    aspect. Their greater width allows carts to pass, and it also

    offers more room for the garbage, the rubbish, and the noisome

    sights that are most disgusting, all of which are made worse in

    rainy weather by the mud through which one liounders. Barrow

    thus delineates those in Peking: “The midtitude of movable

    workshops of tinkers and barbers, cobblers and blacksmiths,

    the tents and booths where tea and fruit, i-ice and other eatables

    were exposed for sale, with the wares and merchandise arrayed

    befoi-e the doors, had contracted this spacious street to a narrow

    road in the middle, just wide enough for two little vehicles to

    pass each other. The processions of men in office attended by

    their numerous retinues, bearing umbrellas and Hags, painted

    lanterns and a variety of strange insignia of their rank and

    station, different trains that were accompanying, with lamentable

    cries, corpses to their graves, and with squalling nmsic, brides

    to their husbands ; the troops of dromedaries laden with coals

    from Tartary ; the wbeel-barrows and hand-carts stuffed with

    vegetables, occupied nearly the whole of this middle space in

    one continued line. All was in motion. The sides of the streets

    were filled with an immense concourse of people, buj’ing and

    sellino; and bartering; their different connnodities. The buzz

    and confused noises of this mixed multitude, proceeding fi’om

    the loud bawling of those who were crying their wares, the

    wrangling of others, with every now and then a strange twanging

    ‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. X. , p. 473.

    sound like the jarring of a cracked jewsharp (the barber’s »io-nal), the mirth and laughter that prevailed in every group,

    could scarcely be exceeded. Peddlers with their packs, jugglers

    and conjurers, fortune-tellers, mountebanks and quack doctors,

    comedians and musicians, left no space unoccupied.” ‘

    Shops are closed at nightfall, and persons going abroad carry

    a lantern or torch. Over the thoroughfares slender towers are

    erected, where notice of a fire is given and the watches of the

    night announced by striking a gong. Few persons are met in

    the streets at night, and the private watch kept by all who are

    able greatly assists the regular police in preserving order and

    apprehending thiev^es. These watchers go up and down their

    wards beating large bamboos, to let ” thieves know they are on

    the lookout.” Considering all things, large Chinese cities are

    remarkably quiet at night. Beggars find their lodgings in the

    porches and squares of temples, or sides of the streets, and

    nestle toorether for mutual warmth. This class is under the care

    of a headman, who, in order to collect the poor-tax allowed by

    law, apportions them in the neighborhoods with tiie advice of

    the elders and constables. During the day they go from one

    door to another and receive their allotted stipend, which cannot

    be less than one cash to each person. They sit in the doorway

    and sing a ditty or beat their clap- dishes and sticks to attract

    attention, and if the shopkeeper has no customers he lets them

    keep up their cries, for he knows that the longer they are detained

    so much the more time will elapse before they come

    again to his shop. Many are blind and all present a sickly

    appearance, their countenances begrimed with dirt and furi’owed

    by sorrow and suffering. The very difficult question how to

    assist, restrain, and employ the poor has been usually left to the

    mercy and wisdom of the municipal officers in the cities ; and

    the results are not on the whole discreditable to their humanity

    and benevolence. Many persons give the headman a dollar or

    more per month to purchase exemption from the daily importunity

    of the beggars, and families about to have a house-warming,

    marriage, or funeral, as also jiewly arrived junks, are obliged

    to fee him t<» get rid of the clamorous and loathsome crowd.

    ^Travels in China, p. 96.

    OONTROL OF BEGGARS AND FIRES IN CITIES. 743

    When fires occur the officers of goveniinent are held responsible

    ; the law being that if ten houses are burned vntlmi

    the walls, tlie higliest officer in it shall l)e fined nine months’

    pay ; if more than thirtj-, a year’s sahiry ; and if three hundred

    are consumed, lie shall be degraded one degree. The governor

    and other high officers, attended by a few troops, are frequently

    seen at fires in Canton, as much to prevent thievery as

    to direct in extinguishing the flames. The engines ai’e hurried

    through tlie narrow streets at a fearful rate ; those who carry

    away property are armed with swords to defend it, and usually

    add to the crash of the burning houses by loud cries. The police

    do not hesitate to pull down houses if the fire can thereby

    be sooner extinguished, but there is no organized body of firemen,

    nor any well-arranged system of operations in such cases,

    thoufch conflagrations are ordinarilv soon under control. Cruel

    men often take the opportunity at such times to steal and carry

    off defenceless persons, especially young girls.

    At Canton the usage is general of levying a bonus on the

    owners of the houses adjacent to the burnt district, whose

    dwellings were saved by the exertions of the firemen, the appraisement

    decreasing as the distance increases ; the sum is divided

    among the firemen. The householders thus saved also

    employ priests to erect an altar near by, whereon to perform a

    service, and “return thanks for Heaven’s mercy.” On the

    whole, the fire control in China is superior to that in Turkey,

    where the firemen pay themselves for their efforts by extortions

    practised upon house-owners.

    The pagoda is a building considered as so peculiar to the

    Chinese that a landscape or painting relating to China without a

    pagoda perched on a hill—like one of Egyptian scenerj’ destitute

    of a pyramid—would be considered deficient. The ioxm. pagoda

    is used in its proper sense by most of the French and Portuguese

    writers to denote a temple for idols, but in English books it has

    always been appropriated to the polygonal towers seen throughout

    the country. Some confusion has arisen in consequence of applying

    the account of an immense temple full of idols to these

    towers. The English use is the most definite in China, although

    its misapplication is indefensible if we regard its derivation.

    The form of the (“liinesc tult is probably derived from the epire on the top of the Hindu dagoha, as its name is doubtless taken from the first syllable; but their purpose has so long been identitied with the geomantie inihK^nces which determine the hit’k of a place that the people do not associate them with Buddhism. Mr. Milne explains this in his remark that “the presence of such an edifice not only secures to the site the protection of heaven, if it already bears evidence of enjoying it, but represses any evil influences that may be native to the spot, and imparts to it the most salutary and felicitous omens.” ‘

    Those in the southern and central provinces seldom contain

    idols of any pretensions. They are ascended by stairways built

    in the thick walls on alternate sides of the stories. In the

    north there is another kind, designed to contain a she-li, or

    relic of Buddha, having a large room near the base for worshipping

    the -idol placed in it, but otherwise entirely solid and

    nearly uniform in size to the top ; the stories are merely numerous

    narrow projections, like eaves or string courses, on which

    hundreds of small images are sometimes placed. These structlu’es

    more nearly resemble the Indian dagoha than the other

    kind, and are always connected with a monastery, while those

    are not uniformly so placed, though under a priestly oversight.

    Xo town is considered complete without a pagoda, and many

    large cities have several ; there ]nust be nearly two thousand in

    the Empire, some of which are quite celebrated. It is rare to

    see a new one, and the ruinous condition of most of them indicates

    the weakness of the faith which erected them. They vary

    in height from five to thirteen stories, and are mostly built in

    so solid a manner that they are likely to remain for centuries.

    One at Ilangchau is octagonal, each face twenty-eight feet

    wide and the wall at the base eighteen feet thick ; the top is

    reached by a spiral stairway between the M’alls ; a covei-ed gallery

    on the outside of each story affords resting-places and everchanging

    views to the visitor; it is one hundred and seventy

    feet high, and Avas built during the Sung dynasty, in the twelfth

    ‘ Life in China, p. 453.

    century. The prospect from its summit is superb ; the picturescjiie coiubinatiou of sen aiul shore, land and water, city aiul country, wilderness, gardens, andliills, with many historical and religious associations interesting to a Jiativi;, make it one of the most charming landscapes in China.

    PAGODAS, THEIR PURPOSE AXD COXSTRUCTION. 74.J

    Sir John Davis visited one near Lintsing chau iu Shantung,

    in very good repair, inhabited hy Buddhist ])riests, and containing

    two idols ; each of its nine stories was inscribed with Otneto

    Fuh, in large characters. It was erected since the completion

    of the Grand Canal. A M’iuding stairway of near two hundred

    steps conducted to the top, about one hundred and fifty feet

    from the ground, from whence an extensive view was obtained

    of the surrounding counti’v. The basement was excellently

    built of granite, and all the rest of glazed brick, beautifully

    joined and cemented.

    The objects in building these structures being of a mixed nature,

    sometimes geomantic and sometimes religious, their materials,

    size, and structure vary considerably. There are two inside

    of Canton, and three near the Pearl Hiver, below the city ;

    fifteen others occur in the prefecture. Suchau has two, Xingpo

    one, Fuhchau two, and Peking six in and out of the Avails.

    One of those at Canton was built by the Moslems about a thousand

    years ago, a plain brick tower nearly two hundred feet

    high, from which the faithful were probably called to prayers in

    the adjacent mosque. Fergusson’s remarks upon Chinese architecture

    wcndd probably have been modified had the writer enjoyed

    a wider range of observation and a fuller knowledge of

    the designs of native builders. They are, however, the conclusions

    of a competent observer, and the position he gives to

    the pagoda among the tower-like buildings of the woi-ld, arising

    from its peculiar form, its divisions, and its apparent uselessness,

    will be genei-ally accepted as just.

    Mr. Milne, in his interesting work, has a good account of pagodas; he shows that while their model is of Hindu origin, and has been carefully followed since the first one was erected(about A.D. 250) at Nanking, the popular geomantic ideas connected with their octawnal form and great heii>:ht have “”radually increased and influenced their location. The Buddhists seem themselves to have lost their ancient confidence in the protection of the sJie-ll (or salna) supposed to be built in them. The number of Indian words transliterated in Chinese accounts of these edifices further proves their foreign origin. For convenience and accuracy in describing them, it would be best to restrict the term 2)a(joda to the hollow octagonal towers, the word dagoha to the solid ones covering the relics, and toj)e to the erections over priests when buried.

    Pagodas are sometimes made of cast iron ; those hitherto observed

    are in the central provinces. One exists in Chehkiang

    province, nearly fifty feet high and of nine stories. The octagonal

    pieces forming the walls are each single castings, as are also the

    plates forming the roof. The whole structure, including the

    base and spire, was made of twenty pieces of iron. Its interior

    is filled with brick, probably Mith the design to strengthen it

    ao;ainst storms. The ignorance of the Cliinese of later davs of

    the Hindu origin of pagodas has led to their regarding those

    now in existence as of native design, and appropi-iated by the

    Buddhists for their own ends. Most of them are falling to

    ruins ; and the assurances held out by the geomancers that the

    pagoda will act like an electric tractor to draw doAvn every

    felicitous omen from above, so that fire, water, wood, earth, and

    metal will be at the service of the people, the soil productive,

    trade prosperous, and the natives submissive and happy, all fail

    to call out funds for repairing them,’

    ^Voyages d Peking, Tome II., p. 79 ; Davis’ Sketclies, Vol. I., p. 213 ; PergiLsson, Indian and Eastern Architecture, 187G, p. ()!)5 ; Milne’s Life in China p. 429 seq.; Chinese Repositoi-y, Vol. XIX., pp. 535-540.

    MODES OF TRAVELLING, 747

    The dull appearance of a Chinese city when seen from a distance is unlike that of European cities, in which spires, domes, and towers of churches and cathedrals, halls, palaces, and other public buildings relieve the uniformity of rows of dwellings. In China, temples, houses, and palaces are nearly of one height ; their sameness being only partially relieved by trees mingled with pairs of tall flag-staffs with frames near their tops, which at a distance rather suggest the idea of dismantled gallows. Nature, however, charms and delights, and few countries present more beautiful landscapes ; even the tameness of the works of man serves as a foil for the diversified beauties of the cultivated landscape,

    A Chinese usually prefers to travel by water, and in the southeastern provinces it may be said that vehicles solely designed for carrying travelers or goods do not exist, for the carts and wheel l)arrows which are met with are few and miserably made. Ihit north of the Yangzi River, all over the Great Plain carts and wheelbarrows form the chief means of travel and transportation. The high cost of timber and the bad roads compel the people to make these vehicles very rude and strong, having axles and wheels able to bear the strains or upsets which befall them. Carts for goods are drawn by three or four horses

    Wheelbarrows Used for Travelling.

    usually driven tandem, and fastened Ijy long traces to the axletree,

    one remaining within the thills. The common carts,

    drawn by one or two mules, are oblong boxes fastened to an

    axle, covered -with cotton cloth, and cushioned to alleviate the

    jolting; the passengers get in and out at the front, where the

    driver sits close to the horse. In Peking the members of

    the imperial clan and family are allowed to use carts having the

    wheel behind the body ; their ranks are further indicated by a

    red or yellow covering, and a greater or less number of outriders

    to escort them. The wheelbarrow is in great use for short

    distances throughout the same region. The position of the wheel in the center enables the man to 2)rupel a heavy load readily. When on a good road, and aided by a donkey, the larger \arieties of barrow carry easily a burden of a ton’s weight ; two men are necessary to maintain the balance and guide the rather top-heavy vehicle.

    Where travelling by water is impossible, sedan chairs are used to carry passengers, and coolies with poles and slings transport their luggage and goods There are two kinds of sedan, neither of them designed for reclining like the Indian ^^(dl’ij.

    The light one is made of bamboo, and so narrow that the sitter is obliged to lean forward as he is carried ; the large one, called hiao^ is, whether viewed in regard to lightness^ comfort, or any other quality associated with such a mode of carriage, one of the most convenient articles found in any country. Its use is subject to sumptuary laws, and forbidden to the common people unless possessing some kind of rank. In Peking only the highest officials ride in them, with four bearers. In other cities two chairmen manage easily enough to maintain a gait of four miles an hour with a sedan upon their shoulders. Goods are carried upon poles, and however large or heavy the package may be, the porters contrive to subdivide its weight between them by means of their sticks and slings. The number of persons who thus gain a livelihood is great, and in cities they are employed by headmen, who contract for work just as carmen do elsewhere ; when unengaged by overseers, parties station themselves at corners and other public places, ready to start at a beck, after the manner of Dlenstuianner in German cities. In the

    streets of Canton groups of brawny fellows are often seen idling

    awa\’ their time in smoking, gambling, sleeping, or jeering at

    the wayfarers ; and, like the husbandmen mentioned in the

    parable, if one ask them why they stand there all the day idle?

    the answer will be, ” Because no man hath hired us.”

    SEDAX ClfAHIS AND KIVKll CHAFT. 740

    The chair-bearers form a distinct guild in cities, and the establishments where sedans and their bearers are to be hired suggest a comparison with the livery stables of western cities; the men, in fact, are nicknamed at Canton mo ml ma, ‘tailless horses.’ A vehicle used sometimes by the Emperor and high officers consists of an open chair set upon poles, so made that the inciinibeiit can 1×3 .sccii as avcU as si-e around him. It undergoes many changes in different parts of the country, as it is both cheap and iiglit and M’ell litted for traversing mountainous regions.

    In the construction and management of their river craft the Chinese exceh ^Vs boats are intended to be the residences of those who navigate them, regard is had to this in their arrangement.

    ^)uly a part of the fleets of boats seen on the river at (^anton ai’C intended for transportation, a large nundier being designed for fixed residences, and per]ia|>s half of them are pernianently moored. They are not t)bligcd to remain where they station themselves, but the boats and their inmates are both under the supervision of a M^ater police, who I’egister them and point out the position they may occupy. Barges for families, those in which oil, salt, fuel, or other articles are sold, lighters, passage-boats, flower-boats, and other kinds, are by this means grouped together, and more easily found. It was once ascertained that there were eighty-four thousand boats

    registered as belonging to the city of Canton, but whether all

    remained near the city and did not go to other parts of the district,

    or whether old ones were erased from Ihe register when

    broken up, was not determined. It is not likely, however, that

    at one time this luimber of boats ever lay opposite the citv.

    Ko (lueMdio has been at Canton can forget the noisy, animating

    sight the river offers, nor failed to have noticed the good humored carefulness with which boats of every size pass each other without collision.

    It is difficult to describe the many kinds of craft found t>n Chinese waters without the assistance of drawings. They are furnished with stern sculls moving upon a pivot, and easily propelling the boat. Large boats are furnished with two or three of these, which, when not in use, are conveniently haided in upon the side. They are provided with oars, the loom and blade of which are fastened by withs, and “work through a band attached to a stake ; the rower stands up and pushes his oar with the same motion as that employed by the A’enetian gondolier. Occasionally an oarsman is seen rowing with his feet.

    The mast in some large cargo boats consists of two sticks, resting Oil the gunwales, joined at top, and so arranged as to be hoisted from the boAv ; in those designed for residences no provision is made for a mast. Fishing boats, ligliters, and seagoing craft have one or two permanent masts. In all, except the smallest, a wale or frame projects from the side, on which the boatmen Avalk when poling the vessel. The sails in the south are “woven of strips of matting, sewed into a single sheet, and provided with yards at the top and bottom ; the bamboo ribs crossing it serve to retain the hoops that run on the mast, and enable the boatmen to haul them close on the wind. A driver is sometimes placed on the taifrail, and a small foresail near the bow, but the mainsail is the chief dependence. No Chinese boat has a bowsprit, and very few are coppered, or have two decks, further than an orlop in the stern quarter in which to stow provisions; no dead-lights give even a glimmer to these recesses, which are necessarily small.

    The internal arrangement of dwelling-boats is simple. The

    better sort are from sixty to eighty feet long, and about fifteen

    wide, divided into three rooms ; the stem is sharp, and upholds

    a platform on which, when they are moored alongside, it is

    easy to pass from one boat to another. Each one is secured by

    ropes to large hawsers which run along the whole line at the

    bow and stern. The room nearest the bow serves for a lobby

    to tlie pi’incipal apartment, which occupies about half the body

    of the boat ; the two are separated by trellis bulkheads, but the

    sternmost room, or sleeping apartment, is carefully screened.

    Cooking and wasliiug are performed on a high stern framework,

    wliicli is a(]miral)ly contrived, by means of furnaces and other

    conveniences above and hatches and partitions below deck, to

    serve all these purposes, contain all the fuel and water necessary,

    and answer for a sleeping place as well. By means of

    awnings and frameworks the top of the l)oat also subser\’es

    many objects of work or pleasure. The window-shutters are

    movable, fitted for all kinds of weather and for fiexibility of

    arrangement, meeting all the demands of a family and the particular

    service of a vessel ; nothing can be more ingenious.

    Tiie lumdsomest of these craft are called hica ting, or flowerboats,

    and are let to parties for pleasure excursions on tlie river,-

    d\vp:lleiis on the water. 751

    a large proportion of them are also the abodes of public women.

    The smaller sorts at Canton are generally known as tait.kia

    boats ; they are about tweuty-live feet long, coutain only one

    room, and are fitted with moveable mats to cover the whole

    vessel ; they are usually rowed by women. In these ” egghouses

    ” whole families are reared, live, and die ; the room which

    serves for passengers by day is a bedroom by night ; a kitchen

    at one time, a washroom at another, and a nursery always.

    As to this custom of living upon the water, we have an interesting testimony of its practice so far back as the fourteenth century, from the letter of a Dominican Friar in 1330. ” The realm of Cathay,” writes the missionary, ” is peopled passing well And there be many great rivers and great sheets of water throughout the Empire; insomuch that a good half of the realm and its territory is under water. And on these waters dwell great multitudes of people because of the vast population that there is in the said realm. They build wooden houses upon boats, and so their houses go up and down upon the waters; and the people go trafficking in their houses from one province to another, whilst they dwell in these houses with all their families, with their wives and children, and all their household utensils and necessaries. And so they live upon the waters all the days of their life. And there the women be brought to bed, and do everything else just as people do who dwell upon diy land.” ‘

    ‘ Yule, Cat/iay and t/ie Way TMthn\ Vol. I., p. 243.

    It is unnecessary to particularize the various sorts of lighters or c7toj)-hoats found along the southern coast, the passenger boats plying from town to town along the hundreds of streams, and the smacks, revenue cutters, and fishing craft to be seen in all waters, except to call attention to their remarkable adaptation for the ends in view. The best sorts are made in the southern provinces; those seen at Tientsin or Niuchwang suffer by comparison for cleanliness, safety, and speed, owing partly to the high price of wood and the less use made of them for dwellings. On the head waters of the River Ivan the boats are of a peculiarly light construction, with upper works entirely of matting, and the liull like a crescent, well fitted to encounter the rapids and rocks which beset their course.

    Besides these various kinds the revenue service employs a narrow, sharp-built boat, j^ropelled by forty or fifty I’owers, armed with swivels, spears, boarding-hooks, and pikes, and lined on the sides with a menacing array of rattan shields painted with tigers’ heads. Smugglers have simihirly made boats, and now and then imitate the government boats in their appearance, which, on their part, often compete with them in smuggling. In 1S<!3 the imperial government was induced to adopt a national flag for all its own vessels, which will no doubt gradually extend to merchant craft. It is triangular in shape, and has a dragon with the head looking upward. It is usual for naval officers to exhibit long yellow flags with their official titles at full length ; the vessels under them are distinguished by various pennons. Junks carry a great assortment of flags, triangular and square, of white, red, and other colors, most of them bearing inscriptions. The number of governmental boats and war junks, and those used for transporting the revenue and salt, is proportionately very snuill ; but if all the craft found on the rivers and coasts of China be included, their united tonnage perhaps equals that of all other nations put together. The dwellers on the water near Canton are not, as has been sometimes said, debaiTed from living ashore. A boat can be built cheaper than a brick house, and is equally comfortable; it is kept clean easier, pays no ground-rent, ainl is not so (ibnoxious to fire and thieves. Most of them are constructed c^f fir or jtine and smeared with wood oil; the seams are caulked with i-attan shavings and paid over with a cement (»f oil and gvpsum. The sailing craft are usually flat-bottomed, shai-i)foi-wai'(l, and guided by an enormous i-udder which can be hoisted through the open stern sheets when in shallow waters. The teak-Mood anchors have iron-bound flukes, held bycoii’or bamboo hawsers— now often replaced by iron chain and giapnel.’

    ‘Compare an article by W. F. Mayers in Notes and Queries on C. and J.,Vol. I., pp. 170-173 (with illustrations) ; Mrs. Gray, Fourteen Months in Canton, passim ; Dr. Edkins in Journal JV! H. Br. R. A. Soc, Vol. XT., p. 12:5; Doolittl.?, VoMihvliry, Part ITT., No. LXVTTT ; Enirin.-.M- J. W. Kiuir in The United Service, Vol. IT., p. 383 (Phila., 1880).

    RKVENUK BOATS AND J UN Kb. 753

    The ()1<1 picturesque junk, with its bulging Inill, high steni, and great eyes on tlu; Itow, is rapidly disappearing before steamers. Its original model is said to he a huge sea monster; the teeth at the cutwater and top of the bow detine its mouth, the long boards on each side of the bow form the armature of the head, the eyes being painted on them, the masts and sails are ^he tins, and the high stern is the tail frisking aloft. The cabins look more like niches in a sepulchre than the accommodations for a live passenger. The crew live upon deck most of the time, and are usually interested in the trade of the vessel or an adventure of their own. The hold is divided into watertight compartments, a contrivance that has its advantages when the vessel strikes a rock, but prevents her carrying a cargo comparable to her size. The great number of passengers which have been stowed in these vessels entailed a frightful loss of life when they Mere wrecked. In February, 1822, Capt. Pearl, of the English ship Indiana, coming through Gaspar Straits, fell in with the cargo and crew of a wrecked junk, and saved one hundred and ninety-eight persons (out of one thousand six hundred with whom she had left Amoy), whom he landed at Pontianak ; this humane act cost him $55,000.”

    Among secondary architectural works deserving notice are bridges and honoraiy jiortals. There is good reason for supposing that the Chinese have been acquainted with the arch from very early times, though they make comparatively little use of it. Certain bridges have pointed arches, others have semicircular, and others approach the form of a horse-shoe, the transverse section of an ellipse, or even like the Greek /2, the space being widest at the top. In some the arch is high for the accommodation of boats passing beneath; and where no heavy wains or carriages cross and jar the fabric, it can safely be made light. A graceful specimen of this class is the structure seen in the illustration on page T54. This bridge, though serving no practical purpose, is one of the greatest ornaments about the Emperor’s summer palace of Yuan-ming Yuan. The material is marble; its summit is reached by forty steps rising abruptly from the causeway, and impracticable, of course, for any but pedestrians.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 149. Vol. I.—48

    BRIDGES IN CHINA. 755

    The balustrades and paving of the long marble bridges near Peking and Hangzhou, some of them adorned with statues of elephants, lions, and other animals, present a pleasing effect, while their solidity and endurance of freshes running over the top at times attest the skill of the architects. Wooden bridges furnish means for crossing small streams in all parts of the land; when the river is powerful, or the rise and fall of the tide great, it is crossed on boats fastened together, with contrivances for drawing out two or three in the centre when the passing craft demand a passage. At Tientsin, Ningbo, and other cities, this means of crossing entails little delay in comparison to its cheapness.

    Some of the bridges in and about Peking are beautiful structures; their erection, however, presented no difficult problem, while that at Fuhchau was a greater feat of engineering.

    It is about four hundred yards long and five wide, consisting of nearly forty solid buttresses of hewn stone placed at unequal distances and joined by slabs of granite; some of these slabs arc three feet square and forty-five feet long. They support a granite pavement. The bridge was formerly lined with shops, which the increased traffic has caused to be removed. Another similar bridge lies seven miles north of it on the River Min, and a third of equal importance at the city of Chinchew, north of Amoy. Some of the mountain streams and passes in the west and north are crossed by rope bridges of ingenious construction, and by chain suspension bridges.

    Mr. Lowrie describes a bridge at Changchau, near Amoy, and these structures are more numerous in the eastern provinces than elsewhere. ” It is built on twenty-live piles of stone about thirty feet apart, and perhaps twenty feet each in height. Large round beams are laid from pile to pile, and smaller ones across in the simplest and rudest manner; earth is then placed above these and the top paved with brick and stone. One would suppose that the work had been assigned to a number of different persons, and that each one had executed his part in such manner as best suited his own fancy, there being no regularity whatever in the paving. Bricks and stone were intermingled in the most confused manner, and the railing was here wood and there stone. We were particularly struck Math the length of some of the granite stones used in paving the bridge; one was eight, another eleven, and three others eighteen paces, or about forty-five feet long, and two broad. The bridge averaged eight or ten feet in width, and about half its length on both sides was occupied by shops.”‘

    ‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. XII., p. 528 ; Medhurst’s HohJceen Dictionary, Introduction pp. XXII, XXIII.

    A causeway of ninety arches crosses a feeder of the Grand Canal near Hangchau. The stones for the arch in one bridge noticed by Barrow were cut so as to form a segment of the arch, and at each end were mortised into transverse blocks of stone stretching across the bridge ; they decreased in length from ten feet at the spring of the arch to three at the vertex, and the summit stone was mortised, like the rest, into two transverse blocks lying next to it.* (* Barrow’s Travels, p. 338.)The tenons were short, and the disposition of tlio principal pieces such that a bridge built in tliit^ way “would not support great weights or endure many ages.

    The mode oi” placing the pieces can be seen in the cut. In other instances the stones are laid in the same manner as in Europe; many small bridges over creeks and canals have cambered or straight arches. When one of these structures falls into ruins or becomes dangerous, the people seldom bestir themselves to repair the damage, preferring to wait for the government ; they thereby lose the benefit of self-dependence and action.

    Bridge showing the mode of Moitising the Arch.

    TAI-LAU, OR irOXOKAUY rOlJTALS. 7o7

    It is singular how the term triumphal arch came to be applied to tha j)al-fan<j und jxii-lau, or honorary portals or tablets, of the Chinese; for a triumph was perhaps never heard of in that country, and these structures are never arched. They consist merely of a broad gateway flanked with two smaller ones, and suggest a turnpike gate Mitli side-ways for foot passengers rather than a triumphal monument. They are scattered in great numbers over the provinces, and are erected in honor of distinguished persons, or by officers to commemorate their parents, by special favor from the Emperor. Some are put up in honor of women who liiive distinguished thoiiiHclves for their cliastity and filial duty, or to widows who have refused a second marriage. Permission to erect them is considered a high honor, and perhaps the term tflant_p/ud was given them from this circumstance.

    The economical and peaceful nature of such honors conferred upon distinguished men in China is most characteristic; a man is allowed to build a stone gateway to himself or his parents, and the Emperor furnishes the inscription, or perhaps sends with it a patent of nobility. Their general arrangement is exhibited in the title page of this work; the two characters, f<Jiin(j c/ii, at the top, meaning ‘ sacred will,’ intimate that it was erected by his Majesty’s permission.

    Some of the J>al-l(( (6 are elaborately ornamented with carved work and inscriptions; and as a protection to the frieze a ponderous covering of tiles projects over the top, which, however, exposes the structure to injury from tempests. They are placed in conspicuous places in the outskirts of towns, and in the streets before temples or near government edifices. Travellers looking for what they had read about have sometimes strangely mistaken the gateways at the heads of streets or the entrance to temples for the honorary portals.’ Those built of stone are fastened by mortises and tenons in the same manner as the wooden ones ; they seldom exceed twenty or twenty-five feet in height. The skill and taste displayed in the symmetry and carving upon some of them are creditable ; but as the man in wdiose honor it is erected is, generally speaking, “the architect of his own fame,” he prudently considers the worth of that commodity, and makes an inferior structure to what would have been done if his fellow-subjects, ” deeply sensible of the honor,” had come together to appoint a committee and open a subscription list for the purpose. Among the numerous ^>^//-Zc^?^, in and near Peking, two or three deserve mention for their beauty.

    One lies in the Confucian Temple in front of the Plh-yung Kung, and is designed to enhance the splendor, of its approach by presenting, as it were, a frame before its facade. It is built of stone and overlaid with square encaustic tiles of many hues.

    ‘ Encyclopedia Americana, Art. Canton.

    The arrangement of the colors, the carving on the marble, and the fine proportions of the structrue render it altogether one of the most artistic objects in China. Another like it is built in the Imperial Park, but the position is not so advantageous.

    Fergusson points out the similarity between tho&e pai-lau and certain Hindu gateways, and claims that India furnished the model. The question of priority isliardly susceptible of proof; but his fancy that a \iirge pai-lau in a street of Amoy presented a simulated coffin on it above the principal cornice, leads us to suspect that he was looking for what was never in the builder’s mind.

    The construction of forts and towers presents little worthy of

    observation, since there is no other evidence of science than what

    the erection of lines of massive stone Avail displays. The portholes

    are too large for protection and the parapet too slight to

    resist modern missiles. The Chinese idea of a fortification is

    a wall along the water s edge, with embrasures and battlements,

    and a plain wall landwai’d without port-holes or. parapets, enclosing

    an area in which a few houses accommodate the garrison

    and ammunition. Some erected at the junction of streams are

    pierced on all sides ; others are so unscientifically jilanned that

    the walls can be scaled at angles where not a single gun can be

    brought to bear. The towers are rectangular edifices of brick

    on a stone foundation, forty feet square and fifty or sixty high,

    to be entered by ladders through a door half way up the side.

    The forts in the neighborhood of Canton, probably among the best in the Empire, are all constructed without fosse, bastion, glacis, or counter-defence of any kind. Both arrangement and placement are alike faulty : some are square and approachable without danger; others circular on the outer face but with flank or rear exposed; others again built on a hillside like a pound, so that the garrison, if dislodged from the battlements, are forced to fly up the slope in full range of their enemy’s fire. The gate is on the side, unprotected by ditch, drawbridge, or portcullis, and poorly defended by guns upon the walls or in the area behind. In general the points chosen for their forts display a misapprehension of the true principles of defence, though Bome may be noted as occupying commanding positions.

    MILITAKY Ar.dllTKCTUUE—DRKSS. 759

    111 recent times mud defences and batteries of sand-bags have proved a much safer defence than such buildings against ships and artillery, and show the aptitude of the people to adopt practical things. Though not particularly resolute on the held, the Chinese soldier stands well to his guns when behind a fortification of whose strength he is assured. The forts which have recently been constructed under supervision of European engineers are rapidly taking the place of native works in all parts of the country.

    Dress, like other things, undergoes its changes in China, and fashions alter there as well as elsewhere, but they are not as rapid or as strikhig as among European nations. The full costume of both sexes is, in general terms, commodious and graceful, combining all the purposes of warmth, beauty, and ease which could be desired, excepting always the shaven crown and braided queue of the men and the crippled feet of the women, in both of which fashions they have not less outraged nature than deformed themselves. On this point different tastes exist, and some prefer the close-fitting dress of Europeans to the loose robes of Asiatics ; but when one has become in a measure habituated to the latter, one is willing to allow the force of the criticism that the European male costume is ‘* a mysterious combination of the inconvenient and the unpicturesque : hot in summer and cold in winter, useless for either keeping off rain or

    sun, stiif but not plain, bare without being simple, not durable,

    not becoming, and not cheap.” The Chinese dress has remained,

    in its general style, the same for centuries ; and garments of fur

    or silk are handed down from parent to child without fear of

    attracting attention by their antique shapes. The fabrics most

    worn are silk, cotton, and grass-cloth for summer, with the addition

    of furs and skins in winter ; woollen is used sparingly, and

    ahiiost wholly of foreign manufacture.

    Barber’s Establishment Dress of the Common People.

    VARIETY AND MATERIAL OP APPAREL. 761

    The principal articles of dress are inner and outer tunics of various lengths made of cotton or silk, reaching below the loins or to the feet ; the lapel on the right side folds over the breast and fits close about the neck, which is left uncovered. The sleeves are much wider and longer than the arms, have no cuffs or facings, and in common cases serve for pockets. A Chinese, instead of saying ” he pocketed the book,” would say ” he sleeved it.” In robes of ceremony the end of the sleeve resembles a horse’s hoof, and good breeding requires the hand to be kept in a position to exhibit the cuff when sitting. In warm weather one upper garment is deemed sufficient; in winter a dozen can be put on without discommodity, and this number is sometimes actually seen upon persons engaged in sedentary employments, or on those who sit in the air. Latterly, underwear of flannel has become common among the better dressed, who like the knitted fabric so close-fitting and warm. The lower limbs are comparatively slightly protected ; a pair of loose trousers, covered;o the knee by cloth stockings, is the usual summer garment; tight leggings are pulled over both in winter and attached to the girdle by loops ; and as the trousers are rather vohiiriiiions and the tunic short, the excess shows behind from luider these leggings in a rather unpleasant manner. Gentlemen and officers always wear a robe with the skirt opened at the sides, which conceals this intermission of the imder apparel. The colors preferred for outer garments are various hues of buff, purple, oi blue.

    The shoes are made of silk or cotton, usually embroidered for women’s wear in red and other colors. The soles are of felt, sometimes of paper inside a rim of felt, and defended on the bottom by hide. These shoes keep the feet dry and unchilled on the tiles or ground, so that a Chinese nuiy be said really to carry the floor of his house under his feet instead of laying it on the ground. The thick soles render it necessary for ease in walking to round up their ends, which constrains the toes into an elevated position so irksome that all go slipshod who conveniently can do so. The cost of a cotton suit need not exceed five dollars, and a complete silken one, of the gayest colors and best materials, can easily be procured for twenty-five or thirty. Quilted cotton garments are exceedingly common, and are so made as to protect the whole person from the cold and obviate the need of fires. In the north dressed sheepskin i-()l)os furnish bedding as well as garments, and their durability will long make them more desirable than woven fabrics.

    The ancient Chinese wore the hair long, bound upon the top of the head, somewhat after the style of the Lewchewans; and taking pride in its glossy black, called themselves the black-haired race. But in 1627 the Manchus, then in possession of only Liautung, issued an order that all Chinese under them should adopt their coiffure as a sign of allegiance, on penalty of death; the fashion thus begun by compulsion is now followed from choice. The fore part of the head is shaved to the crown and the hair braided in a single plait behind. Laborers often wind it about the head or knot it into a ball out of the way when barebacked or at work. The size of the queue can be enlarged by permitting an additional line of hair to grow; the appearance it gives the M-earer is thus described by Mr. Downing, and the quotation is not an unfair specimen of the remarks of travelers upon China : ” At the hotel one of the waiters was dressed in a pecuhar manner about the head. Instead of the hair being shaved in front, he had it cut round the top of the forehead about an inch and a half in length. All the other part was tiu-ned as usual and plaited down the back. This thin semi-circular ridge of hair was then made to stand bolt upright, and as each hair was separate and stiff as a bristle, the whole looked like a very fine-toothed comb turned upward. This I imagined to be the usual way of dressing the head by single unengaged youths, and of course must be very attractive.”” Thus what the wearer regarded as ill-looking, and intended to braid in as soon as it was long enough, is here taken as a device for beautifying himself in the eyes of those he never saw or cared to see.

    Tricks Played with the Queue.

    OFFICIAL COSTUMES. 763

    The people are vain of a long thick queue, and now and then play each other tricks with it, as well as use it as a ready means for correction ; but nothing irritates them more than to cut it off. Men and women oftener go bareheaded than covered, warding off the sun by means of a fan ; in winter felt or silk skull-caps, hoods, and fur protect them from cold. Laborers shelter themselves from rain under an umbrella hat and a grotesque thatchwork of leaves neatly sewn upon a coarse network—very effectual for the purpose. In illustration of the remailv at the beginning of this chapter, it might be added that if they were not worn on the head such hats woukl be called ti-ays, so unlike are they to the English article of that name. The formal head-dress is the conical straw or felt hat so peculiar to this nation, usually covered with a red fringe of silk or hair.

    The various forms, fabrics, colors, and ornaments of the dresses

    worn by grades of officers are regulated by sumptuary laws.

    Citron-yellow distinguishes the imperial family, but his Majesty’s

    apparel is less showy than many of his courtiers, and in all

    that belongs to his own personal use there is an appearance of

    disregard of ornament. The five-clawed dragon is figured upon

    the dress and whatever pertains to the Emperor, and in certain

    things to members of his family. Tlie nionarchs of China formerly

    wore a sort of flat-topped crown, shaped somewhat like

    a Cantab’s cap, and having a row of jewels pendent from each

    side. The sunnner bonnet of officers is made of finely woven

    straw covered with a red fringe ; in winter it is trimmed with

    fur. A string of beads hanging over an embroidei’ed robe, a

    round knob on the cap, thick-soled satin boots, two or three

    pouches for fans or chopsticks, and occasionally a watch or two

    hanging from the girdle, constitute the principal points of difference

    between the official and plebeian costume. No company

    of men can appeal- more splendid tlian a large pai’ty of officers

    in their winter robes made of fine, lustrous crapes, trimmed

    with rich furs and brilliant with gay embroidery. In winter a silk or fur spencer is worn over the robe, and forms a handsome and warm garment. Lambskins are much used, and the downy coats of unyeaned lambs, which, with the finer furs and the skins of hares, wild cats, rabbits, foxes, wolves, otter, squirrels, etc., are worn by all I’anks. Some years ago a lad used to parade the streets of Canton, who presented an odd appearance in a long spencer made of a tiger’s skin. The Chinese like strong contrasts in the colors of their garments, sometimes wearing yellow leggings underneath a light blue robe, itself set off by a purple spencer.

    The dress of women is likewise liable to few fluctuations, and all ranks can be sure that the fashion will last as long as the gown. The garments of both sexes among the common people resemble each other more than in Western Asia. The tunic oi short gown is open in front, buttoning around the neck and under the arm, reaching to the knee, like a smock-frock in its general shape. The trousers among the lower orders are usually worn over the stockings, both being covered, on ceremonial occasions, by a petticoat reaching to the feet. Laboring women, whose feet are left their natural size, go barefoot or slipshod in the M-arni latitudes, but cover their feet carefully farther north. Both sexes have a paucity of linen in their habiliments—if not a shiftless, the Chinese certainly are a shirtless race, and such undergarments as they have are not too often washed.

    The head-dress of married fenuiles is becoming and even elegant.

    The copious black hair is bound upon the head in an

    oval-formed knot, which is secured in its place and shape by a

    broad pin placed lengthwise on it, and fastened by a shorter ona

    thrust across and under the bow. The hair is drawn back from

    the forehead into the knot, and elevated a little in front by combino;

    it over the fiuo’er ; in order to make it lie smooth the locks

    are drawn through resinous shavings moistened in warm M^ater,

    which also adds an exti-a gloss, at the cost, however, of injury

    to the hair. In front of the knot a tube is often inserted, in

    which flowers can be placed. The custom of wearing them is

    nearly universal, fresh blossoms being preferred wdien obtainable,

    and artificial at other times. Having no covering on the head

    there is more opportunity than in the west to display pretty

    devices in arranging the hair. A widow is known by her white

    flowers, a maiden by one or two plaits instead of a knot, and so on; in their endless variety of form and ornament, Chinese women’s head-dresses furnish a source of constant study. Mr. Stevens tells us that the animated appearance of the dense crowd which assembled on the bridge and banks of the river at Fuhchau when he passed in 1835, was still more enlivened by the flowers worn by the women.

    COSTUMES OF CHINESE WOMEN. 765

    Matrons wear an embroidered fillet on the forehead, an inch or more wide, pointed between the eyebrows, and covering the front of the hair though not concealing the baldness which often comes on early from the resinous l)and()line used. This fillet is embroidered, or adorned with pearls, a favorite ornament with Chinese ladies. The women along the Yangzi River wear a band of fur around the head, which relieves their colorless complexions.

    A substitute for l)onnets is common in summer, consisting of a flat piece of straw trimmed with a fringe of blue cloth. The hair of children is unbound, but girls more advanced allow^ the side locks to reach to the waist and plait a tress down the neck ; their coarse hair does not curl, and the beautiful luxuriance of curls and ringlets seen in Europe is entirely unknown.

    False hair is made use of by both sexes, the men being particularly fond of eking out their queues to the fullest length. Gloves are not worn, the long sleeves being adequate for warmth; in the north the ears are protected from freezing by ear-tabs lined with fur, and often furnished with a tiny looking-glass on the outside.

    The dress of gentlewomen, like that of their husbands, is

    regulated by sumptuary laws, but none of these prevent their

    costumes from being as splendid as rich silks, gay colors, and

    beautiful embroidery can make them. The neck of the robe is

    protected by a stiff band, and the sleeves are large and long,

    just the contrary of the common style, which being short allows

    the free use and display of a well-turned arm. The official embroidery

    allowed to the husband is changed to another kind on

    his wife’s robe indicative of the same rank. No belt or girdle

    is seen, nor do stays compress the waist to its lasthig injury.

    One of the prettiest parts of a lady’s dress is the petticoat, which appears about a foot below the upper robe covering the feet. Each side of the skirt is plaited about six times, and in front and rear are two pieces of buckram to which they are attached; the plaits and front pieces are stiffened with wire and lining. Embroidery is worked upon these two pieces and the plaits in such a way that as the wearer steps the action of the feet alternately opens and shuts them on each side, disclosing a part or the whole of two different colored figures, as may be seen in the illustration. The plaits are so contrived that they are the same when seen in front or from behind, and the effect is more elegant when the colors are well contrasted. In order to produce this the plaits close around the feet, unlike the wider skirt of western ladies.

    Ornaments are less worn by the Chinese than other Asiatic

    nations. The men suspend a string of fragrant beads together

    with the tobacco-pouch from the jacket lapel, or occasionally

    wear seal-rings, linger- rings, and armlets of strass, stone, oi

    glass. They are by law prohibited from carrying weapons of

    any sort. The women wear bangles, bracelets, and ear-rings of

    glass, stone, and metal ; most of these appendages are regarded

    more as amulets to ward off evil influences than mere orna*

    raents. Felicitous charms, such as aromatic bags, old coins,

    and rings, are attached to the persons of children, and few

    adults venture to go through life without some preservative of

    this kind ; no sacred thread or daub of clay, as in India, is

    known, however, nor any image of a saint or other figurine, as

    in Ttomish countries. The queer custom of wearing long nails

    is practised by comparatively few ; and although a man or

    woman with these appendages would not be deemed singular, it

    is not regarded as in good taste by well-bred persons. Pedantic

    scholars wear them more than other professions, in order to

    show that they are above manual labor ; but the longest set the

    writer ever saw was, oddly enough, o’n a carpenter’s fingers, who

    thereby showed that he was not obliged to use his tools. Fine

    ladies protect theirs with silver sheaths.

    The practice of compressing the feet, so far as investigation has gone, is more an inconvenient than a dangerous custom, for among the many thousands of patients who have received aid in the missionary hospitals, few have presented themselves with ailments chargeable to this source. A difference of opinion exists respecting its origin. Some accounts state that it arose from a desire thereby to remove the reproach of the club feet of a popular empress, others that it gradually came into use from the great admiration of and attempt to imitate delicate feet, and others that it was imposed by husbands to keep their wives from gadding.’ Its adoption was gradual, however it may have commenced, and not without resistance. It is practised

    ‘ It is recorded that Hau-Chu, of the Chin dynasty, in the year a.d. 583 ordered Lady Yao to bind hor feet so as to make them looli like the new moon; and Uiat the evil fashion has since prevaili’d against all subsequent prohibitions.—^o/^^s «//(/ Q’lcr/cs on Ghina and Jajxtn, Vol. II., pp. 37 and 43.

    MANNER OF COMPRESSING THE FEET. 767

    by all classes of society except the Manchus and Tartars, poor as

    well as rich (for none are so poor as not to wish to be fashionable)

    ; and so habituated does one become to it after a residence

    in the country, that a well-dressed lady with large feet seems

    to be denationalized. There is no certain age at which the

    operation nnist be commenced, but in families of easy circumstances

    the bandages are put on before five; otherwise not until

    betrothment, or till seven or eight years old. The whole operation

    is performed, and the shape maintained, by bandages,

    which are never permanently removed or covered by stockings;

    iron or wooden shoes are not used, the object being rather to

    prevent the feet growing than to make them smaller.

    A good account of the effects of this practice is given in a paper contained in the Transactions of the Royal Society of London, written by Dr. Cooper, detailing the appearances presented on dissection.

    The foot belonged to a person in low life ; it was five and one-fourth inches long, which is full eighteen lines over the most fashionable size. The big toe was bent upward and backward on the foot, and the second twisted under it and across, so that the extremity reached the inner edge of the foot. The third toe somewhat overlapped the second, but lying less obliquely, and reaching to the first joint of the great toe. The ball of the great toe, much flattened, separated these two from the fourth and fifth toes. The fourth toe stretched obliquely inward under the foot, but less so than the little toe, which passed under and nearly across the foot, and had been bound down so strongly as to bend the tarsal bone. The dorsum of the foot was much curved, and a deep fissure crossed the sole and separated the heel and little toe, as if the two ends of the foot had been forced too-ether ; this was filled for three Appearance of the Bones of a

    Foot when Compressed.

    inches with a very condensed cellular tissue; the instep waa

    three and one-half inches high. The heel-bone, which naturally

    forms a considerable angle with the ankle, was in a direct Ihie

    with the leg-bones ; and the heel itself was large and flat,

    covered with a peculiarly dense integument, and forming, with

    the end of the metatarsal bone of the great toe and the two

    smallest toes bent under the sole, the three points of taction in

    walkino-. When the operation is begun earlier, and the bones

    are more flexible, four of the toes are bent under the foot and

    only the big toe laid upon the top. The development of the

    nniscles of the calf being checked, the leg tapers from the knee

    downward, though there is no particular w^eakness in the limb.

    The appearance of the deformed member when uncovered is shocking, crushed out of all proportion and beauty, and covered with a wrinkled and lifeless skin like that of a washerwoman’s hand. It is surprising how the circulation is kept up in the member without any pain or wasting away ; the natural supposition would be that if any nutriment M’as conveyed to it, there would be a disposition to grow until maturity was attained, and consequently constant pain ensue, or else that it would be destroyed or mortify for want of nourishment.

    Feet of Chinese Ladies.

    PllEVALENCP] OF THE FASTnON”.—LADIES SHOES. im

    The gait of these victims of fashion can be imitated by a l)erson walking on the heels. Women walking alone swing their arms and step quick and short, elderly women availing themselves, when practicable, of an umbrella, or leaning upon the shoulder of a lad or maid for support—literally making a walking-stick of them. The })ain is said to be severe at first, and a recurrence now and then is felt in the sole ; but the evident freedom fiom distress exhibited in the little girls who are seen walking or playing in the streets, proves that the amount of suffering and injm-ious effects upon life and health are perhaps not so great as has been imagined. The case is different when the girl is not victimized until ten or more years old. The toes are then bent under and the foot forced into the smallest compass ; the agony arising from the constrained nniscles and excoriated ilesli is dreadful, while, too, the shape of the member is, even in Chinese eyes, a burlesque upon the beautiful little ness so nnich desired.

    Shape of a Lady’s Shoe.

    The opinion prevails abroad that only the daughters of the rich or learned pay this price to Dame Fashion. A greater proportion is indeed found among the well-to-do classes, and in the southern provinces near the rivers the unfashionable form perhaps half of the whole ; for those who dwell in boats, and all who in early life may have lived on the water or among the farmsteads, and slave girls sold in infancy for domestics, are usually left in the happy though low-life freedom of nature. Close observation in the northern provinces show general adoption of the usage among the poor, whose feet are not, however, usually so small as in the south. Foreigners, on their arrival at Canton or Fuhchau, seeing so many women with natural feet on the boats and about the streets, wonder where the ” little-footed Celestials” they had heard of were, the only specimens they see being a few crones by the wayside mending clothes. Across the Mei ling range the proportion increases. All the women who came to the hospital at Chusan in 1841, to the number of eight hundred or one thousand, had their feet more or less cramped ; and some of them walked several miles to the hospital and home again the same day. Although the operation may be less painful than has been represented, the people are so much accustomed to it that most men would refuse to M^ed a woman whose feet were of the natural size ; and a man who should find out that his bride had large feet when he expected small ones would be exonerated if he instantly sent her back to her parents. The kin lien, or ‘golden lilies,’ are desired as the mark of gentility ; the hope of rising to be one of the upper ten, and escaping the roughness and hard work attached to the lower class, goes far to strengthen even children to endure the pain and loss of free d(tin consequent on the practice. The secret of the prevalence of the cruel custom is the love of ease and praise; and not till the principles of Christianity extend will it cease. In Peking, where the Manchus have shown the advantages nature has over fashion, the example of their women for two hundred and fifty years, aided by the earnest efforts of the great Emperor Kanghi, has not had the least effect in inducing Chinese ladies to give it up. The shoes are made of red silk and prettily embroidered; hut no one acquainted with Chinese society would say that “if a lady ever breaks through the prohibition against displaying her person’, she presents her feet as the surest darts with which a lovers heart can be assailed ! ” ‘

    Cosmetics are used by females to the serious injury of the

    skin. On grand occasions the face is entirely bedaubed Nvitli

    white paint, aiul rouge is added to the lips and clieeks, giving a

    singular starched appearance to the physiognomy. A girl thus

    l)eautified has no need of a fan to hide her blushes, for they

    cannot be seen through the paint, her eye being the only index

    of emotion. The eyebrows are blackened with charred sticks,

    and arched or narrowed to resemble a nascent willow leaf, or the moon when first seen—as in the ballad translated by Mr. Stent, which pictures the beauty as possessing

    Eyebrows shaped likt^ loaves of willows
    Drooping over “autumn billows;”
    Almond shaped, oi’ liciiiid brightness,
    Were the eyes of Yang-gui-fei.

    ‘ Murray’s OJiiiirt, Vol. II., p. 266. Compare the Chinese Repository, Vol. III., p. r)37; Hee. dc Mem. tic Meleriiic iinlil. (Paris), 1802-63 -04 passim; Clihirse Il/ror(f<r, Vols. I., II., and III. passim (mostly a series of articles on this subject by Dr. I)udg<M)n) ; T/ir Far Eaxl, February, 1877, p 27.

    ‘ The Jade Chiipht, p. 121.

    TOILET PRAOTICES. 771

    A belle is described as having cheeks like the almond llower, lips like a peach’s bloom, waist as the willow leaf, eyes bright as dancing ripples in the sun, and footsteps like the lotus flower. Much time and care is bestowed, or said to be, by females upon their toilet, but if those; in the upper classes have anything like the variety of domestic duties which their sisters in common life perform, they have little leisure left for superfluous adorning. If dramas give an index of Chinese manners and occupations, they do not convey the idea that most of the time of well-bred ladies is spent in idleness or dressing.

    At his toilet a Chinese uses a basin of tepid water and a cloth,

    and it has been aptly remarked that he never appears so dirty

    as when trying to clean himself. Shaving is done by the barber,

    for no man can shave the top of his head. Whiskers are never

    worn, even by the very few who have them, and mustaches are

    not considered proper for a man under forty. Snuff bottles and

    tobacco pipes ai”e carried and nsed by both sexes, but the practice

    of chewing betel-nut is confined to the men, M-ho, however,

    take nmch pains to keep their teeth white. Among ornamental

    articles of dress, in none do they go to so nmch expense and

    style as in the snuff bottle, which is often carved fi-om stone,

    amber, agate, and other rare miuerals with most exquisite taste.

    Snuff is put on the thumb-nail with a spoon fastened to the

    stopper—a more cleanly way than the European mode of ” pinching.”‘

    The articles of food which the Chinese eat, and the mode and

    ceremonies attending their feasts, have aided much in giving

    them the odd character they bear abroad, though uncouth or

    unsavory viands form an infinitesimal portion of tlieir food,

    and ceremonious feasts not one in a thousand of their repasts.

    Travellers have so often spoken of birdsnest soup, canine hams,

    and grimalkin fricassees, rats, snakes, worms, and other culinary

    novelties, served up in equally strange ways, that their readers

    get the idea that these articles form as large a proportion of

    the food as their description does of the narrative. In general,

    the diet of the Chinese is sufficient in variety, wholesome, and

    ‘ On Chinese costume, see Wm. Alexander, Tim Costume of China, illustrated, London, 1805; Mnnirs et Containes des CMnois et leurs costumes en couleur, j)’ii’ J. G. Grohmann, Leipzig; Breton, China: Its Costume, Arts, etr.,4 vols., translated from the French, London, 1813; another translation is from Auguste Borget, Sketches of China and ths Chinese, London, 1843 ; Illvstrations of China and, its People. A series of two hundred photorjrajths, with letterpress descriptive of the places and people represented, by J. Thompson, London, 1874, 4 vols. q.uarto.

    well cooked, tliongli many of the dishes arc unpalatable to a

    European from the vegetahlc oils used in their preparation, and

    the alliaceous plants introduced to savor them. In the assortment

    of dishes, Barrow has truly said that ” there is a wider

    diiference, perhaps, between the rich and the poor of China than

    in any other country. That wealth, which if permitted would

    be expended in flattering the vanity of its possessors, is now

    applied to the purchase of dainties to pamper the appetite.”

    The proportion of animal food is probably smaller among the

    Chinese than other nations on the same latitude, one platter of

    fish or flesh, and sometimes both, being the usual allowance on

    the tables of the poor, llice, maize, Italian millet, and wheat

    furnish most of the cereal food ; the first is emphatically the

    staff of life, and considered indispensable all over the land. Its

    louf use is indicated in the number of terms emr)loved to describe it and the variety of allusions to it in common expressions.

    To tale a meal is chifan, ‘eat rice;’ and the salutation equivalent to hoio cVije ? is cJuh l-wofan ? ‘ have you eaten rice?’ The grain is deprived of its skin by wooden pestles M’orked in a mortar by levers, either by a water-wheel or more conunonly by oxen or men. It is cleaned by rubbing it in an earthen dish scored on the inside, and steamed in a shallow iron bc>iler partly filled with water, over which a basket or sieve containing the rice is supported on a framework ; a M’ooden dish fits over the whole and confines the steam. By this process the kernels are thoroughly cooked without forming a pasty mass, as is too often the result when boiled by cooks in Christian countries.

    Bread, vegetables, and other articles are cooked in a

    similar manner; four or five sieves, each of them full and

    nicely fitting into each other, are placed upon the boiler and

    covered with a cowl ; in the water beneath, which supplies the

    steam, meats or other things are boiled at the same time. Wheat

    flour is boiled into cakes, dumplings, and other articles, but not

    baked into bread. Maize, buckwheatj oats, and barley are not

    ground, but the grain is cooked in various ways, alone or mixed

    with other dishes. Italian millet, or canary-seed {Setaria), furnishes

    a large amoimt of nutritious cereal food in tlic north ; the

    flour is yellow and sweet, and boiled or baked for eating, often

    VEGETABLES EATEN BY THE CHINESE. 773

    seasoned witli jujube plums in tlie cakes. Its cultivation is easy,

    and its proliiic crop makes up in a measure for the small seeds; ten thousand kernels have been counted on one spike in a good season.

    The Chinese have a long list of culinary vegetables, and much

    of their agriculture consists in rearing them. Leguminous and

    cruciferous plants occupy the largest part of the kitchen garden ;

    more than twenty sorts of peas and beans are cultivated, some

    for camels and horses, but mostly for men. Soij is njade by boiling

    the beans and mixing \vater, salt, and wheat, and producing

    fermentation by yeast ; its quality is inferior to the foreign.

    Another more common condiment, called bean curd or bean jam,

    is prepared by boiling and grinding black beans and mixing the

    flour with water, gypsum, and turmeric. The consumption of

    cabbage, broccoli, kale, cauliflower, cress, colewort, and other

    cruciferous plants is enormous ; a great variety of modes are

    adopted for cooking, preserving, and improving them. The

    leaves and stems of many plants besides these ai-e included in

    the variety of greens, and a complete enumeration of them

    would form a curious list. Lettuce, sow thistle [Sonchus),

    spinach, celery, dandelion, succory, sweet basil, ginger, mustard,

    radishes, artemisia, amaranthus, tacca, pig weed {Chenopod’tum),

    burslane, shepherd’s purse, clover, ailantus, and others having

    no English names, all furnish green leaves for Chinese tables.

    Garlics, leeks, scallions, onions, and chives are eaten by all

    classes, detected upon all persons, and smelt in all rooms where

    they are eating or cooking. CVirrots, gourds, squashes, cucumbers,

    watermelons, tomatoes, turnips, radishes, brinjals, pumpkins,

    okers, etc., are among the list of garden vegetables; the

    variety of cucurbitaceous plants extends to nearly twenty. Most

    of these vegetables are inferior to the same articles in the markets

    of western cities, where science has improved their size or

    flavor. Several aquatic plants increase the list, among which

    the nelumbium covers extensive mai*shes in the eastern and

    northern provinces, otherwise unsightly and ban-en. The root

    is two or three feet lonp-, and piei-ced longitudinally with several

    holes ; when boiled it is of a yellowish color and sweetish taste,

    not unlike a turnip. Taro is used less than the nelumbium, and SO arc the water-caltrops {Trajxi) and water-cliestnuts. The taste of water-caltrops when boiled resembles that of new cheese; water-c’hostniits are the round roots of a kind of sedge, and resemble that fruit in color more than in taste, which is mealy and crisp. The sweet potato is the most common tuber ; although the Irish potato has been cultivated for scores of years it has not become a common vegetable among the people, except on the borders of Mongolia.

    The catalogue of fruits comprises most of those occurring elsewhere in the tropic and temperate zones, and China is probably the earliest home of the peach, plum, and pear. The pears arc large and juicy, sometimes weighing eight or ten pounds; the white and strawberry }>ear are equal to any western variety. The apples are rather dry and insipid. The peaches, plums, quinces, and apricots are better, and offer many good varieties. Cherries are almost unknown. The orange is the common fruit at the south, and the baskets, stalls, and piles of this golden fruit, mixed with and heightened by contrast with other sorts and with vegetables, which line the streets of Canton and Amoy in winter, present a beautiful sight. Many distinct species of Citrus, as the lemon, kumquot, pumelo, citron, and orange, are extensively cultivated.

    The most delicious is the vhu-sha I’ih, or ‘mandarin orange;’ the skin, when ripe, ,is of a cinnabar red color, and adheres to the pulp by a few loose fibres. The citron is more prized for its fragrance than taste, and the thick rind is now and then made more abundant by cutting it into strips when growing, each of which becomes a roundish end like a finger, whence the name of Fushou, or ‘Buddha’s hand,’ given it. It will remain uncorrupt for two or three mouths, diffusing an agreeable perfume.

    COMMON TABLE FRUITS. 775

    Chapter YI. contains brief notices of other fruits. The banana and persimmon are common, and several varieties are enumerated of each; the plantain is eaten raw and cooked, and forms a large item in the subsistence of the poor. The pomegranate, carambola or tree gooseberry, mango, custard-apple, pine-apple, rose-apple, bread-fruit, fig, guava, and olive, some of them as good and others inferior to what are found in other countries, increase the list. The ir/i,n/ij>e, lic/i’t, l/nuja/i, or ‘dragon’s eyes,’ and loquat, are the native names of four indigenous fruits at Canton. The whampe(Cookla) resembles a grape in size and a gooseberry in taste; the loquat or 2)cho (Eriobotryct) is a kind of medlar. The liclii looks like a strawberry in size and shape; the tough, rough red skin encloses a sweet watery pulp of a whitish color surrounding a hard seed. Grapes are plenty and cheap ; in the northern cities they are preserved during the winter, and even till May, by constant care in regulating the temperature.

    Chestnuts, walnuts, ground-nuts, filberts {Torreya), almonds,

    and the seeds of the salisburia and nelumbium, are the most

    common nuts. The Chinese date {Itkanmus) has a sweetish,

    acidulous flesh ; the olive is salted or pickled ; the names of

    both these fruits are given them because of a resemblance to the

    western sorts, for neither the proper date nor olive growls in

    China. A pleasant sweetmeat, like cranberry, is made from

    the seeds of the arbutus (M(//’lea), and another still more acid

    from a sort of haw, both of them put up for exportation.

    Preserved fruits are common, and the list of sweetmeats and

    delicacies is increased by the addition of many roots, some of

    which are preserved in syrup and others as comfits. Ginger,

    nelumbium roots, bamboo shoots, the common potato, and

    other vegetables are thus prepared for export as well as domestic

    consumption. The natives consume enormous quantities of

    pickles of an inferior quality, especially cabbages and onions,

    but foreigners consider them detestable. The Chinese eat but

    few spices ; black pepper is used medicinally as a tea, and

    cayenne pepper when the pod is green.

    Oils and fats are in universal use for cooking ; crude lard or

    pork fat, castor oil, sesamum oil, and that expressed from two

    species of Camellia and the ground-nut, are all employed for

    domestic and culinary purposes. The Chinese use little or no

    milk, butter, or cheese ; the comparatively small number of

    cattle raised and the consequent dearness of these articles may

    liave caused them to fall into disuse, for they are all common

    among the Manchus and Mongols. A Chinese table seems ill

    furnished to a foreigner when he sees neither bread, butter, nof

    milk upon it, and if he express his disrelish of the oily dishes or alliaceous stews before liliii, the Chinese thinks that he delivers a

    sufficient retort to his want of taste when he answers, ” You eat

    cheese, and sometimes when it can almost walk.” Milk is used

    a little, and no one who has lived in Canton can forget the prolonged

    mournful cry of n<jao nal ! of the men hawking it about

    the streets late at night. “Women’s milk is sold for the sustenance

    of infants and superannuated people, the idea being prevalent

    that it is peculiarly nourishing to aged persons.’

    Sugar is grown only in Formosa and the three southern provinces,

    which supply the others; neither molasses nor rum are

    manufactured from it. No sugar is expressed from sorghum

    stalks, nor do the Chinese know that it contains syrup. The

    tobacco is milder than the American plant; it is smoked and

    not chewed or made into cigars, though these are being imported

    from Manila in steadily increasing quantities, and find favor

    among many of the wealthier Chinese ; snuff is largely usoil.

    The betel-nut is a common masticatory, made up of a slice of

    the nut and the fresh leaf of the betel-pepper with a little lime

    rubbed on it. The common beverages are tea and arrack, both

    of which arc taken warm ; cold water is not often drunk, cold

    liquids of any kind being considered unwholesome. The constant

    practice of boiling Avater before drinking, in preparing tea,

    doubtless tends to make it less noxious, when the people are not

    particular as to its sources. Coffee, chocolate, and cocoa are unknown, as are also beer, cider, porter, Avine, and brandy.

    ‘ Dr. Hobson mentions a case at Shanghai where he was called upon to examine a child well-iiigli dead with spurious hydrocephalus. Upon investigation he found that the nurse, “a young healthy-looking woman, with breasts full of milk to overflowing,” had “been in the habit of selling her milk in small cupfuls to old persons, under the idea of its highly nutritive properties, and was actually poisoning the child dependent on it.” The nurse being promptly changed, the infant recovered almost immediately.

    —Journal N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. ?sew Series, Vol. I., p. 51.

    KINDS OF ANIMAL FOOD USED. 777

    The meats consumed by the Chinese comprise, perhaps, a greater variety than are used in other countries; while, at the same time, very little land is appropriated to rearing animals for food. Beef is not a common meat, chiefly from a Buddhistic prejudice against killing so useful an animal. Mutton in the southern provinces is poor and dear compared with its excellence and cheapness north of the Yangzi River, where the greater numbers of Mohanunedans cause a larger demand for it. The beef of the buffalo and the mutton of the jjroat are still less used; pork is consumed more -than all other kinds, and no meat can be raised so economically. Hardly a family so poor

    that it cannot possess a pig ; the animals are kept even on the

    boats and rafts, to consume and fatten upon what others leave.

    Fresh pork probably constitutes more than half of the meat

    eaten by the Chinese ; hauis are tolerably plenty, and a dish

    called “golden hams,” from the amber appearance of the joint,

    makes a conspicuous object in feasts. Ilgrseilesh, venison, wild

    boar, and antelope are now and then seen, but in passing through

    the markets mutton, pork, fowls, and fish are the viands which

    everywhere meet the eye.

    A few kittens and puppies are sold alive in cages, mewing and yelping as if in anticipation of their fate, or from pain caused by the pinching and handling they receive at the hands of dissatisfied customers. Those intended for the table are usually fed upon rice, so that if the nature of their food be considered, their flesh is far more cleanly than that of the omnivorous hog ; few articles of food have, however, been so identified abroad with the tastes of the people as kittens, puppies, and rats have M’ith the Chinese. American school geograpliies often contain pictures of a nuxrket-man cariying baskets holding these unfortunate victims of a perverse taste (as we think), or

    else a string of rats and mice hanging by their tails to a stick

    across his shoulders, which almost necessarily convey the idea

    that such things form the usual food of the people. Travellers

    hear beforehand that the Chinese devour everything, and when

    they arrive in the country straightway inquire if these animals

    are eaten, and hearing that such is the case, perpetuate the idea

    that they form the common articles of food. However commonly

    live kittens and puppies or dressed dogs may be exposed

    for sale, one may live in a city like Canton or Fuhchau for

    many years and never see rats offered for food, unless he hunts

    up the people who sell them for medicine or aphrodisiacs ; in

    fact, they are not so easily caught as to be either common or

    cheap. A peculiar prejudice in favor of black dogs and cats exists among natives of the south ; these animals invariably command a higher price than others, and are eaten at midsmnmer in the belief that the meat ensures health and strength during the ensuing year.

    Rats and mice are, no doubt, eaten now and then, and so are many other undesirable things, by those whom want compels to take what they can get; but to put these and other strange eatables in the front of the list gives a distorted idea of the everyday food of the people. There are perhaps half a dozen restaurants in Canton city where dog’s-meat appears upon the menu ‘, it is, however, by no means an inexpensive delicacy.’ The flesh of rats is eaten by old women as a hair restorative. The blood of ducks, pigs, and sheep is used as food, or prepared for medicine and as a paste; it forms an ingredient in priming and some kind of varnish. It is coagulated into cakes for sale, and in cooking is mixed with the meats and sauces. The blood of all animals is eaten without repugnance so far as concerns religious scruples, except in the case of Buddhist priests.

    Frogs are caught in a curious manner by tying a young jumper lately emerged from tadpole life to a line and bobbing him up and down in the grass and grain of a rice field, where the old croakers are wont to harbor. As soon as one of them sees the young frog sprawling and squirming he makes a ])hmge at him and swallows him whole, whereupon he is immediately conveyed to the frog-fisher’s basket, losing his life, liberty, and lunch together, for the bait is rescued from his maw and used again as long as life lasts.

    Poultry, including chickens, geese, and ducks, are everywhere

    raised ; of the three the geese are the best flavored, but all of

    them are reared cheaply and supply a large portion of the poor

    with the principal meat they eat. The eggs of fowls and ducks

    are hatched artificially, and every visitor to Canton remembers

    the duck-boats in which those birds are hatched and reared

    and carried up and down the river seeking for pasture along

    its muddy banks. Sheds are erected for hatching, in which are

    ‘ Archdeacou Gray, China, Vol. II., p. 7G.

    HATCHING ducks’ EGGS. 779

    a number of higli baskets well lined to retain the heat. Each

    one is placed over a fireplace, so that the heat shall be conveyed

    to the eggs through the tile in its bottom and retained

    in the basket by a close cover. When the eggs are brought a

    layer is put into the bottom of each basket, and a tire kept in

    the room at a uniform heat of about SU° F. After four or five

    days they are examined in a strong light, to separate the addled

    ones ; the others are put back in the baskets and the heat kept

    up for ten days longer, when they are all placed upon shelves in

    the centre of the shed and covered with cotton and felt for

    fourteen days. At the end of the twenty-eighth day the shells

    are broken to release the inmates, which are sold to those who

    rear them. Pigeons are raised to a great extent ; their eggs

    form an ingredient in soups. Wild and water fowl are caught in

    nets or shot ; the wild duck, teal, grebe, wild goose, plover, snipe,

    heron, egret, partridge, pheasant, and ortolan or rice bird are all

    procurable at Canton, and the list could be increased elsewhere.

    If the Chinese eat many things which are rejected by other peoples, they are perfectly omnivorous with respect to aquatic productions ; here nothing comes amiss ; all waters are vexed with their fisheries. Their nets and other contrivances for capturing fish display great ingenuity, and most of them are admirably adapted to the purpose. Elvers, creeks, and stagnant pools, the great ocean and the little tank, mountain lakes and garden ponds, tubs and rice fields, all furnish their quota to the sustenance of man, and tend to explain, in a great degree, the dense population. The right to fish in running streams and natural waters is open to all, while artificial reservoirs, as ponds, pools, tanks, tubs, etc., are brought hito available use; near tidewater the rice grounds are turned into fish-ponds in winter if they will thereby afford a more profitable return. The inhabitants of the water are killed with the spear, caught with the hook, scraped up by the dredge, ensnai-ed by traps, and captured by nets ; they are decoyed to jump into boats by painted boards, and frightened into nets by noisy ones, taken out of the water by lifting nets and dived for by birds—for the cormorant seizes what his owner could not easily reach. In short, every possible way of catching or rearing fish is practiced in one part of the country or another. Tanks are placed in the streets, with water running through them, where carp or perch are reared until they become so large they can hardly turn lound in their pens ; eels and water-snakes of every color and size are fed in tubs and jars until customers carry them off.

    King-crabs, cuttle-fish, sharks, sting-rays, gobies, tortoises, tuitles, crabs, prawns, crawlish, and shrimps add to the variety. The best lish in the Canton market are the garoupa or rock cod, pomfret, sole, mackerel, bynni carp or mango fish, and the polynemns, erroneously called salmon. Carp and tench of many kinds, herring, shad, perch, mullet, and bream, with others less connnon at the west, are found in great abundance. They are usually eaten fresh, or merely opened and dried in the sun, as stock-fish. Both salt and fresh-water shell-fish are abundant.

    The oysters are not so well flavored as those on the Atlantic coast of America ; the crabs and prawns are excellent, but the clams, mussels, and other fresh-water species are less palatable. Insect food is confined to locusts and grasshoppers, grubs and silk-worms; the latter are fried to a crisp when cooked. These and water-snakes are decidedly the most repulsive things the Chinese eat. Many articles of food are sought after by this sensual people for their supposed aphrodisiac qualities, and most of the singular productions brought from abroad for food are of this nature.

    COOKING AMOTS’G THE CHINESE. 781

    The famous birds nest soup is prepared from the nest of a swallow (Collocah’a esrulenfa) found in caves and damp places in some islands of the Indian Archipelago ; the bird macerates the material of the nest from seaweed (Gelidiwn chiefly) in the crop, and constructs it by drawing the food out in fibres, which are attached to the damp stone with the bill. The nest has the same shape as those which chimney swallows Ituild, and holds the young against the cliffs; they rarely exceed three or four inches in the longest diameter. The operation of cleaning is performed by picking away each morsel of dirt or feathers from the nest, and involves considerable labor. After they come forth perfectly free from impui’ities they are stewed with pigeons’ eggs, spicery, and other ingredients into a soup ; when cooked they resemble isinglass, and the dish depends upon sauces and seasoning for most of its taste. The biche-de-mer, tripang, oi

    sea-slug, is a marine substance procui-ed from the Polynesian

    Islands ; it is souglit aftei- under the same idea of its invigorating

    qualities, and being cheaper than the birdsnest is a more common

    dish ; when cooked it resembles pork-rind in appearance and

    taste. Sharks’ fins and fish-maws are imported and boiled into

    gelatinous soups that are nourishing and palatable ; and the

    sinews, tongues, palates, udders, and other parts of different

    animals are sought after as delicacies. A large proportion of

    the numerous made dishes seen at great feasts consists of such

    odd articles, most of which are supposed to possess some peculiar

    strengthening quality.

    The art of cooking has not reached any high degree of perfection. Like the French, it is very economical, and consists of stews and fried dishes more than of baked or roasted. Salt is proportionately dear from its preparation being a government monopoly, and this has led to a large use of onions for seasoning.

    The articles of kitchen furniture are few and simple ; an iron

    boiler, shaped like the segment of a sphere, for stewing or frying,

    a portable earthen furnace, and two or three dift’erent shaped

    earthenware pots for boiling water or vegetables constitute the

    whole establishment of thousands of families. A few other

    utensils, as tongs, ladles, forks, sieves, mills, etc., are used to a

    greater or less extent, though the variety is quite commensurate

    witli the simple cookery. Both meats and vegetables, previously

    hashed into mouthfuls, are stewed or fried in oil or fat ; they

    are not cooked in large joints or steaks for the table of a household.

    Hoy;s are baked whole for sacrifices and for sale in cookshops,

    but before being eaten are hashed and fI’ied again. Chitting

    the food into small pieces secures its thorough cooking with less

    fuel than it would otherwise re(|uire, and is moreover indispensable

    for eating with chopsticks. Two or three vegetables are boiled together, but meat soups are seldom seen ; and the immense variety of puddings, pastry, cakes, pies, custards, ragouts, creams, etc., made in western lands is almost unknown in China.’
    ‘ Memoires cone. les Ohinols, Tome XL, pp. 78 ff. C. C. Coffin in the Atlantic Monthly, 18G9, p. 747. Doolittle’s Vocnhul(try, Part III., No. XVIIl. M.Henri Cordier in the Journal des Debats, Nov. 19, 1879. Notes and Queries on C. and J., Vol. II., pp. 11 and 2(5.

    CHAPTER XIV. SOCIAL LIFE AMONG THE CHINESE

    The preceding chapter, in a measure, exhibits the attainnienta the Chinese have reached in the comforts and elegances of li\”-ing. These terms, as tests of civilization, however, are so comparative that it is rather difficult to define them ; for the notions which an Englishman, an Egyptian, and a Chinese severally might have of comfort and elegance in the furniture and arrangement of their houses are almost as unlike as their languages.

    If Fisher’s Views of China he taken as a guide, one can easily believe that the Chinese need little from abroad to better their condition in these particulars; while if one listen to the descriptions of some persons who have resided among them, it will be concluded that they possess neither comfort in their houses, civility in their manners, nor cleanliness in their persons. In passing to an account of their social life, this variety of tastes should not be overlooked; and if some points appear objectionable when taken alone, a little further examination will, perhaps, show that they form part of a system which requires complete reconstruction before it could be happily and safely altered.

    FACTORS IN CHINESE SOCIAL LIFE. 783

    The observations of a foreigner upon Chinese society are likely to be modified by his own feelings, and the way in which he has been treated by natives there ; but their behavior to him might be very unlike what would be deemed good breeding among themselves. If a Chinese feared or expected something from a foreigner, he would act toward him more politely than if the contrary were the case ; on the one hand better, on the other worse, than he would toward one of his own countrymen in like circumstances. In doing so, it may be remarked with

    regret that lie would only imitate the conduct of a host of

    foreigners who visit China, and whose coarse remarks, rude

    actions, and general supercilious conduct toward the natives ill

    comport with their superior civilization and assumed advantages.

    One who looked at the matter reasonably would not expect

    much true politeness among a people whose conceit and ignorance,

    selfishness and hauteur, were nearly equal ; nor be surprised to find the intercourse between the extremes of society present a strange mixture of brutality and commiseration, formality and disdain. The separation of the sexes modifies and debases the amusements, even of the most moral, leads the men to spend their time in gambling, devote it to the pleasures of the table, or dawdle it away when the demands of business, study, or labor do not arouse them. Political parties, which

    exert so powerful an influence upon the conduct of men in

    Christian countries, leading them to unite and connnunicate

    with each other for the purpose of watching or resisting the

    acts of government, do not exist ; and where there is a general

    want of confidence, such institutions as insurance companies,

    savings or deposit banks, corporate bodies to Iniild a railroad

    or factory, and associations of any kind in which persons unite

    their funds and efforts to accomplish an object, are not to be

    expected ; they do not exist in China, nor did they in Home or

    ancient Europe. Xor will any one expect to hear that literary

    societies or voluntary philanthropic associations are common.

    These, as they are now found in the west, are the products of Christianity alone, and we must wait for the planting of the tree before looking for its fruit. The legal profession, as distinct from the possession of office, is not an occupation in which learned men can obtain an honorable livelihood; the priesthood is confined to monasteries and temples, and its members do not enter into society ; while the practice of medicine is so entirely empirical and strange that the few experienced practitioners are not enough to redeem the class. These three professions, which elsewhere do so much to elevate society and guide public opinion, being wanting, educated men have no stimulus to draw them out into independent action. The competition for literary degrees and official rank, the eager pursuit of trade, or the duU routine of mechanical and agricultural lal)*»i-, form the leading avocations of the Chinese people. Unacquainted with the intellectual enjoyments found in books and the conversation of learned men, and having no educated taste, as we understand that term (while, too, he cannot iind such a thing as virtuous female society), the Chinese resorts to the dice-box, the opium pipe, or the brothel for his pleasures, though even there with a loss of character among his peers.

    The separation of the sexes has many bad results, only partially compensated by some conservative ones. Woman owes her present elevation at the west to Christianity, not only in the degree of respect, support, freedom from servile labor, and education which she receives, but also in the retlex influences she exerts of a purifying, harmonizing, and elevating character.

    Where the requirements of the Gospel exert no force, her rights are more or less disregarded, and if she become as debased as the men, she can exert little good influence even upon her own family, still less upon the community. General mixed society can never be maintained with pleasure unless the better parts of human nature have the acknowledged preeminence, and where she, who impaits to it all its gracefulness and purity, is herself uneducated, nnpolished, and immodest, the common sense of mankind sees its impropriety. By advocating the partition of the sexes, legislators and moralists in China have acted as they best could in the circumstances of the case, and by preventing the evils beyond their remedy, provided the best

    safeguards they could against general coiruption. In her own

    domestic circle a Chinese female, in the character and duties of

    daughter, wife, or mother, flnds as nnich em])loyment, and probably

    as many enjoyments, as the nature of her training has litted

    her for. She does not hold her proper place in society simply

    because she has nev’cr been taught its duties or exercised its

    privileges.

    RESULTS UPON SOOIKTY OF SEPAIIATINO THK SKXKS. 785

    In ordinary cases the male and female branches of a household are strictly kept apart; not only the servants, but even brothers and sisters do not freely associate after the boys commence their studies. At this period of life, or even earlier, an anxious task devolves upon parents, which is to And suitable partners for their children. Uetrothmeiit is entirely in their hands, and is conducted through the medium of a class of persons called inel-jin, or go-betweens, who are expected to be well acquainted with the character and circumstances of the parties. Mothers sometimes contract their unborn progeny on the sole contingency of a difference of sex, but the usual age of forming these engagements is ten, twelve, or older, experience having shown that the casualties attending it render an earlier period undesirable.

    There are six ceremonies which constitute a regular marriage, though their details vary much in different parts of the Empire: 1. The father and elder brother of the young man send a go-between to the father and brother of the girl, to inquire her name and the moment of her birth, that the lioroscope of the two may be examined, in order to ascertain whether the proposed alliance will be a happy one. 2. If the eight characters’ seem to augur aright, the boy’s friends send the mei-jin back to make an offer of marriage. 3. If that be accepted, the second party is again requested to return an assent in writing. 4. Presents are then sent to the girl’s parents according to the means of the parties. 5. The go-between requests them to choose a lucky day for the wedding. 6. The preliminaries are concluded by the bridegroom going or sending a party of friends with music to bring his bride to his own house. The match-makers contrive to multiply their visits and prolong the negotiations, when the parties are rich, to serve their own ends.

    In Fuhkien parents often send pledges to each other when their children are mere infants, and registers containing their names and particulars of nativity are exchanged in testimony of the contract. After this has been done it is impossible to retract the engagement, unless one of the parties becomes a leper or is disabled. When the children are espoused older, the boy sometimes accompanies the go-between and the party carrying the presents to the house of his future mother-in-law, and receives from her some trifling articles, as melon-seeds, fruits, etc., which he distributes to those around. Among the presents sent to the fijirl are fruits, money, vermicelli, and a ham, of which she gives a morsel to each one of the party, and sends its foot back. These articles are neatly arranged, and the party bringing them is received with a salute of fire-crackers.

    ‘ Compare p. 628.

    From the time of engagement until marriage a young lady is required to maintain the strictest seclusion. Whenever friends call upon her parents she is expected to retire to the inner apartments, and in all her actions and words guard her conduct with careful solicitude. She must use a close sedan whenever she visits her relations, and in her intercourse with her brothers and the domestics in the household nniintain great reserve. Instead of having any opportunity to form those friendships and acquaintances with her own sex which among ourselves become a source of so much pleasure at the time and advantage in after life, the Chinese maiden is confined to the circle of her relations and her immediate neighbors. She has few of the pleasing remembrances and associations that are usually connected with school day life, nor has she often the ability or opportunity to correspond by letter with girls of her own age. Seclusion at this time of life, and the custom of crippling the feet, combine to confine women in the house almost as much as the strictest laws against their appearing abroad ; for in girlhood, as they know only a few persons except relatives, and can make very few acquaintances

    after marriage, their circle of friends contracts rather

    than enlarges as life goes on. This privacy impels girls to learn

    as much of the world as they can, and among the rich their

    curiosity is gratified through maid-servants, match-makers, pedlers,

    visitors, and others. Curiosity also stimulates young ladies

    to learn something of the character and appearance of their intended

    husbands, but the rules of society arc too strict for young

    persons to endeavor to form a personal attachment, though it is

    not impossible for them to see each other if they wish, and there

    are, no doubt, many contracts suggested to parents by their

    children.

    BETROTHMENT AND PRELI^MINARIES OF MARRIAGE. 787

    The office of match-maker is considered honorable, and both men and women are employed to conduct nuptial negotiations. Great confidence is reposed in their judgment and veracity, and as their employment depends somewhat upon their tact and character, they have every inducement to act with strict propriety in their intercourse with families. The father of the girl employs their services in collecting the sum agreed upon in the contract, which, in ordinary circumstances, varies from twenty-five to forty dollars, increasing to a hundred and over according to the condition of the bridegroom ; until that is paid the marriage does not take place. The presents sent at betrothment are sometimes costly, consisting of silks, rice, cloths, fruits, etc. ; the bride brings no dower, but both parents frequently go to expenses they can ill afford when celebrating the nuptials of their children, as the pride of family stimulates each party to make undue display.

    The principal formalities of a marriage are everywhere the same, but local customs are observed in some regions which are quite unknown and appear singular elsewhere. In Fuhkien, when the lucky day for the wedding comes, the guests assemble in the bridegroom’s house to celebrate it, where also sedans, a band of music, and porters are in readiness. The courier, who acts as guide to the chair-bearers, takes the lead, and in order to prevent the onset of malicious demons lurking by the road, a baked hog or large piece of pork is carried in front, that the procession may safely pass while these hungry souls are devouring the meat. Meanwhile the bride arrays herself in her best dress and richest jewels. Her girlish tresses have already been bound up, and her hair arranged by a matron, with due formality; an ornamental and complicated head-dress made of rich materials, not unlike a helmet or corona, often forms part of her coiffure. Her person is nearly covered by a large mantle, over

    which is an enormous hat like an umbrella, that descends to the

    shoulders and shades the whole figure. Thus attired she takes

    her seat in the red gilt marriage sedan, called hwa Jdao, borne

    by four men, in which she is completely concealed. This is

    locked by her mother or some other relative, and the key given

    to one of the bridemen, who hands it to the bridegroom or his

    representative on reaching his house.

    The procession is now rearranged, with the addition of as many red boxes and trays to contain the wardrobe, kitchen utensils, luul the feast, as the means (.»f the family or the extent of her parapliei’ualia require. As the procession approaches the bridegroom’s house the courier iiastens forward to announce its coming, whereupon the music strikes up, and fire-crackers salute her until she enters the gate. As she approaches the door the bridegroom conceals himself, but the go-between brings forward a young child to salute her, while going to seek the closeted bridegroom, lie approaches with becoming gravity and opens the sedan to hand out his bride, she still retaining the hat and mantle ; they approach the ancestral tablet, which they reverence with three bows, and then seat themselves at a table upon which are two cups of spirits. The go-between serves them, though the bride can only make the motions of drinking, as the large hat completely covers her face. They soon retire into a

    chamber, where the husband takes the hat and mantle from his

    wife, and sees her, perhaps, for the first time in his life. After he

    has considered her for some time, the guests and friends enter

    the room to sui-vey her, when each one is allowed to express an

    opinion ; the criticisms of the M’omen are severest, perhaps because

    thej remember the time they stood in her unpleasant

    position. This cruel examination being over, she is introduced

    to her husband’s parents, and then salutes her own. Such are

    some of the customs among the Fuhkienese. Other usages followed

    in marriages and betrothals have been carefully described

    by Doolittle, with parti(;nlar reference to the same people, and

    by Archdeacon John II. Gray, alluding to other parts of the

    Empire.’

    The bridegroom, previous to the wedding, receives a new

    name or ” style,” and is formally capped by his father in presence

    of his friends, as an introduction to manhood. He invites

    the guests, sending two red cakes with each invitation, and to

    liim each guest, a few days before the marriage, returns a

    present or a sum of money worth about ten or fifteen cents,

    nominally equal to the expenses he will be considered as occasioning.

    ‘ Social Life of the CldneM, Chapters II. and III.; China, Chap. VII.; also

    Fourteen Months in Canton, by Mrs Gray.

    MARRIAGE CEREMONIES AND CUSTOMS. 789

    Another invitation is sent the day after to a feast, and the bride also calls on the ladies who attended her wedding,

    from whom slie receiv^es a ring or some other article of small

    value. The gentlemen also make the bridegroom a present of

    a pair of lanterns to hang at his gateway. On the night of the

    wedding they sometimes endeavor to get into the house when

    the pair is supposed to be asleep, in order to carry off some article, which the bridegroom must ransom at their price.

    Among the poor the expenses of a wedding are much lessened by purchasing a young girl, whom the parents bring up as a daughter until she is marriageable, and in this way secure her services in. the household. A girl already affianced is for a like reason sometimes sent to the boy’s parents, that they may support her. In small villages the people call upon a newly married couple near the next full moon, when they are received standing near the bedside. The men enter first and pay their respects to the bride, while her husband calls the attention of his visitors to her charms, praises her little feet, her beautiful hands, and other features, and then accompanies them into the hall, where they are regaled with refreshments. After the men have retired the women enter and make their remarks upon the lady, whose future character depends a good deal upon the manner in which she conducts herself. If she shows good temper, her reputation is made. Many a prudent woman on this occasion says not a word, but suffers herself to be examined in silence in order that she may I’un no risk of offending.’ Far different is this introduction to married life from the bridal tour and cordial greetings of friends which ladies receive in western lands during the honeymoon !

    ‘ Chinese Repository^ Vols. IV., p. 568, and X., pp. 65-70; Annalea de la Foi, No. XL., 1885.

    The bridal procession is a peculiar feature of Chinese social life. It varies in its style, nature of the ornaments, and the wdiole get-up in all parts of the land, but is always as showy as the means of the parties will allow. It is composed of bearers of lanterns and official tablets, musicians, relatives of the bride and groom and their personal friends, framed stands with roofs carried on thills to hold the bride’s effects, all centering around her sedan. In Peking such a procession will sometimes be stretched out half a mile, and the sedan borne by a dozen or more bearers. The coolies are dressed hi red. and tlicy and their burdens are nsiially provided by special sli()|>iiieii, who purvey on such occasions. The tablets of literary rank held by members of the family, wooden dragons’ heads, titular lanterns, and other official insignia are l)orne in state, an evidence of its high standing. In some places an old man, elegantly dressed,

    heads the procession, bearing a large umbrella to hold over the

    bride when she enters and leaves her sedan ; behind him come

    bearers with lanterns, one of which carries the inscription, “The

    phoenixes sing harmoniously.” To these succeed the music and

    the honorary tablets, titular flags, state umbrella, etc., and two

    stout men as executioners dressed in a fantastic manner, wearing

    long feathers in their caps, and lictors, chain-bearers, and other

    emblems of office. Parties of young lads, prettily dressed

    and playing on drums, gongs, and flutes, or carrying lanterns

    and banners, occasionally form a pleasing variety in the train,

    which is continued by the trays and covered tables containing

    the bride’s trousseau, and ended with the sedan containing

    herself.

    The ceremonies attending her reception at her husband’s

    house are not uniform. In some parts she is lifted out of the

    sedan, over a pan of charcojd placed in the court, and carried

    into the bed-chandjer ; in other places she enters and leaves her

    sedan on rugs spread for her use, and walks into the chamber.

    After a brief interval she returns into the hall, bearing a tray

    of betel-nut for the guests, and then worships a pair of geese brought in the train with her husband, this bird being an emblem of conjugal afl^ection. On returning to her chamber the bridegroom follows her and takes off the I’ed veil, after which they pledge each other in wine, the cups being joined by a thread. While there a matron who has borne several children to one husband comes in to pronounce a blessing upon them and make up the nn])tial l)ed. The assembled guests then sit down to the feast and ])ly the sni l(ing^ ‘new man’ or bridegroom, pretty well with liquor; the Chinese on such occasions do not, however, often overpass the rules of sobriet\-. The sin fitjiii, ‘new lady’ or bride, and her mother-in-law also attend to those of her own sex who are present in other apartments, but among the poor a pleasanter sight is now and then seen in all the o-nests sittino; at one table.

    NUPTIAL PROCESSION AND FESTIVITIES. 791

    In the morning the pair worship the ancestral tablets and salute all the members of the family ; among the poor this important ceremony occurs very soon after the pair have exchanged their wine-cups. The pledging of the bride and groom in a cup of wine, and their worship of the ancestral tablets and of heaven

    and earth, are the important ceremonies of a wedding after the

    procession has reached the house. Marriages are celebrated at

    all liom-s, though twilight and evening are preferred ; the spring

    season, or the last month in the year, are regarded as the most

    felicitous nuptial periods. From the way in which the whole

    matter is conducted there is some room for deception by sending

    another person in the sedan than the one betrothed, or the

    man may mistake the name of the girl he wishes to marry.

    Mr. Smith mentions one of his acquaintances, who, having been

    captivated with a girl he saw in the street, sent a go-between

    with proposals to her parents, which were accepted ; but he was

    deeply mortified on receiving his bride to find that he had mistaken

    the number of his charmer, and had received the fifth

    daughter instead of the fourth.

    The Chinese do not marry another woman wdth these observances

    while the first one is living, but they may bring home

    concubines with no other formality than a contract with her

    parents, though it is considered somewhat discreditable for a

    man to take another bedfellow if his wife have borne him sons,

    unless he can afford each of them a separate establishment. It is

    not unfrequent for a man to secure a maid-servant in the family

    with the consent of his wife by purchasing her for a concubine,

    especially if his occupation frequently call him away from home,

    in which case he takes her as his travelling companion and leaves

    his wife in charge of the household. The fact that the sons of a

    concubine are considered as legally belonging to the wife induces

    parents to betroth their daughters early, and thus prevent their

    entering a man’s family in this inferior capacity. The Chinese

    are sensible of the evils of a divided household, and the laws

    place its control in the hands of the wife. If she have no sons

    of her own, she looks out for a likely boy among her clansmen to adopt, knowing that otherwise her husband will probably bring a concubine into the family. It is difficult even to guess at the extent of polygamy, for no statistics have been or can be easily taken. Among the laboring classes it is rare to find more than one woman to one man, but tradesmen, official persons, landholders, and those in easy circumstances frequently take one or more concubines : perhaps two-fifths of such families have them. Show and fashion lead some to increase the number of their women, though aware of the discord likely to arise, for they fully believe their own proverb, that ” nine women out of ten are jealous.” Yet it is probably true that polygamy finds its greatest support from the women themselves. The wife seeks to increase her own position by getting more women into the

    house to relieve her own work and humor her fancies. The

    Chinese illustrate the relation by comparing the wife to the

    moon and the concubines to the stars, both of which in their

    appropriate spheres wait upon and I’cvolve around the sun.

    If regard be had to the civilization of the Chinese and their

    opportunities for moral training, the legal provisions of the code

    to protect females in their acknowledged rights and pnnish

    crimes against the peace and purity of the family relation reflect

    credit upon their legislators. In these laws the obligation of

    children to fulfil the contract made by their parents is enforced,

    even to the annulling of an agreement made by a son himself

    in ignorance of the arrangements of his parents. The position

    of the tsi, or wife taken by the prescribed formalities, and that

    of the tneh, or women purchased as concubines, are accurately

    defined, and the degradation of the former or elevation of

    the latter so as to interchange their places, or the taking of a

    second ts’i, are all illegal and void. The relation between the

    two is more like that which existed between Sarah and 1 1 agar in

    Abraham’s household, or Zilpah and Bilhah and their mistresses

    in Jacob’s, than that indicated by our terms first and second

    wife, of which idea the Chinese words contain no trace. The

    degrees of unlawful marriages are comprehensive, extending even

    to the prohibition of persons having the same fthuj^ or family

    name, and to two brothers marrying sisters. The hnvs forbid

    the marriage of a brother’s widow, of a father’s or grandfather’s

    LAWS KEGULATING MARRIAGES. 793

    wife, or a father’s sister, under the penalty of death ; and the

    like punishment is inflicted upon whoever seizes the wife or

    daughter of a freeman and carries them away to marry them.

    These regulations not only put honor upon marriage, but render it more common among the Chinese than almost any other people, thereby preventing a vast train of evils. The tendency of unrestrained desire to throw down the barriers to the gratiiication of lust must not be lost sight of ; and as no laws on this subject can be effectual unless the common sense of a people approve of them, the Chinese, by separating the sexes in general society, have removed a principal provocation to sin, and by compelling young men to fulfil the marriage contracts of their parents have also provided a safeguard against debauchery at the age when youth is most tempted to indulge, and when indulgence would most strongly disincline them to marry at all. They have, moreover, provided for the undoubted succession of the inheritance by disallowing more than one loife^ and yet have granted men the liberty they would otherwise take, and which immemorial usage in Asiatic countries has sanctioned. They have done as well as they could in regulating a difficult matter, and better, on the whole, perhaps, than in most other unchristianized countries. If any one supposes, however, that because these laws exist sins against the seventh commandment are uncommon in China, he will be as mistaken as those who infer that because the Chinese are pagans nothing like modesty, purity, or affection exists between the sexes.

    When a girl ” spills the tea”—that is, loses her betrothed by death—public opinion honors her if she refuse a second engagement; and instances are cited of young ladies committing suicide rather than contract a second marriage. They sometimes leave their father’s house and live with the parents of their affianced husband as if they had been really widows. It is considered derogatory for widows to marry ; though it may be that the instances quoted in books with so much praise only indicate how rare the practice is in reality. The widow is occasionally sold for a concubine by her father-in-law, and the grief and contumely of her degradation is enhanced by separation from her children, whom she can no longer retain. Such cases are, however, not common, for the impulses of maternal affection are too strong to be thus trifled with, and widows usually look to their friends for support, or to their own exertions if their children he still young; they are assisted, too, by their relatives in this laudable industry and care. It is a lasting stigma to a son to neglect the comfort and support of his widowed mother. A widower is not restrained by any laws, and weds one of his concubines or whomsoever he chooses ; nor is he expected to defer the nuptials for any period of mourning for his first wife.

    The seven legal reasons for divorce, viz., barrenness, lasciviousness,

    jealousy, talkativeness, thievery, disobedience to her

    husband’s parents, or leprosy, are almost nullified by the single

    provision that a woman cannot be put away whose parents are

    not living to receive her back again. Parties can separate on

    nmtual disagreement, but the code does not regulate the alimony

    ; and a husband is liable to punishment if he retain a

    wife convicted of adultery. If a wife merely elopes she can

    be sold by her husband, but if she marry while absent she is

    to be sti’angled ; if the husband be absent three years a woman

    must state her case to the magistrates before presuming to remarry.

    In regard to the o-eneral condition of females in China the

    remark of De Guignes is applicable, that ” though their lot is

    less happy than that of their sisters in Europe, their ignorance

    of a better state renders their present or jji-ospective one more

    supportable ; happiness does not always consist in absolute

    enjoyment, but in the idea which we have formed of it.” ‘ She

    does not feel that any injustice is done her by depriving her of

    the right of assent as to whom her partner sliall be ; her wishes

    and her knowledge go no farther than her domestic circle, and

    where she has been trained in her mother’s apartments to the

    various duties and accomplishments of her sex, her removal to

    a husband’s house brings to her no great change.

    ‘ Yoyages a Peking^ Tome II. , jj. 383.

    PRIVILEGES AND I USlTlOK OF WIVES AND WIDOWS. 795

    This, however, is not always the case, and the power accorded to the husband over his wife and family is often used with great tyranny. The young wife finds in her new home little of the sympathy and love her sisters in Christian lands receive. Her mother-in-law is not unfrequently the source of her greatest trials, and demands from her both the submission of a child and the labor of a slave, which is not seldom returned by disobedience and bitter revilings. If the husband interfere she has less likelihood of escaping his exactions; though in the lower walks of life his cruelty is restrained by fear of losing her and her services, and in the upper diverted by indifference as to what

    she does, in the pursuit of other objects. If the wife behave

    well till she lierself becomes a mother and a mother-in-law, then

    the tables are turned ; from being a menial she becomes almost

    a goddess. Luhchau, a writer on female culture, jnentions the

    following indirect mode of reproving a mother-in-law : ” Loh

    Yang travelled seven years to improve himself, during which

    time his wife diligently served her mother-in-law and supported

    her son at schooL The poultry from a neighbor’s house once

    wandered into her garden, and her mother-in-law stole and killed

    them for eating. When she sat down to table and saw the

    fowls she would not dine, but burst into tears, at which the old

    lady was much surprised and asked the reason. ‘ I am much

    distressed that I am so poor and cannot aftord lo su|)|)]y you

    with all I wish I could, and that I should have caused you to

    eat flesh belonging to another.’ Her parent was affected by

    this, and threw away the dish.”

    The evils attending early betrothment induce many parents

    to defer engaging their daughters until they are grown, and a

    Imsband of similar tastes can be found ; for even if the condition

    of the families in the interval of betrothment and marriage

    unsuitably change, or the lad grows up to be a dissipated, worthless,

    or cruel man, totally unworthy of the gii’l, still the contract

    must be fulfilled, and the worst party genei-ally is most anxious

    for it. The unhappy bride in such cases often escapes from her

    present sufferings and dismal prospects by suicide. A case occured

    in Canton in 1833 where a young wife, visiting her parents

    shortly after marriage, so feelingly desciibed her sufferings at

    the hands of a cruel husband to her sisters and friends that she

    and three of her auditors joined their hands together and drowned

    themselves in a pond, she to escape present misery and they to avoid its future possibility. Another young lady, having heard of the worthless character of her intended, carried a bag of money with her in the sedan, and when they retired after the ceremonies were over thus addressed him : ” Touch me not ; I am resolved to abandon the world and become a nun. I shall this night cut off my hair. I have saved 8200, which I give you ; with the half you can purchase a concubine, and with the rest enter on some trade. Be not lazy and thriftless. Hereafter, remember me.” Saying this, she cut off her hair, and her husband and his kindred, fearing suicide if they opposed her, acquiesced, and she returned to her father’s house.’

    Such cases are common enough to show the dark side of family life, and young ladies implore their parents to rescue them in this or some other way from the sad fate which awaits them. Sometimes girls become skilled in female accomplishments to recommend themselves to their husbands, and their disappointment is the greater when they find him to be a brutal, depraved tyrant. A melancholy instance of this occurred in Canton in 1840, which ended in the wife committing suicide. Her brother had been a scholar of one of the American missionaries, and took a commendable pride in showing specimens of his sister’s exquisite embroidery, and not a few of her attainments in writing, which indicated their reciprocal attachment. The contrary happens too, sometimes, where the husband finds himself compelled to wed a woman totally unable to appreciate or share his pursuits, but he has means of alleviatinor or avoidino; such misalliances which the weaker vessel has not. On the whole, as we have said, one must admit that woman holds a fairly high position in China. If she suffers from the brutality of her husband, the tyraimy of her mother-in-law, or the overwork of household, field, or loom, she is as often herself blameworthy for indolence, shiftlessness, gadding, and bad temper. The instances which are given by Gray” in his account of marital atrocities prove the length to which a man will wreak his rage on the helpless ; but they are the exception to the general testimony of the people themselves. So far as general purity of society goes, one may well doubt whether such aboininahle conduct as is legalized among IVIornions in Utah is any improvement on the hardships of woman among the Chinese.

    ‘ Chinese JRepository, Vol. I., p. 293. * China, Chap. VII.

    UNHAPPY BKTKOTHMENTS. 797

    Pursuing this brief account of the social life of the Chinese, the right of parents in managing their children comes into notice. It is great, though not unlimited, and in allowing them very extensive power, legislators have supposed that natural affection of the parents, a desire to continue the honorable succession of the family, together with the influence of proper education, were as good securities against paternal cruelty and neglect as any laws which could be made. Fathers give their sons the ru ming, or ‘milk name,’ about a month after birth.

    The mother, on the day appointed for this ceremony, worships

    and thanks the goddess of Mercy, and the boy, dressed and

    having his head shaved, is brought into the circle of assembled

    friends, where the father confers the name and celebrates the

    occasion by a feast. The milk name is kept until the lad enters

    school, at which time the sJiit ming, or ‘school name,’ is conferred

    upon him, as already mentioned. The fiJiu ruing generally

    consists of two characters, selected with reference to the

    boy’s condition, prospects, studies, or some other event connected

    with him ; sometimes the milk name is continued, as the

    family have become accustomed to it. Such names as InJi–

    gi’lnder. Promising-study, Opening-oli’ve, Entering-virtue, Rising-

    advancement, etc., are given to young students at this time.

    Though endearing or fanciful names are often conferred, it is

    quite as common to vilify very young children by calling them

    dog, hog, pujypy, fiea, etc., under the idea that such epithets

    will w^ard off the evil eye. Girls have only their milk and

    marriage names ; the former may be a flower, a sister, a gem,

    or such like ; the latter are terms like Emulating the Moon,

    Orchis 1^ lower, the Jasmine, Delicate Perfume, etc. A mere

    number at Canton, as A-yat, A-sam, A-luk (No. 1, No. 3, No. G),

    often designates the boys till they get their book names.’

    ‘ Doolittle’s Handbook, Vol. III., p. 660, gives a list of names collected at Fulicliau, which are applicable to other provinces.

    The personal names of the Chinese are written contrariwise to our own, the xing or surname, coming first, then the ming, or given name, and then the complimentary title ; as Liang Wantai siensang, where Liang, or ‘ Millet,’ is the family name, Wantai, or ‘ Tei’race of Letters,’ the given name, and siensdng, Mr. {i.e., Master), or ‘ Teacher.’ A few of the surnames are double, as Si’ma Qian, where Si’ma is the family name and Qian the official title. A curious idea prevails among the people of Canton, that foreigners have no surname, which, as Pliny thought of the inhabitants of Mt. Atlas, they regard as one of the proofs of their barbarism ; perhaps tin’s notion came by inference from the fact that the Manchus write only their given name, as Kishen, Kiying, Ilipu, etc. When writing Chinese names in

    translations and elsewhere, some attention should be paid to

    these particulars ; the names of Chinese persons and places are

    constantly appearing in print nnder forms as singular as would

    be Williamhcnryhdrrison, Rich-Ard- Ox-Ford, or Phila Delphia-

    city in English. The name being in a different language,

    and its true nature unknown to most of those who write it, accounts

    for the misarrangement.

    NUMBER AND CHANGES OF PERSONAL NAMES. 799

    Li Canton and its vicinity the names of people are abbreviated in conversation to one character, and an A prefixed to it; —as TslnteJi, called A-teh or A-tsin. In Amoy the A is placed after, as China in the northern provinces no such usage is known. Some families, perhaps in imitation of the imperial precedent, distinguish their members from others in the clan by adopting a constant character for the first one in the niing,OY given name ; thus a family of brothers will be named Lin Tung-pei, Lin Tung-fung, Lin Tung-peh, where the word Tung distinguishes this sept of the clan Lin from all others. There are no characters exclusively appropriated to proper names or different sexes, as George, Agnes, etc., all being chosen out of the language with reference to their meanings. Consequently, a name is sometimes felt to be incongruous, as Xaomi, when saluted on her return to Bethlehem, felt its inappropriateness to her altered condition, and suggested a change to Mara. Puns on names and sobriquets are common, from the constant contrast of the sounds of the characters with circumstances suggesting a comparison or a play upon their meanings ; sly jokes are also played when writing the names of foreigners, by choosing such characters as will make a ridiculous meaning when read according to their sense and not their sound.

    “When a man marries he adopts a third name, called zi, or ‘style’, by which he is usually known through life ; this is either entirely new or combined from previous names. When a girl is married her family name becomes her given name, and the given name is disused, her husband’s name becoming her family name. Thus Wa Salah married to ^Vei San-wei drops the Salah, and is called ^Vei Wa shl, i.e., Mrs. Wei [born of the clan] Wa, though her husband or near relatives sometimes retain it as a trivial address. A man is frequently known by another compellation, called jrieh tsz\ or ‘second style,’ which the public do not presume to employ. When a young man is successful in attaining a degree, or enters an office, he takes a title called I’lixm ming, or ‘ official name,’ by which he is known to government. The members or heads of licensed mercantile companies each have an official name, which is entered in their permit, from whence it is called among foreigners their choj) name. Each of the heads of the co-hong formerly licensed to trade with foreigners at Canton had such an official name. Besides these various names, old men of fifty, shopkeepers, and others take a ?mo, or ‘ designation; ‘ tradesmen use it on their signboards as the name of their shop, and not unfrequently receive it as their personal appellation. Of this nature are the appellations of the tradesmen who deal with foreigners, as Catshing, Chanlung, Linchong, etc., which are none of them the names of the shopmen, but the designation of the shop. It is the usual M’ay in Canton for foreigners to go into a shop and ask ” Is Mr. Wanglik in ? ” which would be almost like one in New York inquiring if Mr. Alhambra or Mr, Atlantic-House was at home, though it does not sound quite so ridiculous to a Chinese. The names taken by shopkeepers allude to trade or its prospects, such as Mutual Advantage, Obedient Profit, EHcns’ive Ilarniony, liising Goodness, Great Completeness, etc. ; the names of the partners as such are not employed to form the firm. Besides this use of the hao, it is also employed as a brand upon goods; the terms Hoyuen^ K’mghing, YiienVi, meaning ‘ Harmonious Springs,’ ‘ Cheering Prospects,’ ‘ Fountain’s Memorial,’ etc., are applied to particular parcels of tea, silk, or other goods, just as brands are placed on lots of wine, flour, or pork. This is called zi-hao, or ‘ marked signation,’ but foreigners call both it and the goods it denotes a choj).

    When a man dies he receives another and last, though not

    necessarily a new name in the hall of ancestors ; upon emperors

    and empresses are bestowed new ones, as Benevolent, Pious,

    Discreet, etc., by which they are worshipped and referred to in

    history, as that designation which is most likely to be permanent.

    In their common intercourse the Chinese are not more formal

    than is considered to be well-bred in Europe ; it is on extraordinary

    or official occasions that they observe the precise etiquette

    for which they are famous. The proper mode of behavior toward

    all classes is pei’haps more carefully inculcated upon youth

    than it is in the west, and habit renders easy what custom demands.

    The ceremonial obeisance of a court or a levee, or the salutations proper for a festival, are not carried into the everyday intercourse of life; for as one chief end of the formalities prescribed for such times is to teach due subordination among persons of different rank, they are in a measure laid aside with the robes which suggested them. True politeness, exhibited in an unaffected regard for the feelings of others, cannot, we know, be taught by rules ; but a great degree of urbanity and kindness is everywhere shown, whether owing to the naturally placable disposition of the people or to the effects of their early instruction in the forms of politeness. Whether in the crowded and narrow thoroughfares, the village green, the market, the jostling ferry, or the thronged procession—wherever the people are assembled promiscuously, good humor and courtesy are observable; and when altercations do arise wounds or serious injuries seldom ensue, although from the furious clamor one would imagine that half the crowd were in danger of their lives.

    CEREMONIAL OBEISANCE AT COURT. 801

    Chinese ceremonial requires superiors to be honored according to their station and age, anci equals to depreciate themselves while lauding those they address. The Emperor, considering himself as the representative of divine power, exacts the same prostration which is paid the gods; and the ceremonies which are performed in his presence partake, therefore, of a religious character, and are not merely particular forms of etiquette, which may be altered according to circumstances. There are eight gradations of obeisance, commencing with “the lowest form of respect, called hung shao, which is merely joining the hands and raising them before the breast. The next is tso yih, bowing low with the hands thus joined. The third is ta tsieoi^ bending the knee as if about to kneel ; and hinei^ an actual kneeling, is the fourth. The fifth is Jco tao (ketou), kneeling and striking the head on the ground, which when thrice repeated makes the sixth, called m/i hao, or ‘thrice knocking’.

    The seventh is the In/i hfo, or kneeling and knocking the head thrice upon the ground, then standing upright and again kneeling and knocking the head three times more. The climax is closed by the san. kwcl liu I’ao, or thrice kneeling and nine times knocking the head. Some of the gods of China are entitled to the san hio, others to the Ink Ji’ao, while the Emperor and Heaven are worshipped by the last. The family now on the throne consider this last form as expressing in the strongest manner the submission and homage of one state to another.”‘

    The extreme submission which the Emperor demands is partaken by and tratisferred to his officers of every grade in a greater or less degree ; the observance of these forms is deemed, therefore, of great importance, and a refusal to render them is considered to be nearly equivalent to a rejection of their authority.

    Minute regulations for the times and modes of official intercourse

    are made and promulgated by the Board of Rites, and to

    learn and practise them is one indispensable part of official duty.

    In court the master of ceremonies stands in a conspicuous place,

    and with a loud voice commands the courtiers to rise and kneel,

    stand or march, just as an orderly sergeant directs the drill of

    ‘ Memoir of Dr. Morrison, “Vol. II. , p. 143.

    recruits. The same attention to the ritual is observed in their mutual intercourse, for however much an inferior may desire to dispense with the ceremony, his superior will not fail to exact it. In the salutations of entree and exit among officers these forms are particularly conspicuous, but when well acquainted with each other, and in moments of conviviality, they are in a great measure laid aside; but the juxtaposition of art and nature among them, at one moment laughing and joking, and the next bowing and kneeling to each other as if they had never met, sometimes produces amusing scenes to a foreigner. The entire ignorance and disregard of these forms by foreigners unacquainted with the code leaves a worse impression upon the natives at times, who ascribe such rudeness to hauteur and contempt.

    Without particularizing the tedious forms of official etiquette,

    it will be sufficient to describe what is generally required in

    good society. Military men pay visits on horseback ; civilians

    and others go in sedans or carts ; to walk is not common. Visiting

    cards are made of vermilioned paper cut into slips about

    eight inches long and three wide, and are single or folded four,

    six, eight, or more times, according to the position of the visitor.

    If he is in recent mourning, the paper is white and the

    name written in blue ink, but after a stated time this is indicated

    by an additional character. The simple name is stamped

    on the upper right corner, or if written on the lower corner, with an addition thus, ‘* Your humble servant {lit., ‘stupid younger brother ‘) Pi Chi-wan bows his head in salutation.” On approaching the house his attendant hands a card to the doorkeeper, and if he cannot be received, instead of saying ” not a^ home,” the host sends out to ” stay the gentleman’s approach,” and the card is left. If contrariwise the sedan is carried through the doorway into the court, wdiere he comes forth to receive his guest ; as the latter steps out each one advances just so far, bowing just so many times, and going through the ceremonies which they mutually understand and expect, until both have taken their seats at the head of the hall, the guest sitting on the left of the host, and his companions, if he have any, in the chairs on each side.

    ETIQUETTj: OF FORMAL VIRITINCt. 803

    The inquiries made after ihe mutual welfare of friends and each other are eonched in a form of studied laudation and depreciation, which when literally translated seem somewhat affected, but to them convey no more than similar civilities do among ourselves—in truth, perhaps not so much of sincere good-will.

    For instance, to the remark, ” It is a long time since we have met, sir,” the host replies (literally), ” IIow presume to receive the trouble of your honorable footsteps ; is the person in the chariot well ? “—which is simply equivalent to, ” I am much obliged for your visit, and hope you enjoy good health.”

    Tea and pipes are always presented, together with betel-nut or sweetmeats on some occasions, but it is not, as among the Turks, considered disrespectful to refuse them, though it would be looked upon as singular. If the guest inquire after the health of relatives he should commence with the oldest living, and then ask how many sons the host has; but it is not considered good bi’eeding for a formal acquaintance to make any remarks respecting the mistress of the house. If the sons of the host are at home they are generally sent for, and make their obeisance to their father’s friend by coming up l)eft>re him and performing the kototn as rapidly as possible, each one making haste, as if he did not wish to delay him. The guest raises them with a slight bow, and the lads stand facing him at a respectful distance. He will then remark, perhaps, if one of them happen to be at his studies, that ” the boy will perpetuate the literary reputation of his family ” {lit., ‘ he will fully carry on the fragrance of the books’); to which his father rejoins, “The reputation of our family is not great {lit., ‘ hills and fields’ happiness is thin ‘) ; high expectations are not to be entertained of him ; if he can only gain a livelihood it will be enough.” After a few such compliments the boys say shao j)ei, ‘slightly waiting on you,’ i.e., pray excuse us, and retire. Girls are seldom brought in, and young ladies never.

    The periphrases employed to denote persons and thus avoid speaking their names in a measure indicate the estimation in which they are held. For instance, ” Does the honorable great man enjoy happiness?” means “Is your father well?” “Distinguished and aged one what honorable age ? ” is the mode of asking how old he is; for among the Chinese, as it seems to have been among the Egyptians, it is polite to ask the names and ages of all ranks and sexes. ” The old man of the house,” “excellent honorable one,” and ” venerable great prince,” are terms used by a visitor to designate the father of his host. A child terms his father ” family’s majesty,” ” old man of the family,” ” prince of the family,” or ” venerable father.” When dead a father is called ” former prince,” and a mother ” venerable

    great one in repose ; ” and there are particular characters to

    distinguish deceased parents from living. The request, ” Make

    my respects to your mother”—for no Chinese gentleman ever

    asks to see the ladies—is literally, ” Excellent-longevity hall place

    in my behalf wish repose,” the first two words denoting she who

    remains there. Care should be taken not to use the same expressions

    when speaking of the relatives of the guest and one’s

    own; thus, in asking, ” IIow many worthy young gentlemen

    [sons] have you ? ” the host replies, ” I am unfortunate in having

    had but one l)oy,” literally, ” My fate is niggardly ; I have only

    one little bug.” This runs through their whole Chesterlieldian

    code. A man calls his wife Uleii mti, i.e., ‘ the mean one of the

    inner apartments,’ or ‘ the foolish one of the family ; ‘ while another speaking of her calls her ” the honorable lady,” ” worthy lady,” ” your favored one,” etc.

    ‘ This is repeated by both at the\

    FORMALITIE:^ OF ADDRESS AND GREETING. 80.”)

    Something of this is found in all oriental languages ; to become familiar with the right application of these terms in Chinese, as elsewhere in the east, is no easy lesson for a foreigner. In their salutations of ceremony they do not, however, quite equal the Arabs, with their kissing, bowing, touching foreheads, stroking beards, and repeated motions of obeisance. The Chinese seldom embrace or touch each other, except on unusual occasions of joy or among family friends; in fact, they have hardly a common word for a kiss. When the visitor rises to depart he remarks, ” Another day I will come to receive your instructions; ” to which his friend replies, ” You do me too much honor; I rather ought to wait on you tomorrow.” The common form of salutation among equals is for each to clasp his own hands before his breast and make a slight bow, saying, Tsing ! Tsimj ! i.e., ^l\\x\\\ ITail !

    .same time, on meeting as well as separating.’ The formalities of leave-taking correspond to those of receiving, but if the parties are equal, or nearly so, the host sees his friend quite to the door and into his sedan.

    Officers avoid meeting each other, especially in public, except when etiquette requires them. An officer of low rank is obliged to stop his chair or horse, and on his feet to salute his superior, who receives and returns the civility without moving. Those of equal grades leave their places and go through a mock struo-gle of deference to sret each first to return to it. The common people never presume to salute an officer in the streets, nor even to look at him very carefully. In his presence, they speak to him on their knees, but an old man, or one of consideration, is usually requested to rise when speaking, and even criminals with gray hairs are treated with respect. Officers do not allow their inferiors to sit in their presence, and have always been unwilling to concede this to foreigners ; those of the lowest rank consider themselves far above the best of such visitors, but this affectation of rank is already passing away. The converse, of not paying them proper respect, is more common among a certain class of foreigners.

    Children are early taught the forms of politeness toward all

    ranks. The duties owed by younger to elder brothers are peculiar,

    the firstborn havino; a sort of birthrio-ht in the ancestral

    Avorship, in the division of property, and in the direction of the

    family after the father’s decease. The degree of formality in

    the domestic circle inculcated in the ancient Book of Rites is

    never observed to its full extent, and would perhaps chill the

    affection which should exist among its members, did not habit

    render it easy and proper ; and the extent to which it is actually

    carried depends a good deal upon the education (jf the family.

    In forwarding presents it is customary to send a list with the

    note, and if the person deems it proper to decline some of them,

    he marks on the list those he takes and returns the i-est ; a douceur

    is always expected by the bearer, and needy fellows sometimes pretend to have been sent with some insignificant present

    ‘ Chinese Chrestomathy, Chap. V., Sec. 12, p. 182. This phrase is the origin of the word chinchin, so often heard among the Chinese.

    from a grandee in hopes of receiving more than its equivalent as a cumshavv from the person thus honored. De Guignes mentioned one donor who waited until the list came back, and then sent out and purchased the articles which had been marked and sent them to his friend.

    Travellers have so often described the Chinese formal dinners,

    that theJ have almost become one of their national traits in the

    view of foreigners ; so many of these banquets, however, were

    given by or in the name of the sovereign, that they are hardly

    a fair criterion of usual private feasts. The Chinese are both a

    social and a sensual people, and the pleasures of the table form

    a principal item in the list of their enjoyments ; nor are the

    higher delights of mental recreation altogether wanting, though

    this part of the entertainment is according to their taste and not

    ours. Private meals and public feasts among the higher classes

    are both dull and long to us, because ladies do not participate; but perhaps we judge more what our own tables would be without their cheerful presence, Avhile in China each sex is of the opinion that the meal is more enjoyable without interference from the other.

    An invitation to dinner is written on a slip of red paper like a visiting-card, and sent some days before. It reads, ” On the —day a trifling entertainment will await the light of your countenance. Tsau San-wei’s compliments.” Another card is sent on the day itself, stating the hour of dinner, or a servant comes to call the guests. The host, dressed in his cap and robes, awaits their arrival, and after they are all assembled, requests them to follow his example and lay aside their dresses of ceremony.

    CUSTOMS AT DINNER. 807

    The usual way of arranging guests is by twos on each side of small uncovered tables, placed in lines; an arrangement as convenient for serving the numerous courses which compose the feast, and removing the dishes, as Avas the Roman fashion of reclining around a hollow table; it also allows a fair view of the musical or theatrical performances. On some occasions, in the sunny south, however, a single long or round table is laid out in a tasteful manner, having pyramids of cakes alternating with piles of fruits and dishes of preserves, all covered more or less with flowers, while the table itself is partly hidden from view by nosegaj’s and leaves. If the party be large, ten minutes or more are consumed by the host and guests going through a tedious repetition of requests and refusals to take the highest seats, for not a man will sit down until he sees the host occupying his chair.

    On commencing, the host, standing up, salutes his guests, in

    a cup, apologizing for the frugal board before them, his only

    desire being to show his respects to them. At a certain period

    in the entertainment, they reply by simultaneously rising and

    drinking his health. The Western custom of giving a sentiment

    is not known ; and politeness requires a person when drinking

    healths to turn the bottom of the tiny wine-cup upward to

    show that it is drained. Glass dishes are gradually becoming

    cheap and common among the middle class, but the table furniture

    still mainly consists of porcelain cups, bowls, and saucers

    of various sizes and quality, porcelain spoons shaped like a

    child’s pap-boat, and two smooth sticks made of bamboo, ivory,

    or wood, of the size of quills, well known as the chojp-sticks^

    from the native name hwai tsz\ i.e., ‘ nimble lads.’ Grasping

    these implements on each side of the forefinger, the eater

    pinches up from the dishes meat, fish, oi- vegetables, already

    cut into mouthfuls, and conveys one to his mouth. The bowl

    of rice or millet is brought to the lips, and the contents shovelled

    into the mouth in an expeditious manner, quite suitable to the

    name of the tools employed. Less convenient than forks, chopsticks

    are a great improvement on fingers, as every one will

    acknowledge who has seen the Hindus throw the balls of curried

    rice into their mouths.

    The succession of dishes is not uniform ; soups, meats, stews, fruits, and preserves are introduced somewhat at the discretion of the major-domo, but the end is announced by a bowl of plain rice and a cup of tea. The fruit is often brought in after a recess, during which the guests rise and refresh themselves by walking and chatting, for three or four hours are not unfrequently required even to taste all the dishes. It is not deemed impolite for a guest to express his satisfaction with the good fare before him, and exhibit evidences of having stuffed himself to repletion ; nor is it a breach of manners to retire before the dinner is ended. The guests relieve its tedium by playing the game of ehal mel, or morra (the niicare digitls of the old Romans), which consists in showing the fingers to each other across the table, and mentioning a number at the same moment; as, if one opens out two fingers and mentions the number four, the other instantly shows six fingers, and repeats that number.

    If he mistake in giving the complement of ten, he pays a forfeit

    by drinking a cup. This convivial game is common among

    all ranks, and the boisterous merriment of workmen or friends

    at their meals is frecjuently heard as one passes through the

    streets in the afternoon.’ The Chinese generally have but two

    meals a day, breakfast at nine and dinner at four, or thereabouts.

    The Chinese are comparatively a temperate people. This is owing principally to the universal use of tea, but also to taking their arrack very warm and at their meals, rather than to any notions of sobriety or dislike of spirits. A little of it fiushes their faces, mounts into their heads, and induces them when flustered to remain in the house to conceal the suffusion, although they may not be really drunk. This liquor is known as toddy, arrack, saki, tsiu, and other names in Eastern Asia, and is distilled from the yeasty liquor in which boiled rice has fermented under pressure many days. Only one distillation is made for common liquor, but when more strength is wanted, it is distilled two or three times, and it is this strong spirit alone which is rightly called samshu, a word meaning ‘ thrice fired.’ Chinese moralists have always inveighed against the use of spirits, and the name of I-tih, the reputed inventor of the deleterious drink, more than two thousand years before Christ, has been handed down with opprobrium, as he was himself banished by the great Yu for his discovery.

    ‘ Compare the- China Review, Vol. IV., p. 400.

    TEMPERANCE OF THE CHINESE. 809

    The Shu King contains a discourse by the Duke of Chan on the abuse of spirits. His speech to his brother Fung, b.c. 1120, is the oldest temperance address on record, even earlier than the words of Solomon in the Proverbs. ” When your reverend father, King AVaii, founded our kingdom in the western region, ho delivered announcements and cautions to the princes of the

    various states, their officers, assistants, and managers of affairs,

    morning and evening, saying, ‘ For sacrifices spirits should be

    employed. When Heaven was sending down its [favoring]

    commands and laying the foundations of our people’s sway,

    spirits were used only in the great sacrifices. [But] when

    Heaven has sent down its terrors, and our people have therel)y

    been greatly disorganized, and lost their [sense of] virtue, this

    too can be ascribed to nothing else than their unlimited use of

    spirits; yea, further, the ruin of the feudal states, small and

    great, may be traced to this one sin, the free use of spirits.’

    King Wan admonished and instructed the young and those in

    office managing public affairs, that they should not habitually

    drink spirits. In all the states he enjoined that their use be

    confined to times of sacrifices ; and even then with such limitations

    that virtue should prevent drunkenness.” ‘

    The general and local festivals of the Chinese are numerous, among which the first three days of the year, one or two about the middle of April to worship at the tombs, the two solstices, and the festival of dragon-boats, are common days of relaxation and merry-making, only on the first, however, are the shops shut and business suspended. Some persons have expressed their surprise that the unceasing round of toil which the Chinese laborer pursues has not rendered him more degraded. It is usually said that a weekly rest is necessary for the continuance of the powers of body and mind in man in their full activity,

    and that decrepitude and insanity would oftener result

    were it not for this relaxation. The arguments in favor of this

    observation seem to be deduced from undoubted facts in countries

    where the obligations of the Sabbath are acknowledged,

    though where the vast majority cease from business and labor,

    it is not easy for a few to work all the time even if they wish,

    owing to the various ways in which their occupations are involved

    ‘ C/dnese Repository, Vol. XV., p. 433. Book of Records, Part V., Book X., Legge’s translation ; also Medliurst’s and Caubil’s translations.

    with those of others ; yet, in China, people who apparently tax themselves uninterruptedly to the utmost stretch of

    body and mind, live in health to old age. A few facts of this

    sort incline one to suppose that the Sabbath was designed by

    its Lord as a day of rest for man from a constant routine of relaxation

    and mental and physical labor, in order that he might

    have leisure for attending to the paramount duties of religion,

    and not alone as a day of relaxation and rest, without which

    they could not live out all their days. Nothing like a seventh

    day of rest, or religious respect to that interval of time, is

    known among the Chinese, but they do not, as a people, exercise

    their minds to the intensity, or upon the high subjects

    common among Western nations, and this perhaps is one reason

    why their yearly toil produces no disastrous effects. The countless blessings which flow from an observance of the fourth commandment can be better appreciated by witnessing the wearied

    condition of the society where it is not acknowledged, and whoever

    sees such a society can hardly fail to wish for its introduction.

    Converts to Christianity in China, who are instructed in its

    strict observance, soon learn to prize it as a high privilege ; and

    its general neglect among the native Roman Catholics has removed

    the only apparent difference between them and the pagans. The former prime minister of China once remarked that among the few really valuable things which foreigners had brought to China, the rest of the Sabbath day was one of the most desirable; he often longed for a quiet day.”

    Nevius, China and the Chinese, pp. 399-408.

    NEW year’s customs AND CEREMONIES. 811

    The return of the year is an occasion of unbounded festivity and hilarity, as if the whole population threw oft” the old year with a shout, and clothed themselves in the new with their change of garments. The evidences of the approach of this chief festival appear some weeks previous. The principal streets are lined with tables, upon which articles of dress, furniture, and fancy are disposed for sale in the most attractive manner. Necessity compels many to dispose of certain of their treasures or superfluous things at this season, and sometimes exceedingly curious bits of bric-a-brac, long laid up in families, can be procured at a cheap rate. It is customary for superiors to give their dependents and employees a present, and for shopmen to send an’ acknowledgment of favors to their customers; one of the most common gifts among the lower classes is a pair of new shoes. Among the tables spread in the streets are many provided with pencils and red paper of various sizes, on which persons write sentences appropriate to the season in various styles,

    to be pasted upon the doorposts and lintels of dwellings and

    shops,’ or suspended from their walls. The shops also put on a

    most brilliant appearance, arrayed in these papers interspei’sed

    among the I’hi hwa^ or ‘golden flowers,’ which are sprigs of artificial

    leaves and flowers made in the southern cities of brass tinsel

    and fastened upon wires ; the latter are designed for an annual offering in temples, or to place before the household tablet. Small strips of red and gilt paper, some bearing the word fah, or ‘happiness,’ large and small vermilion candles, gaily painted, and other things used in idolatry, are likewise sold in great quantities, and with the increased throng impart an unusually lively appearance to the streets. Another evident sign of the approaching change is the use of water upon the doors, shutters, and other woodwork of houses and shops, washing chairs, utensils, clothes, etc., as if cleanliness had not a little to do wath joy, and a well-washed person and tenement were indispensable to the proper celebration of the festival. Throughout the southern rivers all small craft, tankia-boats, and lighters are beached and turned inside out for a scrubbing.

    ‘ A like custom existed among the Hebrews, now continued in the modern mezuzmc. Deut. vi. 9. Jahu’s Arduvoloyy, p. 88.

    A still more praiseworthy custom attending this season is that of settling accounts and paying debts; shopkeepers are kept busy waiting upon their customers, and creditors urge their debtors to arrange these important matters. No debt is allowed to overpass new year without a settlement or satisfactory arrangement, if it can be avoided ; and those whose liabilities altogether exceed their means are generally at this season obliged to wind up their concerns and give all their available property into the hands of their creditors. The consequences of this general pay-day are a high rate of money, great resort to the pawnbrokers, and a general fall in the price of most kinds of produce and commodities. Manj- good results flow from the practice, and the conscious sense of the difficulty and expense of resorting to legal proceedings to recover debts induces all to observe and maintain it, so that the dishonest, the unsuccessful, and the wild speculator may be sifted out from amongst the honest traders.

    De Guignes mentions one expedient to oblige a man to pay

    his debts at this season, which is to carry off the door of his

    shop or house, for then his premises and person will be exposed

    to the entrance and anger of all hungry and malicious demons

    prowling around the streets, and happiness no more revisit his

    abode ; to avoid this he is fain to arrange his accounts. It

    is a common practice among devout persons to settle with the

    gods, and during a few days before the new yeai”, the temples

    are nnusually thronged by devotees, both male and female, rich

    and poor. Some persons fast and engage the priests to intercede

    for them that their sins may be pardoned, while they prostrate

    themselves before the images amidst the din of gongs, drums,

    and bells, and thus clear off the old score. On new year’s eve

    the streets are full of people hun-ying to and fro to conclude the

    many matters which press upon them. At Canton, some are

    busy pasting the five slips upon their lintels, signifying their

    desire tliat the five blessings which constitute the sum of all

    human felicity (namely, longevity, riches, health, love of virtue,

    and a natural death) may be their favored portion. Such sentences

    as ” May the five blessings visit this door,” ” May heaven

    send down happiness,” ” May rich customers ever enter this

    door,” are placed above them ; and the dooi-posts are adorned

    with others on plain or gold sprinkled red paper, making tlie

    entrance quite picturesque. In the hall are suspended scrolls

    more or less costly, containing antithetical sentences carefully

    chosen. A literary man would have, for instance, a distich like

    the following:

    May I be so learned as to secrete in my raind three myriads of volumes:

    May I know the affairs of the world for six tiiousand years.

    SETTLING ACCOUNTS AND DECORATING HOUSES. 813

    A. shopkeeper adorns his door with those relating to trade:
    May prolits ho lik(> tlio morning sun lising on tho clouds.
    May wealth increase like the morning tidt; which brings the rain.
    Manage your occupation according to truth and loyalty.
    Hold ou to benevolence and rectitude in all your trading.

    The influence of these mottoes, and countless others like them which are constantly seen in the streets, shops, and dwellings throughout the land, is inestimable. Generally it is for good, and as a large proportion are in the form of petition or wish, they show the moral feeling of the people.

    Boat-people in Kwaiigtmig and Fuhkien provinces are peculiarly

    liberal of their paper prayers, pasting them on every board

    and oar in the boat, and suspending them from the stern in scores,

    making the vessel flutter with gaiety. Farmers stick theirs

    upon barns, trees, wattles, baskets, and implements, as if nothing

    was too insignificant to receive a blessing. The house is arranged

    in the most oi’derly and cleanly manner, and purified

    with religious ceremonies and lustrations, firing of ei-ackers, etc.,

    and as the necessary preparations occupy a considerable portion

    of the night, the streets are not quiet till dawn. In addition

    to the bustle arising from business and religious observances,

    which marks this passage of time, the constant explosion of firecrackers,

    and the clamor of gongs, make it still more noisy.

    Strings of these crackling fireworks are burned at the doorposts,

    before the outgoing and incoming of the year, designed to expel

    and deter evil spirits from the house. The consumption is

    so great as to cover the sti-eets with the fragments, and farmers

    come the week after into Canton city and sweep up hundreds of

    bushels for manure.

    The first day of the year is also regarded as the birthday of the entire population, for the practice among the Hebrews of dating the age from the beginning of the year, prevails also in China; so that a child born only a week before new year, is considered as entering its second year on the first day of the first month. This does not, however, entirely supersede the observance of the real anniversary, and parents frequently make asolenmity of their son’s birthday. A missionary thus describes the celebration of a son’s sixth birthday at Ningpo. ” The little fellow was dressed in his best clothes, and his father had brought gilt paper, printed praj^ers, and a large number of bowls of meats,

    rice, vegetables, spirits, nuts, etc., as an offering to be spread

    out before the idols. The ceremonies were performed in the

    apartment of the Tao 2£u, or ‘ Bushel Mother,’ who has special

    charge of infants before and after birth. The old abbot

    was dressed in a scarlet robe, with a gilt image of a serpent

    fastened in his hair ; one of the monks wore a purple, another

    a gray robe. A multitude of prayers, seemingly a round of

    repetitions, were read by the abbot, occasionally chanting a little,

    when the attendants joined in the chorus, and a deafening

    clamor of bells, cymbals, and wooden blocks, added force to

    their cry ; genuflexions and prostrations were repeatedlj’ made.

    One pai’t of the ceremony was to pass a live cock through a barrel,

    which the assistants performed many times, shouting some

    strange words at each repetition ; this act symbolized the dangers

    through which the child was to pass in his future life, and

    the priests had prayed that he might as safely come out of them

    all, as the cock had passed through the barrel. In conclusion,

    some of the prayers were burned and a libation poured out, and

    a grand symphony of bell, gong, drum, and block, closed the

    scene.”‘

    ‘ Presbyterian Missionary Chronide, 1846.

    CALLS AND COMPLLMKNTS AT NEW YEAR’S. 815

    A great diversity of local usages are observed at this period in different parts of the country. In iVmoy, the custom of ‘•’ surrounding the furnace” is generally practised. The members of the family sit down to a substantial supper on new year’s eve, with a pan of charcoal under the table, as a supposed preservative against fires. After the supper is ended, the wooden lamp-stands are brought out and spread upon the pavement with a heap of gold and silver paper, and set on fire after all demons have been warned off by a volley of fire-crackers. The embers are then divided into twelve heaps, and their manner of going out carefully watched as a prognostic of the kind of weather to be expected the ensuing year. Many persons wash their bodies in warm water, made aromatic by the infusion of leaves, as a security against disease; this ceremony, and ornamenting the ancestral shrine, and garnishing the whole house with inscriptions, pictures, flowers, and fruit, in the gayest manner the means of the family will allow, occupy most of the night.

    The stillness of the streets and the gay inscriptions on the

    closed shops on new year’s morning present a wonderful contrast

    to the usual bustle and crowd, resembling the Christian

    Sabbath. The red papers of the doors are here and there interspersed with the blue ones, announcing that during the past

    year death has come among the inmates of the house ; a silent

    but expressive intimation to passers that some who saw the last

    new year have passed away. In certain places, white, yellow,

    and carnation colored papers are employed, as well as blue, to

    distinguish the degree of the deceased kindred. Etiquette requires that those who mourn remain at home at this period.

    By noontide the streets begin to be filled with well-dressed persons, hastening in sedans or afoot to make their calls; those who cannot afford to buy a new suit hire one for this purpose, so that a man hardly knows his own domestics in their finery and robes. The meeting of friends in the streets, both bound on the same errand, is attended with particular demonstrations of respect, each politely struggling who shall be most affectedly humble. On this day parents receive the prostrations of their children, teachers expect the salutations of their pupils, magistrates

    look for the calls of their inferiors, and ancestors of every

    generation, and gods of various powers are presented with the

    offerings of devotees in the family hall or public temple. Much

    of the visiting is done by cards, on which is stamped an emblematic

    device representing the three happy wishes—of children,

    rank, and longevity ; a common card suffices for distant

    acquaintances and customers. It might be a subject of speculation

    whether the custom of visiting and renewing one’s acquaintances

    on new year’s day, so generally practised among

    the Dutch and in America, was not originally imitated from

    the Chinese ; but as in many other things, so in this, the

    westerns have improved upon the easterns, in calling upon

    the ladies. Persons, as they meet, salute each other with Kung-hi I Kung-ld ! ‘ I respectfully wish yon joy ! ‘—or Sviihi! 8in-hi ! ‘ May the new joy be yours,’ either of which, from its use at this season, is quite like the Ilayj^ij JVew Year ! of Englishmen.

    Toward evening, the merry sounds proceeding from the closed

    doors announce that the sacrifice provided for presentation before

    the shrines of departed parents is cheering the M’orshippers ;

    while the great numbers who resort to gambling-shops show full

    M’ell that the routine of ceremony soon becomes tiresome, and a

    more exciting stimulus is needed. The extent to which play is

    now carried is almost indescribable. Jugglers, mountebanks,

    and actors also endeavor to collect a few coppers by amusing

    the crowds. Generally speaking, however, the three days devoted

    to this festival pass by without turmoil, and business and

    work then gradually resume their usual course for another

    twelvemonth.

    The festival of the dragon-boats, on the fifth day of the fifth month, presents a very different scene wherever there is a serviceable stream for its celebration. At Canton, long, narrow boats, holding sixty or more rowers, race up and down the river in pairs with huge clamor, as if searching for some one wdio had been drowned. This festival was instituted in memory of the statesman Kiih Yuen, about 450 b.c, who drowned himself in the river Miii-lo, an affluent of Tungting Lake, after having been falsely accused by one of the petty princes of the state. The people, who loved the unfortunate courtier for his

    fidelity and virtues, sent out boats in search of the body, but to

    no purpose. They then made a peculiar sort of rice-cake called

    tsung, and setting out across the river in boats with flags and

    gongs, each strove to be fii’st on the spot of the tragedy and sacrifice

    to the spirit of Kiih Yuen. This mode of commemoi-ating

    the event has been since continued as an annual holiday.

    The bow of the boat is ornamented or cai’ved into the head of

    a dragon, and men beating gongs and drums, and waving flags,

    inspirit the rowers to renewed exertions. The exhilarating exercise

    of racing leads the people to prolong the festival two or

    three days, and geiuM’ally with commendable good humor, but

    their eagerness to beat t»ften breaks the boats, or leads them

    DKAGON-BOAT FESTIVAL XnD FEAST OF JvANTEKNS. 817

    into 80 iiiudi danger that the magistrates souietiiues forbid the

    races in order to save tlie people from drowning.’

    •The first full moon of the year is the feast of lanterns, a

    childish and dull festival compared with the two preceding. Its

    origin is not certainly known, but it was obse^. ^d as early as

    A.D. 700. Its celebration consists in suspending lantei-ns of different

    forms and materials before each door, and illuminating

    those in the hall, but their united brilliancy is dimness itself

    compared with the light of the moon. At Peking, an exhibition

    of transparencies and pictures in the Loard of War on this

    evening attracts great crowds of both sexes if the weather be

    good. Magaillans describes a firework he saw, which was an

    arbor covered with a vine, the woodwork of which seemed to

    burn, while the trunk, leaves, and clusters of the plant gradually

    consumed, yet so that the redness of the grapes, the greenness

    of the leaves, and natural brown of the stem were all

    maintained until the whole was burned. The feast of lanterns

    coming so soon after new year, and being somewhat expensive,

    is not so enthusiastically observed in the southern cities. At

    the capital this leisure time, when public offices are closed, is

    availed of by the jewellers, bric-a-brac dealers, and others to

    hold a fair in the courts of a temple in the Wai Ching, where

    they exhibit as beautiful a collection of carvings in stone and

    gems, bronzes, toys, etc., as is to be seen anywhere in Asia.

    ‘ Compare Morrison’s Dictionary under Tsunrj ; Doolittle, &>ntil Life, Vol II., pp. 55-60; JVot^s and Qaeries on China ami Japan, Vol. II., p. 157.Vol. J. —53

    The respect with which the crowds of women and children are treated on these occasions reflects much credit on the people. In the manufacture of lanterns the Chinese surely excel all other people ; the variety of their forms, their elegant carving, gilding, and coloring, and the laborious ingenuity and taste displayed in their construction, render them among the prettiest ornaments of their dwellings. They are made of paper, silk, cloth, glass, horn, basket-work, and bamboo, exhibiting an infinite variety of shapes and decorations, vary ingin size from a small hand-light, costing two or three cents, up to a magnificent chandelier, or a complicated lantern fifteen feet in diameter, containing several lamps within it, and worth three or four hundred dollars. The uses to which they are applied are not less various than the pains and skill bestowed upon their construction are remarkable. One curious kind is called the tsao-ma-tdng^ or ‘ horse-racing lantern,’ which consists of one, two, or more wire

    frames, one within the other, and arranged on the same principle

    as the smoke-jack, by w^iich the current of air caused by

    the flame sets them revolving. The wire framework is covered

    with paper figures of men and animals placed in the midst of

    appropriate scenery, and represented in various attitudes ; or,

    as Magaillans describes them, ” You shall see horses run, draw

    chariots and till the earth ; vessels sailing, kings and princes go

    in and out with large trains, and great numbers of people, both

    afoot and a horseback, armies marching, comedies, dances, and

    a thousand other divertissements and motions represented.”

    One of the prettiest shows of lanterns is seen in a festival observed

    in the spring or autumn by fisherman on the southern

    coasts to propitiate the gods of the waters. An indispensable

    part of the procession is a dragon fifty feet or more long, made

    of light bamboo frames of the size and shape of a barrel, connected

    and covered with strips of colored cotton or silk ; the extremities

    represent the gaping head and frisking talk This

    monster symbolizes the ruler of the watery deep, and is carried

    through the streets by men holding the head and each joint

    upon poles, to which are suspended lanterns ; as they follow each

    other their steps give the body a wriggling, waving motion.

    Huge models of fish, similarly lighted, precede the dragon, while

    music and fireworks—the never-failing warning to lurking

    demons to keep out of the way—accompany the procession,

    which presents a very brilliant sight as it winds in its course

    through the dark streets. These sports and processions give

    idolatry its hold upon a people ; and although none of them are

    required or patronized by government in China as in other

    heathen countries, most of the scenes and games which please

    the people are recommended by connecting with them the observances

    or hopes of religion and the merrymaking of the

    festive board.

    ARRANGElvrENT AND STYLE OF PROCESSIONS. 819

    In the middle of the sixth moon lanterns are hung from the top of a pole placed on the highest part of the house. A single small lantern is deemed sufficient, but if the night be calm, a greater display is made by some householders, and especially in boats, by exhibiting colored glass lamps arranged in various ways. The illumination of a city like Canton when seen from a high spot is made still more brilliant by the moving boats on the river. On one of these festivals at Canton, an almost total eclipse of the moon called out the entire .population, each one carrying something with which to make a noise, kettles, pans, sticks, drums, gongs, guns, crackers, and what not to frighten away the dragon of the sky from his liideous feast. The advancing shadow gradually caused the mj-riads of lanterns to show more and more distinctly and started a still increasing clamor,

    till the darkness and the noise were both at their climax ; silence

    gradually resumed its sway as the moon recovered her fulness.

    The Chinese are fond of processions, and if marriages and

    funerals be included, have them more frequently than any other

    people. Livery establishments are opened in every city and town

    where processions are arranged and supplied with everything

    necessary for bi’idal and funeral occasions as well as religious

    festivals. Not only are sedans, bands of music, biers, framed

    and gilded stands for carrjdng idols, shrines, and sacrificial

    feasts, red boxes for holding the bride’s trousseau, etc., supplied,

    but also banners, tables, stands, curiosities, and uniforms in

    great variety. The men and boys required to carry them and

    perform the various parts of the ceremony are hired, a uniform

    hiding their ragged garments and dirty limbs. Guilds often go

    to a heavy expense in getting up a procession in honor of their

    patron saint, whose image is carried through the streets attended

    by the members of the corporation dressed in holiday robes and

    boots. The variety and participators of these shows are exceedingly

    curious and characteristic of the people’s taste. Here are

    seen splendid silken banners worked with rich embroidery,

    alternating with young girls bedizened with paint and flowers,

    and perched on high seats under an artificial tree or apparently

    almost in the air, resting upon frames on men’s shoulders ; bands

    of music ; sacrificial meats and fruits adorned with flowers ; shrines, images, and curious rarities laid out upon red pavilions; boys gaily dressed in official robes and riding upon ponies, oi harnessed up in a covered framework to represent horses, all so contri\’ed and painted that the spectator can hardly believe they are not riding Lilliputian ponies no bigger than dogs. A child standing in a car and carrying a branch on its shoulder, on one twi”; of which stands another child on one foot or a girl

    holding a plate of cakes in her hand, on the top of which stands

    another miss on tiptoe, the whole borne by coolies, sometimes

    add to the diversion of the spectacle and illustrate the mechanical

    skill of the exhibitors. Small companies dressed in a great

    variety of military uniforms, carrying spears, shields, halberds,

    etc., iio\v and then volunteer for the occasion, and give it a more

    martial appearance. The carpenters at Canton are famous for

    their splendid processions in honor of their hero, Lu Pan, in

    which also other craftsmen join ; for this demi-god corresponds

    to the Tubal-cain of Chinese legends, and is now regarded as

    the patron of all workmen, thougli he flourished no longer ago

    than the time of Confucius. Besides these festivities and processions,

    there are several more strictly religious, such as the

    annual mass of the Buddhists, the supplicatory sacrifice of

    farmers for a good crop, and others of more or less importance,

    which add to the number of days of recreation.

    Theatrical representations constitute a common amusement,

    and are generally connected with the religious celebration of

    the festival of the god before whose temple they are exhibited.

    They are got up by the priests, who send their neophytes around

    with a subscription paper, and then engage as large and skilful

    a band of performers as the funds will allow. There are few

    permanent buildings erected for theatres, for the Thespian band

    still retains its original strolling character, and stands ready to

    pack up its trappings at the first call. The erection of sheds

    for playing constitutes a separate l)ranch of the carpenter’s

    trade ; one large enough to accommodate two thousand persons

    can be put up in the southern cities in a day, and almost the

    only part of the materials which is wasted is the rattan which

    binds the posts and mats together. One large shed contahis

    the stage, and three smaller ones before it enclose an area, and

    are furnished with rude seats for the paying spectators. The

    THEATRICAL RKPKESEXTATIOXS AND PLAV-ACTOIIS. 821

    subscribers’ bounty is acknowledged by pasting^rcd siieets containing

    their names and amounts upon the walls of tlie temple.

    The purlieus are let as stands for the sale of refreshments, for

    gambling fables, or for worse purposes, and by all these means

    the ]>riests generally contrive to make gain of their devotion.’

    Parties of actoi-s and acrobats can be hired cheaply, and their

    performances form part of the festivities of rich families in

    their houses to entertain the women and relativ^es who cannot

    go abroad to see them. They are constituted into separate corporations or’ guilds, and each takes a distinguishing name, as the ‘ Happy and Blessed company,’ the ‘ Glorious Appearing company,’ etc.

    The performances usually extend through three entire days,

    with brief recesses for sleeping and eating, and in villages

    where they are comparatively rare, the people act as if they

    were bewitched, neglecting everything to attend them. The

    female parts are performed by lads, who not only paint and

    dress like women, but even squeeze their toes into the “golden

    lilies,” and imitate, upon the stage, a mincing, wriggling gait.

    These fellows personate the voice, tones, and motions of the

    sex with wonderful exactness, taking every opportunity, indeed,

    that the play will allow to relieve their feet by sitting when on

    the boards, or retiring into the green-room when out of the acts.

    The acting is chiefly pantomine, and its fidelity shows the excellent

    ti-aining of the players. This development of their imitative

    faculties is probably still more encouraged by the difficulty

    the audience find to understand what is said ; for owing to

    the differences in the dialects, the open construction of the

    theatre, the high falsetto or recitative key in which many of the

    parts are spoken, and the din of the orchestra intervening between

    every few sentences, not one cpiarter of the people hear

    or understand a word.

    ‘ Gray’s China (Vol. II., p. 273) contains a cut of a mat theatre from a native drawing. See also Doolittle, Social Life, Vol. II., pp. 292-299,

    The scenery is very simple, consisting merely of rudely painted mats arranged on the back and sides of the stage, a few tables, chairs, or beds, which successively serve for many uses, and are bfonglit in and out from the robing-room. The orchestra sits on the side of the stage, and not only fill up the intervals with their interludes, but strike a crashing noise by way of emphasis, or to add energy to the rush of opi30sing warriors.

    ]S’o falling curtain divides the acts or scenes, and the play is carried to its conclusion without intermission. The dresses are made of gorgeous silks, and present the best specimens of ancient Chinese costume of former dynasties now to be seen. The imperfections of the scenery require much to be suggested by the spectator’s imagination, though the actors themselves supply the defect in a measure by each man stating what part he performs, and what the person he represents has been doing: while absent. If a courier is to be sent to a distant city, away he strides across the boards, or perhaps gets a whip and cocks up his leg as if mounting a horse, and on reaching the end of the stao;e cries out that he has arrived, and there delivers his message. Passing a bridge or crossing a river are indicated by stepping up and then down, or by the rolling motion of a boat. If a city is to be impersonated, two or three men lie down upon each other, when warriors rush on them furiously, overthrow the wall which they formed, and take the place by assault. Ghosts or supernatural beings are introduced through a wide trap-door in the stage, and, if he thinks it necessary, the impersonator cries out from underneath that he is ready, or for assistance to help him up through the hole.

    Mr. Lay describes a play he saw, in which a medley of celestial

    and terrestrial personages were introduced. “The first

    scene was intended to represent the happiness and splendor of

    beings who inhabit the upper regions, with the sun and moon

    and the elements curiously personified playing around them.

    The man who personated the sun held a round image of the

    sun’s disk, while the female who acted the part of the moon

    liad a crescent in her hand. The actors took care to move so’

    as to mimic the conjunction and opposition of these heavenly

    bodies as they revolve round in their apparent orbs. The

    Thunderer wielded an axe, and lea})ed and dashed about in a

    variety of extraordinary somersaults. After a few turns the

    monarch, who had been so highly honored as to find a place.

    DESCRIPTION OF A PLAY. 823

    throngh the partiality of a mountain nynipli, in the ahocles of

    the happy, begins to feel that no height of good fortune can

    secure a mortal against the common calamities of this frail life.

    A wicked courtier disguises himself in a tiger’s skin, and in this

    garb imitates the animal itself. He rushes into the retired

    apartments of the ladies, frightens them out of their wits, and

    throws the heir-apparent into a moat. The sisters hurry into

    the royal presence, and casting themselves on the ground divulge

    the sad intelligence that a tiger has borne off the young

    prince, who it appears was the son of the mountain nymph

    aforesaid. The loss the bereaved monarch takes so much to

    heart, that he renounces the world and deliberates about the

    nomination of a successor. By the influence of a crafty woman

    he selects a young man who has just sense enough to know that

    he is a fool. The settlement of the crown is scarcely finished

    when the unhappy king dies, and the Ijlockhead is presently invested

    with the crown, but instead of excelling in his new preferment

    the lout bemoans his lot in the most awkward strains

    of lamentation, and cries, ‘ O dear ! what shall I do ? ‘ with such

    piteous action, and yet withal so truly ludicrous, that the spectator

    is at a loss to know whether to laugh or to weep. The courtier who had taken off the heir and broken the father’s heart finds the new king an easy tool fur prosecuting his traitorous purposes, and the state is plunged into the depths of civil discord at home and dangerous wars abroad.

    ” In the sequel a scene occurred in which the reconciliation of this court and some foreign prince depends upon the surrender of a certain obnoxious person. The son-in-law of the victim is charged with the letter containing this proposal, and returns to his house and disguises himself for the sake of concealment. When he reaches the court of the foreign prince he discovers that he has dropped the letter in changing his clothes, and narrowly escapes being taken for a spy without his credentials.

    He hurries back, calls for his garments, and shakes them one by one in an agony of self-reproach, but no letter appears. He sits down, throwing himself with great violence upon the chair, Avith a countenance inexpressibly full of torture and despair:

    reality could have added nothing to the imitation. But while every eye was riveted upon him, he called the servant maid and inquired if she knew anything about the letter ; she replied she overheard her mistress reading a letter whose contents

    were so and so. The mistress had taken her seat at a

    distance from him and was nursing her baby ; and the instant

    he ascertained the letter was in her possession, he looked toward

    her with such a smile upon his cheek, and with a flood of

    light in his eye, that the whole assembly heaved a loud sigh

    of admiration ; for the Chinese do not applaud by clapping and

    stamping, but express their feelings by an ejaculation that is

    between a sigh and a groan. The aim of the husband was to

    wheedle his wife out of the letter, and this smile and look of

    aifection were merely the prelude ; for he takes his chair, places

    it beside her, lays one hand softly on her shoulder, and fondles

    the child with the other in a style so exquisitely natural and so

    completely English, that in this dramatic picture it was seen

    that nature fashioneth men’s hearts alike. His addresses were,

    however, ineffectual, and her father’s life was not sacrificed.” ‘

    The morals of tlie Chinese stage, so far as the sentiments of

    the pieces are concerned, are better than the acting, which

    sometimes panders to depraved tastes, but no indecent exposure,

    as of the persons of dancers, is ever seen in China. The audience

    stand in the area fronting the stage, or sit in the sheds

    around it ; the women present are usually seated in the galleries.

    The police are at hand to maintain order, but the crowd, although in an irksome position, and sometimes exposed to a fierce sun, is remarkably peaceable. Accidents seldom occur on these occasions, but whenever the people are alarmed by a crash, or the stage takes fire, loss of life or limb generally ensues. A dreadful destruction took place at Canton in May, 1845, by the conflagration of a stage during the performances, by which more than two thousand lives were sacrificed ; the survivors had occasion to remember that fifty persons had been killed many years before in the same place, and while a play was going on, by the falling of a wall.^

    ‘ Chinese as They Are, p. 114. ^ Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 335,

    POPULAR AMUSEMENTS. 825

    j^ctive, manly plays are not popular in the south, and instead

    of engaging in a ball-game or i-egatta, going to a bowling alley

    or fives’ court, to exhibit their strength and skill, jouug men

    lift beams iieaded with heavy stones, like huge dumb-bells,

    to prove their muscle, or kick up their lieels in a game of

    shuttlecock. The out-door amusements of gentlemen consist in

    flying kites, carrying birds on perches and throwing seeds high

    in the air for them to catch, sauntering through the fields, or

    lazily boating on the water. Pitching coppers, fighting crickets

    ()!• quails, tossing up several balls at once, kicking large leaden

    balls against each other, snapping sticks, chncking stones, or

    guessing the number of seeds in an orange, are plays for

    lads.

    Gambling is universal. Hucksters at the roadside are provided

    with a cup and saucer, and the clicking of their dice is

    heard at every corner. A boy with but two cash prefers to risk

    their loss on the throw of a die to simply buying a cake without

    trying the chance of getting it for nothing. Gaminghouses

    are opened by scores, their keepers paying a bribe to the

    local officers, who can hardly be expected to be very severe

    against what they were brought up in and daily practise ; and

    women, in the privacy of their apartments, while away their

    time at cards and dominoes. Porters play by the wayside

    when waiting for employment, and hardly have the retinue of

    an officer seen their superiors enter the house, than they pull

    out their cards or dice and squat down to a game. The most

    common game of luck played at Canton is called fan tan^ or

    ‘ quadrating cash.’ The keeper of the table is provided with

    a pile of bright large cash, of which he takes a double handful,

    and lays them on the table, covering the pile with a bowl. The

    persons standing outside the rail guess the remainder there will

    be left after the pile has been divided by four, whether one, two,

    three, or nothing, the guess and stake of each person being first

    recorded by a clerk ; the keeper then carefully picks out the coins

    four by four, all narrowly watching his movements. Cheating

    is almost impossible in this game, and twenty people can play

    at it as easily as two. Chinese ciirds are smaller and more

    numerous than our own ; but the dominoes are the same.

    Combats between crickets are oftenest seen in the south, where the small field sort is common. Two well-chosen combatants are put into a basin and irritated with a straw until they rush upon each other with the utmost fury, chirruping as they make the onset, and the battle seldom ends without a tragical result in loss of life or limb. Quails are also trained to mortal combat ; two are placed on a railed table, on which a handful of millet has been strewn, and as soon as one picks up a kernel the other flies at him with beak, claws, and wings, and the struggle is kept up till one retreats by hopping into the Boys Gambling with Crickets.

    hand of his disappointed owner. Hundreds of dollars are occasionally betted upon these cricket or quail fights, which, if not as sublime or exciting, are certainly less inhuman than the pugilistic fights and bull-baits of Christian countries, while both show the same brutal love of sport at the expense of life.

    METHODS AXD POPULARITY OB’ GAMBLING. 827

    A favorite amusement is the flying of kites. They are made of paper and silk, in imitation of birds, butterflies, lizards, spectacles, fish, men, and other objects ; but the skill shown in flying them is more remarkable than the ingenuity displayed in their construction. The ninth day of the ninth moon is a festival devoted to this amusement all over the land. Doolittle describes them as sometimes resembling a great bird, or a serpent thirty feet long ; at other times the spectator sees a group of hawks hovering around a centre, all being suspended by one strong cord, and each hawk-kite controlled and moved by a separate line. On this day he estimates that as many as thirty thousand people assemble on the hills around Fuhchau to join in this amusement if the weather be propitious. Many of the kites are cut adrift under the belief that, as they float off, they carry away with them all impending disasters.

    Chinese Chess-board.

    The Chinese game of chess is very ancient, for Wu Wang (b.c. 1120) is the reputed inventor, and its rules of playing are so unlike the Indian game as to suggest an independent origin, which is confirmed by the peculiar feature of the kiai ho, or river, running across the board. There are seventy-two squares of which eight are run together to form the river, leaving thirty-two on each side ; but as the men stand on the intersection of the lines, there are ninety positions for the sixteen pieces used by each player, or twenty-six more than in the European game. The pieces are arranged for playing as in the diagram above.

    The pieces are like chequer-men in shape, each of the seven kinds on each side having its name cut on the top, and distinguished by its red or black colors. The four squares near each edge form the headquarters of the tsimig, or ‘ general,’ out of which he and his two «.*’, or ‘ secretaries,’ cannot move. On each side of the headquarters are two elephants, two horses, and two chariots, whose powers are less than our bishop, knight, and castle, though similar ; the chariot is the most powerful piece. In front of the horses stand two cannoniers, which capture like our knight but move like our castle. Five pao, soldiers or pawns, guard the river banks, but cannot return when

    once across it in pursuit of the enemy, and get no higher value

    when they reach the last row. Each piece is put down in the

    point where it captured its man, except the cannoniers ; as the

    general cannot be taken, the object of each player is to checkniate

    him in his headquarters, therefore, by preventing his

    moving except into check. The want of a queen and the limited

    moves of the men restrict the combinations in the Chinese

    game more than in western chess, but it has its own elements

    of skill. Literary men and women play it much, and usually

    for small stakes. There is another game played less frequently but one of the most ancient in the Empire. It is called loei-ki, which may be rendered ‘blockade chess,’ and was common in the days of the sages, perhaps even earlier than chess. The board contains three hundred and twenty four squares, eighteen each way, and the number of pieces is three hundred, though both the number of points and of pieces may be less than this size of the full game. The pieces are black and white and stand on the crossings of the lines, three hundred and sixty-one in number. The object of the opponents is to surround each other’s men and take up the crossings they occupy, or neutralize their power over those near them. Each player puts down a piece anywhere on the board, and continues to do so alternately, capturing his adversary’s positions until all the crossings are occupied and the game is ended.’

    CHINESE CHESS. 829

    If this sketch of the customs and annisemcnts of the Chinese

    in their social intercourse and public entertainments is necessarily

    brief, it is perhaps enough to exhibit their character.

    Dr. Johnson has well remarked that no man is a hypocrite in

    his amusements. The absence of some of the violent and gladiatorial

    sports of other countries, and of the adjudication of

    doubtful questions by ordeals or duels ; the general dislike of a

    resort to force, their inability to cope with enemies of vastly

    less resources and numbers, and the comparative disesteem of

    warlike achievements, all indicate the peaceful traits of Chinese character. Duels are unknown, assassinations are infrequent, betting on horse-races is still to begin, and running amuck a la Malay is unheard of. When two persons fall out upon a matter, after a vast variety of gesture and huge vociferation of opprobrium, they will blow oft their wrath and separate almost without touching each other. Some contrarieties in their ideas and customs from those practised among ourselves have frequently been noticed by travellers, a few of which are grouped in the following sketch :

    On asking the boatman in which direction the harbor hxy, I was answered west-north, and the wind, he said, was west-south ; lie still further perplexed my ideas as to our course by getting out his compass and showing me that the needle pointed south. It was really a needle as to size, weight, and length, about an inch and a half long, the south end of it painted red, and all the time quivering on the pivot. His boat differed from our vessels, too, in many ways: the cooking was done in the stern and the passengers were all accommodated in the bow, while the sailors slept on deck and had their kits stowed in lockers amidships.

    ‘ Temple Bur, Vol. XLIX., p. 45.

    On lauding, the first object that attracted my attention was a military officer wearing an embroidered petticoat, who had a string of beads around his neck and a fan in his hand. His insignia of rank was a peacock’s feather pointing downward instead of a plume turning upward ; he had a round knob or button on the apex of his sugar-loaf cap, instead of a star on his breast or epaulettes on his shoulders; and it was with some dismay that I saw him mount his horse on the right side. Several scabbards hung from his belt, which I naturally supposed must be dress swords or dirks; but on venturing near through the crowd 1 was undeceived by seeing a pair of chopsticks and a knife-handle sticking out of one, and soon his fan was folded up and put in the other. I therefore concluded that he was going to a dinner instead of a review. The natives around me shaved the hair from the front half of their heads and let it grow long behind: many of them did not shave their faces, and others employed their leisure in diligently pulling the straggling hairs down over their mouths. We arrange our toilets differently, thought I ; but could easily see the happy device of chopsticks, which enabled these gentlemen to put their food into the mouth endwise under this natural fringe. A group of hungry fellows, around the stall of a travelling cook, further exhibited the utility of these ktrai-fsz\ or ‘ nimble lads ‘ (as I afterward learned chopsticks were called), for each had put his bowl of rice to his lips, and was shovelling in the contents till the mouth would hold no more. “We keep our bowls on the table, ” said I, “do our cooking in the house, and wait for customers to come there instead of travelling around after them;” but these chopsticks serve for knife, fork, and spoon in one.

    On my way to the hotel I saw a group of old people and graybeards. A few were chirruping and chuckling to larks or thrushes, which they carried perched on a stick or in cages; others were catching flies or hunting for crickets to feed them, while the remainder of the party seemed to be delightfully employed in flying fantastic paper kites. A group of boys were gravely looking on and regarding these innocent occupations of their seniors with the most serious and gratified attention. A few of the most sprightly were kicking a shuttlecock back and forth with great energy, instead of playing rounders with bat and ball as boys would do.

    As I had come to the country to reside for some time, I made inquiries respecting a teacher, and happily found one who understood English. On entering he stood at the door, and instead of coming forward and shaking my hands, he politely bowed and shook his own, clasping them before his breast.

    I looked upon this mode as an improvement on our custom, especially when the condition of the hands might be doubtful, and requested him to be seated.

    I knew that I was to study a language without an alphabet, but was not prepared to see him begin at what I had always considered to be the end of the book. He read the date of its publication, ” the fifth year, tenth month, and first day.” ” We arrange our dates differently,” I observed, and begged him to read—which he did, from top to bottom, and proceeding from right to left.

    CONTRARIETIES IN CHINESE AND WESTERN USAGE. 831

    “You have an odd book here,” remarked I, taking it up; “what is the price?” “A dollar and eight-thirds,” said he, upon which I counted out three dollars and two-thirds and went on looking at it. The paper was printed only on one side; the running title was on the edge of the leaves instead of the top of the page, the paging was near the bottom, the number and contents of the chapters were at their ends, the marginal notes on the top, where the blank was double the size at the foot, and a broad black line across the middle of each page, like that seen in some French newspapers, separated the two works composing the volume, instead of one being printed after the other. The back was open and the sewing outside, and the name neatly written on the bottom edge. ” You have given me loo much,” said he, as h« handed me back two dollars and one-third, and then explained that eight thirds meant eight divided by three, or only three-eighths. A small native vocabulary which lu? carried with him had the characters arranged according to the termination of their sounds, iidny, dint/, kiiifj, being all in a row, and the first word in it being necii. “Ah! my friend,” said I, “English won’t help me to find a word in that book ; please give me your address.” He accordingly took out a red card, big as a sheet of paper, on which was written Ying San-yuen in large characters, and pointed out the place of his residence, written on the other side. “I thought your name was Mr. Ying; why do you write your name wrong end first ‘? ” ” It is you who are in the wrong,” replied he ; “look in your yearly directory, where alone you write names as they should be written, putting the honored family name first.”

    I could only say, ” Customs differ; ” and begged him to speak of ceremony, as I gave him back the book. He commenced, ” When you receive a distinguished guest, do not fail to place him on your left, for that is the seat of honor ; and be careful not to uncover the head, as that would be an unbecoming act of familiarity.” This was a little opposed to my established notions ; but when lie reopened the volume and read, ” The most learned men are decidedly of the opinion that the seat of the human understanding is in the belly,” I cried out, ” Better say it is in the feet ! ” and straightway shut up the book, dismissing him for another day ; for this shocked all my principles of correct philosophy, even if King Solomon was against me.

    On going abroad I met so many things contrary to my early notions of propriety that I readily assented to a friend’s observation, that the Chinese were our antipodes in many things besides geographical position. ” Indeed,” said T, ‘ ‘ they are so ; I shall expect shortly to see a man walking on his head. Look ! there’s a woman in trousers and a party of gentlemen in petticoats ; she is smoking and they are fanning themselves.” However, on passing them I saw that the latter had on tight leggings. We soon met the steward of the house dressed in white, and I asked him what merry-making he was invited to ; with a look of concern lie told me he was returning from his father’s funeral.

    Instead of having crape on his head he wore white shoes, and his dress was slovenly and neglected. My companion informed me that in the north of China it was common for rich people at funerals to put a white harness on the mules and .shroud the carts in coarse cotton ; while the chief mourners walked next to the bier, making loud cryings and showing their grief by leaning on the attendants. The friends rode behind and the musicians preceded the coffin—all being unlike our sable plumes and black crapes.

    We next went through a retired street, where we heard sobbing and crying inside a court, and I inquired who was dead or ill. The man, suppressing a smile, said, ” It is a girl about to be married, who is lamenting with her relatives and fellows as she bids adieu to the family penates and lares and her paternal home. She has enough to cry about, though, in the prospect of going to her mother-in-law’s house”

    I thought, after these unlucky essays, I would ask no more questions, but use my eyes instead. Looking into a shop, I saw a stout fellow sewing lace on a bonnet for a foreign lady; and going on to the landing-place, behold, all the ferry-boats were rowed by women, and from a passage-boat at the wharf I saw all the women get out ol! the bow to go ashore. “What are we coming to next ? ” said I ; and just then saw a carpenter take his foot-rule oiit of his stocking to measure some timber which an apprentice was cutting with a saw whose blade was set nearly at right angles with the frame. Before the door sat a man busily engaged in whitening the thick soles of a pair of cloth shoes.

    ” That’s a shoewhite, I suppose,” said I ; ” and he answers to the shoeblacks in New York, who cry ‘Shine ! shine !’ ” “Just so,” said my friend ; ” and beyond him see the poor wretch in chokey, with a board or cangue around his neck for a shirt-collar ; an article of his toilet which answers to the cuffs with which the lads in the Tombs there are garnished instead of bracelets. In the prisons in this land, instead of cropping the hair of a criminal, as with us, no man is allowed to have his head shaved.”

    In the alleys called streets, few of them ten feet wide, the signs stood on their ends or hung from the eaves ; the counters of the shops were next the street, the fronts were all open, and I saw the holes for the upright bars which secured the shop at night. Everything was done or sold in the streets or markets, which presented a strange medley. The hogs were transported in hampers on the shoulders of coolies, to the evident satisfaction of the inmates, and small pigs were put into baskets carried in slings, while the fish were frisking and jumping in shallow tubs as they were hawked from door to door.

    A loud din led us to look in at an open door to see what was going on, and there a dozen boys were learning their tasks, all crying like auctioneers ; one lad reciting his lesson out of Confucius turned his back to the master instead of looking him in the face, and another who was learning to write put the copyslip under the paper to imitate it, instead of looking at it as our boys would do.

    We next passed a fashionable lady stepping out of her sedan chair. Her head was adorned with flowers instead of a bonnet, her hands gloveless, and her neck quite bare. Her feet were encased in red silk pictured shoes not quite four inches long ; her plaited, embroidered petticoat was a foot longer than her gown, and her waist was not to be seen. As she entered the courtyard, leaning on the shoulder of her maid to help her walk on those cramped feet, my friend observed, “There you see a good example of a live walking stick.”

    A little after we met one of his acquaintances accompanying a prettily carved coffin, and he asked who was dead.

    ” No man hab catchee die,” replied the Celestial ; “this one piecy coffin I just now gib my olo fader. He likee too much counta my numba one ploper; s’pose he someteem catchee die, can usee he.”

    ” So fashion, eh?” rejoined n\v friend ; “how muchee plice can catchee one alia same same for that ?”

    ” I tinky can get one alia same so fashion one tousaia dollar, so ; this hab first chop hansom, lo.”

    ” Do you call that gibberish English or Chinese ? ” I asked ; for the language sounded no less strange than the custom of presenting a coffin to a living father differed from my preconceived notions of filial duty.

    “That’s the purest pigeon-English,” replied he; “and you must be the Jack Downing of Canton to immortalize it.”

    COMMENDABLE TIIAITS OF CHINESE CHAIIACTER. 833

    “Comi’, rather let lis go home, for soon I shall hardly be able to tell where or who I am in this strange land.” ‘

    In suinining up the moral traits of Chinese character—a far more difficult task than the enumeration of its oddities—we must necessarily compare them with that perfect standard given us from above. While their contrarieties indicate a different external civilization, a slight acquaintance with their morals proves tneir similarity to their fellow-men in the lineaments of a fallen and depraved nature. Some of the better traits of their character have been marvellously developed. They have attained, by the observance of peace and good order, to a high degree of security for life and property ; the various classes of society are linked together in a remarkably homogeneous manner by the diffusion of education in the most moral bookb in their language and a general regard for the legal rights of property. Equality of competition for office removes the main incentive to violence in order to obtain posts of power and dignity, and industry receives its just reward of food, raiment, and shelter with a uniformity which encourages its constant exertion. If any one asks how they have reached this point, we would primarily ascribe it to the blessing of the Governor of the nations, who has for

    His own purposes continued one people down to the present time from remote antiquity. The roots of society among them have never been broken up by emigration or the overflowing conquest of a superior race, but have been fully settled in a great regard for the family compact and deep reverence for parents and superiors. Education has strengthened and disseminated the morality they had, and God has blessed their filial piety by fulfilling the first commandment with promise and making their days long in the land which He has given them. Davis lays rather too much stress upon geographical and climatic causes in accounting for their advancement in these particulars, though their isolation has no doubt had much to do with their security and progress.

    Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 106 ; New York Christian Weekly, 1878. Vol. I. -53

    When, however, these traits have been mentioned, the Chinese are still more left without excuse for their wickedness, since being without law, they are a law unto themselves; they have always known better than they have done. With a general regard for outward decency, they are vile and polluted in a shocking degree; their conversation is full of filthy expressions and their lives of impure acts. They are somewhat restrained in the latter by the fences put around the family circle, so that seduction and adultery are comparatively infrequent, the former may even be said to be rare; but brothels and their inmates occur everywhere on land and on water. One danger attending young girls going abroad alone is that they will be stolen for incarceration in these gates of hell. By pictures, songs, and aphrodisiacs they excite their sensuality, and, as the Apostle says, “receive in themselves that recompense of their error which is meet.”

    MENDACITY OF THE CHINESE. 835

    More uneradicable than the sins of the flesh is the falsity of the Chinese, and its attendant sin of base ingratitude; their disregard of truth has perhaps done more to lower their character than any other fault. They feel no shame at being detected in a He (though they have not gone quite so far as not to know when they do lie), nor do they fear any punishment from their gods for it. On the other hand, the necessity of the case compels them, in their daily intercourse with each other, to pay some regard to truth, and each man, from his own consciousness, knows just about how much to expect. Ambassadors and merchants have not been in the best position to ascertain their real character in this respect; for on the one side the courtiers of Peking thought themselves called upon by the mere presence of an embassy to put on some fictitious appearances, and on the other, the integrity and fair dealing of the Hang merchants and great traders at Canton is in advance of the usual mercantile honesty of their countrymen. A Chinese requires but little motive to falsify, and he is constantly sharpening his wits to cozen his customer—wheedle him by promises and cheat him in goods or work. There is nothing which tries one so much when living among them as their disregard of truth, and renders him m indifferent as to what calamities may befall so mendacious a race ; an abiding impression of suspicion toward everybody rests upon the mind, which chills the warmest wishes for their welfare and thwarts many a plan to benefit them. Their better traits diminish in the distance, and patience is exhausted in its daily proximity and friction with this ancestor of all sins. Mr. Abeel mentions a case of deceit which may serve as a specimen.

    Soon after we arrived at Kulang sii, a man came to us who professed to be the near relation and guardian of the owners of the house in which we live, and presented a little boy as the joint proprietor with his widowed mother.

    From the appearance of the house and the testimony of others we could easily credit his story that the family were now in reduced circumstances, having not only lost the house when the English attacked the place, but a thousand dollars besides by native robbers; we therefore allowed him a small rent, and gave the dollars to the man, who put them into the hands of the child. The next month he made his appearance, but our servant, whom we had taken to be peculiarly honest for a heathen, suggested the propriety of inquiring whether the money was ever given to those for whom it was professedly received ; and soon returned with the information that the mother had heard nothing of the money, the man who received it not living in the family, but had now sent a lad to us who would receive it for her, and who our servants assured us would give it to the proper person. A day or two afterward our cook whispered to me that our honest servant, who had taken so much pains to prevent all fraud in the matter, had made the lad give him one-half of the money for his disinterestedness in preventing it from falling into improper hands; and further examination showed us that this very cook had himself received a good share to keep silent.

    Thieving is exceedingly common, and the illegal exactions of the rulers, as has already been sufficiently pointed out, are most burdensome. This vice, too, is somewhat restrained by the punishments inflicted on criminals, though the root of the evil is not touched. While the licentiousness of the Chinese may be in part ascribed to their ignorance of pure intellectual pleasures and the want of virtuous female society, so may their lying be attributed partly to their truckling fear of officers, and their thievery to the want of sufficient food or work. Hospitality is not a trait of their character; on the contrary, the number and wretched condition of the beggars show that public and private charity is ahuOi^t extinct ; yet here too the sweeping charge must be mouifled when we remember the efforts they make to sustain their relatives and families in so densely peopled a country.

    Their avarice is not so distinguishing a feature as their love of money, but the industry which this desire induces or presupposes is th source of most of their superiority to their neighbors.

    The politeness which they exhibit seldom has its motive in goodwill, and consequently, when the varnish is off, the rudeness, brutality, and coarseness of the material is seen; still, among themselves this exterior polish is not without some good results in preventing quarrels, where both parties, fully understanding each other, are careful not to overpass the bounds of etiquette.

    On the whole, the Chinese present a singular mixture: if there is something to commend, there is more to blame; if they have some glaring vices, they have more virtues than most pagan nations. Ostentatious kindness and inbred suspicion, ceremonious civility and real rudeness, partial invention and servile imitation, industry and waste, sycojjhancy and self-dependence, are, with other dark and bright qualities, strangely blended. In trying to remedy the faults of their character by the restraints of law and the diffusion of education, they have no doubt hit upon the right mode; and their shortcomings show how ineffectual both must be until the Gospel comes to the aid of ruler and subject in elevating the moral sense of the whole nation. Female infanticide in some parts openly confessed, and divested of all disgrace and penalties everywhere ; the dreadful prevalence of all the vices charged by the Apostle Paul upon the ancient heathen world ; the alarming extent of the use of opium(furnished, too, under the patronage, and supplied in purity by the power and skill of Great Britain from India), destroying the productions and natural resources of the people ; the universal practice of lying and dishonest dealings; the unblushing lewdness of old and young ; harsh cruelty toward prisoners by officers, and tyranny over slaves by masters—all form a full unchecked torrent of human depravity, and prove the existence of a kind and degree of moral degradation of which an excessive statement can scarcely be made, or an adequate conception hardly be formed.

  • WELLS WILLIAMS《The Middle Kingdom》6-9

    CHAPTER VI.  NATURAL HISTORY OF CHINA

    The succinct account of the natural history of China given by Sir John Davis in lS^i^, contained nearly all the popular notices of much value then known, and need not be repeated, while summarizing the items derived from other and later sources. Malte-Brun observed long ago, ” That of even the more general, and, according to the usual estimate, the more important features of that vast sovereignty, we owe whatever knowledge we have obtained to some ambassadors who have seen the courts and the great roads—to certain merchants who have inhabited a suburb of a frontier town—and to several missionaries who, generally more credulous than discriminating, have contrived to penetrate in various directions into the interior.”

    The volumes upon China in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library contain the best digest of what was known forty years since on this subject. The botanical collections of Robert Fortune in 18-14-1849, and those of Col. Champion at Hongkong, have been studied by Bentham, while the later researches of Hance, Bunge and Maximowitch have brought many new forms tc notice. In geology, Pumpelly, Ivingsinill, Bickmore, and Bai-on Richthofen have greatly enlarged and certiiied our knowledge by their travels and memoirs ; while Pere David, Col. Prejevalsky, Swinhoe, Stimpson, and Sir John Richardson have added hundreds of new species to the scientific fauna of the Empire.

    GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. 297

    Personal investigation is particularly necessary in all that relates to the geology and fossils of a country, and the knowledge possessed on these heads is, it must be conceded, still meagre, though now sufficient to convey a general idea of the formations, deposits, and contents of the mountains and mines, as well as the agencies at work in modifying the surface of this land. The descriptions and observed facts recorded in native books may furnish valuable hints when they can be compared with the places and productions, for at present the difficulty of explaining terms used, and understanding the processes described, render these treatises hard to translate. The empirical character of Chinese science compels a careful sifting of all its facts and speculations by comparisons with nature, while the amount of real information contained in medical, topographical, and itinerant works render them always worth examining. Large regions still await careful examination in every part of the Empire ; and it will be m’ell for the Chinese Government if no tempting metallic deposits are found to test its strength to protect and work them for its own benefit. But in mere science it cannot be doubted that so peculiar a part of the world as the plateau of Central Asia will, when thoroughly examined, solve many problems relating to geology, and disclose many important facts to illustrate the obscure phenomena of other parts of the world.

    A few notices of geolooical formations furnished in the waitings of travelers, have already been given in the geographical account of the provinces. The summaiy published by Davis is a well digested survey of the observations collected by the gentlemen attached to the embassies.’

    The loess-beds, covering a great portion of Northern China, are among the most peculiar natural phenomena and interesting fields for o;eoloo;ical investigation on the world’s surface. Since attention was first directed to this deposit by Pumpelly, in 18G4, its formation and extent have been more carefully examined by other geologists, whose hypotheses are now pretty generally discarded for that of Baron von Eichthofen. The loess territory begins, at its eastern limit, with the foot hills of the great alluvial plane. From this rises a terrace of from 90 to 250 feet in height, consisting entirely of hjess, and westward of it, in 1 The Chinese, Vol. II., pp. 333-343.

    a nearly north and south line, stretches the TaihangShan or dividing range between the alluvial land and the hill (tountrj of Shansi. An almost uninterrupted loess-covered country extends west of this line to the Koko-nor and head-waters of the Yellow River. On the north the formation can he ti’aced from the vicinity of Ivalgan, along the water-shed of the Mongolian steppes, and into the desert beyond the Ala shan. Toward the south its limits are less sharply defined ; though covering all the country of the Wei basin (in Shensi), none is found in Sz’chuen, due south of this valley, but it appears in parts of Ilonan and Eastern Shantung. Excepting occasional spurs and isolated spots—as at Xanking and the Lakes Poyang and Tungting—

    loess may be considered as ending everywhere on the north side of the Yangzi valley, and, roughly speaking, to cover the parallelogram between longs. 99° and 115°, and lats.

    33° and 41°. The district within China Proper represents a territory half as large again as that of the German Empire, while outside of the Provinces there is reason to believe that loess spreads far toward the east and north. In the WuTaiShan (Shanxi), Richthofen observed this deposit to a height of 7200 feet above the sea, and supposes that it may occur at higher levels.

    LOESS-BEDS OF ISTORTIIERX CHINA. 299

    The term loess, now generally accepted, has been used to designate a tertiary deposit appearing in the Illiine valley and several isolated sections of Eurt)pe ; its formation has heretofore been ascribed to glaciers, but its enormous extent and thickness in China demand suine other origin. The substance is a brownish colored earth, extremely porous, and when dry easily powdered between the fingers, when it becomes an impalpable (lust that may be rubbed into the pores of the skin. Its particles are somewhat angular in shape, the lumps varying from the size of a peamit to a foot in length, whose appearance warrants the peculiarly appropriate Chinese name meaning ‘ ginger stones.’(‘ Journal of the Oeolog. Soc, Loudon, for 1871, p. 379.) After washing, the stuff is readily disintegrated, and spread far and wide by rivers during their freshets ; Ivingsmill’ states that a nimiber of specimens which crumbled in the moist air of a Shanghai summer, rearranged themselves afterward in the bottom of a drawer in which they had been phiced. Every atom of loess is perforated by small tubes, usually very minute, circulating after the manner of root-fibres, and lined with a thin coating of carbonate of lime. The direction of these little canals being always from above downward, cleavage in the loess mass, in-espective of its size, is invariably vertical, while from the same cause surface water never collects in the form of rain puddles or lakes, but sinks at once to the local water level.

    One of the most striking, as well as important phenomena of this formation is the perpendicular splitting of its mass into sudden and multitudinous clefts that cut up the country in every direction, and render observation, as well as travel, often exceedingly difficult. The clifPs, caused by erosion, vary from cracks measured by inches to canons half a mile wide and hundreds of feet deep ; they branch out in every direction, ramifying through the country after the manner of tree-roots in the

    soil—from each root a rootlet, and from these other small

    fibres—until the system of passages develops into a labyrinth of

    far-reaching and intermingling lanes. Were the loess throughout

    of the uniform structure seen in single clefts, such a region

    would itideed be absolutely imj^assable, the vertical banks

    becoming precipices of often more tlian a thousand feet. The

    fact, however, that loess exhibits all over a terrace formation,

    renders its surface not only habitable, but highly convenient

    for agricultural purposes; it has given rise, moreover, to the

    theory advanced by Kingsmill and some otliers, of its stratification,

    and from this a proof of its origin as a marine deposit.

    Richthofen argues that these apparent layers of loess are due

    to external conditions, as of rocks and debris sliding from surrounding hillsides upon the loess as it sifted into the basin or

    valley, thus interrupting the homogeneity of the gradually rising

    deposit. In the sides of gorges near the mountains are seen

    layers of coarse debris which, in going toward the valley, become

    finer, while the layei’s themselves are thinner and separated

    by an increasing vertical distance ; along these rubble

    beds are numerous calcareous concretions which stand upright.

    These are then the terrace-forming layers which, by their

    resistance to tlie action of water, cause the broken chasms and

    step-like contour of the loess regions. Each bank does indeed

    cleave vertically, sometimes—since the erosion works from below—

    leaving an overhanging bank ; but meeting with this

    horizontal layer of marl stones, the abrasion is interrupted, and

    a ledge is made. Falling clods upon such spaces are gradually

    spread over their surfaces by natural action, converting them

    into rich fields. AVhen seen from a height in good seasons,

    tliese systems of terraces present an endless succession of green

    fields and growing crops ; viewed from the deep cut of a road

    below, the traveller sees nothing but yellow walls of loam and

    dusty tiers of loess ridges. As may be readily imagined, a

    country of this nature exhibits many landscapes of unrivalled

    picturesqueness, especially when lofty crags, which some variation

    in the water- course has left as giant guardsmen in fertile

    river valleys, stand out in bold relief against the green background

    of neighboring hills and a fruitful alluvial bottom, or

    when an opening of some ascending pass allows the eye to range

    over leagues of sharp-cut ridges and teaming crops, the work of

    the careful cultivator.

    UTILITY AND FRUITFULNESS OF THE LOESS. 301

    The extreme ease with which loess is cut away tends at times to seriously embarrass traffic. Dnst made by the cart-wheels on a highway is taken up by strong winds during the dry season and blown over the surrounding lands, much after the maimer in which it was originally deposited here. This action continued over centuries, and assisted by occasional deluges of rain, Which find a ready channel in the road-l)od, has hollowed the country routes into depressions of often 50 or 100 feet, where the passenger may ride for miles without obtaining a glimpse of the surrounding scenery. Lieutenant Kreitner, of the Szechenyi exploring expedition, illustrates,’(‘ Imfirnen Oxtin, j>. 4()2.) in a personal experience in Shansf, the difficulty and danger of leaving these deep cuts; after scrambling for miles along the broken loess above the road, he only regained it when a further passage was cut off by a precipice on the one side, while a jump of some 30 feet into the beaten track below awaited him on the other. Difficult as may be such a territory for roads and the purposes of trade, the advantages to a fanner are manifold. Wherever this deposit extends, there the liusbandman has an assured harvest, two and even three times in a year. It is easily worked, exceedingly

    fertile, and submits to constant tillage, with no other manure

    than a sprinkling of its own loam dug from the nearest bank.

    Facade of Dwelling in Loess Cliffs, Ling-shf hien. (Fronn Richthofen.)

    But loess performs still another service to its inhabitants. Caves

    made at the base of its straight clefts afford homes to millions

    of people in the northern provinces. Choosing an escai”pment

    where the consistency of the earth is greatest, the natives cut

    for themselves rooms and houses, whose partition walls, cement,

    bed and furniture are made from the same loess. Whole villages

    cluster together in a series of adjoining or superimposed chambers, some of which pierce the soil to a depth of often more than 200 feet. Tii more costly dwellings the terrace or succession of terraces tlms perforated are faced with brick, as well as the arching of rooms within. The advantages of such habitations consist as well in imperviousness to changes of temperature without, as in their durability when constructed in properly selected places, many loess dwellings outlasting six or seven generations. The capabilities of defence in a country such as this, where an invading army must inevitably become lost in the tangle of interlacing ways, and where the defenders may always remain concealed, is very suggestive.

    There remains, lastly, a peculiar property of loess which is perhaps more important than all other features M’hen measured by its man-serving efficiency. This is the manner in which it brings forth crops without the aid of manure. From a period more than 2,000 years before Christ, to the present day, the province of Shansi has borne the name of Grainery of the Empire, while its fertile soil, HuangDi, or ‘yellow earth’, is the origin of the imperial color. Spite of this productiveness, which, in the fourteenth century, caused the Friar Odoric to class it as the second country in the world, its present capacity for raising crops seems to be as great as ever. In the nature of this substance lies the reason for this apparently inexhaustible

    fecundity. Its renuirkably porous sti-uctui-e must indeed cause

    it to absorb the gases necessary to plant life to a much greater

    degree than other soils, but the stable productit>n of those mineral

    substances needful to the yearly succession of crops is in

    the ground itself. The salts contained more or loss in solution

    at the water level of the region are freed by the capillary action

    of the loess when rain-water sinks thi’ough tlie spongy mass

    from above. Surface moisture following the downward direction

    of the tiny loess tubes establishes a connection M’ith the

    waters compressed below, when, owing to the law of diffusion,

    the ingredients, being released, mix with the moisture of the

    little canals, and are taken from the lowest to the topmost

    levels, permeating the ground and fni-nishing nourishment to

    the plant roots at the surface. It is on account of this curious

    action of loess that a co])ious i-ain fall is nioi-e necessary in North

    richtiiofen’s theory of its origin. 303

    China than elseM’lieie, for with a dearth of rain the capillary communication from above, below, and vice versa, is interrupted, and vegetation loses both its niainire and moisture. Drought and famine are consequently synonymous terms here. As to the formation and origin of loess, Richthofen’s theory is substantially as follows :
    ‘The uniform composition of this material over extended areas, coupled with the absence of stratification and of marine or fresh-water organic remains, renders impossible the hypothesis that it is a water deposit. On the other hand, it contains vast quantities of land-shells and the vestiges of animals (mammalia) at every level, both in remarkably perfect condition. Concluding, also, that from the

    conformation of the neighboring mountain chains and their

    peculiar weathering, the glacial theory is inadmissible, he advances

    the supposition that loess is a sub-aerial deposit, and that

    its fields are the drained analogues of the steppe-basins of Central

    ‘ China : Ergebnisse eigener Reiaen. Baud I. , S. 74. Berlin, 1877.

    Asia. They date from a geological era of great dryness, before the existence of the Yellow and other rivers of the northern provinces. As the rocks and hills of the highlands disintegrated, the sand was removed, not by water-courses seaward, but by the high winds ranging over a treeless desert landward, until the dust settled in the grass- covered districts of what is at present China Proper. New vegetation was at once nourished, while its roots were raised by the constantly arriving deposit; the decay of old roots produced the lime-lined canals which impart to this material its peculiar characteristics. Any one who has observed the terrible dust-storms of North China, when the air is filled with an impalpable yellow powder, which leaves its coating upon everything, and often extends, in a foglike cloud, hundreds of miles to sea, will understand the power of this action during many thousand years. This deposition received the shells and bones of innumerable animals, while the dissolved solutions contained in its bulk stayed therein, or saturated the water of small lakes. By the sinking of mountain chains in the south, rain-clouds emptied themselves over this region with much greater frequency, and gradually the system became drained, the erosion working backward from the coast, slowly cutting into one basin after another. AVith the sinking of its salts to lower levels, unexampled richness was added to the wonderful topography of this peculiar formation.’

    Pumpelly, while accepting this ingenious theory in place of his own (that of a fresh- water lake deposit), adds that the supply of loess might have been materially increased by the vast mersde-(jlam of High Asia and the Tien Shan, whose streams have for ages transported the products of glacial attrition into Central Asia and Northwest China. Again, he insists that llichthofen has not given importance enough to the parting planes, wrongly considered by his predecessors as planes of stratification.

    ” These,” he says, ” account for the marginal layers of debris brought down from the mountains. And the continuous and more abundant growth of grasses at one ])lanG would produce a modification of the soil structurally and chemically, which superincumbent accumulations could never efface. It should seem probable that we have herein, also, the explanation of the calcareous concretions which abound along these planes ; for the greater amount of carbonic acid generated by the slow decay of this vegetation would, by forming a bicarbonate, give to the lime the mobility necessary to produce the concretions.”

    ‘Compare Kingsmill, in the Quar. Journal of the Oeol. Soe. of London, 1868, pp. 119 ff., and in the North China Herald, Vol. IX., 85, 80.

    METHODS OF WORKING COAL. 305

    The metallic and mineral productions used in the arts comprise nearly everything found in other countries, and the common ones are furnished in such abundance, and at such rates, as conclusively prove them to be plenty and easily worked. The careful digest of observations published by Pumpelly through the Smithsonian Institution, carries out this remark, and indicates the vast field still to be explored. Coal exists in every province in China, and Pumpelly enumerates seventy-four h)calities which have been ascertained. Marco Polo’s well-known notice of its use shows that the people had long employed it: ” It is a fact that all over the country of Cathay there is a kind of black stone existing in beds in the mountains, which they dig out and burn like firewood. It is true that they have plenty of wood also, but they do not burn it, because those stones burn better and cost less.’ This mineral seems to have been unknown in Europe till after the return of the Venetian to his native land, while it was employed before the Christian era in China, and probably in very ancient times, if the accessible deposits in Shensi then cropped out in its eroded gorges, as represented by Richthofen. The few fossil plants hitherto examined indicate that the mass of these deposits are of the Mesozoic age. The mode of working the coal mines is described by Pumpelly,” and was probably no worse two thousand five hundred years ago.

    Want of machinery for draining them prevents the miners from going much below the water-level, and a rain-storm will sometimes flood and ruin a shaft. An inclined plane seldom takes the workmen more than a hundred feet below the level of the mouth, and then a horizontal gallery conducts him to the end of the mine. Some water is bailed out by buckets handed from one level up to another at the top, and the coal

    is carried out in baskets on the miners’ backs, or dragged in

    sleds over smooth, round sticks along passages too low for the

    coolies to do better than crawl as they work. Mr. Pumpelly

    found the gallery of one mine near Peking so low that he

    had to crawl the whole distance (six thousand feet) to see its

    construction, and when he emerged into daylight, with his

    knees nearly skinned, ascertained that the workmen padded

    theirs. The timbering is very expensive, yet, with all drawbacks,

    the coal sells, at the pit’s mouth, for $2.00 down to 50 cents a ton. The mines, lying on the slopes of the plateau reaching from near Corea to the Yellow River, supply the plain with cheap and excellent fuel.

    » Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 395.^ Across Aineric i and Asia, pp. 291 ff.Vol. I.—20

    Blakiston gives an account of the manner in which coal is worked on the Uj^per Yangzi near the town of Siichau: “Having to be got out at a great height up in the cliff, very thick hawsers, made of plaited bamboo, are tightly stretched from the mouth, or near the mouth, of the working gallery, to a space near the water where the coal can be deposited. These ropes are in pairs, and large pannier-shaped baskets are made to traverse on them, a rope passing from one over a large wheel

    at the upper landing, and down again to the other, so that the

    full basket going down pulls the empty one up, the velocity

    being regulated by a kind of brake on the wheel at the top.

    At some places the height at which the coal is worked is so

    great that two or more of these contrivances are used, one takine:

    to a landins; half wav down, and another from thence to the

    river. The hawsers are kept taut by a windlass for that purpose

    at the bottom.” * This useful mineral appears to be abundant

    throughout Sz’chuen Province, and is used here much less

    sparingly than in the east. With such inexpensive methods of

    getting coal to the water-courses, foreign machinery can hardly

    be expected to reduce its price very materially.

    The economical use of coal in the household and the arts has

    been carried to great perfection. Anthracite is powdered and

    mixed with wet clay, earth, sawdust or dung, according to the

    exigencies of the case, in the proportion of about seven to one ;

    the balls thus made are dried in the sun. The brick-beds

    (Jcang) are effective means of warming the house, and the hand

    furnaces enable the poor to cook with these balls—aided by a

    little charcoal or kindlings—at a trifling expense. This form

    of consumption is common north of the Yellow River, and brings

    coal within reach of multitudes who otherwise would suffer and

    starve. Bituminous, brown, and other varieties of coal occur

    in the same abundance and extent as in other great areas, giving

    promise of adequate supplies for future ages. The coal

    worked on the Peh kiang, in Ivwangtung, contains sulphur,

    ftud is employed in the manufacture of copperas.*

    Crystallized gypsum is brought fi-om the northwest of the

    province to Canton, and is ground to powder in mills ;

    plaster

    ‘ Five Months on the Ynng-Uze, p. 265. Annates de la Foi, Tome IX., p.

    457.

    2 N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. Journal, New Series, No. III., pp. 94-106, and No.

    IV., pp. 243 ff. Notes by Mr. Hollingworth of a Visit to the Coal Mines in the

    Neighborhood of Loh-Ping. Blue Book, China, No. 2, 1870, p. 11. Notes

    and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. IT., pp. 74-76. North China Herald,

    passim. Richthofen’s Letters, and in Ocean Highways, Nov., 1S78. Chinese Repository, Vol. XIX., pp. 385 fE. l4j’Cr /’ 111/

    BUILDING STONES AND MINP:RALS. 307

    of Paris and other forms of this sulphate are common all over China. It is not used as a manure, but the flour is mixed with wood-oil to form a cement for paying the seam’s of boats after they have been caulked. The powder is employed as a dentifrice, a cosmetic, and a medicine, and sometimes, also, is boiled to make a gruel in fevers, under the idea that it is cooling. The bakers who supplied the English troops at Amoy, in 1843, occasionally put it into the bread to make it heavier, but not, as was erroneously charged upon them, with any design of poisoning their customers, fur they do not think it noxious ; its employment in coloring green tea, and adulterating powdered sugar, is also explainable by other motives than a wish to injure the consumers.

    Limestone is abundant at Canton, both common clouded marble and blue limestone ; the last is extensively used in the artificial rockwork of gardens. Even if the Cantonese knew of the existence of lime in limestone, which they generally do not, the expense of fuel for calcining it would prevent their burning it while oyster-shells are so abundant in that region. In other provinces stone-lime is burned, by the aid of coal, in small kilns.

    The fine marble quarried near Peking is regarded as fit alone

    for imperial uses, and is seen only in such places as the Altar

    of Heaven and palace grounds. The marble used for floors is a

    fissile crystallized limestone, unsusceptible of polish ; no statues

    or ornaments are sculptured from this mineral, but slabs are

    sometimes wrought out, and the surfaces curiously stained and

    corroded with acids, forming rude representations of animals or

    other figures, so as to convey the appearance of natural markings.

    Some of these simulated petrifactions are exceedingly

    well done. Slabs of aro-illaceous slate are also chosen with

    reference to their layers, and treated in the same manner. An

    excellent granite is used about Canton and Amoy for building,

    and no people exceed the Chinese in cutting it. Large slabs are

    split out by wooden wedges, cut for basements and foundations,

    and laid in a beautiful manner ; pillars are also hewn from single stones of different shapes, though of no extraordinary dimensions, and their shafts embellished with inscriptions.

    Ornamental walls are frequently formed of large slabs set in posts, like panels, the outer faces of which are beautifully carved with figures representing a landscape or procession. lied and gray sandstone, gneiss, mica slate, and other species of rock, are also worked for pavements and walls.

    Nitre is cheap and common enough in the northern provinces

    to obviate any fear of its being smuggled into the country from

    abroad ; it is obtained in Chihli by lixiviating the soil, and

    furnishes material for the manufacture of gunpowder. A lye

    is obtained from ashes, which partially serves the purposes of

    soap ; but the people are still ignorant of the processes necessaiy

    for manufacturing it. Fourteen localities of alum are

    given in Pumpelly’s list, but the gi-eatest supply for the eastern

    provinces comes from deposits of shale, in Ping-yang hien, in

    Chehkiang, Avhich produces about six thousand tons annually.

    It is used mostly by the dyers, also to |)urify tnrbid water, and

    whiten paper. Other earthy salts are known and used, as borax,

    sal-ammoniac (which is collected in Mongolia and 111 from

    lakes and the vicinity of extinct volcanoes), and blue and white

    vitriol, obtained by roasting pyrites. Common salt is procured

    along the eastern and southern coasts by evaporating seawater,

    rock-salt not having been noticed ; in the western provinces

    and Shansf, it is obtained from artesian wells and lakes

    as cheaply as from the ocean ; in Tsing-3’en hien, in Central

    Sz’chuen, two hundred and thirty-seven wells are worked. At

    Chusan the sea-water is so turbid that the inhabitants filter it

    through clay, afterward evaporating the Avater.

    The minerals heretofore found in China have, for the most part, been such as have attracted the attention of the natives, and collected by them for curiosity or sale. The skillful manner in which their lapidaries cut crystal, agate, and other qnartzose minerals, is well known.’ The corundum used for polishing and finishing these carvings occurs in China, but a good deal of emery in powder is obtained from Borneo. A composition of gramdar corundum and gum-lac is usually employed by workmiMi in order to produce the highest luster of

    ‘ Compare Remusat, Uistmre de Khotan, pp. 163 ff., where there is an qxtended list of Chinese precious stones drawn from native sources.

    JADE STONE, Oil YUH. 300

    which the stones arc capable. The three varieties of the silicate of alumina, called jade, nephrite, and jadeite by mineralogists, are all named yuh by the Chinese, a word which is applied to a vast variety of stones—white marble, ruby, and cornelian all coming under it—and therefore not easy to define.

    Jade has long been known in Europe as a variety of jasper, its separation from that stone into a species by itself being of comparatively recent origin. Since the third edition of Boetius, in 1647, the two minerals have been regarded as entirely distinct. Its value in the eyes of the Chinese depends chiefly upon its sonorousness and color. The costliest specimens

    are brought from Yunnan and Klioten ; a greenish-white

    color is the most highly prized, a plain color of any shade

    being of less value. A cargo of this mineral was once imported

    into Canton from New Holland, but the Chinese would

    not purchase it, owing to a fancy taken against its origin and

    color. The patient toil of the workers in this hard mineral is

    only equalled by the prodigious admiration with which it is

    regarded ; both fairly exhibit the singular taste and skill of the

    Chinese. Its color is usually a greenish-white, or grayish-green

    and dark grass-green ; internally it is scarcely glimmering. Its

    fracture is splintery; splinters white; mass semi-transparent

    and cloudy ; it scratches glass strongly, and can itself generally

    be scratched by flint or quartz, but while not excessively hard

    it is remarkable for toughness. The stone when freshly broken

    is less hard than after a short exposure. Specific gravity from

    2.9 to 3.1.’ Fischer (pp. 31-1-318) gives some one hundred and

    fifty names as occurring in various authors—ancient and modern

    —for jade or nephrite.” An interesting testimony to the esteem

    ‘ Murray’s China^ Edinburgh, 1843, Vol. III., p. 276 ; compare also an

    article on this stone by M. Blondel, of Paris, published in the Smithsoninn

    Report for 1876. Memoires concernant Us Chinois, Tome XIII., p. 889. Remusat

    in the Journal des Savcuis, Dec, 1818, pp. 748 fF. J^i’otes and Queries

    oil a and J., Vol. II., pp. 173, 174, and 187 ; Vol. III., p. 63 ; Vol. IV., pp.

    13 and 33. MacmilUui’H Magazine, October, 1871. Yule, Cathay and the

    Way Thither, Vol. II., p. 564.

    ‘^ Nephrit undjadeit, nach ihren miiieralogischen Eigenschaften soioie nach ihrer

    urgeschichtiichea und ethnographischen Bedeutiing. Heinrioh Fischer, Stuttgart,

    1880. An exhaustive treatise on every phrase and variety of the mineral in wliicli tills stone was held in China during tlie middle agea

    conies from Benedict Goes (1002), who says : “There is no article

    of traffic more valuable than lumps of a certain transparent

    kind of marble, which we, from poverty of language, usually

    call jasper. . . , Out of this marble they fashion a variety of

    articles, such as vases, brooches for mantles and girdles, which,

    when artistically sculptured in flowers and foliage, certainly

    have an effect of no small magniflcence. These marbles (with

    which the Empire is now overflowing) are called by the Chinese

    lusce. There are two kinds of it ; the first and more valuable

    is got out of the river at Cotan, almost in the same way

    in which divers fish for gems, and this is usually extracted in

    pieces about as big as large flints. The other and inferior

    kind is excavated from the mountains.” The ruby, diamond,

    amethyst, sapphire, topaz, pink tourmaline, lapis-lazuli,’ turquoises,

    beryl, garnet, opal, agate, and other stones, are known

    and most of them used in jewelry. A ruby Ijrought from

    Peking is noticed by Bell as having been valued in Europe at

    $50,000. The seals of the Boards are in man}’ instances cut on

    valuable stones, and private persons take great pride in quartz

    or jade seals, with their names carved on them ; lignite and

    jet are likewise employed for cheaper ornaments, of which all

    classes are fond.

    All the common metals, except platina, are found in China, and the supply would be sufficient for all the purposes of the inhabitants, if they could avail themselves of the improvements adopted in other countries in blasting, mining, etc. The importations of iron, lead, tin, and quicksilver, are gradually increasing, but they form only a small proportion of the amount used throughout the Empire, especially of the two first named ; iron finds its way in because of its convenient forms more than its cheapness. The careful examination of Chinese topographical works by Pumpelly,” records the leading localities of iron in every province, and where copper, tin, lead, silver, and quick, silver have been observed ; he also mentions fifty-two places pro-

    ‘ Obtained from Badakslian. Wood, Journey to tlie Oxus, p. 263.

    ‘ Geological licucarches in China, Chap. X.

    METALS AND THEIR PRODUCTION. 31J

    diicing gold in various forms, most of them in Sz’cliuen. The rumor of gold-washings occurring not far from Chifn, in Shantung, caused much excitement in 1808, but thej were soon found to he not worth the labor. Gold has never been used as coin in China, but is wrought into jewelry ; most of it is consumed in gilding and exported to India as bullion, in the shape of small bars or coarse leaves.

    Silver is mentioned in sixty-three localities by the same author; large amounts are brought from Yunnan, and the mines in that region must be both extensive and easily worked to afford such large quantities as have been exported. The working of both gold and silver mines has been said to be prohibited, but this interdiction is rather a government monopoly of the mines than an injunction upon working those which are known. The importation of gold into China during the two centuries the trade has been opened, does not probably equal the exportation which has taken place since the commencement of the opium trade.

    It is altogether improbable that the Chinese are acquainted

    with the properties of quicksilver in separating these two

    metals from their ores, though its consumption in making vermilion

    and looking-glasses calls for over two thousand flasks

    yearly at Canton. Cinnabar occurs in Kweichau and Shensi

    and furnishes most of the ” water silver,” as the Chinese call

    it, by a rude process of burning brushwood in the wells, and

    collecting the metal after condensation.

    Copper is used for manufacturing coin, bells, bronze articles,

    domestic and cooking utensils, cannon, gongs, and brass-foil.

    It is found pure in some instances, and the sulphuret, the blue

    and green carbonates, pyrities, and other ores are w’orked ; malachite

    is ground for a paint. It occurs in every province, and

    is specially rich in Shansi and Kweichau. The ores of zinc

    and copper in Yunnan and Sz’chuen fnrnish spelter, and the

    peculiar alloy known as white copper or argentan, containing in

    addition tin, iron, nickel, and lead. So much use indicates

    large deposits of the ores. Tin is rather abundant, but lead is

    more common ; thirty-nine localities of the first are mentioned,

    some of which are probably zinc ores, as the Chinese confound

    tin and zinc under one generic name. Lead occurs with silver in many places ; twenty-four mines are mentioned in Pumpelly’s list, and those in Fuhkien are rich ; but the extensive importations prove that its reduction is too expensive to compete with the foreign.

    Realgar is quite common, this and orpiment being used as paints; statuettes and other articles are carved from the former, while arsenic is used in agriculture to quicken grain and preserve it from insects. Amber and fossilized copal are collected in several localities ; the first is much employed in the making of court necklaces and hair ornaments. Thefel-tsui or jadeite is the most prized of the semi-precious stones; it is cut into ear-rings, finger-rings, necklaces, etc. Pumpelly mentions pieces of this mineral set in relics obtained from tombs in Mexico, though no locality where it abounds has yet been found in America. Lapis-lazuli is employed in painting upon copper

    and porcelain ware ; this mineral is obtained in Chehkiang and

    Kansuli ; jadeite, topaz, and other fine stones are most plenty

    in Yunnan. A few minerals and fossils have been noticed in

    the vicinity and shops at Canton, but China thus far has furnished

    very few petrifactions in any strata. Coarse epidote

    occurs at Macao, and tungstate of iron has been noticed in the

    quartz rocks at Hongkong. Petrified crabs {inacrojpJithalinus)

    have been brought to Canton from Hainan, which are prized

    by the natives for their supposed medicinal qualities. Scientists have hitherto described a score or more species of Devonian shells, and recognized fragments of the hyena, tapir, rhinoceros, and stegedon, among some other doubtful vertebrate in the ” dragon’s bones ” sold in medicine shops ; but further examinations will doubtless increase the list. Orthoceratites and bivalve shells of various kinds are noticed in Chinese books as being found in rocks, and fossil bones of huge size in caves and river banks.

    There are many hot springs and other indications of volcanic

    action along the southern acclivities of the table land in the

    ])rovinces of Shensi and Sz’chuen ; and at Jeh-ho, in Chihli,

    there are thermal springs to which invalids resort. The Ilo

    tsing, or Fire wells, in Sz’chuen are apertures resembling artesian

    springs, sunk in the rock to a depth of one thousand

    QUADRUMANOUS ANIMALS OF CHINA. 313

    five hundred or one thousand eight hundred feet, whilst theii

    breadth does not exceed five or six inches. This is a work

    of great difiicultj, and requires in some cases the labor of

    two or three jears. The water procured from them contains

    a fifth part of salt, which is very acrid, and mixed with nmch

    nitre. When a lighted torch is applied to the mouth of

    some of those which have no Avator, fire is produced with

    great violence and a noise like thunder, bursting out into a

    flame twenty or thirty feet high, and which cannot be extinguished

    M’ithout great danger and expense. The gas has a

    bituminous smell, and burns with a bluish flame and a quantity

    of thick, black smoke. It is conducted under boilers in bamboos,

    and employed in evaporating the salt-water from the

    other springs.’ Besides the gaseous and aqueous springs in

    these provinces, there are others possessing different qualities,

    some sulphurous and others chalybeate, found in Shansi and

    along the banks of the Yellow River. Sulphur occurs, as has

    been noted, in great abundance in Formosa, and is purified for

    powder manufacturers.

    The animal and vegetable productions of the extensive regions

    under the sway of the Emperor of China include a great

    variety of types of different families. On the south the

    islands of Hainan and Formosa, and parts of the adjacent

    coasts, slightly partake of a tropical character, exhibiting in the

    cocoanuts, plantains, and peppers, the parrots, lenmrs, and

    monkeys, decided indications of an equatorial climate. From

    the eastern coast across through the country to the northwest

    provinces occur mountain ranges of gradually increasing elevation,

    interspersed with intervales and alluvial plateaus and bottoms,

    lakes and rivers, plains and hills, each presenting its

    peculiar productions, both wild and cultivated, in great variety

    and abundance. The southern ascent of the high land of Mongolia,

    the uncultivated wilds of Manchuria, the barren wastes

    of the desert of Gobi, with its salt lakes, glaciers, extinct volcanoes,

    and isolated mountain ranges ; and lastly the stupendous

    ‘ Humboldt, Fragmens Asiatiques, Tome I., p. 196. Annates de la Foi,

    Janvr., 182’J, pp. 41G ff.

    chains and v^alleys of Tibet, Koko-nor, and Kwanlun all differ

    from eacli other in the character of their prodnctions. In one

    or the other division, every variety of soil, position, and temperature

    occur which are known on tlie globe ; and what has

    been ascertained within the past fifteen years by enterprising

    naturalists is an earnest of future greater discoveries.

    Of the quadrumanous order of animals, there are several

    species. The Chinese are skilful in teaching the smaller kinds

    of monkeys various tricks, but M. Breton’s picture of their

    adroitness and usefulness in picking tea in Shantung from

    plants growing on otherwise inaccessible acclivities, is a fair instance

    of one of the odd stories furnished by travellers about

    China, inasmuch as no tea grows in Shantung, and monkeys

    are taught more profitable tricks.’ One of the most remarkable

    animals of this tribe is the douc^ or Cochinchinese monkey

    {Seinnojnthecus 7iemmus). It is a large species of great rarity,

    and remarkable for the variety of colors with which it is

    adorned. Its Ijody is about two feet long, and when standing

    in an upright position its height is considerably greater. The

    face is of an orange color, and flattened in its foi-m. A dark

    band runs across the front of the forehead, and the sides of the

    countenance are bounded by long spreading yellowish tufts of

    liair. The body and upper parts of the forearms are brownish

    gray, the lower portions of the arms, from the elbows to the

    wrists, being white ; its hands and thighs are black, and the

    legs of a bright red color, while the tail and a large triangular

    spot above it are pure white. Such a creature matches well,

    for its grotesque and variegated appearance, with the mandarin

    duck and gold fish, also peculiar to China.

    ‘ Breton, China, its Costumes, Arts, etc., Vol. II.

    THE FI-FI AND IIAI-TUH. 315

    Chinese books speak of several species of this family, and small kinds occur in all the provinces. M. David has recently added two novelties to the list from his acquisitions in Eastern Koko-nor, well fitted for that cold region by their abundant hair. The Rhinoplthccus I’oxellancB inhabits the alpine forests, nearly two miles high, where it subsists on the buds of plants and bamboo shoots laid up for winter supply; its face is greenish, the nose remarkably /’cfrousse, and its strong, brawny limbs well fitted for the arboreal life it leads ; the hair is thick and like a mane on the back, shaded with yellow and white tints.

    In this respect it is like the Gelada monkey of Abyssinia, and a few others protected in this part of the body from cold. This is no doubt the kind called f’t-fi in native books, and once found in flocks along many portions of western China, as these authors declare. Their notices are rather tantalizing, but, now that we have found the animal, are worth quoting: “The f’l-fi resembles a man ; it is clothed with its hair, runs quick and eats men ; it has a human face, long lips, black, hairy body, and turns its heels. It laughs on seeing a man and covers its eyes with its lips ; it can talk and its voice resembles a bird. It occurs in Sz’chuen, where it is called jhi hiung, or ‘human bear ; ‘ its palms are good eating, and its skin is used; its habit is to turn over stones, seeking for crabs as its food. Its form is like that of the men who live in the Kwaiilun Mountains.”

    Another large simia {2Iacactis thlhetanus) comes from the

    same region; it lives in bands like the preceding, but lower

    down the mountains. A third species of gi-eat size was reported

    to occur in the southwestern part of Sz’chuen, and described

    as greenish like the Macacus tcheliensis from the hills

    northwest of Peking—the most northern species of monkey

    known. The former of these two may possibly be the sinysing

    of the Chinese books, though its characteristics involve

    some confusion of the Macacus and baboon on the part of those

    writers. Two other species of ]\Iacacus, and as many of the

    gibbons, have been noticed in Hainan, Formosa, and elsewhere

    in the south.

    The singular proboscis monkey {J^^asalis laivalus\ called hhi-doc in Cochinchina and hai-tuh by the Chinese, exhibits a strange profile, part man and part beast, reminding one of the combinations in Da Yinci’s caricatui-es. It is a large animal, covered with soft yellowish hair tinted with red ; the long nose projects in the form of a sloping spatula. The Chinese account says : ” Its nose is turned upward, and the tail very long and forked at the end, and that whenever it rains, the animal thrusts the forks into its nose. It goes in herds, and lives in friendship ; when one dies, the rest accompany it to buriaL Its activity is so great that it runs its head against the trees; its fur is soft and gray, and the face black.’”‘

    ‘The Chinese llerhal., from which the preceding extract is taken, describes the bat under various names, such as ‘ heavenly rat,’ ‘faiiy rat,’ ‘flying rat,’ ‘night swallow,’ and ‘belly wings;’Ff-fr and Hai-tuh. (From a Chinese cut.)

    it also details the various uses made of the animal in medicine,

    and the extraordinary longevity attained by some of the wdiite

    species. The bat is in form like a mouse ; its body is of an

    ashy black color ; and it has thin fleshy wings, which join the

    four legs and tail into one. It appears in the summer, but becomes

    torpid in the winter ; on which account, as it eats nothing

    during that season, and because it has a habit of swallowing its

    breath, it attains a great age. It has the character of a night

    ‘ Bridgmiui’s Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 4G9.

    WILD ANIMALS. 317

    rover, not on account of any inability to fly in the day, hnt it dares not o;o abroad at that time because it fears a kind of hawk. It subsists on mosquitoes and gnats. It flies with its head downward, because the brain is heavy,’ This quotation is among the best Chinese descriptions of animals, and shows how little there is to depend upon in them, though not without interest in their notices of habits. Bats are common everywhere, and seem to be regarded with less aversion than in certain other countries. Twenty species belonging to nine genera are given in one list, most of them found in southern China ; the wings of some of these measure two feet across ; a large sort in Sz’chuen is eaten.

    The brown bear is known, and its paws are regarded as a

    delicacy ; trained animals are frequently brought into cities by

    showmen, wdio have taught them tricks. The discovery by

    David of a large species {Ailunypus riielanoleurus) allied to the

    Himalayan panda {Ailurasfulgens), also found on the Sz’chuen

    Mountains, adds another instance of the strange markings common

    in Tibetan fauna. This beast feeds on flesh and vegetables

    ; its body is white, but the ears, eyes, legs, and tip of the

    tail are quite black ; the fur is thick and coarse. It is called

    peh hlaixj, or white bear, by the hunters, but is no doubt the

    animal called j;i in the classics, connnon in early times over

    western China, and now rare even in Koko-nor. The Tibetan

    black bear occurs in Formosa, Shantung, and Hainan, showing

    a wide range. The badger is quite as widespread, and the two

    species have the same general appearance as their European

    congeners.

    Carnivorous animals still exist, even in thickly settled districts.

    The lion may once have roamed over the southwestern

    Manji kingdom, but the name and drawings both indicate a

    foreign origin. It has much connection with Buddhism, and

    grotesque sculptures of ranq3ant lions stand in pairs in front of

    temples, palaces, and graves, as a mark of honor and symbol

    of protection. The last instance of a live lion brought as tribute

    was to Hientsung in a.d. 1470, from India or Ceylon.

    ‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. VII., p. 90.

    Many other species of yeZ/5 are known, some of tliein peculiar

    to particular regions. The royal tiger has been killed near

    Amoy, and in Manchuria the panther, leopard, and tiger-cat

    all occur in the northern and southern provinces, making

    altogether a list of twelve species ranging from Formosa to

    Sagalien. Mr. Swinhoe’s ‘ account of his rencounter with a

    tiger near Amoy in 1S58 explains how^ such large animals still

    remain in thickly settled regions where food is abundant and

    the people are timid and unarmed. In thinly peopled parts

    they become a terror to the peasants. M. David enumerates

    six kinds, including a lynx, in Monpin alone, one of which

    {Felis sc/’fj)ta) is among the most prettily marked of the whole

    family. Ilunting-leopards and tigers were used in the days of

    Marco Polo by Kublai, but the manly pastime of the chase, on

    the magnificent scale then pi-actised, has fallen into disuse with

    the present princes. A small and fierce species of wild- cat

    {Felis chinensls), two feet long, of a brownish-gray coloi’, and

    liandsomely marked with chestnut spots and black streaks, is

    still common in the southwestern portions of Fuhkien. (Uvet

    cats of two or thi-ee kinds, tree-civets (Ildwtes), and a fine

    species of marten {Martes), with yellow neck and purplishbrown

    bod}’, from Formosa, are among the smaller cai-nivora in

    the southern provinces.

    The domestic animals offer few peculiarities. The cat, lia U,

    or ‘household fox,’ is a favorite inmate of families, and the

    ladies of Peking are fond of a variety of the Angora cat,

    having long silky hair and hanging ears. The common species

    is variously marked, and in the south often destitute of a tail; when reared for food it is fed on i-ice and vegetables, but is not much eaten. Popular superstition has clustered many omens of good and bad luck about cats ; it is considered, for example, the prognostic of certain misfortune when a cat is stolen from a house—much as, in some countries of the western world, it is unlucky when a black cat crosses one’s pathway.

    The dog differs but little from that reared among the Esquimaux,

    and is perhaps the original of the species. There is

    • Zodl. &c. Proc, 1870, p. G3G.

    CATS AND DOGS. 319

    little variation in tlieir size, wliicli is about a foot liigli and

    two feet in length ; the color is a pale yellow or black, and

    always uniform, with coarse bristling hair, and tails curling up

    high over the back, and rising so abruptly from the insei-tion

    that it has been humoi-ously remarked they almost assist in

    lifting the legs from the ground. The hind legs are unusually

    straight, which gives them an awkward look, and perhaps pre*

    vents them running very rapidly. The black eyes are small

    and piercing, and the insides of the lips and months, and the

    tongue, are of the same color, or a blue black. The bitch has a

    dew-claw on each hind leg, but the dog has none. The ears are

    sharp and upright, the head peaked, and the bark a short, thick

    snap, very unlike the deep, sonorous baying of our mastiffs. In

    Xganhwui a peculiar variety has pendant ears of great length,

    and thin, wii-ey tails. One item in the Chinese description of

    the dog is that it ‘ can go on three legs ‘—a gait that is often

    exhibited b}’ them. They are used to watch houses and flocks; the Mongolian breed is fierce and powerful. The dogs of Peking are very clannish, and each set jealously guards its own street or yard ; they ai-e fed by the butchers in the streets, and serve as scavengers there and in all large towns. They are often mangey, presenting hideous spectacles, and instances of j>//(‘«2)oloni<‘a are not uncommon, l)nt, as among the celebrated street dogs of Ooiistantinople, hydrophobia is almost unheard of among them. Dog markets are seen in every city where this meat is sold ; the animals are reared expressly for the table, but their flesh is expensive.

    One writer remarks on their habits, when describing the

    worship offered at the tombs : ” Hardly had the hillock been

    abandoned by the M’orshippers, when packs of hungry dogs

    came running up to devour the part of the offerings left for the

    dead, or to lick up the grease on the ground. Those who came

    first held up their heads, bristled their hair, and showed a

    proud and satisfied demeanor, curling and wagging their tails

    with selfish delight ; while the late-comers, tails between their

    legs, held their heads and ears down. There was one of them,

    however, which, grudging the fare, held his nose to the wind as

    if sniffing for better luck ; but one lean, old, and ugly beast. with a flayed back and liaii-less tail, was seen gradually separating himself from the band, though without seeming to hurry himself, making a thousand doublings and windings, all the while looking back to see if he was noticed. But the old sharper knew what he was about, and as soon as he thought himself at a safe distance, away he went like an arrow, the whole pack after him, to some other feast and some other tomb.”

    ‘Wolves, raccoon-dogs, and foxes are everywhere common, in some places proving to be real pests in the sheepfold and farmyard. In the vicinity of Peking, it is customary to draw large white rings on the plastered walls, in order to terrify the wolves, as these beasts, it is thought, will flee on observing such traps.

    The Chinese regard the fox as the animal into which human spirits enter in preference to any other, and are therefore afraid to destroy or displease it. The elevated steppes are the abodes of three or four kinds, which find food without difficulty. The Tibetan wolf (Cams chanco) has a warm, yellowish-white covering, and ranges the wilds of Tsaidam and Koko-nor in packs. The fox {Ganis cossac) spreads over a wide range, and is famed for its sagacity in avoiding enemies.

    The breed of cattle and horses is dwarfish, and nothing is done to improve them. The oxen are sometimes not larger than an ass ; some of them have a small hump, showing their affinity to the zebu ; the dewlap is large, and the contour neat and symmetrical. The forehead is round, the horns small and irregularly curved, and the general color dun red. The buffalo(shui niu), or ‘water ox’, is the largest beast used in agriculture. It is very docile and unwieldy, larger than an English ox, and its hairless hide is a light black color; it seeks coolness and refuge from the gnat in muddy pools dug for its convenience, where it wallows with its nose just above the surface. Each horn is nearly semi-circular, and bends downward, while the head is turned back so as almost to bring the nose horizontal.

    ‘ Borget, La Chine Ouverte, p. 147.

    CATTLE, SHEEP, AND DEER. 321

    The herd-boys usually ride it, and the metaphor of a lad astride a buffalo’s back, blowing the flute, frequently enters into Chinese descriptions of rural life. The yak of Tibet is employed us a beast of burden, and to furnish food and raiment. It is covered with a mantle of hair reaching nearly to the ground, and the soft pelage is used for making standards among the Persians, and its tail as fly-Haps or chowries in India ; the hair is woven into carpets. The wild yak {PoepluKjas (jrunnienH) has already been described. Great herds of these huge bovines roam over the wastes of Koko-nor, where their dried droppings furnish the only fuel for the nomads crossing those barren wilds.

    The domestic sheep is the broad-tailed species, and furnishes excellent mutton. The tail is sometimes ten inches long and three or four thick ; and the size of this fatty member is not affected by the temperature. The sheep are reared in the north by Mohammedans, who prepare the fleeces for garments by careful tanning ; the animal is white, with a black head. Goats are raised in all parts, but not in large numbers. The argali and wild sheep of the Ala shau Mountains {Ovis Burrhel) furnish exciting sport in chasing them over their native cliffs, which they clamber with wonderful agility. Another denizen of those dreary wilds is the Antilope jpicticauda, a small and tiny species, weighing about forty pounds, of a dusky gray color, with a narrow yellow stripe on the flanks. Its range is about the head-waters of the YangZiJiang River ; its swiftness is amazing; it seems absolutely to fly. It scrapes for itself trenches in which to lie secure from the cold.

    Many genera of ruminants are represented in China and

    the outlying regions ; twenty-seven rare species are enumerated

    in Swinhoe’s and David’s lists, of which eleven are antelopes

    and deer. The range of some of them is limited to a

    narrow region, and most of them are peculiar to the country.

    The wealthy often keep deer in their grounds, especially the

    spotted deer {Cermis j)seicdaxis), from Formosa, whose coat is

    found to vary greatly according to sex and age ; its name, Mntsien

    lu/i, or ‘money deer,’ indicates its markings. Mouse-deer

    are also reared as pets in the southern provinces.

    One common species is the dscren or hwang yan<j {AntiUpe(jiitturosa), which roams over the Mongolian wilds in large herds, and furnishes excellent venison. It is heavy in comparison to the gazelle ; liorns thick, about nine inches long, anmilated to the tips, lyrated, and their points turned inward. The goitre, which gives it its name, is a movable protuberance occasioned by the dilatation of the larnyx ; in the old males it is much enlarged. The animal takes surprising bounds when running.

    Great numbers are killed in the autunm, and their flesh,

    skins, and liorns ai’e all of service for food, leather, and medicine.

    Several kinds of hornless (or nearly hornless) deer, allied to

    the musk-deer, exist. One is the river-deer {Ihjdrojyotes)^ common

    near the Yangtsz’ Eiver, which resembles the pudu of

    Chili ; it is very prolific on the bottoms and in the islands. Another

    sort in the northwest {Elaj>hod>iK) is intermediary between

    the muntjacs and deer, having long, trenchant, canine

    upper teeth, and a deep chocolate-colored fur. Three varieties

    of the musk-deer {MoscJiun) have been observed, differing a

    little in their colors, all called shie or hkouj cliaiuj by the Chinese,

    and all eagerly hunted for their musk. This perfume

    was once deemed to be nseful in medicine, and is cited in a

    Greek presci-iption of the sixth century ; the abundance of the

    animal in the Himalayan regions may be inferred from Tavernier’s

    statement that he bought 7GT3 bags or pods at Patna in

    one of his journeys over two hundred years ago. This animal

    roams over a vast extent of alpine territory, from Tibet and

    Shensi to Lake Baikal, and inhabits the loftiest cliffs and defiles,

    and makes its way over nigged mountains with great rapidity.

    It is not unlike the roe in general appearance, though the projecting

    teeth makes the npper lip to look broad. Its color is

    grayish-brown and its limbs slight; the hair is coarse and brittle,

    almost like spines. The musk is contained in a pouch beneath

    the tail on the male, and is most abundant during the

    i-utting season. He is taken in nets or shot, and the hunters

    are said to allure him to destruction by secreting themselves

    and playing the flute, though some would say the animal

    showed very little taste in listening to such sounds as Chinese

    flutes usually produce. The musk is often adulterated with

    clay or mixed with other sul)stanees to moderate its powerful

    odor. A singular and interesting member of this familv is

    reared in the great park south of Peking—a kind of elk with

    HORSES, ARSES, AND ELEPHANTS. 8,’?:}

    short horns. This large animal {Elwphwus Damdianus)^ of a

    gentle disposition, equals in size tlie largest deer; its native

    name, sz’-2>uh slang, indicates that it is neither a horse, a deer,

    a camel, nor an ox, but partakes in some respects of the characteristics

    of each of them. Its gentle croaking voice seems to be

    nnworthj of so huge a body ; the color is a uniform fawn or

    light gray.

    The horse is not much larger than the Shetland pony ; it is

    bony and strong, but kept with little cai-e, and presents the

    worst possible appearance in its usual condition of untrinmied

    coat and mane, bedraggled fetlocks, and twisted tail. The Chinese

    language possesses a great variety of terms to designate

    the horse ; the difference of age, sex, color, and disposition, all

    being denoted by particular characters. Piebald and mottled,

    white and bay horses are common ; but the improvement of

    this noble animal is neglected, and he looks sorry enough compared.

    with the coursers of India. lie is principally used for

    carrying the post, or for military services ; asses and mules

    being more employed for draught. lie is hardy, feeds on

    coarse food, and admirably serves his owners. The mule is

    well-shaped, and those raised for the gentry are among the very

    best in the M’orld for endurance and strength; dignitaries are

    usually drawn by sumpter mules. Donkeys are also carefully

    raised. Chinese books speak of a mule of a cow and horse, as

    M’ell as from the ass and horse, though, of course, no such hybrid

    as the former ever existed.

    The wild ass, or onager (under the several names by which

    it is known in different lands, Ji-yaiuj^ djan/j, I’ulan, djiggeta),

    ghor-hhar, and ye-la), still roams free and untameable. It is

    abundant in Koko-nor, gathering in troops of ten to fifty, each

    under the lead of a stallion to defend the mares. The flesh is

    highly prized, and the difficult}^ of procuring it adds to the

    delicacy of the dish ; the color is light chestnut, with white

    belly.

    Elephants are kept at Peking for show, and are used to

    draw the state chariot when the Emperor goes to worship at

    the Altars of Heaven and Earth, but the sixty animals seen in

    the days of Kienlung, by Bell, have since dwindled to one or two. Van Braam met six going into Peking, sent thither from Yunnan. The deep forests of that province also harbor the rhinoceros and tapir. The horn of the former is sought after as medicine, and theTjest pieces are carved most beautifully into

    ornaments or into drinking cups, which are supposed to sweat

    whenever any poisonous liquid is put into them. The tapir is

    the white and brown animal found in the IMalacca peninsula,

    and strange stories are recorded of its eating stones and copper.

    The wild boar grows to weigh over four hundred pounds and

    nearly six feet long. In cold weather its frozen carcass is

    brought to I’eking, and sold at a high price. A new species of

    The Chinese Pig.

    hoff has been found in Formosa, about three feet long, twentyone

    inches high, and showing a dorsal row of large bristles ; a

    tliird variety occurs among the novelties discovered in Sz’chuen

    ij^m moujnnensiH)^ having short ears. Wild boars are met M’ith

    even in the hills of C’hehkiang, and seriously’ annoy the husbandmen

    in the lowlands by their depredations. Deep pits are

    dug near the l)ase of the hills, and covered M’ith a bait of fresh

    grass, and many are annually captured or droM’iied in them.

    They are fond of the bamboo shoots, and persons are stationed

    near the groves to fi-igliten them away by striking pieces of

    wood together.

    The Chinese hollow-backed pig is known for its short legs,

    tup: wild boar and domestic hog. 325

    round body, crooked back, and almndance of fat; the flesh is

    the connnoii meat of tlie people soutli of tlie Yaii<>’ts// liiver.

    The black C-hinese breed, as it is called in England, is considered

    the best pork raised in that country. The boo-” in the

    northern provinces is a gaunt animal, unifoiiuly black, and not

    so well cared for as its southern rival. Pieljald pigs are common

    in Formosa, resulting from crossing; sometimes animals

    of this kind are quite woolly. The Chinese in the south, well

    aware of the perverse disposition of the hog, find it much more

    expeditious to can-y instead of drive him through their narrow

    Mode of Carrying Pigs.

    Streets. For this purpose cylindrical baskets, open at both ends,

    are made ; and in order to capture the obstinate brute, it is

    secured just outside the half-opened gate of the pen. The men

    seize him by the tail and pull it lustily ; his rage is roused by

    the pain, and he struggles ; they let go their hold, whereupon

    he darts out of the gate to escape, and finds himself snugly

    caught. He is lifted up and unresistingly carried off.

    The camel is employed in the trade carried on across the

    desert, and throughout Mongolia, Manchuria, and northern

    China near the plateau; without his aid those regions would be ii))pa?sil)le ; the passes across the ranges near Tvoho-nor, sixteen thonsand feet high, ai-e traversed by his help, though amid suffej’ing and danger. In the summer season it sheds all its hair, which is gathered for weaving into ropes and rugs ; at this period, large herds pasture on the plateau to recuperate. The humps at this season hang down the back like empty bags, and the poor animal presents a distressed appearance during the hot weather. In its prime condition it carries about six hundred

    pounds weight, but is not used to ride upon as is the Arabian

    species. The two kinds serve man in one continuous l-ajilah

    from the Sea of Tartary across two continents to Tinibuctoo.

    The Chinese have employed the camel in wai’, and trained it to

    carry small gingalls so that the riders could fire them while

    resting on its head, but this antique kind of cavalry has disappeared

    with the introduction of better weapons.

    Among the various tribes of smaller animals, the Chinese

    Em])ire furnishes many interesting peculiarities, and few families

    are unrepresented. Xo marsupials have yet been met, and

    the order of edeutata is still restricted to one instance. Several

    families in other orders are rare or wanting, as baboons,

    spider-monkeys, skunks, and ichneumons. In the weasel tribe,

    some new species have been added to the already long list of

    valuable fur-bearing animals found in the mountains—the sable

    ermine, marten, pole-cat, stoat, etc., whose skins still repay the

    hunters. The weasel is common, but not troublesome. The

    otter is trained in Sz’chuen to catch fish in the mountain

    streams \vith the docility of a spaniel ; another species {Lutia

    siolnhosl) occurs along the islands on the southern coast, while

    in Hainan Island appears a kind of clawless otter of a rich

    brown color above and white beneath ; each of these is about

    twenty inches long. The furs of all these, and also the seaotter,

    are prepared for garments, especially collars and neckwraps.

    A kind of mole exists in Sz’chuen, having a muzzle of extreme

    length, while the scent of another variety near Peking is so

    nuisky as to suggest its name {Scapfot’hirKi^ moschatus). Muskrats

    and shrew-mice are found both north and south ; and one

    western species has only a rudimentary tail ; w^hile another, the

    SMALLER ANIMALS AISTD RODET^TS, 327

    Scaptony.i’, forms an intermediate species l>ctween a mole and a

    shrew, having a bhmt muzzle, strong fore feet and a long tail;

    and lastly, a sort fitted for aquatic lial)its, with l)road hind feet

    and flattened tail. Tiny hedgehogs are common even in the

    streets and by-lanes of Peking, where they find food and

    refuge in the allnvial earth. Two or three kinds of marmots

    and mole-rats are fonnd in the north and west {Sqyhucus Arctami/

    s), all specifically unlike their congeners elsewhere. The

    Chinese have a curious fancy in respect to one beast, one bird,

    and one fish, each of which, they say, requires that two come

    together to make one complete animal, viz., the jerboa, the

    spoonbill and sole-fish ; the first {D’qius annnlatus) occurs in

    the sands of northern China, the second in Formosa, and the

    third along the coasts.

    Many kinds of rodents have been described. The alpine

    hare {Lagomijs ogotona) resembles a marmot in its habits and is

    met with throughout the grassy parts of the steppes ; its burrows

    riddle the earth wherever the little thing gathers, and endangers

    the hunters riding over it. It is about the size of a rat,

    and by its w^onderful fecundity furnishes food to a great number

    of its enemies—man, beasts, and birds ; it is not dormant, but

    gathers dry grass for food and warmth during cold weather

    ;

    this winter store is, however, often consumed by cattle before

    it is stored away. Hares and rabbits are well known. Two

    species of the former are plenty on the Mongolian grass-lands,

    one of which has very long feet ; in winter their frozen bodies

    are brought to market. One species is restricted to Hainan

    Island, Ten or twelve kinds of squirrels have been described,

    red, gray, striped, and buff ; one with fringed ears. Their skins

    are prepared for the furriers, and women wear winter robes

    lined with them. Two genera of flying-squirrel {Pteromys and

    Sciurapterus) have been noticed, the latter in Formosa and the

    former mostly in the western provinces, Chinese writers have

    been puzzled to class the flying-squirrel ; they place it among

    birds, and assure their readers that it is the only kind which

    suckles its young when it flies, and that ” the skin held in the

    hand during parturition renders delivery easier, because the

    animal has a remarkably lively disposition,” The long, dense

    328 THE MIDDLK KINGDOM.

    fur of the P. alhonifow’i makes beautiful dressep, the white

    tips of the hair contrasting prettily with the red ground.

    Of the proper rats and mice, more than twenty-five species

    have been already described. Some of them are partially

    arboreal, others have remarkably long tails, and all but three

    are peculiar to the country. A Formosan species, called by

    Swinhoe the spinous county rat, had been dedicated to Koxinga,

    the conqueror of that island ; while another common

    in Sz’chuen bears the name of Mufi Confucianus. The extent

    to which tlie Chinese eat rats has been greatly exaggerated

    by travellers, for the flesh is too expensive for general

    use.

    One species of porcupine {TTijsfrir suhcrlxtata) inhabits the

    southern provinces, wearing on its head a purplish-black crest

    of stout spines one to five inches long ; the bristles are short,

    but increase in size and length to eight oi- nine inches toward

    the rump ; the entire length is thiity-three inches. The popular

    notion that the porcupine darts its quills at its enemies as

    an efPectual weapon is common among the Chinese.

    Xo animal has puzzled the Chinese more than the scaly anteater

    or pangolin {JIa?iis dahnanni), which is logically considered

    as a certain and useful remedy bv them, simply because of

    its oddity. It is regarded as a fish out of water, and therefore

    named Ihuj-l’i., or ‘ hill carp,’ also dragon carp, but the most

    common designation is ehuen. s/ian liah, or the ‘ scaly hill borer.’

    One author says: ” Its shape resembles a crocodile ; it can go in

    dry paths as well as in the water ; it has four legs. In the

    daytime it ascends the banks of streams, and lying down opens

    its scales wide, putting on the appearance of death, which induces

    the ants to enter between them. As soon as they are in,

    the animal closes its scales and returns to the water to open

    them ; the ants float out dead, and he devours them at leisure.”

    A more accurate observer says: “It contimially protrudes its

    tongue to entice the ants on which it feeds ; ” and true to

    Chinese physiological deductions, similia similihis curantur,

    he recommends the scales as a cure for all antish swellings.

    lie also I’emarks that the scales are not bony, and consist of

    the agglutinated hairs of the body. The adult specimens

    PORPOISES AND WHALES. 329

    measure tliirty-threo inches. It walks on the sides of the

    hind feet and tips of the claws of the fore feet, and can stand

    upright for a minute or two. The large scales are held tt

    the skin by a liesliy iiipple-like pimple, which adheres to the

    base.

    Among the cetaceous inhabitants of the Chinese waters, one

    of the most noticeable is the great white poi-poise {Delj>/ihi>;s

    chinensis), whose uncouth tumbles attract the traveller’s notice

    as he sails into the estuary of the Pearl River on his way to

    Hongkong, and again as he steams up the Yangtsz’ to Hankow.

    The Chinese fishermen are shy of even holding it in their nets,

    setting it free at once, and never pui-suing it ; they call it^>M-^i

    and deem its presence favorable to their success. A species of

    fin-whale {Balmnoptera) has been described by Swinhoe, which

    ranges the southern coast from the shores of Formosa to Hainan.

    Its pi-esence between Hongkong and Amoy induced some

    foreigners to attempt a fishery in those waters, but the yield of

    oil and bone was too small for their outlay. The native fishermen

    join their efforts in the wintei*, when it resorts to the seas

    near Hainan, going out in fleets of small boats from three to

    twenty-five tons burden each, fifty l)oats going together. The

    line is about three hundred and fifty feet long, made of native

    hemp, and fastened to the mast, the end leading over the bow.

    The harpoon has one barb, and is attached to a wooden handle

    ;

    through an eye near the socket, the line is so fastened along the

    handle, that when the whale begins to strain upon it, the handle

    draws out upon the line, leaving only the barlj buried iji the

    skin. The boat is sailed directly upon the fish, and the harpooner

    strikes from the bow just behind the blow-hole. As

    soon as the fish is struck the sail is lowered, the rudder unshipped,

    and the boat allowed to drag stern foremost until the

    prey is exhausted. Other boats come up to assist, and half a

    dozen harpoons soon dispatch it. The species most common

    there yield about fifty bai-rels each ; the oil, fiesh, and bone are

    all used f(jr food or in manufactures. Tiie fish resort to the

    shallow waters in those seas for food, and to roll and rub on the

    banks and reefs, thus ridding themselves of the barnacles and

    insects which torment them ; they are often seen leaping en330

    THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    tire)y out of water, and falling back perpend icnlarly against the

    hard bottom.’

    The Yellow Sea affords a species of cow-lish, or round headed

    cachalot {Globicejjhalus Itissii), wdiich the Japanese capture.*

    Seals have been observed on the coast of Liautung, but nothing

    is known of their species or habits ; the skins are common and

    cheap in the Peking market. Xative books speak of a marine

    animal in Koko-nor, from wliich a rare medicine is obtained,

    that probably belongs to this famOy.

    This imperfect account of the mammalia known to exist

    in China has been drawn from the lists and descriptions inserted

    in the zoological periodicals of Europe, and may serve to

    indicate the extent and richness of the field yet to be investigated.

    The lists of Swinhoe and David alone contain nearly

    two hundred species, and within the past ten years scores more

    have been added, but have not exhausted the new and unexplored

    zoological regions. The emperors of the Mongol dynasty

    were very fond of the chase, and famous for their love of the

    noble amusement of falconry ; Marco Polo says that Kublai employed

    no less than seventy thousand attendants in his hawking

    excursions. Falcons, kites, and other birds were taught to

    pursue their quarry, and the Venetian speaks of eagles trained

    to stoop at wolves, and of such size and strength that none

    could escape their talons.’ Hanking has collected * a number

    of notices of the mode and sumptuousness of the field sports of

    the Mongols in China and India, but they convey little more

    information to the naturalist, than that the game Avas abundant

    and comprised a vast variety. ]\rany s])ecies of accipitrine

    birds are described in Chinese books, but they are spoken of so

    vaguely that nothing definite can be learned from the notices.

    Few of them are now trained for sport by the Chinese, except

    a kind of sparrow-hawk to amuse dilettanti hunters in

    showing their skill in catching small birds. The fondness for

    sport in the wilds of Manchuria which the old emperoi-s

    ‘ CMnese Repository, Vol. XII., p. 608.

    Mbid., Vol. VI., p. 411.

    •Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. ‘m^.

    * Wars and Sports of the Mongols and Romans.

    BIRDS OF PREY. 331

    encouraged two centuries ago has all died out among their

    descendants.

    Within the last fifteen years a greater advance has been

    made in the knowledge of the birds of China than in any other

    branch of its natural history, perhaps owing somewhat to their

    presenting themselves for capture to the careful observer. The

    list of described species already munljers over seven hundred, of

    which the careful paper of the lamented Swinhoe, in the ProceedingH

    of the Zoological SocJeti/ for May, 1871, gives the

    names of six hundred and seventy-five species, and M. David’s

    list, in i\\(i Nouvelles Archives for 1871, gives four hundred and

    seventy as the number observed north of the Itiver Yangtsz’.

    The present sketcli must confine itself to selecting a few of the

    characteristic birds of the country, for this part of its fauna is

    as interesting and peculiar as the mammalia.

    Among birds of prey are vultures, eagles, and ernes, all of

    them M’idespread and well known. One of the fishing-eagles

    (Ilalicctus macei) lives along the banks of the bend of the Yellow

    River in the Ortous country. The golden eagle is still

    trained for the chase by Mongols ; Atkinson accompanied a

    party on a hunt. ” We had not gone far,” he says, ” when

    several large deer rushed past, bounding over the plain about

    three hundred yards from ns. In an instant the barkut wai

    unhooded and his shackles removed, when he sprung from hi^

    perch and soared on high. lie rose to a considerable height,

    and seemed to poise fof^ minute, gave two or three flaps with his

    wings, and swooped off in a straight line for the pi’ey. I could

    not see his wings move, but he went at a fearful rate, and all of

    us after the deer ; when we were about two hundred yards off,

    the bii-d struck the deer, and it gave one bound and fell. The

    barkut had struck one talon in his neck, the other into his back,

    and was tearing out his liver. The Kirghis sprung from his

    horse, slipped the hood over the eagle’s head and the shackles

    on his legs, and easily took him off, remounting and getting

    ready for another flight.” ‘ Other smaller species are trained

    to capture or worry hares, foxes, and lesser game.

    ‘ Oriental and Western Siberia, p. 41 G.

    332 TIIK MIDDLK KINGDOM.

    The falcons which inhabit the gate-towers and trees in Pe

    kinw form a peculiar feature of the place, from their impudence

    in foraging in tlie streets and markets, snatching things out of

    the liands of people, and startling one by their responsive

    screams. Much quarrelling goes on between them and the

    crows and magpies for the possession of old nests as the spring

    comes on. Their services as scavengers insures them a quiet

    residence in their eyries on the gate-towers. Six sorts of harriers

    (Circles), with various species of falcons, bustards, gledes,

    and spaiTOw^-hawks, are enumerated. The family of owls is

    well represented, and live ones are often exposed for sale in

    the markets ; its native name of ‘ cat-headed hawk ‘ {inao-rhtao

    ying) suggests the likeness of the two. Out of the fifty-six

    species of accipitrine birds, the hawks are much the most

    numerous.

    The great order of Passerinae has its full share of beautiful

    and peculiar representatives, and over four hundred species

    have been catalogued. The night-hawks have only three

    members, but the swallows count up to fifteen species. Around

    Peking they gather in vast numbers, year after year, in the

    gate-towers, and that whole region was early known by the

    name of Yen Kwoli, or ‘ Land of Swallows.’ The innnunity

    granted by the natives to this twittering, bustling inmate of

    their houses has made it a synonym for domestic life ; the

    phrase yin yen. {lit. to ‘ drink swallows ‘) means to give a feast.

    The famil}’ of king-fishers contains several most exquisitely

    colored birds, and multitudes of the handsome ones, like the

    turquoise king-fisher {Halcyon fi/nyrnensis), are killed by the

    (Chinese for the sake of the plumage. Beautiful feather-work

    ornaments are made from this at Canton. The hoopoe, beeeater,

    and cuckoo are not uncommon ; the first goes by the

    name of the s/ia/i. ho-.shan’j, or ‘ country priest,* f i-om its color.

    Six species of the last have been recognized, and its peculiar

    habits of driving other birds from their nests has made it well

    kuuwn to the people, who call it ha-l’a for the same reason as

    do the English. On the upper Yangtsz’ the short-tailed species

    makes its noisy agitated Hight in order to draw off attention from

    its nest. The C’hinesc say it wcepi blood as it bewails its mate

    SWALLOWS, THRUSHES, LARKS, El’C. 333

    all night long. The Cacutas strlatus varies so greatly in different

    provinces that it has much perplexed naturalists ; all of

    them are only summer visitants.

    The habit of the shi-ike of impaling its prey on thorns and

    elsewhere before devouring it has been noticed by native

    writers ; no less than eleven species have been observed to cross

    the country in their migrations from Siberia to the Archipelago.

    Of the nuthatches, tree and wall creepers, wrens, and chats,

    there is a large variety, fJid one species of willow-wren {Sylvia

    horealls) has been detected over the entire eastei’u hemisphere ;

    six sorts of redstarts {Rat’tGilla) are spread over the provinces.

    Among the common song birds reared for the liousehold, the

    thrush and lark take precedence ; their fondness for birds and

    flowers is one of the pleasant features of Chinese national character.

    A kind of grayish-yellow thrush {Garrula,c j)<”i’-y)i<-il’^-

    tus)j called hwa-mi, or ‘painted ej’ebrows,’ is common about

    Canton, where a well-trained bird is worth several dollars.

    This genus furnishes six species, but they are not all equally

    nnisical ; another kind {Suthorla wehhiana) is kept for its fighting

    qualities, as it will die before it yields. These and other

    allied birds furnish the people with much amusement, by teaching

    them to catch seeds thrown into the air, jump from perches

    held in the hand, and })erform tricks of various kinds. A party

    of gentlemen will often be seen on the outskii-ts of a town in

    mild weather, each one holding his pet bird, and all busily engaged

    in catching grasshoppei’s to feed them. The spectacle

    thrush {Leuc()d’wj.>trn,tii) has its eyes surrounded by a black

    circle bearing a fancied resemblance to a pair of spectacles ; it

    is not a very sweet songster, but a graceful, lively fellow. The

    species of wagtail and lark known amount to about a score altogether,

    but not all of them are equally good singers. The

    southern (^hinese prefer the lark which comes from Chihli, and

    large numbei-s ai-e annually carried south. The shrill notes of

    the field lark {Alauda adkiox and arvensis) are heard in the

    shops and streets in enmlous concert with other kinds—these

    larks becoming at times well-nigh frantic with excitement in

    their struggles for victory. The Chinese name of peh-ling, or

    ‘hundred spirits,’ given to the Mongolian lark, indicates the

    334 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    reputation it has earned as an active songster ; and twenty-five

    dollars is not an unconnnon pi-ice for a good one.’

    The tits [Parus) and recdlings {Emhe/’ha), together with kindred

    genera, are among the most common .small birds, fifteen or

    twenty species of each having been noticed. In the proper season

    the latter are killed for market in such numbei-s as to excite

    surprise that they do not become extinct. In taking many of

    the warblers, orioles, and jays, for rearing or sale as fancy birds,

    the Chinese are veiy^ expert in the use of birdlime. In all parts

    of the land, the pie family are deemed so useful as scavengers

    that they are never molested, and in consequence become very

    connnon. The magpie is a favorite bird, as its name, /il tsloh,

    or ‘ joyous bird,’ indicates, and occurs all over the land. Ravens,

    choughs, crows, and blackbirds keep doM-n the insects and vermin

    and consume offal. The palace grounds and inclosures of

    the nobility in Peking are common I’esorts for these crows,

    where they are safe from harm in the great trees. Every

    morning myriads of them leave town with the dawn, returning

    at evenino; with increased ca\\ino; and clamor, at times actuallv

    darkening the sky with their flocks. A pretty sight is occasionally

    seen M’hen two or three thousand young ci’ows assemble

    just at sunset in mid-air to chase and play with each other.

    The crow is i-egarded as somewhat of a sacred bird, either from

    a service said to have been rendered by one of his race to an

    ancestor of the present dynasty, or because he is an emblem of

    filial duty, from a notion that the young assist their parents

    when disabled. The owl, on the other hand, has an odious

    name because it is stiy-matized as the bii’d which eats its dam.

    One member of the pie family deserving mention is the longtailed

    l)lue jay of Formosa (^.TO^’^Vm), remarkable for its brilliant

    plumage. Another, akin to the sun birds {^Ethoj^njija

    (lahryi)^ comes from Sz’chuen, a recent discovery. The body is

    red, the head, throat, and each side of the neck a brilliant

    violet, belly yellow, wings black with the primaries tinted green

    along the edge, and the feathers long, tapering, of a black or

    steel blue.

    ‘ Journal of the North China Branch of the Eoyal Asiatic Society, May, 1S59.

    p. 289.

    MAGPIES AND PIGEONS. 335

    Tlie Mahiah, or Indian niino [Acndotheus)^ known by its

    yellow carbuncles, which extend like ears from behind the eye,

    is reared, as are also three species of Mu7iia, at Canton. Sparrows

    abound in every province around houses, driving away

    otiier birds, and entertaining the observer by their quarrels and

    activity, llobins, ouzels, and tailor-birds are not abundant.

    Xone of the humming-birds or birds of paradise occur, and

    only one species has hitherto been seen of the parrot group.

    Woodpeckers {Picus) are of a dozen species, and the wryneck

    occasionally attracts the eye of a sportsman. Tlie canary is

    reared in great numbers, being known under the names of

    ‘white swallow’ and ‘time spari-ow ;

    ‘ the chattering Java

    sparrow and tiny avedavat are also taught little tricks by their

    fanciers, in compensation for their lack of song. The two or

    three proper parrots are natives of Formosa.

    The family of pigeons {Coluvibidie) is abundantly represented

    in fourteen species, and doves form a common household

    bird ; their eggs are regarded as proper food to prevent smallpox,

    and sold in the markets, being also cooked in birdnest and

    other kinds of soups. The Chinese regard the dove as eminently

    stupid and lascivious, but gi^ant it the qualities of faithfulness,

    impartiality, and filial duty. The cock is said to send

    away its mate on the approach of rain, and let her return to the

    nest with fine weather. They have an idea that it undergoes

    periodic metamoi-phoses, but disagree as to the form it takes,

    though the sparrow-hawk has the preference.’ The bird is

    most famed, howevei-, for its filial duty, arising very probably

    from impei’fect observations of the custom of feeding its young

    with the macerated contents of its crop ; the wood pigeon is

    said to feed her seven young ones in one order in the morning,

    and reversing it in the evening. Its note tells the husbandman

    when to begin his labors, and the decorum observed in the nests

    and cotes of all the species teach men how to govern a family

    and a state. The visitor to Peking is soon attracted by the

    aeolian notes proceeding from doves which circle around their

    homes for a short time (forty or fifty or less in a flock), and

    ‘ Journal N. O. Br. R A. Soc, Vol. IV., 1867, Art. XI., by T. Walters.

    336 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    then settle. These birds are cdWed j)aN -tie n l-ido-j’in^ or ‘ mid

    cky houris,’ and their weird music is caused by ingenious wooden

    whistles tied on the rumps of two or three of the Hock, which

    lead the others and delight themselves. Carrier pigeons are

    used to some extent, and training them is a special mystery.

    One of the prettiest sort is the rose pigeon, and half a dozen

    kinds of turtles enliven the village groves with their gentle

    notes and peculiar plumage.

    No tribe of birds in China, however, equals the Gallinaceous

    for its beauty, size, and novelty, furnishing some t)f the most

    elegant and graceful birds in the world, and yet none of them

    have become domesticated for food. As a connecting link between

    this tribe and the last is the sand-grouse of the desert

    {Syrrhaptis paradoxus), whose singular combination attracted

    Marco Polo’s eye. “This bird, the harg^erlae, on which the

    falcons feed,” says lie, ” is as big as a partridge, has feet like

    a parrot’s, tail like a swallow’s, and is strong in tUght.” ‘ Abbo

    Hue speaks of the immense flocks which scour the plateau.

    The gold and silver pheasants are reared without ti-ouble in

    all the provinces, and have so long been identified witli tlic

    ornithology of China as to bo regarded as typical of its grotesque

    and brilliant fauna. Among other pheasants may be

    mentioned the Impeyan, Heeves, Argus, JVIedallion, Andierst,

    riluys, and Pallas, each one vicing with the other for some

    peculiarly graceful featui’e of color and sha])e, so that it is liaid

    to decide which is the lincst. The Amherst pheasant has tlic

    bearin<r, the ele«i;ance, and the details of form like the goM

    pheasant, but the neck, shoulders, back and M’ing covers are of

    a sparkling metallic green, and each feather ends in a belt of velvet

    black. A little red crest allies it to the gold ])heasant, and a

    pretty silvery ruff M’ith a black band, a white breast and belly, and

    a tail barred with bi-own, green, Avhite, and red bands, complete

    the picturesque dress. Jlidden away in these Tibetan wilds are

    other pheasants that dispute the })alm for beauty, among which

    four species of the eared pheasant {( ‘fossoptUon) attract notice.

    One is of a pure white, with a black tail curled up and spread

    ‘ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. T., p. 2:57.

    vai:ii:tiks of piika.sants. 337

    out like a plume, uud is mcII called the suow pheasant. Another

    is the better knctwn Pallas pheasant, nearly as large as a

    turkey, distinguished hy eai’-like appendages or Avattles hehind

    the head, and a red neck above a white body, whence its native

    name of /lo-li, or ‘ fire hen.’ Another genus {^Lojp1ioj)horus) contains

    some elegant kinds, of Avhich the I’lluys pheasant is new,

    and noted for a coppery-green tail bespangled with white. The

    longer known Reeves pheasant is sought for by the natives for

    the sake of its white and yellow-l)arred tail feathers, which are

    used l)y play actoi’S to complete a wan-ior’s dress ; Col. Yule

    proves a reference to it in Marco Polo from this part of its

    plumage, Mhicli the Venetian states to be ten palms in length

    not far beyond the truth, as they have been seen seven feet

    long.’ It is a long time for a bird of so iiiuch beauty to have

    been unknown, from 1350 to ISOS, Avhen Mr. Thomas Beale

    procured a specimen in Canton, and sent others to England in

    1832 ; Mr. Reeves took it thither, and science has recorded it

    in her annals. As Xew Guinea is the home of the birds of

    paradise, so do the Himalayas contain most of these superb

    pheasants and francolins, each tribe serving as a foil and comparison

    with the Creator’s handiwork in the other.

    The island of Formosa has furnished a second species, Swinhoe’s

    pheasant, of the same genus as the silver pheasant {Eujploeamus),

    and another smaller kind {Phasianusfcmnosanus) ; the

    list is also increased by fresh acquisitions from Yimnan and

    Cochinchina through Dr. Anderson. This is not, liowever, the

    place where Me may indulge in details respecting all of these

    gorgeous birds ; we conclude, then, with the Medallion, or

    horned pheasant. It has a ” l)eautiful membrane of resplendent

    colors on the neck, which is displayed or conti’acted according

    as the cock is more or less roused. The hues are chiefly

    purple, with bright red and green spots, which vary in intensity

    according to the degree of excitement.’”

    The peacock, though not a native, is reared in all parts ; it

    bears the name of I’ung Utah, sometimes rendei-ed ‘ Confucius’

    ‘ Yiile’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 246—where there is an admirable wood-cut of one from Wood.

    Lird,” though it is more probable that the name means the great

    or magniticeiit bird. The use of the tail feathers to designate

    official rank, which probably causes a large consumption of

    them, does not date previous to the present dynasty. Poultry

    is reared in immense quantities, but the assortment in China

    does not equal in beauty, excellence, and variety the products

    of Japanese culture. The silken cock, the vane of whose plume

    is so minutely divided as to resemble curly hair, is probably the

    same sort with that described by some w^riters as having wool

    like sheep. The Mongols succeed very well in rearing the tall,

    Shanghai breed, and their unifoi-m cold winter enables them to

    preserve frozen flesh without much difficulty. The smaller

    gallinaceous birds already described, grouse, quails, francolins,

    partridges, sand-snipe, etc., amount to a score or more species,

    ranging all over the Empire. The red partridge is sometimes

    tamed to keep as a house bird with the fowls. The Chinese

    quail {Cotarnic) has a brown back, sprinkled with black spots

    and white lines, blackish throat and chestnut breast. It is reared

    for lighting in south China, and, like its bigger Gallic rival, is

    soon eaten if it allows itself to be beaten.

    The widespread family of waders sends a few of its representatives

    from Europe to China, but most of the members are

    Oriental. The marshes and salt lakes of Mongolia attract

    enormous numbers of migratory birds in summer to rear their

    young in safety, in the midst of abundant food. Col. Prejevaleky

    watched the arrival of vast flocks early in February, and

    thus describes their appearance : ” For days together they

    sped onward, always fi-oni the W.S.AV., going further east in

    search of open water, and at last settling down among the open

    pools ; their favorite haunts were the flat nnid banks overgrown

    with low saline bushes. Here every day vast flocks would congregate

    toward evening, crowding among the ice ; the noise they

    made on rising was like a hurricane, and at a distance they resembled a thick cloud. Flocks of one, two, three, and even five thousand, followed one another in quick succession, hardly a minute apart. Tens and hundreds of thousands, even millions

    of birds appeared at Lob-nor during the fortnight ending the

    2l6t of February, when the flight was at its height. What

    FAMILY OF WADERS I]?f CHINA. 339

    prodigious quantities of food must be necessary for such numbers

    ! ” ‘ Wading and web-footed birds all harmlessly mix in

    these countless hosts, but hawks, eagles, and animals gather too,

    to prey on them.

    Among the noticeable wadei-s of China, the white Manchurian

    or Montigny crane is one of the finest and largest ; it is

    the official insigna of the highest rank of civilians. Five

    species of crane {Grus) arc recognized, and seven of plovers,

    together with as many more allied genera, including an avocet,

    bustard, and ov8ter-catclier. Curlews abound along the flat

    shores of the Gulf of Pechele, and are so tame that they race

    up and down with the naked children at low tide, hunting for

    shell-fish ; as the boy runs his arm into the ooze the curlew

    pokes his long bill up to the eyes in the same hole, each of

    them grasping a crab. Godwits and sandpipers enliven the

    coasts with their cries, and seven species of gambets {Totanus)

    give them them the largest variety of their family group, next

    to the snipes {Tr’tnga)^ of wdiich nine are recorded. Herons,

    egrets, ibis, and night-herons occur, and none of them are discarded

    for food. At Canton, a pure Nvliite egret is often exposed

    for sale in the market, standing on a shelf the livelong

    day, with its eyelids sewed together—a pitiable sight. Its

    slender, elegant shape is imitated by artists in making bronze

    candlesticks. The singular spoonbill {Platalea) is found in

    Formosa, and the jacana in southwestern China. The latter

    is described by Gould as ” distinguished not less by the grace

    of its form than its adaptation to the localities which nature

    has allotted it. Formed for traversing the morass and lotuscovered

    surface of the water, it supports itself upon the floating

    weeds and leaves by the extraordinary span of the toes,

    aided by the unusual lightness of the body.” ‘ Gallinules,

    crakes, and rails add to this list, but the flamingo has not been

    recorded.

    In the last order, sixty-five species of web-footed birds are

    enumerated by naturalists as occui-ring in China. The fenny

    ‘ From Kulja to Lob-nor, p. 116.

    ‘John Gould, Century of Birda, London, 1831-32.

    margins of lakes and rivera, and tlie seacoast niaislies, afford

    food and shelter to Hocks of water-fowl. Ten sepaiate species

    of duck are known, of which four or live ai”e peculiar. The

    whole coast fi’oin Hainan to jVIanchuiia swarms with gulls,

    terns, and grebes, while geese, swans, and mallards resort to the

    inland waters and pools to rear their young. Ducks are sometimes

    caught by persons who first cover their heads with a

    gourd pierced with holes, and then wade into the water where

    the birds are feeding ; these, previously accustomed to emptycalabashes

    floating about on the water, allow the fowler to approach,

    and ai”e pulled under without difficulty. The wild

    goose is a favorite bird with native poets. The reputation for

    conjugal fidelity has made its name and that of the mandarin

    duck emblems of that virtue, and a pair of one or the other

    usually forms part of wedding processions. The epithet mandarin

    is applied to this beautiful fowl, and also to a species of

    orange, simply because of their excellence over other varieties

    of the same genus, and not, as some writers have inferred, l)ecause

    they are appropriated to officers of government.

    The yuen-ydng, as the Chinese call this duck, is a native of

    the central provinces. It is one of the most variegated birds

    known, vieing with the humming-birds and parrots in the

    diversified tints of its plumage, if it does not equal them for

    brilliancy. The drake is the object of admiration, his partner

    being remarkably plain, but during the sunnner season he also

    loses much of his gay vesture. INFr. P>ennet tells a pleasant

    story in proof of the conjugal fidelity of these birds, the incidents

    of which occurred in Mr. Beale’s aviary at Macao. A

    drake was stolen one night, and the duck displayed the strongest

    marks of despair at her loss, retiring into a corner and refusing

    all nourishment, as if determined to starve lierself to death

    from grief. Another drake undertook to comfort the disconsolate

    widow, but she declined his attentions, and was fast becoming

    a martyr to her attachment, when her mate was recovered

    and restored to her. Their nnmioii was celebrated by

    the noisiest demonstrations of joy, and the duck soon infoi-med

    her lord of the gallant ])i-o]iosals made to her during his absence

    ; in high dudgeon, he instantly attacked the luckless bird

    BEale’s aviary. 341

    which would have snp})hintc(l him, and so maltreated liim as to

    cause his death.

    The aviary here mentioned was for many j’ears, up to 1838,

    one of the principal attractions of Macao. Its owner, Mr

    Thomas Beale, had erected a wire cage on one side of his house,

    having two apartments, each of them about fifty feet high, and

    containing several large trees ; small cages and roosts were

    placed on the side of the liouso under shelter, and in one corner

    a pool afforded bathing conveniences to the water-fowl. The

    genial climate obviated the necessity of any covering, and only

    those species which would agree to live quietly together were

    allowed the free range of the two apartments. The great attraction

    of the collection was a living bird of paradise, which, at

    the period of the owner’s death, in 1840, had been in his possession

    eighteen years, and enjoyed good health at that time.

    The collection during one season contained nearly thirty specimens

    of pheasants, and besides these splendid birds, there were

    upward of one hundred and fifty others, of different sorts, some

    in cages, some on perches, and others going loose in the aviary.

    In one corner a large cat had a hole, where she reared her

    young ; her business was to guard the whole from the depredations

    of rats. A magnificent peacock from Damaun, a large

    assortment of macaw^s and cockatoos, a pair of magpies, another

    of the superb crowned pigeons {Goura coronata), one of Mdioni

    moaned itself to death on the decease of its mate, and several

    Nicobar ground pigeons, were also among the attractions of this

    curious and valuable collection.

    Four or five kinds of grebe and loon frequent the coast, of

    which the Podlcejys cristatus, called shui nu, or ^ water

    slave,’ is connnon around Macao. The same region affords

    sustenance to the pelican, which is seen standing motionless for

    hours on the rocks, or sailing on easy wing over the shallows

    in search of food. Its plumage is nearly a pure wliite, except

    the black tips of the wings ; its height is about four feet, and

    the expanse of the wings more than eight feet. The bill is

    flexible like whalel)one, and the pouch susceptible of great

    dilatation. Gulls abound on the northeast coasts, and no one

    who has seen it can forget the beautiful sight on the marshes at the entrance of the Pei ho, where myriads of white gulls assemble to feed, to ‘preen, and to quarrel or scream—the bright sun rendering their plumage like snow. The albatross, black tern, petrel, and noddy increase the list of denizens in Chinese waters, but offer nothing of particular interest.’

    There are foui* fabulous animals which are so often referred

    .y to by the Chinese as

    to demand a notice.

    The ki-lin is one of

    these, and is placed

    ‘^’i at the head of all

    hairy animals; as

    the funfj-Jiwang is

    pre-eminent among

    feathered races ; the

    dragon and tortoise

    among the scaly and

    shelly tribes ; and

    man among naked

    animals! The naked,

    hairy, feathered,

    shelly, a n d scaly

    tribes constitute the

    quinary system of

    ancient Chinese naturalists.

    The Tci-lin

    is pictured as resembling

    a stag in its

    \)^’>k\\ and a horse in its hoofs, but possessing the tail of an ox

    and a parti-colored or scaly skin. A single horn having a

    Heshy tip proceeds out of the forehead. Besides these external

    marks to identify it, the ¥i-lin exhibits great benevolence of

    The Kf-lin, or Unicorn,

    ‘ On the birds of China, see in general T^es Oiteaux de la Chine, par M.

    I’Abbo Armand David, avec un Atlas de 124 Planches dessin.’es et lith. par M.

    Arnonl. Taris, 1877. R. Rwinhoe, in the Procredmfjs of th<‘. ScknUfic Meetinf/

    s of the Zoological Sac. of London, and in 77ie Ihis, a Max/azine of General

    Ornitholodn, passim. Journ. N. C. Br. R. A. Soc, Nos. II., p. 225, and

    III., p. 287.

    THE KI-LIN AND FUNU-IIWANO. 343

    disposition toward other living animals, and appears only when

    w’ise and just kings, like Yau and Shun, or sages like Confucius,

    are born, to govern and teach mankind. The Chinese description

    presents many resemblances to the popular notices of the

    unicorn, and the independent origin of their account adds something

    to the probability that a single-horned equine or cervine

    animal has once existed.’

    Cuvier expresses the opinion that Pliny’s description of the

    The Fung-hwang, or Phcenix.

    Arabian phcenix was derived from the golden pheasant, though

    othei-s think the Egyptian plover is the original type. From his

    likening it to an eagle for size, having a yellow neck with purple,

    a blue tail varied with red feathers, and a richly feathered tufted

    head, it is more probable that the Impeyan pheasant was Pliny’s

    ‘ Chine.se Rejiository, Vol. VII., p. 213. Compare Yule’s note, Marco Polo,

    Vol. I., p. 233. Hue, Travels in Tartary, etc.. Vol. II., p. 246. Bell,

    Journey from St. Petersburgh in Russia to Ispahan in Persia., Vol. I., p. 216.

    Also Heeren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 98, where there is a resume of

    Ctesias’ acco\int of the unicorn.

    tvpe. The Chinesefung-kivang, or phoenix, is probably based

    on the Argns pheasant. It is described as adorned with every

    color, and combines in its form and motions whatever is elegant

    and graceful, while it possesses such a benevolent disposition

    that it will not peck or injure living insects, nor tread on

    o-rowino- herbs. Like the ki-lin, it has not been seen since the

    halcyon days of Confucius, and, from the accomit given of it,

    seems to have been entii-ely fabulous. The etymology of the

    characters implies that it is the emperor of all birds. One Chinese author describes it ” as resembling a wild swan before and a unicorn behind ; it has the throat of a swallow, the bill of a cock, the neck of a snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead of a crane, the crown of a mandarin drake, the stripes of a dragon, and the vanlted back of a tortoise. The feathers have five colors, which are named after the five cardinal virtues, and it i;^ five cubits in height ; the tail is graduated like Pandean pipes, and its song resembles the music of that instrument, having five modulations.” A beautiful ornament for a lady’s headdress is sometimes made in the shape of i\\e fung-Jnrang, and somewhat resembles a similar ornament, imitating the vulture, worn by the ladies of ancient Egypt.

    The lung, or dragon, is a familiar object on articles from

    China. It furnishes a comparison among them for e\ierything

    terrible, imposing, and powerful ; and being taken as the imperial

    coat of arms, consequently imparts these ideas to his

    person and state. The type of the dragon is probably the boaconstrictor

    or sea-serpent, or otiier similar monster, though the

    researches of geology have brought to light such a near counterpart

    of the lung in the iguanadon as to tempt one to

    believe that this has been the prototype. There are three

    dragons, the lung in the sky, the U in the sea, and the hlao in

    the marshes. The first is the only authentic species, according

    to the Chinese ; it has the head of a camel, the horns of a deer,

    eyes of a rabbit, ears of a cow, neck of a snake, belly of a frog,

    scales of a carp, claws of a hawk, and palm of a tigei-. On

    each side of the mouth are whiskers, and its beard contains a

    bi’ight pearl ; the breath is sometimes changed into water and

    sometunes into fire, and its voice is like the jingling of copper

    THE LUNG, OR DRAGON. 345

    pans. The dragon of the sea occasionally ascends to heaven in

    Avater-sponts, and is the rnler of all oceanic phenomena.’ The

    dragon is worshipped and feared by Chinese fishermen, and

    their liing-wang, or ‘ drag(jn king,’ answei-s to Keptnne in western

    mythology ; perhaps the ideas of all classes toward it is a

    modified relic of the widespread serpent worship of ancient

    times. The Chinese suppose that elfs, demons, and other

    supernatural beings often transform themselves into snakes ;

    and M. Julien has translated a fairy story of this sort, called

    Blanche et Bleue. The J,-wet, or tortoise, has so few fabulous

    qualities attributed to it that it hardly comes into the list ; it

    was, according to the story, an attendant on Pwanku when he

    chiselled out the world. A semi-classical work^ the SJian-hal

    Kmg, or ‘ Memoirs upon the Mountains and Seas,’ contains

    pictures and descriptions of these and kindred monsters, from

    which the people now derive strange notions respecting them,

    the l)Ook having served to embody and fix for the whole nation

    what the writer anciently found floating about in the popular

    legends of particular localities.

    A species of alligator {A. sinensis) has been described by

    Dr. A. Fauvel in the iT. O. Br. B.A. So,-. Journal, Xo. XIII.,

    1879, in which he gives man}’ historical and other notices of its

    existence. Crocodiles are recorded as having been seen in the

    rivers of Ivwangtnng and Ivwangsi, but none of this family

    attain a large size.

    Marco Polo’s account of the huge serpent of Yunnan,” having

    two forelegs near the head, and one claw like that of a lion or

    hawk on each, and a mouth big enough to swallow a man whole,

    referring no doubt to the crocodile, is a good instance of the

    way in which truth and fable were mingled in the accounts of

    those times. The flesh is still eaten by the Anamese, as he

    says it was in his day. A gigantic salamander, analogous to

    the one found in Japan (the Sieholdia), has suggested it as the

    ‘ CJdnese Refiository, Vol. VII., p. 250. For a careful analysis of this relic

    of ancient lore, see the Nowoeau Journal Asiatiq^ie, Tome XII., pp. 232-243,

    1833 ; also Tome VIII., 3d Series, pp. 337-382, 1839, for M. Bazin’s estimata of its value.

    •^ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 46.

    type of the dragon which ligures on the Chinese national flag.

    Small lizards abound in the southern parts, and the variety

    and numbers of serpents, both land and water, found in the

    maritime provinces, are hardly exceeded in any country in the

    world ; they are seldom poisonous. A species of naja is the

    only venomous sruike yet observed at Chusan, and the hooded

    cobra is one of the few yet found around Canton. Another

    species frequents the banks, and is driven out of the di’ains and

    creeks l)v high water into the houses. A case is mentioned by

    Bennet of a Chinese who was bitten, and to whose wound the

    mashed head of the reptile had been applied as a poultice, a

    mode of treatment which probably accelerated his death by

    mixing more of the poison diluted in the animars blood with

    the man’s own blood. It is, however, rare to hear of casualties

    from this source. This snake is called ‘black and M’hite,’

    from beino; marked in alternate bands of those two colors. A

    species of acrochordon, remarkable for its abrupt, short tail,

    has been noticed near Macao.

    It is considered felicitous by the Buddhist priests to harbor

    snakes around their temples ; and though the natives do not

    play with poisonous serpents like the Hindoos, they often

    handle or teach them simple tricks. The common frog is taken

    in great numbers for food. Tortoises and tui-tles from fresh

    and salt water are plenty along the coast, while both the emys

    and trionyx are kept in tubs in the streets, where they grow

    to a large size. An enormous carnivorous tortoise inhabits the

    M’aters of Chehkiansr near the ocean. The natives have strange

    ideas concerning the hairy turtle of Sz’chuen, and regard it as

    excellent medicine ; it is now known that the supposed hair

    consists of confervre, whose spores, lodged on the shell, have

    grown far beyond the animal’s body.

    The ichthyology of China is one of the richest in the world,

    though it may be so more from the greater proportion of food

    fui-nished by the waters than from any real supei’abundance of

    the finny tribes. The offal thi-own from boats near cities attracts

    some kinds to those jdaces, and gives food and employment

    to multitudes. Several large collections of fishes have

    CHTHYOLOGY OF CHINA. 347

    been made in Canton, and IMr. Reeves deposited one of the richest in the British Museum, together with a series of drawings made Ijy native artists from living specimens ; they have been described by Sir John liicliardson in the Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, for 1845. In this paper he enumerates one hundred and ninety genera and six hundred and seventy-one species, nearly all of which are marine

    or come out to sea at certain times. Since it was prepared

    great accessions to this branch have been made from the inland

    waters, so that probably a thousand sorts in all have been observed.

    The salmon and cod families are comparatively scarce,

    but the mackerel, goby, and herring families are very abundant.

    The variety of fish is so great in Macao, that if one is

    willino; to eat all that are brought to market, as the Chinese do

    (including the sharks, torpedoes, gudgeons, etc.), one can have

    a different species every day in the year. It may with truth

    be said that the Chinese eat nearly every living thing found in

    the water, some of the hideous fishing frogs or gurnards alone

    excepted.

    The cartilaginous fishes, sharks, rays, and saw-fish, are abundant

    on the sea-coast. The sturgeon is not common at the south,

    but in the winter it is brouo;ht fi-om the Sonsfari and other

    rivers to Peking for the imperial table, being highly prized by

    Chinese epicures. There is found in the Yangtsz”‘ a singular

    species of sturgeon, the i/iuyil, which lies under the banks in still

    water and sucks its prey into a sac-like mouth projecting like

    a cusp under the long snout ; it has no scales, and is four feet

    long. Common sturgeon, weighing a thousand pounds, are

    caught in this river. The hammer-headed and zebra shark

    {Cestracion zehra) are seen in the markets at Macao; also huge

    skates, some of them measuring five feet across ; the young of

    all these species are regarded as particularly good eating. A

    kind of torpedo {J^arcine lingula) is not uncommon on the

    southern coast, but the natives do not seem to l)e aware of any

    electrical properties. It is said that the fishermen sometimes

    destroy the shark by boiling a melon and throwing it out as a

    bait ; when swallowed, the heat kills the fish. The true cod

    has not been observed on the Chinese coast, but several species

    of serrani (as Plectrojiotna susuki, Serranus shihjjan, Megachh\etc.), generally called s/n’/i-jxtn by the natives, and garoupa bj foreigners, are common oft” C^anton, and considered to be most

    delicate fare. Anothei” fine fish is the Poh/nennis fetradactylus^

    or bjnni-carp, often called salmon by foreigners ; isinglass is

    prepared from its skin. The pomfret, or tsang yii {Stromateus

    argenteus), is a good pan-fish, bnt hardly so delicate as the sole,

    many fine species of which aboimd along the whole coast. Besides

    these, two or three species of mackerel, the Soiodna lucicla^

    an ophicephalns, the mullet, and the ‘ white rice fish ‘ occur.

    The shad is abundant oft’ the Yangtsz’, and is superior to the

    American species; Chinese epicures will sometimes pay fifty

    dollars for the first one of the season.

    The cai’p family {C’i/2>i’hiidie) is very abundant in the rivers

    and lalces of China, and some species are reared in fish-pools and

    tubs to a monstrous size ; fifty-two species are mentioned in

    Ricliardson’s list. The gold-fish is the most celebrated, and

    has been introduced into Europe, M’here it M-as first seen towai’d

    tlie end of the seventeenth century. The Chinese say that its

    Jiative place is Lake Tsau, in the province of l^ganhwui. The

    effects of domestication in changing the natm-al form of this

    fish are great ; specimens are often seen without any doi-sal fin,

    and the tail and other fins tufted and lol)ed to such a degree as

    to resemble artificial appendages or wings rather than natui-al

    organs. The eyes are developed till the globe projects beyond

    the socket like goggles, presenting an extraordinary appearance.

    Some of them are so fantastic, indeed, that tlioy would be regarded

    as Insns nature M^ere they not so connnon. The usual

    color is a I’uddy golden hue, but both sexes exhibit a silvery or

    blackish tint at certain stages of their growth ; and one variety,

    called the silver-fish, retains this shade all its life. The Chinese

    keep it in their garden ponds, or in earthern jai-s, in which

    are placed rocks covered with moss, and overgi-own w\x\\ tufts

    of ferns, to afford them a retreat fi-om the light. Vriien the

    females spawn, the eggs must be removed to a shallow vessel,

    lest the males devour them, where the heat of the sun hatches

    them ; the young are nearly black, but gradually become whitish

    or i-eddish, and at last assume a golden or silvery hue.

    Specimens upward of two feet long have been uoticed, and

    METHODS OF REARIN^G FISH. 349

    those wlio rear tlieni emulate each other in producing new

    varieties.

    The rearing of lisli is an important pursuit, the spawn being

    collected with the greatest care and placed in favorable positions

    for hatching. The Bulletin Universel for 1829 asserts

    that in some part of China the spawn so taken is carefullv

    placed in an empty egg-shell and the hole closed ; the cirg is

    then replaced in the nest, and, after the hen has sat a few davs

    upon it, reopened, and the spawn placed in vessels of water

    warmed bj the sun, wdiei-e it soon hatclies.

    The innnense fleets of fishing boats on the Yangtsz’ and its

    tributaries indicate the finny supplies its waters afford. A species

    of pipe-fish [Fistula/’ia iminaculata\ of a red color, and

    the gar-pike, with green bones, are found about Canton ; as are

    also numerous beautiful parrot-fish and sun-fish {Chwtodon).

    An ingenious mode of taking its prey is practised by a sort of

    chsetodon, or chelmon ; it darts a drop of water at the flies or

    other insects lighting on the bank near the edge, in such a

    manner as to knock them off, when they are devoured. All

    the species of ophieephalus, or mruj yi’i., so I’emarkable for their

    tenacity of life, are reared in tanks and pools, and are hawked

    alive through the streets.

    Eels, mullets, alewives or file-fish, breams, gudgeons, and

    many other kinds, are seen in the nuirkets. Few things eateix

    by the Chinese look more repulsive than the gobies as they lie

    wriggliTig in the slime which keeps them alive; one species

    {Try])auchen vcujina)^ called chu 2>’Ji yu, or ‘vermilion pencilfish,’

    is a cylindrical fish, six or eight inches long, of a dark red

    color ; its eyes protrude so that it can see behind, like a girafle.

    Some kinds of gobies construct little liillocks in the ooze, with

    a depression on the top, in which their spawn is hatched by tlu;

    sun ; at low tide they skip about on the banks like young frogs,

    and are easily captured with the hand. A delicious species oi

    Saurus {Leiicosoma Chinensis), called pihfan yil, or ‘ white rice

    fish,’ and yin yil, or silver-fish, ranges from Hakodate to Canton.

    It is six or eight inches long, the body scaleless and transparent,

    so that the muscles, intestines, and spinal column can

    be seen without dissection ; the bones of the head are thin, flexible, and diaphanoiis. Many species of file-fish, sole-fish, an^ cliovy, and eels, are captured on the coast. Vast quantities of

    dried fish, like the stock fish in Sweden, are sent inland to sell

    in resrions where fish are rare. The most common sorts are the

    perch, sun fish, gurnard, and hair-tail {Trlchlnrus).

    Shell-fish and mollusks, both fresh and salt, are abundant in

    the market. Oysters of a good quality are common along the

    coast, and a species of mactra, or sand-clam, is fished up near

    Macao. The Pearl River affords two or three kinds of freshwater

    shell-fish {Mytilus), and snails ( Voluta) are plenty in all

    pools. The crangons, prawns, shrimps, crabs, and other kinds

    of Crustacea met with, are not less abundant than palatable;

    one species of craw-fish, as large as (but not taking the place of)

    the lobster, called Ian// hat, or ‘ dragon crab,’ together with

    cuttle-fish of three or four kinds, and the king-crab {Poly])]ietnus),

    are all eaten. The inland w^aters produce many species

    of shells, and the new genus theliderma, allied to the unio,

    was formed by Mr. Benson, of Calcutta, from specimens obtained

    of a shopkeeper at Canton. The land shells are abundant,

    especiall}’ various kinds of snails {IIcll,i; Liftiiiwa, etc.) ;

    twenty two species of helix alone were contained in a small

    collection sent from Peking, in which region all this kind of

    food is well known. A catalogue of nearly sixty shells obtained

    in Canton is given in Murray’s China,’ but it. is doubtful

    whether even half of them are found in the country, as the

    shops there are supplied in a great degree from the Archipelago.

    Dr. Cantor”” mentions eighty-eight genera of shells occurring

    between Canton and Chusan. Pearls are found in China, and

    Marco Polo speaks of a salt lake, supposed now to be in Yunnan,

    which produced them in such quantity that the fishery in

    his day was farmed out and restricted lest they should become

    too cheap and common. In Chehkiang the natives take a largo

    kind of clam {Alasmodonta) and gently attach leaden images

    ‘ Vol. TIL, p. 445.

    ” Conspectus of collections made by Dr. Cantor, CMnefte Ttepository, Vol. X.,

    p. 434. General features of Cliusan, with remarks on the Fh)ra and Fauna of that Island, by T. E. Cantor, Aimal. Nai. Hist., Vol. IX. (1H42), pp. 205, 3()1

    and 481. Juuriial Ah. Soc. of Bengal, Vol. XXIV., 1855.

    SHELL-FISII AND INSECTS OF CHINA. 351

    of Buddha under tlie flsli, after wliieli it is thrown back into

    the water. Xacre is deposited over the lead, and after a few

    months the shells are retaken, cleaned, and then sent abroad to

    sell as proofs of the power and presence of Buddha. The

    Quarterly lieview speaks of a mode })ractised by the Chinese

    of making pearls by dropping a string of small mother-of-pearl

    beads into the shell, which in a year ai’e covered wdth the

    pearly crust. Leeches are much used by native physicians;

    the hammer-headed leech has been noticed at Chusan.

    The insects of China are almost unknown to the naturalist.

    In Dr. Cantor’s collection, from Chusan, there are fifty-nine

    genera mentioned, among which tropical forms prevail ; there

    are also six genera of arachnida^, and the list of spiders could

    easily be nudtipliod to hundreds ; among them are many showing

    most splendid coloring. One large and strong species is

    affirmed to capture small birds on the trees. Locusts sometimes

    commit extensive ravages, and no part of the land is free

    from their presence, though their depredations do not usually

    reach over a great extent of country, or often for two successive

    years. They are, however, sufficiently troiildesome to attract

    the notice of the government, as the edict against them, inserted

    in another chapter, proves. Centipedes, scorpions, and some other species in the same order are known, the former being most abundant in the central and western regions, where scorpions are rare.

    The most valuable insect is the silkworm, which i.; reared in

    nearly every province, and the silk from otlier wild M’orms

    found on the oak and ailantus in Shantung, Sz’chuen, and elsewhere

    also gathered ; the proper silkworm itself has been met

    with to some extent in northern Shansi and Mongolia. Many

    other insects of the same order {Lepidoj)ter(e) exist, but those

    sent abroad have been mostly from the province of Kwangtung.

    Eastward of the city of Canton, on a range of hills

    called Lofau shan, large butterflies and night moths of immense

    size and brilliant coloring are captured. One of these

    mQGcis, {Bornhyx atlas) \\\e2i&\\ve& about nine inches across ; the

    ground color is a rich and varied orange brown, and in the centre

    of each wing there is a triangular transparent spot, resembling a piece of mica. Sphinxes of great beauty and size are common, and in their splendid coloring, rapid noiseless flight from flower to flower, at the close of the day, remind one of the lunnming-bird. Sonje families are more abundant than others ; the coleopterous exceed the lepidopterous, and the range of particular tribes in each of these is often very limited. The humid regions of Sz’chuen furnished a great harvest of beautiful butterflies to M, David, while the lamellicorn beetles and cerambycidae are the most common in the north and central parts.

    Many tribes of coleopterous insects are abundant, but the

    number of species yet identified is trifling. Several water

    beetles, and others included under the same general designation,

    have been found in collections sold at Canton, but owing to the

    careless manner in wliich those boxes are filled, very few specimens

    are perfect, the antenna3 or tarsi being broken. The molecricket

    occurs everywhere. The common cricket is caught and

    sold in the markets for gambling ; persons of all ranks amuse

    themselves by irritating two of these insects in a bowl, and betting

    upon the prowess of their favorites. The cicada, or broad

    locust, is abundant, and its stridulous sound is heard from trees

    and groves with deafening loudness. Boys tie a straw around

    the abdomen of the male, so as to irritate the sounding apparatus,

    and carry it through the streets in this predicament, to

    the great annoyance of every one. This insect was well known

    to the Greeks ; the ancient distich

    ” Happy the cicadas’ lives,

    For they all have voiceless wives,”

    hints at their knowledge of this sexual difference, as well as intimates

    their opinion of domestic quiet. Again it forms the

    subject of Meleager’s invocation :

    •’ shrill-voiced insect ! that with dew-drops meet,

    Inehriate, dost in desert woodlands sing ;

    Perch’d on the spray top with indented feet,

    Thy dusky body’s echoings harp-like ring.”

    COLEOPTEM^ AND THE WAX \VOK>t. 358

    The lantern-fly {Fulgm’o) is less common than the cicada. It is easily recognized by its long cylindrical snout, arched in an upward direction, its greenish reticulated elytra, and orange-yellow wings with black extremities ; but its appearance in the evening is far from being as luminous as are the fire-Hy and glow-worm of South America. The Peh lah ahu, or ‘ white wax tree’ {Fraxinus chinensis), affords nourishment to an insect of this order

    called Coccus pela. The larvae alone furnish the wax, the secretion

    being the result of disease. Sir Geo. L. Staunton first

    described the tly from specimens seen in Annam in 1795, where

    the natives collected a white powder from the bark of the

    tree on which it occurs. Daniel Ilanbury figured the insect

    and tree with the deposit of crude wax on the limbs, all obtained

    in Chekhiang province.’ Baron Richthofen speaks of

    this industry in Sz’chuen as one furnishing employment to

    great multitudes. The department of Kia-ting furnishes the

    best wax, as its climate is warmer than Chingtu. The eggs of

    the insect are gathered in Kien-chang and King-yuen, where

    the tree flourishes on which it deposits them, and its culture is

    carefully attended to. The insect lives and breeds on this evergreen,

    and in April the eggs are collected and carried up to

    Kia-ting by porters. This journey is mostly performed by

    night so as to avoid the risk of hatching their loads ; 300 eggs

    weigh one tael. They are instantly placed on the same kind of

    tree, six or seven balls of eggs done up in palm-leaf bags and

    hung on the twigs. In a few days the larvae begin to spread

    over the branches, but do not touch the leaves ; the bark soon

    becomes incrusted with a white powder, and is not disturbed

    till August. The loaded branches are then cut off and boiled,

    when the wax collects on the surface of the water, is skimmed

    off, and melted again to be poured into pans for sale. A tael’s

    weight of eggs will produce two or three catties of the translucent,

    highly crystalline wax ; it sells thei-e for five mace a tael and

    upward. The annual income is reckoned at Tls. 2,000,000.’

    The purposes to which this singular product are applied include

    all those of beeswax. Pills are ingeniously enclosed in small

    ‘ Hanbury’s notes on Chinese Materia Medica, 1862 ; Pharmaceutical

    Journal, Feb., 1802.

    ^ Baron Ricbthofen’s Letters, No. VII. , to Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, May, 187e, p. r)2.

    globes of it, and onndles of every size made. “Wax is also gatli

    ered from wild and domestic bees, but honey is not miicli used ;

    a casing of wax, colored with vermilion, is nsed to inclose the

    tallow of great painted candles set before the idols and tablets.

    The Chinese Ilerhal contains a singular notion, prevalent

    also in India, concerning the generation of the sphex, or solitary

    wasp. When the female lays her eggs in the clayey nidus

    she makes in houses, she encloses the dead body of a caterpillar

    in it for the subsistence of the worms when they hatch. Those

    who observed her entombing the caterpillar did not look for

    the eggs, and immediately concluded that the sphex took the

    wo)-m for her progeny, and say that as she plastered up the

    liole of the nest, she hinnmed a constant song over it, saying,

    ^^ Class ‘ii’ith nnc ! (Jhixs tiufji, me ! ‘”—and the transformation

    gradually took place, and was perfected in its silent grave by

    the next spring, when a winged wasp emerged to continue its

    posterity in the same mystei’ious way.’

    White ants are troublesome in the warmer parts, and annoy

    the people there by eating up tlie coffins in the graves. They

    form passages under ground, and penetrate upward into the

    woodwork of houses, and the w’hole building may become infested

    M’ith them almost before their existence is suspected.

    They will even eat their way into fruit trees, cabbages, and

    other plants, destroying them while in full vigor. Many of the

    internal arrangements of the nests of bees and ants, and their

    peculiar instincts, have been described by Chinese writers with

    considerable accuracy. The composition of the characters for

    the bee, ant, and mosquito, respectively, denote the atcl insect,

    the 7’l(jhteous insect, and the lettered insect ; referring thereby

    to the sting of the first, the orderly working and subordination

    of the second, and the letter-like markings on the wings of

    the latter. Mosquitoes are plenty, and gauze curtains are considered

    to be a more necessary part of bed furniture than a

    mattress.

    The botany of China is rather better known than its zoology,

    ‘ Darwin, NaturalisVs Voyage, p. 35, notices a similar habit of the spliex in

    tlie vicinity of Rio Janeiro. The insect partially kills the spider or caterpillar

    by stinging, when they are stored in a rotting state with her eggs.

    RESEARCHES IN THE BOTANY OF CHINA. 355

    though vast and unexplored fields, like that reaching from Canton

    to Silhet and Assam, still invite the diligent collector to

    gather, examine, and make known their treasures. One of the

    earliest authors in this branch was Pere Loureiro, a Portuguese

    for thirty-six years missionary in Cochinchina, and professor of

    mathematics and physic in the royal palace. He gathered a

    large herbarium there and in southern Kwangtung, and published

    his Flora Coehinehinensis in 1790, in which he described

    one hundred and eighty-four genera and more than three hundred

    new species. The only other work specially devoted to

    Chinese botany is Bentham’s Flora JTongJcongensis, published

    in 18G1. The materials for it were collected by Drs. Hinds,

    Ilance and Ilarland, Col. Champion, and others, during the

    previous twenty years, and amounted in all to upward of five

    thousand specimens, gathered exclusively on the island. Since

    its publication, Dr. Hance has added to our accurate knowledge

    of the Chinese flora many new specimens growing in other

    parts of the Empire, whose descriptions are scattered through

    various publications. Pere David, during his extensive travels

    in northern China, gathered thousands of specimens which have

    yet to be carefully described. The Pussian naturalists Maximowitch,

    Bunge, Tatarinov, Bretschneider, Prejevalsky, and

    others liave largely increased our knowledge of the plants of

    Mongolia, the Amur basin, and the region about Pekhig. The

    first named has issued a separate work on the Amur flora, but

    most of the papers of these scientists are to be found in periodicals.

    In very early days, China was celebrated for the camphor,

    varnish, tallow, oil, tea, cassia, dyes, etc., obtained from

    its plants ; and the later monographs of professed botanists,

    issued since Linneus looked over the two hundred and sixtyfour

    species brought by his pupil Osbeck in 1750, down to the

    present day, have altogether given immense assistance to a

    thorough understanding of their nature and value.

    Mr. Bentham’s observations on the range of the plants collected

    in the island of Hongkong represent its flora, in general

    character, as most like that of tropical Asia, of which it offers,

    in numerous instances, the northern limit. The damp, M’ooded

    ravines on the north and west furnish plants closely allied to those of Assam and Sikkiiii ; while other species, in considerable numbers, have a much more tropical character, extending with little variation over the x\rchipelago, Malaysia, Ceylon, and even to tropical Africa, but not into India. Within two degrees north of the island these tropical features (so far as is

    known) almost entireW cease, and out of the one thousand and

    fifty-six species described in the Flora Ifongl’ongensis, only

    about eighty have been found in Japan ; thus indicating that

    very few of the plants known to range across from the Himalaya

    to Japan grow south of Amoy. On the twenty-nine

    square miles foi-ming the area of Hongkong there exists, Mr.

    ]3entham says, a greater number of monotypic genera than in

    any other flora from an equal area in the world ; he gives a

    comparative table of the floras of Hongkong, Aden and Ischia

    islands, about equal in extent, showing one thousand and three

    species growing on the first, ninety-five on the second, and

    seven hundred and ninety-two on the third. Tlie proportion

    of woody to herbaceous species in Hongkong is nearly one-half,

    while in Ischia it is one to eleven ; yet Hongkong has actually

    fewer trees than Ischia. Out of tlie one thousand and three

    species of wild plants there, three hundred and ninety-eight

    also occur in the tropical Asiatic flora, while one hundred and

    eighty-seven others have been found as well on the mainland; one hundred and fifty-nine are peculiar to the island.

    Many species of coniferae are floated down to Canton, taken

    from the Mei ling, or brought from Kwangsi ; the timber is

    used for fuel, but more for rafters and pillars in buildings.

    The wood of the pride of India is employed for cabinet work ;

    there are also many kinds of fancy wood, some of which are

    imported, and more are indigenous. The nan muh, or southern

    wood, a magnificent species of laurus common in Sz’chuen,

    which resists time and insects, is peculiarly valuable, and reserved

    for imperial use. The cc«salpinia, rose wood, aigle

    wood, and the camphor, elm, willow, and aspen, are also

    serviceable in carpentry.

    The people collect seaweed to a great extent, using it in the

    arts and also for food ; among these the Gi<jartina tenax affords

    an excellent material for glues and varnishes. It is boiled, and

    CONIFERyE AND GRASSES. 357

    the transparent glne obtained is brushed upon very coarse silk or

    mulberry paper, filling up their substance, and making a transparent

    covering for lanterns ; it is also used as a size for stiffening

    silks and gauze. This and other kinds of fuel are boiled to a

    jelly and used for food ; it is known in commerce under the name

    of agar-agar. The thick fronds of the laminaria are gathered on

    the northern coasts and imported from Japan. Among other

    cryptogams, the Tartarian lamb {Aspldiian haromefz), so

    graphically described by Darwin in his Botania Garden, has

    long been celebrated ; it is partly an artificial production of the

    ingenuity of Chinese gardeners taking advantage of the natural

    habits of the plant to form it into a shape resembling a sheep or

    other object.

    Among i-emarkable grasses the zak or saxaul {Ilaloxylon) and

    the sulhJr {Agr’tojdnjllu.m), which grow in the sandy parts of

    the desert of Gobi, should he mentioned. The first is found

    across the whole length of this arid region, growing on the bare

    sand, furnishing to the traveller a dry and ready fuel in its brittle

    twigs, while his camels greedily browse on its leafless but

    juicy and prickly branches. The Mongols pitch their tents bebeath

    its shelter, seeking for some covert from the wintry

    winds, and encouraged to dig at its roots for water which has

    been detained by their succulent nature, a wonderful provision

    furnished by God in the bleakest desert. The sulh’ir is even

    more important, and is the ” gift of the desert.” It grows on

    bare sand, is about two feet high, a prickly saline plant, producing

    many seeds in September, of a nutritious, agreeable

    nature, food for man and beast.

    The list of gramineous plants cultivated for food is large; the common sorts include rice, wheat, barley, oats, maize, sugarcane,

    panic, sorghum, spiked and panicled millet, of each kind

    several varieties. The grass {Phragmites) raised along the

    river banks is carefully cut and dried, to be woven into floormatting

    ; a coarser sort, called ataj), is made of bamboo splints

    for roofs of huts, awnings, and sheds. In the milder climes of

    the southern coasts, cheap houses are constructed of these

    materials. The coarse grass and shrubbery on the hills is cut

    in the autumn for fuel by the poor ; and when the hills are well slieared of their grassy covering, the stubble is set on lire, in order to supply ashes for manuring the next crop—an operation which tends to keep the hills ])are of all shrubbery and trees.

    Few persons mIio have not seen the bainlxio growing in its

    native climes get a full idea from pictures of its grace and

    beauty. A clump of this magnificent grass will gradually develop

    by new shoots into a grove, if care be taken to cut down

    the older stems as they reach full maturity, and not let them

    flower and go to seed ; for as soon as they have perfected the

    seed, they die down to the root, like other grasses. The stalks

    usually attain the height of fifty feet, and in the Indian islands

    often reach seventy feet and upward, with a diameter of ten or

    twelve inches at the bottom. A road lined with them, with

    their feathery sprays meeting overhead, presents one of the most

    beautiful avenues possible to a warm climate.

    In China the industry and skill of the people have multiplied

    and pei-petuated a number of varieties (one author contents

    himself with describing sixty of them), among M’liich are the

    yellow, the black, the green, the slender sort for pipes, and a

    slenderer one for writing-pencils, the big-leaved, etc. Its uses

    are so various that it is not easy to enumerate them all. The

    shoots come out of the ground nearly full-sized, four to six

    inches in diameter, and are cut like asparagus to eat as a pickle

    or a comfit, or by boiling or stewing. Sedentary Buddhist

    priests raise this lenten fare for themselves or to sell, and extract

    the tabasheer from the joints of the old culms, to sell as a

    precious medicine for almost anything which ails you. The

    roots are carved into fantastic and ingenious images and stands,

    or divided into egg-shaped divining-blocks to ascertain the will

    of the gods, or trinnned into lantern handles, canes, and umbrella-

    sticks.

    The tapering culms are used for all pui’poses that poles can

    be applied to in carrying, propelling, suj)])orting, and measuring,

    for which thcii- light, elastic, tubular sti-uctni-e, guarded by

    a coating of silicious skin, and strengthened by a thick septum

    at each joint, most admii-ably fits them. The pillars and props

    of houses, the framework of awnings, the ribs of mat-sails, and

    THE BAMBOO—ITS BEAUTY AND USEFULNESS. 359

    tlie shafts of rakes are each fnrnislied bj these cuhns. So,

    also, are fences and all kinds of frames, coops, and cages, the

    wattles of abatis, and the ribs of uuibi-eHas and fans. The

    leaves are sewed into rain-cloaks for farmers and sailors, and

    thatches for covering their huts and boats, pinned into linings

    for tea-boxes, plaited into immense um])rellas to screen the

    huckster and his stall from the sun and rain, or into coverings

    for theatres and sheds. Even the whole lot where a two-storj

    house is building is usually covered in by a framework of bamboo-

    poles and (?/%;—as this leaf covering is called, from its

    Malay name—all tied together by rattan, and protecting the

    workmen and theii” work from sun and rain.

    The wood, cut into splints of proper sizes and forms, is woven

    into baskets of every shape and fancy, sewed into window-curtains

    and door-screens, plaited into awnings and coverings for

    tea-chests or sugar-cones, and twisted into cables. The shavings

    and curled threads aid softer things in. stuffing pillows ; while

    other parts supply the bed for sleeping, the chopsticks for eating,

    the pipe for smoking, and the broom for sweeping. The

    mattress to lie upon, the chair to sit upon, the table to eat on,

    the food to eat, and the fuel, to cook it with, are also derivable

    from bamboo. The master makes his ferule from it, the carpenter

    his foot-measure, the farmer his water-pipes, irrigating

    wheels, and straw-rakes, the grocer his gill and phit cups, and

    the mandarin his dreaded instrument of punishment. This last

    use is so common that the name of the plant itself has come in

    our language to denote this application, and the poor wretch

    who is hamhooed for his crimes is thus taught that laws cannot

    be violated with impunity.

    The paper to write on, the book to study fi’om, the pencil to

    write with, the cup to hold the pencils, and the covering of the

    lattice-window instead of glass are all indebted to this grass in

    their manufacture. The shaft of the soldier’s spear, and oftentimes

    the spear altogether, the plectrum for playing the lute,

    the reed in the native organ, the skewer to fasten the hair, the

    undershirt to protect the body, the hat to screen the head, the

    bucket to draw the water, and the easy-chair to lounge on,

    besides cages for birds, fish, bees, grasshoppers, shrimps, and

    360 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    cockroaches, crab-nets, fishing-poles, sumpitans oi* sliooting

    tubes, fintes, fifes, fire-holders, etc., etc., are among the thingti

    furnished from this plant, whose beauty when growing is commensurate

    to its usefulness when cut down. A score or two of

    bamboo- poles for joists and rafters, fifty fathoms of rattan ropes,

    with plenty of palm-leaves and bamboo-matting for roof and

    sides, supply material for a common dwelling in the south of

    China. Its cost is about five dollars. Those houses built over

    creeks, or along the low banks of rivers and sea-beaches, are

    elevated a few feet, and their floors are neatly made of split

    bamboos, which allow the water to be seen through. The

    decks, masts, yards, and framework of the mat-sails of the small

    boats of the islanders in the Archipelago are all more or les.’i

    made of this useful plant. Throughout the south of Asia it

    enters into the daily life of the people in their domestic economy

    more than anything else, or than any other one thing does in

    any part of the world. The Japanese supply us with fans

    neatly formed, ribs and liandle, from a single branch of bamboo,

    and covered with paper made from mulberry bark, while their

    skill is shown also in the exquisite covering of fine bamboo

    threads woven around cups and saijcers.’

    In ancient times the date palm was cultivated in China, but

    is now unknown. The cocoanut flourishes in Hainan and the

    adjacent coasts, where its fruit, leaves, and timber are much

    used. A great variety of utensils are carved from the nut-case,

    and ropes spun from the coir, while the cultivators drink the

    toddy made from the juice. The fan palm {Ch(Hiucroj)s) is the

    comlnon palm of the country, two species being cultivated for

    the wiry fibres in the leaf-sheaths, and fur their broad leaves.

    This fibre is far more useful than that from cocoanut husks, as

    it is longer and smoother, and is woven into ropes, mats, cloaks,

    and brushes. The tree is spread over the greater part of the

    provinces, one of their most ornamental and useful trees. Another

    sort {Canjotd) also furnishes a fibre employed in the same

    way, but its timber is more valuable ; sedan thills are made of

    its wood. Still another is the tali}>ot \rA\\\\ (ItoraxKits), from.

    ‘ Compare Yule’s Marm Polo, Vol. I., p. 271 •, A. 11. Wallace. 2’he Malay

    Archipelago, pp. 87-91, American Ed.

    PALMS, YAMS, PLANTAINS, ETC. 861

    whose leaves a material fur writing books upon was once produced,

    as is the case now in Siam.’

    Several species of Aroideae are cultivated, among which the

    Caladluiii cuculaturn, Arum esculentuvi, and Indicurii are

    common. The tuberous farinaceous roots of the Sagittaria

    srueihslfi are esteemed ; the roots of these plants, and of the

    water-chestnut, are manufactured into a powdoi- resemblingarrow-

    root. The sweet Hag {Calanitm) is used in medicine for

    its spic\’ warmth. The stems of a species of Juncus are collected

    and the pith carefully taken out and dried for the wicks

    of water lamps, and the inner layers of the pith hats so generally

    worn in southern China.

    The extensive group of lillies contains many splendid ornaments

    of the conservatory and garden, natives of China ; some

    are articles of food. The Agcqxinthus, or blue African lily, four

    species of IlemerocaUis, or day lily, and the fragrant tuberose,

    are all common about Canton ; the latter is widely cultivated

    for its blossoms to scent fancy teas. Eight or ten species of

    Lilium (among which the speckled tiger lily and the unsullied

    white are conspicuous) also add their gay beauties to the gardens

    ; while the modest Commelina, with its delicate blue blossoms,

    ornaments the hedges and walks. Many alliaceous plants,

    the onion, cives, garlic, etc., belong to this group ; and the Chinese

    relish them for the table as nmcli as they admire the

    flowers of their beauteous and fi-agrant congeners for bouquets.

    The singular red-leaved iron-wood {Draccena) forms a common

    ornament of gardens.

    The yam, or t((-s/tu (i.e., ‘great tuber’), is not much raised,

    though its wholesome qualities as an article of food are well

    understood. The same group {3Iusalei^) to which tlie yam

    belongs furnishes the custard-apple, one of the few fruits which

    have been introduced from abroad. The Amaryllidse are represented

    by many pretty species of Crinum, Xerine, and Amaryllis.

    Their unprotitable beauty is compensated by the plain but

    useful plantain, said to stand before the potato and sago pahn

    as producing the greatest amount of wholesome food, in propor-

    ‘See also in Nates and Queries on 0. and J., Vol. IIL, pp. 115, 139, 13^

    147, 150, 170.

    362 tup: middle kixgdom.

    tion to its size, of any cultivated plant.’ There are many varieties

    of this fruit, some of them so acid as to require cooking

    hefore eating.

    That pleasant stomachic, ginger, is cultivated through all the

    country, and exposed for sale as a ereen vegetable, to spice

    dishes, and largely made into a preserve. The Alpinia and

    Canna, or Indian shot, are common garden flowers. The large

    group of OrchideiB has nineteen genera known to be natives of

    China, among which the air plants ( Vanda and jErides) are great

    favorites. They are suspended in baskets under the trees, and

    continue to unfold their blossoms in gradual succession for manv

    weeks, all the care necessary being to sprinkle them daily. The

    true species of brides are among the most beautiful productions

    of the vegetable world, their flowers being arrayed in long racemes

    of delicate colors and delicious fragrance. The beautiful Bletia,

    Arundina, Spathoglottis, and Cymbidium are common in damp

    and elevated places about the islands near Macao and Hongkong.

    Many species of the pine, cypress, and yew, forming the

    three subdivisions of cone-bearing plant?, furnish a 1 a I’ge proportion

    of the timber and fuel. The larch is not rare, and the

    Pinus tndssoniana and Cunninghamia furnish most of the

    common pine timber. The finest member of this order in

    China is the white pine {Pinus htDujtami), peculiar to Chihli

    ;

    its trunk is a clear white, and as it annually sheds the bark it

    always looks as if whitewashed. Some specimens near Peking

    are said to be a thousand years old. Two members of the

    genus Sequoia, of a moderate size, occur near Tibet. The juniper

    and thuja are often selected by gardeners to try their skill

    in forcing them to grow into rude representations of birds and

    animals, the price of these curiosities being proportioned to

    their grotesqueness and difiiculty. The nuts of the maiden-hair

    tree {Saliffhu/’ia adiatdifolia) are eaten, and the leaves are

    sometimes put into books as a preservative against insects.

    The willow is a favorite plant and grows to a great size,

    Staunton mentioning some which were fifteen feet in girth ;

    ‘ From calculations of Humboldt It was estimated that the productiveness

    of this plant as compared with wheat is as 133 to 1, and as against potatoes, 44

    to 1.

    FOKEST TREES, HEMP, ETC. 363

    they shade the roads near the capital, and one of them is the

    true Babylonian ^\ illow ; the trees are grown for timber and for

    burning into charcoal. Their leaves, shape, and habits afford

    many metaphors to poets and Avriters, much more use being

    made of the tree in tliis way. it miglit almost be said, than any

    other. The oak is less patronized by fine writers, but the value

    of its wood and bark is well understood ; the country affords

    several species, one of which, the chestnut oak, is cultivated for

    tlie cupules, to be used in dyeing. The galls are used for dyeing

    and in medicine, and the acorns of some kinds are ground in

    mills, and the iiour soaked in water and made into a farinaceous

    paste. Some of the missionaries speak of oaks a hundred feet

    high, but such giants in this family are rare. ” One of the

    lai’gest and most interesting of these trees, which,’”‘ writes Abel,

    ” I have called Quercus derhsifolia, resembled a laurel in its

    sliming green foliage. It bore branches and leaves in a thick

    head, crowning a naked and straight stem ; its fi-uit grew along upright

    spikes terminating the branches. Another species, growing

    to the height of fifty feet, bore them in long, pendulous spikes.”

    The chestnut, walnut, and hazelnut together furnish a large

    supply of food. The queer-shaped ovens fashioned in imitation

    of a raging lion, in which chestnuts are roasted in tlie streets of

    Peking, attract the eye of the visitoi”. The Jack-fruit {Artocarj>

    us) is not uidvnown in Canton, but it is not much used. Thei’e

    are many species of the banian, but none of them produce fruit

    worth plucking ; the Portuguese have introduced the connnon

    fig, but it does not flourish. The bastard banian is a magnificent

    shade tree, its branches sometimes overspreading an area a

    hundred or more feet across. The walls of cities and dwellings

    are soon covered with the Ficus rej>en.s, and if left unmolested

    its roots gradually demolish them. The paper mulberry

    {Broussonetia) is largely cultivated in the northern provinces,

    and serves the poor with their chief material for windows.

    The leaf of the common nmlberry is the pi-incipal object of its

    culture, but the fruit is eaten and the wood burned for lampblack

    to make India-ink.

    Hemp {Cannahis) is cultivated for its fibres, and the seeds

    furnish an oil used for household purposes and medicinal prep364

    THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    arations ; the intoxicating substance called hang, made in India,

    is unknown in China. The family Proteaceae’ contains the

    Eleococca cvrdata, or wu-ttnuj, a favorite tree of the Chinese for

    its beauty, the hard wood it furnishes, and the oil extracted

    from its seeds. The Stillingia belongs to the same family ; this

    symmetrical tree is a native of all the eastern provinces, where

    it is raised for its tallow ; it resembles the aspen in the form

    and color of the leaf and in its general contour. The castor-oil

    is cultivated as a hedge plant, and the seeds are used both in

    the kitchen and apothecai’ies’ ^\\o\>.

    The order Ilippuriuie furnishes the water caltrops {Trwpa),

    the seeds of which are vended in the streets as a fruit after

    boiling; one native name is ‘buffalo-head fruit,’ Mhicli the unopened

    nuts strikingly resemble. Black pepper is imported,

    not so much as a spice as for its infusion, to be administered in

    fevers. The betel pepper is cultivated for its leaves, which are

    chewed with the betel-nut. The pitcher plant (N’ejpenthes),

    called pig-basket plant, is not unfrequent near Canton ; the

    leaves, or ascidia, bear no small resemblance to the open baskets

    employed for carrying hogs.

    Many species of the tribe JRumicince are cultivated as esculent

    vegetables, among which maybe enumerated spinach, green

    basil, beet, amaranthus, cockscomb, broom-weed {Kochia), buckwheat,

    etc. Two species of Polygonum are laised for the blue

    dye furnished by the leaves, which is extracted, like indigo, by

    maceration. Buckwheat is prepared for food by boiling it like

    millet; one native name means ‘triangular wheat.’ The tlour

    is also employed in pastry. The cockscomb is much adniire<l

    by the Chinese, whose gardens furnish several splendid varieties.

    The rhubarb is a member of this useful tribe, and large quantities

    are l)rought from Kansuh and Koko-nor, where its habits

    have lately been observed by Prejevalsky. The root is dug by

    Chinese and Tanguts during September and October, dried in

    the shade, and ti-ansported by the Yellow River to the coast

    towns, where Europeans pay from six to ten times its rate

    among the mountain markets.’ The Chinese consider the rest

    ‘ Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. T., p. 197.

    RHUBARB, LEGUMINOS^, ETC. 365

    of tiie world dependent on them for tea and rhubarb, whose

    inhabitants are therefore forced to resort thither to procure

    means to relieve themselves of an otherwise irremediable costiveness.

    This argument was made use of by Commissioner

    Lin in 1840, when recommending certain restrictive regulations

    to be imposed upon foreign trade, because he supposed merchants

    from abroad would be compelled to purchase them at

    any price.

    The order lliclna^ or holly, furnishes several genera of

    lihamneai, whose fruits are often seen on tables. The Zizyphus

    furnishes the so called Chinese dates’ in immense quantities

    throughout the northern provinces. The fleshy peduncles

    of the llovenia are eaten ; they are connnon in the southeastern

    provinces. The leaves of the Rltaninus tlieezans are among

    the many plants collected by the poor as a make-shift for the

    true tea. The fruit called the Chinese olive, obtained from the

    Pimela, is totally diiferent from and is a poor substitute for the

    rich olive of the Mediterranean countries.”

    The Leguminos^e hold an important place in Chinese botany,

    affording many esculent vegetables and valuable products.

    Peas and beans are probably eaten more in China than any

    other country, and soy is prepared chiefly from the ISoja or

    Dolichos. One of the modes of making this condiment is to

    skin the beans and gi’ind them to flour, which is mixed with

    water and powdered gypsum, or turmeric. It is eaten as a

    jelly or curd, or in cakes, and a meal is seldom spread without

    it in some form. One genus of this tribe affords indigo, and

    from the buds and leaves of a species of Coluteaakind of green

    dye is said to be obtained. Liquorice is esteemed in medicine ;

    and the red seeds of the Ahna j^recrt/o^’/^^.s” are gathered for

    ornaments. The Poinciana and Bauhinia are cultivated for

    their flowers, and the Erythrina and Cassia are among the

    most magnificent flowering trees in the south.

    ‘ Tlie application of this name to the jujube plum by foreigners, because

    the kind cured in honey resembled Arabian dates in color, size, and taste

    when brought on the table, is a good instance of the nuinner in which errors

    arise and are perpetuated from mere carelessness.

    ‘^ Compare Dr. H. F. Hance, in Journal of Bot<iny, Vol. IX., p. 38.

    366 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    The fruits are, on the whole, inferior in flavor and size to

    those of the same names at the west. Several varieties of

    pears, plums, peaches, and apricots are known ; it is probable

    that China is the native country of each of these fruits, and

    some of the varieties equal those found anywhere. Erman

    mentions an apple or haw which grows in ” long bunches and

    is round, about the size of a cherry, of a red color, and very

    sweet taste,” found in abundance near Kiahhta. There are

    numerous species of Amygdalus cultivated for their flowers

    ;

    and at new year the budding stems of the flowering almond,

    narcissus, plum, peach, and bell-flower (Enlianthus retlculatuH)

    are forced into blossom for exhibition, as indicating good luck

    the coming year. The apples and cpiinces are generally destitute

    of that flavor looked for in them elsewhere, but the lu-l’uh,

    or loquat^ is a pleasant acid spring fruit. The pomegranate is

    chiefly cultivated for its beauty as a flowering plant ; but the

    guava and Eugenia, or rose-apple, are sold in the market or

    made into jellies. The rose is a favorite among the Chinese and

    extensively cultivated ; twenty species are mentioned, together

    with many varieties, as natives of the country ; the Banks rose

    is developed and trained with great skill. The Spira?a or privet,

    myrtle, Quisqualis, Lawsonia or henna, white, purple, and red

    varieties of crape-myrtle or Lagerstrcemia, Hydrangea, the passion-

    flower, and the house-leek are also among the ornamental

    plants found in gardens. Few trees in any countiy present a

    more elegant appearance, when in full flowei”, than the Lagerstra’inias.

    The Pride of India and Chinese tamarix are also

    beautiful flowering trees. Specimens of the Cactus and Cereus,

    containing fifty or more splendid flowers in full bloom, are not

    unusual at Macao in August.

    The watermelon, cucumber, squash, tomato, brinjal or eggplant,

    and other garden vegetables are abundant ; the tallowgourd

    (Bcnincctsacerifcm) is remarkable for having its surface

    covered with a waxy exudation which sniells like rosin. The

    dried bottle-gourd {Cucnirbita lagenaria) is tied to the backs of

    children on the boats to assist them in floating if they should

    ^Travels in Siberia, Vol. II., p. 151.

    FRUIT TREES AND FLOWERING PLANTS. 367

    Tinluckily fall overboard. Tlie fniit and leaves of the papaw,

    or inuh k^va, ‘ tree melon,’ are eaten after being cooked ; tlie

    Chinese are aware of the inteneratino; property of the exhalations

    from the leaves of this tree, and make use of them sometimes

    to soften the flesh of ancient hens and cocks, by hanging

    the newly killed birds in the tree or by feeding them upon the

    fruit beforehand. The carambola {Averr/ioa) or tree gooseberry

    is nnich eaten by the Chinese, but is not relished by

    foreigners ; the tree itself is also an ornament to any pleasure

    grounds.

    Ginseng is found wild in the forests of Manchuria, where it

    is collected by detachments of soldiers detailed for this purpose ;

    these regions are regarded as imperial preserves, and the medicine

    is held as a governmental monopoly. The importation of

    the American root does not interfere to a very serious degree

    with the imperial sales, as the Chinese are fully convinced that

    their o’svn plant is far superior. Among numerous plants of

    the malvaceous and pink tribes (Dianthacece) remarkable for

    their beauty or use, the Lychnis cownata, five sorts of pink,

    the Althcea Chinensis, eight species of Hibiscus, and other

    malvaceous flowers may be mentioned ; the cotton tree {Salmalia)

    is common at Canton ; the fleshy petals are sometimes

    j^repared as food, and the silky stamens dried to stuff cushions.

    The (Tossyjnmn hevljaceniti and Pachyrrhizus affoi-d the matCv

    rials for cotton and gra«scloth ; both of them are cultivated in

    most parts of China. The latter is a twining, leguminous

    plant, cultivated fi-om remote antiquity, and still grown for its

    fibres, which are woven into linen. The petals of the Ilihiscvs

    rosa-sinensis furnish a black liquid to dye the eyebrows, and at

    Batavia they are employed to polish shoes. The fruits of the

    Hibiscus ocJira^ or okers, are prepared for the table in a vai’iety

    of ways.

    The Camellia Ja^wnica is allied to the same great tribe as

    the Hibiscus, and its elegant flowers are as much admired by

    the people of its native country as by florists abroad ; thirty or

    forty varieties are enumerated, many of them unknown out of

    China, while Chinese gardeners are likewise ignorant of a large

    proportion of those found in our conservatories. This flower is

    368 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    cultivated solely for its beauty, but other species of Camellia

    are raised for their seeds, the oil expressed from them being

    serviceable for many household and mechanical purposes. From

    the fibres of a species of Waltheria, a j)lant of the same tribe, a

    fine cloth is made ; and the Pentapctes Pluxnicia^ or ‘ noon

    fiower,’ is a common ornament of gardens.

    The widely diffused tribe Ranunculiacese has many representatives,

    some of them profitable for their timber, others sought

    after for their fruit or admired for their beauty, and a few

    prized for their healing properties. There are eight species of

    Magnolia, all of them splendid flowering plants ; the bark of

    the Magnol’ui yulan is employed as a febrifuge. The seed vessels

    of the IllclunL anisatum, or star-aniseed, are gathered on

    account of their spicy warmth and fragrance. The Artabotrys

    odoratixslinuH and Unona odorata are cultivated for tlieir perfume.

    Another favorite is the iiiowtan^ or tree paiony, reared

    for its large and variegated flowers ; its name of hwa uiang, or

    ‘ king of flowers,’ indicates the estimation in which it is held.

    The skill of nativ-e gardeners has made many varieties, and

    their patience is rewarded b}’ the high prices which fine specimens

    command. Good imitations of full-grown plants in flower

    are sometimes made of pith paper. Tlie Clematis, the foxglove,

    the Berheris Chinensh^ and the magnificent lotus, all

    belong to this tribe ; the latter, one of the most celebrated

    plants in Asia, is more esteemed by the CMiinese for its edible

    roots than reverenced for its religious associations. The Adtm

    aKpci’d is sometimes collected, as is the scouring i-ush, for cleaning

    pewter vessels, for which its hispid leaves are well fitted.

    The groups which include the poppy, nnistai-d, cabbage, cress,

    and many ornamental species, form an important ])ortion of

    native agriculture. The poppy has become a connuon crop in

    all the province^, driving out the useful cereals by its greater

    value and profit. The leaves of many crucifei-ous plants are

    eaten, whether cultivated or wild ; and one kind {Lsates^ yields

    a fine blue dye in the eastern provinces ; the variety and amount

    of such food consumed by the Chinese proi)ably exceeds that

    of any other people. Another tribe, Tlutaceie, contains the

    oranges and shaddocks, and some very fragrant shrubs, as the

    ORTSTAMKNTAL PLANTS, ETC. 369

    Mnvraya ci’otk’a and jHiniculata, and tlie Aglaia odoratd ;

    while the bhiddei’-tree {Koelt’euteria) is a great attraction when

    its whole surface is brilliant with golden tlowers. The whamj^e,

    ^.^?,, yellow skin {Cvo/iJ((, j}a/uiat(f), is a common and superior

    fruit. The seeds of the Gleditschia, besides their value in cleansing,

    are worn as beads, ” because,” say the Buddhists, ” all

    demons are afraid of the wood ;” one name means ‘ preventive

    of evil.’ Two native fruits, the lic/u and liinrjan, are allied to

    the Sapindus in their affinities ; while the f’f’/i/j sku, or Liquidambar,

    and many sorts of maple, with the P’tttosj[)orum tohira^

    an ornamental shrub, may be mentioned among plants used for

    food or sought after for timber.

    Tiiese brief notices of Chinese plants may be concluded by

    mentioning some of the most ornamental not before spoken of

    ;

    but all the beautiful soi-ts are soon introduced into western

    conservatories by enterprising florists. In the extensiv^e tribe

    of Rubiacinae are several species of honeysuckle, and a fragrant

    Yiburnum resembling the snowball. The Serissa is cultivated

    around beds like the box ; the Ixora eocGinea, and other species

    of that genus, are among common garden shrubs. The seeds of

    two or three species of Artemisia are collected, dried, and reduced

    to a down, to be bui-ned as an actual cautery. The dried

    twigs are frequently woven into a rope to slowly consume ^s

    a means of driving away mosquitoes. From the Carthamxis

    tlnctoirus a fine red dye is prepared. The succory, lettuce, dandelion,

    and other cichoraceous plants, either wild or cultivated,

    furnish food ; while innumerable varieties of Chrysanthemums

    and Asters are reared for their beauty.

    The Labiatae afford many genera, some of them cultivated ;

    and the Solanaceae, or nightshades, contain the tomato, potato,

    tobacco, stramony, and several spetnes of Capsicum, or red pepper.

    It has been disputed whether tobacco is native or foreign,

    but the philological argument and historical notices prove that

    both this plant and maize were introduced -within half a century

    after the discovery of America, or about the year 1530. The

    Chinese dry the leaves and cut them into shreds for smoking ;

    the snuff is coarser and less pungent than the Scotch ; it is said

    that powdered cinnabar is sometimes mixed with it.

    Vol. I.— -4

    Among the Convolvnlaceai are many beautiful species of Ipomea,

    especially the cypress vine, or quaniodU, ti-ained about the

    houses even of the poorest. The Ijxnnea marithiia occurs, trail

    ing over the sandy beaches along the coast from Hainan to

    Chusan and Lewchew. The Convolvulus rej)tans is planted

    around the edges of pools on the confines of villages and fields,

    for the sake of its succulent leaves. The narcotic family of

    Apocynese contains the oleander and Plumeria, prized for their

    fragrance ; while the yellow milkweed {Asdejykis curamamca)

    and the Vlnea rosea, or red periwinkle, are less conspicuous,

    but not unattractive, members of the same group. The jasmine

    is a deserved favorite, its clusters of flowers being often wound

    by women in their hair, and planted in pots in their houses.

    The Ol<iafragrans, or hwei hum, is cultivated for scenting tea.

    In the eastern provinces the hills are adorned with yellow and

    red azaleas of gorgeous hue, especially around Ningbo and in

    Chusan. ” Few,” says Mr. Fortune, ” can form any idea of the

    gorgeous beauty of these azalea-clad hills, where, on every side,

    the eye rests on masses of flowers of dazzling brightness and

    surpassing beauty. IS^or is it the azalea alone which claims our

    admiration ; clematises, wild roses, honeysuckles, and a hundred

    others, mingle their flowers with them, and make us confess

    that China is indeed the ‘ central flowery land.’ “

    A few notices of the advance made by the Chinese themselves

    in the study of natural history, taken from their great work on

    materia medica, the Pun tsao, or ‘ Herbal,’ will form an appropriate

    conclusion to this chapter. This work is usually bound

    in forty octavo volumes, divided into fifty-two chapters, and

    contains many observations of value mixed up with a deal of

    incorrect and useless matter ; and as those who read the book

    have not sufiicient knowledge to discriminate between what is

    true and what is partly or wholly wrong, its reputation tends

    .greatly to perpetuate the errors. The compiler of the Pun fsao,

    Li Shi-chin, spent thirty years in collecting all the information

    on these subjects extant in his time, arranged it in a methodical

    manner for popular use, adding his own observations, and pub-

    ‘ Wanderings in China.

    THE PUN TSAO, OR CHINESE HERBAL. 371

    lished it about 1590. lie consulted some eight hundred preceding

    autliors, from whom he selected one thousand five hundred

    and eighteen prescriptions, and added three hundred and

    seventy-four new ones, arranging his materials in fifty-two books

    in a methodical and (for his day) scientific manner. But how

    far behind the writings of Pliny and Dioscorides ! The nucleus

    of Li’s production is a small work which tradition ascribes to

    Shinnung, the God of Agriculture, and is doubtless anterior to

    the Ilan dynasty. His composition was well received, and attracted

    the notice of the Emperor, who ordered several succeeding

    editions to be published at the expense of the state. It

    was, in fact, so great an advance on all previous books, that it

    checked future writers in that branch, and Li is likely now to

    be the first and last purely native critical writer on natural science

    in his mother tongue.

    The first two volumes contain a collection of prefaces and

    indices, together with many notices of the theory of anatomy

    and medicine, and three books of pictorial illustrations of the

    rudest sort. Chapters I. and II. consist of introductory observations

    upon the practice of medicine, and an index of the

    recipes contained in the work, called the Sure Guide to a

    Myriad of Recipes ^ the whole filling the first seven volumes.

    Chapters III. and IV. contain lists of medicines for the cui-e of

    all diseases, occupying three volumes and a half, and comprising

    the therapeutical portion of the work, except a treatise on the

    pulse in the last volume.

    In the subsequent chapters the author carefully goes over

    the entire range of nature, first giving the correct name and

    its explanation ; then comes descriptive remarks, solutions of

    doubts and corrections of errors being interspersed, closing with

    notes on the savor, taste, and application of the recipes in

    which it is used. Chapters V. and YI. treat of inorganic

    substances under water and fire, and mine)-als under Chapters

    VII. to XL, as earth, metals, gems, and stones. Water is

    divided into aerial and terrestrial, /.c, from the clouds, and

    from springs, the ocean, etc. Fire is considered under eleven

    species, among which ai-e the flames of coal, bamboo, moxa,

    etc. The chapter on earth comprises the secretions from various animals, as well as soot, ink, etc. ; that on metals includes

    metallic substances and their common oxides ; and gems

    are spoken of in the next division. The eleventh chapter, in

    true Chinese stvle, groups together what could not be placed

    in the preceding sections, including salts, minerals, etc. In

    looking at this arrangement one detects the similarity between

    it and the classification of characters in the language itself,

    showing the influence this has had upon it ; thus /«>, shui, tu,

    Hn, yuh, shih, and la^ or fire, water, earth, metals, gems,

    stones, and salts, are the seven radicals under which the names

    of inorganic substances are classified in the iuiperial dictionary.

    A like similarity runs through other parts of the Ilcrhal.

    Chapters XII. to XXXATLL, inclusive, treat of the vegetable

    kingdom, under fivej*??^, or ‘divisions,’ viz. : herbs, gi-ains, vegetables,

    fruits, and trees; which are again subdivided into lui^ or

    ‘families,’ though the members of these families have no more

    relationship to each other than the heterogeneous family of an

    Egyptian slave dealer. The lowest term in the Chinese scientific

    scale is chung, which sometimes in<;ludes a gemis, but

    quite as often corresponds to a species or even a variety, as

    Linneus understood those terms.

    The first division of hei’bs contains nine families, viz. : hill

    plants, odoriferous, marshy, noxious, scandent or climbing,

    aquatic, ston}^, and mossy plants, and a ninth of one hundred

    and sixty-two miscellaneous plants not used in medicine, making

    six hundred and seventy-eight species in all. In this classification

    the habitat is the most influential principle of arrangement

    for the families, while the term tsao, or ‘herb,’ denotes

    M-hatcver is not eaten or used in the arts, or which does not attain

    to the magnitude of a tree.

    The second division of grains contains four families, viz. : 1,

    that of hemp, sesamuiii, buckwheat, wheat, rice, etc.; 2, the

    family of millet, maize, opium, etc. ; 3, leguminous plants,

    pulse, peas, vetches, etc. ; and 4, fermentable things, as bean

    curd, boiled rice, wine, yeast, congee, bread, etc., which, as they

    are used in medicine, and pi’oduced from vegetables, seem most

    naturally to come in this place. The first three families em

    bi-ace thirty-nine species, and the last tweny-nine articles.

    BOTANY OF THE HERBAL. 373

    The tliird division of kitclicn herbs contains five families: 1,

    offensive pungent plants, as leeks, nnistard, ginger ; 2, soft and

    mucilaginous plants, as dandelions, lilies, bamboo sprouts; 3,

    vegetables producing fruit on the ground, as tomatoes, eggplants,

    melons ; 4, aquatic vegetables ; and 5, mushrooms and

    fungi. The number of species is one hundred and thirty-three,

    and some part of each of them is eaten.

    The fourth division of fruits contains seven families : 1, the

    five fruits, the plum, peach, apricot, chestnut, and date (Rhamnus)

    ; 2, liill fruits, as the orange, pear, citron, persinniion ; 3,

    foreign fruits, as the cocoanut, lichi, cararnbola ; 4, aromatic

    fruits, as pepper, cubebs, tea ; 5, trailing fruits, as melons,

    grape, sugar-cane ; G, aquatic fruits, as water caltrops, water

    lily, water chestnuts, etc. ; and 7, fruits not used in medicine,

    as whampe. In all, one hundred and forty-seven species.

    The fifth division of trees has six families: 1, odoriferous

    trees, as pine, cassia, aloes, camphor ; 2, stately trees, as the

    willow, tamarix, elm, soapl)erry, palm, j^oplar, julibrissin or silk

    tree ; 3, luxuriant growing trees, as mulberry, cotton, Cercis,

    Gardenia, Bonibax, Hibiscus ; 4, parasites or things attached to

    trees, as the mistletoe, pachyma, and amber ; 5, flexible plants,

    as bamboo ; this family has only four species ; 6, includes what

    the other five exclude, though it might have been thought that

    the second and tliird families were sufficiently comprehensive

    to contain almost all miscellaneous plants. The mnnber of

    species is one hundred and ninety-eight. All botanical subjects

    are classified in this manner under five divisions, thirtyone

    families, and one thousand one hundred and ninety-five

    species, excluding all fermentable things.

    The arrangement of the botanical characters in the language

    does not correspond so well to this as does that of inorganic

    substances. The largest group in the language system is tsao^

    which comprises in general such herbaceous plants as are not

    used for food The second, muh, includes all trees or shrubs ;

    and the bamboo, on account of its great usefulness, stands by itself,

    though the characters mostly denote names of articles made

    of bamboo IS’o less than four radicals, viz., rice, wdieat, millet,

    and grain, serve as the heads under which the esculent grasses

    374 tup: middle kingdom.

    are arranged ; tliere are consequently many synonymes and

    superfluous distinctions. One family includes beans, and another

    legumes ; one comprises cucurbitaceous plants, another

    the alliaceous, and a fourth the hempen ; the importance of

    these plants as articles of food or manufacture no doubt suggested

    their adoption. Thus all vegetable substances are distributed

    in the language under eleven different heads.

    The zoological grouping in the Pun tsao is as rude and unscientific

    as that of plants. There are five jpu^ or divisions,

    namely : insect, scaly, shelly, feathered, and hairy animals. The

    first division contains four families : 1 and 2, insects born

    from eggs, as bees and silkworms, butterflies and spiders; 3,

    insects produced by metamorphosis, as glow-worms, molecrickets,

    bugs ; and 4, water insects, as toads, centipedes, etc.

    The second division has four families: 1, the dragons, including

    the manis, ” the only fish that has legs ; ” 2, snakes ; 3,

    fishes having scales ; and 4, scaleless fishes, as the eel, cuttlefish,

    prawn. The third division is classified under the two

    heads of toi”toises or turtles and mollusks, including the starfish,

    echinus, hermit-crab, etc. The fourth division contains

    birds arranged under four families : 1, water-fowl, as herons,

    king-fishers, etc. ; 2, heath-fowl, sparrows, and pheasants ; 3,

    forest birds, as magpies, crows; and 4, wild birds, as eagles

    and hawks. Beasts form the fifth division, which likewise

    contains four families : 1, the nine domesticated animals and

    their products ; 2, wild animals, as lions, deers, otters ; 3,

    rodentia, as the squirrel, hedgehog, rat ; and 4, monkeys and

    fairies. The number of species in these five divisions is three

    hundred and ninety-one, but there are only three hundred and

    twenty different objects described, as the roe, fat, hair, e.xuvite,

    etc., of animals are separately noticed.

    The sixteen zoological characters in the language are not

    quite so far astray fi-om being types of classes as the eleven

    botanical ones. Nine of thorn are mannniferous, viz. : the tiger,

    dog, and leopard, which stand for the carnivora ; the rat for

    lodentia ; the ox, sheep, and deer for ruminants ; and the

    horse and hog for pachydermatous. Birds are chiefly comprised

    under one radical niao, but there is a sub-family of

    ITS ZOOLOGY AND OI?SKKV ATFOXS OX TTTE IIOKSP:. 37.7

    short-tailed gallinaceous fowls, though much confusion exists in

    the division. Fishes form one group, and improperly inchide

    crabs, lizards, whales, and snakes, though most of the latter are

    placed along with insects, or else under the dragons. The tortoise,

    toad, and dragon are the types of three small collections,

    and insects are comprised in the sixteenth and last. These

    groups, although they contain many anomalies, as might be

    expected, are still sufficiently natural to teach those who write

    the language something of the world around them. Thus,

    when one sees that a new character contains the radical dorj in

    composition, he will be sure that it is neither fowl, fish, nor bug,

    nor any animal of the pachydermatous, cervine, or ruminant

    tribes, although he may have never seen the animal nor heard

    its name. This peculiarity runs through the whole language, indeed,

    but in other groups, as for instance those under the radicals

    man, woman, and child, or heart, hand, leg, etc., the characters

    include mental and passionate emotions, as well as actions and

    names, so that the type is not sufficiently indicative to convey a

    definite idea of the words included under it ; the names of

    natural objects being most easily arranged in this manner.

    Between the account of plants and animals the Jlerhal has

    one chapter on garments and domestic utensils, for such things

    ” are used in medicine and are made out of plants.” The remaining

    chapters, XXXIX.-LII., treat of animals, as noticed

    above. The properties of the objects spoken of are discussed

    in a very methodical manner, so that a student can immediately

    turn to a plant or mineral and ascertain its virtue. For instance,

    the information relative to the history and uses of the

    horse is contained in twenty-four sections. The first explains

    the character, ma, which was oi-iginally intended to represent

    the outline of the animal. The second describes the varieties

    of horses, the best kinds for medical use, and gives brief descriptions

    of them, for the guidance of the practitioner. ” The

    pure white are the best for medicine. Those found in the south

    and east are small and Aveak. The age is known by the teeth.

    The eye reflects the full image of a man. If he eats rice his

    feet will become heavy ; if rat’s dung, his belly will grow long; if his teeth be rubbed with dead silkworms, or black plums, he will not eat, nor if the skin of a rat or wolf be li\uii^- in his

    manger, lie should not he allowed to eat from a hog’s trough,

    lest he contract disease; and if a monkey is kept in the stable

    he M’ill not fall sick.”

    The third section goes on to speak of the flesh, which is an

    article of food ; that of a pure white stallion is the most wholesome.

    One author recommends ” eating almonds, and taking a

    rush broth, if the person feel uncomfoi-table after a meal of

    horse-flesh. It should he roasted and eaten with ginger

    and pork ; and to eat the flesh of a black horse, and not

    drink wine -with it, will surely produce deatli.” The fourth

    describes the crown of the horse, the ” fat of which is sweet,

    and good to make the hair grow and the face to shine.” The

    fifth and succeeding sections to the twenty-fourth treat of the

    sanative properties and mode of exhibiting the milk, heart,

    lungs, liver, kidneys, placenta, teeth, bones, skin, mane, tail,

    brains, blood, perspiration, and excrements.

    Some of the directions are dietetic, and others are prescriptive.

    ” When eating horse-flesh do not eat the liver,” is one of

    the former, given because of the absence of a gall-bladder in

    the liver, wdiich imports its poisonous qualities. ” The heart of

    a white horse, or that of a hog, cow, or hen, when dried and

    rasped into spirit and so taken, cures forgetfulness; if the patient

    hears one thing he knows ten.” ” Above the knees the

    horse has night-eyes (warts), M’hich enable him to go in the

    night ; they are useful in the toothache ;” tliese sections partake

    both of the descriptive and pi-escriptive. Another medical one

    is : ” If a man be restless and hysterical when he wishes to

    sleep, and it is requisite to put him to rest, let the ashes of a

    skull be mingled with water and given him, and let him have a

    skull for a pillow, and it will cure him.” The same preservative

    virtues appear to be ascribed to a horse’s hoof hung in a

    house as are supposed, by some who should know better, to

    belong to a horseshoe Avhen nailed upon the door.’ The whole

    of this extensive work is liberally sprinkled with such whimsies,

    but the practice of medicine among the Chinese is vastly

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VII., p. 393.

    NATURAL SCIENCES IN CHINA. 377

    better than their tlieories ; for as llenmsat justly oTjserves, ” To

    see well and reason falsely are not wholly incompatible, and the

    naturalists of China, as well as the chemists and physicians of

    our ancient schools, have sometimes tried to reconcile them.”

    Another work on botany besides the Jlefbal, issued in 1848,

    deserves notice for its research and the excellence of its drawings.

    It is the Ch’th Wuh Mlng-shih Ta-kao, or Researches

    into the Names and Virtues of Plants, with plates, in sixty volumes.

    There are one thousand seven hundred and fifteen

    drawings of plants, with descriptions of each, arranged in

    eleven books, followed by medical and agricultural observations

    on the most important in four books. One of its valuable

    points to the foreigner is the terminology furnished by

    the two authors for describing the parts and uses of plants.

    Renmsat read a paper in 1828, ‘ On the State of the Natural

    Sciences among the Orientals,’ in which he indicates the position

    attained by Chinese in their researches into the nature

    and uses of objects around them. After speaking of the adaptation

    the language possesses, from its construction, to impart

    some general notions of animated and vegetable nature,

    he goes on to remark upon the theorizing propensities of their

    writers, instead of contenting themselves with examining and

    recording facts. “In place of studying the organization of

    bodies, they undertake to determine by reasoning how it should

    be, an aim which has not seldom led them far from the end

    they proposed. One of the strangest errors among them relates

    to the transformation of beings into each other, which has

    arisen from popular stories or badly conducted observations on

    the metamorphoses of insects. Learned absurdities have been

    added to puerile prejudices ; that which the vulgar have believed

    the philosophers have attempted to explain, and nothing

    can be easier, according to the oriental systems of cosmogony, in

    which a simple matter, infinitely diversified, shows itself in all

    beings. Changes affect only the apparent propei’ties of bodies, or

    rather the bodies themselves have only appearances ; according

    to these principles, they are not astonished at seeing the electric

    fiuid or even the stars converted into stones, as happens when

    aerolites fall. That animated beings become inanimate is proven by fossils and petrifactions. Ice enclosed in the earth for a millenninm becomes rock crystal ; and it is only necessary that lead, \\\e father of all metals (as Satnrn, its alchemistic type, was of gods), pass thi-oiigh four periods of two centuries each to become successively cinnabar, tin, and silver. In spring the rat changes into a quail, and quails into rats again during the eighth month.

    ” The style in which these marvels is related is now and then a little equivocal ; but if they believe part of them proved, they can see nothing really impossible in the others. One naturalist, less credulous than his fellows, rather smiles at another author who reported the metamorphosis of an oriole into a mole, and of rice into a carp ;

    ‘ it is a ridiculous story,’ says he ;

    ‘ there is proof only of the change of rats into quails, which is reported in the almanac, and which I have often seen myself, for there is an imvaried progression, as well of transformations as of generations.’

    Animals, according to the Chinese, are viviparous as quadrupeds, or oviparous as birds ; they grow by transformations, as insects, or by the effect of humidity, as snails, slugs, and centipedes The success of such systems is almost always sure, not in China alone either, because it is easier to put words in place of things, to stop at nothing, and to have formulas ready for solving all questions. It is thus that they have formed a scientific jargon, which one might almost think had been borrowed from our dark ages, and which has powerfully contributed to retain knowledge in China in the swaddling clothes we now find it. Experience teaches that when the human mind is once drawn into a false way, the lapse of ages and the help of a man of genius are necessary to draw it out.

    Ages have not been wanting in China, but the man whose superior enlightenment might dissipate these deceitful glimmerings, would find it very difficult to exercise this happy influence as long as their political institutions attract all their inquiring minds or vigorous intellects far away from scientific researches into the literary examinations, or put before them the honors and employments which the functions and details of magisterial appointments bring with them.” ‘* Melanges Orientules, Posthumes, p. 315.

    CONSKKVATISM OF NATIVE liESEARCH. 379

    This last observcation indicates the reason, to a great degree, for the fixedness of the Chinese in all departments of learned inquiry ; hard labor employs the energy and time of the ignorant mass, and emulation in the strife to reach official dignities consumes and perverts the talents of the learned. Then their language itself disheartens the most enthusiastic students in this branch of study, on account of its vagueness and want of established terms. When the vivifying and strengthening truths of revelation shall be taught to the Chinese, and its principles acted upon among them, we may expect more vigor in their minds and more profit in their investigations into the wonders of nature.

    CHAPTER VII. LAWS OP CHINA, AND PLAN OP ITS GOVERNMENT

    The consideration of the theory and practice of the Chinese government reconmiends itself to the attention of the intelligent student of man by several peculiar reasons, among which are its acknowledged antiquity, the multitudes of people it rules, and the comparative quiet enjoyed by its subjects. The government of a heathen nation is so greatly modified by the personal character of the executive, and the people are so liable to confound institutions with men, either from imperfect acquaintance with the nature of those institutions, or from being, through necessity or habit, easily guided and swayed by designing and powerful men, that the long continuance of the Chinese polity is a proof both of its adaptation to the habits and condition of the people, and of its general good management. The antiquity and excellence of such a government, and its orderly administration, might, however, be far greater than it is in China, without being invested with the interest which at present attaches to it in that Empire in consequence of the immense population, whose lives and property, food and well-being, depend to so great a degree upon it. What was at first rather a feeling of curiosity, gradually becomes one of awe, when the evil results of misgovernment, or the beneficent effects of equitable rule, are seen to be so momentous.

    THEORY OF THE CHINESE GOVERNMENT. 381

    The theory of the Chinese government is undoubtedly the patriarchal; the Emperor is the sire, his officers are the responsible elders of its provinces, departments, and districts, as every father of a household is of its inmates. This may, perhaps, be the theory of other governments, but nowhere has it been systematized so thoroughly, and acted upon so consistently and for so long a period, as in China, ^wo causes, mutually acting upon each other, have, more than anything else, combined to give efficiency to this theory. The ancient rule of Van and Shun ‘ was strictly, so far as the details are known, a patriarchal chieftainship, conferred upon them on account of their excellent character ; and their successors under Yu of the Xia dynasty were considered as deriving their power from heaven, to whom they M’ere amenable for its good use. When Chingtang, founder of the Shang dynasty, b.c. ITOG, and Wu Wang, of the Zhou, B.C. 1122, took up arms against the Emperors, the excuse given was that they had not fulfilled the decrees of heaven, and had thereby forfeited their claim to the throne.

    Confucius, in teaching his principles of political ethics, referred to the conduct of those ancient kings both for proof of the correctness of his instructions and for arguments to enforce them.

    The large number of those who followed him during his lifetime furnishes some evidence that his countrymen assented to

    the propriety of his teachings. This may account for their reception,

    illustrated as they were by the high character the sage

    boi-e ; but it was not till the lapse of tM’o or three centuries

    that the rulers of China perceived the great security the adoption

    and diffusion of these doctrines would give their sway.

    They therefore turned their attention toward the embodiment of

    these precepts into laws, and towai’d basing the institutions of

    government upon them ; through all the convulsions and wars

    which have disturl)ed the country and changed the reigning

    families, these writings have done more than any one thing

    else to uphold the institutions of the Chinese and give them

    their character and permanence. Education being founded on

    them, those who as students had been taught to receive and

    reverence tliem as the oracles of political wisdom, would, when

    they entered upon the duties of office, endeavor to carry out, in

    some degree at least, their principles. Thus the precept and

    the practice have mutually modified, supported, and enforced

    each other./

    • 2357 and 2255 before Christ.

    But this civilization i;^ Asiatic and not European, pagan and not Christian. ^The institutions of China are despotic and defective, and founded on wrong principles. They may have the element of stability, but not of improvement.^ The patriarchal theory does not make uien honorable, truthful, or kind; it does not place woman in her right position, nor teach all classes their obligations to their Maker; the wonder is, to those who know the strength of evil passions in the human breast, that this huge mass of mankind is no worse. We must, indeed, look into its structure in order to discover the causes of this stability, inasmuch as here we have neither a standing army to enforce nor the machinery of a state religion to compel obedience toward a sovereign. A short inspection will show that(the great leading principles by which the present administration preserves its power over the people, consist in a system of strict surveillance and viatual 7’esj)onsihiHtij among all classes.

    These are aided in their efficiency by the geographical isolation of the country, a remarkable spirit of loyal pride in their own history, and a general system of political education and official examinations!)

    These two principles are enforced by such a minute gradation of rank and subordination of othces as to give the government more of a military character than at first appears, and the whole system is such as to make it one of the most unmixed oligarchies now existing. (It is like a network extending over the whole face of society, each individual being isolated in his own mesh but responsibly connected with all around him’) The man who knows that it is almost impossible, except by entire seclusion, to escape from the company of secret or acknowledged emissaries of government, will be cautions of offending the laws of the country, knowing, as he must, that though he should himself escape, yet his family, his kindred, or his neighbors will suffer for his offence; that if unable to recompense the sufferers, it will probably be dangerous for him to return home ; or if he does, it will be most likely to find his property in the possession of neighbors or officials, who feel conscious of security in plundering one whose offences have forever placed him under a ban.

    RESPONSIBILITY, FEAR, AXD ISOLATION. 383

    ^The effect of these two causes upon the mass of the people is to imbue them with a i^ceat fear of the government, both of its officers and its operations; each man considers that safety is best to be found in keeping aloof from both. This mutual surveillance and responsibility, though only partially extended throughout the multitude, necessarily undermines confidence and infuses universal distrust ; while this object of complete isolation, though at the expense of justice, truth, honesty, and natural affection, is what the government strives to accomplish and actually does to a wonderful degree.) The idea of government in the minds of the uneducated people is that of some everpresent terror, like a sword of Damocles; and so far has this undetined fear of some untoward result when connected with it counteracted the real vigor of the Chinese, that to it may be referred much of their indifference to improvement, contentment with what is already known and possessed, and submission to petty injustice and spoliation.^

    Men are deterred, too, as much by distrust of each other as by fear of the police, from combining in an intelligent manner to resist governmental exactions because opposed to principles of equity, or joining with their rulers to uphold good order; no such men, and no such instances, as John Hampden going to prison for refusing to subscribe to a forced loan, or Thomas Williams and his companions throwing the tea overboard in Boston harbor, ever occurred in China or any other Asiatic country. They dread illegal societies quite as much from the cruelties this same distrust induces the leaders to exercise over recreant or suspected members, as from apprehension of arrest and punishment by the regular authorities. (Thus, with a state of society at times on the verge of insurrection, this mass of people is kept in check by the threefold cord of responsibility, fear, and isolation, each of them strengthening the other, and all depending upon the character of the people for much of their efficiency. Since all the officers of government received their intellectual training when connnoners under these influences, it is easy to understand why the supreme powers are so averse to improvement and to foreign intercourse—from both of which causes, in truth, the monarch has the greatest reason to dread lest the cliarin of his power be weakened and his sceptre pass away. I (There is, however, a further explanation for the general peace which prevails to be found back of this. It is owing partly to the diffusion of a political education among the people ^teaching them the principles on which all government is founded, and the reasons for those principles flowing from the patriarchal theory—and partly to their plodding, industrious character. A brief exposition of the construction and divisions of the central and provincial governments and their mutual relations, and the various duties devolving upon the departments and officers, will exhibit more of the operation of these principles.

    Although the Emperor is regarded as the head of this great

    organization, as the fly-wheel w^hich sets other wheels of the

    machine in motion, he is still considered as bound to rule according

    to the code of the land ; and when there is a w^ellknown

    law, though the source of law, he is expected to follow

    it in his decrees. The statutes of China form an edifice, the

    foundations of which were laid by Li Ivwei twenty centuries

    ago. Successive dynasties have been building thereon ever

    since, adding, altering, pulling down, and putting together as

    circumstances seemed to require. The people liave a high regard

    for the code, ” and all they seem to desire is its just and

    impartial execution, independent of caprice and uninfluenced

    by corruption. That the laws of China are, on the contrary,

    very frequently violated l)y those who are their administrators

    and constitutional guardians, there can, unfortunately, be no

    question ; but to what extent, comparatively with the laws of

    other countries, must at present be very much a matter of conjecture

    : at the same time it nuiy be observed, as something in

    favor of the Chinese system, that there are substantial grounds

    for believing that neither flagrant nor repeated acts of injustice

    do, in point of fact, often, in any rank or station, ultimately

    escape with impunity.” ‘ Sir George Staunton is well qualified

    to speak on this point, and his opinion has been corroborated

    ‘ Penal Code, Introduction, p. xxviii.

    THE PENAL CODE OF CHINA. 385

    by most of those who have had siinihir opportunities of judging; while his translation of the Code has given all persons interested in the (piestion the means of ascertaining the principles on which the government ostensibly acts.

    This body of laws is called Ta Tsing Liuh Li, i.e., ‘ Statutes and Eescripts of the Great Pure Dynasty,’ and contains all the laws of the Empire. They are arranged under seven leading heads, viz.: General, Civil, Fiscal, Ritual, Military, and Criminal laws, and those relating to Public Works ; and subdivided into four hundred and thirty-six sections, called Hah, or ‘ statutes,’ to which the li, or modern clauses, to limit, explain or alter them, are added ; these are now much more numerous than the original statutes. A new edition is published by authority every five years; in the reprint of 1830 the Emperor ordered that the Supreme Court should make but few alterations, lest wily litigants might take advantage of the discrepancies between the new and old law to suit their own purposes. This edition is in twenty-eight volumes, and is one of the most frequently seen books in the shops of any city. The clauses are attached to each statute, and have the same force. ]^o authorized reports of cases and decisions, either of the provincial or supreme courts, are published for general use, though their record is kept in the court where they are decided ; the publication of such adjudged cases, as a guide to officers, is not unknown. An extensive collection of notes, comments, and cases, illustrating the practice and theory of the laws, was appended to the edition of 1799.

    A short extract from the original preface of the Code, published in 101:7, only three years after the Manchu Emperors took the throne, will explain the principles on which it was drawn up. After remarking upon the inconveniences arising from the necessity of aggravating or mitigating the sentences of the magistrates, who, previous to the re-establishment of an authentic code of penal la\vs, were not in possession of any fixed rules upon which they could build a just decision, the Emperor Shunchi goes on to describe the manner of revising the code:

    ” A numerous body of magistrates was assembled at the

    capital, at our command, for the purpose of revising the penal

    code formerly in force under the late dynasty of Ming, and of dio-esting the same into a new code, by the exchision of such parts as were exceptionable and the introduction of others which were likely to contribute to the attainment of justice and the t>-eneral perfection of the work. The result of their labors having been submitted to our examination, we maturely weighed and considered the various matters it contained, and then instructed a select number of our great officers of state carefully to revise the whole, for the purpose of making such alterations and emendations as might still be found requisite. “Wherefore, it being now published, let it be your great care, officers and magistrates of the interior and exterior departments of our Empire, diligently to observe the same, and to forbear in future to give any decision, or to pass any sentence, according to your private sentiments, or upon your unsupported authority. Thus shall the magistrates and people look up with awe and submission to the justice of these institutions, as they find themselves respectively concerned in them ; the transgressor will not fail to suffer a strict expiation of his crimes, and will be the instrument of deterring others from similar misconduct ; and finally both officers and people will l)e equally secured for endless generations in the enjoyment of the happy effects of the great and noble virtues of our illustrious progenitors.”

    Under the head of Genei-al Laws are forty-seven sections,

    comprising principles and definitions applicable to the whole,

    and containing some singular notions on equity and criminality.

    The description of the five ordinary punishments, definition of

    the ten treasonable offences, regulations for the eight privileged

    classes, and general directions regarding the conduct of officers

    of government, are the matters treated of under this head.

    The title of Section XLIY. is ” On the decision of cases not provided for by law ; ” and the rule is that ” such cases may then be determined by an accurate comparison with others which are already provided for, and which approach most nearly to those under investigation, in order to ascertain afterward to what extent an asirravation or mitiij-ation of the i)nnislinment would be equitable. A provisional sentcMice confonnablc thereto shall be laid before the superior magistrates, an<l, after receiving their approbation, be submitted to the Enqieror’s final decision. Anv

    GENEIIAL, CIVIL, AXD FISCAL LAWS. 387

    *

    erroneous judgment which may be pronounced, in consequence

    of adopting a more summary mode of proceeding in cases of a

    doubtful nature, shall be punished as wilful deviation from justice.”

    This, of course, gives great latitude to the magistrate, and

    as he is thus allowed to decide and act before the new law can

    be confirmed or aimulled, the chief restraints to his injustice in

    such cases (which, however, are not nuinerous) lie in the fear

    of an appeal and its consequences, or of summary reprisals

    from the suffering parties.

    The six remaining divisions pertain to the six administrative

    boards of the government. The second contains Civil Laws,

    under twenty-eight sections, divided into two books, one of

    them referring to the system of government, and the otlier to

    the conduct of magistrates, etc. The hereditary succession of

    rank and titles is regulated, and punishments laid down for

    those who illegally assume these honors. HlMost of the nobility

    of China are Manchus, and none of the hereditary dignities existing

    previous to the conquest were recognized, except those

    attached to the family of Confucius*’ Improperly recommending

    unfit persons as deserving liigh honors, appointing and

    removing officers witliout the Emperor’s sanction, and leaving

    stations without due permission, are the principal subjects

    regulated in the first book. The second book contains rules

    regarding the interference of superior magistrates with the proceedings

    of the lower courts, and prohibitions against cabals and

    treasonable combinations among oflScers, which are of course

    capital crimes ; all persons in the employ of the state are required

    to make themselves acquainted with the laws, and even

    private individuals ” who are found capable of explaining the

    nature and comprehending the objects of the laws, shall receive

    pardon in all offences resulting purely from accident, or imputable

    to them oidy from the guilt of others, j^rovided it be the

    first offence.”

    The third division, of Fiscal Laws, under eighty-two sections,

    contains rules for enrolling the people, and of succession and

    inheritance ; also laws for regulating marriages between various

    classes of society, for guarding granaries and treasuries, for

    preventing and punishing smuggling, for restraining usury, and for overseeing shops. Section LXXYI. orders that persons and families truly represent their profession in life, and restrains them from indulging in a change of occupation ; ” generation

    after generation they must not vary or alter it.” This i-ule is,

    however, constantly violated. Section XC. exempts the huildinffs

    of literarv and relio;ious institutions from taxation. The

    general aim of the laws relating to holding real estate is to

    secure the cultivation of all the land taken up, and the regular

    payment of the tax. The proprietor, in some cases, can be deprived

    of his lands because he does not till them, and though in

    fact owner in fee simple, he is restricted in the disposition of

    them by will in many w^ays, and forfeits them if the taxes are

    not paid.

    The fourth division, of Ritual Laws, under twenty-six sections,

    contains the regulations fur state sacritices and ceremonies,

    those appertaining to the worship of ancestors, and whatever

    belongs to heterodox and magical sects or teachers. The heavy

    penalties threatened in some of these sections against all illegal

    combinations under the guise of a new form of worship presents

    an interesting likeness to the restrictions issued by the

    English, French, and German princes during and after the

    Heformation. The Chinese authorities had the same dread

    lest the people should meet and consult how to resist them.

    Even processions in honor of the gods may be forbidden for

    good reason, and are not allow^ed at all at Peking ; while, still

    more, the rites observed by the Emperor cannot be imitated by

    any unauthorized person ; women are not allowed to congregate

    in the temples, nor magicians to perform any strange incantations.

    Few of these laws ai’e really necessary, and those

    against illegal sects are in fact levelled against political associations,

    which usually take on a religious guise.

    The fifth division, of Military Laws, in seventy-one sections,

    provides for the protection of the palace and government of

    the army, for guarding frontier passes, management of the

    imperial cattle, and forwarding despatches by couriers. Some

    of these ordinances lay down rules for the protection of the

    Emperor’s person, and the disposition of his body-guard and

    troops in the palace, the capital, and over the Empire. The

    RITUAL, MILITARY, AND CRIMmAL LAWS!. 380

    sections r(‘latiii<2; to the goveniinoiit of tlie army include tlic

    rules for tli(> police of cities ; and those designed to secure the

    protection of the frontier conipi-ise all the enactments against

    foreign intei’course, some of which have already been refei-red tn

    in passing. The supply of horses and cattle for the army is a

    matter of some importance, and is minutely regulated ; one law

    orders all persons who possess vicious and dangerous animals to

    restrain them, and if through neglect any person is killed or

    wounded, the owner of the animal shall be obliged to redeem

    himself from the punishment of manslaughter by pa-ying a fine.

    This provision to compel the owners of unruly beasts to exercise

    proper restraint over them is like that laid down by Moses

    in Exodus XXT., 20, 30. There is as yet no general postoffice

    establishn’ent, hut governmental couriers often take

    private letters ; local mails are safely carried by express companies.

    The required rate of travel for the official post is one hundred miles a day, but it does not ordinarily go more than half that distance. Officers of government are allowed ninety days to make the journey from Peking to Canton, a distance of twelve hundred miles, but conriers frequently travel it in twelve days.

    The sixth division, on Criminal Laws, is arranged in eleven books, containing in all one hundred and seventy sections, ‘and is the most important of the whole. The clauses under some of the sections are numerous, and show that it is not for want of proper laws or insufficient threatenings that crimes go unpunished.

    The books of this division relate to robbery, in which is included high treason and renunciation of allegiance ; to homicide and murder; quarrelling and fighting; abusive language; indictments, disobedience to parents, and false accusations ; bribery and corruption ; forging and frauds ; incest and adultery ; arrests and escapes of criminals, their imprisonment and execution ; and, lastly, miscellaneous offences.

    Under Section CCCXXIX. it is ordered that any one who is guilty of addressing abusive language to his or her father or mother, or father’s parents, or a wife who rails at her husband’s

    parents or grandparents, shall be strangled ; provided always

    that the persons so abused themselves complain to the magistrate, and had personally heard the language addressed to them.

    This law is the same in regard to children as that contained

    in Leviticus XX. , H, and the power here given the parent does

    not seem to be productive of evil. Section CCCLXXXI. has

    reference to ” privately hushing np public crimes,” but its

    penalties are for the most part a dead letter, and a full account

    of the various modes adopted in the courts of withdrawing cases

    from the cognizance of superiors, would form a singular chapter

    in Chinese jurisprudence. Conseq\icntly those who refuse every

    offer to suppress cases are highly lauded by the people. Another

    section (CCCLXXXYI.) ordains that whoever is guilty of improper

    conduct, contrary to the spirit of the laws, but not a

    breach of any specific article, shall be punished at least with forty blows, and with eighty when of a serious nature. Some of the provisions of this part of the code are praiseworthy, but no part of Chinese legislation is so cruel and irregular as criminal jurisprudence. The permission accorded to the judge to torture the criminal opens the door for much inhumanity.

    The seventh division contains thirteen sections relating to Public Works and Ways, such as the weaving of interdicted patterns of silk, repairing dikes, and constructing edifices for government. All public residences, granaries, treasuries and manufactories, embankments and dikes of rivers and canals, forts, walls, and mausolea, must be frequently examined, and kept in repair. Poverty or peculation render numy of these laws void, and many subterfuges are often practised by the superintending officer to pocket as much of the funds riS he can.

    One officer, M’hen ordered to repair a wall, made the workmen go over it and chip off the faces of the stones etill remaining, then plastering up the holes.

    CRITICISM OF THE CODE. 301

    Besides these laws and their numerous clauses, every high provincial officer has the right to issue edicts upon such public matters as require regulation, some of thei^,; even affecting life and death, either reviving some old law or ^.v^ving it an application to the case before him, with such iuodifications as seem to be necessary. lie must report these ac-t* to the proper board at Peking. Xo such order, which for Uf*. time has the force of law, is formally repealed, but gradually f;(,lls into ohlWion, until circumstances again require its reiteration. This mode of publishing statutes gives rise to a sort of common and unwritten law in villages, to which a council of elders sometimes compels individuals to submit ; long usage is also another ground for enforcing them.

    Still, with all the tortures and punishments allowed by the law, and all the cruelties superadded upon the criminals by irritated officers or rapacious underlings and jailors, a broad survey of Chinese legislation, judged by its results and the general appearance of society, gives the impression of an administration far superior to other Asiatic countries. A favorable comparison has been made in the Jidinlmrgh Review:’ ” By far the most remarkable thing in this code is its great reasonableness, clearness, and consistency, the business-like brevity and directness of the various provisions, and the plainness and moderation in which they are expressed. There is nothing here of the monstrous verhiage of most other Asiatic productions, none of the superstitious deliration, the miserable incoherence, the tremendous non-sequiturs and eternal repetitions of those oi”acnlar performances—nothing even of the turgid adulation, accumulated epithets, and fatiguing self-praise of other Eastern despotisms—but a calm, concise, and distinct series of enactments, savoring throughout of practical judgment and European good sense, and if not always conformable to onr improved notions of expediency, in general approaching to them more nearly than the codes of most other nations. When we pass, indeed, from the ravings of the Zendavesta or the Puranas to the tone of sense and business in this Chinese collection, we seem to be passing from darkness to light, from the drivellings of dotage to the exercise of an improved understanding ; and redundant and absurdly minute as these laws are in many particulars, we scarcely know any European code that is at once so copious and so consistent, or that is so nearly free from intricacy, bigotry, and fiction. / In everything relating to political freedom or individual independence it is indeed wofuUy defective!; but for the repression of disorder and the gentle coer-cion o£ a vast population, it appears to be equally mild and efficacious. The state of society for which it was formed appears incidentally to be a low and wretched o!ie ; but how could its framers have devised a wiser means of maintaining it in peace and tranquillity ?”

    This encomium is to a certain extent just, but the practice of legislation in China has probably not been materially improved by the mere possession of a reasonable code of laws, though some melioration in jurisprudence has been effected.’ ^The infliction of barbarous punishments, such as blinding, cutting off noses, ears, or other parts of the body, still not uncommon in Persia and Turkey, is not allowed or practised in China ; and the government, in minor ci’imes, contents itself with but little more than opprobrious exposure in the pilloij, or castigation, which cari-y with them no degradation.

    uhe defects in this remarkable body of laws arise from several

    sources. The degree of liberty that can safely be awarded

    to the subject is not defined in it, and his i-ights are unknown

    in law. The government is despotic, but having no etficient

    military power in their hands, the lawgivers resort to a minuteness

    of legislation upon the pi-actice of social and relative virtues

    and duties which interferes with their observance ; though it

    must be remembered that no pulpit or Sabbath-school exists

    there to expound and enforce them from a higher code, and

    the laws must be the chief guide in most cases. The code also

    exhibits a minute attention to trifles, and an effort to legislate

    for every possible contingency, which nmst perplex the judge

    when dealing with the infinite shades of difference occuning in

    human actions. There are now many vague and obsolete statutes,

    I’eady to serve as a handle to prosecute offenders for the

    gratification of private pique ; and although usage and precedent

    both combine to prove their disuse, malice and bribery

    can easily effect their reviviscence and application to the case.

    Sheer cruelty, except in cases of treason against the Emperor,

    cannot be chai’ged against this code as a whole, though

    many of the laws seem designed to operate chiefly in terrorem^

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 24-29.

    INFLUEXCE OF THE LAWS UPON SOCIETY. 39o

    and the penalty is placed higher than the punishment really

    intended to be inflicted, to the end that the Emperor may have

    scope for mercy, or, as he says, ” for leniency beyond the bounds

    of the law.” The principle on which this is done is evident, and

    the commonness of the practice proves that such an exercise of

    mercy has its effect. The laws of China are not altogether unmeaning

    words, though the degi-ee of ethciency in their execu

    tion is subject to endless variations ; some officers are clement,

    others severe ; the people in certain provinces are industrious

    and peaceable, in others turbulent and averse to quiet occupations,

    so that one is likely to form a juster idea of their adnunistration

    by looking at the i-esults as seen in the general aspect

    of society, and judging of the tree by its fruits, than by drawing

    inferences applicable to the whole machine of state from particular

    instances of oppression and insubordination, as has been. so often the case with travellers and writers.

    The general examination of the Chinese government here proposed may be conveniently considered under the iieads of the Emperor and his court, classes of society, the different branches of the supreme administration, the provincial authorities, and the execution of the laws.

    The Emperor is at the head of the whole ; and if the possession

    of great power, and being the object of almost unbounded

    reverence, can impai-t happiness, he may safely be considered

    as the happiest mortal living; though to his power there are

    many checks, and the reverence paid him is proportioned somewhat

    to the fidelity with which he administers the decrees of

    heaven. ” The Emperor is the sole head of the Chinese constitution

    and government ; he is regarded as the vice-gerent of

    lieaven, especially chosen to govern all nations ; and is supreme

    In everything, holding at once the highest legislative and executive

    powers, without limit or control.” Both he and the Pope

    claim to be the vice-gerent of heaven and interpreter of its decrees

    to the whole world, and these two rulers have emulated

    each other in their assumption of arrogant titles. The most

    common appellation employed to denote the Emperor in state

    papers and among the people is hirangt’i, or ‘ august sovereign ;

    ‘it is defined as ” the appellation of one possessing complete virtues, and able to act on heavenly principles.” ‘ This title is further defined as meaning heaven : ” Heaven speaks not, yet the four seasons follow in regular succession, and all things spring forth. So the three august ones (Fulihi, Shinnung, and Hwangti) descended in state, and without even uttering a word the people bowed to their sway ; their virtue was inscrutal)le and boundless like august heaven, and therefore were they called august ones.”

    Among the numerous titles given the monarch may be mentioned

    hiimng shang, the ‘ august lofty one ; ‘ tien Mvang, ‘ celestial

    august one;’ shing hivang, the ‘wise and august,’-/.^.,

    infinite in knowledge and complete in virtue ; tien ti, ‘ celestial

    sovereign ;’ and shing t’l, ‘ sacred sovereign,’ because he is able

    to act on heavenly principles. He is also called tien tsz\ ‘ son

    of heaven,’ becanse heaven is his father and earth is his mother,

    and shing tien tsz\ ‘wise son of heaven,’ as being born of heaven

    and having infinite knowledge ; terms which are given him as

    the ruler of the world l)y the gift of heaven. He is even addressed,

    and sometimes refers to himself, under designations which pertain exclusively to heaven. Wan sui ye, ‘ sire of ten thousand years,’ is a term used when speaking of him or approaching him, like the words, O h’ng, live forever! addressed to the ancient kings of Persia. Pi Ida, ‘ beneath the footstool,’ is a sycophantic compellation used by his courtiers, as if they were only worthy of being at the edge of his footstool.

    ‘ Chinese Repositori/, Vol. IV., p. 12 ; Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 558.

    ATTRIBUTES OF THE CHINESE EMPEROR. 395

    The Emperor usually designates himself by the terms ehvn^ ‘ourself; ‘ hwa jin, the ‘ solitary man,’ or the one man ; and hwa Jciun, the ‘ solitary prince.’ He has been loaded with many ridiculous titles by foreign writers, as Brother of the Sun and Moon, Grandson of the Stars, King of Kings, etc., but no such epithets are known among his subjects. His palace has various appellations, such as hall of audience, golden palace, the ninth entrance, vermilion avenue, vermilion hall, rosy hall, forbidden pavilion, the crimson and forbidden palace, gemmeous steps, golden steps, meridian portal, gemmeous avenue, celestial steps,

    celestial court, great interior, the maple pavilion, royal house,

    etc. To see him is to see the dragon’s face ; the throne is called

    the ” di-agon’s throne,” and also the ” divine utensil,” i.e., the

    tliinir oiven him bv heaven to sit in Avhen executin<!; his divine

    mission ; his person is styled the dragon’s body, and a fiveclawed

    dragon is emblazoned, like a coat of arms, on his robes,

    which no one can use or imitate. Thus the Old Dragon, it

    might be almost said, has coiled himself around the Emperor

    of China, one of the greatest upholders of his power in this

    world, and contrived to get himself worshipped, through him,

    by one third of mankind.

    The Emperor is the fountain of power, rank, honor, and privilege to all within his dominions, which are termed tieti hia, meaning all under heaven, and were till recently, even by his highest officers, ignorantly supposed to comprise all mankind.

    As there can be but one sun in the heavens, so there can be

    but one hwangti on earth, the source and dispenser of benefits

    to the whole world.” /The same absolute executive power held

    by him is placed in the hands of his deputies and governorgenerals,

    to be by them exercised within the limits of their

    jui-isdiction. He is the head of religion and the only onef

    qualified to adore heaven ; he is the source of law and dispen-j

    ser of mercy ; no right can be held in opposition to his pleasure,

    no claim maintained against him, no privilege protect from his

    wrath. All the forces and revenues of the Empire are his, and

    lie has a riffht to claim the services of all males between sixteen j and sixty. In short, the whole Empire is his property, and they only cliecks upon his despotism are 2)ubli(‘ opinion, the want of j an efficient standing army, po^’erty and the venality of the agents of his power.

    When the Manchus found themselves in possession of Peking,

    they regarded this position as fully entitling them to assume all

    imperial rights. Their sovereign thus announced his elevation

    in November, 16-14 : ” I, the Son of Heaven, of the Ta-tsing

    ^ The attributes ascribed to a chakrnwartti in the Buddhist mythology have

    many points of resemblance to the hintngti, and Hardy’s Manual of Buddhism

    (p. 126) furnishes an instructive comparison between the two characters, one fanciful and the other real.

    dynasty, liuniljly as a subject dare to announce to Imperial

    Heaven and Sovereign Earth. Tliougli tlie world is vast,

    Sliangti looks on all without partiality. My Imperial Grandfather

    received the gracious decree of Heaven and founded a

    kingdom in the East, which became firmly established. My

    Imperial Father succeeding to the kingdom, extended it ; and I,

    Heaven’s servant, in my poor person became the ii heritor of

    the dominion they transmitted. AVlien the ]\Iing dynasty was

    coming to its end, traitors and men of violence appeared in

    crowds, involving the people in misery. China was without a

    ruler. It fell to me reverentially to accept the responsibility

    of continuing the meritorious work of my ancestors. I saved

    the people, destroyed their ojopressors ; and now, in accordance

    with the desires of all, I iix the urns of Empire at Yen-king.

    … I, receiving Heaven’s favor, and in accordance with their

    wishes, announce to Heaven that I have ascended the throne of

    the Empire, that the name I have chosen for it is the Great

    Pure, and that the style of my reign is Shun-chl (‘ Obedient

    Rule ‘). I beg reverentially Heaven and Earth to protect and

    assist the Empire, so that calamity and disturbance may soon

    come to an end, and the land enjoy universal peace. For this

    I humbly pray, and for the acceptance of this sacrifice.”

    The present Emperor is the ninth of the Tsing dynasty M’ho

    has reigned in China. Tk/ikj means Pure, and was taken by

    the Manchus as a distinctive tei’m for their new dynasty,

    alluding to the ])uj’ity of justice they intended to maintain in

    their sway. Some of the founders of the ancient dynasties derived

    their dynastic name from their patrimonial estates, as

    /SifUfj, ITaii, C//af/, etc., but the later ones have adopted names

    like T’uen, or ‘ Original,’ Min<j, or ‘ Illustrious,’ etc., which indicate

    their vanity.

    The present monarch is still a minor, and the affairs of government are nominally under the direction of the Empressdowager, who held the same office during the minority of his predecessor, Tungchf. -The surname of the reigning family is (j’ioi’o, or ‘ Golden,’ derived from their ancestral chief, Aisin Gioro, whom they feign to have been the son of a divine virgin.

    PERSONAL NAME AXD TITLES OF THE EMPEROR. 397

    They are the lineal descendants of the Kin, a rude race u-liieh drove out the Chinese rulers and occupied the northern provinces about 1130, making Peking their capital for many years. On the approach of the Mongols they were chased away to the east, and retained oidy a nominal independence ; changing their name from Niichih to Manjurs, they gradually increased in numbers, but did not assume any real importance until they became masters of China. The acknowledged founder of the reigning house was the chief IIien-tsu(1583-lC15), whose actual descendants are collectively designated Tsutuj-sJi’/h, or ‘Imperial Clan.’ The second Emperor further limited the Clan by giving to each of his twenty-four sons a personal name of two characters, the first of which, Ynn, was the same for all of

    them. For the succeeding generations lie ordered a series of

    characters to be nsed l)y all the membei-s of each, so that

    through all their ramifications the first name would show tlieir

    position. Ivanghi’s own name was Iliuen^ then followed Yun^

    Hung, Yung, JIt’en, Y!h, and T^v?/, tlie last and present sovereigns

    being both named T^cr/. All who bear this name are

    direct descendants of Kanghi. Since the application of these

    seven generation names, eight more have been selected for

    future nse by imperial scions.

    Tn order still further to distinguish those most nearly allied

    in blood, as sons, nephews, etc., it is required that the second

    names of each family always consist of characters under the

    same radical. Thus Kiaking and his brothers wrote their first

    names Yang, ‘Am\ under the radical ^?r>i for the second ; Taukwang

    and his brothers and cousins Mien, and under the radical

    heart. For some unexplained reason the radicals sill: and gaJ(l,

    chosen for the second names of the next two generations, were

    altered to u-ords and irater. This peculiarity is easily represented

    in the Chinese characters ; a comparison can be made

    in English with the supposed names of a family of sons, as

    Louis Edward, Louis Edwin, Louis Edwy, Louis Edgar, etc.,

    the word Louis answering to Mien, and the syllable Ed to the radical heart.

    The present Emperor’s personal name is Tsai-tien, and, like those of his predecessors, is deemed to be too sacred to be spoken, or the characters to be written in the common form.

    The same reverence is observed for the names after death, sg that twelve characters have been altered since the Manchu monarchs began to reign ; Hinen-wa, which was the personal name of Kanghi, has become permanently altered in its formation.

    The present sovereign was born August 15, 1871, and on January

    12, 1875, succeeded his cousin Tsaishun, who died without

    issue—the first instance in the Gioro family for nearly three

    centuries. At this time there was some delay as to which of

    his cousins should succeed to the dragon throne, when the united

    council of the princes was led by the mother of the deceased

    Emperor to adopt her nephew, the son of Prince Chun. The

    little fellow was sent for at night to be immediately saluted

    as hwangti, and ere long brought in before them, cross and

    sleepy as he was, to begin his reign under the style of Kwangsii,

    or ‘ Illustrious Succession.’

    This title is called a kwoh hao^ or national designation, and

    answers more nearly to the name that a new Pope takes with

    the tiara than to anything else in western lands. It is the expression

    of the idea which the monarch wishes to associate with

    his reign, and is the name by which he is known to his subjects

    during his life. It has been called a j>^^”^od by some

    writers, but while it is not strictly his name, yet period is not

    so correct as reign. Usage has made it equivalent in foreign

    books to the personal name, and it is plainer to say the Emperor

    Taukwang than the period Taukwang or the reign Taukwang,

    or still more than to write, as Wade has done, ” the Emperor

    Mien-Ning, the style of whose reign Mas Tau Kwang ;”or than Legge has done, to Bay, *’ the Emperor Pattern, of the period Yungciiing.” In such cases it is not worth the trouble to attempt strict accuracy in a matter so entirely unlike western usages.

    The use of the kwoh hao began with Wan-ti, of the Han dynasty,’ b.c. 179, and has continued ever since. Some of ‘ The remark of Heeren {Asiatic Nations, Vol. I. , p. 57), that the names by which the early Persian monarchs, Darius, Xerxes, and others, were called, were really titles or surnames, and not their own personal names, suggests the further comparison whether those renowned names were not like the kiroh hao of the Chinese emperors, whose adoption of the custom was after the ex

    THE KWOII HAO AND MIAO HAO. 399

    the early inouarclis elianged their hwoli hao many times during

    their reigns ; Kao-tsung (a.d. 650-684), for example, had thirteen

    in a regime of thirty four years, which induced historians

    to employ the laiao Jiao, or ancestral name, as more suitable

    and less liable to confusion. The reason for thus investinir the

    sovereign with a title different from his real name is not fully

    apparent, but arose probably out of the vanity of the monai-ch,

    who wished thus to glorify himself by a high-sounding title,

    and make his own name somewhat ineffable at the same time.

    The custom was adopted in Japan about a.d. 645, and is practised

    in Corea and Annam.

    When a monarch ascends the throne, or as it is expressed in Chinese, ” when he receives from Heaven and revolving nature the government of the world,” he issues an inaugural proclamation. There is not much change in the wording of these papers, and an extract from the one issued in 1821 will exhibit the practice on such occasions: “Our Da Qing dynasty has received the most substantial indication of Heaven’s kind care. Our ancestors, Taitsu and Taitsung. began to lay the vast foundation [of our Empire] : and Shitsu became the sole monarch of China. Our sacred ancestor Kanghi, the Emperor Yungching, the glory of his age, and Kienlung, the eminent in honor, all abounded in virtue, were divine in martial prowess, consolidated the glory of the Empire, and moulded the whole to peaceful harmony.

    ” His late Majesty, who has now gone the great journey, governed all under Heaven’s canopy twenty-live years, exercising the utmost caution and industry. Xor evening nor morning was he ever idle. He assiduously aimed at the best possible rule, and hence his government was excellent and illustrious; the court and the country felt the deepest reverence and the stillness of profound awe. A benevolent heart and a benevolent tinction of the Persian monarchy. Herodotus (Book VI., 98) seems to have been familiar with these names, not so much as being arbitrary and meaningless terms as epithets whose significations were associated with the kings. The new names given to the last two sons of Josiah, who became kings of Judah by their conquerors (3 Kings, 23; 34, and 24 : 17), indicate even an earlier adoption of this custom.

    administration were universally dift’used : in China Proper, as well as beyond it, order and tranquillity pi-evailed, and the tens of thousands of common people were all happy. But in the midst of a hope that this glorious reign would be long protracted, and the help of Heaven would be received many days, unexpectedly, on descending to bless, by his Majesty’s presence, Lwanyang, the dragon charioteer (the holy Emperor) became a guest on high.

    ” My sacred and indulgent Father had, in the yeai” that ho

    bejiran to rule alone, silent! v settled that the divine utensil

    should devolve on my contemptible person. I, knowing the

    feebleness of my virtue, at first felt much afraid I should not be

    competent to the office ; but on reflecting that the sages, my

    ancestors, have left to posterity their plans ; that his late

    Majesty has laid the duty on me—and Heaven’s throne should

    not be long vacant—I have done violence to my feelings and

    foi’ced myself to intermit awhile my heartfelt grief, that I may

    with reverence obey the unalterable decree ; and on the 2Tth of

    the Sth moon (October 3d) 1 purpose devoutly to announce the

    ev^ent to Heaven, to earth, to my ancestors, and to the gods of

    the land and of the grain, and shall then sit down on the imperial throne. Tx’t the next year be the first of Taukwang.

    ” I look upward and hope to be able to continue former excellences. I lay my hand on my heart with feelings of respect and cautious awe.—When a new monarch addresses himself to the Empire, he ought to c(»iifer benefits on his klndi-ed, and extensively bestow gracious favors : what is proper to be done on this occasion is stated below.”

    (Here follow twenty-two paragraphs, detailing the gifts to be

    conferred and promotions made of noblemen and officers ; ordering

    the restoration of suspended dignitaries to their full pay

    and honoi’s, and sacrifices to Confucius and the Emperors of

    former dynasties ; pardons to be extended to ciiminals, and

    banished convicts recalled ; governmental debts and arrearages

    to be forgiven, and donations to be bestowed upon the aged.)

    “Lo! now, on succeeding to the throne, T shall exei-cise myself

    to give repose to the millions of my ]>eople. iVssist me to

    sustain the burden laid on mv shoulders ! With veneration I

    COr.OXATIOX T’ROrr.AMATIOX OF TArKU’AXO. 4(‘]

    receive charge of Heaven’s great concerns.—Ye kings and statesmen, great and small, civil and military, let every one be faithful and devoted, and aid in supporting the vast afPairs, that our family dominion may be preserved hundreds and tens of thousands of years in never-ending tranquillity and glory ! Promulgate this to all under Heaven — cause every one to hear it!”

    The programme of ceremonies to be observed when the Emperor” ascends the summit,” and seats himself on the dragon’s throne, was published for the Emperor Taukwangby the Board of Kites a few days after. It details a long series of prostrations and bowings, leading out and marshalling the various officers of the court and members of the imperial family. After they are all arranged in proper precedence before the throne,” at the appointed hour the president of the Board of Bites shall go and entreat his Majesty to put on his mourning, and

    come forth by the gate of the eastern palace, and enter at the

    left door of the middle palace, where his Majesty, before the

    altar of his deceased imperial father, will respectfully announce

    that he receives the decree—kneel thrice and bow nine times.”

    lie then retires, and soon after a large deputation of palace

    officers ” go and solicit his Majesty to put on his impei-ial robes

    and proceed to the palace of his mother, the Empress-dowager,

    to pay his respects. The Empress-dowager will put on her court

    robes and ascend her throne, before which his Majesty shall

    kneel thrice and bow nine times.” After this filial ceremony

    is over the golden chariot is made ready, the officer of the

    Astronomical Board—whose business is to ohscrve times—

    h

    stationed at the palace gate, and when he announces the arrival

    of the chosen and felicitous moment, his Majesty comes forth

    and mounts the golden chariot, and the procession advances to

    the Palace of Protection and Peace. Here the great officers of

    the Empire are marshalled according to their rank, and when

    the Emperor sits down in the palace they all kneel and bow

    nine times.

    ” This ceremony over, the President of the Board of Rites, stepping forward, shall kneel down and beseech his Majesty, saying, ‘ Ascend the imperial throne.’ The Emperor shall then rise from his seat, and the procession moving on in the same order to the Palace of Peace, his Majesty shall ascend the seat of gems and sit down on the imperial throne, with his face to the south.” All present come forward and again make the nine prostrations, after which the proclamation of coronation, as it would be called in Europe, is formally sealed, and then announced to the Empire with similar ceremonies. There are many other lesser rites observed on these occasions, some of them appropriate to such an occasion, and others, according to our notions, bordering on the ludicrous ; the whole presenting a strange mixture of religion, splendor, and farce, though as a whole calculated to impress all with a sentiment of awe toward one who gives to heaven, and receives from man, such homage and worship.’

    Nothing is omitted which can add to the dignity and sacredness

    of the Emperor’s person or character. Almost everything

    used by him, or in his personal service, is tabued to the connuon

    people, and distinguished by some peculiar mark or color, so as

    to keep up the impression of awe with which he is regarded,

    and which is so powerful an auxiliary to his throne. The outer

    gate of the palace must always be passed on foot, and the paved

    entrance walk leading up to it can only be used by him. The vacant throne, or even a screen of yellow silk thrown over a chair, is worshipped equally with his actual presence, and an imperial dispatch is received in the provinces with incense and prostrations ; the A-essels on the canal bearing articles for his special use always have the rig:ht of way. His birthday is eel ebrated by his officers, and the account of the opening ceremony, as witnessed by Lord Macartney, shows how skilfully every act tends to maintain his assumed character as the son of heaven.

    ‘ Chinese Repository^ Vol. X., pp. 87-98. Indo-Chinese Gleaner, February, isai.

    HOMAGE KENDERP:D TO THE EMPEROR. 403

    ” The first day was consecrated to the purpose of rendering a solemn, sacred, and devout homage to the supreme majesty of the Emperor. The ceremony was no longer performed in a tent, nor did it partake of the nature of a banquet. The princes, tributai-ies, ambassadors, and great officers of state were assembled in a vast hall ; and upon particular notice were introduced into au inner building, bearing at least the semblance of a temple.

    It was chietiy furnished with great instruments of music,

    among which were sets of cylindrical bells suspended in a line

    from ornamental frames of wood, and gradually diminishing in

    size from one extremity to the other, and also triangular pieces

    of metal, arranged in the same order as the bells. To the

    sound of these instruments a slow and solemn hymn was sung

    by eunuchs, who had such a command over their voices as to

    resemble the effect of musical glasses at a distance. The performers

    were directed, in tlie gliding from one tone to the other,

    by the striking of a shrill and sonorous cymbal ; and the judges

    of music among the gentlemen of the embassy were much

    pleased with their execution. The whole had, indeed, a grand

    effect. During the performance, and at particular signals, nine

    times repeated, all present prostrated themselves nine times,

    except the ambassador and his suite, who made a profound

    obeisance. But he whom it was meant to honor continued, as

    if in imitation of the Deity, invisible the whole time. The

    awful impression intended to iTe made upon the minds of men

    by this apparent worship of a fellow-mortal was not to be

    effaced by any immediate scenes of sport or gaiety, which were

    postponed to the following day. ” ‘ The mass of the people are

    not aduutted to particij^ate in these ceremonies ; they are kept

    at a distance, and care, in fact, very little about them. In every

    provincial capital there is a hall, called Wan-shao l:u?ig, dedicated

    solely to the honor of the Emperor, and where, three days

    before and after his birthday, all the civil and military officers

    and the most distinguished citizens assemble to do him tlie

    same homage as if he were present. The walls and furniture

    are yellow.

    The right of succession is hereditary in the male line, but it

    is always in the power of the sovereign to nominate his successor

    from among his own children. The heir-apparent is not

    commonly known during the lifetime of the incumbent, though

    Staunton’s Embassy, 8vo edition, London, 1797, Vol. III., p. 63.

    there is a titular office of guardian of the heir-apparent. During

    tlie Tsing dynasty the succession has varied, l)ut tiie hloody

    scenes enacted in Turkey, Egypt, and India to remove competitors

    are not known at Peking, and the people have no fear that they will be enacted. Of the eight preceding sovereigns, Shunchi was the ninth son, Tvanghi the third, Vnngehing the fourth, Kienlung the fourth, Kiaking the iifteenth, Taukwang

    the second, Hienfung the fourth, and Tungchi the only son.

    When Kwangsii was chosen this regular line failed, and thus

    was terminated an nnbi-oken succession during two Inmdred

    and fifty-nine years (1616 to 1875), when ten rulers (including

    two in Manchuria) occupied the throne. It can be paralleled

    onlv in eTudah, where the line of David down to Jehoiachin

    (b.c. 1055 to 599) continued regularly in the same manner—

    twenty kings in four hundred and fifty six years.

    In the reign of Kieidung, one of the censors memorialized

    him upon the desirableness of announcing his sncsessor, in order

    to quiet men’s minds and repress intrigue, but the suggestion

    cost the man his place. The Emperor said that the name of

    his successor, in case of his own sudden death, would be found

    in a designated place, and that it was highly inexpedient to

    mention him, lest intriguing men buzzed about him, forming

    factions and trying to elevate themselves. The soundness of

    this policy cannot l)e doubted, and it is not nnlikely that Kienlung

    knew the evils of an opposite course from an acquaintance

    with the history of some of the princes of Central Asia or

    India. One good result of not indicating the heir-apparent is

    that not oidy are no intrigues formed by the crown-prince, but

    when he begins to reign he is seldom compelled, from fear of

    his own safety, to kill or imprison his brothers or uncles; for,

    as they possess no power or party to render them formidable,

    their ambition finds full scope for its exercise in peaceful ways.

    In 1861, when the heir was a child of five years, a palace intrigue

    was started to remove his custody out of the hands of his mother

    into those of a cabal wlio had held sway for some years, but the

    promoters were all executed.

    THE IMPKIilAL HOUSE AXD NOBILITY. 405

    The management of the imperial clan appertains entirely to the Emperor, and has been conducted with considerable sagacI’ty. All its members arc under the control of the Tsuny-jln fu, a sort ot” clansmen’s court, consisting of a presiding controller, two assistant directors, and two deputies of the family.

    Their duties are to regulate whatever belongs to the government of the Emperor’s kindred, which is divided into two branches, the direct and collateral, or the Uiukj-hMIi and Gioro.

    The TmurKj-sJiiJi, or ‘Imperial House,’ coni})rise only the lineal

    descendants of Tienming’s father, named llien-tsu, or ‘ Illustrious

    Sire,” who first assumed the title of Emperor a.d. 1610.

    The collateral branches, including the children of his uncles and

    brothers, are collectively c;illed Gioro. Their united number is

    unknown, l)ut a genealogical record is kept in the national archives

    at Peking and Mukden. The Tsunfj-ahlh are distinguished

    by a yellow girdle, and the Gioro by a red one; when

    degraded, the former take a red, the latter a carnation girdle.

    There are altogether twelve degrees of rank in the Tsung-shih^

    and consequently some of the distant kindred are reduced to

    straitened circumstances. They are shut out from useful careers,

    and generally exhibit the evils ensuent upon the system of education

    and surveillance adopted toward them, in their low,

    vicious pursuits, and cringing imbecility of character. Tlie sum

    of $133 is allowed when they marry, and $150 to defray funeral

    expenses, vvhich induces some of them to maltreat their wives

    to death, in order to receive the allowance and dowry as often

    as possible.

    The titular nobility of the Empire, as a whole, is a body

    whose members are without power, land, wealth, office, or influence,

    in virtue of their honors ; some of them are more or less

    hereditary, but the whole system has been so devised, and the

    designations so conferred, as to tickle the vanity of those who

    receive them, without granting them any real power. The titles

    are not derived from landed estates, but the rank is siinply

    designated in addition to the name, and it has been a question

    of some difficulty how to translate them. For instance, the

    title Kung tsin-vKing literally means the ‘ Reverent Kindred

    Prince,’ and should be translated Prince Kung, not Prince of

    Kung, which conveys the im})ression to a foreign reader that

    Kung is an appanage instead of an epithet The twelve orders of nobility are conferred solely on the members of the imperial house and clan : 1. Tsin icamj, ‘ kindred prince,’ i.e., prince of the blood, conferred usnallj on his

    Majesty’s brothers or sons. 2. K’nm. irang, or ‘ prince of a

    princedom ;

    ‘ the eldest sons of the princes of these two degrees

    take a definite rank during their father’s lifetime, but the collateral

    branches descend in precedence as the generations are

    more and more remote from the direct imperial line, until at

    last the person is simply a member of the imperial clan. These

    two ranks were termed regulus by the Jesuit writers, and each

    son of an Emperor enters one or other as he becomes of

    age. The highest princes receive a stipend of about ^13,300,

    some rations, and a retinue of three hundred and sixty servants,

    altogether making an annual tax on the state of $75,000 to

    $90,000. The second receive half that sum, and inferior grades

    in a decreasing ratio, down to the simple members, who each

    get four dollars a month and rations. 3 and -i. BeUe and

    Beitse, or princes of and in collateral branches. The Sth to

    8th are dukes, called Guard i;m and Sustaining, with two subordinate

    grades not entitled to enter the court on state occasions.

    The 9th to 12th ranks are nobles, or rather generals, in line of

    descent. The number of persons in the lower ranks is very

    great. Few of these men hold offices at the capital, and still

    more rarely are they placed in responsible situations in the

    provinces, but the government of Manchuria is chiefly in their

    hands.

    Besides these are the five ancient orders of nobility, Ining,

    liao,2_^(‘li,Uz’, and nan, usually rendered duke, count, viscount,

    baron, and baronet, which are conferred without distinction on

    Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, both civil and military, and as

    such are highly prized by their recipients as marks of honor.

    The three first take precedence of the highest untitled civilians,

    but an appointment to most of the high offices in the country

    carries with it an honorary title. The direct descendant of

    Confucius is called Yoi-f^/ilng humj, ‘ the Ever-sacred duke,’

    and of Koxinga Ilai-ching hmg, or ‘ Sea-quelling duke ;’ these

    two arc the only perpetual titles among the Chinese, but among

    the Manchus, the chiefs of eight families which aided in settling the crown in the Gioro line were made hereditary princes,

    LIFE IN THE PALACE. 407

    who are collectively called princes of the iron crown. Besides

    the above-mentioned, there are others, which are deemed even

    more honorable, either from their rarity or peculiar privileges,

    and answer to membership of the various orders of the Garter,

    Golden Fleece, Bath, etc , in Europe.

    The internal arrangements of the court are modelled somewhat

    after those of the Boards, the general supervision being

    under the direction of the Nid-wufa, composed of a president

    and six assessors, under whom are seven subordinate departments.

    It is the duty of these officers to attend upon the Emperor

    and Empress at sacrifices, and conduct the ladies of the

    harem to and from the palace ; they oversee the households of

    the sons of the Emperor, and direct, under his Majestj’, everything

    belonging to the palace and whatever appertains to its

    supplies and the care of the imperial guard. The seven departments

    are arranged so as to bear no little resemblance to a

    miniature state : one supplies food and raiment ; a second is

    for defence, to regulate the body-guard when the Emperor

    travels; the third attends to the etiquette the members of this

    great family must observe toward each other, and brings forward

    the inmates of the harem when the Emperor, seated in

    the inner hall of audience, receives their homage, led by the

    Empress herself ; a fourth department selects ladies to fill the

    harem, and collects the revenue from crown lands ; a fifth

    superintends all repairs necessary in the palace, and sees that

    the streets of the city be cleared whenever the Emperor, Erapress,

    or any of the women or children in the palace wish to go

    out ; a sixth department has in charge the herds and fiocks of

    the Emperor ; and tlie last is a court for punishing the crimes

    of soldiers, eunuchs, and ethers attached to the palace.

    The Emperor ought to have three thousand eunuchs, but the

    actual number is rather less than two thousand, who perform

    the work of the household. His sons and grandsons are alloM^ed

    from thirty down to four, while the iron-crown princes and imperial

    sons-in-law have twenty or thirty ; all these nobles are

    constrained to employ some eunuchs in their establishments, if

    not able to maintain the full quota, for show. Most of this

    class are compelled to submit to mutilation by tlieir parents

    before the age of eight (and not always from povei-ty), as it

    usually insures a livelihood. Some take to this condition from

    motives of laziness and the high duties falling to their share if

    they behave themselves. From very ancient times certain

    criminals have been punished by castration. There is a separate

    control for the due efficiency of these servants of the court,

    who are divided into forty-eight classes ; durhig the present

    dynasty they have never caused trouble. The highest pay any

    of them receive is twelve taels a month.

    The number of females attached to the harem is not accurately

    known ; all of them are under the nominal direction

    of the Empress. Every third year his Majesty reviews the

    daughters of the IVIanchu officers over twelve years of age, and

    chooses such as he pleases for concubines ; there are oidy seven

    legal concubines, but an unlimited mnuber of illegal. The latter

    are restored to li])erty when they reach the age of twentyfive,

    unless they have borne cliildren to his Majest}-. It is generally

    considered an advantage to a family to have a daughter

    in the harem, especially by the Manchus, who endeavor to rise

    by this backstairs influence.’ To the poor Avomen themselves

    it is a monotonous, weary life of intriguing unrest. As soon as

    one enters the palace she bids final adieu to all her male relatives,

    and rarely sees her female friends ; the eunnchs \vlio

    take care of her are her chief channels of communication with

    the outer world. It may be added, however, that the comforts

    and influence of her condition are vastly superior to those of

    Hindu females.

    In the forty-eighth volume of the Hiral Tioi, from whicii

    work most of the details in this chapter are obtained, is an account

    of the snpplies furnished his Majesty and the court.

    There should daily be placed befoi-o the Emperor thirty pounds

    of meat in a basin and seven pounds boiled into soup ; hog’s

    fat and butter, of each one and one-third pound ; two sheep,

    two fowls, and two ducks, the milk of eighty cows, and seventy-

    ‘ Chinese licpositorp, Vol. XIV., !>. 521; N. C. Br. It. As. Soc. Jovriuil,

    x\o. XI.

    positio:n” of the empress and ladies. 409

    five parcels of tea. Her Majesty receives twenty-one pounds

    of meat in platters and thirteen pounds boiled with vegetables

    ;

    one fowl, one duck, twelve pitchers of watei’, the milk of

    twenty-iive cows, and ten parcels of tea. Her maids and the

    3oncubines receive their rations according to a regular fare.

    The Empress-dowager is the most important subject within

    the palace, and his Majesty does homage at frequent intervals,

    !)y making the highest ceremony of nine prostrations before

    her. When the widow of Iviaking reached the age of sixty in

    1S3<), many honors were conferred l)y the Emperor. An extract

    from the ordinance issued on this festival will exhibit the

    regard paid her by the sovereign

    :

    ” Our extensive dominions have enjoyed the utmost prosperity

    under the shelter of a glorious and enduring state of felicity.

    Our exalted race has become most illustrious under the protection

    of that honored relative to whom the whole court looks up.

    To her happiness, already unalloyed, the highest degree of

    felicity has been superadded, causing joy and gladness to every

    inmate of the Six Palaces. The grand ceremonies of the occasion

    shall exceed in splendor the utmost recpiirements of the

    ancients in regard to the human relations, calling ft)rth the gratulation

    of the whole Em})ire. It is indispensable that the observances

    of the occasion sliould be of an exceedingly unusual

    nature, in older that our reverence for our august parent and

    care of her may both be equally and gloriously displayed. . . .

    … In the first month of the present winter occurs the sixtieth

    anniversary of her Majesty’s sacred natal day. At the opening

    of the happy period, the sun and moon shed their united genial

    influences on it. When commencing anew the revolution of

    the sexagenary cycle, the honor thereof adds increase to her

    felicity. Looking upward and Ijeholding her glory, Ave repeat

    our gratulations, and announce the event to Heaven, to Earth, to

    our ancestors, and to the patron gods of the Empire. On the

    nineteenth day of the tenth moon in the fifteenth year of Taukwang,

    we will conduct the princes, the nobles, and all the high

    officers, both rivil and military, into the presence of the great

    Empress, benign and dignified, universally placid, thoi-oughly

    virtuous, tran(piil and self-collected, in favors unbounded ; and

    we will then present our congratulations on the glad occasion,

    the anniversary of her natal day. The occasion yields a happiness

    equal to what is enjoyed by goddesses in heaven ; and

    while announcing it to the gods and to our people, we will

    tender to her blessings unbounded.”

    Besides the usual tokens of favor, such as rations to soldiers, pardons, promotions, advances in official rank, etc., it was ordered in the eleventh article, ” That every perfectly filial son or obedient grandson, every upright husband or chaste wife, upon proofs being brought forward, shall have a monument erected, with an inscription in his or her honor.”” Soldiers who had reached the age of ninety or one hundred received money to erect an honorary portal, and tombs, temples, bridges, and roads were ordered to be repaired ; but how many of these ” exceedingly great and special favors ” were actually carried into effect cannot be stated.’

    For the defence and escort of the Emperor and his palaces

    there are select bodies of troops, which are stationed within the

    Hwang-ching and the capital and at the various cantonments

    near the city. The Bannermen form three separate corps, each

    containing the hereditaiy troops of Manchu, Mongol, and enrolled

    Chinese, organized at the beginning of the dynasty under

    eight standards. Their flags are ti’iangular, a plain yellow,

    white, red, and blue for troops in the left wing, and the same

    bordered with a narrow stripe of another color for troops in the

    rio-ht wino;. All the families of these soldiers remain in the

    corps into which they were born.

    Two special forces are selected, one named the Vanguard

    Division, the other the Flank Division, from the Manchu and

    Mongol Bannermen ; these guard the Forbidden City, form his

    Majesty’s escort when he goes out, and number respectively

    about one thousand five hundred and fifteen thousand men.

    For the preservation of the peace of the capital a force of upward

    of twenty thousand, called the Infantry Division, or Gendarmerie,

    is stationed in and around the walls, in addition to

    the palace forces. Besides these a cadet corps of five hundred

    Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 576.

    EMPEllOR’S GUARD AND DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 411

    young men nrnied with l)Ows and spears, two battalions with firearms, and four larger battalions of eight hundred and seventy-five men each, di’iiled in rifle-practice, are relied on to aid the Gendarmerie and Vanguard in case of danger. Whenever the One Man goes out of the palace gate to cross the city, the streets through which he passes aie screened with matting, to keep off the crowds as well as diminish the risks of his person.

    The result has been that few of the citizens have ever seen their sovereign’s face during the last two hundred years. The young Emperor Tungchi obtained great favor among them on one occasion of his return from the Temple of Heaven by ordering the screen of mats to be removed so that he and his people could see each other.

    Lender the Emperor is the whole body of the people, a great

    family bound implicitly to obey his will as being that of heaven,

    and possessing no right or property jper se ; in fact, having

    nothing but what has been derived from or may at any time be

    reclaimed by him. The greatness of this family, and the absence

    of an entailed aristocracy to hold its members or their

    lands in serfdom, have been partial safeguards against excess

    of oppression. Liberty is unknown among the people ; there is

    not even a word for it in the language. No acknowledgment

    on the part of the sovereign of certain well-understood rights

    belonging to the people has ever been required, and is not

    likely to be demanded or given by either party until the Gospel

    shall teach them their respective rights and duties. Emigration abroad, and even removal from one part of the Empire to another, are prohibited or restrained by old laws, but at present no real obstacle exists to changing one’s place of residence or occupation. Notwithstanding the fact that Chinese society is so homogeneous when considered as distinct from the sovereign, inequalities of many kinds are constantly met with, some growing out of birth or property, others out of occupation or merit, but most of them derived from official rank. There is no caste as in India, though the attempt to introduce the miserable system was vainly made by Wan-ti about a.d. 590. The ancient distinctions of the Chinese into scholars, agriculturists, artisans, and traders is far superior to that of Zoroaster into priests, warriors, agriculturists, and artisans ; a significant index of the different polities of eastern and western x\siatic nations is contained in this early quaternary division, and the superiority of the Chinese in its democratic element is also noticeable. There are local prejudices against associating with some portions of the community, thougly the people thus shut out are not remnants of old castes.

    \The tan/da, or boat-people, at Canton form a class in some respects beneath the other portions of the community, and have many customs peculiar to themselves.

    At Mngpo there is a degraded set called to viin, amounting to nearly three thousand persons, with whom the people will not associate. The men are not allowed to enter the examinations or follow an honorable calling, but are play-actors, musicians, or sedan-bearers ; the women are match-makers or female barbers and are obliged to wear a peculiar dress, and usually go abroad carrying a bundle wrapped in a checkered handkerchief.

    The tanhia at Canton also wear a similar handkerchief on their head, and do not cramp their fee^ The to iidn are supposed to be descendants of the Kin, who held northern China in a.d.1100, or of native traitors who aided the Japanese, in 1555-1563, in their descent upon Chehkiang. The tanh’ui came from some of the Miaotsz’ tribes so early that their origin is unknown.’

    The modern classifications of the people, recognized, however, more by law than custom, are various and comprehensive. First, natives and aliens ; the latter include the unsubdued mountaineers and aboriginal tribes living in various parts, races of boat-people on the coasts, and all foreigners residing within the Empire, each of whom are subject to particular laws. Second, conquerors and conquered ; having reference almost entirely to a prohibition of intermarriages between Manchus arid Chinese. Third, freemen and slaves; every native is allowed to pm-chase slaves and retain their children in servitude, and free persons sometimes forfeit their freedom on account of their crimes, or mortgage themselves into bondage. Fourth, the

    ‘ Missionary Chronicle, Vol. XIV., p. 324; Hardy, Manual of BttddJdsm, pC9 ; Heereii, Asiatic Nations, Vol. I., p. 240.

    SLAVES AXD PRIVILEGED CLASSES. 413

    iioiioi’able and the mean, m’Iio cannot intermarry without the former forfeiting their privileges; the latter comprise, besides aliens and slaves, criminals, executioners, police-runners, actors, jugglers, beggars, and all other vagrant or vile persons, who are in general required to pursue for three generations some honorable and useful employment before they are eligible to enter the literary examinations. These four divisions extend over the whole body of the people, but really affect only a small minority.

    It is worthy of note how few have been the slaves in China, and how easy has been their condition in comparison with what it was in Greece and Rome. / Owing chiefly to the prevalence of education in the liberal principles of the Four Books, China has been saved from this disintegrating element. The proportion of slaves to freemen cannot be stated, but the former have never attracted notice by their numbers nor excited dread by their restiveness^ Girls are more readily sold than boys ; at Peking a healthy girl under twelve years brings from thirty to fifty taels, rising to two hundred and fifty or three hundred for one of seventeen to eighteen years old. In times of famine orphans or needy children are exposed for sale at the price of a few cash.’

    There are also eight privileged classes, of which the privileges of imperial blood and connections and that of nobility are the only ones really available ; this privilege affects merely’ the punishment of offenders belonging to either of the eight classes. The privilege of imperial blood is extended to all the blood relations of the Emperor, all those of the Empress-mother and grandmother within four degrees, of the Empress within three, and of the consort of the crown prince within two. Privileged noblemen comprise all officers of the first rank, all of the second holding office, and all of the third whose office confers a command.

    These ranks are distinct from titles of nobility, and are much thought of by officers as honorary distinctions. There are nine, each distinguished by a different colored ball placed on the apex of the cap, by a peculiar emblazonry of a bird for civilians and a beast for military officers on the breast, and a different clasp to the girdle.

    ‘ M. Ed. Biot furnished a good account to the Journal Asiatique (3d series, Vol. III.) of the legal condition of slaves in China ; see also Chinese RepoHVtory^ Vol. XVIII., pp. 347-003, and passim; Archdeacon Gray’s China.

    Civilians of the first rank wear a precious ruby or transparent red stone; a Manchurian crane is embroidered on the back and breast of the robe, while the girdle clasp is jade set in rubies; military men have a unicorn, their buttons and clasps being the same as civilians.

    Civilians of the second rank wear a red coral button, a robe

    embroidered with a golden pheasant, and a girdle clasp of gold

    set in rubies ; the lion of India is emblazoned on the military.

    Civilians of the third rank carry a sapphire and one-eyed

    peacock’s feather, a robe with a peacock worked on the breast,

    and a clasp of worked gold ; military officers have a leopard.

    Different Styles of Official Caps.

    Civilians of the fourth rank are distinguished by a blue opaque stone, a wild goose on the breast, and a clasp of worked gold with a silver button ; military officers carry a tiger in place of the embroidered wild goose.

    Civilians of the fifth rank are denoted by a crystal button, a silver pheasant on the breast, and a clasp of plain gold with a silver button ; the bear is the escutcheon of military men.

    Civilians of the sixth rank wear an opaque white shell button, a blue plume, an egret worked on the breast, and a mother of pearl clasp; military men wear a tiger-cat.

    Civilians of the seventh rank have a plain gold button, a mandarin duck on the breast, and a clasp of silver; a mottled bear designates the military, as it also does in the last rank.

    EIGHT HONOUAUY RANKS. 415

    The eighth rank wear a worked gokl button, a quail on the breast, and a clasp of clear horn : military men have a seal. The ninth rank are distinguished by a worked silver button, a long-tailed jay on the breast, and a clasp of buffalo’s horn ; military men are marked by a rhinoceros embroidered on the robe. All under the ninth can embroider the oriole on their breasts, and unofficial Ilanlin take the egret.

    The mass of people show their democratic tendencies in many ways, some of them conservative and others disorganizing. They form themselves into clans, guilds, societies, professions, and communities, all of which assist them in maintaining their rights, and give a power to public opinion it would not otherwise possess. Legally, every subject is allowed access to the magistrates, secured protection from oppression, and can appeal to the higher courts, but these privileges are of little avail if he is poor or unknown. ( He is too deeply imbued with fear and too ignorant of his rights to think of organized resistance ; his mental independence has been destroyed, his search after truth paralyzed, his enterprise checked, and his whole efforts directed into two channels, viz., labor for bread and study for office.

    The people of a village, for instance, will not be quietly robbed of the fruits of their industry ; but every individual in it niay suffer multiplied insults, oppressions, and cruelties, without thinking of combining with his fellows to resist. Property is held by a tolerably secure tenure, but almost every other right and privilege is shamefully trampled oiA

    Although there is nominally no deliberative or advisatory body in the Chinese government, and nothing really analogous to a congress, parliament, or tiersetat, still necessity and law compel the Emperor to consult and advise with the heads of tribunals. There are two imperial councils, which are the organs of communication between the head and the body politic ; these are the Cabinet, or Imperial Chancery, and the Council of State ; both of them partake of a deliberative character, but the first has the least power. Subordinate to these two councils are the administrative parts of the supreme government, consisting of the six Boards, the Colonial Office, Censorate, Courts of Representation and Appeal, and the Imperial Academy; making in all thirteen principal departments, each of which will require a short description. It need hardly be added that there is nothing like an elective body in any part of the system ; such a feature would be almost as incongruous to a Chinese as the election of a father by his family.

    1. The Nui Kon, or Cabinet, sometimes called the Grand Secretariat,

    consists of iowv ta]ik)Ji-sz\ or principal, and two hiehpa/i

    ta Jdoh-sz\ or ‘joint assistant chancellors,’ half of them Manchus

    and half Chinese. Their duties, according to the Imperial

    Statutes, are to ” deliberate on the government of the Empire,

    proclaim abroad the imperial pleasure, regulate the canons

    of state, together with the whole administration of the great

    balance of power, thus aiding the Emperor in directing the

    affairs of state.” Subordinate to these six chancellors are six

    grades of officers, amounting in all to upward of two hundred

    persons, of whom more than half are Manchus. Under the six

    chancellors are ten assistants, called hloh-sz\ ‘ learned scholars ;’

    some of the sixteen are constantly absent in the provinces or

    colonies, when their places are supplied by substitutes. What in other countries is performed by one person as prime minister, is in China performed by the four chancellors, of whom the first in the list is usually considered to be the premier, though perhaps the must influential man and the real leader of government holds another station.

    The most prominent daily business of the Cabinet is to receive imperial edicts and rescripts, present memorials, lay before his Majesty the affairs of the Empire, procure his instructions thereon, and forward them to the appropriate office to be copied and promulgated. In order to expedite business in court, it is the custom, after the ministers have read and formed an opinion upon each document, to fasten a slip of paper at the foot—or more than one if elective answers are to be given—and thus present the document to his Majesty, in the presence chamber, who, with a stroke of his pencil on the answer he chooses, decides its fate. The papers, having been examined and arranged, are submitted to the sovereign at daylight on the following morning ; one of the six Manchu ///o/z-.s*.?’ first reads each document and hands it over to one of the four Chinese ]uoh-sz\ who inscribes the answer dictated by the sovereign, or hands it to him to perform that duty with the vermilion pencil.

    THE NTTI KOII, OR CABIXET. 417

    By this arrangement a large amount of business can be summarily despatched; but it is also evident that much depends upon the manner in which the answer written upon the slip is drawn up, as to the reception or rejection of the paper, though care has been taken in this particular by requiring that codicils be prepared showing the reasons for each answer. The appointment, removal, and degradation of all officers throughout his vast aominions, orders respecting the apportionment or remittal of the revenue and taxes, disposition of the army, regulation of the nomadic tribes—in short, all concerns, from the highest appointments and changes down to petty police cases of crime, are in this way brought to the notice and action of the Emperor.

    Besides these daily duties there are additional functions devolving

    upon the members of the Cabinet, who are likewise all

    attached to other bureaus, such as presiding on all state occasions

    and sacrifices, coronations, reception of embassies, etc. ;

    these duties are fulfilled by the ten assistant hk>h-sz\ who are

    all vice-presidents of the Board of Rites. They are the keepers

    of the twenty-five seals of government, each of which is of a

    different form and used for different and special purposes,

    according to the custom of orientals, who place so much de-

    Tj)endence upon the seal for vouching for* the authenticity of a

    document.’ Attached to the Cabinet are ten subordinate offices,

    one of which is for translating documents into the various

    Vmguages found in the Empire. The higher members of the

    Cabinet are familiarly called h>h lao, i.e., elders of the councilroom,

    from which the word colao, often met with in old books

    upon China, is derived.”

    ‘ Chinese Chrestmnnthy. Chap. XVII., Sec. 4, p. 570.

    ^ A still more common designation for officers of every rank in the employ of the Chinese government has not so good a parentage ; this is the word iiKtiidarin, derived from the Portuguese maiidar, to command, and indiscriminately applied by foreigners to every grade, from a premier to a tide-waiter; it is not needed in English as a general term for officers, and ought to be disiised, moreover, from its tendency to convey the impression that they are in some way unlike similar officials in other lands. Compare Notes and Queries on Chihd (uid Jdjmn, Vol. III., p. 12.

    2. The KiCN-Ki Chu, Council of State or General _Coimci], was organized about 1730, butjias now become the most influential body in the governmentj and^ though quite unlike in its construction, corresponds to the 7mnidry of western nations more than does any other branch of the Chinese system. It can be composed of any grandees, as princes of the blood, chancellors, presidents and vice-presidents of the Six Boards, and chief officers of all the other metropolitan courts. They are ^selected at the Emperor’s pleasure^ and unitedly called J^great ministers directing the machinery of the army “—the army being here taken to signify the nation. Its duties are ” to write imperial edicts and decisions, and determine such things as are of importance to the army and nation, in order to aid the sovereign in regulating the machinery of affairs.” The number of members of the General Council probably varies according to his Majesty’s pleasure, for no list of them is given in the Bed Bool’ • but latterly their munber has been four, two of each nationality, and Prince Kung as the president. This body is one of the mainsprings of the government, and its composition shows the tendency of the national councils and polity.

    The members of the General Council assemble daily in the

    Forbidden Palace, between five and six in the morning ; when

    summoned by his Majesty into the council-chamber they sit

    upon mats or low cushions, no person being permitted to sit on

    chairs in the real or supposed presence of the Emperor. His

    Majesty’s commands being written down by them, are, if public,

    transmitted to the Iimer Council to be promulgated ; but

    on any matter requiring secrecy or expedition, a despatch is

    forthwith made up and sent under cover to the Board of War,

    to be forwarded. In all important consultations or trials this

    Council, either alone or in connectipji^with the appropriate

    court, is called in ; and in time of war it is formed intg^a committee

    of ways and means. Lists of ofiicers entitled to promotion

    are kept by it, and the names of proper persons to supply

    vacancies furnished the Emperor, Many of the residents in

    the colonies ai-e members of the Council, and communicate

    directly with his Majesty through it, and receive allowances

    and gifts with great formality from the throne—a device of

    THE KIUN-Ki, OR GENERAL COUNCIL. 419

    statecraft designed to maintain an awe of the imperial character and name as much as possible among the mixed races under them.

    The General Council fills an important station in the system, and tends greatly to consolidate the various branches of government, facilitating their harmonious action as well as supplying the deficiencies of an imbecile, or restraining the acts of a tyrannical monarch. The statutes speak of various record books, both public and secret, kept by the members for noting down the opinions of his Majesty, and add that there are no fixed times for audiences, one or more sessions being held daily, according to the exigencies of the state. Besides these functions, its members are further charged with certain literary matters, and three subordinate offices are attached to the Council for their preparation. One is for drawing up narratives of important transactions—a few of those relating to the wars and negotiations with foreigners since 1839 would be of much interest now ; a second is for translating documents ; and the third, entitled ” an office for observing that imperial edicts are carried into effect,” must be at times rather an arduous task, though probably its responsibility ends when the despatch goes forward.

    An office with this title shows that the Chinese government, with all its business-like arrangements, is still an Asiatic one.* The duties of these supreme councils are general, comprising matters relating to all departments of the government, and serving to connect the head of the state with the subordinate bodies, not only at the capital, but throughout the provinces, so that he can, and probably does to a very great degree, thereby maintain a general acquaintance with what is clone in all parts, and sooner rectify disorders and malpractices. The rivalry between their members, and the dislike entertained by the Chinese and Manchus composing them, cause, no doubt, some trouble to the Emperor ; but this has some effect in thwarting conspiracies and intrigues. It must not be supposed, however, that every high officer in the Chinese government is wholly unprincipled, venal, and intriguing; most of them desire to serve and maintain their country. The personal character and knowledge of the monarch has much to do with the efficiency of his government, and the guidance of its affairs demands constant oversight.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 138. Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 573.

    If he allows his ministers to conduct their trusts without restraint, they soon engross and misuse this power for selfish ends. In natural sequence every branch feels the fatal laxity, while its functionaries lose no time in imitating their superiors.

    This was the case during the reign of Ilienfung, but matters have much improved under the regency since 18C1. In ordinary times, the daily hiterconrse between the Emperor of China and his ministers presents very similar features of confidence, courtesy, and esteem between them as those seen in western lands.

    The King Pac, i.e.^

    ‘ Metmpol’diui Itejjoiier^ usually called the PcJdng Gazette, is compiled from the papers presented before the General Council, and constitutes the principal source of information available to the people for ascertaining what is going on in the Empire. Every morning ample extracts from the papers decided upon or examined by the Emperor, including his own orders and rescrij^ts, are placarded upon boards in a court of the palace, and form the materials for the aimals of government and the history of the Empire. Couriers are despatched to all parts of the land, carrying copies of these papers to the high provincial officers; certain persons are also permitted to print these documents, but always without note or change, and circulate them at their own charges to their customers.

    This is the Peking Gazette, and such the mode of its compilation. It is simply a record of official acts, promotions, decrees, and sentences, without any editorial comments or explanations; and as such of great value in understanding the policy of government.

    It is very generally read and discussed by educated people in cities, and tends to keep them more acquainted with the character and proceedings of their rulers than ever the Itomans were of their sovereigns and Senate. In the provinces thousands of persons find employment by copying and abridging the Gazette for readers who cannot afford to purchase the complete edition.’

    ‘ Fraser’s Magazine. February, 1873. China Review, Vol. III., p. 13.

    Note on the Condition and Government of the Chinese Empire in 1849. By T F. Wade. Hongkong, 1850. Translations of several years of the Oazette have appeared since 1S72, reprinted from the columns of the North China Herald.

    THE PEKING GAZETTE AND SIX BOARDS. 421

    The principal executive Ixxlies uiulor these two Councils are the Lali Pa, or ‘ Six Boards/ which were modelled on much the same plan during the ancient dynasties. At the head of each Board are two presidents, called sJi<iti(j->ifi.i(, and foiTr vicepresidentsT called HhUaug^ alternately a Manchu and a Chinese; and over three of them—those of lievenue, War, and Punishment—are placed superintendents, who are frequently members of the Cabinet ; sometimes the president of one Board is superintendent of another. There a.re three subordinate grades of officers in each Board, who may be called directors, undersecretaries, and controllers, with a great number of minor clerks, and their appropriate departments for conducting the details of the general and peculiar business coming under the cognizance of the Board, the whole being arranged and subordinated in the most business-like style. The detail of all the departments in the general and provincial governments is regulated in the same manner. For instance, each Board” has a different style of envelope for its despatches, and the papers in the offices are filed away in them.

    3. The LiBu, or Board of Civil Office, ” has the government and direction of all the various officers in the civil service of the Empire, and thereby it assists the Emperor to rule all people ; ” these duties are further defined as hicluding ” whatever appertains to the plans of selecting rank and gradation, to the rules of determining degradation and promotion, to the ordinances of granting investitures and rewards, and the laws for fixing schedules and furloughs, that the civil service may be supplied.” Civilians arc presented to the Emperor, and all civil and literary officers throughout the Empire distributed by this Board. The great power apparently thus entrusted is shared by the two preceding, whose members are made advisory overseers of the highest appointments, while the provincial authorities put men in vacant posts as fast as they are needed. The danger arising from the arrangement is noticed by Biot’ as having early attracted criticism.

    ‘ Esaai mr P Instruction en Chine, jip. 540-589.

    This Board is subdivided into four bureaus. The first at tends to the distinctions, precedence, promotion, exchanging, etc., of officers. The second investigates their merits and worthiness to be recorded and advanced, or contrariwise ; ascertains the character each officer bears and the manner in which he fulfils his duties, and prescribes his fnrlonghs. The third jegnlates retirement from office on account of mourning or filial duties, and supervises the registration of official names; it is through this bureau that Hwang Xgan-tung, the Governor of Ivwangtung, was degraded in 1846 for not resigning his office on the death of his mother. The fourth regulates the distribution of titles, patents, and posthumous honors. The Chinese is the only government that ennobles ancestors for the merits of their descendants; the custom arose out of the worship paid them, in which the rites arc proportionate to the rank of the deceased, not of the survivor ; and if the deceased parent or grandparent were connnoners, they receive proper titles in consequence of the elevation of their son or grandson. This custom is not a trick of state to get money, for commoners cannot buy these posthumous titles ; they can only buy nominal titles for themselves. The usage, however, offers an unexpected illustration of the remark of Job, ” His sons come to honor, and he knoweth it not.”

    4. The Hu Bu, or Board of Revenue, ” directs the territorial government of the Empire, and keeps the lists of population in order to aid the Emperor in nourishing all people ; whatever appertains to the regulations for levying and collecting duties and taxes, to the plans for distributing salaries and allowances, to the rates for receipts and disbursements at the gi*anaries and treasuries, and to the rights for transporting by land and water are reported to this Board, that sufficient supplies for the country may be provided.” Besides these duties, it obtains the admeasurement of all lands in the Empire, and proportions taxes and conscriptions, according to the divisions, population, etc., regulates the expenditure, and ascertains the latitude and longitude of places. One minor office prepares lists of all the Manchu girls fit to be introduced into the palace for selection as inmates of the harem, a duty wdiich is enjoined on it because the allowances, outfits, and positions of these womou

    BOARDS OF REVENUE AND KITES. 423

    come within its control. The injudicious mode of collecting revenue common under the Persian and Syrian kings, by which the sums obtained from single cities and provinces were apportioned among the royal family and favorites, and carried directly to them, has never been practised by the Chinese, there are fourteen subordinate departments to attend to the receipt of the revenue from each of the provinces, each of which corresponds with the treasury department in its respective province. The revenue being paid in sundry ways and articles, as money, grain, manufactures, etc., the receipt and distribution of the various articles require a large force of assistants.

    This Board is moreover a court of appeal on disputes respecting propertyj^and superintends the mint in each province; one bureau is called the ” great ministers of the Three Treasuries,” viz., of metals, silks and dye-stuffs, and stationery.

    5. The Li Bu, or Board of Rites, ” examines and directs concerning the performance of the five kinds of ritual observances, and makes proclamation thereof to the whole Empire, thus aiding the Emperor in guiding all people. Whatever appertains to the ordinances for regulating precedence and literary distinctions, to the canons for maintaining; religious honor and fidelity, to the orders respecting intercourse and tribute, and to the forms of giving banquets and granting bounties, are reported to this Poard in order to promote national education.”

    The five classes of rites are defined to be those of a propitious and those of a felicitous nature, military and hospitable rites, and tliosj of an infelicitous nature. Among the subordinate departments is that of ceremonial forms, which ” has the regulation of the etiquette to be observed at court on all occasions, on congratulatory attendances, in the performance of official duties, etc. ; also the regulation of dresses, caps, etc. ; as to the figure, size, color, and nature of their fabrics and ornaments, of carriages and riding accoutrements, their form, etc., with the number of followers and insignia of rank. It has also the direction of the entire ceremonial of personal intercourse between the various ranks or peers, minutely defining the number of bows and degree of attention which each is to pay to the other when meeting in official capacities, according as they are on terms of equality or otherwise. It has also to direct the forms of their written official intercourse, including those to be observed in addresses to and from foreign states. The regulation of the literary examinations, the imnjber of the graduates the distinction of their classes, the fornisj)f their jelection, and the privileges of successful candidates, with the establishment of governmental schools and academies, are all under this department.”

    Another office superintends the rites to be observed in worshipping deities and spirits of departed monarchs, sages, and worthies, and in ” saving the sun and moon ” when eclipsed.

    The third, called ” iiost and guest office,” looks after tribute and tribute-bearers, ar^d takes the whole management of foreign embassies, supplying not only provisions, but translators, and ordering the mode of intercourse between China and other states. The fourth oversees the supplial of food for banquets and sacrifices. The details of all the multifarious ritual duties of this Board occupy fourteen volumes of the Statutes. ” Truly nothing is without its ceremonies,” as Confucius taught, and no nation has paid so much attention to them in the ordering of its government as the Chinese. The Book of Rites is the foundation of ceremonies and the infallible standard as to their meaning; the importance attached to them has elevated etiquette and I’itualism into a kind of crystallizing force which has molded Chinese character in many ways.

    Connected with the Board of Rites is a Board of Music, containing an indefinite number of officers whose duties ” are to study the principles of harmony and melody, to compose musical pieces’ and form instruments proper to play them, and then suit both to the various occasions on which they are required.” Kor are the gi*aces of posture-making neglected by these ceremony-mongers ; but it may with tinith be said, that if no other nation ever had a Board of Music, and required so much official music as the Chinese, certaiidy none ever had less real melody.

    THE BING BU, OR BOARD OF WAR. 425

    6. The Bing Bu, or Board of War, “has the duty of aiding the sovereign to protect the people by the direction of all military affairs in the metropolis and the province Sj^ and to regulate the hinge of the state upon the reports received from the various departments regarding deprivation of, or appointment to, office ; succession to, or creation of, hereditary military rank ; postal or courier arrangements ; examination and selection of the deserving, and accuracy of returns.”* The navy is also under the control of this Board. The management of the post is confided to a special department, and the transmission of official despatches is performed with great efficiency and regularity. A minor bureau of the courier office is called ” the office for the announcement of victories,” which, from a recital of its duties, appears to he rather a grande vlfes-se, whose couriers should hasten as if they announced a victory.

    To enable this Board of War to discharge its duties, they are apportioned under four s~\ or bureaus, severally attending to promotion for various reasons : to the regulation of the distribution of rewards and punishments, inspection of troops and issue of general orders, answering to an adjutant-general’s department; to the supply and distribution of horses for the cavalry; and, lastly, to the examination of candidates, preparation of estimates and rosters, with all the details connected with equipments and ammunition. The conception of all government with the Manchus being military and not civil, they have developed this board more than was the case during the last dynasty, the possessions in Central Asia having drawn greatly on their resources and prowess.

    The Household troops and city Gendarmerie have already been noticed ; their control is vested in the JVui-zric F’u, and the oversight of all the Bannermen in the Empire vests in the metropolitan office of the Tu-tun/j, or Captains-general, of whom there are twenty-four, one to every banner of each race. The Board of War has no control directly over this large portion of the Chinese army, and as the direction of the land and sea forces in each province is entrusted in a great degree to the local authorities, its duties are really more circumscribed than one would at first imagine. The singular subordination of military to civil power, which has ever distinguished the Chinese polity, makes the study of the army, as at present constituted, a very interesting feature of the national history ; fur while it has often proved inefficient to repress insurrection and defend the people against brigandage, it has never been used to destroy their institutions. In times of internal commotion the national soldiers have usually been loyal to their flag, though it must be confessed that discipline within the ranks is not so perfect as to prevent the soldiers from occasionally harassing and robbing those whom they are set to protect.’

    7. The Xing Bu, or Board of Punishments, ” has the government

    and direction of punishments throughout the Empire, for

    the purpose of aiding the sovereign in cori-ecting all people.

    Whatever appertains to measures of applying the laws with

    leniency or severity, to the task of hearing evidence and giving

    decisions, to the rights of granting pardons, reprieves, or otherwise,

    and to the rate of fines and interest, are all reported to

    this Board, to aid in giving dignity to national manners.” The

    Hing Pu partakes of the nature of both a criminal and civil

    court ; its officers usually meet with those of the Censorate and

    Tali Sz’, the three forming the San Fall 8z\ or ‘ Three Law

    Chambers,’ which decide on capital cases brought before them.

    In the autumn these three unite with members from six other

    courts, forming collectively a Court of Errors, to revise the decisions

    of the provincial judges before reporting them to his

    Majesty. These precautions are taken to prevent injustice

    when life is involved, and the system shows an endeavor to secure

    a full and impartial consideration for all capital cases,

    which, although it may signally fail of its full effect, does the

    rulers high credit, when the small value set upon life generally

    by Asiatic governments is considered. These bodies are expected

    to conform their decisions to the law, nor are they permitted

    to cite the Emperor’s own decisions as precedents, without

    the law on these decisions has been expressly entered as a

    supplementaiy clause in the code.

    It also belongs to sub-officers in the Board of Punishments to

    record all his Majesty’s decisions upon appeals from the provinces

    at the autumnal assizes, when the entire list is presented

    ‘ Chineae Refiository, Vol. lY., pp. 188, 276-287; Vol. V., pp. 165-178;Vol. XX., pp. 250, 800, and 863.- Memoires concernant Us Chinois^par k» Mmionuiren a Pekin, Tomes VII. and VIII., passim.

    BOARDS OF PUNISHMENTS AND WORKS. 427

    for Lis examination and ultimate decision, and see that these

    sentences are transmitted to the provincial judges. Another

    office snpei’intends the publication of the code, with all the

    changes and additions ; a third oversees jails and jailers ; a

    fourth i-eceives the fines levied by commutation of punishments,

    and a fifth registei’s the receipts and expenditures. If the administi-

    ation of the law in China at all corresponded with the

    equitj’ of most of its enactments, or the caution taken to prevent

    collusion, malversation, and haste on the part of the judges, it would be incomparably the best governed country out of Christendom; but the painful contrast between good laws and wicked rulers is such as to show the utter impossibility of securing the due administration of justice without higher moral principles than heathenism can teach.

    The yamiui of the Hlny Pa in the capital is the most active of all the Boards, but little is known of what goes on within its walls. Its prisoners are mostly brought from the provinces, officers of high rank arrested for malfeasance or failure, and criminals convicted or condemned there who have appealed to the highest tribunals. Few of those who enter its gates ever return through them, and their sufferings seldom end as long as they have any property left. The narrative of the horrible treatment endured by Loch and his comrades in ISCO, while confined within this yaiiiun^ gives a vivid picture of their sufferings, but native prisoners are not usually kept bound and pinioned.

    In the rear wall of the establishment is an iron door, through which dead bodies are thrust to be carried away to burial.

    8. The Gong Bu, or Board of Works, ” has the government and direction of the public works throughout the Empire, together with the current expenses of the same, for the purpose of aiding the Emperor to keep all people in a state of repose. Whatever appertains to plans for buildings of wood or earth, to the forms of useful instruments, to the laws for stopping up or opening channels, and to the ordinances for constructing the mausolea and temples, are reported to this Board in order to perfect national works.” Its duties are of a miscellaneous nature, and are performed in other countries b}^ no one department, though the plan adopted by the Chinese is not without its advantages

    One bureau takes cognizance of the condition of all city walls,

    palaces, temples, altars, and other public structures ; sits as a

    prize-office, and furnishes tents for his Majesty’s journeys ; supplies

    timber for ships, and potterj’ and glassware for the court.

    A second attends to the manufacture of mihtary stores and

    utensils employed in the army ; sorts the pearls from the fisheries

    according to their value ; regulates weights and measures,

    furnishes ” death-warrants ” to governors and generals ; and,

    lastly, takes charge of arsenals, stores, camp-equipage, and other

    things appertaining to the army. A third dcpailnient has

    charge of all water-ways and dikes; it also repairs and digs

    canals, erects bridges, oversees the banks of rivers by means of

    deputies stationed at posts along their course, builds vessels of

    Avar, collects tolls, mends roads, digs the sewers in Peking and

    cleans out its gutters, preserves ice, makes book-cases for public

    records, and, lastly, looks after the silks sent as taxes. Tlie

    fourth of these offices confines its attention chiefly to the condition

    of the imperial mausolea, the erection of the sepulchres

    and tablets of meritorious officers buried at public expense, and

    the adormnent of temples and palaces, as well as superintending

    ah workmen employed by the Board.

    The mint is under the direction of two vice-presidents, and

    the manufacture of gunpowder is specially intrusted to two

    great ministers. One would think, from this recital, that the

    functions of the Boai’d of AYorks Mere so diverse that it would

    be one of the most efficient parts of government ; but if the

    condition of forts, ports, dikes, etc., in other parts of the country

    corresponds to those along the coast, there is, as the Emperor

    once said of tlie army, ” the appearance of going to war,

    but not the reality “—most of the works being on record, and

    suffered to remain there, except when danger threatens, or his

    Majesty specially orders a public work, and, what is more important,

    furnishes the money.

    THE LI FAN YUAN, OR COLONIAL OFFICE. 429

    9. The Li Fan Yuan, or Court for the Government of Foreigners, commonly called the Colonial Office, ” has the government and direction of the external foreigners, orders their emoluments and honors, appoints their visits to court, and regulates their punishments, in order to display the majesty and goodness of the state.” This is an important branch of the government, and has the superintendence of all the wandering and settled tribes in Mongolia, Cobdo, Ili, and Koko-nor. All these are called wai fan, or ‘ external foreigners,’ in distinction from the tributary tribes in Sz’chuen and Formosa, who are termed ivuifan, or ‘ internal foreigners.’ There are also nui i

    and loai i, or ‘ internal and external barbarians,’ the former

    comprising the unsubdued mountaineers of Kweichau, and the

    latter the inhabitants of all foreign countries who do not choose

    to range themselves under the renovating influences of the Celestial

    Empire. The Colonial Othce regulates the government of the nomads and restricts their wanderings, lest they trespass on each other’s pasture-grounds. Its officers are all Manchus and Mongols, having over them one president and two vice-presidents, Manchus, and one Mongolian vice-president appointed for life.

    Besides the usual secretaries for conducting its general business,

    there are six departments, whose combined powers include

    every branch necessary for the management of these

    clans. The first two have jurisdiction over the numerous tribes

    and corps of the Inner Mongols, who are under more complete

    subjection than the others, and part have been placed under

    the control of officers in Chihli and Shansi. The appointment

    of local officers, collecting taxes, allotting land to Chinese settlers,

    opening roads, paying salaries, arranging the marriages,

    retinues, visits to courts, and presents made by the princes and

    the review of the troops, all appertain to these two departments.

    The third and fourth have a similar, but less effectual control

    over the princes, lamas, and tribes of Outer Mongolia. At

    TTrga reside two high ministers, organs of communication with

    Russia, and general overseers of the frontier. The oversight of

    the lama hierarchy in Mongolia is now completely under the

    control of this office ; and in Tibet their power has been considerably

    abridged. The fifth department directs the actions,

    restrains the powers, levies the taxes, and orders the tributary

    visits of the Mohannnedan begs in the Tien shan Xan Lu, who

    are quiet pretty nuich as they are paid by presents and flattered

    by honors. The sixth department regnlatesthe penal discipline

    of the tributary tribes. The salai’ies paid the Mongolian princes

    are distributed according to an economical scale. A tsin wmuj

    annually receives $2,000 and twenty-hve pieces of silk ; a kiun

    wang receives about $1,066 and iifteen pieces of silk ; and so on

    through the ranks of Eeile, JBeitse, Duke, etc., the last of whom

    gets a stipend of only $133 and four pieces of silk. The internal

    organization of these tribes is probably the same now as it

    was at first among the Scythians and Huns, and partakes of the

    features of the feudal and tribal system, modified by the nomadic

    lives they are obliged to lead. The Chinese government

    is endeavoring to reduce the influence and retinues of the khans

    and begs and elevate the people to positions of independent

    owners and cultivators of the soil.

    10. The DuCHA Yuan, or Censorate, i.e., ‘ All-examining Court,’ is entrusted with the ” care of manners and customs, the investigation of all public offices within, and without the capital, the discrimination between the good and bad performance of their business, and between the depravity and uprightness of the officers employed in them ; taking the lead of other censors, and uttering each his sentiments and reproofs, in order to cause officers to be diligent in attention to their daily duties, and to render the government of the Empire stable.” The Censorate, when joined with the Board of Punishments and Court of Appeal, forms a high court for the revision of criminal cases and hearing appeals from the pntvinces; and, in connection with the Six Boards and the Court of Representation and Appeal, makes one of the Iviu King, or ‘ Nine Courts,’ which deliberate on important affairs of government.

    The officers are two censors and four deputy censors, besides whom the governors, lieutenant-governors, and the governors of rivers and inland navigation are ex-offwlo deputy censors.

    A class of censors is placed over each of the Six Boards, whose

    duties are to supervise all their acts, to receive all public documents

    from the C^abinet, and after classifying them transmit

    them to the several courts to which they belong, and to make a

    semi-monthly examination of the papers entered on the archives

    uf each court. All ciiminal cases in the provinces come under

    THE DU-CHA YUAN, OR CENSORATE. 431

    the oversight of the censors at tlie capital, and the department

    which superintends the affairs of the nieti-opolis revises its

    municipal acts, settles the quarrels, and represses the crimes of

    its inhabitants. Tliese are the duties of the Censorate, tlian

    which no part of the Chinese government has attracted more

    attention. The privilege of reproof given by the law to the

    office of censor has sometimes been exercised with remarkable

    candor and plainness, and many cases are recoi-ded in histoiy

    of these officers suffering for tlieir fidelity, but such instances

    must be few indeed in proportion to the failures.

    The celebrated Sung, who was appointed commissioner to accompany

    Loi’d Macartney, once remonstrated with the Emperor

    Kiaking upon his attachment to play-actors and strong drink,

    which degraded him in the eyes of his people and incapacitated

    him from performing his duties. The Emperor, highly ii-ritated,

    called him to his presence, and on his confessing to the authorship

    of the memorial, asked him vidiat punishment he deserved.

    He answered, ” Quartering.” lie was told to select some

    other; “Let me be beheaded ;” and on a third command, he

    chose to be strangled. He was then ordered to retire, and the

    next “day the Emperor appointed him governor in llf, thus

    acknowledging his rectitude, though unable to bear his censure.

    History records the reply of another censor in the reign of an

    Emperor of the Tang dynasty, who, when his Majesty once desired

    to inspect the archives of the historiographer’s office, in

    order to learn what had been recorded concei’ning himself,

    under the excuse that he nuist know his faults before he could

    well correct them, was answered : ” It is true your Majesty has

    committed a number of errors, and it has been the painful duty

    of our employment to take notice of them ; a duty which further

    obliges us to inform posterity of the conversation which

    your Majesty has this day, very improperly, held with us.”

    The censors usually attend on all state occasions by the side

    of his Majesty, and are frequently allowed to express tlieir

    opinions openly, but in a despotic government this is little else

    than a fiction of state, for the fear of offendhig the imperial ear,

    and consequent disgrace, will usually prove stronger than the

    consciousness of right or the desires of a public fame and martyrdom for the sake of principle. The usual mode of advising is to send in a remonstrance against a proposed act, as when one of the body in 1832 remonstrated against the Emperor paying attention to anonymous accusations ; or to suggest a different procedure, as the memorials of Chu Tsun against legalizing opium. The number of these papers inserted in the Peking Gazette for the information of the Empire, in many of which the acts of officers are severely reprehended, shows that the censors are not altogether idle. In 1833 a censor named Slii requested the Emperor to interdict official persons at court from writing private letters concerning public persons and affairs in the provinces. lie stated that when candidates left the capital for their provincial stations, private letters were sent by them from their friends to the provincial authorities, ” sounding

    the voice of influence and interest,” by which means justice

    M-as perverted. The Emperor ordered the Cabinet to examine

    the censor and get his facts in proof of these statements, but on

    inquiry he either would not or could not bring forward any

    cases, and he himself consequently received a reprimand.

    ‘^’ These censors are allowed,” says the Emperor, ” to tell me

    the reports they hear, to inform me concerning courtiers” and

    governors who pervert the laws, and to speak plainly about any

    defect or impropriety which they may oljserve in the monaich

    himself; but they are not permitted to employ their pencils in

    writing memorials which are filled M’i^^h vague surmises and

    mei’e probabilities or suppositions. This would only fill my

    mind with doubts and uncertainty, and T wo;dd not know what

    men to employ; were this spirit indulged, the detrinie?)t of

    government would be most serious. Let 8ii ))0 subjected to a

    court of inquiry.”

    ‘J’lie suspension or disgrace of censors for their freedom of

    speech is a common occurrence, and among the forty or fifty

    persons who have this privilege a few are to be found who do

    not hesitate to lift up their voice against what they deem to be

    wrong; and there is reason for supposing that only a small portion

    of their remonstrances appeai-s in the Gazette. With regard

    to this depai’tment of government, it is to be observed

    that although it may tend only in a partial degree to check

    COURTS OF TUANSMISSION AND JUPTCATURE. 433

    Oppression and reform ahusos, and wliilc a close examination of

    its real operations and intlnenee and the character of its members

    may excite more contempt than respect, still the existence of

    such a body, and the pnblication of its memorials, can hardly

    fail to rectif}’ misconduct to some degree, and check maladministration

    before it results in widespread evil. The (Jensorate is,

    however, only one of a number of checks upon the conduct of

    officers, and perhaps by no means the strongest.’

    11. The TuNG-cniNG Sz’, which may be called a Court of

    Transmission, consists of a small body of six officers, whose

    duty is to receive memorials from the provincial authorities and

    appeals from their judgment by the people and present them to

    the Cabinet. Attached to this Court is an office for attending

    at the palace-gate to await the beating of a drum, which, in conformity

    with an ancient custom, is placed there that applicants

    may by striking it obtain a hearing. It is also the channel

    through which the people can directly appeal to his Majesty,

    and cases occur of individuals, even women and girls, travelling

    to the capital from remote places to present their petitions for

    redress before the throne. The feeling of blood revenge prevails

    among the Chinese, and impels many of these weak and

    unprotected persons to undergo great hardships to obtain legal

    redress, when the lives of their parents have been unjustly

    taken by powerful and rich enemies.

    12. The Ta-li Sz’, or Court of Judicature and Eevision, has

    the duty of adjusting all the criminal courts in the Empire, and

    forms the nearest approach to a Supreme Court in the government,

    though the cases brought before it are mostly criminal.

    “When the crimes involve life, this and the preceding unite

    with the Censorate to form one coui’t, and if the judges are

    ]i()t unanimous in their decisions they must report their reasons

    to the Emperor, who M’ill pass judgment upon them. In a despotic

    government no one can expect that the executive officers

    of courts will exercise their functions with that caution and

    ‘ Compare an article by E. C Taintor, in Notes and Queries on China and Japan. Chinese Repository, Vols. IV., pp. 148, 164, and 177, and XII., pp.62 and 67.

    equity required in Christian countries, but considerable care has

    been taken to obtain as great a degree of justice as possible.

    IJr. The Hanlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy, is entrusted

    ” with the duty of drawing up governmental documents, histories,

    and other works ; its chief officers take tlie lead of the

    various classes, and excite their exertions to advance in learning

    in order to prepare them for employments and fit them for attending

    upon the sovereign.” This body has, it is highly probable,

    some similarity to the collection of learned men to whom

    the King of Babylon entrusted the education of promising

    young men, for although the members of the Ilanlin Yuen do

    not, to any great degree, educate persons, they are constantly

    referred to as the Chaldeans were by Belshazzai-. Sir John

    Davis likens it to the Sorbonne, inasmuch as it expounds the

    sacred books of the Chinese. Its chief officers are two presidents

    or senior members, called chuiang yuen hioh-sz\ m*1io are

    usually appointed for life ; they attend upon the Emperor,

    superintend the studies of graduates, and furnish semi-annual

    lists of persons to be ” speakers” at the ” classical feasts,” where

    the literary essays of his Majesty are translated from and into

    Manchu and read before him.

    Subordinate to the two senior members are four grades of

    officers, five in each grade, together with an imlimited number

    of senior graduates, each forming a sort of college, whose duties

    are to prepare all works published under governmental sanction

    ; these persons are subject from time to time to fresh examination,

    and are liable to lose their degrees or be altogether

    dismissed from office if found faulty or deficient. Subordinate

    to the Hanlin Yuen is an office consisting of twenty-two selected

    members, who in rotation attend on the Emperor and make a

    record of his words and actions. There is also an additional

    office for the preparation of national histories.

    The situation of a member of the Ilanlin is one of considerable

    honor and literary ease, and scholars look forward to a station

    in it as one which confers dignity in a government where

    all officers are appointed according to their literary merit, l)ut

    much more from its being the body from which the Emperor

    selects his most responsible offi-ers. A graduate of this rank is

    THE IIANLIN AND MINOR COURTS. 435

    most likely to be nominated to a vacant office, though the possession

    uf the title does not of itself warrant a place.’

    Before proceeding to consider the provincial governments,

    notices of some of the other de})artments not connected with

    the general machinery of the state are here in place. The

    municipality of Peking has already been mentioned when describing

    the capital ; it is intimately connected with the general

    government and forms an integral part of the machine.

    Among the courts not connected with tlie nnmicipal rule of the

    metropolis, nor forming one of the great departments of state,

    is Tal-chang Sz\ or ‘ Sacrificial Court,’ whose officers ” direct

    the sacrificial observances and distinguish the various instruments

    and the quality of the sacrifices.” Their duties are of importance iti connection with the state religion, and they rank high among the court dignitaries of the Empire, but as members of this, possess no power. The Tal-jyuTi Sz\ or Superintendent of II. I. ]\I.’s Stud, is an office for “rearing horses, taking account of their increase, and regulating their training;” large tracts of land beyond the Great “Wall are appropriated to this purpose, and the clerks of this office, under the direction of the Board of War, oversee the herdsmen and grooms.

    The JCwanrjluh Ss\ or ‘Banqueting House,’ has the charge

    of ” feasting the meritorious and banqueting the deserving ;

    it is somewhat subordinate to the Board of Rites, and provides

    whatever is necessary for banquets given to literary graduates,

    foreign ambassadors, etc. The Jlunz/hc >&’, or ‘ Ceremonial

    Court,’ regulates the forms to be observed at these banquets,

    which consist in little else than marshalling the guests according

    to their proper ranks and directing them when to make the

    Ivtow, called also scui Jewel hlu Jcao, ” three kneelings and nine

    knockings.” The Guozi’ Jian, or ‘ National College,’ is a different institution from the Hanlin Yuen, and intended for teaching graduates of the lower degrees; the departments of study are the Chinese language, the classics and mathematics, each branch having its appropriate teachers, with some higher officers, both Chinese and Manchu.

    ‘ Dr. W. A. P. Martin, Th& Chinese.

    The Qin Tian Jian, or ‘ Imperial Astronomical College,’ as might be expected, is much more astrological than astronomical; its duties are defined to 1)0 ” to direct the ascertainment of times and the movements of the heaveidy bodies, in order to attain conformity with the celestial periods and to regulate the notati(Mi of time among inen ; all things relating to divination and the selection of days are under its charge.” The preparation of the almanac, in which, among other things, lucky and unlucky days are marked for the performance of all the important acts of life, and astrological and chiromantic absurdities inserted for the amusement of fortune-tellers and others, the instruction of a few pupils, and care of the observatory, occupy most of the time of its officers. It is now of no practical use, and as the Tang-icdn Kuxtii develops into a learned and efficient college, including astronomy and medicine and their kindred branches, these native Boards will gradually pass away.

    The other local courts of the capital seem to have been subdivided and multiplied to a great degree for the purpose of affording employment to a larger number of persons, especially Manchus and graduates, so that the Emperor can attach them to himself and be surer of their support in case of any insurrection on the part of the people, and also that he may have them more under his control. The nundjer of clerks and minor offices in all the general departments of state is doubtless more numerous than it would be in a European government. In the nnitual relations of the great departments of the Chinese government the principles of responsibility and surveillance among the officers are plainly exhibited, while regard has been paid to such a division and apportionment of labor as would secure great efficiency and care, if every member of the machine faithfully did his duty. Two presidents are stationed over each Board to assist and watch each other, while the two presidents oversee the four vice-presidents ; the president of one Board is sometimes the vice-president of another ; and by means of the Censorate and the General Council every portion is brought under the cognizance of several independent officers, whose mutual jealousy and regard for individual advancement, or a

    RELATION OF THE KMPEUOIl WITH HIS OFFICIALS. 437

    partial desire for tlie well-being of tlie state, affords the Emperor

    some guarantee of fidelit}-. Tlie seclusion in which he

    lives makes it difficult for any conspirator to approach his person,

    but his own fears regarding the management of such an

    immense Empire compel him to inform himself respecting the’

    actions of ministers, generals, and proconsular governors. The

    conduct and devotion of hundreds of officers, both civil and

    military, during the wars with Great Britain and the suppression

    of rebellions within the last thirty years, afford proof

    enough that he has attached his subordinates to his service by

    some other principle than fear. The total number of civilians

    holding office is estimated at about fourteen thousand persons,

    but those dependent on the government are many times this

    amount.

    The rulers of China have contrived the system of provincial governments in an admirable manner, considering the character of the people and the materials they had to work with; no better proof of their sagacity in this respect can be required than the general degree of good order which has been maintained for nearly two centuries, and the great progress the people have made in wealth, numbers, and power. By a well-arranged plan of checks and changes in the provincial authorities, the chances of their abusing position and power and combining to overthrow the supreme government have been reduced almost to an impossibility; the influence of mutual responsibility among them does something to prevent outrageous oppression of the people, by leading one to accuse another of high crimes in order to exonerate himself or obtain his place. The sons and relatives of the Emperor being excluded from civil office inthe provinces, the high-spirited and talented native Chinese do

    not feel inclined to cabal against the government because every

    avenue to emolument aiid power is filled and closed against them

    by creatures and connections of the sovereign ; nor when in office

    are they disposed to attempt the overthrow of the reigning

    family, lest they lose what has cost them many years of toilsome

    study and the wealth and influence of friends to attain.

    The examination of these pashaliks is furthermore entitled to notice from the degree of power delegated to their highest officers, and the shrewd manner in which its exercise has been circumscribed and rendered amenable to its imperial source.

    The highest officers in the provinces are afsu/iyfuh, lit. ‘general director,’ or governor-general, and the fatal or fuyuen, ‘ soother ‘ or governor. The former is often called a viceroy, but that term seems to be quite inapplicable M-hen used to denote an officer within the limits of the state ; governor-general, or proconsul, is more analogous to his duties. A translation of these and many other Chinese titles does not convey their exact functions, but in some cases an equivalent is more intelligible than a translation.’ The tsungtuh has rule over two provinces, or else fills two high offices in one province, while the fntd’i is placed over one province, either independent of or in subordination to a tsungtuh^ as enumerated in the table on page 61.

    An examination of the Tied Booh for 1852 showed that out

    of a total of 20,327 names in it, 10,-174 were Chinese, 3,29.5

    were Manclius and Mongols, and 558 enrolled Chinese ; in the

    copy for 1844, out of 12,758 names, 10,403 were Chinese, 1,708

    Manchus, and 527 enrolled Cliinese ; these figui-es include only

    civilians and the employees in Peking. The Eighteen Provinces

    ha\e altogether less than two thousand persons in office al)ove

    the raidc of assistant district magistrate, viz. : 8 governor-generals,

    15 governors, 19 treasurers, 18 judges, 17 chancellors, 15

    commanders of the forces, including 2 admirals and 1,740 prefects

    and magistrates. All those filling tlie high grades in this

    series report themselves to the Enq)eror twice every month, by

    sending him a salutatory card upon yellow paper, enclosed in a

    silken envelope ; stating, for instance, that ‘ Lin Tseh-sii, governor-

    general of Liang Ivwang, humbly presents his duty to the

    throne, wishing his Majesty repose.’ The Emperor replies M’ith

    the vei’niilion ])encil, Cli’ni ngan, ij\, ‘ Ourself is well.’

    The duties of the governor-general consist in the collective

    control of all affairs, civil and military, in the regioii under hia

    jurisdiction ; he occupies, in his sphere, under correction, the

    same authority that the Emperor does over the whole Empire.

    ‘ Mayers’ Manual of Chinese Titles furnishes tlio best compend for learning their duties and names.

    IIIGIIP:ii PROVINCIAL ALTIlOliniKS. 439

    The futai has a similar control, but in an inferior degree when there is a tstungtuh, in the more special supervision of the administrative part of the civil government, as distinguished from the revenue, gabel, or literary branches.

    The departments of the civil government are five, viz. : administrative,

    literary, gabel, commissariat, and excise ; the first

    being also divided into the teri-itorial and financial and the

    judicial branches. At the head of the first branch is the j»j>t^-

    ihing sz^ {i.e., ]-egulating-government commissioner), who is

    usually called the treasurer ; the ngan-chah sz\ or ‘ criminal

    judge,’ presides over the second. These two ofiicers often unite

    their deliberations in the direction of any territoi’ial or financial

    business, or the trial of important cases. The literary department

    is placed under the direction of an ofiicer selected from

    among the members of the Hani in Academy, called a hioh-ching,

    director of learning, or literary chancellor ; there are seventeen

    of them altogether. The gabel and connnissariat are usually

    supervised l)y certain intermediate ofiicers called tao, or taotai,

    sometimes termed intendants of circuit, who have other functions

    in addition. The excise, or conmiercial department, is under /ivV;*^?^^, or superintendents, but the details of these three branches vary considerably in different provinces. The officers of the excise, either in the interior or on the coast, are made amenable

    to their supei-iors in the province, but their functions are exercised

    in an irregular manner ; for the collection of the revenue is

    a difficult affair, and mostly entrusted to the local magistrates.

    The military govemment of a province includes both the land

    and sea forces. It is under a tHuh, or commander-in-chief, of

    which rank there are in all sixteen, twelve of them commanding

    one arm alone, and four controlling both land and sea forces.

    In five provinces the futai is commander-in-chief, and in

    Ivansuh there are two. Above the tttuJ}, in point of rank but

    not of power, are placed garrisons of Manchu Bannermen under

    a tsicmg-Jciun, or general, whose ofiice is conferred, and his

    actions directly controlled, by the captains-general in Peking;

    he has jurisdiction, usually, only in the city itself, the principal

    object of the appointment, api)areTitly, being to check any treasonable designs of the civil authorities.

    The duties and relations of these various grades with one another require some further explanation, however, to be understood.

    The three officers, tsunytuh, fatal, and tslaiujMun (if there be one), form a supreme council, and unite in deliberating upon a measure, calling in the subordinate officer to whose department it particularly belongs, and to whom its execution is io be committed, the whole forming a deliberative board, though “the responsibility of the act rests with the two highest officers.

    By this means the various members of the provincial government

    become better acquainted with each other’s character and

    plans, though their intercourse is nuich restricted by precedence

    and rivalry. In the provincial courts civilians always take precedence

    of military officers ; the governor-general and Banner

    commander, governor and major-general, the literary chancellor

    and collector of customs, rank with each other ; then follow the

    treasurer, the judge, and other civilians. The authority of the

    governor-general extends to life and death, to the temporary

    appointment to all vacant offices in the province, to ordering

    the troops to any part of it, issuing such laws and taking such

    measures as are necessary for the security and peace of the

    region committed to his care, or any other steps he sees necessary.

    The futal also has the power of life and death, and

    attends to appeals of criminal cases ; he oversees, moreover, the

    conduct of the lower civilians.

    IS^ext in rank to i\\e j)u-ching sz^ and ngan-chah sz\ who always reside in the provincial capital, are the intendants of circuit, who are located in the circuits consisting of two or three prefectures united for this purpose. They are deputies of the two highest functionaries, and their delegated power often includes military as well as civil authority, the chief object of their appointment being to relieve and assist those high functionaries in the discharge of their extensive duties. Some of the intendants are appointed to supervise the proceedings of the prefects and district magistrates; others are stationed at important posts to protect them, and those connected with foreign trade at the open ports have no territorial jurisdiction.

    SUBORDINATE PROVINCIAL AUTHORITIES. 441

    Subordinate to the governors, through the intendants of circuits, are the prefects or head magistrates of departments, called Zhifu/Zhizhou, and ting tungchi, i.e., ‘knowers’ of them, according as they are placed over fu, zhou, or ting departments.

    It is the duty of these persons to make themselves acquainted with everything that takes place within their jurisdiction, and they are held responsible for the full execution of whatever orders are transmitted to them, all presenting their reports and receiving their orders through the intendants.

    The practical efficiency of the Chinese government in promoting the welfare of the people and preserving the peace depends chiefly upon these officers. The people themselves are prone to quarrel and oppress each other ; beggars, robbers, tramps, and shysters stir up disorders in various ways, and need wise and vigorous hands to repress and punish them ; while all classes avoid and resist the tax-gatherer as much as is safe. The proverb, ” A Zhifu can exterminate a family, a chihien can confiscate a patrimony,” indicates the popular fear of their power.

    The subdivisional pai’ts of departments, called ting, chau, and

    hien, have each their separate officers, who report to the chifu

    and cliicliau above them ; these are called tungcM, clacJiau, and

    ch’tJiien, and may all be denominated district magistrates. The

    parts of districts called sz’ are placed under the control of siuii-

    I’ien, circuit-restrainers, or hundreders, who form the last in the

    regular series of descending; rank—the last of the ” connnissioned

    officers,” as they might not improperly be called. The

    prefects sometimes have deputies directly under them, as the

    governor has his intendants, when their jurisdiction is very

    large or important, who are called hiunininfu and tungchi, i.e.,

    ‘ joint-knowers.’ The deputies of district magistrates are termed

    chautung and chmiptran for the chlchan, and hienching and

    chufu for the cJdhien^ the last also have others called tso-tang

    And yu-tang, i.e., left-tenants and right-tenants.

    Resides these assistants there are others, both in the departments and districts, having the oversight of the police, collection of the taxes and management of the revenue, care of waterways, and many other subdivisions of legislative duties, which it is unnecessary to particularize. They are appointed whenever and wherever the territory is so large and the duties so onerous that one man cannot attend to all, or it is not safe to entrust him with them. They have nearly as much power as their superiors in the department entrusted to them, but none of them have judicial or legislative functions, and the routine of their othces affords them less scope for oppression. ±\oy is it worth while to notice the great number of clerks, registrars, and secretaries found in connection with the various ranks of dignitaries here mentioned, or the multitude of petty subordinates found in the provinces and placed over particular places or duties as necessity may require. Their number is very large, and the responsibility of their proceedings devolves upon the higher officers who receive their reports and direct their actions.

    The common people suffer more from these ” rats under the altar,” as a Chinese proverb calls them, than from their superiors, because, unlike them, they are usually natives of the place and better acquainted with the condition of the inhabitants, and are not so often removed. The fear of getting into their clutches restrains from evil doings perhaps more than all punishments, though the people soon complain of high-handed acts in a way not to be disregarded. (3ne saying, ” Underlings see money as a fly sees blood,” indicates their penchant, as another, ” Cash drops into an underling’s paw as a sheep falls into a tiger’s jaw,” does the popular notion how to please them.

    Each intendant, prefect, and district magistrate has special

    secretaries in his ofhce for riling papers, writing and transmitting-

    despatches, investigating cases, recording evidence, keeping

    accounts, and performing other functions. All above the chihien

    are allowed to keep private secretaries, called sz’ ye, who

    are usually personal friends, and accompany the officers wliereever

    they go for the purpose of advising them and preparing

    their official documents. The ngan-chah s£ have jailers under

    their control, as have also the more important prefects.

    The appointment of officers being theoretically founded on

    literary merit, those to whom is committed the supervision of

    students and conferment of degrees would naturally be of a

    high grade. The Jiioh-ehlti’/, or literary chancellor, of the province,

    therefore ranks next to the governor, more, however, because

    he is specially ai)pointed by his Majesty and oversees thia

    LITEKAKY, (lABEL, AND REVENUE DEPARTMENTS. 443

    hrancli of the goveniinent, than from the power coinniitted to

    liis liaiids. Under him aie head-teachers of different degrees

    of autliority, residing in the cliief towns of departments and

    districts, tlie ^vhole forming a simihir series of functionaries to

    M’hat exists in tlie civil department. These subordinates have

    merely a greater or less degree of supervision over the studies of

    students, and the colleges established for the promotion of learning

    in the chief towns of departments. The business of conferring

    the lower degrees appertains exclusively to the chancellor,

    who makes an annual circnit through the province for that purpose,

    and holds examinations in the chief town of each department,

    to which all students residing within its limits can come.

    The gabel, or salt department, is under the control of a special

    officer, called a ” commissioner for the transport of salt,”

    and forming in the five maritime provinces one of thesau s.z\ or

    three commissioners, of which the j>u-e/ung sz’ and ngan-chah ss’

    are the other two. There are, above these commissioners, eight

    directors of the salt monopoly, stationed at the depots in Chihli

    and Shantung, M’ho, however, also fill other offices, and have

    rather a nominal responsibility over the lower commissioners.

    The number and rank of the ofilcers comiected with the salt

    monopoly show its importance, and is proof of how large a revenue

    is derived fi-om an article which will bear such an expensive establishment. At present its administration costs about as much as its receipts.

    The commissariat and revenne department is nnusually large

    in China compared with other countries, for the plan of collecting

    any part of the revenue in kind necessarily requires nnmerous

    vehicles for transporting and buildings for storing it, which

    still further multiplies the number of clerks and hands employed.

    The transportation of grain along the Yangtsz’ River is under

    the control of a tsungtuh, who. also oversees the disposal and

    directs the collectors of it in eight of the provinces adjacent to

    this river. The office of liang-chu tao, or commissioner to collect

    grain, is found in twelve provinces, the pu-ehing.sz’ attending

    to this duty in six ; the supervision of the subordinate agents of this department in the several districts is in the hands of the prefects and district magistrates.- That feature of the Chinese system which makes officers mutually responsible, seems to lead the superior powers to confer such various duties upon

    one functionary, in order that he may thus have a general

    knowledge of what is going on about and under him, and ref)ort

    what he deems amiss. It is not, indeed, likely that such was the

    original arrangement, for the Chinese government has come to

    its present composition by slow degrees ; but such is, so far as

    can be seen, the effect of it, and it serves in no little degree to

    accomplish the designs of the rulers to bind the main and lesser

    wheels of the huge machine to themselves and to one another.

    The customs and excise are under the management of different

    grades of officers according to the importance of their posts.

    The transit duties levied at the excise stations placed in every

    town are collected by officers acting under the local authorities,

    and have nothing to do with the collection of maritime duties.

    This tax, called li-kin, or ‘a cash a catty,’ has lately been

    greatly increased, and the natural result has been to destroy the

    trade it preyed on, or divert it to other channels. The foreign

    merchants and officers have, too, protested against its imposition,

    seeing that their trade was checked.

    Kecapitulating in tabular form, we may say that outside of

    the Cabinet, Council, Boards, and Courts at the capital, the

    government (in the Eighteen Provinces) is in the hands of: 8 Governors-General (6 governing two provinces each).

    15 Governors. 11) Commissioners of Finance (2 for Kiangsu).

    18 Commissioners of Justice.

    4 Directors of the Salt Gabel.

    9 Collectors (independent of these).

    13 Commissioners of Grain, or Commissaries.

    G4 Intendants of Circuit.

    182 Prefects.

    G8 Prefects of Inferior Departments.

    18 Independent Subprefects.

    180 Dependent Subprefects.

    139 Deputy Subprefects.

    141 District Magistrates of the Fifth

    Class.

    1,232 District Magistrates of the Seventh

    Class.

    The military section of the provincial governments is under

    the control of a tituh, or major-general, who resides at a central

    post, and, in conjunction with the governor-general and

    governor, directs the movements of the forces, while these last

    have also an independent control over a certain body of troops

    belonging to them officially. The various grades of officers in

    the native army, and the portion of troops under each of them,

    MILITARY AND NAVAL DEPARTMENTS. 445

    stationed in the garrisons and forts in different parts of the

    provinces, are all arranged in a methodical manner, which will

    bear examination and comparison with the army of any country

    in the world. The native force in each province is distinct

    from the Manchu troops, and is divided somewhat according to

    the Roman plan of legion, cohort, maniple, and century, over

    each of which are officers, from colonel down to sergeant.

    Nothing is wanting to the Chinese army to make it fully adequate to the defence of the country but discipline and confidence in itself ; for lack of practice and systematic drilling have made it an army of paper warriors against a resolute enemy. Nevertheless, the recent campaigns against the rebels in the extreme western colonies indicate the fact that its regeneration is already of some weight. On the other hand, it has no doubt been for the good of the Chinese people and government—the advance of the first in wealth, numbers, and security, and the consolidation and efficiency of the latter—that they have cultivated letters rather than arms, peace more than war.

    All the general officers in the army have fixed places of residence,

    at which the larger portion of their respective brigades

    remain, while detachments are stationed at various points within

    their command. The governor, major-general, and Banner

    commandant have commands independent of each other, but

    the tituh,OY major-general, exei-cises the principal military sway.

    The navai officers have the same names as those in the army,

    and the two are interchanged and promoted from one service to

    the other. Admirals and vice-admirals usually reside on shore,

    and despatch their subordinates in squadrons or single vessels

    wherever occasion requires. This system must, ere long, give

    place to a better division of the two arms with the building of

    steam vessels and management of arsenals, when junks are

    superseded.

    The system of mutually checking the provincial officers is

    also exhibited in their location. For example, in the city of

    Canton the governor-general is stationed in the Xew city near

    the collector of customs, while the lieutenant-governor and

    Manchu general are so located in the Old city that should circumstances require they can act against the two first. The governor has the general command of all the provincial troops,

    estimated to be one hundred thousand men, but the particukir

    command of only five thousand, and they are stationed fifty

    miles off, at Sliauking fu. The ts’uoiy A-ii/.n has five thousand

    men under him in the Old city, which, in an extreme case,

    would make him master of tlie capital, while his own allegiance

    is secured by the antipathy between the Manchus and Chinese

    preventing liim from combining with the latter. Again, the

    governor-general has the power of condenming certain criminals

    to death, but the vxincj-iiiuKj^ or death-warrant, is lodged

    with tlie fatal, and the order for execution must be countersigned

    by him ; his despatches to court must be also countersigned

    b}’ his coadjutor. The general absence of resistance to

    the imperial sway on the part of these high officers during the

    two centuries of Manchu rule, when compared with the multiplied

    intrigues and rebellions of the pashas in the Turkish

    Empire, proves how well the system is concocted.

    In order to enable the superior officers to exercise greater

    vigilance over their inferiors, they have the privilege of sending

    special messengers, invested with full power, to every part

    of their jurisdiction. The Emperor himself never visits the

    provinces judicially, nor has an Emperor been south of the

    capital during the present century ; he therefore constantly

    sends connnissioners or legates, called llncJuii, to all parts of the

    Empire, ostensibly entrusted M’ith the management of a particular

    business, but required also to take a general surveillance of

    what is going on. The ancient Persians had a similar system

    of commissioners, who M-ere called the eyes and ears of the

    prince, and made the circuit of the empire to oversee all that

    was done. There are numy points of resemblance between the

    structure of these two ancient monarchies, the body of councillors

    who assisted the prince in his deliberations, the presidents

    over the provinces, the satraps, etc. ; but tlie Persians had not

    the elements of perpetuity which the system of connnon schools

    and official examinations <rive to the Chinese iiovernment.”

    ‘ RoUin’s Aricient Ilktory, Chap. IV. Manners of the Assyrians. Heeren’aAsiatic Researches, Vol. I., Chap. II.

    TRAVELLINCJ DEPUTIES AND COMMISSIONKRS. 447

    Governors in like manner send their deputies and agents, called weiyuen, over the province ; and even the prefects and intendants despatch their messengers. All these functionaries, during the time of their mission, take rank with the highest officers according to the quality of their employers; but the imperial connnissioners, who for one object or another are constantly passing and repassing through the Empire in every direction, exercise great influence in the government, and are powerful agents in the hands of the Emperor for keeping his proconsuls at their duty.

    CHAPTER VIII. ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAWS

    The preceding chapter contains a general view of the plan upon which the central and provincial governments of the Empire are constircted ; and if an examination of the conduct of oiRcers in every department shows their extortion, cruelty, and venalitv, it will not, in the opinion of the liberal-minded reader, detract from the general excellence of the theory of the government, and the sagacity exhibited in the system of checks designed to restrain the various parts from interfering with the well-being of the whole. In addition to the division of power and the restrictions upon Chinese officers already mentioned, there are other means adopted in their location and alternation 10 prevent combination and resistance against the head of the state. One of them is the law forbidding a man to hold any civil office in his native province, which, besides stopping all intrigue where it would best succeed, has the further effect of congregating aspirants for office at Peking, where they come in hope of obtaining some post, or of succeeding in the examination for the highest literary degrees. The central government could not contrive a better plan for bringing all the ambitious and talented men in the country under its observation before appointing them to clerkships in the capital, or scattering them in the provinces.

    Moreover, no officer is allowed to marry in the jurisdiction under his control, nor own land in it, nor have a son, brother, or near relative holding office under him ; and he is seldom continued in the same station or province for more than three or four years, QVfanchus and (liinese are mingled together in high stations, and obligations are imposed on certain grandees

    CHECKS PLACED UPON OFFICIMIDLDEKS. 449

    to inform the Emperor of each other’s acts. Members of the imperial clan are required to attend the meetings of the Boards at the capita], and observe and report what they deem amiss or Qf interest to the Emperor and his council; while in all the upper departments of the general and provincial governments, a system of espionage is can-ied out, detrimental to all principles of honorable fidelity, such as we look for in officiajA, but not without some good effects in a weak despotism like China.

    OThere is, besides this constant surveillance, a triennial catalogue made out of the merits and demerits of all officers in the Empire, which is submitted to imperial inspection by the Board of Civil Office. In order to collect the details for this catalogue, it is incumbent upon every provincial officer to report upon the character and cpialiiications of those under him, and the list, when made out, is forwarded by the govei-nor to the capital./

    The points of character are arranged under six different heads, viz.: those wh(i are not diligent, the inefficient, the superficial, the untalented, superannuated, and diseased. ( According to the opinion given in this report, officers are elevated or degraded so many steps in the scale of merit, like school-boys in a class, and whenever they issue an edict are required to state how many steps they have been advanced or degraded, and how many times recorded. Officers are required to accuse themselves, when guilty of crime, either in their own conduct or that of their subordinates, and request punishment^ The results of this peculiar and patriarchal mode of teaching officers their duty will be best exhibited by quoting from a rescript of Taukwang’s, issued in February, 1837, after one of the catalogues had been submitted to his Majesty.

    “The cabinet minister Cliangling lias strenuously exerted himself during a long lapse of years ; he has reached the eightieth year of his age, yet his energies are still in full force. His colleagues Pwan Shi-ngan and Muchangah, as well as the assistant cabinet minister Wang Ting, have invariably displayed diligence and attention, and have not failed in yielding us assistance. Tang Kin-chau, president of the Board of Office, has knowledge and attainments of a respectable and sterling character, and has shown himself public-spirited and intelligent in the performance of special duties assigned to him. Shi Chi-yen, president of the Board of Punishments, retains his usual strength and energies, and in the performance of his judicial duties has displayed perspicacity and circumspection. The assistant cabinet minister and governor of Chihli province, Kislien, transacts the affairs of his government with faithfulness, and the military force under his control is well disciplined. Husunge, the governor of Sliensi and Kausuh provinces, is cautious and prudent, and perrorms his duties with careful exa,ctness. iKpu, governor of Yunnan and Kweichau, is well versed in the affairs of his frontier government, and has fully succeeded in pre erving it free from disturbance. Linking, who is entrusted with the general charge of the rivers in Kiangnan, has not failed in his care of the embankments, and has preserved the surrounding districts from all disquietude. To show our favor unto all these, let the Board of Office determine on appropriate marks of distinction for them.

    “Kweisan, subordinate minister of the Cabinet, is hasty and deficient, both in precision and capacity ; he is incapable of moving and acting for himself; let him take an inferior station, and receive an appointment in the second class of the guards. Yihtsih, vice-president of the Board of Works for Mukden, possesses but ordinary talents, and is incompetent to the duties of his present office; let him also take an inferior station, and be appointed to a place in the first class of guards. Narkinge, the governor-general of Hukwang, though having under him the whole civil and military bodies of two provinces, has yet been unable, these many days, to seize a few beggarly impish vagabonds : a’”ter having in the first instance failed in prevention, he has followed up that failure by idleness and remissness, and has fully proved himself inefficient. Let him take the lower station of governor in Hunan, and within one year let him, by the apprehension of Lan Ching-tsun, show that he is aroused to greater exertion.

    s.

    “Let all our other servants retain their present appointments. Among them Tau Shu, the governor of Kiangnan and Kiangsi, is bold and determined in the transaction of affairs, but has not yet attained enlarged views in regard to the salt department; Chung Tsiang, the governor of Fuhkien and Chehkiang, finds his energies failing; TSng Ting-ching, the governor of Kwangtung and Kwangsi, possesses barely an adequate degree of talent and knowledge ; and Shin Ki-hien, though faithful and earnest in the performance of his duties, has, in common with these others, been not very long in office.

    *’ That all ministers will act with purity and devotedness of purpose, with public spirit and diligence, is our most fervent hope. A special edict.” ‘

    ‘ Chinese licposilor;/, Vol. VI. , p. 48.

    niAKACTER OF CHINESE OFFICIALS. 451

    I The effet’t of such confessions and examination of cliafacter iV to restrain the commission of outra<;eons acts of oppression; it is still further enforced by the privilege, common alike to censors and private subjects, of complaining to the Emperor of misdeeds done to them by persons in authority. Fear for their own security has suggested this multiplicity of checks, but the Emperor and his ministry have no doubt thereby impeded the efficiency of their subordinates, and compelled them to attend so much to their own standing that they care far less than they otherwise would foi* the prosperity of the people.*)

    The position of an officer in the Chinese government can hardly be ascertained from the enumeration of his duties, nor can we easily appreciate, from a general account of the system, his temptations to oppress inferiors and deceive superiors.

    His duties, as indicated in the code, are so minute, and often so contradictory, as to make it impossible to fulfil them strictly; it is found, accordingly, that few or none have ascended the slippery heights of promotion without frequent relapses. ^Degradation, when to a step or two and temporary, carries with it of course no moral taint in a country where the award for bribery is graduated to the amount received, without any reference to moral violation^, where the bamboo is the standard of punishment as well for error in judgment or remissness as for crime —only commuted to a fine in honor of official rank ; whereas a distinction in favor of the imperial race, the bamboo is softened to the whip and banishment mitigated to the pillory.’

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV. , p. 59.

    The highest officers have of course the greatest opportunity to oppress, but their extortions are limited by the venality and mendacity of the agents they are compelled to employ. Inferiors also can carry on a system of exactions if they keep on the right side of those above them. (.The whole class forma body of men mutually jealous of each other’s advance, where every incumbent endeavors to supplant his associate ; they all agree in regarding the people as the source of their profits, the sponge which all must squeeze, but differ in the degree to which they should carry on the same plan with each other. Although sprung from the mass of the people, the welfare of the community has little place in their thoughts. Their life is spent in ambitious efforts to rise upon the fall of others, though they do not lose all sense of character or become reckless of the means of advance, for this would destroy their chance of success] The game they play with each other and their imperial master is, however, a harmless one compared with what was done ill old Rome or in Europe four or five centuries ago, or even lately among the pashas and viziers of the sultans and shahs in Western Asia. To the honor of the Chinese, life is seldom sacrificed for political crime or envious emulation; no officer dreads a bowstring or a poisoned cup from his lord paramount, nor is he on the watch against the dagger of an assassin hired by a vindictive competitor. Whatever heights of favor or depths of umbrage he may experience, the servant of the Emperor of Chhia need not, in unproved cases of delinquency, fear for his life; but he not unfrequently takes it himself from conscious guilt and dread of just punishment.

    The names and staiuiing of all officers are published quarterly by permission of government in the Red Book (which by an usual coincidence is bound in red), called the ” Complete Record of the Girdle Wearers” {Tshi jSkin Tslae/h Shif), comprised in four volumes, 12nio, to which are added two others of the Army and Bannermen. This publication was first issued at the command of Wanlih, of the Ming dynasty, about 15S0, and mentions the native province of each person, whether Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, or enrolled Chinese, describes the title of the office, its salary, and gives much general information. The publishers of the book expect that officers will inform them of the changes that take place in their standing, and sometimes omit to mention those who do not thus report themselves.

    CAREER OF DUKE HO. 463

    A memoir of the public life of a high officer in China would present a singular picture of ups and downs, but, on account of their notorious disregard of truth, Chinese documents are unsafe to trust entirely in drawing such a sketch. One of the most conspicuous men in late times was Duke IIo, the premier in the time of Macartney’s embassy, who for many years exercised a greater control over the counsels of a Chinese sovereign than is recorded of any other man during the present dynasty. This man was originally a private person, who attracted the notice of the Emperor by his comeliness, and secured it by his zeal in discharging the offices entrusted to him. With but few interruptions he gradually’ mounted the ladder of promotion, and for some years before Tvienlung’s death, when the hitter’s energies had begun to fail from age, was virtual master of the country. Staunton describes him as possessing eminent abilities ; ” the manners of Ilokwan were not less pleasing than his understanding was penetrating and acute, lie seemed indeed to possess the qualities of a perfect statesman.”‘ The favorite had gradually tilled the highest posts with his friends, and his well-wishers were so numerous in the general and provincial governments that some began to apprehend a rising in his favor when the Emperor died. Kiaking, on coming to the throne, began to take those cautious measures for his removal which showed the great influence he possessed ; one of these proceedings was to appoint him superintendent of the rites of mourning, in order, probably, that his official duties might bring him often to the palace.

    After four years the Emperor drew up sixteen articles of impeachment, most of them frivolous and vexatious, though of more consequence in the eyes of a Chinese prince than they would have been at other courts. One article alleged that he had ridden on horseback up to the palace gate; another, that he had appropriated to his own household the females educated for the imperial harem; a third, that he had detained the reports of officers in time of war from coming to the Emperor’s eye, and had appointed his own retainers to office, when they were notoriously incompetent; a fourth, that he had built many apartments of nan-muh, a kind of laurel-wood exclusively appropriated to j-oyalty, and imitated regal style in his grounds and establishment; a fifth, that ” on the day previous to our

    Itoyal Father’s announcement of our election as his successor,

    Ilokwan waited upon us and presented the insignia of the newly

    conferred rank—thereby betraying an important secret of state,

    in hopes of obtaining our favor.” lie was also accused of having

    pearls and jewels of larger size than those even in the Emperor’s

    regalia. But so far as can be inferred from what was

    published, this Cardinal AVolsey of China was, comparatively

    speaking, not cruel in the exercise of his power, and the real

    cause of his fall was evidenth’ his riches. In the schedule of his

    confiscated property it was mentioned that besides houses, lands,

    and other innnovable property to an amazing extent, not less

    ‘ Embassy to China, Vol. III., p. 26.

    than one hundred and five millions of dollars in bullion and

    geuls were found in his treasury, A special tribunal was instituted

    for his trial, and he was allowed to become his own executioner,

    while his constant associate was beheaded. These were

    the only deaths, the remainder of his relatives and dependents

    being simply removed and degraded. His power was no doubt

    too great for the safety of his master if he had proved faithless

    ;

    but his wealth was too vast for bis own security, even had he

    been innocent. The Emperor, in the edict which contains the

    sentence, cites as a precedent for his own acts similar condemnation

    of premiers by three of bis ancestors in the present dynasty,

    but nothing definite is known of their crimes or trials.’

    Taukwang was more clement, or more fortunate than his father, and upon coming to the throne continued Tohtsin in power; this statesman bad held the premiership from 1815 to 1832, with but few interruptions, when he was allowed to retire at the age of seventy-five. He had served under three emperors, having risen step by step from the situation of clerk in one of the offices. His successor, Changling, experienced a far more checkered course, but remained in favor at last, and retired from the j)remiership in 1836, aged about seventy-nine. He became very popular with his master from his ability in quelling the insurrection of Jeliangir in Turkestan in 1 827. Even a few such instances of the honor in which an upright, energetic, and wise minister is regarded by prince and people have great influence in encouraging young men to act in the same way.

    ‘ Phiriese Repository^ Vol. III., p. 241.

    LIFE AND CIIARACTEU OF MINISTEIl SUNT,, 453

    Few Chinese statesmen have been oftener brought into the notice of western foreigners than Sung, one of the commissioners attached to Lord Macartney’s embassy, and a favorite of all its members. His lordship speaks of him then as a young man of high quality, possessing an elevated mind; and adds that ” during the whole time of our connection with him he has on all occasions conducted himself toward us in the most friendly and gentleman-like manner.” This was in 1703. In 1817 he is mentioned as one of the Cabinet ; but not long after, for some unknown reason, he was degraded by Kiaking to the sixth rank, and appointed adjiitaiit-general aiuoiig tlic Tsakliar Mongols ; from thence he memorialized his master respecting the ill conduct of some lamas, who had been robbing and murdering. Sung and his friends opposed the Emperor’s going to Manchuria, and were involved in some trouble on this account, the reasons of which it is difficult to understand. He was promoted, however, to be captain-general of Manchuria, but again fell under censure, and on his visit to his paternal estate at Mukden the Emperor took him back to the capital and appointed him to some important office. lie soon got into new trouble with the Emperor, who in a proclamation remarks that ” Sung is inadequate to the duties of minister of the imperial presence ; because, although he formerly officiated as such, he is now upward of seventy years of age, and rides badly on horseback ; ” he is therefore sent to Manchuria to fill his old office of captain-general. The next year the ex-minister and his adherents were involved in a long trial about the loss of a seal, and he was deprived of his command and directed to retire to his own Banner ; the real reasons of this disgrace were probably connected with the change of parties ensuent upon the accession of Taukwang.

    Soon afterward Sung was restored to favor and made adjutant at Jell ho, after having been president of the Censorate for a month. He was allowed to remain there longer than usual, and employed his spare time in writing a book upon the newly acquired territory in Turkestan. In 1824 he was reinstated as president of the Censorate, with admonitions not to confuse and puzzle himself with a multiplicity of extraneous matters. In 1826 he was sent on a special commission to Shansi, and when he returned was honored with a dinner at court on new year’s day. He then appears as travelling tutor to the crown-prince, but where his royal highness went for his education does not appear; from this post we find him made president of the Board of Rites, and appointed to inspect the victims for a state sacrifice. He is then ordered to Jeh ho, from whence, in a fit of penitence, or perhaps from fear of a dun, he memorialized the Emperor about a debt of $52,000 he had incurred nearly thirty years before, which he proposed to liquidate by foregoing his salary of $1,000 until the arrears were paid up ; the Emperor was in good humor with the old man, and forgave him the whole amount, being as Bured, he says, of Sung’s pure official character. In this memorial, when recounting his services, the aged officer says that he has been twice commander-in-chief and governor of III, governor- general at Xanking, Canton, etc., but had never saved much.

    NOTICE OF COMMISSIONER LIN, 457

    Shortly after this he is recalled from Jeh ho and made ti-iuh of Peking, then president of the Board of War ; and in a few months he is ordered to proceed across the desert to Cobdo to investigate some affair of importance—a long and toilsome journey of fifteen hundred miles for a man over seventy-five years old. He returned the next year and resumed his post as president of the Board of war, in which capacity he acted as examiner of the students in the Russian College. In 1831 he was made president of the Colonial Office, and later received an appointment as superintendent of the’ Three Treasuries, but was obliged to resign from ill health. A month’s relaxation seems to have wonderfully restored him, for the Emperor, in reply to his petition for employment, expresses surprise that he should so Boon be fit for official duties, and plainly intimates his opinion that the disease was all sham, though he accedes to his request so far as to nominate him commander of one of the eight Banners. In 1832 Sung again became involved in intrigues, and was reduced to the third degree of rank; the resignation of Tohtsin and the struggle for the vacant premiership was probably the real reason of this new reverse, though a frivolous accusation of two years’ standing “was trumped up against him. He was restored again, after a few months’ disgrace, at the petition of a beg of a city in Turkestan, which illustrates, by the way, the influence which those princes exert. Old age now began to come upon the courtier in good earnest, and in 1833 he was ordered to retire with the rank and pay of adjutant, which he lived to enjoy only two years. Much of the success of Suui; was said to be owinu to his havin<r had a daughter in the harem, but his personal character and kindness were evidently the main sources of his enduring influence among all ranks of people and officers; one account says the IManchus almost worshipped him, and beggars clung to his chair in the streets to ask alms. It is wortriy of notice that in all his re-A-erses there is no mention made of any severer punishment than degradation or banishment, and in this particular the political life of Sung is probably a fair criterion of the usual fortune of high Chinese statesmen. The leading events in the life of Changling, the successor of Tohtsin, together with a few notices of the governor of Canton in 1833, Li llung-pin, are given in the Rej)ositorij.^ Commissioners Lin and Kivins; became more famous amontr foreigners than their compeers in the capital, from the parts they acted in the war with England in IS-iO, but only a few notices of their lives are accessible. Lin Tseh-sii was born in 1785, in Fuhchau, and passed through the literary examinations, becoming a graduate of the second rank at the age of nineteen, and of the third when twenty-six. After filling an

    office or two in the Imperial Academy, he was sent as assistant

    literary examiner to Iviangsi in 1816, and during three subsequent

    years acted as examiner and censor in various places. In

    1819 he filled the office of intendant of circuit, in Chehkiano^:

    and after absence on account of health, he was, in 1823, appointed

    to the post of treasurer of Iviangsu, in the absence of the incuml)ent. In 1820 he was made overseer of the Yellow River, but hearing of his mother’s death, resigned his office to mourn for her. After the period of mourning was finished he went to Peking and received the office of judge in Shensi; but before he had been in it a month he was made treasurer of Kiangsu, and before he could enter upon this new office he

    heard of his father’s death, and was obliged to resign once

    more. In 1832 he was nominated treasurer in Ilupeh, and

    five months later transferred to the same office in Honan, and

    six months after that sent to Iviangsu again. Three months after this third transfer he was reinstated overseer of the Yellow River, and within a short time elevated to be governor of Iviangsi, which he retained three years, and acted as governor-general of Liang Iviang two years more. In 1838 he was made governor-general of II u Kwang; and shortly after this ordered to come to Peking to be admitted to an imperial audience, and by special favor permitted to ride on horseback within the palace.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 61-66.

    He was at this audience appointed imperial commissioner to put down the opium trade and manage the affairs of the maritime frontier of Ivwantung, receiving at the time such plenipotentiary powers to act for the Emperor as had only once before been committed to a subject since 1644-, viz., when Changling was sent to Turkestan to (piell the insurrection. Lin’s ill success in dealing with the opium trade and its upholders in the British government reflect no discredit on his own ability, for the task was beyond the powers of the Empire ; but his fame even now stands high amono; the Cantonese. One incident showing his kindness to the crew of the Sunda, an English vessel lost on Hainan Island, on their arrival in Canton in October, 1839, while he was ligliting their consular officers,

    gave a good insight into the candor of the man. In December,

    1839, he was appointed governor-general of Liang Kiang ; but

    succeeded to that of Liang Ivwang in February, 1840, In

    October of the same year the seals of office were taken away,

    and he was ordered to return to Peking. He remained, however,

    till May of the next year to advise with Ivishen in his

    difficult negotiations with the English. Lin left Canton in

    May,’ 1841, leading two thousand troops to defend Ningpo, but

    this role M^as not his foi’te. In July, 1842, he was banished to

    111, but the sentence was suspended for a season hy giving him

    a third time the oversight of the Yellow River. However, in

    1844 we find him in lli, holding an inferior appointment and

    trying to bring waste lands near the Mohammedan cities nnder

    cultivation ; his zeal was rewarded the next year by a pardon,

    and the year after that by the Jiigh post of governor-general of

    Shensi and Kansuh, in wliich region he set himself to work to

    reform the civil service and increase the revenue. In 1847 the

    cares of office wore “upon him, so that he asked for a furlough

    and went back to Fulichau, aged sixty-two. His ambition was

    not yet satisfied, for he was made governor-general in Yunnan

    in 1848, but his strength was not equal to its duties, and

    he again retired in 1849. The young Emperor Hienfung,

    CAREER OF COMMISSIONER KIYING. 459

    startled at the rapid rise of the Tai-ping rebels, applied to the aged statesman to help him as he had his father, Lin responded to the call of his sovereign, but death came upon him before he reached Kwangsi, on the 22d of November, 1850, at the aiie of sixty-seven. More endurino; than some of his official acts was the preparation and publication of the History of Maritime Nations, with maps, in fifty books, in which he gave his countrymen all the details he could gather of other nations.’

    Much less is known of the official life of Iviying than of Lin, but the Manchu proved himself superior to the Chinese in trinunino; his course to meet the inevitable and avoid the rocks his predecessor struck. In 1835 his name is mentioned as president of the Board of Revenue and controller of the Tsung-jin fu. lie was detained at the capital as commander-in chief of the forces there until 1842, when his Majesty sent him to Canton to take the place of Yihshan. He was ordered to stop at Ilangchau, however, on his way, and make a report of the condition of affairs; his memorials seem to have had great influence, for he was appointed joint commissioner with llipu in April of that year. At the negotiations of Xanking Iviying acted as chief commissioner, and was mainly instrumental in bringing the war to a conclusion. He proceeded to Canton in May, 18-43, to succeed llipu, and there acted as sole commissioner in negotiating the supplementary treaty and the commercial regulations with the British, returning to the capital in December, 1843. His prudence and vigor had great effect in calming the irritation of the people of Canton. On the arrival of the American plenipotentiary lie was vested with full powers to treat with Mr. Cushing, and soon after with the French and Swedish envoys, with all of whom he signed treaties. During the progress of these negotiations Ki Kung died and Iviying succeeded him.

    ‘ Compare Dr. Bowring in N. C. Br. R. A. Soc. Journal, Part III., Art VII. (Dec, 1852).

    His administration as governor-general continued till January, 1848, when he returned to Peking to receive higher honors from the Emperor. In 1849 he went to Kiangsu to inquire into the salt department, and then to Northern Shansi to settle differences with the Mongols. From this period he held various posts in the cabinet and capital, busy in all court intrigues, and rather losing his good name, till he fell into disgrace.

    In 1856, when the envoys of the four western Powers were at Tientsin, he entered into some underhand dealings against the policy of Kweiliang and Ilwashana, and was sent there as joint commissioner, he had hardly entered upon his functions by the presentation of his commission, when he suddenly returned to Peking against the Emperor’s will, and was ordered to take poison in the presence of the head of the Clan to avoid the ignominy of a public execution,’ Few Chinese statesmen in modern times have borne a higher character for prudence, dignity, and intelligence than Iviying, and the confidence reposed in him is creditable to his imperial master. In his demeanor, says Sir Thomas Wade, ” there was a combination of dignity and courtesy which more than balanced the deficiencies of a by no means attractive exterior.” The portrait of him has been engraved from a native painting made at Canton, and is a good one. It was kindly furnished for this work by J. P. Peters, Jr.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, passim. Oliphant, Lord Elgin’s Mission to China and Jiqmu, Cluii). XVIT. Minister Reed, in U. >S’. Dip. Correspondence, 1857-58.

    AGED STATESMEN RETAINED IN OFFICE. 461

    The facts of this man’s career are not all known, but his connection by birth with the Clan brought him into an entirely different set of influences from Lin, while his training removed him from the contact with the people which made the other so popular and influential. Both of them were good instances of Chinese statesmen, and their checkered lives as here briefly noticed resemble that of their compeers in the highest grades of official dignity. The sifting which the personnel of the Emperor’s employees in all their various grades receive generally brings the cleverest and most trustworthy to the top ; no one can come in contact with thein in state affairs without an increase of respect for their shrewdness, loyalty, and skill. One observable feature of the Chinese political world is the great age of the high officers, and It is not easy to account for their

    being kept in their posts, when almost worn out, bj a monarch

    who wished to have efficient men around liim, until we learn

    how little real power he can arbitrarily exert over the details of

    the branches of his government. It is somewhat explainable

    on the ground that, as long as the old incumbents are alive, the

    Emperor, being more habituated to their company and advice,

    prefers to retain those whose competency has been proven by

    their service. The patriarch, kept near the Emperor, is moreover

    a kind of hostage for the loyalty of his following ; and the

    latter, scattered throughout the provinces, can be managed and

    moved about through him with less opposition : he is, still

    further, a convenient medium thrcjugh which to receive the

    exactions of the younger members of the service, and convey

    such intimations as are thought necessary. Tlie system of

    clientelage which existed among the Gauls and Franks is also

    found in China with some modifications, and has a tendency to

    link officers to one another in parties of different degrees of

    power. The Emperor published an order in 1S33 against this

    system of patronage, and it is evident that he would find it seriously interfering with his power were it not constantly broken up by changing the relations of the parties and sending them away in different directions. Peking is almost the only place where the ” teacher and pupils,’^ as the patron and client call each other, could combine to much purpose ; and the principal safeguard the throne seems to have against intrigues and parties around it lies in the conflicting interests arising among themselves, though a long-established oi- unscrujiulous favorite, as in the cases of Duke IIo and Suhshun in 1S55-C1, can sometimes manage to engross the whole power of the crown.

    Notwithstanding the heavy charges of oppression, cruelty, bribery, and mendacity which are often brought against officers Math more or less justice, it must not be inferred that no good qualities exist among them. Thousands of them desire to rule equitably, to clear the innocent and punish the guilty, and exert all the knowledge and power they possess to discharge their functions to the acceptance of their master and their own good name among the inhabitants. Such officers, too, generally rise, while the cruelties of others are visited with degradation, The pasquinades which the people stick up in the streets indicate their sentiments, and receive much more attention than would such vulgar expressions in other countries, because it is almost the only way in which their opinions can be safely uttered. The popularity which upright officers receive acts as an incentive to others to follow in the same steps, as well as a reward to the person himself. The governor of Ivwangtung in 1833, Chu, was a very popular officer, and when he obtained leave to resign his station on account of age, the people vied with each other in showing their hearty regret at losing him.

    The old custom was observed of retaining his boots and presenting him with a new pair at every city he passed through, and many other testimonials of their regard were adopted.

    On leaving the city of Canton he circulated a few Aerses, ” to console the people and excite them to virtue,” for he heard that some of them w^ept on learning of his departure.

    From ancient days, my fathers trod the path
    Of literary fame, and placed their names
    Among the wise ; two generations past,
    Attendant on their patrons, they have come
    To this provincial city. ‘ Here this day
    ‘Tis mine to be imperial envoy ;
    Thus has the memory of ancestral fame
    Ceased not to stimulate this feeble frame.
    My father held an office at Lungchau.”

    And deep imprinted his memorial there ;
    He was the sure and generous friend
    Of learning unencouraged and obscure.
    When now I turn my head and travel back
    In thought to that domestic hall, it seems
    As yesterday, those early happy scenes—
    How was he pained if forced to be severe 1

    ‘ The Chinese have a great affection for the place of their nativity, and coneider a residence in any other province like being in a foreign settlement.

    They always wish to return thither in life, or have their remains carried and interred there after death.

    VALEDICTORY VERSES OF GOVERNOR CHU. 463

    ‘^ A district in the province of Kwangsi.
    From times remote Kwangtung has been renowned
    For wise and mighty men ; but none can stand
    Among them, or compare with Kiuh Kiang :’
    Three idle and inglorious years are past,
    And I have raised no monument of fame,
    By shedding round the rays of light and truth,
    To give the people knowledge. In this heart
    I feel the shame, and cannot bear the thought.
    But now, in flowered pavilions, in street
    Illuminations, gaudy shows, to praise
    The gods and please themselves, from year to year

    The modern people vie, and boast themselves,
    And spend their hard-earned wealth—and all in vain;
    For what shall be the end? Henceforth let all
    Maintain an active and a useful life,
    The sober husband and the frugal wife.
    The gracious statesman, “politic and wise,
    Is my preceptor and my long-tried friend ,

    Called now to separate, spare our farewell

    The heartrending words affection so well loves.

    That he may still continue to exhort

    The people, and instruct them to be wise,

    To practice virtue and to keep the laws

    Of ancient sages, is my constant hope.

    When I look backward o’er the field of fame

    Where I have travelled a long fifty years,

    The struggle for ambition and the sweat

    For gain seem altogether vanity.

    Who knoweth not that heaven’s toils are close,
    Infinitely close V Few can escape.
    Ah! how few great men reach a full old age f
    How few unshorn of honors end their days I
    Inveterate disease has twined itself
    Around me, and binds me in slavery.
    The kindness of his Majesty is high ‘
    And liberal, admitting no return

    ‘ Kiuh Kiang was an ancient minister of state during the Tang dynasty. Hia imperial master would not listen to his advice and lie therefore retired. Rebellion and calamities arose. The Emperor thought of his faithful servant and sent for him ; but he was already dead.

    • Governor Loo.

    * In permitting Chu to retire from public life.
    Unless a grateful heart ; still, still my eyes
    Will see the miseries of the people—
    Unlimited distresses, mournful, sad,
    To the mere passer-by awaking grief.
    Untalented, unworthy, I withdraw,
    Bidding farewell to this windy, dusty world;
    Upward I look to the supremely good—
    The Emperor—to choose a virtuous man
    To follow me. Henceforth it will oe well—
    The measures and the merits passing mine;
    But I shall silent stand and see his grace
    Diffusing blessings like the genial spring.

    Ilipn, Ki Kiing, the late governor-general of Ivwangtnng, and Shn, the prefect of Ningbo in 1842, are other officers who have been popular in late years. When Lin passed through Macao in 1839, the Chinese had in several places erected honorary portals adorned with festoons of silk and laudatory scrolls ; and when he passed the doors of their houses and shops they set out tables decorated with ^’ases of flowers, ” in order to manifest their profound gratitude for his coming to save them from a deadly vice, and for removing from them a dire cahnnity by the destruction and severe intei’diction of opium.” Alas, that his efforts and intentions should have been so fruitless! The Pehing Gazette frequently contains petitions from old officers describing their ailments, their fear lest they shall not be able to perform their duties, the length of their official service, and requesting leave of absence or permission to retire.

    OFFICIAL PETITIONS AND CONFESSIONS. 465

    It is impossible to regard all the expressions of loyalty in these papers, coming as they do from every class of officers, as heartless and made out according to a prescribed form; but we are too ready to measure them by our own standard and fashion, forgetting that it is not the defects of a system which give the best standard of its value and efficiency. Let us rather, as an honest expression of feeling, quote a few lines from a memorial of Shi, a censor in 1824: “Reflecting within myself that, notwithstanding the decay of my strength, it has still pleased the imperial goodness to employ me in a high office instead of rejecting and discarding me at once, I have been most anxious to eft’ect a cure, in order that, a weak old horse as I am, it might be still in my power, by the exertion of my whole strength, to recompense a ten-thousandth part of the benevolence which restored me to life/”

    Connected with the triennial schedule of official merits and

    demerits is the necessity the high officers of state are under of

    confessing their faults of government ; and the two form a

    peculiar and somewhat stringent check upon their intrigues and

    malversation, making them, as Le Comte observes, “exceeding

    circumspect and careful, and sometimes even virtuous against

    their own inclinations.” The confessions reported in i\\Q Peking

    Gazette are, however, by no means satisfactory as to the real extent

    or nature of these acts ; most of the confessors are censors,

    and perhaps it is in virtue of their office that they thus sit in

    judgment upon themselves. Examples of the crimes mentioned

    are not wanting. The governor-general of Chihli requested severe

    punishment in 1S32 for not having discovered a plotting

    demagogue who had collected several thousand adherents in his

    and the next provinces ; his request was granted. An admiral

    in the same province demands punishment for not having properly

    educated his son, as thereby he went mad and wounded several people. Another calls for judgment upon himself because the Empress-dowager had been kept waiting at the palace gate by the porters when she paid her Majesty a visit. One officer accused himself for not being able to control the Yellow River; and his Majesty’s cook in 1830 requested punishment for being too late in presenting his bill of fare, but M^as graciously forgiven. The rarity of these confessions, compared with the actual sins, shows either that they are, like a partridge’s doublings, made to draw off attention from the real nest of malversation, or that few officers are willing to undergo the mortification.

    The Emperor, in his character of vicegerent of heaven, occasionally imposes the duty of self confession upon himself.

    ‘ Chinese Repositunj , Vol. IV., p. 71.

    Kiaking issued several public confessions during his reign, but the Gazette has not contained many such papers within the last thirty years. These confessions are drawn from him more by natural calamities, such as drought, freshets, epidemics, etc., than by political causes, though insurrections, tii-es, ominoug portents, etc., sometimes induce them. The personal character of the monarch has much to do with their frequency and phraseology. On occasion of a drought in 1817 the Emperor Kiaking said : ” The remissness and sloth of the officers of government constitute an evil which has long been accumulating.

    It is not the evil of a day ; for several years I have given the most pressing admonitions on the subject, and have punished many cases which have been discovered, so that recently there appears a little improvement, and for several seasons the weather has been favorable. The drought this season is not perhaps entirely on their (the officers’) account. I have meditated upon it, and am persuaded that the reason why the aznro Heavens above manifest disapprobation by withholding rain for a few hundred miles only around the capital, is that the fifty and more rebels who escaped are secreted somewhere near Peking.

    Hence it is that fertile vapors are fast bound, and the felicitous harmony of the seasons interrupted.” On the 14th of May, 1818, between five and six o’clock in the evening, a sudden darkness enveloped the capital, attended by a violent “wind from the southeast and much rain. During its action two intervals occurred when the sky became a lurid red and the air offensive, terrible claps of thunder startling the people and frightening the monarch. His astroloo;ers could not relieve his forebodings of evil, and he issued a manifesto to explain the matter to his subjects and discharge his own conscience. One sentence is w^orth quoting : ” Calumnious accusations cause the ruin and death of a multitude of innocent people; they alone are capable of provoking a sign as terrible as this one just seen. The wind coming from the southeast is proof enough that some great crime has been committed in that region, which the officials, by neglecting their duties, have ignored, and thereby excited the ire of Heaven,” ‘

    ^Anncdes de la Foi, No. 6, 1823, pp. 21-24.

    PRAYER FOR RAIN OF TAUKWANG. 467

    One of the most remarkable specimens of these papers is a prayer for rain issued by Taukwang, July 24, 1832, on occasion of a severe drought at the capital. Before publishing this paper he had endeavored to mollify the anger and heat of heaven by ordering all suspected and accused persons in the prisons of the metropolis to be tried, and their guilt or innocence established, in order that the course of justice might not be delayed, and witnesses be released from confinement. But these vicarious corrections did not avail, and the drought continuing, he was obliged, as high-priest of the Empire, to show the people that he was mindful of their sufferings, and would relieve them, if possible, by presenting the following memorial:

    *’ Kneeling, a memorial is hereby presented, to cause affairs to be beard.

    ” Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, were not the world afflicted by extraordinary changes, I would not dare to present extraordinary services. But this year the drought is most unusual. Summer is past, and no rain has fallen. Not only do agriculture and human beings feel the dire calamity, but also beasts and insects, herbs and trees, almost cease to live. I, the minister of Heaven, am placed over mankind, and am responsible for keeping the world in order and tranquillizing the people. Although it is now impossible for me to sleep or eat with composure, although I am scorched with grief and tremble with anxiety, still, after all, no genial and copious showers have been obtained.

    “Some days ago I fasted, and offered rich sacrifices on the altars of the gods of the land and the grain, and had to be thankful for gathering clouds and slight showers; but not enough to cause gladness. Looking up, I consider that Heaven’s heart is benevolence and love. The sole cause is the daily deeper atrocity of my sins; but little sincerity and little devotion. Hence I have been unable to move Heaven’s heart, and bring down abundant blessings.

    ” Having searched the records, I find that in the twenty-fourth year of Kienlung my exalted Ancestor, the Emperor Pure, reverently performed a ‘great snow service’. I feel impelled, by ten thousand considerations, to look up and imitate the usage, and with trembling anxiety rashly assail Heaven, examine myself, and consider my errors; looking up and hoping that I may obtain pardon. I ask myself whether in sacrificial services I have been disrespectful? Whether or not pride and prodigality have had a place in my heart, springing forth there unobserved? Whether, from length of time, I have become remiss in attending to the affairs of government, and have been unable to attend to them with that serious diligence and strenuous effort which I ought ‘i Whether I have uttered irreverent words, and have deserved reprehension? Whether perfect equity has been attained in conferring rewards or inflicting punishments ? Whether in raising mausolea and laying out gardens I have distressed the people and wasted property ? Whether in the appointment of officers I have failed to obtain fit persons, and thereby the acts of government have been petty and vexatious to the people V Whether punishments have been unjustly inflicted or not V Whether the oppressed have found no meaus of appeal ? Whether in pc^rsecuting lieterodox sects the innocent have not been involved ? Whether or not the magistrates have insulted the people and refused to listen to their affairs ‘i Whctln’r, in the successive military operations on the western frontiers, then’ may imt liavu been the horrors of human slaughter for the sake of imperial rewards V Whether the largesses bestowed on the afflicted southern provinces were properly applied, or the people were left to die in the ditches ‘i Whether the efforts to exterminate or pacify the rebellious mountaineers of Hunan and Kwangtung were properly conducted ; or whether they led to the inhabitants being trampled on as mire and ashes ? To all these topics to which my anxieties have been directed I ought to lay the plumb-line, and strenuously endeavor to correct what is wrong ; still recollecting that there may be faults which have not occurred to me in my meditations.

    ” Prostrate I beg imperial Heaven (Jlmmcj Tieu) to pardon my ignoiance and stupidity, and to grant me self-renovation ; for myriads of innocent people are involved by me, the One man. My sins are so numerous it is difficult to escape from them. Summer is past and autumn arrived ; to wait longer will really be impossible. Knocking head, I pray imperial Heaven to hasten and confer gracious deliverance—a speedy and divinely beneficial rain, to save the people’s lives and in some degree redeem my iniquities. Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, observe these things. Oh, alas ! imperial Heaven, be gracious to them. I am inexpressibly grieved, alarmed, and frightened. Reverently this memorial is presented.” ‘

    This paper apparently intimates some acknowledgment of a

    ruling power above, and before a despot like the Emperor of

    China would place himself in such an equivocal posture before

    his people, he would assure himself very thoroughly of their

    sentiments ; for its effects as a state paper would be worse than

    null if the least ridicule was likely to be thrown upon it. In this

    case heavy showers followed the same evening, and appropriate

    thanksgivings were ordered and oblations presented before the

    six altars of heaven, earth, land, and grain, and the gods of

    heaven, earth, and the revolving year.

    ‘ Chinese Bepository, Vol. I., p. 236.

    METHODS OF PUHLISITINO EDICTS. 469

    The orders of the court are usually transmitted in manuscript, except when some grand event or state cei’cmony requires a general i)i”oclanuition, in which cases the document is printed on yellow paper and published in both the Chinese and ]\[anchu languages, encin;led with a border of dragons. The governors and their suboi’dinatos, imperial commissioners, and collectoi’s of customs are the principal officers in the provinces who publish their orders to the people, consisting of admonitions, exhortations, regulations, laws, special ordinances, threatenings, and municipal j-e<|uirements. Standing laws and local regulations are often superbly carved on tablets of black marble, and placed in the streets to be ” held in everlasting remembrance,” so that no one can plead ignorance ; a custom which recalls the mode of publishing the Twelve Tables at Rome. Several of these

    monuments, beautifully ornamented, are to be seen at Canton

    and Macao. The usual mode of publishing the commands of

    government is to print the document in large characters, and

    , post copies at the door of the offices and in the streets in public

    places, with the seal of the officer attached to authenticate them.

    The sheets on -which they are printed being connnon bamboo

    paper, and having no protection from the weather, are, however,

    soon destroyed ; the people read them as they are thus

    exposed, and copy them if they wish, but it is not unconnnon,

    too, for the magistrates to print important edicts in pamphlet

    form for circulation. These placards are written in an official

    style, differing from common Meriting as much as that does

    in English, but not involved or obscure. A single specimen of

    an edict issued at Canton will suffice to illustrate the form of

    such papers, and moreover show npon what subjects a Chinese

    ruler sometimes legislates, and the care he is expected to take

    of the people.

    ” Sii and Hwang, by special appointment magistrates of the districts of Nanliai and Pwanyn, raised ten steps and recorded ten times, hereby distinctly publish important rules for the capture of grasshoppers, that it may be known how to guard against them in order to ward off injury and calamity. On the 7th day of the Sth month in the 18th year of Taukwang [September 20, 1838], we received a communication from the prefect of the [department of Kwangchau], transmitting a despatch from their excellencies the governor-general and governor, as follows:
    ” ‘ During the fifth month of the present year flights of grasshoppers appeared in the limits of Kwangsi, in [the departments of] Liu, Tsin, Kwei, and Wu, and their vicinage, which have already, according to report, been clean destroyed and driven off. We have heard that in the department of Kauchau and its neighborhood, conterminous to Kwangsi, grasshoppers have appeared which multiply with extreme rapidity. At this time the second crop is in the blade (which if destroyed will endamage the people), and it is proper, therefore, immediately, wherever they are found, to capture and drive them off, marshalling the troops to advance and wholly exterminate them. But Kwang tung heretofore has never experienced this calamity, and we apprehend the officers and people do not understand the mode of capture; wherefore we now exhibit in order the most important rules for catching grasshoppers. Let the governor’s combined forces be immediately instructed to capture them secundum artem; at the same time let orders be issued for the villagers and farmers at once to assemble and take them, and for the magistrate to establish storehouses for their reception and purchase, thus without fail sweeping them clean away.

    If you do not exert yourselves to catch the grasshoppers, your guilt will be very great ; let it be done carefully, not clandestinely delaying, thus causing this misfortune to come upon yourselves, transgressing the laws, and causing US again, according to the exigencies of the case, to promulgate general orders and make thorough examination, etc., etc. Appended hereto are copies of the rules for catching grasshoppers, which from the lieutenant-governor must he sent to the treasurer, who will enjoin it upon the magistrates of the depart-, meats, and he again upon the district magistrates.’

    “Having received the preceding, besides respectfully transmitting it to the colonel of the department to be straightway forwarded to all the troops under his authority, and also to all the distri(-t justices, that they all with united purpose bend their energies to observe, at the j^roper time, that whenever the grasshoppers become numerous they join their forces and extirpate them, thus removing calamity from the people ; we also enjoin upon whomsoever receives this that the grasshoppers be caught according to these several directions, which are therefore here arranged in order as follows:

    “‘1. When the grasshoppers first issue forth they are to be seen on the borders of large morasses, from whence they quickly multiiily and fill large tracts of land; they produce their young in little hillocks of black earth, using the tail to bore into the ground, not quite an inch in depth, which still remain as open holes, the whole somewhat resembling a bee’s nest. One grasshopper drops ten or more pellets, in form like a pea, each one containing a hundred or more young. For the young grasshoppers fly and eat in swarms, and this laying of their young is done all at once and in the same spot; the place resembles a hive of bees, and therefore it is very easily sought and found.

    ” ‘2. When the grasshoppers are in the fields of wheat and tender rice and

    the thick grass, every day at early dawn they all alight on the leaves of the

    grass, and their bodies being covered with dew are heavy and they cannot fly

    or liop ; at noon they begin to assemble for flight, and at evening they collect

    in one spot. Thiis each day there are three periods when tliey can be caught,

    and the p(!ople and gentry will also have a short respite. The mode of catching

    them is to dig a trench before them, the broader and longer tlio better, on

    each side placing boards, doors, screens, and such like things, oiu> stretched

    on after another, and spreading open each side. The whole multitude must

    then cry aloud, and, holding boards in their hands, drive them all into the

    trench; meanwhile those on the opposite side, provided with brooms and

    rakes, on seeing any leaping or crawling out, must sweep them back; then

    covering them with dry grass, burn them all up. Let the fire be first kindled

    in the trench, and then drive; tlunn into it ; for if they are only buried upi

    then many of them will crawl out of the openings and so escape.

    EDICT FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF GRASSHOPPERS. 471

    ” ‘3. When the swarms of grasshoppers see a row of trees, or a close line of

    flags and streamers, they nsnally hover over and settle ; and the farmers frequently

    suspend red and white clothes and petticoats on long poles, or make

    red and green paper flags, but they do not always settle with great rapidity.

    Moreover, tliey dread the noise of gongs, matchlocks, and guns, hearing which

    they fly away. If they come so as to obscure the heavens, you must let off

    the guns and clang the gongs, or fire the crackers ; it will strike the front

    ranks with dread, and flying away, the rest will follow them and depart.

    ” ‘4. When the wings and legs of the grasshoppers are taken off, and [their

    bodies] dried in the sun, the taste is like dried prawns, and moreover, they

    can be kept a long time without spoiling. Ducks can also be reared upon the

    dried grasshoppers, and soon become large and fat. Moreover, the hill people

    catch them to feed pigs ; tliese pigs, weighing at first only twenty catties

    or so, in ten days’ time grow to weigh more than fifty catties ; and in rearing

    all domestic animals they are of use. Let all farmers e.xert themselves and

    catch them alive, giving rice or money according to the number taken. In

    order to remove this calamity from your grain, what fear is there that you will

    not perform this V Let all these rules for catching the grasshoppers hb diligently

    carried into full effect.’

    “Wherefore these commands are transcribed that all you soldiers and people

    may be fully acquainted with them. Do you all then immediately in

    obedience to them, when you see the proper time has come, sound the gong ;

    and when you see the grasshoppers and their young increasing, straightway

    get ready, on the one hand seizing them, and on the other announcing to the

    oflicers that they collect the troops, that with united strength you may at once

    catch them, without fail making an iitter extermination of them ; thus calamity

    will be removed from tlie people. We will also then confer rewards upon

    those of the farmers and people who first announce to the magistrates their

    approach. Let every one implicitly obey. A special command.

    ” Promulgated Taukwang, 18th year, 8th month, and 15th day.’”

    The concluding part of an edict affords some room for displaying

    tlie character of the promulgator. Among other endings

    are sucli as these : ” Hasten ! hasten ! a special edict.”

    ‘• Tremble liereat intenselj.” ” Lay not up for yourselves future

    repentance by disobedience.” ” I will by no means eat my

    words.” ” Earnestly observe these things.” In their state

    papers Chinese officers are constantly referring to ultimate

    tmiths and axioms, and deducing arguments therefrom in a

    peculiarly national grandiloquent manner, though some of their

    ‘ Easy Lessons in Chinese, pp. 223-227. The effect of these instructions relating to grasshoppers does not appear to have equaled the zeal of the officers composing them ; swarms of locusts, however, are in general neither numerous nor devastating in China.

    conclusions are preposterous iion-sequitvirs. Commissioner Lin addressed a letter to the Queen of England regarding the interdiction of opium, which began with the following preamble:” Whereas, the ways of Heaven are without partiality, and no sanction is allowed to injure others in order to benefit one’s self, and that men’s natural feelings are not very diverse (for where is he who does not abhor death and love life ?)—therefore your honorable nation, though beyond the wide ocean at

    a distance of twenty thousand /?, also acknowledges the same

    ways of Heaven, the same human nature, and has the like perceptions

    of the distinctions between life and death, benefit and

    injury. Our heavenly court has for its family all that is within

    the four seas ; and as to the great Emperor’s heaven-like benevolence—

    there is none whom it does not overshadow ; even

    regions remote, desert, and disconnected have a part in his

    general care of life and well-being.”

    The edicts furnish almost the only exponents of the intentions

    of government. They present several characteristic features

    of the ignorant conceit and ridiculous assumptions of the

    Chinese, while they betray the real weakness of the authorities

    in the mixture of argument and command, coaxing and threatening,

    pervading every paragraph. According to their phraseology,

    there can possibly be no failure in the execution of every

    order ; if they are once made known, the obedience erf the people

    follows almost as a nuitter of course; while at the same

    time both the writer and the people know that most of them are

    not only perfunctory but nearly useless. The resj^onsibility of

    the writer in a measure ceases witli the promulgation of his

    orders, and when they reach the last in the series their efficiency

    has well nigh departed. Expediency is the usual guide

    for obedience ; deceiving superiors and oppressing the people

    the rule of action on the part of many officials ; and their orders

    do not more strikingly exhibit their weakness and igno-

    I’ance than their mendacity and conceit. A large proportion of

    well-meanino; officers are sensible too that all their efforts will

    be neutralized by the half-paid, imscrupnlous retainers and

    clerks in the ymnuns ; and this checks their energy.

    It is not easy, without citing many examples accompanied

    CHAKACTEK AND PHRASEOLOGY OF THE EDICTS. 478

    with particular explanations, to give a just idea of the actual

    execution of the laws, and show how far the people are secured

    in life and pi’opcrty hy their i-ulei”s ; and perhaps nothing has

    been the source of such differing views regarding the Chinese

    as the predominance writers give either to the theory or the

    practice of legislation. Old Magaillans has hit this point pretty

    well when he says : ” It seems as if the legislators had omitted

    nothing, and that they had foreseen all inconveniences that were

    to be feared ; so that I am persuaded no kingdom in the world

    could be better governed or more happy, if the conduct and

    probity of the officers were but answerable to the institution of

    the government. But in regard they have no knowledge of the

    true God, nor of the eternal rewards and punishments of the

    other woi-ld, they are subject to no remorses of conscience, they

    place all their happiness in pleasure, in dignity and riches ; and

    therefore, to obtain these fading advantages, they violate all

    the laws of God and man, trampling under foot religion, reason,

    justice, honesty, and all the rights of consanguinity and

    friendship. rThe inferior officers mind nothing but how to defraud

    their superiors, they the supreme tribunals, and all together

    how to cheat the king ; which the}’ know how to do

    with so much cunning and address, making use in their memorials

    of words and expressions sb soft, so honest, so respectful,

    so humble and full of adulation, and of reasons so plausible,

    that the deluded prince frecpiently takes the greatest falsehoods

    for solemn truths. So that the people, finding themselves continually

    oppressed and overwhelmed without any reason, murmur

    and raise seditions and revolts, which have caused so much

    ruin and so many changes in the Empirp^ Nevertheless, there

    is no reason that the excellency and perfection of the laws of

    China should suffer for the depravity and wickedness of the

    magistrates.”

    Magaillans resided in China nearly forty years, and his opinion

    may be considered on the whole as a fair judgment of the

    real condition of the people and the policy of their rulers.

    * A new nistory of China, containing a description of tJie most considerable

    particulars of that Empire, written by Gabriel Magaillans, of the Society oj

    Jesus, Missionary Apostolick. Done out of French. Loudou, 1G88, p. 249.

    474 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    “When one is living in the country itself, to hear the complaints

    of individuals against the extortion and cruelty of their rulers,

    and to read the reports of judicial murder, torture, and crime

    in the Pekimj Gazette^ are enough to cause one to wonder how

    such atrocities and oppressions are endured from year to year,

    and why the sufferers do not rise and throw aside the tyrannous

    power M’hich thus abuses them. But the people are generally

    conscious that their rulers are no better than themselves,

    and that they would really gain nothing by such a procedure,

    and their desire to maintahi as great a degree of peace as possil)

    le leads them to submit to many evils, which in western

    countries would soon be remedied or cause a revolution. In

    order to restrain the officers in their misrule. Section CCX. of the

    code ordains that ” If any officer of government, whose situation

    gives him power and control over the people, not only does

    not conciliate them by proper indulgence, but exercises his

    authority in a manner so inconsistent with the established laws

    and approved usages of the Empire, that the sentiments of the

    once loyal subjects being changed by his oppressive conduct,

    they assemble tunniltuously and openly rebel, and drive him at

    length from the capital city and seat of his government ; such

    jeer shall suffer death.”

    Ry the laws of China, every officer of the nine lanks must

    be previously qualified for duty by a degree; in the ninth are

    included village magistrates, deputy treasurers, jailers, etc., but

    the police, local interpreters, clerks, and other attendants on the

    courts are not considered as having any rank, and most of them

    are natives of the place where they are employed. The oidy

    degradation they can feel is to turn them out of their stations,

    but this is hardly a palliative of the evils the people suffer from

    thein ; the new leech is more thirsty than the old. The cause

    of many of the extortions the people suffer from their rulers is

    found in the system of purchasing office, at all times practised

    in one shape or other, but occasionally resorted to by the government.

    As the counterpart of this system, that of receiving

    bribes must be expected therefore to prevail, and l)eing in fact

    l)ractised by all grades of dignitaries, and sometimes even uplield

    by them as a ” necessary evil,” it adds still more to the

    EXTORTIONS PRACTISED BY MAGISTRATES. 475

    bad consequences lesulting fi-oni tliis mode of obtaining oflBce.

    Indeed, so far is tlie practice of “covering the eyes” carried in

    China, that the people seldom approach their rulers without a

    gift to mahe way for them.

    One mode taken hy the highest ranks to obtain money is to

    notify inferiors that there are certain days on M’hich presents

    are expected, and custom soon increases these as nnich as the

    case will admit. Subscriptions for objects of public charity or

    disbursements, such as an inundation, a bad harvest, bursting

    of dikes, and other similar things which the government must

    look after, are not uufrequently made a source of revenue to

    the incumbents by requiring nnich more than is needed ; those

    who subscribe are rewarded by an enqDty title, a peacock’s

    feather, or employment in some insignificant formality. The

    sale of titular rank is a source of revenue, but the government

    never attempts to subvert or interfere with the well-known

    channel of attaming office by literary merit, and it seldom confers

    much real power for money when unconnected with some

    degree of fitness. The security of its own position is not to be

    risked for the sake of an easy means of filling its exchequer,

    yet it is impossible to say how far the sale of office and title is

    carried. The censors inveigh against it, and the Emperor

    almost apologizes for resorting to it, but it is nevertheless constantly

    practised. The government stocks of this description

    were opened during the late rebellions and foreign wars, as the

    necessities of the case were a sufficient excuse for the disreputable

    practice. In 1SS5 the sons of two of the leading hongmerchants

    wei’e promoted, in consequence of their donations of

    $25,000 each to repair the ravages of an inundation ; subscribers

    to the amount of §;10,000 and upward were rewarded by an

    honorary title, whose only privilege is that it saves its possessor

    from a bambooing, it being the law that no one holding any

    office can be personally chastised.’/

    Besides the lower officers, the clerks in their employ and the

    police, who are often taken from the garrison soldiery, are the

    agents in the hands of the upper ranks to squeeze the people.

    ‘ Compare tlie Chinese Repository, Vol. XVIII., p. 207.

    476 TIIK .AIIDDLK KINGDOM.

    There are many clerks of vaiious duties and grades about all

    the offices who receive small salaries, and every application and

    petition to their sujDeriors, going through their hands, is attended

    by a bribe to pass them up. The military police and

    servants connected with the offices are not paid any regular

    salary, and their number is great. In the large districts, like

    those of Nanhai and Pwanyu, which compose the city of Canton

    and suburbs, it is said there are about a thousand unpaid

    police ; in the middle-sized ones l)etween tln*ee and four hundred,

    and in the smallest from one to two hundred. This

    number is increased by the domestics attending high officers as

    part of their suite, and by their old acquaintances, who make

    themselves known when there is any likelihood of being employed.

    Among other abuses mentioned by the censors is that

    of magistrates appointing their own creatures to fill vacancies

    until those nominated by his Majesty arrive ; like a poor man

    oppressing the poor, such officers are a sweeping rain. A

    similar abuse arises when country magistrates leave their posts

    to go to the provincial capital to dance attendance npon their

    superiors, and get nominated to a higher place or taken into

    their service as secretaries, because they will work for nothing

    the duties of their vacated offices are meantime nsually left undone,

    and underlings take advantage of their absence to make

    new exactions. The governor fills vacant offices with his own

    friends, and recommends them to his Majesty to be confirmed

    ;

    but this has little effect in consolidating a system of oppression

    from the constant changes going on. In fact, it is hard to say

    which feature of the Chinese polity is the least disastrous to

    good government, these constant changes which neutralize all

    sympathy with the people on the part of rulers, or on the

    other hand make it useless for seditious men to try to foment

    rebellion.

    The retinues of high provincial officers contain many dependents

    and expectant supermnneraries, all subservient to

    them ; among them arc the descendants of poor officers ; the

    sons of bankrupt merchants who once possessed influence

    ;

    dissipated, well bred, uiiscru]iulous men, who lend themselves

    to everything flagitious ; and lastly, fortune-seekei’s without

    AGENTS AND MODES OF OFFICIAL EXACTION. 477

    money, T)ut posscssinp; talents of good order to he used bv any

    one who will hire them. Such persons are not })ecnliar to

    China^ and their employment is guarded against in the code,

    but no law is more of a dead letter. (Officers of government,

    too, conscious of their delinquencies, and afraid their posts will

    soon be taken from them, of course endeavor to make the most

    of their opportunities, and by means of such persons, who are

    iisually well acquainted with the leading inhabitants of the

    district, harass and thi’eaten such as are likely to pay well for

    being left in quiet. It does them little or no good, however,

    for if they are not removed they must fee their superioi-s, and

    if they are punished for their misdeeds they are still more certain

    of losing their wicked exactions. /

    In the misappropriation of pul)lic funds, and peculation of all

    kinds in materials, government stores, rations, wages, and salaries,

    the Chinese officials are skilled experts, and are never surprised

    at any disclosures.

    Another common mode of plundering the people is for officers

    to collude with bands of thieves, and allow them to escape for a

    composition when arrested, or substitute other persons for the

    guilty party in case the real offenders are likely to be condemned.

    Sometimes these banditti are too strong even for an

    upright magistrate, and he is obliged to overlook what he cannot

    I’emedy ; for, however much he may wish to ari-est and

    bring them to justice, his policemen are too much afraid of

    their vengeance to venture nipon attacking them. An instance

    of this occurred near Canton in 1S39, when a boat, containing a

    clerk of the court and three or four police, came into the fleet

    of European opium-ships to hunt for some desperate opium

    smugglers Avho had taken refuge there. The fellows, hearing

    of the arrival of the boat, came in the night, and surrounding

    it took out the crew, bound their pursuers, and burned them

    alive with the boat in sight of the whole fleet, to whom the

    desperadoes looked for protection against their justly incensed

    countrymen.

    A censor in 1819, complaining of flagrant neglect in the administration of justice in Cliihli, says : ” Among the magistrates are many who, without fear or shame, connive at robbery and deceit. Formerly, horse-stealers were wont to conceal themselves in some secret place, but now they openly bring their plunder to market for sale. “When they perceive a person to be weak, they arc in the habit of stealing his property and returning it to him for money, while the officers, on hearing it, treat it as a trivial matter, and blame the sufferer for not being more cautious. Thieves are apprehended with warrants on them, showing that when they were sent out to arrest

    thieves they availed of the opportunity to steal for themselves.

    And at a village near the imperial residence are very many

    plunderers concealed, M’ho go out by night in companies of

    twenty or thirt}- persons, carrying weapons with them ; they

    frequently call up the inhabitants, break open the doors, and

    having satisfied themselves with what food and wine they can

    obtain, they threaten and extort money, Avhich if they cannot

    procure they seize their clothes, ornaments, or cattle, and depart.

    They also frequently go to shops, and having broken

    open the shutters impudently demand money, which if they do

    not get they set fire to the shop with the torches in their

    hands. If the master of the house lay hold on a few of them

    and sends them to the magistrate, he merely imprisons and

    beats them, and ‘ before half a month allows them to run

    away.” ‘

    The impaid retainers about the ycnmins a^e very numerous,

    and are more di-eaded than the police ; one censor says they are

    looked upon by the people as tigers and wolves ; he effected

    the discharge of nearly twenty-four thousand of them in the

    province of Cliihli alone. They are usually continued in their

    places by the head magistrate, who, wheii he arrives, being

    ignorant of the characters of those he must employ, re-engages

    such as are likely to serve. In cases of serious accusation the

    clei-ks frequently subpoena all who are likel}^ to be implicated,

    and demand a fee for liberating them when their innocence is

    shown. These myrmidons still fear the anger of their superiors

    and a recoil of the people so far as to endeavor to save

    appeai-ances by hushing up the matter, and liberating those

    ‘ Chinese licposituryy Vol. IV., p. 218.

    VENALITY OF THE POLICE AND CLERKS. 479

    unjustly cappreliended, with great protestations of conipassion.

    It may be added that, as life is not lightly taken, thieves are

    careful not to murder or maltreat their victims dangerously,

    nor do the magistrates venture to take life outright by torture,

    though their cruelties frequently result in death by neglect or

    starvation. Money and goods are what both policemen and

    officials want, not blood and rcA^enge. Parties at strife with

    each other frequently resort to legal inq^lication to gratify their

    ill-will, and take a pitiful revenge by egging on the police to

    pillage and vex their enemy, though they themselves profit nowise

    thereby.

    The evils resulting from a half-paid and venal magistracy are

    dreadful, and the prospects of their removal very slight. The

    governor of Chihli, in 1829, memorialized the Emperor upon

    the state of the police, and pointed out a remedy for many

    abuses, one of which was to pay them fair salaries out^ of the

    public treasury ; but it is plain that this remedy must begin

    with the monarch, for until an officer is released from sopping

    his superior he will not cease exacting from his inferiors. Experience has shown the authorities liow f^r it can safely be carried; while many officers, seeing how useless it is to irritate the people, so far as ultimately enriching themselves is concerned, endeavor to restrain their policemen. One governor issued an edict, stating that none of his domestics were allowed to browbeat shopmen, and thus get goods or eatables below the market price, and permitted the seller to collar and bring them to him

    for punishment when they did so. When an officer of high

    rank, as a governor, treasurer, etc., takes the seals of his post, he

    ofttimes issues a proclamation, exhorting the subordinate ranks

    to do as he means to do—” to look up and embody the kindness

    of the high Emperor,” and attend to the faithful discharge of

    their duties. The lower officers, in their turn, join in the cry,

    and a series of proclamations, by turns hortative and mandatory,

    are echoed from mastiff, spaniel, and poodle, until the cry ends

    upon the police. Thus the prefect of Canton says : ” There are

    hard-hearted soldiers and gnawing lictors who post themselves

    at ferries or markets, or rove about the streets, to extort money

    under various pretexts ; or, being intoxicated, they disturb and annoy the people in a hundred ways. Since I came into office iicre I have repeatedly commanded the inferior magistrates to act faithfully and seize such persons, but the depraved spirit still continues.”

    A censor, speaking of the police, says : ” They no sooner get a warrant to bring up witnesses than they assail both plaintiff and defendant for money to pay their expenses, from the amount of ten taels to several scoi’es. Then the clei’ks must have double what the runners get; if their demands be not satisfied they contrive every species of annoyance. Then, again, if there are people of property in the neighborhood, they will implicate them. They plot also with pettifogging lawyers to get np accusations against people, and threaten and frighten them out of their money.” ‘

    One natural consequence of such a state of society and such

    a perve/sion of justice is to render the people afraid of all contact

    with the officers of government and exceedingly selfish in

    all their intercourse, though the latter trait needs no particular

    training to develop it in any heathen comitry. It also tends to

    an inhuman disregard of the life of others, and chills every emotion

    of kindness which might otherwise arise ; for by making a

    man responsible for the acts of his neighbors, or by involving a whole village in the crimes of an individual, all sense of justice is violated. The terror of being iinplieatcd in any evil that takes place sometimes prevents the people from cpienching fires until the superior authorities be first informed, and from relieving the distressed until it is often too late. Hence, too, it not unfrequently happens that a man who has had the ill fortune to be stabbed to death in the street, or who falls down from disease and dies, remains on the spot till the putrescence obliges the neighbors, for their own safety, to remove the corpse. A dead body floating down the river and washing ashore is likely to remain

    on the banks until it again drifts away or the authorities

    get it buried, for no unofficial person would voluntarily run the

    risk of being seen interring it. One censor reports that when

    he asked the people why they did not remove the loathsome ob-

    ‘ Compare Doolittle, Socidl Life of the CJit’nene, Vol. I., p. 330.

    EFFECT OF IMUTUAL llESPONSIBILITY. 481

    ject, tliej said: “Wo always let the bodies be either buried in

    the bellies of fishes or devoured by the dogs ; for if we inform

    the magistrates they are sure to make the owner of the ground

    buy a coffin, and the clerks and assistants distress us in a hundred

    ways/’ The usual end of these memorials and remonstrances is that the police are ordered to behave better, the clerks commanded to abstain from implicating innocent people and retarding the course of justice, and their masters, the magistrates, threatened with the Emperor’s displeasure in ease the grievance is not remedied : after which all goes on as before, and will go on as long as both rulers and ruled are what they are.

    (The working out of the principle of responsibility accounts for many things in Chinese society and jurisprudence that otherwise appear completely at variance with even common humanity.

    It makes an officer careless of his duties if he can shift the responsibility of failure upon his inferiors, who, at the same time,

    he knows can never execute his orders; it renders the people

    dead to the impulses of relationship, lest they become involved

    in what they cannot possibly control and hardly know at the

    time of its commission. Mr. Lindsay states that when he was

    at Tsungming in 18r>2 the officers were very urgent that he

    should go out of the river, and in order to show him the effect

    of his non-compliance upon others a degraded subaltern was

    paraded in his sight. ” His cap with its gold button was borne

    before him, and he nuirched about blindfolded in procession between

    two executioners, with a small flag on a bamboo pierced

    through each ear. Uefore him was a placard with the inscription,

    ‘ By orders of the general of Su and Sung : for a breach

    of militaiy discipline, his ears are pierced as a warning to the

    multitude.’ Ilis offence was having allowed our boat to pass

    the fort without reporting it.’^

    During the first war with England, fear of punishment induced many of the subordinates to commit suicide when unable to execute their orders, and the same motive impelled their superiors to avoid the wrath of the Emperor in like fashion.

    The Hong-merchants and linguists at Canton, during the old regime, were constantly liable, from the operation of this principle, to exactions and punishments for the acts of their foreign customers. One of them, Sunsliing, was put in prison and ruined because Lord Napier came to Canton from Whampoa in the boat of a ship which the unhappy merchant had ” secured” several weeks before, and the hnguist and pilot were banished for allowing what they could not possibly have hindered even if they had known it.

    Having examined in this general manner the various grades

    of official rank, we come to the people ; and a close view will

    show that this great mass of human l)eings exhibits many equally

    objectionable traits, while oppression, want, clannish rivalry,

    and brigandage combine to keep it in a constant state of turmoil.

    The subdivisions into tithings and hundreds are better

    observed in rural districts than in cities, and the headmen of

    those communities, in their individual and collective character,

    possess great influence, from the fact that they represent the

    popular feeling. In all parts of the country this popular organization

    is found in some shape or other, though, as if everything

    was somehow perverted, it not unfrequently is an instrument of

    greater oppression than defence. The division of the people

    into clans is far more marked in the southern provinces than in

    those lying north of the Yangtsz’, and has had a depressing

    effect upon their good government. It resembles in general the

    arrangement of the Scottish clans, as do the evils arising from

    their dissensions and feuds those which histoiy records as excited

    among the Highlanders by the i-ivalry between Campbells

    and Macgregors.

    ‘ H«eren, Asiatic Nations, Vol. II., p. 259. Raffles, Java, Vol. II. App.Biot, Vlmtructioii publique, pp. 59, 200.

    VILLAGE ELDERS. 483

    The eldership of villages has no necessary connection with the clans, for the latter are unacknowledged by the government, but the clan having the majority in a village generally selects the elders from among their number. This system is of very ancient date; its elementary details are given in the Chau-l’i, one of the oldest works extant in China ; Ileeren furnishes the same details for India and Kaffles for Java, reaching back in their duration to remote antiquity.’ In the vicinity of Canton the elder

    is elected by a sort of town meeting, and holds his office during

    good behavior, receives such a salary as his fellow villagers give

    him, and may be removed to make way for another whenever

    the principal persons in the village are displeased with his conduct.

    His duties are limited to the supervision of the police

    and general oversight of what is done in the village, and to be a

    sort of agent or spokesman between the villagers and higher authorities; the duties, the power, and the rank of these officers

    vary almost indeiinitel}’. The preponderance of one clan prevents

    much strife in the selection of the elder, but the degree of

    power reposed in his hand is so small that there is probably little

    competition to obtain the dignity. A village police is maintained

    by the inhabitants, under the authority of the elder ; the village

    of Whampoa, for instance, containing about eight thousand inhabitants, pays the elder $300 salary, and employs fourteen

    watchmen. His duties further consist in deciding upon the

    petty questions arising between the villagers and visiting the

    delinquents with chastisement, enforcing such regulations as are

    deemed necessary regarding festivals, markets, tanks, streets,

    collection of taxes, etc. The system of surveillance is, howevei-,

    kept up by the superior officers, who appoint excise officers, grain

    agents, tide-waiters, or some other subordinate, as the case may

    require, to exercise a general oversight of the headmen.

    The district magistrate, with the s’mnkien and their deputies

    over the hundred, are the officers to whom appeals are carried

    from the headmen ; they also receive the reports of the elders

    respecting suspicious characters within their limits, or other

    matters which they deem worthy of reference or remonstrance.

    A similarity of interests leads the headmen of many villages

    to meet together at times in a public hall for secret consultation

    upon important matters, and their united resolutions are

    generally acted upon by themselves or by the magistrates, as

    the case may be. This system of eldership, and the influential

    position the headmen occupy, is an important safeguard the

    people possess against the extremity of oppressive extortion; while, too, it upholds the government in strengthening the loyalty

    of those who feel that the only security they possess against

    theft, and loss of all things from their seditious countrymen, is to uphold the institutions of the land, and that to suffer the evils of a bad magistracy is less dreadful than the horrors of a lawless brigandage.

    The customs and laws of clanship perpetuate a sad state of

    society, and render districts and villages, otherwise peaceful, the

    scenes of unceasing tm-moil and trouble. There are only about

    four hundred clans in the whole of China, but inasmuch as all

    of the same surname do not live in the same place, the separation

    of a clan answers the same purpose as multiplying it. Clannish

    feelings and feuds are very much stronger in Kwangtung

    and Fuhkien than in other provinces. As an instance which

    may be mentioned, the Gazette contains the petition of a man

    from Chauchau fu, in Kwangtung, relating to a quarrel, stating

    that “four years before, his kindred having refused to assist

    two other clans in their feuds, had during that period suffered

    most shocking cruelties. Ten jiersons had been killed, and

    twenty men and women, taken captives, had had their eyes dug

    out, their ears cut off, their feet maimed, and so rendered useless

    for life. Thirty houses Avere laid in ruins and three hundred

    acres of land seized, ten thousand taels plundered, ancestral

    temples thrown down, graves dug up, dikes destroyed, and water

    cut off from the fields. The governor had oifered a reward of

    a thousand taels to any one who would apprehend these persons,

    but for the ten murders no one had been executed, for the

    police dare not seize the offenders, whose nmnbers have largely

    increased, and M’ho set the laws at defiance.” This region is

    notorious for the turbulence of its inhal)itants ; it adjoins the

    province of Fuhkien, and the people, known at Canton as Ilolio,

    emigrate in large immbers to the Indian Archipelago or to other

    provinces. The later Gazettes contain still more dreadful accounts

    of the contests of the clans, and the great loss of life and

    property resulting from their forays, no less than one hundred

    and twenty villages having been attacked, and thousands of

    people killed. These battles are constantly occurring, and the

    authorities, feeling themselves too weak to put them down, are

    ()l)]iged to comiive at them and let the clans fight it out.

    Ill will is kept up between the clans, and private revenges

    gratified, by every personal annoyance that malice can suggest

    SOCIAL EVILS OF CLANSHIP. 485

    or opportniiity tempt. If an unfortunate individual of one clan

    is met alone by his enemy, he is sure to be robbed or beaten, or

    botli ; the boats or the houses of each party are plimdered or

    burned, and legal redress is almost impossible. Graves are defaced

    and tombstones injured, and on the annual visit to the

    family sepulchre perhaps a putrid corpse is met, placed there

    by the hostile clan ; this insult arouses all their ire, and they

    vow deadly revenge. The villagers sally out with such arms as

    they possess, and death and wounds are almost sure to result

    before they separate. In Shunteh (a district between Canton

    and Macao) upward of a thousand men engaged with spears

    and iirearms on one of these occasions, and thirty-six lives were

    lost ; the military were called in to quell the riot. In Tungkwan

    district, southeast of Canton, thirty-six ringleaders w^ere

    apprehended, and in 1S31 it was reported that four hundred

    persons had been killed in these raids ; only twenty-seven of

    their kindred appealed to government for redress.

    When complaint is made to the prefect or governor, and investigation becomes inevitable, the villagers have a provision to meet the exigencies of the case, which puts the burden of the charges as equally as possible upon the whole clan. A band of ”devoted men ” are found —persons who volunteer to assume such crimes and run their chance for life—whose names are kept on a list, and they come forward and surrender themselves to government as the guilty persons. On the trial their friends employ witnesses to prove it a justifiable homicide, and magnify the provocation, and if tliei-e are several brought on the stand

    at once they try to get some of them clear by proving an alibi.

    It not unfrequently happens that the accused are acquitted—

    seldom that they are executed ; transportation or a fine is the

    usual result. The inducement for persons to run this risk of

    their lives is security from the clan of a maintenance for their

    families in case of death, and a reward, sometimes as high as

    $300, in land or money when they return. This sum is raised

    by taxing the clan or village, and the imposition falls heavily

    on the poorer portion of it, who can neither avoid nor easily

    pay it. This sj-stem of substitution pervades all parts of society,

    and for all misdemeanors. A person was strangled in Macau in 183S for having been engaged in the opium trade, who had

    been hired bj the real criminal to answer to liis name. Another

    mode of escape, sometimes tried in sucli cases when the

    person has been condemned, is to bribe the jailers to report him

    dead and carry out his body in a cotiin ; but this device probably

    does not often answer the end, as the turnkeys require a

    larger bribe than can be raised. There can be little doubt of the

    prevalence of the j)ractice, and for crimes of even minor penalty.

    To increase the social CN^ils of clanship and systematized

    thieving, local tyrants occasionally spring up, persons who rob

    and maltreat the villagers by means of their armed, retainers,

    who are in most cases, doubtless, members of the same clan.

    One of these tyrants, named Yc/i, or Leaf, became quite notorious

    in the district of Tungkwan in 1833, setting at defiance

    all the power of the local authorities, and sending out his men

    to plunder and ravage whoever resisted his demands, destroying

    their graves and grain, and particularly molesting those who

    would not deliver np their wives or daughters to gratify him.

    lie was arrested through craft by the district magistrate at

    Canton leaving his office and inducing him, for old acquaintance

    sake, to return with him to the provincial city ; he was there

    tried and executed by the governor, although it was at the time

    reported that the Board of Punishments endeavored to save his

    life because he had been in office at the capital. In order that

    no attempt should be made to rescue him, he was left in ignorance

    of his sentence until he was put into the sedan to be carried

    to execution.

    Clannish banditti often supply themselves with firearms, and prowling the countiy to revenge themselves on their enemies, soon proceed to pillage every one; in disarming them the government is sometimes obliged to resort to contemptible subterfuges, which conspicuously show its weakness and encourage a repetition of the evil. Parties of tramps, called /lakka, or ‘guests,’

    roam over Ivwangtung provinc^e, s(juatting on vacant places

    along the shores, away from the villages, and forming small

    clannish communities ; as soon as they increase, occupying more

    and more of the land, they l)egin to commit petty depredations

    upon the crops of the inhabitants, and demand money for the

    BANDITTI AND TRAMPS, 487

    privilege of burying upon the unoccupied ground around tliem.

    The government is generally unwilling to drive them ofP bv

    force, because there is the alternative of making them robbers

    thereby, and they are invited to settle in other waste lands,

    which they can have free of taxation, and leave those they have

    cultivated if strictly private property. This practice shows the

    populousness of the country in a conspicuous manner. To these

    evils nnist be also added the large bodies of floating l)anditti or

    dakoits, who rove up and down all the watercourses ” like

    sneaking rats ” and pounce upon defenceless boats. Hardly a

    river or estuary in the land is free from these miscreants, and

    lives and property are annually destroyed by them to a very

    great amount, especially on the Yangtsz’, the Pearl Iviver, and

    other great thoroughfares.

    The popular associations in cities and towns are chiefly based

    upon a community of interests, resulting either from a similarity

    of occupation, wdien the leading persons of the same calling

    form themselves into guilds, or from the municipal regulations

    requiring the householders living in the same street to unite to

    maintain a police and keep the peace of their division. Each

    guild has an assembly-hall, where its members meet to hold the

    festival of their patron saint, to collect and appropriate the subscriptions of the members and settle the rent or storage on the

    rooms and goods in the hall, to discuss all public matters as well

    as the good cheer they get on such occasions, and to confer with

    other guilds. The members often go to a great expense in

    emulating each other in their processions, and some rivalry

    exists regarding their rights, over which the government keeps

    a watchful eye, for all popular assemblies are its horror. The

    shopkeepers and householders in the same street are required to

    have a headman to superintend the police, watchmen, and beggars

    within his limits. The rulers are sometimes thwarted in

    their designs by both these forms of popular assemblies, and they

    no doubt tend in many ways to keep up a degree of independence

    and of nmtual acquaintance, which compels the respect of

    the government. The governor of Canton in 1838 endeavored

    to search all the shops in a particular street, to ascertain if there

    Was opium in them ; but the shopmen came in a body at the iiead of the street, and told the policemen that they would on no account permit their shops to be searched. The governor deemed it best to retire. Those who will not join or agree to what the majority orders in these bodies occasionally experience petty tyranny, but in a city this must be comparatively trilling.

    Several of the leading men in the city are known to hold meetings

    for consultation in still more popular assemblies for different

    reasons of a public and pressing nature. There is a building

    at Canton called the Mhuj-lun Tang^ or ” Free Discussion

    Hall,” where political matters are discussed under the knowledge

    of government, which rather tries to mould than put them

    down, for the assistance of such bodies, rightly managed, in

    carrying out their intentions, is considerable, while discontent

    would be roused if they were forcibly suppressed. In October,

    1842, meetings were held in this hall, at one of which a public

    manifesto was issued, here quoted entire as a specimen of the

    public appeals of Chinese politicians and orators: “We have been reverently consulting upon the Empire— a vast and undivided whole ! How can Yfi^ permit it to be severed in order to give it to others ‘? Yet we, the rustic people, can learn to practice a rude loyalty; we too know to destroy the banditti, and thus requite his Majesty. Our Great Pure dynasty has cared for this country for more than two hundred years, during which a succession of distinguished monarchs, sage succeeding sage, has reigned ; and we who eat the herb of the field, and tread the soil, have for ages drank in the dew of imperial goodness, and been imbued with its benevolence. The people in wilds far remote beyond our influence have also felt this goodness, comparable to the heavens for height, and been upheld by this bounty, like the earth for thickness. Wherefore peace being now settled in the country, ships of all lands come, distant though they be from this for many a myriad of miles ; and of all the foreigners on the south and west there is not one but what enjoys the highest peace and contentment, and entertains the profoundest respect and submission.

    ” But there is that English nation, whose ruler is now a woman and then a man, its people at one time like birds and then like beasts, with dispositions more fierce and furious than the tiger or wolf, and hearts more greedy than the snake or hog—this people has ever stealthily devoured all the southern barbarians, and like the demon of the night llicy now suddenly exalt themselves.

    MANIFESTO ISSUI^-O AGAINST THE ENGLISH. 489

    During the reigns of Kienlung and Kiaking these English barbarians humlily besought entrance and permission to make a present ; they also presumptuously reijuested to have Chusan, but those divine personages, clearly perceiving their traitorous designs, gave them a peremptory refusal. From that time* linking themselves in with traitorous traders, they have privilj dwelt at Macao, trading largely in opium and poisoning our brave people.

    They have ruined lives— how many millions none can tell ; and wasted property—how many thousands of millions who can guess! They have dared again and again to murder Chinese, and have secreted the murderers, whom they have refused to deliver up, at which the hearts of all men grieved and their heads ached. Thus it has been that for many years past the English, by their privily watching for opportunities in the country, have gradually brought things to the present crisis.

    “In 1888, our great Emperor having fully learned all the crimes of the

    English and the poisonous effects of opium, (quickly wished to restore the

    good condition of the country and compassionate the people. In consequence

    of the memorial of Hwang Tsioh-sz’, and in accordance to his request, he

    specially deputed the public-minded, upright, and clear-headed minister, Lin

    Tseh-sii, to act as his imperial commissioner with pleniijotentiary powers, and

    go to Canton to examine and regulate. He came and took all the storedup

    opium and stopped the trade, in order to cleanse the stream and cut

    off the fountain ; kindness was mixed with his severity, and virtue was

    evident in his laws, yet still the English repented not of their errors, and

    as the climax of their contumacy called troops to their aid. The censor

    Hwang, by advising peace, threw down the barriers, and bands of audacious

    robbers willingly did all kinds of disreputable and villainous deeds. During

    the past three years these rebels, depending upon their stout ships and effective

    cannon, from Canton went to Fuhkien, thence to Chehkiang and on

    to Kiangsu, seizing our territory, destroying our civil and military authorities,

    ravishing our women, capturing our property, and bringing upon the inhabitants

    of these four provinces intolerable miseries. His Imperial Majesty was

    troubled and afflicted, and this added to his grief and anxiety. If you wish

    to purify their crimes, all the fuel in the Empire will not suffice, nor would

    the vast ocean be enough to wash out our resentment. Gods and men are

    alike filled with indignation, and Heaven and Earth cannot permit them to remain.

    “Recently, those who have had the management of affairs in Kiangnan have been imitating those who were in Canton, and at the gates of the city they have willingly made an agreement, peeling oH the fat of the people to the tune of .hundreds of myriads, and all to save the precious lives of one or two useless officers ; in doing which they have exactly verified what Chancellor Kin Ying-lin had before memorialized. Now these English rebels are barbarians dwelling in a petty island beyond our domains ; yet their coming throws myriads of miles of country into turmoil, while their numbers do not exceed a few myriads. What can be easier than for our celestial dynasty to exert its fulness of power and exterminate these contemptible sea-going imps, just as the blast bends the pliant bamboo? But our highest officers and ministers cherish their precious lives, and civil and military men both dread a dog as they would a tiger ; regardless of the enemies of their country or the griefs of the people, they have actually sundered the Empire and granted its wealth ; acts more flagitious these than those of the traitors in the days of the Southern Sung dynasty, and the reasons for which are wholly beyond out comprehension. These English barbarians are at bottom without ability, and yet we have all along seen in the memorials that officers exalt and dilate upon their prowess and obstinacy ; our people are courageous and enthusiastic, but the officers on the contrary say that they are dispirited and scattered : this is for no other reason than to coerce our prince to make peace, and then they will luckily avoid the penalty due for ‘ deceiving the prince and betraying the country.’ Do you doubt ? Then look at the memorial of Chancellor Kin Ying-lin, which says : ‘ They take the occasion of war to seek for self-aggrandizement ;’ every word of which directly points at such conduct as this.

    “We have recently read in his Majesty’s lucid mandate that ‘There is no other way, and what is requested must be granted ; ‘ and that ‘ We have cou’ferred extraordinary powers upon the ministers, and they have done nothing but deceive us.’ Looking up we perceive his Majesty’s clear discrimination and divine perception, and that he was fully aware of the imbecility of his ministers ; he remembers too the loyal anger of his people. He has accordingly now temporarily settled all the present difficulties, but it is that, having matured his plans, he may hereafter manifest his indignation, and show to the Empire that it had not fathomed the divine awe-inspiring counsels.

    ” The dispositions of these rebellious English are like that of Hlie dog or sheep, whose desires can never be satisfied ; and therefore we need not inquire whether the peace now made be real or pretended. Remember that when they last year made disturbance at Canton they seized the Square fort, and thereupon exhibited their audacity, everywhere plundering and ravishing.

    MANIFESTO ISSUED AGAINST THE ENGLISH. 491

    If it had not been that the patriotic inhabitants dwelling in Hwaitsing and other hamlets, and those in Shingping, had not killed their leader and destroyed their devilish soldiers, they would have scrupled at nothing, taking and pillaging the city, and then firing it in order to gratify their vengeance and greediness : can we imagine that for the paltry sum of six millions of dollars they would, as they did, have raised the siege and retired ‘i How to be regretted ! That when the fish was in the frying-pan, the Kwangchau fu should come and pull away the firewood, let loose the tiger to return to the mountains, and disarm the people’s indignation. Letting the enemy thus escape on one occasion has successively brought misery upon many provinces: whenever we speak of it, it wounds the heart and causes the tears to fiow.

    ” Last year, when the treaty of peace was made, it was agreed that the English should withdraw from lieyond Lankeet, that they should give back the forts near there and dwell temporarily at Hongkong, and that thenceforth all military operations were forever to cease. Who would have supposed that before the time stipulated had passed away they would have turned their backs upon this agreement, taken violent possession of the forts at the Bogue with their ‘ wooden dragons ‘ [i.e. , ships of war]—and when they came upon the gates of the City of Rams with their powerful forces, who was there to oppose them ? During these three years we have not been able to restore things as at first, and their deceptive craftiness, then confined to these regions, has rapidly extended itself to Kiangnan. But our high and mighty Emperor, preeminently intelligent and discerning [lit. grasping the golden mirror and holding the gemmeous balances], consents to demean himself to adopt soothing counsels of peace, and therefore submissively accords with the decrees of Heaven. Having a suspicion that these outlandish people intended to encroach upon us, he has secretly arranged all things. We have respectfully read through all his Majesty’s mandates, and they are as clear-sighted as the sun and moon ; but those who now manage affairs are like one who, supposing the raging fire to be under, puts himself as much at ease as swallows in a court, but who, if the calamity suddenly reappears, would be as defenceless as a grampus in a fish-market. The law adjudges the penalty of death for betraying the country, but how can even death atone for their crimes V Those persons who have been handed down to succeeding ages with honor, and those whose memories have been execrated, are but little apart on the page of righteous history ; let our rulers but remember this, and we think they also must exert themselves to recover their characters. We people have had our day in times of great peace, and this age is one of abundant prosperity ; scholars are devising how to recompense the kindness of the government, nor can husbandmen think of forgetting his Majesty’s exertions for them. Our indignation svas early excited to join battle with the enemy, and we then all urged one another to the firmest loyalty.

    “We have heard the English intend to come into Pearl River and make a

    settlement ; this will not, however, stop at Chinese and foreigners merely

    dwelling together, for men and beasts cannot endure each other ; it will be

    like opening the door and bowing in the thief, or setting the gate ajar and

    letting the wolf in. While they were kept outside there were many traitors

    within ; how much more, when they encroach even to our bedsides, will our

    troubles be augmented ? We cannot help fearing it will eventuate in something

    strange, which words will be insi;flicient to express. If the rulers of

    other states wish to imitate the English, with what can their demands be

    waived V Consequently, the unreasonable demands of the English are going

    to bring great calamity upon the people and deep sorrow to the country. If

    we do not permit them to dwell with us under the same heaven, our spirits

    will feel no shame ; but if we willingly consent to live with them, we may in truth be deemed insensate.

    ” We have reverently read in the imperial mandate, ‘There must indeed be some persons among the people of extraordinary wisdom or bravery, who can stir them up to loyalty and patriotism or unite them in self-defence ; some who can assist the government and army to recover the cities, or else defend passes of importance against the robbers ; some who can attack and burn their vessels, or seize and bring the heads of their doltish leaders ; or else some with divine presence and wisdom, who can disclose all their silly counsels and get to themselves a name of surpassing merit and ability and receive the highest rewards. We can confer,’ etc., etc. We, the people, having received the imperial words, have united ourselves together as troops, and practise the plan of joining hamlets and villages till we have upward of a million of troops, whom we have provisioned according to the scale of estimating the produce of respective farms; and now we are fully ready and quite at ease as to the result. If nothing calls us, then each one will return to his own occupation ; but if the summons come, juiuiug our strength iu force we will incite each other to e.7ort ; our brave sons and brothers are all animated to deeds of arms, and even our wives and daughters, finical and delicate as jewels, have learned to discourse of arms. At first, alas, those who guarded the passes were at ease and careless, and the robbers came unbidden and undesired; but now [if they come], we have only zealously to appoint each other to stations, and suppress the rising of the waves to the stillest calm [i.e., to exterminate them]. When the golden pool is fully restored to peace, and his Majesty’s anxiety for the south relieved; when the leviathan has been driven away, then will our anger, comparable to the broad ocean and high heavens, be pacified.

    ” Ah ! We here bind ourselves to vengeance, and express these our sincere intentions in order to exhibit great principles ; and also to manifest Heaven’s retribution and rejoice men’s hearts, we now issue this patriotic declaration. The high gods clearly behold : do not lose your first resolution.” ‘

    This spirited paper was subsequently answered Ly the party desirous of peace, but the anti-English feeling prevailed, and the committee appointed by the meeting set the English consulate on fire a few days after, to prevent it being occupied.

    There were many reasons at the time for this dislike; its further exhibition, however, ended with this attack, and has now pretty much died out with the rising of a new generation. The many secret as.^ociations existing among the people are mostly of a political character, but have creeds like religious sects, and differ slightly in their tenets and objects of worship.

    ‘ ChineHe Ilejwsitory, Vol. XI., p. 0:50.

    POPULAR SECRET ASSOCIATIONS. 493

    They are traceable to the system of clans, which giving the people at once the habit and spirit for associations, are easily made use of by clever men for their own purposes of opposition to government. Similar grievances, as local oppression, hatred of the Manchus, or hope of advantage, add to their mimbersand strength, and were they founded on a full acquaintance with the grounds of a just resistance to despotism, they would soon overturn the government ; but as out of an adder’s egg only a cockatrice can be hatched, so until the people are enlightened with regard to their just rights, no ]”)cnnanent melioration can be expected. It is against that leading feature in the ]\[anchu policy, isolation^ that these societies sin, which further prompts to systematic efforts to suppress them. The only objection the supreme government seems to have against the religion of the people is that it brings them together ; they may be Buddhists, nationalists, Jews, J\rohammedans, or Christians, apparently, if they will worship in secret and apart. On the other hand, the people naturally connect some religious rites with their opposition and cabals in order to more securely bind their members together.

    The name of the most powerful of these associations is mentioned in Section CLXII. of the code for the purpose of interdicting it ; since then it has apparently changed its designation from the Pih-Uen l-kio, or ‘AVater-lily sect,’ to the Tien-ti hioui or Siui-hoh /itnii, i.e., ^ Triad society,’ though both names still exist, the former in the northern, the latter in the maritime provinces and Indian Archipelago; their ramifications take also other appellations. The object of these combinations is to overturn the reigning dynasty, and in putting this prominently forward they engage many to join them. About the beginning of the century a wide-spread rebellion broke out in the northwestern and middle provinces, which was put down after eight years’ war, attended with desolation and bloodshed ; since that time the AYater-lily sect has not been so often spoken of. The Triad society has extended itself along the coasts, but it is not popular, owing more than anything else to its illegality, and the intimidation and oppression employed toward those who will not join it. The members have secret regulations and signs, and uphold and assist each other both i)i good and bad acts, but, as might be inferred from their character, screening evil doers from just punishment oftener than relieving distressed members. The original designs of the association may have been good, but what was allowable in them soon degenerated into a systematic plan for plunder and aim at power.

    The government of Hongkong enacted in 1845 that any Chinese living in that colony who was ascertained to belong to the Triad society should be declared guilty of felony, be imprisoned for three 3’ears, and after branding expelled the colony. These associations, if they cause the government much trouble by interfering with its operations, in no little degree, through the overbearing conduct of the leaders, uphold it by showing the people what may be expected if they should ever get the upper hand.’

    The evils of lual-adiniiiistratiou are to be learned chiefly

    from the memorials of censors, and although they may color

    their statements a little, very gross inaccuracies would be used

    to their own disadvantage, and contradicted by so many competitors,

    that most of their statements may be regarded as having

    some foundation. An unknown person in Kwangtung memorialized

    the Emperor in 1838 concerning the condition of that

    province, and drew a picture of the extortions of the lower

    agents of government that needs no illustrations to deepen its

    darkness or add force to its complaints. An extract from each

    of the six heads into which the memorial is divided will indicate

    the principal sources of popular insurrection in China,

    besides the exhibition they give of the tyranny of the officers.

    In his preface, after the usual laudation of the beneficence

    and popularity of the monarch, the memorialist proceeds to express

    his regret that the imperial desires for the welfare of his

    subjects should be so grievously thwarted by the villany of his

    officers. After mentioning the calamities which had visited the

    province in the shape of freshets, insurrections, and conflagrations,

    he says that affairs generall}’ had become so bad as to

    compel his Majesty to send connnissioners to Canton repeatedly

    in order to regulate them. ” If such as this be indeed the state

    of things,” he inquires, ” what wonder is it if habits of plunder

    characterize the people, or the clerks and under officers of the

    public courts, as well as village pettifoggers, lay themselves out

    on all occasions to stir up quarrels and instigate false accusations

    against the good?” He reconnnends reform in six departments,

    under each of which he thus specities the evils to beremedied: “‘

    Compare Dr. Milne, in Transnctions R. A. S. of Gr. Brit, and Irel., Vol.I., p. 240 (182.”)). Journal of the R. A. R, Vol. I., p. 9;}, and Vol. VI., p.120. Chinese Repository, Vol. .XVIII., pp. 280-295. A. Wylie, in the Shttncjhiti Almtinacfor ISrA. Notes and Queries on C and ,/., Vol. III., p. M. T. T. Meadows, The Chinese and their Rebellions, London, 1850. Gustave Schlegel, Thian Ti Ilitui, the JIunfj-Jjeague or JTeaven-Earth-League. A Secrel Society with the Chinese in China and India, Hatavia, lS(i().

    MEMORIAL UPON OFFICIAL OPPRESSION. 495

    First.—(In the department of police there is great negligence

    and delay in the decision of judicial cases. Cases of plunder

    are very common, most of which are committed hy banditti

    under the designations of Triad societies, Heaven and Earth

    brotherhoods, etc. These men carry off persons to extort a

    ransom, falsely assume the character of policemen, and in sinuilated

    revenue cutters pass up and down the rivers, plundei’iiig

    the boats of travellers and forcibly carrying off the women.

    Husbandmen are obliged to pay these robbers an ” indemnity,”

    or else as soon as the crops are ripe they come and carry off

    the M’hole harvest. In the precincts of the metropolis, where

    their contiguity to the tribunals prevents their committing depredations

    in open day, they set tire to houses during the night,

    and under the pretence of saving and defending the persons and

    property carry off both of them; hence, of late years, calamitous

    fires have increased in frequency, and the bands of robbers

    multiplied greatly. In cases of altercations among the villagers,

    who can only use their local patois, it rests entirely with the

    clerks to interpret the evidence ; and when the magistrate is lax

    or pressed with business, they have the evidence pre-arranged

    and join with bullies and strife-makers to subvert right and

    wrong, fattening themselves upon bribes extorted under the

    names of ” memoranda of complaints,” ” purchases of replies,”

    etc., and retarding indefinitely the decision of cases. They also

    instigate thieves to bring false accusations against the good, who

    are thereby ruined by legal expenses. While the officers of the

    government and the people are thus separated, how can it be

    otherwise than that appeals to the higher tribunals should be

    increased aiid litigation and strife prevail ?

    Second.—Magistrates overrate the taxes with a view to a deduction for their own benefit, and excise officers connive at non-payment. The revenue of Kwangtung is paid entirely in money, and the magistrates, instead of taking the commutation at a regular price of about five dollars for one hundred and fifty pounds of rice, have compelled the people to pay nine dollars and over, because the inundation and bad harvests had raised the price of grain.j In order to avoid this extortion the police go to the villagers and demand a douceur, when they will get them off from all payment. But the imperial coffers are not filled b;^ this means, and the people are by and hy forced to pay up their arrearages, even to the loss of most of their possessions.

    Third.—There is great mismanagement of the granaries, and instead of being any assistance to the people in time of scarcity, they are only a soiu’ce of peculation for those who are charged with their oversight.

    Fourth —The condition of the army and navy is a disgrace;

    illicit traffic is not prevented, nor can insurrections be put down.

    The only care of the officers is to obtain good appointments,

    and reduce the actual nmnber of soldiers below the register in

    order that they may appropriate the stores. The cruisers aim

    only to get fees to allow the prosecution of the contraband traffic,

    nor will the naval officers bestir themselves to recover the

    pi-operty of plundered boats, but rather become the protectors

    of the lawless and partakers of their booty. Robberies are so

    common on the rivers that the traders from the island of Hainan,

    and Chauchau near Fuhkien, prefer to come by sea, but

    the revenue cutters overhaul them under pretence of searching

    for contraband articles, and practise many extortions/*

    Fifth.—The monopoly of salt needs to be guarded more

    strictly, and the private manufacture of salt stopped, for thereby

    the revenue from this source is materially diminished.

    S’uih.—^\\Q inei-case of smuggling is so great, and the evils

    flowing from it so multiplied, that strong measures nmst be

    taken to repress it. Traitorous Chinese combine with depraved

    foreigners to set the laws at defiance, and dispose of their opium

    and other commodities for the pure silvci-. In this manner the

    country is impoverished and every evil arises, the revenues of

    the customs are diminished by the unnecessary number of persons

    employed and by the fees they receive for connivance, i If

    all these abuses can be remedied, ” it will be seen that when

    there are men to rule well, nothing can be found beyond the

    reach of their government.”

    FREQUENCY OF KOBBEllY AXI) DAKOITY. 497

    The chief efforts of officials are directed to put down banditti, and maintain such a degree of peace as will enable them to collect the revenue and secure the people in the quiet possession of their property ; but the people are too ready to resist them rulers, and this brings into operation a constant struggle of opposing desires. ( )nc side gets into the habit of resisting even the proper re(piisitions of the officers, who, on their part, endeavor in every way to reimburse their outlay in bribes to their superiors ; and the combined action of the two proves an insurmountable impediment to the attainment of even that degree of security a Chinese officer wishes.”i The general commission of robbery and dakoity, and the prevalence of bands of thieves, therefore proves the weakness of the government, not the insurrectionary disposition of the people. In one district of Ilupeh the governor reported in 1828 that “very few of the iuliabitants have any regular occupation, and their dispositions are exceedingly ferocious; they fight and kill each other on every provocation. In their villages they harbor thieves who flee from other districts, and sally forth again to plunder.” In the northern parts of Ivwangtung the people have erected high and strongly built houses to which they flee for safety from the attacks of robbers. These bands sometimes fall upon each other, and the feudal animosities of clanship adding fuel and

    rage to the rivalry of partisan warfare, the destruction of life

    and property is great. Occasionally the people zealously assist

    their rulers to apprehend them, though their exertions depend

    altogether upon the energy of the incumbent ; an officer in

    Fuhkien is recommended for promotion because he had apprehended

    one hundred and seventy-three persons, part of a band

    of robbers which had infested the department for years, and

    tried and convicted one thousand one hundred and sixty criminals,

    most or all of whom were probably executed.

    In 1821 there were four hundred robbers taken on the borders

    of Fuhkien ; in 1827 two hundred were seized in the

    south of the province, and forty-one more brought to Canton

    from the eastward. The governor offered $1,000 reward for

    the capture of one leader, and ,^3,000 for another. The judge

    of the province put forth a proclamation upon the subject in

    the same year, in w’hieh he says there were four hundred and

    thirty undecided cases of robbery by brigands then on the calendar

    ; and in 1816 there were upward of two thousand waiting

    his decision, for each of which there were perhaps five or six persons in prison or under constraint until the ease was settled.

    These bands prowl in the large cities and commit great

    cruelties. In 1830 a party of live hundred openly plundered a

    rich man’s house in the western suburbs of Canton ; and in

    Shunteh, south of the city, $600 were paid for the ransom of

    two persons carried off by them. The ex-governor, in 1831,

    was attacked by them near the Mei ling pass on his departure

    from Canton, and plundered of about ten thousand dollars.

    The magistrates of ITiangshan district, south of Canton, M-ere

    ordered by their superiors the same year to apprehend five

    hundred of the robbers. Priests sometimes harbor gangs in

    their temples and divide the spoils with them, and occasionally

    go out themselves on predatory excursions. Xo mercy is

    shown these miscreaTits when they are taken, but the multiplication

    of executions has no effect in deterring them from crime.

    Cruelty to individual prisoners does not produce so nuich disturbance

    to the general peace of the community as the forcible

    attempts of officers to collect taxes. / The people have the impression

    that their rulers exact more than is legal, and consequently

    consider opposition to the demands of the tax-gatherer

    as somewhat justifiable, which compels, of course, more stringent

    measures on the part of the authorities, whose station depends

    not a little on their punctuality in remitting the taxes. Bad

    harvests, floods, or other public calamities _i-ender the people

    still more disinclined to pay the assessments./ (In 184:5 a serious

    disturbance arose near jS^ingpo on this accoimt, which with unimportant differences could probably be paralleled in every prefecture in the land. The people of Funghwa liien having refused to pay an onerous tax, the prefect of Ningpo seized three literary men of the place, who had been deputed to collect it, and put them in prison ; this procedure so irritated the gentry that the candidates at the literary examination which occurred at Funghwa soon afterward, on being assembled at the public hall before the cJuhicn, rose upon him and beat him severely.

    DIFFICULTY IN COLLECTING TAXES. 499

    They were still further incensed against him from having recently detected him in deceitful conduct regarding a ]>etition they had made at court to have their taxes lightened; he had kept the answer and pocketed the difference, he was consequently superseded by another magistrate, and a deputy of the intendant of circuit was sent with the new incumbent to restore order. But the deputy, full of his importance, carried himself so haughtily that the excited populace treated him in the same manner, and he barely escaped with his life to Xingpo.

    The intendant and prefect, finding matters rising to such a pitch, sent a detachment of twelve hundred troops to keep the peace, but part of these were decoyed within the walls and attacked with such vigor that many of them were made prisoners, a colonel and a dozen privates killed, and two or three hundred wounded or beaten, and all deprived of their arms. In this plight they returned to Ningbo, and, as the distance is not great, apprehensions were entertained lest the insurgents should follow up their advantage by organizing themselves and ii>arching upon the city to seize the prefect. The officers sent immediately to Ilangchau for assistance, from whence the governor sent a strong force of ten thousand men to restore order, and soon after arrived himself. He demanded three persons to be given up who had been active in fomenting the resistance, threatening in case of non-compliance that he would destroy the town ; the prefect and his deputy from the intendant’s office were suspended and removed to another post.^ These measures restored quiet to a considerable extent.’

    The existence of such evils in Chinese society would rapidly

    disorganize it were it not for the conservative influence upon

    society of early education and training in industry. The government

    takes care to avail itself of this better element in public

    opinion, knd grounds thereon a basis of action for the establishment

    of good order. But this, and ten thousand similar

    instances, only exhibit more strongly how great a work there is

    to be done before high and low, people and rulers, will understand

    their respective duties and rights ; before they will, on

    the one hand, pay that regard to the authority of their rulers

    which is necessary for the maintenance of good order, and, on

    the other, resist official tyranny in preserving their own liberties.

    If the character of the officers, therefore, be such as has been

    ^Mmionary Chronicle, Vol. XTV., p. 140. Smith’s China, p. 250.

    briellv shown—open to hi-ibeiy, colluding with criminals, sycO’

    phantic toward suporions, and cruel to the people ; and the constituents of society present so many repulsive features—opposing clans engaged in deadly feuds, bandits sccjuring the country to rob, policemen joining to oppress, truth universally disregarded, selfishness the main principle of action, and almost every disorganizing element but imperfectly restrained from violent outbreaks and convulsions, it will not be expected that the regular proceedings of the courts and the execution of the laws will prove on examination to be any better than the materials of which they arc composed. As civil and criminal cases are all judged by one officer, one court tries nearly all the questions which arise. A single exception is provided for in the code, wherein it is ordered that ” in cases of adultery, r()l)bery, fraud, assaults, breach of laws concerning marriage, landed property or pecuniaiy contracts, or any other like offences committed by or against individuals in the military class—if any of the people are implicated or concerned, the military commanding officer and the civil magistrate shall have a concurrent jurisdiction.” ‘

    ‘ For cases of this sort in Cambodia, R’musat makes mention of a variety of ordeals which curioush’ resemble tiiose resorted to on the continent of Europe lUuing the Middle Ages. Nouveaux Milanyes, Tome I., p. 126.

    CHARACTER OF JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 501

    At the bottom of the judicial scale are the village elders. This incipient element of the democratic principle has also existed in India in much the same form ; but while its power ended in the local eldership there, in China it is only the lowest step of the scale. The elders give character to the village, and are expected to manage its public affairs, settle disputes among its inhabitants, arrange matters with other villages, and answer to the magistrates on its behalf. The code provides that all persons having complaints and informations address themselves in the first instance to the lowest tribunal of justice in the district, from which the cognizance of the affair may be transferred to the superior tribunals. The statement of the case is made in writing, and the officer is required to act upon it immediately; if the parties are dissatisfied with the award, the judgment of the lower courts is carried np to the superior ones. No case can be carried directly to the Emperor ; it must go through the

    Board of Punishments ; old men and womeu, however, sometimes

    present petitions to him on his journeys, but such appeals

    seldom occur, owing to the ditficulty of access. The captains in

    charge of the gates of Peking, in 1831, presented a memorial

    upon the subject, in which they attribute the number of appeals

    to the obstinacy of many persons in pressing their cases and

    the remissness of local officers, so that even women and girls of

    ten years of age take long journeys to Peking to state their

    cases. The memorialists reconnnend that an order be issued requiriug

    the two high provincial officers to adjudicate all cases,

    either themselves or by a court of errors, and not send the complainants

    back to the district magistrates. These official porters

    must have been much troubled with young ladies coming to see

    his Majesty, or perhaps were advised to present such a paper to

    afford a text for the Emperor to preach from ; to confer such

    power upon the governor and his associates would almost make

    them the irresponsible sovereigns of the provinces. A2:)peals

    frequently arise out of delay in obtaining justice, owing to the

    amount of business in the courts ; for the calendar may be

    expected to increase when the magistrate leaves his post to

    curry favor with his superiors. The almost utter impossibility

    of learning the truth of the case brought before tliern, either

    from the principal parties or the witnesses, must be borne in

    mind when deciding upon the oppressive proceedings of the

    magistrates to elicit the truth. Mention is made of one officer

    promoted for deciding three hundred cases in a year ; again of

    a district magistrate who tried upward of a thousand within

    the same period ; while a third revised and decided more than

    six hundred in which the parties had appealed. What becomes

    of the appeals in such cases, or whose decision stands, does not

    appear ; but if such proceedings are common, it accounts for the

    constant practice of sending appeals back to be revised, probably

    after a change in the incumbent.

    Eew or no civil cases are reported in the Gazette as being carried up to higher courts, and probably only a small proportion of them are brought before the authorities, the rest being settled by reference. Appeals to court receive attention, and it may be inferred, too, that many of them are mentioned in the Gazette in order that the carefnhiess of the supreme government in revising the unjust decrees against the people should be known through the country, and this additional check to malversation on the part of the lower courts be of some use. Many cases are reported of widows and daughters, sons and nephews, of murdered persons, to -whom the revenge of kindred rightly belongs, appealing against the unjust decrees of the local magistrates, and then sent back to the place they came from ; this, of course, was tantamount to a nolle 2^i’osequL At other times the wicked judges have been degraded and banished. One case is reported of a man who found his way to the capital from Fuhkien to complain against the magistracy and police, who protected a clan by whom his only son had been shot, in consideration of a ])i-ibe of $2,000. His case could not be understood at Peknig in consequence of his local pronunciation, which indicates that all cases are not reported in writing. One appeal is reported against the governor of a province fur not carrying into execution the sentence of death passed on two convicted murderers ; and ant»tlicr appellant requests that two persons, who were bribed to undergo the sentence of the law instead of the real murderers, might not be substituted—he, perhaps, fearing their subsequent vengeance.

    All officers of government are supposed to be accessible at

    any time, and the door of justice to be open to all who claim a

    hearing ; and in fact, courts are held at all hours of night and

    day, though the regular time is from sunrise to noonday. The

    style of address varies according to the rank ; t((jin, or magnate,

    for the highest, ta laoye, or gi-eat Sii-, and hioi/e, Sir, for the

    lower grade, are the most common. A drum is said to be

    placed at the inferior tribunals, as well as before the Court of

    Representation in Peking, which the plaintiff strikes in order to

    make his presence known, though from the mimberof hangerson

    a!)Out the doors of official residences, the necessity of employing

    this mode of attracting notice is rare. At the gate of the

    governor-general’s palace are placed six tablets, having appropriate

    inscriptions for those who have been wronged by wicked

    officers ; for those who have suffered from thieves ; for persons

    STYLE OF OFFICIAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 508

    falsely accused ; for those who have been swindled ; for such as

    have been grieved by other parties ; and lastly, for those who

    have secret information to impart. The people, however, are

    aware how useless it would be to inscribe their appeals upon

    these tablets ; they write them out and carry them up to his

    excellency, or to the proper official—seldom forgetting the indispensable present.

    Magistrates are not allowed to go abroad in ordinary dress

    and without their official retinue, which varies for the different

    grades of rank. The usual attendants of the district magistrates

    are lictors M’ith whips and chains—significant of the

    punishments they inflict; they are preceded by two gong-

    Mode of Carrying High Officers in Sedan.

    bearers, who every few moments strike a certain number of

    raps to intimate their master’s rank, and by two avant-couriers,

    who howl out an order for all to make room for the great man.

    A servant bearing aloft a lo^ or state uml)]-ella (of which a

    drawing is given on the title-page), also goes before him, further

    to increase his display and indicate his rank.’ A subaltern

    usually runs by the side of his sedan, and his secretary and messengers,

    seated in moi*e ordinary chairs or following on foot,

    make up the cortege. The highest officers are carried by eight

    bearers, others by four, and the lowest by two. Lanterns are

    used at night and red tablets in the daytime, to indicate his

    rank. Officers of higher ranks are attended by a few soldiers

    Hee.’en informs us that a similar insignia was used in Persia in early days.

    in addition, and in the capital are required to liave mounted

    attendants if tliej ride in carts ; those who bear the sedan are

    usually in a uniform of their masters devising. The parade

    and noise seen in the provinces are all hushed in Peking, where

    the presence of majesty subdues the glory of the officers which

    it has created. When in court the officer sits behind a desk upon

    which are placed writing materials ; his secretaries, clerks, and interpreters

    being in waiting, and the lictors with their instruments

    of punishment and torture standing around. Persons who are

    brought before him kneel in front of the tribunal. His official

    seal, and cups containing tallies which are thrown down to indicate

    the number of blows to be given the culprits, stand upon

    the table, and behind his seat a I’l-luu or unicorn, is depicted

    on the wall. There are inscriptions hanging around the room,

    one of which exhorts him to be merciful. There is little pomp

    or show, either in the office or attendants, compared with our

    notions of what is usual in such matters among Asiatics. The

    former is a dirty, unswept, tawdry room, and the latter are beggarly’

    and impertinent.

    No counsel is allowed to plead, but the written accusations,

    pleas, or statements required nmst be prepared by licensed

    notaries, Avho may also read them in court, and who, no doubt,

    take opportunity to explain circumstances in favor of their

    client. These notaries buy their situations, and repay themselves

    by a fee upon the documents ; they are the only persons

    who are analogous to the lawyers in western countries, and

    most of them have the reputation of extorting largely for their

    services. Of course there is no such thing as a jury, or a chief

    justice stating the case to associate judges to learn their

    opinion ; nor is anything like an oath required of the witnesses.

    The presiding officer can call in others to assist him in the

    trial to any extent he pleases. In one Canton court circular it

    is stated that no less than sixteen officers assisted the governorgeneral

    and governor in the trial of one criminal. Tlie report of

    the trial is as summary as the recital of tlic bench of judges is

    minute: “II. E. Gov. Tang arrived to join the futai in examining

    a criminal ; and at 8 a.m., under a salute of guns, the

    doors of the great hall of audience were thrown open, and their

    VKISONEK lON-‘JEMNEn TO TUE CANGUE, IN COURT.

    (Bis son praying to take his place.)

    MODE OF PROCEDURE IN LAW COURTS. 605

    excellencies took their seats, supported by all the other func

    tioiiaries assembled for the occasion. The police officers of the

    judge were then directed to bring forward the prisoner, Yeli

    A-sliun, a native of Tsingyuen hien ; he was forthwith brought

    in, tried, and led out. The futai then requested the imperial

    death-warrant, and sent a deputation of officers to conduct the

    criminal to the market-place and there decapitate him. Soon after the officers returned, restored the death-warrant to its place, and reported that they had executed the criminal.”’ The prisoner, or his friends for him, are allowed to appear in every step of the inquiry prior to laying the case before the Emperor, and punishment is threatened to all the magistrates through whose hands it passes if they neglect the appeal ; but this extract shows the usage of the courts.

    The general policy of officers is to quash cases and repress appeals, and probably they do so to a great degree by bringing extorted confessions of the accused party and the witnesses in proof of the verdict. Governor Li of Canton issued a prohibition in 1834: against the practice of old men and women presenting petitions—complaining of the nuisance of having his chair stopped in order that a petition might be forced into it, and threatening to seize and punish the presumptuous intruders if they persisted in this custom. lie instructs the district magistrates to examine such persons, to ascertain who pushed them forward, and to punish the instigators, observing, ” if the people are impressed with a due dread of punishment, they will return to respectful habits.” It seems to be the constant effort on the part of the officers to evade the importunities of the injured and shove by justice, and were it not owing to the perseverance of the people^ a system of irremediable oppression would soon be induced. But the poor have little chance of being heard against the rich, and if they do appeal they are in most cases remanded to the second judgment of the very officer against Mdiom they complain ; and of course as this is equivalent to a refusal from the high grades to right them at all, commotions gradually grow out of it, which are managed according to the exigencies of the case by those who are likely to be involved in their responsibility. The want of an irresistible police to compel obedience luis a restraining effect on the rulers^ who know that Lyncli law niav perhaps be retaliated upon them if they cxaspei’ate the people too far. A prefect was killed in Chauchan fu some years ago for his cruelty, and the people excused their act by saying that, it was done because the officer had failed to carry out the Emperor’s good rule, and they would not endure it longer. Amid such enormities it is no wonder if the peaceably disposed part of the community prefer to submit in silence to petty extortions and robberies, rather than risk the loss of all by unavailing complaints.

    The code contains many sections regulating the proceedings

    of courts, and provides heavy punishments for such officers as

    are guilty of illegalities or cruelty in their decisions, but the recorded

    cases prove that most of these laws are dead letters.

    Section CCCCXYI. ordains that ” after a prisoner has been tried

    and convicted of any offence punishable with temporary or perpetual

    banishment or death, he shall, in the last place, be

    brought before the magistrate, together with his nearest relations

    and family, and informed of the offence M’hereof he

    stands convicted, and of the sentence intended to be pronounced

    upon him in consequence ; their acknowledgment of its justice

    or protest against its injustice, as the case maybe, shall theii be

    taken down in writing: and in every case of their refusing to

    admit the justice of the sentence, their protest shall be made

    the ground of another and more particular investigation.” All

    capital cases must be reviewed by the highest authorities at the

    metropolis and in the provinces, and a final report of the case

    and decision submitted to the Emperor’s notice. Section

    CCCCXY. requires that the law be quoted M’hen deciding. The

    numerous wise and merciful provisions in tlie code for the due

    administration of justice only place the conduct of its authorized

    executives in a less excusable light, and prove how impossible it

    is to procure an equitable magistracy by mere legal requirements

    and penalties.

    MODES AND EXTF>:T OF TORTUllIXG CULPRITS. 507

    The confusion of the civil and criminal laws in the code, and the union of both functions in the same person, together with the torture and imprisonment employed to elicit a confession, serve as an indication of the state of legislation and jurisprudence. The common sense of a truthful people would revolt against the inliietioii of torture to get out the true deposition of a witness, and their sense of honor would resist the disgraceful exposure of the cangue for not paying debts. As the want of truth among a people indicates a want of honor, the necessity of more stringent modes of procedure suggests the practice of torture ; its application is allowed and restricted by several sections of the code, but in China, as elsewhere, it has always been abused. Torture is practised upon both criminals and witnesses, in court and in prison ; and the universal dread among the people of coming before courts, and having anything to do with their magistrates, is owing in great measure to the illegal sufferings they too often must endure. It has also a powerful deterrent effect in preventing crime and disorder. IN^either imprisonment nor torture are ranked among the five punishments, but they cause more deaths, probably, among arrested persons than all other means.

    Among the modes of torture employed in court, and reported in the Gazette^ are some revolting to humanity, but which of them are legal does not appear. The clauses under Section I. in the code describe the legal instruments of torture ; they consist of three boards with proper grooves for compressing the ankles, and five round sticks for squeezing the fingers, to which may be added the bamboo; besides these no instruments of torture are legally allowed, though other ways of putting the question are so common fis to give the impression that some of them at least are sanctioned. Pulling or twisting the ears with roughened fingers, and keeping them in a bent position while making the prisoner kneel on chains, or making him kneel for

    a long time, are among the illegal modes. Striking the lips

    with sticks until they are nearly jellied, putting the hands in

    stocks before or behind the back, wrapping the fingers in oiled

    cloth to burn them, suspending the body by the thumbs and

    fingers, tying tlie hands to a bar under the knees, so as to bend

    the body double, and chaining by the neck close to a stone, are

    resorted to when the prisoner is contumacious. One magistrate

    is accused of having fastened up two criminals to boards by

    nails driven through their palms ; one of them tore his hands loose and was nailed np again, which caused his death ; using beds of iron, boiling water, red hot spikes, and cutting the tendon Achilles are also charged against him, but the Emperor exonerated him on account of the atrocious character of the criminals. Compelling them to kneel upon pounded glass, sand, and salt mixed together, until the knees become excoriated, or simply kneeling upon chains is a lighter mode of the same infliction.

    Mr. Milne mentions seeing a wretch undergoing this torture, his hands tied behind his back to a stake held in its position by two policemen; if he swerved to relieve the agony of his position, a blow on his head compelled him to resume it. The agonies of the poor creature were evident from his quivering lips, his pallid and senseless countenance, and his tremulous voice imploring relief, which was refused with a cold, mocking command, ” Suffer or confess.” ‘

    Flogging is one of the five authorized punishments, but it is used more than any other means to elicit confession; the bamboo, rattan, cudgel, and whip are all employed. When death ensues the magistrate reports that the criminal died of sickness, or hushes it up by bribing his friends, few of whom are ever allowed access within the walls of the prison to see and comfort the sufferers. From the manner in which such a result is spoken of it may be inferred that immediate death does not often take place from torture. A magistrate in Sz’chuen being abused by a man in court, who also struck the attendants, ordered him to be put into a coffin which happened to be near, when suffocation ensued ; he was in consequence dismissed the service, punished one hundred blows, and transported three years. One check on outrageous torture is the fear that the report of their cruelty will come to the ears of their superiors, who are usually ready to avail of any mal-administration to get an officer removed, in order to fill the post. In this case, as in other parts of Chinese government, the dread of one evil prevents the commission of another.

    ‘ W. C. Milne, Life in China, Loudon, 1857, p. 99.

    THE FIVE LEGAL PUNISHMENTS. 509

    The five kinds of punishment mentioned in the code are from ten to fifty bloM’s with the lesser bamboo, from fifty to one hundred with the greater, transportation, perpetual banishishment, and death, each of them modified in various ways. The small bamboo weighs about two pounds, the larger two and two-thirds pounds. Public exposure in the Ida, or cangue, is considered rather as a kind of censure or reprimand than a punishment, and carries no disgrace with it, nor comparatively much bodily suffering if the person be fed and screened from the sun. The frame weighs between twenty and thirty pounds, and is so made as to rest upon the shoulders without chafing the neck, but so broad as to prevent the person feeding himself.

    The name, residence, and offence of the delinquent are written upon it for the information of every passerby’, and a policeman is stationed over him to prevent escape. Branding is applied to deserters and banished persons.

    Imprisonment and fines are not regarded as legal punishments, but rather correctives ; and flogging, as Le Comte says, ” is never wanting, there being no condemnation in China without this previous disposition, so that it is unnecessary to mention it in their condemnation ; this being always understood to be their first dish.” When a man is arrested he is effectually prevented from breaking loose by putting a chain around his neck and tying his hands.

    Mode of Exposure in the Cangue.

    Most punishments are redeemable by the payment of money if the criminal is under fifteen or over seventy years of age, and a table is given in the code for the guidance of the magistrate in such cases. An act of ofrace enables a criminal condemned even to capital punishment to redeem himself, if the oifenee be not one of wilful malignity ; but better legislation would have shown the good effects of not making the punishments so severe. It is also ordered in Section XA^IIL, that ” any offender under sentence of death for a crime not excluded from the contingent benefit of an act of grace, who shall have infirm parents or grandparents alive over seventy years of age, and no other male child over sixteen to support them, shall be recommended to the mercy of his Majesty ; and if only condemned to banishment, shall receive one hundred blows and

    redeem himself by a fine/’ Many atrocions laws may be forgiven

    for one such exhibition of regard for the care of decrepid

    parents. Few governments exhibit such opposing principles of

    actions as the Chinese : a strange blending of cruelty to prisoners

    with a maudlin consideration of their condition, and a constant

    effort to coax the peoj^le to obedience while exercising

    great severity npon individuals, are everywhere manifest. One

    M’ho has lived in the country long, however, knows well that

    they are not to be held in check by rope-yarn laws or whimpering

    justices, and unless the rulers are a terror to evil-doers, the

    latter w\\\ soon get the upper hand. Dr. Field Avell considers

    this point in his interesting notes describing his visit to a

    yaniwi at Canton.’ The general prosperity of the Empire

    proves in some measure the ecjuity of its administration.

    Banishment and slavery are punishments for minor official

    delinquencies, and few officers who live long in the Emperor’s

    employ do not take an involuntary journey to Mongolia, Turkestan,

    or elsewhere, in the course of their lives. The fates

    and conduct of banished criminals are widely unlike; some

    doggedly serve out their time, others try to ingratiate themselves

    with their nuisters in order to alleviate or shorten the

    time of service, while hundreds contrive to escape and return

    to their homes, though this subjects them to increased punishment.

    ‘ Dr. H. M. Field, From Effypt fo Japan, Chap. XXIV., passim. New York,1877. CMtN’sp Rrpox’/fori/, Vol. TV., pp. 214, 2fiO.

    CORRECTION OF MINOR OFFENCES. 511

    Publicly Whipping a Thief through the Streets.

    Persons banished for treason are severely dealt with if they return without leave, and those convicted of crime in their place of banishment are increasingly punished ; one man was sentenced to be outlawed for an offence at his place of banishment, but seeing that his aged mother had no other support than his labor, the Emperor ordered that a small sum should be paid for her living out of the public treasury. “Whipping a man through the streets as a public example to others is frequenty practised upon persons detected in robbery, assault, or some other minor offences. The man is manacled, and one policeman goes before him carrying a tablet, on which are written his name, crime, and punishment, accompanied by another holding a gong. In some cases little sticks bearing flags

    are thrust through his ears, and the lictor appointed to oversee

    the fulfilment of the sentence follows the executioner, who

    strikes the criminal with his whip or rattan as the rap on the

    gong denotes that the appointed number is not yet complete.

    Decapitation and strangling are the legal modes of executing

    criminals, though Ki Kung having taken several incendiaries at

    Canton, in 1843, who were convicted of fii-ing the city for purposes

    of plunder, starved them to death in the public squares of the city. The least disgraceful mode of execution is strangulation, which is performed by tying a man to a post and tightening the cord which goes round his neck by a winch ; the infliction is very speedy, and apparently less painful than hanging. The least crime for which death is awarded appears to be a third and aggravated theft, and defacing the branding inflicted for former offences. Decollation is considered more disgraceful than strangling, owing to the dislike the Chinese have of dissevering the bodies which their parents gave them entire. There are two modes of decapitation, that of simple decollation being considered, again, as less disgraceful than being ” cut into ten thousand pieces,” as the phrase Uikj cluli has been rendered. The military officer who superintends the execution is attended by a

    guard, to keep the populace from crowding upon the limits and

    prevent resistance on the part of the prisoners. The bodies are

    given up to the friends, except when the head is exposed as a

    warnini>; in a cao-e where the crime was committed. If no one

    is present to claim the corpse it is buried in tlie public pit. The

    criminals are generally so far exhausted that they make no resistance,

    and submit to their fate without a groan—nmch more,

    without a dying speech to the spectators. In ordinary cases

    the executions are postponed until the autumnal assize, when

    the Emperor revises and confirms the sentences of the provincial

    governors; criminals guilty of extraordinary offences, as robbery

    attended with murder, arson, rape, breaking into fortifications,

    liiglivvay robbery, and piracy, may be immediately beheaded

    M’ithout reference to court, and as the expense of maintenance

    and want of prison room are both to be considered, it is the

    fact that criminals condennied for one or other of these crimes

    comprise the greater part of the um-eferred executions in the

    provinces.

    It is impossible to ascertain the number of persons executed

    in China, for the life of a condennied criminal is thought little

    of ; in the court circular it is merely reported that ” the execution

    of the criminals was completed,” without mentioning their

    crimes, residences, or names. At the autunmal revises at Peking

    the number sentenced is given in the Gazette; 935 were

    sentenced in 1S17, of which 133 were from the province of

    MANNER OK PUHLIC EXECUTIONS. 613

    Kwangtnng ; in 1820 tlicro wci’c r)Sl ; in 182S the number

    was 789, and in the next year 579 names were marked off, none of

    whose crimes, it is inferrible, are inchided in tlie list of offences

    mentioned above. The condenniations are sent from the capital

    by express, and tlie executions take place innnediately. Most

    of the persons condemned in a province are executed in its capital,

    and to hear of the death of a score or more of felons on a

    single day is no uncommon thing. The trials are more speedy

    than comports with our notions of justice, and the executions are

    performed in the most summary manner. It is reported on one

    occasion that the governor-general of Canton ascended his judgment-

    seat, examined three prisoners brought before him, and

    having found then\ guilty, condemned them, asked himself for

    the death-warrant (for he temporarily filled the office of governor),

    and, having received it, had the three men carried away

    in about two hours after they were first brought before him. A

    few days after he granted the warrant to execute a hundred

    bandits in prison. During the terrible rebellion in Ivwangtung,

    in 1854-55, the prisoners taken by the Imperialists were usually

    transported to Canton for execution. In a space cf fourteen

    months, up to January, 1856, about eighty-three thousand malefactors

    suffered death in that city alone, besides those who died

    in confinement ; these men were arrested and delivered to execution

    by their countrymen, who had suffered untold miseries

    through their sedition and rapine.

    “When taken to execution the prisoners are clothed in clean

    clothes.* A military officer is present, and the criminals are

    brought on the ground in hod-like baskets hanging from a pole

    borne of two, or in cages, and are obliged to kneel toward the

    Emperor’s residence, or toward the death-warrant, which indicates

    his presence, as if thanking their sovereign for his care.

    The list is read aloud and compared with the tickets on the

    prisoners ; as they kneel, a lictor seizes their pinioned hands

    and jerks them i.pward so that the head is pushed down horizontally,

    and a single down stroke with the heavy hanger severs

    ‘ Persons who commit suicide also dress themselves in their best, the common notion being that in the next world they will wear the same garments in which they died.Vol. I.—33

    it from tlie neck. In the slow and ignominious execution, or

    ling chih, the criminal is tied to a cross and hacked to pieces ; the

    executioner is nevertheless often hired to give the coup-de-grace

    at the first blow. It is not uncommon for him to cut out the

    gall-bladder of notorious robbers and sell it, to be eaten as a

    specific for courage. There is an official executioner besides the

    real one, the latter being sometimes a criminal taken out of the

    prisons.

    Probably the number of persons who suffer by the sword of

    the executioner is not one-half of those who die from the effects

    of torture and privations in prisons. Not much is known of

    the internal arrangement of the hells, as prisons are called ; they

    seem to be managed with a degree of kindness and attention to

    the comfort of the prisoners, so far as the intentions of government

    are concerned, but the cruelties of the turnkeys and older

    prisoners to exact money from the new comers are terrible. In

    Canton there are jails in the city under the control of four different

    officers, the largest covering about an acre, and capable

    of holding upward of five hundred prisoners. Since it is the

    practice of distant magistrates to send their worst prisoners up

    to the capita], these jails are not large enough, and jail distempers

    arise from over-crowding ; two hundred deaths were

    reported in 1826 from this and other causes, and one hundred

    and seventeen cases in 1831. Private jails were hired to accommodate

    the number, and one governor reports having found

    twenty-two such places in Canton where every kind of cruelty

    was practised. The witnesses and accusers concerned in appellate

    causes had, he says, also been brought up to the city and

    imprisoned along with the guilty party, where they were kept

    months Avithout any just reason. In one case, M’here a defendant

    and plaintiff were imprisoned together, the accuser fell upon

    the other and murdered him. Sometimes the officer is unable

    from press of business to attend to a case, and confines all the

    principals and witnesses concerned until he can examine them,

    but the government takes no means to provide for them during

    the interval, and many of the poorer ones die. No security’ or

    bail is obtainable on the word of a witness or his friends, so

    that if unable to fee the jailers he is in nearly as bad a case as the

    ATROCIOUS MAXAGEMENT OF PRISONS. 515

    criminal. Extending bail to an accused criminal is nearly unknown,

    but female prisoners are put in charge of their husbands

    or parents, who are held responsible for their appearance. Tliie

    constant succession of criminals in the provincial head prison

    renders the posts of jailers and turnkeys very lucrative. The

    letters of the Roman Catholic missionaries from China during

    the last century, found in the Lettres Edijiantes and Annales de

    la Foi, contain many sad pictures of the miseries of prison life

    there.

    The prisons are arranged somewhat on the plan of a large

    stable, having an open central court occupying nearly one-fourth

    of the area, and small cribs or stalls covered by a roof extending

    nearly around it, so contrived that each company of prisoners

    shall be separated from its neighbors on either side night and

    day, though more by night than by day. The prisoners cook for

    themselves in the court, and are secured by manacles and gyves,

    and a chain joining the hands to the neck ; one hand is liberated

    in the daytime in order to allow them to take care of themselves.

    Heinous criminals are more heavily ironed, and those in the

    prisons attached to the judge’s office are Avorse treated than the

    others. Each criminal should receive a daily ration of two

    pounds of rice, and about two cents \vith which to buy fuel, but

    the jailer starves them on half this allowance if they are unable

    to fee him ; clothing is also scantily provided, but those who

    have money can pi’ocure almost every convenience. Each crib

    full of criminals is under the control of a turnkey, who with a

    few old offenders spends much time torturing newly arrived

    persons to force money from them, by which many lose their

    lives, and all suffer far more in this manner than they do from

    the officers of government. Well may the people call their

    prisons hells, and say, when a man falls into the clutches of the

    jailers or police, “the flesh is under the cleaver.”

    There are many processes for the recovery of debts and fulfilment of contracts, some legal and others customary, the latter depending upon many circumstances irrelevant to the merits of the case. The law allows that debtors be punished by bambooing according to the amount of the debt. A creditor often resorts to illegal means to recover his claim, which give rise to tnanj excesses ; sometimes he quarters himself upon the debtor’s family or premises, at others seizes him or some of his family and keeps them prisoners, and, in extreme cases, sells them.

    Unscrupulous debtors are equally skilful and violent in eluding, cheating, and resisting their incensed creditors, according as they have the power. They are liable, when three months have expired after the stipulated time of payment, to be bambooed, and their property attached. In most cases, however, disputes of this sort are settled without I’ecourse to government, and if the debtor is really without property, he is not imprisoned till he can procure it. The effects of absconding debtors are seized and divided by those who can get them. Long experience, moreover, of each other’s characters has taught them, in contracting debts, to have some security at the outset, and therefore in settling up there is not so much loss as might be supposed considering the difficulty of collecting debts. Accusations for libel, slander, breach of marriage contract, and other civil or less criminal offences are not all brought before the authorities, but are settled by force or arbitration among the people themselves and their elders.

    The nominal salaries of Chinese officers have already been

    stated (p. 294). It is a common opinion among the people that

    on an average they receive about ten times their salaries ; in

    some cases they pay thirty, forty and more thousand dollars

    beforehand for the situation. One encouragement to the

    harassing vexations of the official secretaries and police is the

    dislike of the people to carry their cases before officers who

    they know are almost compelled to fleece and peel them ; they

    think it cheaper and safer to bear a small exaction from an

    underling than run the risk of a greater from his master.

    If the preventives against popular violence which the supreme

    government has placed around itself could be strengthened

    by an efficient military force, its power would be well

    secured indeed ; but then, as in Kussia, it would probably become,

    by degrees, an intolerable tyranny. The troops are, in

    fact, everywhere present, ostensibly to support the laws, protect

    the innocent, and punish the guilty ; such of them as are employed

    by the authorities as guards and policemen are, on the

    whole, efficient and coni-tcous, though iniseralily paid, while the regiments in garrison are contemptible to both friend and foe.

    LATENT INFLUENCE OF PUI5LIC OPINION. 517

    The efficacy of the system of che<*ks upon the high courts and provincial officers is ijicreased by their intrigues and contlicting ambition, and long expeiuence has shown that the Emperor’s power has little to fear from proconsular rebellion. The inefficiency of the army is a serious evil to the people in one respect, for more power in that arm would repress banditti and pirates; while the sober part of the community would cooperate in a hearty effort to quell them. The greatest difficulty the Emperor finds in upholding his authority lies in the general want of integrity in the officers he employs ; good laws may be made, but he has few upright agents to execute them. This has been abundantly manifested in the laws against opium and gambling ; no one could be found to carry them into execution, though everybody assented to their propriety^

    The chief security on the side of the people against an unmitigated oppression such as now exists in Turkey, besides those already pointed out, lies as much as anywhere in their general intelligence of the true principles on which the government is founded and should be executed. With public opinion on its side the government is a strong one, but none is less able to execute its designs when it runs counter to that opinion, although those designs may be excellent and well intended.

    Elements of discord are found in the social system which would

    soon effect its ruin were they not counteracted by other influences,

    and the body politic goes on like a heavy, shackly, lumbering

    van, which every moment threatens a crashing, crumbling

    fall, yet goes on still tottering, owing to the original goodness

    of its construction. From the enormous population of this

    ancient van, it is evident that any attempt to remodel it mut^t

    seriousl}^ affect one or the other of its parts, and that when

    once upset it may be impossible to reconstruct it in its original

    form. There is encouragement to hope that the general intelligence

    and shrewdness of the government and people of China,

    their language, institutions, industry, and love of peace, will ail

    act as powerful conservative influences in working out the

    changes which cannot now be long delayed ; and that she will luaintaiii her unitv and industry while going through a thorough reform of her political, social, and religious systems.

    It is very difficult to convey to the reader a fair view of the administration of the laws in China. Notwithstanding the cruelty of officers to the criminals before them, they are not all to be considered as tyrants ; because insurrections arise, attended

    with great loss of life, it must not be supposed that

    society is everywhere disorganized ; the Chinese are so prone

    to falsify that it is difficult to ascertain the truth, yet it must

    not be inferred that every sentence is a lie ; selfishness is a

    prime motive for their actions, yet charity, kindness, filial

    affection, and the unbought courtesies of life still exist among

    them. Although there is an appalling amount of evil and crime

    in every shape, it is mixed with some redeeming traits ; and in

    China, as elsewhere, good and bad are intermingled, [^ome of

    the evils in the social system arise from the operation of the

    principles of mutual responsibility, while this very feature produces

    sundry good effects in restraining people who have no

    higher motive than the fear of injuring the innocent;^ TTeliear

    so much of the shocking cruelties of courts and prisons that

    the vast number of cases before the bench are all supposed to

    exhibit the same fatiguing reiteration of suffering, injustice,

    bribery, and cruelty. One must live in the country to see how

    the antagonistic j^rinciples found in Chinese society act and react

    upon each other, and are affected by the wicked passions of the heart. Officers and people are bad almost beyond belief to one conversant only with the courtesy, justice, purity, and sincerity of Christian governments and society; and yet we think they are not as bad as the old Greeks and Romans, and have no more injustice or torture in their courts, nor impurity or mendacity in their lives. As in our own land we are apt to forget that the recitals of crimes and outrages which the daily papers bring before our eyes furnish no index of the general condition of society, so in China, where that condition is immeasurably worse, we must be mindful that this is likewise true.

    CHAPTER IX.EDUCATION AND LITERARY EXAMINATIONS

    Among the points relating to the Chinese people which have attracted the attention of students in the history of intellectual development, their long duration and literary institutions have probably taken precedenceJ To estimate the causes of the first requires much knowledge of the second, and from them one is gradually led onward to an examination of the government, religion, and social life of this people in the succeeding epochs of their existence. The inquiry will reveal much that is instructive, and show us that, if they have not equaled many other nations in the arts and adornments of life, they have attained a high degree of comfort and developed much that is creditable in education, the science of rule, and security of life and property.

    Although the powers of mind exhibited by the greatest

    writers in China are confessedly inferior to those of Greece

    and Rome for genius and original conceptions, the good influence

    exerted by them over their countrymen is far greater, even

    at this day, than was ever obtained by western sages, as Plato,

    Aristotle, or Seneca. The thoroughness of Chinese education,

    the purity and effectiveness of the examinations, or the accuracv

    and excellency of the literature must not be compared with

    those of modern Christian countries, for there is really no common

    measure between the two ; they must be taken with other

    parts of Chinese character, and comparisons drawn, if necessary,

    with nations possessing similar opportunities. (The importance

    of generally instructing the people was acknowledged even before

    the time of Confucius, and practised to a good degree at an age

    when other nations in the world had no such system; and although in his day feudal institutions prevailed, and offices and rank were not attainable in the same manner as at present, on the other hand magistrates and noblemen deemed it necessary to be well acquainted with their ancient writings’. It is said in the Booh of RitcH (b.c. 1200), ” that for the purposes of education among the ancients, villages had their schools, districts their academies, departments their colleges, and principalities their universities.” This, so far as we know, was altogether superior to what obtained among the Jews, Persians, and Svrians of the same period.’

    TTlie great stimulus to literary pursuits is the hope thereby of

    ] obtaining office and honor, and the only course of education

    followed is the classical and historical one prescribed by law.

    Owing to this undue attention to the classics, the minds of the

    scliolars are not symmetrically trained, and they disparage other

    branches of literature which do not directly advance this great

    1 end, /’^very department of letters, except jurisprudence, his-

    * t^ tory, and official statistics, is disesteemed in comparison ; and

    the literary graduate of fourscore will be found deficient in

    most branches of general learning, ignorant of hundreds of

    common things and events in his national history, which the

    merest schoolljoy in the western world would be ashamed not

    to know in Lis. This course of instruction does not form wellbalanced

    minds, but it imbues the future rulers of the land

    with a full understanding of the principles on which they are

    to govern, and the policy of the supreme power in using those

    principles to consolidate its own authoi-ityj

    (C’entralization and conservatism were the leading features of

    the teachings of Confucius which first recommended them to

    the rulers, and have decided the course of public examinations

    in selecting officers who would readily uphold these principles.

    The effect has been that the literary class in China holds the

    functions of both nobles and priests, a perpetual association,

    genu edema in qua nemo nascitiir, holding^ in its liands public

    opinion and legal power to maintain it.- The geographical

    isolation of the people, the nature of the language, and the

    absence of a landed aristocracy, combine to add efficiency to

    this system ; and when the peculiarities of Chinese character,

    and the nature of the class-books which do so much to mould that character, are considered, it is impossible to devise a better plan for insuring the perpetuity of the government, or the contentment of the people under that government./

    STIMULUS TO LITERARY PURSUITS. 621

    Lit was about a.d. 600, that Taitsung, of the Tang dynasty,

    instituted the present plan of preparing and selecting civilians

    by means of study and degrees, founding his system on the

    facts that education had always been esteemed, and that the ‘

    ancient writings were accepted by all as the best instructors o£J

    the manners and tastes of the peopji^. ‘ According to native

    historians, the rulers of ancient times made ample provision for

    the cultivation of literature and promotion of education in all

    its branches. They supply sojne details to enable us to understand

    the mode and the materials of this instruction, and glorify

    it as they do everything ancient, but probably from the want

    of authentic accounts in their own hands, they do not clearly

    describe it. fThe essays of M. I^douard Biot on the History of

    Public Instruction in China,{contains well-nigh all the information

    extant on this interesting subject, digested in a very lucid

    manner. Education is probably as good now as it ever was,

    and its ability to maintain and develop the character of the

    people as great as at any time ; it is remarkable how much it

    really has done to form, elevate, and consolidate their national

    institutions. The Manchu monarchs were not at first favorably

    disposed to the system of examinations, and frowned upon the

    literary hierarchy who claimed all honors as their right ; but

    the next generation saw the advantages and necessity of the

    concours, in preserving its own power.

    ^oys commence their studies at the age of seven with a

    teacher/; for, even if the father be a literary man he seldom instructs

    his sons, and very few mothers are able to teach their

    offspring to read. Maternal training is supposed to consist in

    giving a right direction to the morals, and enforcing the obedience

    of the child ; but as there are few mothers who do more

    than compel obedience by commands, or by the rod, so there are

    none who can teach the infantile mind to look up to its God in

    prayer and praise.

    Among the many treatises for the guidance of teachers, the Siao Hioh, or ‘ Juvenile Instructor,’ is regarded as most author*itative. When establishing the elements of education, this book advises fathers to “choose from among their concubines those who are fit for nurses, seeking such as are mild, indulgent, affectionate, benevolent, cheerful, kind, dignified, respectful, and reserved and careful in their conversation, whom they will make

    governesses over their children. “When able to talk, lads must

    be instructed to answer in a quick, bold tone, and girls in a slow

    and gentle one. ^t the age of seven, they should be taught to

    count and name the cardinal points ; but at this age the sexes

    should not be allowed to sit on the same mat nor eat from the

    same table. At eight, they must be taught to wait for their superiors,

    and prefer others to themselves. At ten, the boys

    must be sent abroad to private tutors, and there remain day and

    night, studying writing and arithmetic, wearing plain apparel,

    learning to demean themselves in a manner becoming their age,

    and acting with sincerity of purpose. At thirteen, they must

    attend to music and poetry ; at fifteen, they must practise archery

    and charioteering. At the age of twenty, they are in due

    form to be admitted to the rank of manhood, and learn additional

    rules of propriety, be fathful in the performance of filial

    and fraternal duties, and though they possess extensive knowledge,

    must not affect to teach others. At thirty, they may

    marry and commence the management of business. At forty,

    they may enter the service of the state ; and if their prince

    maintains the reign of reason, they must serve him, but otherwise

    not. At fifty, they may be promoted to the rank of ministers

    ; and at seventy, they must retire from public life.”

    Another injunction is, t^Let children always be tanght to

    speak the simple truth ; to stand erect and in their proper places,

    and listen with respectful attention.” The way to become a

    student, ” is, with gentleness and self-abasement, to receive implicitly

    every word the master utters. The pupil, when he sees

    virtuous people, nuist follow them, when he hears good maxims,

    conform to them. He must cherish no wicked designs, but always

    act uprightly ; whether at home or abroad, he nmst have

    a fixed residence, and associate with the benevolent, carefully

    regulating his personal deportment, and controlling the feelings

    METHODS AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION IN CHINA. 623

    of his heart. lie must keep his clothes in order. Every morning

    he must learn something new, and rehearse the same every

    evenuig.” The great end of education, therefore, among the

    ancient Chinese, was not so much to fill the head M’ith knowledge,

    as to discipline the heart and purify the affections^ One

    of their writers says, ” Those who respect the virtuous and put

    away unlawful pleasures, serve their parents and prince to the

    utmost of their ability, and are faithful to their word ; these,

    though they should be considered unlearned, we must pronounce

    to be educated men.” Although such terms as purity, filial

    affection, learning, and truth, have higher meanings in a Christian

    education than are given them by Chinese masters, the inculcation

    of them in any degree and so decided a manner does

    great credit to the people, and will never need to be superseded

    —only raised to a higher grade.’

    In intercourse with their relatives, children are taught to attend

    to the minutest points of good breeding ; and are instructed in

    everything relating to their personal appearance, making their

    toilet, saluting their parents, eating, visiting, and other acts of

    life. Many of these directions are trivial even to puerility, but

    they are none too minute in the ideas of the Chinese, and still

    form the basis of good manners, as much as they did a score of

    centuries ago ; and it can hardly be supposed that Confucius

    would have risked his influence upon the grave publication of

    trifles, if he had not been well acquainted with the character of

    his countrymen. Yet nothing is trifling which conduces to the

    growth of good manners among a people, though it may not

    have done all that was wished.^

    \lules are laid down for students to observe in the prosecution

    of their studies, which reflect credit on those who set so

    high a standard for themselves.’ Dr. Morrison has given a

    synopsis of a treatise of this sort, called the ‘ Complete Collection

    of Family Jewels,’ and containing a minute specification of

    ‘ Compare Du Halde, Description de VEmpire fie la Chine, Tome IT., pp. 365-384 ; A. Wylie, Notes, p. 68 ; Chinese Repository, Vols. V., p. 81, and VI., pp.185, 393, and 563; China Review, Vol. VI., pp. 120, 195, 253, 328, etc. ; New Enghmder, May, 1878.

    ”Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 83-87, 306-316.

    duties to be performed by all who would be thorough students.

    The author directs the tyro to form a hxed resolution to press

    forward in his studies, setting his mark as high as possible, and

    thoroughly understanding everything as he goes along. “I

    have always seen that a man who covets much and devotes

    liimself to universal knowledge, when he reads he presumes on

    the quickness and celerity of his genius and perceptions, and

    chapters and volumes pass before his eyes, and issue from his

    mouth as fluently as water rolls away ; but when does he ever

    apply his mind to rub and educe the essence of a subject? In

    this manner, although much be read, what is the use of it ?

    Better little and fine, than much and coarse.” lie also advises

    persons to have two or three good volumes lying on their tables,

    which they can take up at odd moments, and to keep commonplace

    books in which they can jot down such things as occur to

    them. They should get rid of distracting thoughts if they

    wish to advance in their studies ; as ” if a man’s stomach has

    been filled by eating greens and other vegetables, although the

    most precious dainties with exquisite tastes should be given

    him, he cannot swallow them, he must first get rid of a few

    portions of the gi-eens ; so in reading, the same is true of the

    mixed thoughts which distract the mind, which are about the

    dusty affairs of a vulgar world.” The rules given by these

    writers correspond to those laid down among ourselves, in such

    books as Todd’s Manual for Students, and reveal the steps

    which have given the Chinese their intellectual position.’

    iFor all grades of scholars, there is but one mode of study ;

    the imitative nature of the Chinese mind is strikingly exhibited

    ; in the few attempts on the part of teachers to improve upon

    the stereotyped practice of their predecessors, although persons

    of as original minds a,aL_tlic country affords are constantly en-

    ^_gage_d in education.^When the lad connnences his studies, an

    impressive ceremony takes place—or did formerl}-, for it seems

    to have fallen into desuetude : the father leads his son to the

    teacher, who kneels down before the name of some one or other

    of the ancient sages, and supplicates their blessing upon his

    ‘ Morrison’s (JlUiU’se Dictionary, Vol. T., Tiirt T., ])p. TlD-ToH.

    ARRANGEMENT AND REGIME OF BOYS’ SCHOOLS. 525

    pupil ; after which, seating himself, he receives tlie homage

    and petition of the lad to guide him in his lessons.’ As is the

    case in Moslem countries, a present is expected to accompany

    this initiation into literary pursuits. In all cases this event is

    further marked by giving the lad his shu oning or ‘ book name,’

    by which he is culled during his future life. The furniture of

    the school merely consists of a desk and a stool for each pupil,

    and an elevated seat for the master, for maps, globes, blackboards,

    diagrams, etc., are yet to come in among its articles of

    furniture. In one corner is placed a tablet or an inscription on

    the wall, dedicated to Confucius and the god of Letters ; the

    sage is styled the ‘ Teacher and Pattern for All Ages,’ and incense

    is constantly burned in honor of them both.

    ^The location of school-rooms is usually such as would be considered

    bad elsewhere, but by comparison with other things in

    China, is not so. A mat shed which barely protects from the

    weather, a low, hot upper attic of a shop, a back room in a

    temple, or rarely a house specially built for the purpose, such

    are the school-houses in China. The chamber is hired by the

    master, who regulates his expenses and furnishes liis apartment

    according to the number and condition of his pupils ; their

    average nundjer is abont twenty, ranging between ten and forty

    in day schools, and in private schools seldom exceeding ten.

    The most th<n-ough course of education is probably pursued in

    the latter, where a well-qualified teacher is hired by four or five

    persons living in the same street, or nnituully related by birth

    or marriage, to teach their children at a stipulated salary. In

    such cases the lads are placed in bright, well-aired apartments,

    superior to the common school-room. ^Tlie majority of teachers

    have been unsuccessful candidates for literary degrees, who

    having spent the prime of their days in fruitless attempts to

    attain office, are unfit for manual lal)or, and unable to enter on

    mercantile life.J In Canton, a teacher of twenty boj’s receives

    from half a dollar to a dollar per month from each pupil ; in

    country villages, three, four or five dollars a year are given,

    with the addition, in most cases, of a small present of eatables

    1

    ‘ This custom obtains also in Bokhara.

    from each scholar three or four times a year. Private tutors

    receive from $150 to $350 or more per annum, according to

    particular engagement. There are no boarding-schools, nor

    anything answering to infant schools ; nor are public or charity

    schools established by government, or by private benevolence

    for the education of the poor. ‘

    The first hours of study are from sunrise till ten a.m., when

    the boys go to breakfast ; they reassemble in an hour or more,

    and continue at their books till about five p.m., when they disperse

    for the day. In summer, they have no lessons after dinner,

    but an evening session is often held in the winter, and evening

    schools are occasionally opened for mechanics and others

    who are occupied during the day. When a boy comes into

    school in the morning, he bows reverentially before the tablet

    of Confucius, salutes his teacher, and then takes his seat. The

    vacations during the year are few ; the longest is before new

    year, at which time the engagement is completed, and the school

    closes, to be reopened after the teacher and parents have made a

    new arrangement. The common festivals, of which there are a

    dozen or more, are regarded as holydays, and form very necessary

    relaxations in a country destitute of the rest of the Sabbath.

    (The requisite qualifications of a teacher are gravity, severity,

    and patience, and acquaintance w^ith the classics ; he has

    only to teach the same series of books in the same fashion in

    which he learned them himself and keep a good watch over his

    charge,)

    When the lads come together at the opening of the school,

    their attainments are ascertained ; the teacher endeavors to

    have his pupils nearly equal in this respect, but inasmuch as

    they are all put to precisely the same tasks, a difference is not

    material. If the boys are beginners, they are brought up in a

    line before the desk, holding the San-tsz’ King, or ‘ Trimetrical

    Classic,’ in their hands, and taught to read off the first lines

    after the teacher until they can repeat them without help. He

    calls off the first four lines as follows:

    Jin chi tsu, smgpun sTien /

    SiTig sirnig hm, slh sian^ yuen /

    ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 527

    when his pupils siniultaiieoiisly cry out:

    , Jin ehi tsii, Hinypan slien ^

    Sing siang kin, sih siang yuen.

    ‘Mispronunciations are corrected until each can read the lesson

    accurately ; they are then sent to their seats to commit the

    sounds to memory. As the sounds are all entire words (not

    letters, nor syllables, of which they have no idea), the boys are

    not perplexed, as ours are, with symbols M’hich have no meaning.

    All the children study aloud, and when one is able to recite

    the task, he is required to hach it—come up to the mastei-‘s

    desk, and stand with his back toward him while rehearsing it.)

    ‘ The San-tsz’ King was compiled by Wang Pih-hao of the

    Sung dynasty (a. d. 1050) for his private school. It contains

    ten hundred and sixty-eight words, and half that number of different

    characters, arranged in one hundred and seventy-eight

    double lines. It has been commented upon by several persons,

    one of whom calls it ” a ford which the youthful inquirer may

    readily pass, and thereby reach the fountain-head of the higher

    courses of learning, or a passport into tlie regions of classical and

    historical literature.”) This hornbook begins with the nature of

    man, and the necessity and modes of education, and it is noticeable

    that the first sentence, the one quoted above, which a Chinese

    learns at school, contains one of the most disputed doctrines in

    the ancient heathen world :

    ** Men at their birth, are by nature radically good ;
    Though alike in this, in practice they widely diverge.
    If not educated, the natural character grows worse ;
    A course of education is made valuable by close attention.
    Of old, Mencius’ mother selected a residence,
    And when her son did not learn, cut out the [half-wove] web.
    To nurture and not educate is a father’s error;
    To educate without rigor shows a teacher’s indolence.
    That boys should not learn is an unjust thing ;
    For if they do not learn in youth, what will they do when old ?
    As gems unwrought serve no useful end, ,
    So men untaught will never know what right conduct is.”

    The importance of filial and fraternal duties are then inculcated by precept and example, to which succeeds a synopsis of the various branches of learning in an ascending series, under several heads of numbers ; the three great powers, the four seasons and four cardinal points, the five elements and live constant virtues, the six kinds of grain and six domestic animals, the seven passions, the eight materials for music, nine degrees of kindred, and ten social duties. A few extracts will exhibit the mode in which these subjects are treated.

    “There are three powers,—heaven, earth, and man.
    There are tliree lights,—the sun, moon, and stars.
    There are three bonds,—between prince and niinister, justice ;
    Between father and son, affection ; between man and wife, concord.
    Humanity, justice, propriety, wisdom, and truth,—
    These five cardinal virtues are not to be confused.
    Rice, millet, pulse, wheat, sorghum, millet grass,
    Are six kinds of grain on which men subsist.
    Mutual affection of father and son, concord of man and wife;
    The older brother’s kindness, the younger one’s respect;
    Order between seniors and juniors, friendship among associates;
    On the prince’s part regard, on the minister’s true loyalty ;—
    These ten moral duties are ever binding among men.”

    To this technical summary succeed rules for a course of

    academical studies, M’ith a list of the books to be learned, and

    the order of their use, followed by a synopsis of the general history

    of China, in an enumeration of the successive dynasties.

    The work concludes with incidents and motives to learnino;

    drawn from the conduct of ancient sages and statesmen, and

    from considerations of interest and gh)iy. The exam})les cited

    are curious instances of pui-suit of knowledge under difficulties,

    and form an inviting part of the treatise.

    ” Formerly Confucius had young Iliang Toh for his teacher;

    Even the sages of antiquity studied with diligence.

    Chau, a minister of state, read tlu^ Confucian Dialogues,

    And he too, though high in office, studied assiduously.

    One copied lessons on rec’ds, another on slii)s of l)amb()o ;

    These, though without books, eagerly sought knowledge.

    [To vanquish sleep] one tied his head [by tlu! hair] to a beam, and auothel pierced his thigh with an awl;
    Though destitute of instructors, these were laborious in study.
    One read by the glowwoi’ui’s light, another by rellection from snow;

    TIIK TRIM ETHICAL CLASSIC. 629

    These, tliougli tlieir families were poor, did not omit to study.

    One carried faggots, and another tied his books to a cow’s horD«

    And while thus engaged in labor, studied with intensity.

    Su Lau-tsiuen, when lie was twenty-seven years old

    Commenced close study, and applied his mind to books;
    This man, when old, grieved that he commenced so late ;
    You who are young must early think of these things.
    Behold Liang Hau, at the ripe age of eighty-two,
    In the imperial hall, amongst many scholars, gains the first rani:’f

    This he accomplished, and all regarded liim a prodigy ;

    You, mj’ young readers, shoukl now resolve to be diligent.

    Yung, when only eiglit years old, could recite the Odes ;

    And Pi, at the age of seven, understood the game of chess;
    These displayed ability, and all deemed them to be rare men ;

    And you, my hopeful scholars, ought to imitate them.

    Tsai Wan-ki could play upon stringed instruments ;

    Sie Tau-wfin, likewise, could sing and chant;
    These two, though girls, were bright and well informed ;

    You, then, my lads, should surely rouse to diligence.

    Liu Ngan of Tang, when only seven years old,

    Proving himself a noble lad, was able to correct writing:

    He, though very young, was thus highly promoted.

    You, young learners, strive to follow his example, .

    For he who does so, will acquire like honors.

    ” Dogs watch by night ; the cock announces the morning J

    If any refuse to learn, how can they be esteemed men ?

    The silkworm spins silk, the bee gathers honey ;

    If men neglect to learn, they are below the brutes.

    He who learns in youth, to act wisely in mature age.

    Extends his influence to the prince, benefits the people.

    Makes his name renowned, renders his parents honorable ;

    Reflects glory on his ancestors, and enriches his posterity.

    Some for their Ouspring, leave coffers filled with gold ;

    While I to teach children, leave this one little book.

    Diligence has merit ; play yields no profit;
    Be ever on your guard ! Rouse all your energies !”

    These quotations illustrate the character of the T7imetri’

    cal Classic, and show its imperfections as a book for voung

    minds. It is a syllahns of studies rather than a book to be

    learned, and ill snited to entice the boy on in his tasks by giving

    him mental food in an attractive form. Yet its influence has

    been perhaps as great as the classics during the last four dynasties,

    from its general use in primary schools, where myriads of

    lads have ” backed ” it who have had no leisure to study much

    more, and when they had crossed this ford could travel no

    farther, (The boy commences his education by learning these

    maxims ; and by the time he has got his degree—and long before,

    too—the higiiest truths and examples known in the land

    are more deeply impressed on his mind than are ever Biblical

    truths and examples on graduates of Yale, Oxford, Heidelberg

    or the Sorbonne.’ Well was it for them that they had learned

    nothing in it which they had better forget, for its deficiencies,

    pointed out by Bridgman in his translation, should not lead us

    to overlook its suggestive synopsis of principles and examples.

    The commentary explains them very fully, and it is often

    learned as thoroughly as the text. Many thousands of tracts

    containing Christian truths written in the same style and with

    the same title, have been taught with good effect in the mission

    schools in China.”

    ( The next hornbook put into the boy’s hands is the P\h Kla,

    S’mg, or ‘ Century of Surnames.’ It is a list of the family or clan

    names commonly in use. Its acquisition also gives him familiarity

    with four hundred and fifty-four common words employed

    as names, a knowledge, too, of great importance lest mistakes

    be made in choosing a wrong character among the scores of

    horaophonous characters in the language) For instance, out of

    eighty-three common words pronounced hi, six only are clan

    names, and it is necessary to have these very familiar in the

    daily intercourse of life. The nature of the work forbids its being

    studied, but the usefulness of its contents probably explains

    its position in this series.’^

    The third in the list is the Tsien Tsz^ Wan, or ‘Millenary

    Classic,’ unique among all books in the Chinese language, and

    whose like could not be produced in any other, in that it consists

    ‘ Compare Dr. Morrison in the Horm Sinic/v, pp. 122-146 ; B. Jenkins, The

    Three-Glmnicter CluxHic, romanized acrording to the Khaufihai di(dect, Shanghai,

    1800. The Classic has also been translated into Latin, French, German, Russian,

    and Portuguese. For the Trimetrical Classic of the Tai-ping regime see

    a version in the North China Herald, No. 147, May 21, 185;}, by Dr. Medhurst •

    also a translation by Rev. S. C. Malan, of Balliol College, Oxford. London,

    1856.

    ” E. C. Bridgman in the Chinese Eepository, Vol. IV., p. 152. Livre de Cent

    famiUes, Perny, Diet., App., No. XIV., pp. 156 fE.

    THE THOUSAND-CHARACTER CLASSIC. 531

    of just a thousand characters, no two of which are alike in form or

    meaning. The author, Chau lling-tsz’, flourished ahout a.d. 550,

    and according to an account given in the history of the Liang

    dynasty, wrote it at tlie Empei-or’s request, who had ordered his

    minister Wang Hi-chi to write out a thousand characters, and

    give them to him, to see if he could make a connected ode with

    them.’ This he did, and presented his performance to liis majesty,

    who rewarded him with rich presents in token of his approval.

    Some accounts (in order that so singular a work might

    not M’ant for corresponding wonders) add that he did the task in

    a single night, under the fear of condign punishment if he

    failed, and the mental exertion was so great as to turn his hair

    white. It consists of two hundred and fifty lines, in which

    rhyme and rhythm are both carefully observed, though there

    is no more poetry in it than in a multiplication table. The

    contents of the book are similar but more discursive than those

    of the Trimetrical Classic. Up to the one hundred and second

    line, the productions of nature and virtues of the early monarchs,

    the power and capacities of man, his social duties and

    mode of conduct, with instructions as to the manner of living,

    are summarily treated.’ Thence to the one hundred and sixtysecond

    line, the splendor of the palace, and its high dignitaries,

    with other illustrious persons and places, are referred to. The

    last part of the w’ork treats of private and literary life, the pursuits

    of agriculture, household government, and education, interspersed

    with some exhortations, and a few illustrations. A few

    disconnected extracts from Dr. Bridgman’s translation’ will show

    the mode in which these subjects are handled. The opening

    lines are,

    *’ The heavens are sombre ; the earth is yellow

    ;

    The whole universe [at the creation] was one wide waste ;

    after which it takes a survey of the world and its products, and

    Chinese history, in a very sententious manner, down to the

    thirty-seventh line, which opens a new subject.

    ‘ Chinese Bepository, Vol. IV., p. 229.

    ” Now this our human body is endowed
    With four great powers and five cardinal virtues:
    Preserve with reverence what your paieuts nourished,—
    How dare you destroy or injure it V
    Let females guard their chastity and purity,
    And let men imitate the talented and virtuous.
    When you know your own errors then reform;
    And when you have made acquisitions do not lose them.

    Forbear to complain of the defects of other people,

    And cease to brag of your own superiority.

    Let your truth be such as may be verified,

    Your capacities, as to be measured with difficulty.

    ” Observe and imitate the conduct of the virtuous,

    And command your thoughts that you may be wise.

    Your virtue once fixed, your reputation will be established

    ;

    Your habits once rectified, your example will be correct.

    Sounds are reverberated in the deep valleys.

    And the vacant hall reechoes all it hears

    ;

    So misery is the penalty of accumulated vice.

    And happiness the reward of illustrious virtue.

    ” A cubit of iade stone is not to be valued,

    But an inch of time you ought to contend for.

    ” Mencius esteemed plainness and simplicity;

    And Yu the historian held firmly to rectitude.

    These nearly approached the golden medium,

    Being laborious, humble, diligent, and moderate.

    Listen to what is said, and investigate the principles explained

    :

    Watch men’s demeanor, that you may distinguish their characters.

    Leave behind you none but purposes of good ;

    And strive to act in such a manner as to command respect.

    When satirized and admonished examine 3’ourself,

    And do this more thoroughly when favors increase.

    ” Years fly away like arrows, one pushing on the other;

    The sun shines brightly through his whole course.

    The planetarium keeps on revolving where it hangs ;

    And the bright moon repeats her revolutions.

    To support fire, add fuel ; so cultivate the root of happiness,

    And you will obtain eternal peace and endless felicity.”

    Tlie conimentaiy 011 the TJiousand Character Classic contains

    many just observations and curious anecdotes to explain

    this hook, whose text is so familiar to the people at large that its

    lines or characters are used as lal)ols instead of figures, as thev

    take up less room. If Western scholars were as familiar with

    the acts and sayings of King Wan, of Su Tsin, or of Kwan

    (hung, as they are with those of Sesostris, Pericles, or Horace,

    THE ODES FOR CIirLDREN. 583

    these incidents and places would naturally enough he deemed

    more interesting than they now are. But where the power of

    genius, or the vivid pictures of a brilliant imagination, are

    wanting to illustrate or beautify a subject, there is comparatively

    little to interest Europeans in the authors and statesmen of such

    a distant country and remote period/

    (The fourth in this series, called V-iu ITioh Shl-tlch^ or ‘ Odes

    for Children,’ is written in rhymed pentameters, and contains

    only thirty-four stanzas of four lines.’ A single extract will

    show its character, which is, in general, a brief description and

    praise of literary life, and allusion to the changes of the season,

    and the beauties of nature.

    It is of the utmost importance to educate children ;

    Do not say that your families are poor,

    For those who can handle well the pencil,

    Go where they will, need never ask for favors.

    One at the age of seven, showed himself a divinely endowed youth,

    ‘Heaven,’ said he, ‘gave me my intelligence :

    Men of talent appear in the courts of the holy monarch,

    Nor need they wait in attendance on lords and nobles.

    ‘ In the morning I was an humble cottager,

    In the evening I entered the court of the Son of Heaven:
    Civil and military offices are not hereditary.
    Men must, therefore, rely on their own efforts.
    ‘ A passage for the sea has been cut through mountains,

    And stones have been melted to repair the heavens ;

    In all the world there is nothing that is impossible ;

    It is the heart of man alone that is wanting resolution.

    • Once I myself was a poor indigent scholar.

    Now I ride mounted in my four-horse chariot.

    And all my fellow-villagers exclaim with surprise.’

    Let those who have children thoroughly educate them.

    The examples of intelligent youth rising to the highest offices

    of state are numerous in all the works designed for beginners,

    * Compare Das Tsidn clsii wen, oder Buch von Tamend MDrtern, aus dem

    Schinesisclien, niit Bei’dckschtit/unf/ der Koraisclien und Jwpaninchen Uebersetzumj,

    ins DeuUche ubertragen, Ph. Fr. de ^iehoXdi, Nippon, Abh. IV., pp. 105-

    191 ; B. Jenkins, The Thou’sand-ChanieUr Cittssic, romanized, etc. Shanghai,

    1860; Ths/en-2’ffeu-Weii, Le Livre des MiUe Mots, etc., par Stanislas Julien

    (with Chinese text), Paris, 18G4 ; China Review, Vol. II., pp. 1S3 ff.

    and stories illustrative of their precocity are sometimes given

    in toy-books and novels. One of the most common instances ia

    here quoted, that of Confucius and Iliang Toh, which is as well

    known to every Chinese as is the story of George Washington

    barking the cherry-tree with his hatchet to American youth..

    ” The name of Confucius was Yu, and his style Chungni ; he established himself as an instructor in the western part of the kingdom of Lu. One day, followed by all his disciples, riding in a carriage, he went out to ramble, and on the road, came across several children at their sports ; among them was one who did not join in them. Confucius, stopping his carriage, asked him, saying, ‘ Why is it that you alone do not play V ‘ The lad replied, ‘ All play is without any profit ; one’s clothes get torn, and they are not easily mended ; above me, I disgrace my father and mother ; below me, even to the lowest, there is fighting and altercation ; so much toil and no reward, how can it be a good business ? It is for these reasons that I do not play.’ Then dropping his head, he began making a city out of pieces of tile.

    “Confucius, reproving him, said, ‘ Why do you not turn out for the carriage V ‘ The boy replied, ‘ From ancient times till now it has always been considered proper for a carriage to turn out for a city, and not for a city to turn out for a carriage. ‘ Confucius then stopped his vehicle in order to discourse of reason. He got out of the carriage, and asked him, ‘ You are still young in years, how is it that you are so quick V ‘ The boy replied, saying, ‘ ^human being, at the age of three years, discriminates between his father and his mother ; a hare, three days after it is born, runs over the ground and furrows of the fields ; fish, three days after their birth, wander in rivers and lakes ; what heaven thus produces naturally, how can it be called brisk ?’

    “Confucius added, ‘In what village and neighborhood do you reside, what is your surname and name, and what your style? ‘ The boy answered, * I live in a mean village and in an insignificant land ; my surname is Hiang, my name is Toh, and I have yet no style.’

    ” Confucius rejoined, ‘ I wish to have you come and ramble with me ; what do you think of it V ‘ The youth replied, ‘ A stern father is at home, whom I am bound to serve ; an affectionate mother is there, whom it is my duty to cherish ; a worthy elder brother is at home, whom it is proper for me to obey, with a tender younger brother whom I must teach ; and an intelligent teacher is there from whom I am required to learn. How have I leisure to go a rambling with you V’

    “Confucius said, ‘I have in my carriage thirty-two chessmen; what do you say to having a game together V ‘ The lad answered, ‘ If the Emperor love gaming, the Empire will not be governed ; if the nobles love play, the government will b<5 impeded ; if scholars love it, learning and investigation will be lost and thrown by ; if the lower classes are fond of gambling, they will utterly lose the support of their families ; if servants and slaves love to game, they will gel a cudgelling ; if farmers love it, they miss the time for ploughing and sowing; for these reasons I shall mit play with you.’

    THE STORY OF CONFUCIUS AND IIIANG TOIL 585

    “Confucius rejoined, ‘I wish to have you go with me, and fully equalize the Empire; what do you think of this? ‘ The Lad replied, ‘ The Empire cannot be equalized; here are high hills, there are lakes and rivers; either there are princes and nobles, or there are slaves and servants. If the high hills be levelled, the birds and beasts will have no resort ; if the rivers and lakes be filled up, the fishes and the turtles will have nowhere to go ; do away with kings and nobles, and the common people will have much dispute about right and wrong ; obliterate slaves and servants, and who will there be to serve the prince ! If the Empire be so vast and unsettled, how can it be equalized ?’

    ” Confucius again asked, ‘ Can you tell, under the whole sky, what fire has no smoke, what water no fish ; what hill has no stones, what tree no branches ; what man has no wife, what woman no husband ; what cow has no calf, what mare no colt ; what cock has no hen, what hen no cock ; what constitutes an excellent man, and what an inferior man ; what is that which has not enough, and what which has an overplus ; what city is without a market, and who is the man without a style ?’

    ” The boy replied, ‘A glowworm’s fire has no smoke, and well-water no fish ; a mound of earth has no stones, and a rotten tree no branches ; genii have no wives, and fairies no husbands ; earthen cows have no calves, nor wooden mares any colts ; lonely cocks have no hens, and widowed hens no cocks ; he who is worthy is an excellent man, and a fool is an inferior man ; a winter’s day is not long enough, and a summer’s day is too long ; the imperial city has no market, and little folks have no style.’

    ” Confucius inquiring said, ‘ Do you know what are the connecting bonds between heaven and earth, and what is the beginning and ending of the dual powers ? What is left, and what is right ; what is out, and what is in ; who is father, and who is mother ; who is husband, and who is wife. [Do you know]where the wind comes from, and from whence the rain V From whence the clouds issue, and the dew arises V And for how many tens of thousands of miles the sky and earth go parallel ?’

    “The youth answering said, ‘Nine multiplied nine times make eighty-one, which is the controlling bond of heaven and earth ; eight multiplied by nine makes seventy-two, the beginning and end of the dual powers. Heaven is father, and earth is mother ; the sun is husband, and the moon is wife ; east is left, and west is right ; without is out, and inside is in ; the winds come from Tsang-wu, and the rains proceed from wastes and wilds ; the clouds issue from the hills, and the dew rises from the ground. Sky and earth go parallel for ten thousand times ten thousand miles, and the four points of the compass have each their station.’

    “Confucius asking, said, ‘ Which do you say is the nearest relation, father and mother, or husband and wife ? ‘ The boy responded, ‘ One’s parents are near ; husband and wife are not [so] near.’

    “Confucius rejoined, ‘While husband and wife are alive, they sleep under the same coverlet ; when they are dead they lie in the same grave ; how then can you say that they are not near V ‘ The boy replied, ‘ A man without a wife is like a carriage without a wheel ; if there be no wheel, another one is made, for he can doubtless get a new one ; so, if one’s wife die, he seeks again, for he also can obtain a new one. The daughter of a worthy family must certainly marry an honorable husband ; a house having ten rooms always has a plate and a ridgepole ; three windows and six lattices do not give the ligh\ of a single door ; the whole host of stars with all their sparkling brilliancy do not equal the splendor of the solitary moon : the affection of a father and mother—alas, if it be once lost !’

    “Confucius sighing, said, ‘How clever! how worthy!’ The boy asking the sage said, ‘ You have just been giving me questions, which I have answered one by one ; I now wish to seek information ; will the teacher in one sentence afford me some plain instruction V I shall be much gratified if my request be not rejected.’ He then said, ‘ Why is it that mallards and ducks are able to swim; how is it that wild geese and cranes sing ; and why are firs and pines green through the winter ‘?

    ‘ Confucius replied, ‘ Mallards and ducks can swim because their feet are broad ; wild geese and cranes can sing because they have long necks ; firs and pines remain green throughout the winter because they have strong hearts.’ The youth rejoined, ‘ Not so ; fishes and turtle’; can swim, is it because they all have broad feet ? Frogs and toads can sing, is it because their necks are long V The green bamboo keeps fresh in winter, is it on account of its strong heart *’

    “Again interrogating, he said, ‘ How many stars are there altogether in the sky V ‘ Confucius replied, ‘ At this time inquire about the earth; how can we converse about the sky with certainty?’ The boy said, ‘Then how many houses in all are there on the earth ? ‘ The sage answered, ‘ Come now, speak about something that’s before our eyes ; why mu.st you converse about heaven and earth ? ‘ The lad resumed, ‘ Well, speak about what’s before our eyes—how many hairs are there in your eyebrows ‘?’

    “Confucius smiled, but did not answer, and turning round to his disciples called them and said, ‘ This boy is to be feared ; for it is easy to see that the subsequent man will not be like the child. ‘ He then got into his carriage and rode off.”‘

    6Xext in course to this rather trifling primer conies the Hlao

    King, or ‘ Canons of Filial Duty,’ a short tractate of only 1,903

    characters, which purports to be the record of a conversation

    held between Confucius and his disciple Tsitng Tsan on the

    principles of filial piet}*! Its authenticity has been disputed by

    critics, but their doubts are not shared by their countrymen,

    who commit it to memory as the words of the sage. The legend

    is that a copy was discovered in the wall of his dwelling, and

    compared with another secreted by Yen Chi at the burning of

    the books ; from the two Liu Iliang chose eighteen of tlie

    chapters contained in it as alone genuine, and in this shape it

    has since remained. The sixth section of the Imperial Catalogue

    is entirely devoted to writers on the Iliao Kmg, one of whom was

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. X., p. 614.

    THE HIAO KING, OR CANONS OF FILIAL DUTY. 537

    Vnentsuiig, an emperor of the Tang dynasty (a.d. T33). Another

    comment was publislied in 32 vohimes in Kanghi’s reign, discussing

    the whole sul)ject in one liundred cliapters. Though it

    does not share in critical eyes the conlidence accorded to the

    nine classics, the brevity and subject matter of this work have

    commended it to teachers as one of the best books in the

    language to be placed in the hands of their scholars ; thus its

    influence has been great and enduring. It has been translated

    by Bridgman, who regards the first six sections as the words of

    Confucius, while the other twelve contain his ideas. Two quotations

    are all that need be here given to show its character.

    Section I.

    On the origin and nature ofjUial duty.—Filial duty is the root

    of virtue, and the stem from which instruction in the moral principle springs.

    Sit down, and I will explain this to you. The first thing which filial duty requires

    of us is, that we carefully preserve from all injviry, and in a perfect

    state, the bodies which we have received from our parents. And when we

    acquire for ourselves a station in the world, we should regulate our conduct

    by correct principles, so as to transmit our names to future generations, and

    reflect glory on our parents. This is the ultimate aim of filial duty. Thus it

    commences in attention to parents, is continued through a course of services

    rendered to the prince, and is completed by the elevation of ourselves. It

    is said in the Book of Odes,

    Ever think of your ancestors

    ;

    Reproducing then- virtue.

    Section V.

    0>i the attention of scholars to flial duty.—With the same love

    that they serve their fathers, they should serve their mothers ; and with the

    same respect that they serve their fathers, they should serve their prince ; unmixed

    love, then, will be the offering they make to their mothers ; unfeigned

    respect the tribute they bring to their prince ; while toward their fathers both

    tliese will be combined. Therefore they serve their prince with filial duty and

    are faithful to him ; they serve their superiors with respect and are obedient to

    them. By constant obedience and faithfulness toward those who are above

    them, they are enabled to preserve their stations and emoluments, and to offer

    the sacrifices which are due to their deceased ancestors and parents. Such is

    the influence of filial piety when performed by scholars. It is said in the

    Book of Odes,

    When the dawn is breaking, and I cannot sleep,

    The thoughts in my breast are of our parents.

    ‘ Compare Pere Cibot in Memoires.concernant les Chinois, Tome IV., pp. 1 ff.

    ;

    Dr. Legge, ±he Sacred Books of China, Part I. The ShU-kinr/, Reliyious Portions of the Shih-kinff, the Hsido-kimj, Oxford, 1879 ; Asiatic Journal, Vol XXIX., pp. 302 if., 1839.

    (The highest place in the list of virtues and obligations is accorded

    to filial duty, not only in this, but in other writings of

    Confucius and those of his school. ” There are,” to quote from

    another section, ” three thousand crimes to which one or the

    other of the five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty ;

    and of these no one is greater than disobedience to parents.

    When ministers exercise control over the monarch, then there

    is no supremacy ; when the njaxims of the sages are set aside,

    then the law is abrogated ; and so those who disregard filial

    duty are as though they had no parents. These three evils prepai*

    e the way for universal rebellion.’^

    This social virtue has been highly lauded by all Chinese

    wn-Iters, and its observance inculcated upon youth and children

    by precept and example. Stories are written to show the good

    effects of obedience, and the bad results of its contrary sin,

    which are put into their hands, and form also subjects for pictorial

    illustration, stanzas for poetry, and materials for conversation.

    The following examples are taken from a toy-book of

    this sort, called the Twenty-four F’diah^ one of the most popular

    collections on the subject.

    ” During the Chau dynasty there lived a lad named Tsang Tsan (also Tsz’-yu),

    who served his mother very dutifully. Tsang was in the habit of going to the.

    hills to collect fagots ; and once, while he was thus absent, many guests came

    to his house, toward whom his mother was at a loss how to act. She, while

    expecting her son, who delayed his return, began to gnaw her fingers. Tsang

    suddenly felt a pain in his heart, and took up his bundle of fagots in order to

    return home ; and when he saw his mother, he kneeled and begged to know

    what was the cause of her anxiety. She replied, ‘ there have been some guests

    here, who came from a great distance, and I bit my finger in order to arouse you to return to me.’

    ” In the Chau dynasty lived Chung Yu, named also Tsz’-lu, who, because his

    family was poor, usually ate herbs and coarse pulse ; and he also went more

    than a hundred I’l to procure rice for his parents. Afterward, when they were

    dead, he went south to the country of Tsu, where he was made commander of

    a hundred companies of chariots; there he became rich, storing up grain in

    myriads of measures, reclining upon cushions, and eating food served to him

    in numerous dishes; but sighing, ho said, * Although I should now desire to

    eat coarse herbs and bring rice for my parents, it cannot be !

    ” In the Chau dynasty there flourished the venerable Lai, who was very obedient

    and reverential toward his parents, manifesting his dutifulness by exerting

    liimself to provide them with every delicacy. Although upward of

    EXTRACTS FROM THE TWENTY-FOUR FILIALS. 539

    seventy years of age, he declared that he was not yet old ; and usually

    dressed liimself in parti-colored embroidered garments, and like a child

    would playfully stand by the side of his parents. He would also take up

    buckets of water, and try to carry them into the house ; but feigning to slip,

    would fall to the ground, wailing and crying like a child: and all these things

    he did in order to divert his parents.

    ” During the Han dynasty lived Tung Yung, whose family was so very poor

    that when his father died he was obliged to sell himself in order to procure

    money to bury his remains. After this he went to another place to gain the

    means of redeeming liimself ; and on his way he met a lady who desired to become

    his wife, and go with him to his master’s residence. She went with him,

    and wove three hundred pieces of silk, which being completed in two months,

    they returned home ; on the way, having reached the shade of the cassia tree

    where they before met, the lady bowed and ascending, vanished from his sight.

    ” During the Han dynasty lived Ting Lan, whose parents both died when

    he was young, before he could obey and support them ; and he reflected that

    for all the trouble and anxiety he had caused them, no recompense had yet

    been given. He then carved wooden images of his parents, and served them

    as if they had been alive. For a long time his wife would not reverence them ;

    but one day, taking a bodkin, she in derision pricked their fingers. Blood immediately

    flowed from the wound ; and seeing Ting coming, the images wept.

    He examined into the circumstances, and forthwith divorced his wife.

    “In the days of the Han dynasty lived Koh Kii, who was very poor. He

    had one child three years old ; and such was his poverty that his mother usually

    divided her portion of food with this little one. Koh says to his wife,

    ‘ We are so poor that our mother cannot be supported, for the cliild divides

    with her the portion of food that belongs to her. Why not bury this child V

    Another child may be born to us, but a mother once gone will never return.’

    His wife did not venture to object to the proposal ; and Koh immediately dug

    a hole of about three cubits deep, when suddenly he lighted upon a pot of gold,

    and on the metal read the following inscription :

    ‘ Heaven bestows this treasure

    upon Koh Kii, the dutiful son ; the magistrate may not seize it, nor shall

    the neighbors take it from him.’

    “Mang Tsung, who lived in the Tsin dynasty, when young lost his father.

    His mother was very sick ; and one winter’s day she longed to taste a soup

    made of bamboo sprouts, but Mang could not procure any. At last he went

    into the grove of bamboos, clasped the trees with his hands, and wept bitterly.

    His filial affection moved nature, and the ground slowly opened, sending forth

    several shoots, which he gathered and carried home. He made a soup with

    them, of which his mother ate and immediately recovered from her malady

    ” WuMang, a lad eight years of age, who lived under the Tsin dynasty, was

    very dutiful to his parents. They were so poor that they could not afford to

    furnish their bed with mosquito-curtains ; and every summer’s night, myriads

    of mosquitos attacked them unrestrainedly, feasting upon their flesh and

    blood. Although there were so many, yet Wu would not drive them away,

    lest they should go to his parents, and annoy them. Such was his affection.”

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. VI., p. 131.

    The last book learned before entering on the classics has had

    almost as great an influence as any of them, and none of the works

    of later scholars are so well calculated to sliow the ideas of the

    Chinese in all ages upon the principles of education, intercourse

    of life, and rules of conduct as this ; precepts are illustrated by

    examples, and the examples referred back to precepts for their

    moving cause. (This is the Siao Hloh, or ” Juvenile Instructor,”

    and was intended by Chu Hi, its author, as a counterpart of the

    Ta Hlao, on which he had written a connnentary, “^ It has had

    more than fifty commentators, one of whom says, ” We confide

    in the Siao Hioli as we do in the gods, and revere it as we do

    our parents.” It is divided into two books, the ” fountain of

    learning,” and ” the stream flowing from it,” arranged in 20

    chapters and 385 short sections. The first book has four parts

    and treats of the first principles of education ; of the duties we

    owe our kindred, rulers, and fellow-men, of those we owe

    ourselves in regard to study, demeanor, food, and dress ; and

    lastly gives numerous examples from ancient history, beginning

    with very early times down to the end of the Chau dynasty,

    B.C. 249, confirmatory of the maxims inculcated, and the good

    effects resulting from their observance. The second book contains,

    in its first part, a collection of wise sayings of eminent,

    men who flourished after e.g. 200, succeeded by a series of examples

    of distinguished persons calculated to show the effects of

    good principles ; both designed to establish the truth of the

    teachings of the first book. One or two quotations, themselves

    extracted from other works, will sulfice to show something of

    its contents.

    ” Confucius said, ‘ Friends must sharply and frankly admonish each other, and brothers must be gentle toward one another.’ “

    “Tsz’-kung, asking about friendship, Confucius said, ‘ Faithfully to inform and kindly to instruct another is the duty of a friend ; if he is not tractable, desist ; do not disgrace yourself.’ “

    “Whoever enters with his guests, yields precedence to them at every door ;

    when they reach the innermost one, he begs leave to go in and arrange the

    seats, and then returns to receive the guests ; and after they have repeatedly

    declined he bows to them and enters. He passes through the right door, they

    through the left. He ascc^nds the eastern, they the western steps. If a guest

    be of a lower grade, he must api)roach the steps of the host, while; the latter

    THE SIAO IIIOH, OR JUVENILE INSTRUCTOR. 541

    must reppatedly dc^cline this attention ; then the guest m.\v return to the western

    steps, he ascending, both liost and guest must mutually yield precedence:

    then the host must ascend first, and tlie guests follow. From step to step they

    must bring their feet together, gradually ascending—those on the east moving

    the right foot lirst, those on the west the left.”

    The great influence wliicli these six school-books have had is

    owing to their formative power on youthful minds, a large proportion

    of whom never go beyond them (either from want of

    time, means, or desire), but are really here fui-nished with the

    kernel of their best literature.

    (The tedium of memorizing these unmeaning sounds is relieved

    by writing the characters on thin paper placed over copy slips.

    The writing and the reading lessons are the same, and both are

    continued for a year or two until the forms and sounds of a few

    thousand characters are made familiar, but no particular effort

    is taken to teach their meanings. It is after this that the teacher

    goes over the same ground, and with the help of the commentary,

    explains the meaning of the words and phrases one by one, until they are all understoodJ It is not usual for the beginner to attend much to the meaning of what he is learning to read and write, and where the labor of committing arbitrary characters is so great and irksome, experience has probably shown that it is not wise to attempt too many things at once.

    ^The boy has been familiarizing himself with their shapes as

    he sees them all the time around him, and he learns what they

    mean in a measure before he comes to school. The association

    of form with ideas, as he cons his lesson and writes their words,

    gradually strengthens, and results in that singular interdependence

    of the eye and ear so observable among the scholars of the

    far East. They trust to what is read to help in understanding what

    is heard much more than is the case in phonetic languages. (_Xo

    effort is made to facilitate the acquisition of the characters by the

    boys in school by arranging them according to their component

    parts ; they are learned one by one, as boys are taught the names

    and appearance of minerals in a cabine^<_^The effects of a course of

    study like this, in which the powers of the tender mind are not

    developed by proper nourishment of truthful knowledge, can

    hardly be otherwise than to stunt the genius, and drill the faculties of the mind into a slavish adherence to venerated usage and dictation, making the intellects of Chinese students like the trees which their gardeners so toilsomely dwarf into pots and jars—plants, whose unnaturalness is congruous to the insipidity of their fruit.)

    The number of years spent at school depends upon the means

    of the parents. Tradesmen, mechanics, and country gentlemen

    endeavor to give their sons a competent knowledge of the

    usual series of books, so that they can creditably manage the

    common affairs of life. (No other branches of study are pursued

    than the classics and histories, and what will illustrate

    them, ineanwhile giving much care and practice to composi-

    ,_jtioiiivNo arithmetic or any department of mathematics, nothing

    of the geography of their own or other countries, of natural

    philosophy, natural history, or scientific arts, nor the study of

    other languages, are attended to.) Persons in these classes of

    society put their sons into shops or counting-houses to learn the

    routine of business with a knowledge of figures and the style

    of letter-writing ; they are not kept at school more tlian three

    or four years, unless they mean to compete at the examinations.

    Working men, desirous of giving their sons a smattering,

    try to keep them at their books a year or two, but millions

    nnist of course grow up in utter ignorance. It is, however,

    an excellent policy for a state to keep up this universal honor

    paid to education where the labor is so great and the return

    so doubtful, for it is really the homage paid to the principles

    taught.

    r^ Besides the common schools, there are grammar or high

    I schools and colleges, but they are far less effective. In Canton,

    I there are fourteen grammar schools and thirty colleges, sqinej:)f

    / wluch are quite ancient, but most of them are neglected,/ Three

    of the largest contaimeach about two hundred students and two

    or three professors. (The chief object of these institutions is to

    instruct advanced scholars in composition and elegant writing ;

    the tutors do a little to turn attention to general literature, but

    have neither the genius nor the means to make many advances.”)

    In I’ural districts students are encouraged to meet at stated times

    in the town-house, where the lieadman, or deputy of the sz” or

    HABITS OF STUDY—SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 543

    township, examines them on themes previously proposed by him.’

    In large towns, the local officers, assisted by the gentry and

    graduates, hold annual examinations of students, at which pre

    miums are given to the best essayists. At such an examination

    in Amoy in March, 1845, there were about a thousand

    candidates, forty of whom received sums varying from sixty to

    sixteen cents

    ^One of the most notable, as well as the most ancient of collegiate

    institutions, is the Jvwoh-Uz’ Kien, or ‘ School for the Sons

    of the State,’ whose extensive buildings in Peking, now empty

    and dilapidated, show how much easier it is to found and plan

    a good thing than to maintain its efficiency^ , This state school

    orighiated as early as the Chau dynasty, andTtlie course of study

    as given in the Tt’itual of Chau was much the same three thousand

    years ago as at present. Its officers consisted of a rector,

    usually a high minister of state, aided by five councillors, two

    directors, two proctors, two secretaries, a librarian, two professors

    in each of the six halls, and latterly five others for each of the

    colleges for Bannermen. These halls are named Hall of the

    Pursuit of “Wisdom, the Sincere of Heart, of True Virtue, of

    Koble Aspiration, of Broad Acquirements, and the Guidance of

    Xature. ^he curriculum was not intended to go beyond the classics

    and the six libei-ai arts of music, charioteering, archery, etiquette,

    writing, and mathematics’; but as if to encourage the

    professors to ” seek out by wisdom concerning all things that are

    done under heaven,” as Solomon advises, they were told to take

    their students to the original sources of strategy, astronomy, engineering,

    music, law, and the like, and points out the defects and

    merits of each author. The Kiooh-tsz’ Kien possesses now only

    the husk of its ancient goodness ; and if its professors were not

    honored, and made eligible to be distinct magistrates after three

    years’ term, the buildings would soon be left altogether empty.

    Instead of reviving and rearranging it, the Chinese Government

    . i^ Chinese Repository, VoL IV., p. 414. See also Vol. VI., pp. 229-241;Vol. IV., pp. 1-10; Vol. XL, pp. 545-557 ; and Vol. XIII. , pp. 626-641, for further notices of the modes and objects of education ; Biot, Essai stir VHistoiie de I’Instruction PiMiqiie en Chine, and liis translation of the C1uw-li, VoL H.,p. 27, Paris, 1851. Chinese Recorder, September, 1871.

    Las wisely supplanted it by a new college with its new professors

    and new course of studies—the Tang-iodn Kwan mentioned on p.

    436. Kative free schools, established by benevolent })ersons in

    city or country, are not uncommon, and serve to maintain the literary

    spirit ; some may not be very long-lived, but others take

    their place. In Peking, each of the Banners has its school, and so

    lias the Imperial Clan ; retired officials contribute to schools

    opened for boys connected with their nativ^e districts living in

    the capital. Such efforts to promote education are expected

    from those who have obtained its high prizes.

    ow great a proportion of the people in China can read, is a

    difficult question to answer, for foreigners have had no means of

    learning the facts in the case, and the natives never go into such

    inquiries. More of the men in cities can read than in the country,

    and inore in some provinces than in othfirSj,’ In the district

    anhai, which forms part of the city of Canton, an imperfect

    examination led to the belief that neaily all the men are

    able to read, except fishermen, agriculturists, coolies, boat-people,

    and fuelers, and that two or three in ten devote their lives

    to literary pursuits. In less thickly settled districts, not more

    than four- or five-tenths, and even less, can read. /Tn Macao,

    perhaps half of the men can read. From an examination of the

    hospital patients at Kingpo, one of the missionaries estimated

    the readers to form not more than five per cent, of the men ;

    while another missionary at the same place, w^ho made inquiry in

    a higher grade of society, reckoned them at twenty per cent.

    The villagers about Amoy are deplorably ignorant ; one lady

    who had lived there over twenty years, writes that she had never

    found a woman who could ycad, but these were doubtless from

    among the poorer classes. It appears that as one goes north, the

    extent and thoroughness of education diminishes. ^Throughout

    the Enipiretho ability to understand books is not commensurate

    with the ability to read the characters, and both ha\e been somewhat

    exaggerated. Owiner to the manner in which education is

    commenced^learning the forms and sounds of characters before

    their meanings are understood—it comes to pass tliat many persons

    can call over the names of the characters while they^do not

    comprehend in the least the sense of what they readJ/ They can

    rROPOllTIOX OF THOSE WHO CAN READ IX CHINA. 545

    pick oat ;i word here and there, it may be a phrase or a sentence,

    but they derive no clearer meaning from the text before them

    than a lad, who has just learned to scan, and has proceeded half

    through the Latin Header, does from reading Virgil ; while in

    both cases an intelligent audience, unacquainted with the facts,

    might justly infer that the reader understood what he was readino-

    as well as his hearers did. Moreover, in the Chinese language,

    different subjects demand different characters ; and although a

    man may be well versed in the classics or in fiction, he may be

    easily posed by being asked to explain a simple treatise in medicine

    or in mathematics, in consequence of the many new or unfamiliar

    words on every page. This is a serious obsta^e in the way

    of obtaining a general acquaintance with boolvS^The mind be-‘

    comes weary with the labor of study where its toil is neither rewarded

    b}^ knowledge nor beguiled by wit ; consequently, few

    Chinese are well read in their natural literature. The study o£

    books being regarded solely as the means wherewith to attain ai

    definite end, it follovs naturally that when a cultivated man haa

    reached his goal he should feel little disposed to turn to these;

    inmlements of his profession for either instruction or pleasure^

    (Wealthy or official parents, who wish their sons to compete

    for literarv honors, o-ive them the advantages of a full course in

    reading and rhetoric under the best masters. Composition is

    the most difficult part of the training of a Chinese student, and

    requires unwearied application and a retentive memory. lie

    who can most readily quote the classics, and approach the nearest

    to their terse, comprehensive, energetic diction and style, is,

    cmierls iKtrihus^ most likely to succeed ; while the man who can

    most quickly throw off well rhythmed verses takes the palm

    from all competitor^. In novels, the ability to compose elegant

    verses as fast as the pencil can fly is usually ascribed to the hero

    of the plot. How many of those who intend to compete for

    degrees attend at the district colleges or high schools is not

    known, but they are resorted to by students about the time of

    the examinations in order to make the acquaintance of those

    who are to conq^ete with them. Xo public examinations take

    place in either daj’ or private schools, nor do parents often visit

    them, but rewards for remarkable proficiency are occasionally conferred. (There is little gradation of studies, nor are any diplomas conferred on students to show that they have gone Q . through a certain course. Punishments are severe, and the rattan or bamboo hangs conspicuously near the master, and its liberal use is considered necessary : ” To educate without rigor, shows the teachers indolence,” is the doctrine, and by scolding,

    starving, castigation, and detention, the master tries to instil

    habits of obedience and compel his scholars to learn their

    task. )

    Notwithstanding the high opinion in which education is held,

    the general diffusion of knowledge, and the respect paid to

    learning in comparison with mere title and wealth, the defects of

    the tuition here brieHy described, in extent, means, purposes, and

    results, are very great. Such, too, must necessarily be the case

    until new principles and new information are infused into it.

    Considered in its best point of view, this system has effected all

    that it can in enlarging the understanding, purifying the heart,

    and strengthening the minds of the people ; but in none of these,

    nor in any of the essential points at which a sound education

    aims (as we understand the matter), has it accomplished half that

    is needed. The stream never rises even as high as its source,

    and the teachings of Confucius and Mencius have done all that

    is possible to make their countrymen thinking, useful, and intelligent

    men.

    Turn we now from this brief sketch of primary education

    among the Chinese, to a description of the mode of examining

    students and conferring the degrees which have been made the

    passport to office, and learn what are the real merits of the systeuL^-‘

    tPersons from almost every class of society may become

    (—’^naidates for degrees under the certificates of securities, but

    none are eligible for the second diploma who have not already

    received the first. It therefore happens that the republican

    license apparently’ allowed to well-nigh every subject, in reality

    reserves the prizes for the few most talented or wealtiiy persons

    in thficonamunity.) |V majority of the clever, learned, ambitious,

    and intelligent spirits in the laTid look forward to these examinations

    as the only field woithy of their efforts, and where they are

    most likely to find their equals and friends. How much better

    MODE OF EXAMINATION AND CONFERRING DEGREES. 547

    for the good of society, too, is this arena than the camp or

    the feudal court, the tournament or the monastery !

    There are four regular literary degrees, with some intermediate

    steps of a titular sort. The first is called slu-tsal, meaning

    ‘ flowering talent,’ because of the promise held out of the future

    success of the scholar ; it has often been rendered ‘ bachelor of

    arts ‘ as its nearest equivalent. The examinations to obtain it

    are held under the supervision of the chihien in a public

    building belonging to the district situated near his yamun ; and

    the chief literary officer, called Moh-ching^ ‘ corrector of learning,’

    or Mao-yu, ‘ teacher of the commands,’ has the immediate

    control. (When assembled at the hall of examination, the district

    magistrate, the deputy chancellor, and prefect, having prepared

    the lists of the undergraduates and selected the themes,

    allow only one day for writing the essays. The number of candidates

    depends upon the population and literary spirit of the district

    } in the districts of Xanhai and Pwanyu, upward of two

    thousand persons competed for the prize in 1832, while in

    Hiangshan not half so many came together. The rule for apportioning

    them was at first according to the annual revenue.

    “When the essays are handed in, they are looked over by the

    board of examiners, and the names of the successful students

    entered on a roll, and pasted upon the walls of the magistrate’s

    hall ; this hoaor is called Men ming, i.e., ‘ having a name in

    the village.’ Out of the four thousand candidates referred to

    above, only thirteen in one district, and fourteen in the other,

    obtained a name in the village ; the entire population of these

    two districts is not much under a million and a half. Many of

    the competitors at this primary tripos are unable to finish their

    essays in the day, others make errors in writing, and others

    show gross ignorance, all of which so greatly diminish their

    numbers, that only those who stand near the head of the list of

    Men mhuj do really or usually enter on the next trial before

    the prefect. ^ But all have had an equal chance, and few complain

    that their performances were disregarded, for they can try as often as they please.

    (Those who pass the first examination are entered as candidates for the second, which takes place in the chief town of the department before the literary chancellor and the prefect, as. sisted bj a literary magistrate called Mao-shao, ‘ giver of instructions; ‘ it is more rigorous than that held before the chihlcn^ though similar to it in nature. The prefect arranges the candidates from each district by themselves according to their standing on their several lists, and it is this vantage ground which makes the first trial in one’s native place so important to the

    ambitious scholar. The themes on which they have tested their

    scholarship are published for the information of friends and the

    other examiners. If the proportion given above of successful

    candidates at the district examinations hold for each district,

    there would not be more than two hundred students assembled

    at the prefect’s hall, but the number is somewhat increased by

    persons who have purchased the privilege ; still the second trial

    is made among a small number in projjortion to the first, and

    yet more trifling when compared with the amount of population.

    The names of the successful students at the second trial are exposed

    on the walls of the office, which is called y^* mlng^ i.e.,

    ‘ having a name in the department,’ and these only are eligible

    as candidates for the third trial} (In addition to their knowledge

    of the classics, the candidates at this trial are often required to

    write off the text of the Siting Yu, or ‘ Sacred Edict,’ from memory,

    as this work consists of maxims for the guidance of officer§li

    The literary chancellor exercises a superintendence over the

    previous examinations, and makes the circuit of the province to

    attend them in each department, twice in three years. There

    are various ranks among these educational officials, corresponding

    to the civilians in the province ; transfers are occasionally

    made from one service to the other, and the oversight of the

    latter is always given at; the examinations wherever they ai’C

    held. Most of the literary officers, however, remain in their

    own line, as it is highly honorable and more permanent. (At the

    third trial in the provincial capital, he confers the first degree of

    siio-tmi upon those who are chosen out of the whole list as the

    best scholars.^

    EXAMINATION FOR THE DEGREE OF SIU TSAI. 649

    There are several classes of bachelors, depending; somewhat on the manner in which they obtained their dciirree ; those who get it in the maimer here described take the precedence. yiAiQ possession of this degree protects the person from corporeal punishment, raises him above the common people, renders him a consj)icuons man in his native place, and eligible to enter the triennial examination for the second degree. (Those who have more money than learning, purchase this degree for sums varying from $200 up to $1000, and even higher; in later years, according to the necessities of the government, diplomas have been sold as low as $25 to $50, but such men seldom risel They are called kien-sd/Kj, and, as might be supposed, are looked upon

    somewhat contemptuously by those who have passed through the

    regular examinations, and ” won the battle with their own

    lance.” A degree called Imng-sdng is purchased by or bestowed

    upon the slu-tsal, but is so generally recognized that it has almost

    become a fifth degree, which does not entitle them to the

    full honors of a ku-jin. What proportion of scholars are rewarded

    by degrees is not known, but it is a small number compared

    with the candidates. A graduate of considerable intelligence

    at Ningbo estimated the number of sia-tsal in that city at four hundred, and in the department at nearly a thousand. ( In

    Canton City, the number of shin-hin, or gentry, who are allowed

    to wear the sash of honor, and have obtained literary degrees, is

    not over three hundred ; but in the wdiole province there are

    about twelve thousand bachelors in a population of nineteen

    millions.) Those who have not become siu-tsal are still regarded

    as under the oversight of the hiao-yu and others of his class,

    who still receive their essays ; but the body of provincial

    siu-tsai are obliged to report themselves and attend the prefectural

    tripos before the chancellor, under penalty of losing all the

    privileges and rank obtained. (This law brings them before

    those who may take cognizance of misdeeds, for these men are

    often very oppressive and troublesome to their countrymen^

    The graduates in each district are placed under the control of a chief, whose power is almost equal to the deputy chancellors; from them are taken the two securities required by each applicant to enter the tripos.

    The candidates for siu-tsai are narrowly examined when they enter the hall, their pockets, shoes, wadded robes, and ink-stones, all being searched, lest precomposed essays or other aids to com position be smuggled in. When they are all seated in the hall in their proper places, the wickets, doors, windows, and other entrances are all guarded, and pasted over with strips of paper.

    The room is filled with anxious competitors arranged in long seats, pencil in hand, and ready to begin. The theme is given out, and every one immediately writes off his essay, carefully

    noting how many characters he erases in composing it, and hands

    it up to the board of examiners ; the whole day is allotted to the

    task, and a signal-gun announces the hour when the doors are

    thrown open, and the students can disperse. (A man is liable to

    lose his acquired honor of sla-tsai if at a subsequent inspection

    he is found to have discarded his studies, and he is therefore impelled

    to pursue them in order to maintain his influence, even if

    he does not reach the next degree. ‘\

    ^ince the first degree is sometimes procured by influence and

    money, it is the examination for the second, called hiljin, or

    ‘ promoted men,’ held triennially in the provincial capitals before

    two imperial commissioners, that separates the candidates

    into students and ofiacers, though all the students who receive a

    diploma by no means become officers./ This examination is held

    at the same time in all the eighteen provincial capitals, viz., on

    the 9th, 12th, and 15tli days of the eighth moon, or about the

    middle of September ; while it is going on, the city appears exceedingly

    animated, in consequence of the great number of relatives

    and friends assembled with the students. The persons

    who preside at the examination, besides the imperial commissioners,

    are ten provincial officers, with the futai at their head,

    who jointly form a board of examiners, and decide upon the

    merits of the essays. (The number of candidates who entered

    the lists at Canton in the years 1828 and 1831 was 4,800 ; in

    1832 there were 6,000, which is nearer the usual number. In

    the largest provinces it reaches as many as 7,000, 8,000, and upward.]

    ^Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 349; Vol. XVI., pp. 67-72. Doolittle, Social Life of f/te Chineisc, Vol. I., pp. 376-443. Dr. Martin, The Chinese.

    EXAMINATION Foil THE SECOND DEGREE. 551

    Previous to entering the Kunrj T’aen, each candidate has given in all the necessary proofs and particulars, which entitle him to a cell, and receives the ticket which designates the one he is to occupy. He enters the night before, and is searched to see that no manuscript essay, “skinning paper,” or miniature edition of the classics, is secreted on his person. If anything of the sort is discovered, he is punished with the cangue, degraded from his first degree, and forbidden again to compete at the examination; his father and tutor are likewise punished. ( Some of the pieces written for this purpose are marvels of penmanship, and the most finished compositions ; one set contained an essay on every sentence in the Four Books, each of the sheets covered with hundreds of characters, and the paper so thin that they could be easily read through it. The practice is, however, quite common, notwithstanding the penalties, and one censor requested a law to be passed forbidding small editions to be

    printed, and booksellers’ shops to be searched for tlieni^

    The general arrangement of the examination halls in all the

    provincial capitals is alike. A description of that at Canton,

    given on page 166, is typical of them all.

    The Hall at Peking, situated on the eastern side, not far from

    the observatory, contains ten thousand cells, and these do not

    always suffice for the host which assembles. The Hall at Fuhchau

    is equally large ; each cell is a little higher than a man’s

    head, and is open on but one side—letting in more rain and wind

    during inclement days than is comfortable. Confinement in

    these cramped cells is so irksome as to frequently cause the death

    of aged students, who are unable to sustain the fatigue, but who

    still enter the arena in hopes of at last succeeding. Cases have

    occurred where father, son, and grandson, appeared at the same

    time to compete for the same prize. (Dr. Martin’ found that out

    of a list of ninety-nine successful competitors for the second

    degree, sixteen were over forty years of age, one sixty-two, and

    one eighty-three. The average age of the whole number was over

    thirty—while in comparison with like statistics foi* the third degree,

    a proportionate increase might be looked for.) The unpleasantness

    of the strait cell is nnich increased by the smoke arising

    • The Chinese, p. 50.

    from the cooking, and by the heat of the weather. All servants are provided by government, but each candidate takes in the rice and fuel which he needs, together with cakes, tea, candles, bedding, etc., as he can afford ; no one can g(> in with him. The enclosure presents a bustling scene during the examination, and its interest intensifies until the names of the successful scholars

    are published. Should a student die in his cell, the body is pulled

    through a hole made in the wall of the enclosure, and left there for

    his friends to carry away. Whenever a candidate breaks any of

    the prescribed regulations of the contest, his name and offence are

    reported, and his name is ” pasted out ” by placarding it on the

    outer door of the hall, after which he is not allowed to enter until

    another examination comes around. More than a hundred

    persons are thus ” pasted out ” each season, but no heavy disgrace

    seems to attach to them in consequence.

    (On the first day after the doors have been sealed up, four themes are selected by the examiners from the Four Books, one of which subjects must be discussed in a poetical essay. The minimum length of the compositions is a hundred characters, and they must be written plainly and elegantly, and sent in without any names attached^ In 1828, the acumen of four thousand

    eight hundred candidates was exercised during the first day on

    these themes : ” Tsang-tsz’ said, ‘ To possess ability, and yet ask

    of those who do not ; to know much, and yet inquire of those

    who know little ; to possess, and yet appear not to possess ; to

    be full, and yet appear empty.’ “—” lie took hold of things by

    the two extremes, and in his treatment of the people maintained

    the golden medium.” “A man from his youth studies eight

    principles, and when he arrives at manhood, he wishes to reduce

    them to practice.”—The fourth essay, to be written in

    pentameters, had for its subject, “The sound of the oar, and the

    green of the hills and water.” Among the themes given out

    in 1843, were these: “lie who is sincere will be intelligent,

    and the intelligent man will be faithful.”—”In carrying out

    benevolence, there are no rules.” In 1835, one was, ” lie acts

    as he ought, both to the common people and official men, receives

    his revenue from Heaven, and by it is protected and highly

    esteemed.” Among other more practical texts are the following: ” Fire-arms began with the use of rockets in the Chau dynasty ; in what book do we first meet with the word for cannon? Is the defence of Kaifung fii its first recorded use ?

    METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE EXAMINATION. 553

    Kublai klian, it is said, obtained cannon of a new kind ; from whom did he obtain them ? When the Ming Emperors, in the reign of Yungloh, invaded Cochincliina, they obtained a kind of cannon called the weapons of the gods; can you give an account of their origin ‘( “

    The three or five themes (for the number seems to be optional)

    selected from the Five Classics are similar to these, but as those

    works are regarded as more recondite than the Four Books, so

    nmst the essayists try to take a higher style/ An officer goes

    around to gather in the pa] )ers, which are first handed to a body

    of scholars in waiting, who look them over to see if the prescribed

    rules have all been observed, and reject those which infringe

    them, /The rest are then copied in red ink, to prevent

    recognition of the handwriting, and the original manuscripts

    given to the governor. The cojjies are submitted to another

    class of old scholars for their criticism, each of whom marks the

    essays he deems best with a red circle, and these only are placed

    in the hands of the chancellors sent from Peking for their decision.

    The examining board are aided by twelve scholars of

    repute, to each of whom forty or fifty essays are given to read.

    The students are dismissed during the niglit of the ninth day,

    and reassemble before sunrise of the eleventh ; all M’hose essays

    were rejected on the first review are refused enti-ance to their

    cells. At the second tripos, five themes are given out from the

    Five Classics, and everything pi-oceeds as before in respect

    to the disposal of the manuscripts. The students are liberated

    early on the thirteenth as before by companies, under a salute

    and music as they leave the great door; their number has been

    much reduced by this time. On the next morning the roll is

    called, and those who answer to their names for the last struggle

    are furnished with five themes for essays, one for poetry, taken

    from the classics or histories, upon doubtful matters of government,

    or such problems as might arise in law and finance.

    These questions take even a more extended range, including topics relating to the laws, history, geography, and customs of the Empire in former times, doubtful points touching the classical works, and the interpretation of obscure passages, and biograpli«ical notices of statesnieiil Ut is forbidden, however, to discusa any points relating to the poHcy of the present family, or the character and learning of living statesmen); but the conduct of their rulers is now and then alluded to by the candidates. (Manuals of questions on such subjects as candidates are examined in, are commonly exposed for sale in shops about the time of these examinations.’ By noon of the sixteenth day of the eighth moon, all the candidates throughout the Empire have left their halls, and the examination is over.’

    The manner in which subjects are handled may be readily illustrated

    by introducing an essay upon this theme : ” When persons

    in high stations are sincere in the performance of relative

    and domestic duties, the people generally will be stimulated to

    the practice of virtue.” It is a fair specimen of the jejune style

    of Chinese essayists, and the mode of reasoning in a circle M’hick

    pervades their writings.

    “When the upper classes are really virtuous, the common people will inevitably become so. For, though the sincere performance of relative duties by superiors does not originate in a wish to stimulate the people, yet the people do become virtuous, which is a proof of the effect of sincerity. As benevolence is the radical principle of all good government in the world, so also benevolence is the radical principle of relative duties amongst the people. Traced back to its source, benevolent feeling refers to a first progenitor ; traced forward, it branches out to a hundred generations yet to come. The source of personal existence is one’s parents, the relations which originate from Heaven are most intimate; and that in which natural feeling blends is felt most deeply. That which is given by Heaven and by natural feeling to all, is done without any distinction between noble or ignoble. One feeling pervades all. My thoughts now refer to him who is placed in a station of eminence, and who may be called a good man. The good man who is placed in an eminent station, ought to lead forward the practice of virtue; but the way to do so is to begin with his own relations, and perform his duties to them.

    ” In the middle ages of antiquity, the minds of the people were not yet dissipated—how came it that they were not humble and observant of relative duties, when they were taught the principles of the five social relations V This having been the case, makes it evident that the enlightening of the people must depend entirely on the cordial performance of immediate relative duties. The person in an eminent station who may be called a good man, is he who appears at the head of all others in illustrating by his practice the relative duties.

    ‘ Blot, Essai sur VInstruction en Chine, p. 603.

    EXAMPLE OF AN ESSAY. 555

    To ages nearer to our own, the manners of the people were not far removed from the dutiful; how came it that any were disobedient to parents, and without

    brotherly att’ectioii, and that it was yet necessary to restrain men by intiictiug

    the eight forms of punishment ‘! This having been the case, shows tliat in the

    various modes of obtaining promotion in the state, there is nothing regarded of

    more importance than filial and fraternal duties. The person in an eminent

    station who may be called a good man, is he who stands forth as an example of

    the performance of relative duties.

    ” The difference between a person filling a high station and one of the common

    people, consists in the dej^artment assigned them, not in their relation to

    Heaven ; it consists in a difference of rank, not in a difference of natural feeling; but the common people constantly observe the sincere performance of relative duties in people of high stations. In being at the head of a family and preserving order amongst the persons of which it is composed, there should be sincere attention to politeness and decorum. A good man placed in a high station says, ‘ Who of all these are not related to me, and shall I receive them with mere external forms ‘?

    ‘ The elegant entertainment, the neatly arranged

    tables, and the exhilarating song, some men esteem mere forms, but the good

    man esteems that which dictates them as a divinely instilled feeling, and at

    tends to it with a truly benevolent heart. And who of the common peoj^le

    does not feel a share of the delight arising from fathers, and brothers, and

    kindred ? Is this joy resigned entirely to princes and kings ?

    ” In favors conferred to display the benignity of a sovereign, there should

    be sincerity in the kindness done. The good man says, ‘ Are not all these

    persons whom I love, and shall I merely enrich them by largesses ? ‘ He gives

    a branch as the sceptre of aiithority to a delicate 3’ounger brother, and to another

    he gives a kingdom witli his best instructions. Some men deem this as

    merely extraordinary good fortune, but the good man esteems it the exercise

    of a virtue of the first order, and the effort of inexpressible benevolence.

    But have the common people no regard for the spring whence the water flows,

    nor for the root which gives life to the tree and its branches ? Have they no

    regard for their kindred ? It is necessary both to reprehend and to urge them

    to exercise these feelings. The good man in a high station is sincere in the

    performance of relative duties, because to do so is virtuous, and not on account

    of the common people. I3ut the people, without knowing whence the impulse

    comes, witli joy and delight are influenced to act with zeal in this career of

    virtue ; the moral distillation proceeds with rapidity, and a vast change is effected.

    ” The rank of men is exceedingly different ; some fill the imperial throne, but every one equally wishes to do his utmost to accomplish his duty ; and success depends on every individual himself. The upper classes begin and pour the wine into the rich goblet ; the poor man sows his grain to maintain his parents ; the men in high stations grasp the silver bowl, the poor present a pigeon ; they arouse each other to unwearied cheerful efforts, and the principles implanted by Heaven are moved to action. Some things are difficult to be done, except by those who possess the glory of national rule ; but the kind feeling is what I myself possess, and may increase to an unlimited degree.

    The prince may write verses appropriate to his vine bower ; the poor man can think of his gourd shelter ; the prince may sing his classic odes on fraternal regards ; the poor man can muse on his more simple allusions to the same subject, and asleep or awake indulge his recollections ; for the feeling is instilled into his nature. When the people are aroused to relative virtues, they will be sincere ; for where are there any of the common people that do not desire to perform relative duties ? But without the upper classes performing relative duties, this virtuous desire would have no point from which to originate, and

    therefore it is said, ‘Good men in high stations, as a general at the head of liis

    armies, will lead forward the world to the practice of social virtues.’”

    _\ The discipline of mind and memory wliicli these examinations

    di’aw ont fm-nishes a grade of intellect which only needs the

    friction and experience of public life to make statesmen out of

    scholars, and goes far to account for the influence of Chinese in

    Asia. The books studied in preparation for such trials must be

    remembered with extraordinary accuracy,)though we may wish

    they contained more truth and better science. The following

    are among the questions proposed in 1853, and must be taken

    as an average : ” In the Ilan dynasty, there were three commentators

    on the J7A King^ whose explanations, and divisions

    into chapters and sentences were all different : can you give an

    account of them ?

    “—” Sz’ma Tsien took the classics and ancient

    records in arranging his history according to their facts ; some

    have accused him of undulv exaltino; the Taoists and thinking

    too highly of wealth and power. Pan Ku is clear and compreliensive,

    but on Astronomy and the Five Elements, he has written

    more than enough. Give examples and proof of these two

    statements.”—” Chin Shao had admirable abilities for historical

    writings. In his San Kiooh Chi he has depreciated Chu-koh

    Liang, and made very light of t and I, two other celebrated

    characters. What does he say of them ? ” This kind of

    question involves a wide range of reading within the native literature,

    though it of course contracts tlie mind to look upon that

    literature as containing all that is worth anything in the world/J

    ( Twenty-five days are allowed for the examining board to de

    cide on the essays ; and few tasks can be instanced moi-e irksome

    to a board of honest examiners than the perusal of between flfty

    and seventy-flve thousand papers on a dozen subjects, through

    which the most monotonous uniformity nuist necessarily run,

    ARDUOUS LABORS OF THE EXAMIXERS. 551

    and out of wliich tliey have to choose the seventy or eighty best

    —for the number of successful candidates cannot vary far from

    this, according to the size of the province. The examiners, as

    lias ah’eady been described, are aided by literary men in sifting

    this mass of papers, which relieves them of most of the laboi”,

    and secures a better decision. If the number of students be

    five tliousand, and each writes thirteen essays,- there will be

    sixty-five thousand papers, whicli allots two hundred and sixty

    essays for each of the tenexamineivs. With the help of the assistants

    who are intrusted with their examination, most of the essays obtain a reading, no doubt, by some qualified scholar.

    There is, therefore, no little sifting and selection, so that when at the last the commissioners choose three rolls of essays and poems from each of the sessions belonging to the same scholar, to pass their final judgment, the company of candidates lilcely to succeed has been reduced as. small in proportion as those in Gideon’s host who lapped water. (One of the examining committee, in 183:2, who sought to invigorate his nerves or clear his intellect for the task by a pipe of opium, fell asleep in consequence, and on awaking, found that many of the essays had caught fire and been consumed. It is generally supposed that hundreds of them are unread, but the excitement of the occasion, and the dread on the part of the examining board to irritate the body of students, act as checks against gross omissions. Very trivial errors are enough to condemn an essay, especially if the examiners have not been gained to look upon it kindly. Section LIT. of the code

    regulates the conduct of the examiners, but the punishments are

    slight. One candidate, whose essay had been condenmed without

    being read, printed it, which led to the punishment of the

    examiner, degradation of the graduate, and promulgation of a

    law forbidding this mode of appealing to the public. Another

    essay was rejected because the writer had abbreviated a single characterj

    When the names of the successful wranglers are known, they are published by a crier at midnight, on or before the tenth of the ninth moon ; at Canton, he mounts the highest tower, and, after a salute, announces them to the expectant city ; the next morning, lists of the lucky scholars are hawked about the streets, and rapidly sent to all parts of the province. The proclamat) m which contains their names is pasted upon the governor’s office under a salute of three guns ; his excellency comes out and bows three times towards the names of iha I’i’omoted men^ and retires under another salute. The disappointed multitude must then rejoice in the success of the few, and solace themselves with the hope of better luck next time ; while the successful ones are honored and feasted in a very distinguished manner, and are the objects of flattering attention from the whole city. On an appointed day, the governors, commissioners, and high provincial officers banquet them all at the futai’s palace; inferior officers attend as servants, and two lads, fantastically dressed, and holding fragrant branches of the olive(pleafragrans) in their hands

    grace the scene with this symbol of literary attainments. The

    number of A.M., licentiates, or kil-jtn, who triennially receive

    their degrees in the Empire, is upwards of thirteen hundred :

    the expense of the examinations to the government in various

    ways, including the presents conferred on the graduates, can

    hardly be less than a third of a million of taels. (Besides the

    triennial examinations, special ones are held every ten years,

    and on extraordinary occasions, as a victory, a new reign, or an

    imperial marriage. One was granted in 1835 because the Empress-

    dowager had reached her sixtieth year)

    The third degree of tsln-sz\ ‘entered scholars,’ or doctors, is

    conferred triennially at Peking upon the successful licentiates

    who compete for it, and only those among the h’d-j’m., who have

    not alread}’ taken office, are eligible as candidates. On application

    at the provincial treasury, they are entitled to a part of their

    travelling expenses to court, but it doubtless requires some interest

    to get the mileage granted, for many poor scholars are detained

    from the metropolitan examination, or nnist beg or bor

    row in order to reach it. The procedure on this trial is the

    same as in the provinces, but the examiners are of higher rank ;

    the themes are taken from the same works, and the essays ai’e

    but little else than repetitions of the same ti-ain of thought and

    argument. After the degrees are conferred upon all who are

    deeined worthy, which varies from one hundi-ed and fifty to four

    hundred each time, the doctors are introduced to the Emperor,

    EXAMINATIONS FOR TIIIKD AND FOUKTII DEGREES. 559

    and do him reverence, the three highest receiving rewards from

    him) At this examination, candidates, instead of being promoted,

    are occasionally degraded from their acquired standing

    for incompetency, and forbidden to appear at them again. VThe

    graduates are all inscribed upon the list of candidates for promotion,

    by the Board of Civil Office, to be appointed on the lirst

    vacancy ; most of them do in fact enter on official life in some

    way or other by attaching themselves to high dignitaries, or getting

    employment in some of the departments at the capital-/

    (One instance is recorded of a student taking all the degrees

    within nine months ; and some become Tianlin before entering

    office. Others try again and again, till gi’ay hairs compel them

    to retire.) I’here are many subordinate offices in the Academy,

    the Censorate, or the Boards, which seem almost to have been

    instituted for the employment of graduates, whose success has

    given them a partial claim upon the country. The Emperor

    sometimes selects clever graduates to prepare works for the use

    of government, or nominates them upon special literary commissions’”

    ‘ It can easily be understood that no small address in

    managing and appeasing such a crowd of disciplined active

    minds is required on the part of the bureaucracy, and only the

    long experience of many generations of the graduates could suffice

    to keep the system so vigorous as it is.

    The fourth and highest degree of Jianlln is rather an office

    than a degree, for those who attain it are enrolled as members

    of the Imperial Academy, and receive salaries. The triennial

    exatnination for this distinction is held in the Emperor’s palace,

    and is conducted on much the same plan as all preceding ones,

    though being in the presence of the highest personages in the

    Empire, it exceeds them in honor.’ *^ Manchus and Mongols

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 541 ; Vol. III., p. 118.

    2 See Morrison’s Chinese Dictionary, Vol. I., Part I., pp. 759-779, for the laws

    and usages of the several trials. Also Doolittle’s Sucidl Life, Vol. I. , Chaps.

    XV., XVI., and XVII. ; Biot, Essai snr VHistoirc de VInstruction PubUque en

    Chine ; W. A. P. Martin, T/iC Chiiu’se, pp. 39 ff. ; Journal Asiatique, Tomes

    III., pp. 257 and 331, IV., p. 3, and VII. (3d Series, 1839), pp. 32-81;

    Journal Asiatic Soc. Benr/al, Vol. XXVIII., No. 1, 1859; Journal N. C. Br.

    R. As. Soc, New Series, Vol. VI., pp. 129 ff. ; China Review, Vol. II., p

    309.

    compete at these trials with the Chinese, but many facts show

    tliat the former are generally favored at the expense of the latter’;

    the large proportion of men belonging to these races filling

    high oflSces indicates who are the rulers of the landT] The candidates

    are all examined at Peking ; one instance is recorded

    of a Chinese who passed himself oif for a Mancliu, but afterward

    confessed the dissimulation ; the head of the division was

    tried in consequence of his oversight. It is the professed policy

    of the govermnent to discourage literary pursuits among them,

    in order to maintain tho ancient energy of the race ; but Avhero

    the real power is lodged in the hands of civilian^^, it is impossible

    to prevent so powerful a component of the population

    from competing with the others for its possession.

    The present dynasty introduced examinations and gradations

    among the troops on the same principles as obtain in the civil

    service ; nothing more strikingly proves the power of literary

    pursuits in China, than this vain attempt to harmonize the profession

    of arms in all its branches with them. Their enemies

    were, however, no better disciplined and equipped than they

    themselves were. Candidates for the first degree present

    themselves before the district magistrate, with proper testimonials

    and securities. On certain days they are collected on

    the parade-grounds, and exhibit their skill in archery (on foot

    and in the saddle), in wielding swords and lifting weights,

    graduated to test their muscle. The successful men are assembled

    afterward before the prefect ; and again at a third trial

    before the literary chancellor, who at the last tripos tests them

    on their literary attainments, before giving them their degrees

    of siu-tsai. The number of successful military slu-tsal is tho

    same as the literary. They are triennially called together by

    tho governor at the provincial capital to undergo further examination

    for Mi-jin in four successive trials of the same nature.

    These occasions are usually great gala days, and three or four

    scores of young warriors who carry off pi’izes at these tournaments

    receive honors and degrees in much the same style as

    their literary compeers. The trials for the highest degree are

    lield at Peking ; and the long-continued efforts in this service

    generally obtain for the young men posts in the body-guard of

    COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS OF THE MILHARV. 561

    the governors or staff uppointrneiits. The forty- nine successful

    candidates out of several thousands at tlie trieiniial examination

    for l-il-jln. in Canton, November, 1882, all hit the target on

    foot six times successively, and on horseback six times ; once

    with the arrow they hit a ball lying on the ground as they

    passed it at a gallop ; and all were of the first class in wielding

    the iron-handled battle-axe, and lifting the stone-loaded beam,

    tl’he candidates are all persons of property, who find their own

    horses, dresses, arms, etc., and are handsomely dressed, the

    horses, trimmings, and accoutrements in good order—the arrows

    being without barbs, to prevent accidents. One observer

    says, ” the marks at wliich they fired, covered with white

    paper, were about the height of a man and somewhat wider,

    placed at intervals of fifty yards ; the object was to strike the>ie

    marks successively with their three ari’ows, the horses be^.’g

    kept at full speed. Although the bulTs-eye was not always

    hit, the target was never missed : the distance did not exceed

    fifteen or twenty feet.’y

    (Since military honors depend so entirely on personal skill, it

    may partly account f(jr the inferior rank the graduates hold in

    comparison with civilians. I\^o knowledge of tactics, gunnery,

    engineering, fortifications, or even, letters in general, seems to

    be required of them; and this explains the inefficiency of the

    army, and the low estimation its officers are held in. Sir J.

    Davis mentions one military officer of enoi’mous size and

    strength, Avhom. he saw on the Pei ho, who had lately been

    promoted for his personal prowess ; and speaks of another attached

    to the guard on one of the boats, who was such a foolish

    fellow that none of the civilians would associate with him.”

    All the classes eligible to civil promotion can enter the ^.sts for

    military honors ; the Emperor is present at the examination for

    the highest, and awards prizes, such as a cap decorated with a

    peacock’s feather ; but no system of prizes or examinations can

    supply the want of knowledge and courage. Military distinctions

    not being much sought by the people, and conferring but

    •Ellis, Embassy to China, p. 87; Chinese Repository, No\. XVI., p. 63;

    Vol. IV., p. 125.

    ^ Davis, Sketches, Vol. I., pp. 99, 101.

    little emolument or power, do not stand as high in public estimation as the present government wishes. The selection oi officers for the naval service is made from the land force, and a man is considered (piite as fit for that branch after his feats of archery, as if the trials had been in yacht-sailing or manning the yards. I

    Such is the outline of the system of examinations through

    which the civil and military services of the Chinese government

    are supplied) and the only part of their system not to be

    paralleled in one or other of the great monarchies of past or

    present times ; though the counterpart of this may have also

    existed in ancient Egypt. ” It is the only one of their inventions,”

    as has been remarked, “which is perhaps worth preserving,

    and has not been adopted by other countries, and carried

    to greater perfection than they were equal to.” CBut such a

    system w^ould be unnecessary in an enlightened Cliristian

    country, where the people, pursuing study for its own sake, are

    able and willing to become as learned as their rulers desire

    without any such inducement. Nor M’ould they submit to the

    trammels and trickery attendant on competition for office ; the

    ablest politicians are by no means found among the most

    learned scholars. The honor and power of official position

    liave proved to be ample stimnlus and reward for years of

    patient study, (^ot one in a score of graduates ever obtains an

    office, not one in a hundred of competitors ever gets a degree ;

    but they all belong to the literary class, and share in its influence,

    dignity, and privileges. Moreover, these books render

    not only those who get the prizes well acquainted with the true

    principles on which power should be exercised, but the whole

    nation—gentry and commoners—know them also. These unemployed

    literati form a powerful middle class, whose members

    advise the work-people, who have no time to study, and aid

    ri their rulers in the management of local affairs. Their intelligence

    fits them to control most of the property, while few

    acquire such wealth as gives them the power to oppress. They

    make the public opinion of the country, now controlling it,

    then cramping it; alternately adopting or resisting new influences,

    and sometimes successfully thwarting the acts of officials,

    OBSERVATIONS UPON THE SYSTEM. 503

    when the rights of the people are in danger of encroachment

    ;

    or at other times combining with tlie authorities to repress anarchy

    or relieve suffering.’

    (This class has no badge of I’ank, and is open to every man’s

    highest talent and efforts, but its complete neutralization of

    hereditary rights, which would have sooner or later made a

    privileged uligari^iij anil-aJiUJdeifiiLfeiKhLLMi§tQcracy, proves

    its vitalizing, democratic influence.) It has saved the Chinese’

    people from a second disintegration into numerous kingdoms,

    by the sheer force of instruction in the political rights and

    duties taught in the classics and their conmientaries. f While

    this system put all on equality, human nature, as we know, has

    no such equality. .Vt its inception it probably met general

    support from all classes, because of its fitness for the times, and

    soon the resistance of multitudes of hopeful students against

    its abrogation and their consequent disappointment in their lifework

    aided its continuance.^ As it is now, talent, wealth, learning,

    influence, paternal raidc, and intrigue, each and all have

    full scope for their greatest efforts in securing the prizes. If

    these prizes had been held by a tenure as slippery as they

    are at present in the American Republic, or obtainable only

    by canvassing popular votes, the system would surely have

    failed, for ” the game would not have been worth the candle.”

    But in China the throne gives a character of pernumency to

    the government, which opposes all disorganizing tendencies,

    and makes it for the interest of every one in ofiice to strengthen

    the power which gave it to him. This loyalty was remarkably

    shown in the recent rebellion, in which, during the eighteen

    years of that terrible carnage and ruin, not one imperial official

    voluntarily joined the Tai-pings, while hundreds died resisting

    them.

    There is no space here for further extracts from the classics

    which will adequately show their character. They would prove

    that Chinese youth, as well as those in Christian lands, are

    taught a higher standard of conduct than they follow. The

    former are, however^ drilled in the very best moral books the

    language affords ; if the Proverbs of Solomon and the New Testament were studied as thoroughly in our schools as the Four Books are in China, our young- ineu would be better fitted to act their part as good and useful citizens.

    fin this way literary pursuits have taken precedence of warlike,

    and no unscrupulous (“sesar or ]^apoleon has heen able to

    use the army for his own aggrandizement. The army of

    Cliina is contemptible, certainly, if compared with those of

    Western nations, and its use is rather like a police, whose powers

    of protection or oppression are exhibited according to the

    tempers of those Avho employ them. But in China the army

    has not been employed, as it was by those great captains, to

    destroy the institutions oti ^vhich it rests ; though its weakness

    and want of discipline often make it a greater evil than good to

    the people.) But had the military waxed strong and efficient,

    it would certainly have l)ecome a terror in the hands of ambitious

    monarchs, a drain on the resources of the land, pci-haps

    a menace to other nations, or finally a destroyer of its own.

    (The officials were taught, when young, what to honor in their

    rulers ; and, now that they liold those stations, they learn that

    discreet, upright magistrates do receive reward and promotion,

    and experience has shown them that peace and thrift are the

    ends and evidence of good government, and the best tests of

    their own fitness for office.?

    Another observable result of this republican method of getting

    the best-educated men into office is the absence of any

    class of slaves or serfs among the population. Slavery exists in

    a modified form of corporeal mortgage for debt, and thousands

    remain in this serfdom for life through one reason or another.

    But the destruction of a feudal baronage involved the extinction

    of its correlative, a villein class, and the oppression of

    poor debtors, as Avns the case in Rome under the consuls. Only

    freemen are eligil>le to enter the concoKfs^ but the percentage

    of slaves is too snuill to influence the total. To this cause, too,

    may, perhaps, to a large degree, be ascribed the absence of

    anything like caste, which has had such bad effects in India.

    <‘^The system could not be transplanted ; it is fitted for the

    ‘genius of the Chinese, and they have become well satisfied

    with its workings, jits purification would do great good, doubtless,

    if the mass or^the people are to be left in their present

    VARIOUS KKSl’LTS TO THE LAND AND PKOI’LIO. 565

    state of ignoi’ance, but their elevation in knowledge would, ere

    long, revolutionize the whole. There can be no doubt as to

    tlie important and beneficial i-esnlts it has accomplished, with / .

    all its defects, in perpetuating and strengthening the system of

    government, and securing to the people a more equitable and

    vigorous body of magistrates than they could get in any other

    way. It offers an honorable career to the most ambitious, taleiited,

    or turbulent spirits in the country, which demands all

    their powers ; and by the time they enter upon office, those

    aspirations and powers have been drilled and molded into use-

    1

    ful service, and are ever after devoted to the maintenance of \

    the system they might otherwise have wrecke^.f Most of the

    real benefits of Chinese education and this sj’sfem of examinations

    are reached before the conferment of the degree of Ixujin.

    These consist in diffusing a general respect and taste for

    letters among the people ; in calling out the true talent of the

    country to the notice of the rulers in an honorable path of effort

    ; in making all persons so thoroughly acquainted -with the

    best moral books in the language that they cannot fail to exercise

    some salutary i-estraint ; in elevating the genei-al standard

    of education so much that every man is almost compelled to

    give his son a little learning in order that he may get along in

    life ; and finally, through all these influences, powerfully contributing

    to uphold the existing institutions of the Empire.

    From the intimate knowledge thus obtained of the writings

    of their best minds, Chinese youth learn the principles of democratic

    nde as opposed to personal authority ; and from this instruction

    it has resulted that no monarch has evei* been able to

    use a standing army to enslave the people, or seize the proceeds

    of their industry for his own selfish ends^’ Nothing in Chinese

    politics is more worthy of notice than the unbounded reverence

    for the Emperor, while each man resists unjust taxation, and

    joins in killing or driving away oppressive officials. [Educated

    men form the only aristocracy in the land ; and the attainment

    of the first degree, by introducing its owner into the class of

    gentnj, is considered ample compensation for all the expense

    and study spent in getting it. On the whole, it may safely be

    asserted that these examinations have done more to maintain the stability, and explain the continuance, of the Chinese government than any other single canse.)

    Ijhe principal defects and malversations in the system can

    soon be shown. Some are inherent, but others rather prove

    the badness of the material than of the system and its harmonious

    workings. One great difRcnlty in the way of the graduated

    students attaining office according to their merits is the

    favor shown to those who can buy nominal and real honors.

    “”Two_censm:g^,-ill–1822, laid a document before his Majesty, in

    M’hich the evils attendant on selling office are shown ; viz., elevating

    priests, highwaymen, merchants, and other unworthy or

    uneducated men, to responsible stations, and placing insurmountable

    difficulties in the way of hard-working, worthy students

    reaching the reward of their toi^ They state that the

    plan of selling offices connnenced during the II an dynasty, but

    speak of the greater disgrace attendant upon the plan at the

    present time, because the avails all go into the privy purse instead

    of being applied to the public service ; they recommend,

    therefore, a reduction in the disbursements of the imperial estal)

    iishment. LVniong the items mentioned by these oriental

    Joseph Humes, which they consider extravagant, are a lac of

    taels (100,000) for tlowers and rouge in the seraglio, and 120,-

    000 in salaries to waiting-boys ; two lacs were expended on the

    gardens of Yuenming, and almost half a million of taels upon

    the parks at Jeh ho, while the salaries to officers and presents

    to women at Yuenming were over four lacs. ” If these few

    items of expense were abolished,” they add, “there would be a

    saving of moi’e than a million of taels of useless expenditure

    ;

    talent might be brought forward to the service of the country,

    and the people’s wealth be secured.”

    i^n consequence of the extensive sale of offices, they state

    that more than five thousand ^.s/;? -,<?.;’ doctors, and more than

    twenty-seven thousand l-il-j’ui licentiates, arc waiting for employment

    ; and those first on the list obtained their degrees

    thirty years ago, so that the pi-obability is that when at last

    employed, they will be too old for service, and be declared

    superannuated in the first examination of official merits and demerits.

    The rules to be observed at the regular examinations

    ITS rilACTICAL DEFECTS AND CORRUPTION. 067

    are strict, but no questions are asked the buyers of office ; and

    they enter, too, on their duties as soon as the money is paid.

    The censors quote tliree sales, ^vhose united proceeds amounted

    to a quarter of a million of taels, and state that the whole income

    from this source for twenty years was only a few lacs.

    Examples of the flagitious conduct of these purse-proud magistrates

    are quoted in proof of the bad results of the plan.

    ” Thus the priest Siang Yang, prohibited from holding office,

    bought his way to one ; the intcndant at Xingpo, from being a

    mounted highwayman, bought his M’ay to office ; besides others

    of the vilest parentage. But the covetousness and cruelty of

    these men are denominated purity and intelligence ; they inflict

    severe punishments, which make the people terrified, and

    their superiors point them out as possessing decision : these are

    our able officers !

    “/^

    After animadverting on the general practice “of all officers,

    from governor-generals down to village magistrates, combining

    to gain their jMU-poses l)y hiding the truth from the sovereign,”

    and specifying the malversations of Tohtsin, the premier, in

    particular, they close their paper with a protestation of their

    integrity. “If your Majesty deems what we have now stated

    to be right, and will act thereon in the government, you will

    realize the designs of the souls of your sacred ancestors; and

    the army, the nation, and the poor people, M’ill have cause for

    gladness of heart. Should we be subjected to the operation of

    the hatchet, or suffer death in the boiling caldron, we will not

    decline it,”

    These censors place the proceeds of “button scrip “far too

    low, for/in 1826, the sale produced about six millions of taels,

    and was continued at intervals during the three following

    years. In 1831, one of the sons of HoAvqua was created a

    ku-jin by patent for having subscribed nearly fifty thousand

    dollars to repair the dikes near Canton ; and upon another was

    conferred the rank and title of ” director of the salt monopoly”

    for a lac of taels toward the war in Turkestan, Neither of

    these persons ever held any office of power, nor probably did

    they expect it ; and such may be the case with many of those

    who are satisfied with the titles and buttons, feathers and robes, which their money procures./ The sale of office is rather accepted

    as a State necessity which does not necessarily bring

    tyrants npon the bench ; but when, as was the case in 1863.

    Peiching, head of the Examining Board at Peking, fraudulently

    issued two or three diplomas, his execution vindicated

    the law, and deterred similar tampering with the life-springs of

    the system, ^i^uring the present dynasty, military men have

    l)een frequently appointed to magistracies, and the detail of

    their offices intrusted to needy scholars, which has tended, still

    further, to disgii^ and dishearten the latter from resorting to

    the literary arena.)

    The language itself of the Chinese, which has for centuries

    aided in preserving their institutions and strengthening national

    homogeneity amid so many local varieties of speech, is now

    rather in the way of their progress, and may be pointed to as

    another unfortunate feature which infects this system of education

    and examination ; for it is impossible for a native to write

    a treatise on grammar about another language in his own

    tongue, through which another Chinese can, unaided, learn to

    speak that language. This people have, therefore, no ready

    means of learning the best thoughts of foreign minds. Such

    being the case, the ignorance of their first scholars as regards

    other races, ages, and lands has been their misfortune far more

    than their fault, and thej’ have suffered the evils of their isolation.

    One has been an utter ignorance of what would have

    conferred lasting benefit resulting from the study of outside

    conceptions of morals, science, and politics, (inasmuch as

    neither geography, natural history, mathematics, nor the history

    or languages of other lands forms part of the curriculum,

    these men, trained alone in the classics, have naturally grown

    up with distorted views of their own country. The officials

    are imbued with conceit, ignorance, and arrogance as to its

    power, resources, and comparative influence, and are helpless

    when met by greater skill or strength. However, these disadvantages,

    great as they are and have been, have mostly resulted

    naturally fi-om their secluded position, and are rapidly yielding

    to the new influences which are acting upon government and

    people.^ To one contemplating this startling metamorphosis,

    SALE OF DEGREES a:ND FORGED DIPLOMAS. D6j)

    the foremost wish, indeed, must he that these causes do not

    disinte^’-rate their ancient economies too fast for the recuperation

    and preservation of wliatever is good therein.

    |\nother evil is ^h^ bribery practised to attain the degrees.

    By certain signs placed on the essays, the examiner can easily

    pick out those he is to approve; §8,000 was said to be the

    price of a bachelor’s degree in Canton, but this sum is within

    the reach of few out of the six thousand candidates. The poor

    SL’liolars sell their services to tlie rich, and for a certain price

    will enter the hall of examination, and personate their employer,

    running the risk and penalties of a disgraceful exposure if

    detected ; for a less sum they will drill them before examination,

    or write the essays entirely, which the rich booby must commit

    to memory.) ^The purchase of forged diplomas is another mode

    of obtaining a graduate’s honors, which, from some discoveries

    made at Peking, is so extensively practised, that when this and

    other corruptions are considered, it is surprising that any person

    can be so eager in his studies, or confident of his abilities,

    as ever to think he can get into office by them alone. In 1830,

    the Gazette contained some documents showing that an inferior

    officer, aided by some of the clerks in the Board of Hevenue,

    during the successive superintendence of twenty presidents of

    the Board had sold twenty thousand four hundred and nineteen

    foi-ged diplomas ; and in the ])rovince of Xganhwui, the

    writers in the office attached to the Board of Ileveuue had

    carried on the same practice for four years, and forty-six persons

    in that province were convicted of possessing them. All

    the principal criminals convicted at this time were sentenced to

    decapitation, butCjhese cases are enough to show that the real

    talent of the country does not often find its way into the magistrate’s

    seat without the aid of money ; nor is it likely that the

    tales of such delinquencies often appear in the Gazette. Literary

    chancellors also sell bachelors’ degrees to the exclusion of

    deserving poor scholars ; the office of the // ‘lohchhuj of Kiangsi

    was searched in 1828 by a special commission, and four lacs of

    taels found in it ; he hung himself to avoid further punishment,

    as did also the same dignitary in (^anton in 1833, as was supposed,

    for a similar cause. It is in this way, no doubt, that the ill-fjotten o;ains of most officers return to the o-enenil cirdilation.’

    Notwithstanding these startling corruptions, which seem to

    involve the principle on which the harmony and efficiency of

    the whole machinery of state stand, it cannot be denied, judging

    from tlie results, that the highest officei’s of the Chinese

    government do possess a very respectable rank of talent and

    knowledge, and carry on the unwieldy machine with a degree

    (»f integrity, pati’iotism, industry, and good order which shows

    that the leading minds in it are well chosen. The person who

    has originally obtained his rank by a forged diploma, or by

    direct purchase, cannot hope to rise or to maintain even his first

    standing, without some knowledge and parts. One of the tlu’ce

    commissioners whom Kiying associated with himself in his

    negotiations with the American minister in lS4-i, was a supernumerary

    cluhloi of forbidding appearance, who could hardly

    Avrite a common document, but it was easy to see the low estimation

    the ignoranms was hold in. It may therefore be fairly

    inferred that enough large prizes are drawn to incite successive

    generations of scholars to compete for them, and thus to maintain

    the literary spirit of the people. At these examinations

    the superior minds of the country are brought together in large

    bodies, and thus they learn each others views, and are able to

    check official oppressions with something like a public ojunion.

    In Peking the concourse of several thousands, from the remotest

    provinces, to compete at or assist in the triennial examinations,

    exerts a great and healthy influence upon their rulers

    and themselves. jSTothing like it ever has been seen in any

    other metropolis.

    ^The enjoyment of no small degree of power and influence in

    their native village, is also to be considered in estinuiting the

    rewards of studious toil, whether the student get a diploma or

    not ; and this local consideration is the most common i-eward

    attending the life of a scholar. ^ In those villages where no

    governmental officer is specially appointed, such men are almost

    sure to become the headmen and most influential persons in the

    very spot)where a Chinese loves to be distinguished, (rraduates

    are likewise allowed to erect flag-staffs, or put up a red sign

    INFLUENCE AND IlESPECT OBTAINED BY BACHELORS. 57]

    over the door of tlieir lionses si lowing tlie degree tliev have obtained,

    wliich is both a hariuloss and gratifying reward of

    stud}’/; like the additions of Cant((h. or Odvu.^ D.D. or LL.D.,

    to their owner’s names in other lands.

    (The fortune attending the unsuccessful candidates is various/

    Thousands of them get employment as school-teachers, pettifogging notaries, and clerks in the public offices, and others who are rich return to their families. Some are reduced by degrees to beggary, and resort to medicine, fortune-telling, letter-writing, and other such shifts to eke out a living. Many turn their attention to learning the modes of drawing up deeds and forms used in dealings regarding property ; others look to aiding military men in their duties, and a few turn authors, and thus in one way or another contrive to turn their learning to account.

    During the period of the examinations, when the students are assembled in the capital, the officers of government are careful not to irritate them by punishment, or offend their €ii]^>i-it ile corj)s^ but rather, by admonitions and warnings, induce them to set a good example. The personal reputation of the officer himself has much to do with the influence he exerts over the students, and whether they will heed his cdveats. One of the examiners in Zhejiang, irritated by the impei’tinence of a bachelor, who presumed upon his immunity from corporeal chastisement, twisted his ears to teach him better manners; soon after, the student and two others of equal degree were accused before the same magistrate for a libel, and one of them beaten forty strokes upon his palms. At the ensuing examination, ten of the xiucai indignant at this unauthorized treatment, refused to appear, and all the candidates, when they saw who was to preside, dispersed immediately. In his memorial upon the matter, the governor-general recommends both this officer, and another one who talked much al)Out the affair and produced a great effect upon the public mind, to be degraded, and the bachelors to be stripped of their honors. A magistrate of Honan, having punished a student with twenty blows, the assembled body of students rose and threw their caps on the ground, and walked ofp, leaving him alone. The prefect of Canton, in 1842, having become obnoxious to the citizens from the part lie took in ransoming the city M’lien surrounded by the British forces, the students refused to receive him as their examiuer, and when he appeai’ed in tlie liall to take his seat,

    drove him out of the room by throwing their ink-stones at him ;

    he soon after resigned his statio’N. Perhaps the siu-tsai are

    more impatient than the hu-jin from being better acquainted

    with eacli other, and being examined by local officers, while the

    I’il-jin are overaw’ed by the rank of the commissioners, and,

    coming from distant parts of a large province, have little

    }mitual sympathy or acquaintance. The examining boards,

    however, take pains to avoid displeasing any gathering of graduates.

    We have seen, then, in what has been of necessity a somewhat

    cursory resmue, the management and extent of an institution

    which has opened the avenues of rank to all, by

    teaching candidates how to maintain the principles of liberty

    and equality they had learned from their oft-quoted ‘ancients.’

    All that these institutions need, to secure and promote the highest welfare of the people—as they themselves, indeed, aver—is their faithful execution in every department of government; as we find them, no higher evidence of their remarkable wisdom can be adduced, than the general order and peace of the land. When one sees the injustice and oppressions in law courts, the feuds and deadly fights among clans, the prevalence of lying, ignorance, and pollution among commoners, and the unscrupulous struggle for a living going on in every rank of life, he wonders that Tuiiversal anarchy does not destroy the whole machine. But ‘ the powers that be are ordained of God.”

    The Chinese seem to have attained the great ends of human government to as high a degree as it is possible for man to go without the knowledge of divine revelation. That, in its great truths, its rewards, its hopes, and its stimulus to good acts has yet to be received among them. The course and results of the struggle between the new and the old in the land of Sinim will fomi a remarkable chapter in the history of man.

    FKMA^ EDUCATION IX CHINA. 573

    With regard to female education, it is a singular anomaly among Chinese writers, that while they lay great stress upon maternal instruction in f(u-ining the infant mind, and leading i* on to exoelleiK’O, no more of them should have turned their attention to the preparation ©f hooks for girls, and the establishment of female schools. There are some reasons for the absence of the latter to be found in the state of society, notable among which must stand, of course, the low position of woman in every oriental community, and a general contempt for the capacity of the female mind. It is, moreover, impossible to procure many qualified schoolmistresses, and to this we must add the hazard of sending girls out into the streets alone, where they would run some risk of being stolen. (^~~The principal stimulus

    for boys to study—the hope aiid:”~pi”ospect of office—is

    taken away from girls, and Chinese literature offei’s little to re-|

    pay them for the labor of learning it in addition to all the

    domestic duties which devolve upon them// Nevertheless, education

    is not entirely confined to the sti-onger sex ; seminaries

    for young women are not at all unconnnon in South China, and

    it is not unusual to find private tutors giving instruction to

    young ladies at their houses.* Though this must be regarded

    as a comparative statement, and holding much more for the

    southern than for the northern provinces, on the other hand, it

    may be asserted that literary attainments are considered creditable

    to a wonuin, more than is the case in India or Siam ; the

    names of authoresses mentioned in Chinese annals would make

    a long list. Yuen Yuen, tlie governor general of Canton, in

    1S20, while in office, published a volume of his deceased’s

    daughter’s poetical effusions ; and literary men ai-e usually desirous

    of having their daughters accomplished in music and

    poetry, as well as in composition and classical lore. Such an

    education is considered befitting their station, and reflecting

    credit on the family.

    One of the most celebrated female writers in China is Pan

    Ilwui-pan, also known as Pan Chao, a sister of the historian

    Pan Ivu, who wrote the histoiy of the former Ilan dynasty.

    She M’as appointed historiographer after his death, and completed

    his unfinished annals ; she died at the age of seventy,

    and was honored by the Emperor Ho with a public burial, and

    ‘ Arcluleacon Gray, China, Vol. I., p. 167.

    the title of the (ireat Lady Tsao. About a.d. So, slie was made

    pi”eeeptress of tlie Empress, and wrote the Urst woi-k in any

    language on female education ; it was called Nil Kiai or Fe-

    ‘inale Precej’ts^ and has formed the basis of many succeeding

    books on female education. The aim of her writings was to

    elevate female character, and make it virtuous. She says, ” The

    virtue of a female does not consist altogether in extraordinary

    abilities or intelligence, but in being modestly grave and inviolably

    chaste, observing the requirements of virtuous widowhood,

    and in being tidy in her person and evei-ything about

    her ; in whatever she does to be unassmning, and M’henever she

    moves or sits to be decorous. This is female virtue.” Instruction

    in morals and the various branches of domestic economy

    are more insisted upon in the Mi-itings of this and other authoresses,

    than a knowledge of the classics or histories of the country.

    One of the most distinguished Chinese essayists of modern

    times, Luhchau, published a Avork for the benefit of the sex,

    called the Female Instructor j an extract from liis preface will

    show what ideas are generally entertained on female education

    by Chinese moralists.

    ” The basis of the government of the Empire lies in the habits of the people, and the surety that their usages will be correct is in the orderly management of families, which last depends chiefly upon the females. In the good old times of Cliau, the virtuous women set such an excellent example that it influenced the customs of the Empire—an influence that descended even to the times of the Ching and Wei states. If the curtain of the inner apartment gets thin, or is hung awry [i.e., if the sexes are not kept apart], disorder will enter the family, and viltimately pervade the Empire. Females are doubtless the sources of good manners ; from ancient times to the present this has been the case. The inclination to virtue and vice in women differs exceedingly; their dispositions incline contrary ways, and if it is wished to form them alike, there is nothing like education. In ancient times, youth of both sexes were

    in.structed. According to the A’rtwa^ 0/ 67</<m, ‘the imperial wives regulated the law for educating females, in order to instruct the ladies of the palace in morals, conversation, manners, and work ; and each led out her respective

    (dasses, at proper times, and arranged them for examination in the imperial

    presence.’ But these treatises have not reached us, and it cannot be distinctljr

    ascertained what was their plan of arrangement

    “The t^lncation of a woman and that of a man arc* very <lissimilar. Tlius,

    a man can study during his whole life ; whether he is abroad or at home, lit

    THE “female IISrSTRUCTOR” ON WOMEN”. 575

    can always look into the classics and history, and liecome thorouglily ac-nainted

    wilh the wlioUi range of authors, lint a woman does not study mori; than ten

    years, when she takes upon her the management of a family, whave a multiplicity

    of cares distract her attention, and having no leisure lor undisturbed

    study, she cannot easily understand learned authors ; not having obtained a

    thorough acquaintance with letters, she does not fully comprehend their principles

    ; and like water that has flowed from its fountain, she cannot regulate

    lier conduct by their guidance. How can it be said that a standard work on

    female education is not wanted 1 Every profession and trade has its appropriate

    master ; and ought not those also who possess sucli an influence over manners

    [as females] to be tanght their duties and tluir proper limits ? It is a

    matter of regret, that in these books no extracts liave been made from the

    works of Confucius in order to make them introductory to the writings on polite

    literature ; and it is also to be regretted that selections have not been made

    from the commentaries of Clung, Chu, and other scholars, who have explained

    his writings clearly, as also from the whole range of writers, gathering from

    them all that which was appropriate, and omitting the rest. These are circulated

    among mankind, together with such books as the Juvenile InstrucU/i’

    ;

    yet if they are put into the hands of females, they cause them to become like a

    blind man without a guide, wandering hither and thither without knowing

    where he is going. There has been this great deficiency from very remote times until now.

    “Woman’s influence is according to her moral character, there Tore that point

    is largely explained. First, concerning her obedience to her husband and to

    liis parents ; then in regard to her complaisance to his brothers and sisters,

    and kindness to her sisters-in-law. If unmarried, she has duties toward her

    parents, and to the wives of her elder brothers ; if a principal wiie, a woman

    must have no jealous feelings ; if in straitened circumstances, she must be

    contented with her lot ; if rich and honorable, she must avoid extravagance

    and haughtiness. Then teach her, in times of trouble and in days of ease,

    how to maintain her purity, how to give importance to right principles, how

    to observe widowhood, and how to avenge the murder of a relative. Is she

    a mother, let her teach lier children ; is she a step-mother, let her love

    and cherish her husband’s children ; is her rank in life high, let her be

    condescending to her inferiors ; let her wholly discard all sorcerers, superstitious

    nuns, and witches ; in a word let her adhere to propriety and avoid

    vice.

    “In conversation, a female should not be freward and garrulous, but observe

    strictly what is correct, whether in suggesting advice to her husband, in

    remonstrating with him, or teaching her children, in maintaining etiquette,

    humbly imparting her experience, or in averting misfortune. The deportment

    of females should be strictly grave and sober, and yet adapted to the occasion

    ; whether in waiting on her parents, receiving or reverencing her husband,

    rising up or sitting down, when pregnant, in times ol’ mourning, or when

    fleeing in war, she should be perfectly decorous. Rearing the silkworm and

    working cloth are the most important of the employments of a female ; pre’

    paring and serving up the food for the household, and setting lu order th* sacrificee, follow next, each of which must be attended to ; after them, studj

    and learning can fill up the time.” ‘

    The work thus prefaced, is similar to Sprague’s Letters to a

    Daughter, rather than to a text-book, or a inaiiual intended to

    be read and obeyed rather than recited by young ladies. Happy

    would it be for the country, however, if the instructions given

    by this moralist were followed ; it is a credit to a pagan, to write

    such sentiments as the followinor : ” Durino; infancv, a child ardently

    loves its mother, who knows all its traits of goodness: while the father, perhaps, cannot know about it, there is nothing

    which the mother does not see. Wherefore the mother teaches

    more effectually, and only by her unwise fondness does her son

    become more and more proud (as musk by age becomes sourer

    and stronger), and is thereby nearly ruined.”—*’ Heavenly order

    is to bless the good and curse the vile ; he who sins against it

    will certainly receive his punishment sooner or later : from lucid

    instruction springs the happiness of the world. If females are

    unlearned, they will be like one looking at a wall, they will know

    nothing : if they are taught, they will know, and knowing they

    will imitate their examples.”

    It is vain to expect, however, that any change in the standing

    of females, or extent of their education, will take place until influences

    from abroad are brought to bear upon them—until the

    same work that is elswhere elevating them to their proper place

    in society by teaching them the principles on which that elevation

    is founded, and how they can themselves maintain it, is

    begun. The Chinese do not, by any means, make slaves of their

    females, and if a comparison be made between their condition in

    China and other modern unevangelized countries, or even with

    ancient kingdoms or Moslem races, it will in many points acquit

    them of much of the obloquy they have received on this behalf.

    There are some things which tend to show that more of the

    sex read and write sufficiently for the ordinary purposes of life,

    than a slight examination would at first indicate. Among these

    may be mentioned the letter-writers compiled for their use, in

    which instructions are given for every variety of note and epis-

    ‘ Chinese lieposltorij, Vol. IX., p. 543.

    EXTRACT FROM A GIHLs’ PRIMER. 577

    tie, except, perhaps, love letters. The works just inentioiied, intended

    for their improvement, form an additional fact. A

    Mancliu official of rank, named Sin-kwau, who rose to be governor

    of Kiangsi in Kiaking’s reign, wrote a primer in 1838, for

    girls, called the Nu-rh Yu, or ‘ Words/or Women and Girls.”

    It is in lines of four characters, and consists of aphorisms and

    short pi-ecepts on household management, behavior, care of

    children, neatness, etc., so written as to be easily memorized.

    It shows one of the ways in which literary men interest themselves, in educating youth, and further that there is a demand for such books. A few lines from this primer will exhibit its tenor
    Vile looks should never meet your eye,
    Nor filthy words defile your ear ;
    Ne’er look on men of utterance gross,
    Nor tread the ground which they pollute.
    Keep back the heart from thoughts impure,
    Nor let your hands grow fond of sloth ;
    Then no o’ersight or call deferred
    Will, when you’re pressed, demand your time
    In all your care of tender babes,
    Mind lest they’re fed or warmed too much;
    The childish liberty first granted
    Must soon he checked by rule and rein;
    Guard them from water, fire, and fools ;
    Mind lest they’re hurt or maimed by falls.
    All flesh and fruits when ill with colds
    Are noxious drugs to tender bairus—
    Who need a careful oversight,
    Yet want some license in their play.
    Be strict in all you bid them do.
    For this will guard from ill and woe.

    The pride taken by girls in showing their knowledge of letters is evidence that it is not common, while the general respect in which literary ladies ai-e held proves them not to be so very rare ; though for all practical good, it may be said that half of the Chinese people know nothing of books. The fact that female education is so favorably regarded is encouraging to those philanthropic persons and ladies who are endeavoring to establish female schools at the mission stations, since they have not preiudice to contend with in addition to ignorance.

  • WELLS WILLIAMS《The Middle Kingdom》1-5

    The Middle Kingdom: A SURVEY OP THE GEOGRAPHY, GOVERNMENT. LITERATURE, SOCIAL LIFE, ARTS, AND HISTORY of THE CHINESE EMPIRE ITS INHABITANTS
    S. WELLS WILLIAMS, LL.D.
    Professor of the Chinese language and literature at tale college; author or TONIC AND STLLABIO DICTIONARIES OF THE CHINESE LANOUAOE
    1913

    PREFACE
    During the thirty-five years which have elapsed since the first edition of this work was issued, a greater advance has probably been made in the political and intellectual development of China than within any previous century of her history. While neither the social habits nor principles of government have so far altered as to necessitate a complete rewriting of these pages, it will be found, nevertheless, that the present volumes treat of a reformed and in many respects modern nation. Under the new regime the central administration has radically increased its authority among the provincial rulers, and more than ever in former years has managed to maintain control over their pretentions. The Empire has, moreover, established its foreign relations on a well-understood basis by accredited envoys; this will soon affect the mass of the people by the greater facilities of trade, the presence of travelers, diffusion of education, and other agencies which are awaking the people from their lethargy. Already the influences which will gradually transform the face of society are mightily operating.
    The changes which have been made in the book comprise such alterations and additions as were necessary to describe the country under its new aspects. In the constant desire to preserve a convenient size, every doubtful or superfluous sentence has been erased, while the new matter incorporated has increased the bulk of the present edition about one-third. The arrangement of chapters is the same. The first four, treating of the geography, combine as many and accurate details of recent explorers or residents as the proportions of this section will permit. The extra-provincial regions are described from the researches of Russian, English, and Indian travelers of the last twenty years. It is a waste, mountainous territory for the most part and can never support a large population. Great pains have been taken by the cartographer, Jacob Wells, to consult the most authentic charts in the construction of the map of the Empire. By collating and reducing to scale the surveys and route charts of reliable travelers throughout the colonies, he has produced in all respects as accurate a map of Central Asia as is at this date possible. The Eighteen Provinces are in the main the same as in my former map.
    The chapter on the census remains for the most part without alteration, for until there has been a methodical inspection of the Empire, important questions concerning its population must be held in abeyance. It is worth noticing how generally the estimates in this chapter—or much larger figures—have since its first publication been accepted for the population of China. Foreign students of natural history in China have. by their researches in every department, furnished material for more extensive and precise descriptions under this subject than could possibly have been gathered twoscore years ago. The sixth chapter has, therefore, been almost wholly rewritten, and embraces as complete a summary of this wide field as space would allow or the general reader tolerate. The specialist will, however, speedily recognize the fact that this rapid glance serves rather to indicate how immense and imperfectly explored is this subject than to describe whatever is known.

    That portion of the first volume treating of the laws and their administration does not admit of more than a few minor changes. However good their theory of jurisprudence, the people have many things to bear from the injustice of their rulers, but more from their own vices. The Peking Gazette is now regularly translated in the Shanghai papers, and gives a coup devil of the administration of the highest value.

    The chapters on the languages and literature are considerably improved. The translations and text-books which the diligence of foreign scholars has recently furnished could be only partially enumerated, though here, as elsewhere in the work, references in the foot-notes are intended to direct the more interested student to the bibliography of the subject, and present him with the materials for an exhaustive study. The native literature is extensive, and all branches have contributed somewhat to form the resume which is contained in this section, giving a preponderance to the Confucian classics. The four succeeding chapters contain notices of the arts, industries, domestic life, and science of the Chinese—a necessarily rapid survey, since these features of Chinese life are already well understood by foreigners. Nothing, however, that is either original or peculiar has been omitted in the endeavor to portray their social and economic characteristics. The emigration of many thousands of the people of Kwangtung within the last thirty years has made that province a representative among foreign nations of the others; it may be added that its inhabitants are well fitted, by their enterprise, thrift, and maritime habits, to become types of the whole.

    The history and chronology are made fuller by the addition of several facts and tables(An alphabetical arrangement of all the tables scattered throughout the work may be found, under this word in the Index.) ; but the field of research in this direction has as yet scarcely been defined, and few certain dates have been determined prior to the Confucian era. The entire continent of Asia must be thoroughly investigated in its geography, antiquities, and literature in order to throw light on the eastern portion. The history of China offers an interesting topic for a scholar who would devote his life to its elucidation from the mass of native literature.
    The two chapters on the religions, and what has been done within the past half century to promote Christian missions, are somewhat enlarged and brought down to the present time. The study of modern scholars in the examination of Chinese religious beliefs has enabled them to make comparisons with other systems of Asiatics, as well as discuss the native creeds with more certainty.
    The chapter on the commerce of China has an importance commensurate with its growing amount. Within the past ten years the opium trade has been attacked in its moral and commercial bearings between China, India, and England. There are grounds for hope that the British Government will free itself from any connection with it, which will be a triumph of justice and Christianity. The remainder of Volume II. Describes events in the intercourse of China with the outer world, including a brief account of the Tai-ping Rebellion, which proximately grew out of foreign ideas. No connected or satisfactory narrative of the events which have forced one of the greatest nations of the world into her proper position, so far as I am aware, has as yet been prepared. A succinct recital of one of the most extraordinary developments of modern times should nut be without interest to all.
    The work of condensing the vast increase of reliable information upon China into these two volumes has been attended with considerable labor. Future writers will, I am convinced, after the manner of Richthofen, Yule, Legge, and others, confine themselves to single or cognate subjects rather than attempt such a comprehensive synopsis as is here presented. The number of illustrations in this edition is nearly doubled, the added ones being selected with particular reference to the subject-matter. I have availed myself of whatever sources of information I could command, due acknowledgment of which is made in the foot-notes, and ample references in the Index.
    The revision of this book has been the slow though constant occupation of several years. When at last I had completed the revised copy and made arrangements as to its publication, in March, 1882, my health failed, and under a partial paralysis I was rendered incapable of further labor. My son, Frederick Wells Williams, who had already looked over the copy, now assumed entire charge of the publication. I had the more confidence that he would perform the duties of editor, for he had already a general acquaintance with China and the books which are the best authority. The work has been well done, the last three chapters particularly having been improved under his careful revision and especial study of the recent political history of China. The Index is his work, and throughout the book I am indebted to his careful supervision, especially on the chapters treating of geography and literature. By the opening of this year I had so far recovered as to be able to superintend the printing and look over the proofs of the second volume.
    My experiences in the forty-three years of my life in China were coeval with the changes which gradually culminated in the opening of the country. Among the most important of these may be mentioned the cessation of the East India Company in 1834, the war with England in 1841-42, the removal of the monopoly of the hong merchants(特许商行), the opening of five ports to trade, the untoward attack on the city of Canton which grew out of the lorcha Arrow, the operations in the vicinity of Peking, the establishment of foreign legations in that city, and finally, in 1873, the peaceful settlement of the kotow, which rendered possible the approach of foreign ministers to the Emperor’s presence. Those who trace the hand of God in history will gather from such rapid and great changes in this Empire the foreshadowing of the fulfilment of his purposes ; for while these political events were in progress the Bible was circulating, and the preaching and educational labors of missionaries were silently and with little opposition accomplishing their leavening work among the people.

    On my arrival at Canton in 1833 I was officially reported, with two other Americans, to the hong merchant Kingqua as fan-kwai, or ‘foreign devils,’ who had come to live under his tutelage. In 1874, as Secretary of the American Embassy at Peking, I accompanied the Hon. B. P. Avery to the presence of the Emperor Tungchi, when the Minister of the United States presented his letters of credence on a footing of perfect equality with the ‘Son of Heaven.’ With two such experiences in a lifetime, and mindful of the immense intellectual and moral development which is needed to bring an independent government from the position of forcing one of them to that of yielding the other, it is not strange that I am assured of a great future for the sons of Han; but the progress of pure Christianity will be the only adequate means to save the conflicting elements involved in such a growth from destroying each other. Whatever is in store for them, it is certain that the country has passed its period of passivity. There is no more for China the repose of indolence and seclusion—when she looked down on the nations in her overweening pride like the stars with which she could have no concern.

    In this revision the same object has been kept in view that is stated in the Preface to the first edition—to divest the Chinese people and civilization of that peculiar and indefinable impression of ridicule which has been so generally given them by foreign authors. I have endeavored to show the better traits of their national character, and that they have had up to this time no opportunity of learning man}’ things with which they are now rapidly becoming acquainted. The time is speedily passing away when the people of the Flowery Land can fairly be classed among uncivilized nations. The stimulus which in this labor of my earlier and later years has been ever present to my mind is the hope that the cause of missions may be promoted. In the success of this cause lies the salvation of China as a people, both in its moral and political aspects. This success bids fair to keep pace with the needs of the people. They will become fitted for taking up the work themselves and joining in the multiform operations of foreign civilizations. Soon railroads, telegraphs, and manufactures will be introduced, and these must be followed by whatsoever may conduce to enlightening the millions of the people of China in every department of religious, political, and domestic life.
    The descent of the Holy Spirit is promised in the latter times, and the preparatory work for that descent has been accomplishing in a vastly greater ratio than ever before, and with increased facilities toward its final completion. The promise of that Spirit will fulfil the prophecy of Isaiah, delivered before the era of Confucius, and God’s people will come from the land of Sinim and join in the anthem of praise with every tribe under the sun.
    S. w. w. New Haven, July, 1883.

    CONTENTS OF VOLUME I & VOLUME II

    CHAPTER I. General Divisions and Features of the Empire
    Unusual interest involved in the study of China ; The name China probably a corruption of Tsin; Other Asiatic names for the country; Ancient and modern native designations; Dimensions of the Empire; Its three Grand Divisions :The Eighteen Provinces, Manchuria, and Colonies; China Proper, its names and limits; Four large mountain chains; The Tien shan. ibid.: The Kwanlun; The Hing-an and Himalaya systems; Pumpelly’s ” Sinian System” of mountains; The Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh; Its character and various names; Rivers of China : The Yellow River; The Yangtsz’ River; The Chu or Pearl River;Lakes of China; Boundaries of China Proper; Character of its coast; The Great Plain; The Great Wall of China, its course; Its construction and aspect; The Grand Canal,; Its history and present condition; Minor canals; Public roads, De Guignes’ description, ibid.; General aspects of a landscape; Physical characteristics of the Chinese; The women; Aborigines: Miaotsz’, Lolos, Limus, and others; Manchus and Mongols; Attainments and limits of Chinese civilization
    CHAPTER II. Geographical Description of the Eastern Provinces
    Limited knowledge of foreign countries; Topographies of China numerous and minute; Climate of the Eighteen Provinces; Of Peking and the Great Plain; Of the southern coast towns; Contrast in rain-fall between Chinese and American coasts; Tyfoons; Topographical divisions into Fu, Ting, Chan, and Hien; Position and boundary of Chihli Province; Table of the Eighteen Provinces, their subdivisions and government; Situation, size, and history of Peking; Its walls and divisions; The prohibited city (Tsz’ Kin Ching) and imperial residence; The imperial city (Huang Ching) and its public buildings; The so-called “Tartar City”; The Temples of Heaven and of Agriculture; Environs of Peking; Tientsin and the Pei ho; Dolon-nor or Lama-miao; Water-courses and productions of the province; The Province of Shantung; Tai shan, the ‘Great Mount’; Cities, productions, and people of Shantung; Shansi, its natural features and resources; Taiyuen, the capital; Roads and mountain passes of Shansi; Position and aspect of Honan Province, ibid.; Kaifung, its capital; Kiangsu Province, ibid.; Its fertility and abundant water-ways; Nanking, or Kiangning, the capital; Porcelain Tower of Nanking; Suchau, “the Paris of China”; Chinkiang and Golden Island; Shanghai; The Province of Nganhwui; Nganking, Wuhu, and Hwuichau; Kiangsi Province; Nanchang, its capital, and the River Kan; Porcelain vvorks at Kingteh in Jauchau; Chehkiang Province, its rivers; Hangchau, the capital; Ningpo; Chinhai ano the Chusan Archipelago; Chapu, Canfu, and the “Gates of China,”; Fuhkien Province, ibid. : The River Min, Fuhchau; Amoy and its environs; Chinchau (Tsiuenchau), the ancient Zayton; Position, inhabitants, and productions of Formosa; The Pescadore Islands
    CHAPTER III. Geographical Description of the Western Provinces
    The Province of Hupeh; The three towns, Wuchang, Hanyang, and Hankow; Scenery on the Yangtsz’ kiang; Hunan Province, its rivers and capital city; Shensi Province; The city of Si-ngan; Topography and climate of Kansuli Province; Sz’chuen Province and its four streams; Chingtu fu and the Min Valley; The Province of Kwangtung; Position of Canton, or Kwangchau; Its population, walls, general appearance; Its streets and two pagodas; Temple of Longevity and Honam Josshouse; Other shrines and the Examination Hall; The foreign factories, or ‘Thirteen Hongs’; Sights in the suburbs of Canton; Whanipoa and Macao; The colony of Hongkong; Places of interest in Kwangtiing; The Island of Hainan; Kwangsi Province; Kweichau Province; The Miaotsz’; The Province of Yunnan; Its topography and native tribes; Its mineral wealth
    CHAPTER IV. Geographical Description of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, and Tibet
    Foreign and Chinese notions of the land of Tartary; Table of the Colonies, their subdivisions and governments; Extent of Manchuria; Its mountain ranges; The Amur and its affluents, the Ingoda, Argun, Usuri, and Songari; Natural resources of Manchuria; The Province of Shingking, ibid.; Its capital, Mukden, and other towns; Climate of Manchuria; The Province of Kirin; The Province of Tsi-tsi-har; Administration of government in Manchuria; Extent of Mongolia; Its climate and divisions; Inner Mongolia; Outer Mongolia; Urga, its capital, ibid. ; Civilization and trade of the Mongols; Kiakhta and Maimai chin; The Province of Cobdo; The Province of Koko-nor, or Tsing hai; Its topography and productions; Towns between Great Wall and Ili; Position and topography of ill; Tien-shan Peh Lu, or Northern Circuit; Kuldja, its capital; Tien-shan Nan Lu, or Southern Circuit; The Tarim Basin, ibid. ; Cities of the Southern Circuit; Kashgar, town and government; Yarkand; The District of Khoten; Administration of government in Ili; History and conquest of the country; Tibet, its boundaries and names; Topography of the province; Its climate and productions; The yak and wild animals, ibid. ; Divisions: Anterior and Ulterior Tibet; Il’lassa, the capital city; Manning’s visit to the Dalai-lama; Shigatsi’, capital of Ulterior Tibet; Om mani padmi hum; Manners and customs in Tibet; Language; History; Government
    CHAPTER V. Population and Statistics
    Interest and difficulties of this subject; Ma Twan-lin’s study of the censuses; Tables of various censuses; These estimates considered in detail; Four of these are reliable; Evidence in their favor; Comparative population-density of Europe and China; Proportion of arable and unproductive land; Sources and kinds of food in China; Tendencies toward increase of population; Obstacles to emigration; Government care of the people; Density of population near Canton, ibid; Mode of taking the census under Kublai khan; Present method; Reasons for admitting the Chinese census; Two objections to its acceptance; Unsatisfactory statistics of revenue in China; Revenue of Kwangtung Province; Estimates of Medhurst, De Guignes, and others; Principal items of expenditure; Pay of military and civil officers; The land tax
    CHAPTER VI. Natural History of China
    Foreign scientists and explorers in China; Interesting geological features; Loess formation of Northern China, ibid. : Its wonderful usefulness and fertility; Baron Richthofen’s theory as to its origin; Minerals of China Proper : Coal; Building stones, salts, jade, etc.; The precious metals and their production; Animals of the Empire; Monkeys; Various carnivorous animals; Cattle, sheep, deer, etc.; Horses, pigs, camels, etc.; Smaller animals and rodents; Cetacea in Chinese waters; Birds of prey; Passerinse, song-birds, pies, etc.; Pigeons and grouse; Varieties of pheasants; Peacocks and ducks; An aviary in Canton; Four fabulous animals : The ki-Un; The fung-huang, or phoenix; The lung, or dragon, and kuei, or tortoise; Alligators and serpents; Ichthyology of China; Gold-fish and methods of rearing them; Shell-fish of the Southern coast; Insects : Silk-worms and beetles; Wax-worm : Native notions of insects; Students of botany in China; Flora of Hongkong, coniferae, grasses; The bamboo; Varieties of palms, lilies, tubers, etc.; Forest and timber growth; Rhubarb, the Chinese ‘ date ‘ and ‘ olive’; Fruit-trees; Flowering and ornamental plants; The Pun tsito, or Chinese herbal; Its medicine and botany; Its zoology; Its observations on the horse; State of the natural sciences in China
    CHAPTER VII. Laws of China, and Plan of its Government
    Theory of the Chinese Government patriarchal; The principles of surveillance and mutual responsibility; The Penal Code of China; Preface by the Emperor Shunchi; Its General, Civil, and Fiscal Divisions; Ritual, Military, and Criminal Laws; The Code compares favorably with other Asiatic Laws; Defects in the Chinese Code; General survey of the Chinese Government; 1, The Emperor, his position and titles, ibid. ; Proclamation of Hungwu, first Manchu Emperor; Peculiarities in the names of Emperors; The Kicoh Imo, or National, and Miiio hao, or Ancestral Names; Style of an Imperial Inaugural Proclamation; Programme of Coronation Ceremonies; Dignity and Sacredness of the Emperor’s Person; Control of the Right of Succession; The Imperial Clan and Titular Nobles; 2, The Court, its internal arrangements; The Imperial Harem; Position of the Empress-dowager; Guard and Escort of the Palace; 3, Classes of society in China; Eight privileged classes; The nine honorary “Buttons,” or Rank; 4, The central administration; The Nui Koh, or Cabinet; The Kinn-ki Chu, or General Council; The King Pao, or Peking Gazette; The Six Boards(a), of Civil Office—Li Pu; (b), of Revenue—Hu PU; (c), of Rites— Li Pu; {d), of War—Ping Pu; {e), of Punishments—Hing Pu; (f), of War—Ping Pu; The Colonial Office; The Censorate; Frankness and honesty of certain censors; Courts of Transmission and Judicature; The Hanlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy; Minor courts and colleges of the capital; 5, Provincial Governments; Governors-general (tsungtuh) and Governors (futai); Subordinate provincial authorities; Literary, Revenue, and Salt Departments; Tabular Resume of Provincial Magistrates; Military and Naval control; Special messengers, or commissioners
    CHAPTER VIII. Administration of the Laws
    6, Execution of laws, checks upon ambitious officers; Triennial Catalogue and its uses; Character and position of Chinese officials; The lied Book, or status of office-holders; Types of Chinese high officers : Duke Ho; Career of Commissioner Sung; Public lives of Commissioners Lin and Kiying; Popularity of upright officers. Governor Chu’s valedictory; Official confessions and petitions for punishment; Imperial responsibility for public disasters; A prayer for rain of the Emperor Taukwang; Imperial edicts, their publication and phraseology; Contrast between the theory and practice of Chinese legislation; Extortions practised by officials of all ranks; Evils of an ill-paid police; Fear and selfishness of the people; Extent of clan systems among them; Village elders and clan rivalries; Dakoits and thieves throughout the country; Popular associations—character of their manifestoes; Secret societies. The Triad, or Water-Lily Sect; A Memorial upon the Evils of Mal-Administration; Efforts of the authorities against brigandage; Difficulties in collecting the taxes; Character of proceedings in the Law Courts; Establishments of high magistrates; Conduct of a criminal trial; Torture employed to elicit confessions; The five kinds of punishments; Modes of executing criminals; Public prisons, their miserable condition; The influence of public opinion in checking oppression
    CHAPTER IX. Education and Literary Examinations
    Stimulus of literary pursuits in China; Foundation of the present system of competition; Precepts controlling early education; Arrangements and curriculum of boys’ schools; Six text-books employed : 1, The ‘Trimetrical Classic’; 2, The ‘Century of Surnames,’ and 3, ‘ Thousand-Character Classic’; 4, The ‘ Odes for Children’; 5, The Hiao King, or ‘ Canons of Filial Duty,’; 6, The Siao Hioh, or ‘Juvenile Instructor,’; High schools and colleges; Proportion of readers throughout China; Private schools and higher education; System of examinations for degrees and public offices; Preliminary trials; Examination for the First Degree, Siu-tsai,; For the Second Degree, Kil-jin,; Example of a competing essay,; Final honors conferred at Peking; A like system applied to the military; Workings and results of the system of examinations,; Its abuses and corruption; Social distinction and influence enjoyed by graduates; Female education in China; Authors and school-books employed
    CHAPTER X Structure of the Chinese Language
    Influence of the Chinese language upon its literature; Native accounts of the origin of their characters; Growth and development of the language; Characters arranged into six classes; Development from hieroglyphics; Phonetic and descriptive properties of a character; Arrangement of the characters in lexicons; Classification according to radicals; Mass of characters in the language; Six styles of written characters; Their elementary strokes; Ink, paper, and printing; Manufacture and price of books; Native and foreign movable types; Phonetic character of the Chinese language; Manner of distinguishing words of like sound; The Shing, or tones of the language; Number of sounds or words in Chinese; The local dialects and patois; Court or Mandarin dialect; Other dialects and variations in pronunciation; Grammar of the language; Its defects and omissions; Hints for its study; Pigeon English
    CHAPTER XI. Classical Literature of the Chinese
    The Imperial Catalogue as an index to Chinese literature; The Five Classics : I. The Yih King, or ‘Book of Changes’; II. The Shu King, or ‘ Book of Records’; III. The Shi King, or ‘ Book of Odes’; IV. The Li Ki, or ‘ Book of Rites,’ and other Rituals; V. The Chun Tsui, or ‘ Spring and Autumn Record’; The Four Books : 1, The ‘Great Learning’ 2, The ‘Just Medium’; 3, The Lun Yu, or ‘ Analects ‘ of Confucius; Life of Confucius; Character of the Confucian System of Ethics; 4, The Works of Mencius; His Life, and personal character of his Teachings; Dictionary of the Emperor Kanghi
    CHAPTER XII. Polite Literature of the Chinese
    Character of Chinese Ornamental Literature; Works on Chinese History; Historical Novels; The ‘ Antiquarian Researches ‘ of Ma Twan-lin; Philosophical Works : Chu Hi on the Primum Mobile; Military, Legal, and Agricultural Writings; The Shing Yu, or ‘Sacred Commands’ of Kanghi; Works on Art, Science, and Encyclopedias; Character and Examples of Chinese Fiction; Poetry: The Story of Li Tai-peh; Modern Songs and Extempore Verses; Dramatic Literature, burlettas; ‘The Mender of Cracked Chinaware ‘—a Farce; Deficiencies and limits of Chinese literature; Collection of Chinese Proverbs
    CHAPTER XIII. Architecture, Dress, and Diet of the Chinese
    Notions entertained by foreigners upon Chinese customs; Architecture of the Chinese; Building materials and private houses; Their public and ornamental structures; Arrangement of country houses and gardens; Chinese cities: shops and streets; Temples, club-houses, and taverns; Street scenes in Canton and Peking; Pagodas, their origin and construction; Modes of travelling; Various kinds of boats; Living on the water in China; Chop-boats and junks; Bridges, ornamental and practical; Honorary Portals, or Pai-lan; Construction of forts and batteries; Permanence of fashion in Chinese dress; Arrangement of hair, the Queue; Imperial and official costumes; Dress of Chinese women; Compressed feet : origin and results of the fashion; Toilet practices of men and women; Food of the Chinese, mostly vegetable; Kinds and preparation of their meats; Method of hatching and rearing ducks’ eggs; Enormous consumption of fish; The art of cooking in China
    CHAPTER XIV. Social Life among the Chinese
    Features and professions in Chinese society; Social relations between the sexes; Customs of betrothment and marriage; Laws regulating marriages; General condition of females in China; Personal names of the Chinese; Familiar and ceremonial intercourse : The Kotow; Forms and etiquette of visiting; A Chinese banquet; Temperance of the Chinese; Festivals ; Absence of a-Sabbath in China; Customs and ceremonies attending New-Year’s Day; The dragon-boat festival and feast of lanterns; Brilliance and popularity of processions in China; Play-houses and theatrical shows; Amusements and sports : Gambling, chess; Contrarieties in Chinese and Western usage Strength and weakness of Chinese character; Their mendacity and deceit
    CHAPTER XV.  INDUSTRIAL ARTS OF THE CHINESE
    Tenure of land in China; Agricultural utensils; Horse-shoeing; Cultivation of rice; Terraces and methods of irrigation; Manner of using manure; Hemp, the mulberry sugar, and the tallow-tree; Efforts in arboriculture; Celebration of the annual ploughing ceremony; Modes of catching and rearing fish; Mechanical arts, metallurgy; Glass and precious stones; Ingredients and manufacture of porcelain; Its decoration; Chinese snuff-bottles discovered in Egyptian tombs; The preparation of lacquered-ware; Silk culture and manufacture in China; Chinese skill in embroidery; Growth and manufacture of cotton; Leather, felt, etc.; Tea culture, 39 ; Method of curing and preparing, 42 ; Green and black teas, 44 ; Historical notice; Constituents and effects of tea; Preparation of cassia (cinnamomum) and camphor; Ingenious methods of Chinese craftsmen; The blacksmith and dish-mender; Carving in wood and ivory, 59 ; Manufacture of cloisonne, matting, etc.• General aspect of Chinese industrial society.
    CHAPTER XVI.  Science Among the Chinese
    Attainments of the Chinese in the exact sciences : Arithmetic; Astronomy, 68 ; Arrangement of the calendar, 69 ; Divisions of the zodiac, 71 ; Chinese observations of comets and eclipses; Their notions concerning the “Action and Reaction of the Elements,”; Astronomical myths: Story of the herdsman and weaver-girl; Divisions of the day : arrangement of the almanac, 79 ; Geographical knowledge, 80 ; Measures of length, money, and weight, 81 ; System of banks and use of paper money, 85 ; Pawnshops, 8G ; Popular associations, or huni; The theory and practice of war, arms in use, 89 ; Introduction and employment of gunpowder, 90 ; Chinese policy in warfare; Their regard for music, 94; Examples of Chinese tunes; Musical instruments, 99 ; Dancing and posture-making; Drawing and painting, 105 ; Samples of Chinese illustrative art, 107 ; Their symbolism. 111 ; Paintings on pith-paper and leaves, 113; Sculpture and architecture, 115; Notions on the internal structure of the human body, 119; Functions of the viscera and their connection with the yin and yang; Surgical operations, 123 ; A Chinese doctor, 125 ; Drugs and medicines employed, 127 ; The common diseases of China, 129 ; Native treatises on medicine.
    CHAPTER XVII.  History and Chronology of China
    General doubts and ignorance concerning the subject, 136 ; The mythological period, 137 ; Chinese notions of cosmogony, 138 ; The god Pwanku; Chu Hi’s cosmogony; The legendary period, Fuh-hi, 143 ; The eight monarchs, 145 ; Hwangti and the sexagenary cycle, 146 ; The deluge of Yao, 147 ; The historical period : The Hia dynasty, 148 ; Yu the Great, his inscription on the rocks of Kau-lan shan; Records of the Hia, 152 ; The Shang dynasty; Chau-sin; Rise of the house of Chau, 157 ; Credibility of these early annals, 159 ; The Tsin dynasties, Tsin Chi Hwangti; The dynasty of Han; From the Han to the Sui, 165 ; The great Tang dynasty; Taitsung and the Empress Wu, 169 ; The Five Dynasties, 172; Tlie Sung dynasty; The Mongol conquest, Kublai Khan, 175; The Mings, 177; The Manchus, or Tsing dynasty, 179; Kanghi, 180; Yungching and Kienlung, 181; Kiaking and Taukwang, 183; Tables of the monarchs and dynasties.
    CHAPTER XVIII. REHGION OF THE CHINESE
    Causes of the perpetuity of Chinese institutions, 188 ; Isolation of the people, 189; The slight influence upon them of foreign thought and customs, 191 ; Their religious belief’s, two negative features; Three sects: the State religion, called Confucianism; Objects and methods of State worship, The Emperor as High Priest, 198 ; The Ju kino, or Sect of Literati, 15)9 ; Religious functions of government officers, 202 ; Purity and coldness of this religious system, 205 ; Rationalism (Tao kia), Lau-tsz’ its founder, 207 ; His classic, the Tao-the King, 208 ; Visit of Confucius to the philosopher Lau-tsz’, 212; Rites and mythology of the Taoists, 214; Their degeneracy into fetich worshippers, 215 ; Their organization, 217 ; The Sect of Fuh, or Buddhism, 218 ; Life of Buddha, 219 ; Influence of the creed among the people, 221 ; Checks to its power; Its tenets and liturgy, 224 ; Opposition to this sect by the literati, 227 ; Perpetuated in monasteries and nunneries; Similarity between the, Buddhist and Roman Catholic rites; Shamanism, its form in Tibet and Mongolia, 233 ; Buddhist temples, 235 ; Ancestral worship, its ancient origin; Its influence upon the family and society, 237 ; Infanticide in China, its prevalence, 239 ; Comparison with Greece and Rome; Customs and ceremonies attending a decease, 243 ; Funerals and burial-places, 245 ; Funtj-slnit, 240 ; Interment and mourning; Family worship of ancestors, 250 ; Character of the rites, 253 ; Popular superstitions, 255 ; Dread of wandering ghosts, 257 ; Methods of divination, 200 ; Worship at graves and shrines, 262 ; Chinese benevolent institutions and the practice of charity, 263 ; General condition of religion among them; Secret societies, 267 ; Mohammedanism in China; Jews in Kaifung, 271 ; Their miserable condition.
    CHAPTER XIX. RISTIAN Missions Among the Chinese
    Arrival of the Nestorians in China; The tablet of Si-ngan; Prester John and traces of Nestorian labors, 286 ; First epoch of Roman Catholic missions in Eastern Asia; John of Montecorvino, ibid.; Other priests of the fourteenth century; Second period : Xavier’s attempt, 289 ; Landing of Ricci; His life and character, 292 ; The Jesuits in Peking; Faber, 295 ; Adam Schaal; Verbiest; Discussion concerning the rites, 299 ; The Pope and the Emperor Kanghi; Quarrels between the missionaries, 302; Third period: The edict of Yungching expels the Catholics; Statistics of their numbers, 307 ; Their methods : the baptism of dying infants; Collisions between converts and magistrates; Pagan and Christian superstitions: casting out devils; Character of Catholic missionary work, 317; Protestantism in China : The arrival of Morrison in Canton, 318 ; His missionary and literary work, 320 ; Comparison with that of Ricci; Protestant missions among the Chinese of the Archipelago Early efforts, tract distribution, 328 ; Gutzlaff’s voyages along the coast; Foundation of the Medical Missionary Society; Success of hospital work among the natives; Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in China; The Morrison Education Society, 341 ; Protestant mission work at Canton; At Amoy and Fuhchan, 348 ; In Chehkiang province; At Shanghai, 352 ; Toleration of Christianity in China obtained through Kiying; Policy of the government toward missionaries, 359 ; Articles of toleration in the treaties of 1858; Bible translation and the Term Question among missionaries; Female missionaries, 364 ; Statistics of Protestant missions in China, 366 ; Notices of deceased missionaries; Facilities and difficulties attending the work.
    CHAPTER XX. Commerce of the Chinese
    Ancient notices of foreign trade; The principal import, opium; Peculiarities of its cultivation in India, ibid.; Its preparation and sale in Calcutta, 376 ; Early efforts at introduction into China; Rise of the smuggling trade, 378 ; Manipulation of the drug in smoking, 380 ; The pipe and its use, 382 ; Effects of the practice, 383 ; Quantity and value of the import, 3S7 ; Coasting and inland navigation in China, 389 ; Detail of the principal exports from China, 391 ; Of the imports, 396 ; An example of pigeon-English, 402 ; Present management of the maritime customs; Trade tables.
    CHAPTER XXI. Foreign Intercourse with China
    Limited conception of the Chinese as to embassies; Earliest mention of China or Cathay, 408 ; Acquaintance between Rome and Seres, or Sinae; Knowledge of China under the Greek Empire; Narratives of Buddhist pilgrims, 413 ; Notices of Arab travellers, 414 ; Piano Carpini’s mission from the Pope to Kuyuk Klian, 415; Rubruquin sent by Louis XL to Mangu Khan, 418 • Travels of Marco Polo and King Ilayton of Armenia ; Of the Moor, Ibn Batuta; Of Friar Odoric, 422 ; Of Benedict Goes, 424 ; Of Ibn Waliab, 425 ; The Manchus confine foreign trade to Canton, 42G ; Character of early Portuguese traders; Their settlement at Macao and embassies to Peking; Relations of Spain with China, 431 ; The Dutch come to China, 438 ; They occupy Formosa, 434 ; Koxinga expels them from the island, 437 ; Van Hoorn’s embassy to Peking; Van Braam’s mission to Kienlung, 439 ; France and China; Russian embassies to the court at Peking, 441 ; Intercourse of the English with China, 443 ; Attempts of the East India Company to establish trade, 445 ; The Co-hong; Treatment of Mr. Flint; Anomalous position of foreigners in China during the eighteenth century, 450 ; Chinese action in sundry cases of homicide among foreigners, 451 ; Lord Macartney’s embassy to Peking, 454 ; Attitude of the Chinese regarding Macao; Regarding English and American “squabbles,”; Embassy of Lord Amherst, 458 ; Close of the East India Company monopoly; American trade with China; Chinese terms for foreigners.
    CHAPTER XXII.  Origin Of THE First War with England
    Features of the war with England; Lord Napier appointed superintendent of British trade, 404 •, He goes to Canton; His contest with the governor, 468 ; Chinese notions of supremacy; Lord Napier retires from Canton, his sudden death; Petition of the British merchants to the king, 47() ; Trade continued as before, 478 ; Sir B. G. Robinson the superintendent at Lintin; Is succeeded by Captain Elliot; Hu Nai-tsi proposes to legalize the opium trade, 482 ; Counter-memorials to the Emperor, 483 ; Discussion of the matter among foreigners, 487 ; Canton officers enforce the prohibitory laws; Elliot ordered to drive the opium ships from Lintin; Arrival of Admiral Sir F. Maitland; Smuggling increases; A mob before the factories, 495 ; Captain Elliot’s papers and actions regarding the opium traffic, 496 ; Commissioner Lin sent to Canton, 497; He demands a surrender of opium held by foreigners, 499 ; Imprisons them in the factories; The opium given up and destroyed, 502 ; Homicide of Lin Wei-hi at Hongkong, 505 ; Motives and position of Governor Lin; The war an opium war; Debate in Parliament upon the question.
    CHAPTER XXIII. Progress and Results of the First War between England AND China
    Arrival of the British fleet and commencement of hostilities; Fall of Tinghai, 515; Lin recalled to Peking, 510; Kishen sent to Canton, negotiates’ a treaty with Captain Elliot at the Bogue, 517 ; The negotiations fail, 519 ; Capture of the Canton River defences; The city ransomed; Amoy and Tinghai taken; Fall of Chinhai and Ningpo, 527 ; The Emperor determines to resist, 529 ; Attempt to recapture Ningpo; The British reduce the neighboring towns, 533 ; The fleet enters the Yangtsz’, capture of Wusung; Shanghai taken; Proclamations issued by both parties respecting the war; Storming of Chinkiang, 540 ; Terrible carnage among its Manchu inhabitants, 542 ; Singular contrast at Iching; Kiying communicates with Sir H. Pottinger; The envoy and commissioners meet, 547 ; A treaty drawn up, 549 ; Conversation on the opium question, 550 ; The Treaty of Nanking signed; Massacre of shipwrecked crews on Formosa; Losses and rewards on both sides alter the war, 556 ; Settlement of a tariff and commercial relations, 557 ; Deaths of Howqua and John R. Morrison; A supplementary treaty signed; Renewal of opium vexations, 562 ; Treaties arranged with other foreign powers, 565 ; The ambassador and letter from the United States to China, 566 ; Caleb Cushing negotiates a treaty with Kiying, 567 ; Homicide by an American at Canton, and subsequent correspondence, 568 ; A French treaty concluded by M. de Lagreno at Whampoa; Position of England and China after the war.
    CHAPTER XXIV.  THE Tai-ping Rebellion
    Attitude of the ruling classes in China toward foreigners; Governor Sir J. Davis and Commissioner Kiying; Killing of six Englishmen at Canton; Chinese notions of treaties ibid; Causes of the Tai-ping Rebellion; Life of Hung Siutsuen, its leader; This wonderful vision; He interprets it by Christian ideas, 585 ; Early phases of the movement; Commencement of the insurrection, 590 ; Political and religious tenets of the rebels, 592 ; Rapid advance to the Yangtsz’ and occupation of Nanking, 596 ; The expedition against Peking; Its failure; Dissensions among the rebel wangs, or leaders; Rebel sortie from Nanking; Assistance of foreigners sought by imperialists; Achievements of the Chung Wang; Colonel Gordon assumes control of the “Ever-Victorious force,”; His successful campaigns; Environment of Suchan; The city surrenders; Execution of its wangs by Governor Li; Gordon’s responsibility in the matter, GIG ; Further operations against the insurgents, 617 ; The Ever-Victorious force disbanded, 618 ; Fall of Nanking and dispersion of the rebels; Subsequent efforts of the Shi and Kau wangs; Disastrous character of the rebellion.
    CHAPTER XXV. The Second War between Great Britain and China Relations between the Cantonese and foreigners after the first war; Collecting of customs duties at Shanghai entrusted to foreigners; Common measures of defence against the rebels there; The insurrection in Kwangtung; Frightful destruction of life, 632 ; Governor Yeh’s policy of seclusion; Smuggling lorchas at Hongkong and Macao; The lorcha Arrow affair; The initial acts of the war; Collision with Americans at the Barrier forts, 639 ; View of the war in England, 641 ; Arrival of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros in China; Bombardment and capture of Canton, ibid.; Problem of governing the city; The allies repair to the Pei ho; Capture of the Taku forts, 651 ; Negotiations with Kweiliang and Hwashana at Tientsin; Unexpected appearance of Kiying; Difficulties of Lord Elgin’s position at Tientsin; The treaties signed and ratified, 656 ; Revision of the tariff undertaken at Shanghai; Effect of treaty stipulations and foreign trade on the people of China; Lord Egin visits the Tai-ping rebels at Hankow, 659 ; Sentiment of officials and people in China regarding foreigners, 660 ; Coolie trade outrages, 663 ; The foreign ministers repair to Taku, 664 ; Repulse at the Taku forts, 66G ; The American minister conducted to Peking; Discussion concerning the formalities of an audience, 669 ; He retires and ratifies the treaty at Pehtang; Lord Elgin and Baron Gros sent back to China, 671 ; War resumed, the allies at Pehtang; Capture of villages about Taku, 674 ; Fall of the Taku forts, 676 ; Lord Elgin declines to remain at Tientsin; Interpreters Wade and Parkes sent to Tungchau, 678 ; Capture of Parkes and Loch, 680 ; Skirmish of Pa-li-kiau, 682 ; Pillage of Yuen-ming Yuen, G83 ; Its destruction upon the return of the prisoners, 684 ; Entry into Peking and signing of the treaties, 686 ; Permanent settlement of foreign embassies at the capital.
    CHAPTER XXVI. Narrative of Recent Events in China
    Palace conspiracy upon the death of Hienfung; The regency established at Peking, 691 ; The Lay-Osborne flotilla, 693 ; Collapse of the scheme and dismissal of Lay, 695 ; The Burlingame mission to foreign countries, 696 ; Its treaty with the United States, 698 ; Outbreak at Tientsin, 700 ; Investigation into the riot, 703 ; Bitter feeling among foreigners, 705 ; Memorandum from the Tsung-ii Yamun on the missionary question; Conclusion of the Kansuh insurrection; Marriage of the Emperor Tungchi; The foreign ministers demand an audience; Reception of the ambassadors by Tungchi; Stopping of the coolie trade, 715 ; Japanese descent upon Formosa; English expedition to Yunnan, 719 ; Second mission, murder of Margary; The Grosvenor mission of inquiry; The Chifu Convention between Li Hung-chang and Sir T. Wade, 725 ; Death of Tungchi and accession of Kwangsii; The rebellion of Yakub Beg in Turkestan; He overthrows the Dungani Confederation, 730 ; His forces conquered by Tso Tsung-tang, 731 ; Negotiations as to the cession of Kuldja, 732 ; The great famine of 1878, 734 ; Efforts of foreigners for its relief, 736 ; Chinese boys sent to America for education, 739 ; Grounds of hope for the future of China.

    LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS IN VOLUME I & VOLUME II
    Worship of the Emperor at the Temple of Heaven, Title-page, representing an honorary portal, or PAI-LAU. (The two characters, Shing chi, upon the top, indicate that the structure has been erected by imperial command. In the panel upon the lintel the four characters, Chung Kwoh Tsung-Um, ‘ A General Account of the Middle Kingdom,’ express in Chinese the title of this work. On the right the inscription reads, Jin che ngai jin yu tsin kih so, ‘ He who is benevolent loves those near, and then those who are remote ; ‘ the other side contains an expression attributed to Confucius, ‘ Si fang chi jin yu shing che ye,” ‘The people of the West have their sages.’)—Compare p. 757. A Road-Cut IN the Loess,  An-ting Gate, Wall of Peking,  Plan op Peking, Portal op Confucian Temple, Peking,  Monument, or Tope, op a Lama, Hwang sz’, Peking,  View over the Loess-clefts in Shansi, Temple of the Goddess Ma Tsu-pu, Ningpo,  Lukan Gorge, Yangtsz’ River. (From Blakiston.), View of a Street in Canton,  Miaotsz’ Types,  Domesticated Yak,  FACADE OF Dwellings in Loess Cliffs, Ling-shi hien,  Coal Gorge on the Yangtsz’. (From Blakiston.),  Fl-Fl Ami HAI-TUJI. (From a Chinese cut.),  The Chinese Pig,  Mode of Carrying Pigs,  The Kl-LIJV, or Unicorn,  The FUNG-HWANG, or Phoenix,  Different Styles op Official Caps,  Mode of Carrying High Officers in Sedan,  Prisoner Condemned to the Cangue in Court,  Mode of Exposure in the Cangue,  Publicly Whipping a Thief through the Streets,  Interior of KUNO YUEN, or ‘Examination Hall,’ Peking,  Chinese Hieroglyphics and their Modern Equivalents,  Six Styles op Chinese Characters,  Worship of Confucius and his Disciples,  Diagram of Chinese Roof Construction,  The PIH-TUNO KUNO, or ‘Classic Hall,’ Peking, Wheelbarrow used for Travelling,  Bridge in Wan-shao Shan Gardens, near Peking,  Bridge, showing the Mode of Mortising the Arch,  Barber’s Establishment,  Tricks Played with the Queue,  Procession op Ladies to an Ancestral Temple,  Appearance of the Bones op a Foot when Compressed,  Feet of Chinese Ladies,  Shape of a Lady’s Shoe,  Boys Gambling with Crickets,  Chinese Chess-board
    Signing of the Treaty of Peking, Manner of Shoeing Horses, Pedler’s Barrow, Group and Residence of Fishermen near Canton, The Fishing Cormorant, The Cobbler and his Movable Workshop, Mode op Firing Tea, Travelling Blacksmith and Equipment, Itinerant Dish-mender, Fancy Carved Work, Fable of the Herdsman and Weaver-girl. (From a bowl.), Representation of a Man Dreaming, The Vengeance op Heaven upon the False Grave, A would-be Assassin Followed by Spirits, Symbols of Happiness and Old Age. (From a plaque.), Caricature of an English Foraging Party, Chinese Notions of the Internal Structure of the Human Body, Pwanku Chiselling Out the Universe, Gateway of the Yuen Dynasty, Ku-yung Kwan, Great Wall, Ancestral Hall and Mode of Worshipping the Tablets, Buddhist Priests, Consulting a Fortune-teller, Head of Nestorian Tablet at Si-ngan, Roman Catholic Altar near Shanghai, Manner of Smoking Opium, Wall of Canton City. (From Fisher.), Plan of Canton and Vicinity, Portrait of Commissioner KiYing, Plan of the Pei ho and Forts. (From Fisher.), Portrait of Prince Kung, Portrait of Wanslang

    NOTE RESPECTING THE SYSTEM OF PRONUNCL ATION ADOPTED IN THIS WORK
    In this the values of the vowels are as follows :
    1. a as the italicized letters in father, far (never like a in hat) ;e.g., chang, hang—sounded almost as if written chahng, hahng, not flat as in the English words sang, hang, man, etc.
    2. a like the short u in hut, or as any of the italicized vowels in American, summer, mother ; the German o approaches this sound, while Wade writes it e ; e.g., pan, tang, to be pronounced as pun, tongue.
    3. e as in men, dead, saw! ; as teh, shen, yen.
    4. e, the French e, as in they, neigh, pray ; as che, ye, pronouneed chaij, yay.
    5. i as in pm, f/ntsh ; as dug, lin, Chihl’i.
    6. ‘t as in machine, believe, feel, me ; as I’l, Ktshen, Kanghi.
    7. o as in long. Yawn ; never like no, cro^u ; as to, soh, j)o.
    8. u as in rule, too, fool ; as 7\i7-k, Belur, ku, sung ; pronounced Toork, Beloor, koo, soong. This sound is heard less full in fuh, fsun, and a few other words ; this and the next may be considered as equivalent to the two ii-sounds found in German.
    9. u nearly as in I’une (French), or wnion, rheum ; as hii, tsil.
    10. ai as in aisle, high, or longer than i in pine ; as Shanghai, Hainan. The combination ei is more slender than ai, though the difference is slight ; e.g., Kivei chau.
    11. au and ao as in round, our, hoio ; as Fuhchau, Macao, Taukwang.
    12. eu as in the colloquial phrase say ’em ; e.g., cheung. This diphthong is heard in the Canton dialect.
    13. ia as in yard ; e.g., Ma, Hang ; not to be sounded as if written Jdgh-a, kigh-ang, but like hed, keiing.
    14. iau is made b}” joining Nos. 5 and 11 ; hiau, Liautung.
    15. ie as in sierra (SjDanisli), Ki’enzi; e.g., Men, kien.
    16. iu as in peu;, pure, lengthened to a dij)hthong ; km, siun.
    17. iue is made by adding a short e to the preceding ; kiuen, Muen,
    18. ui as in Louisiana, suicide ; e.g., sui, cMii.

    SYSTEM OF PRONUNCIATION
    The consonants are sounded generally as they are in the English alphabet. Ch as in church ; hw as in when. ; j soft, as s in pleasure; kw as in awkward ; ng, as an initial, as in singing, leaving off the first two letters ; sz’ and tsz’ are to be sounded full with one breathing, but none of the English vowels are heard in it ; the sound stops at the z ; Dr. Morrison wrote these sounds tsze and sze, while Sir Thomas Wade, whose system bids fair to become the most widely employed, turns them into ssu and fzii. The hs of the latter, made by omitting the first vowel of hissing, is written simply as h by the author. Urh, or’rh, is pronounced as the three last letters of purr.
    All these, except No. 12, are heard in the court dialect, which has now become the most common mode of writing the names of places and persons in China. Though foreign authors have employed different letters, they have all intended to write the same sound ; thus chan, shan, and xan, are only different ways of writing閂; and tsse, tsze, tsz’, zh, tzu`, and tzu, of 字. Such is not the case, however, with such names as Macao, Hongkong, Amoy, Whampoa, and others along the coast, which are sounded according to the local patois, and not the court pronunciation-Ma-ngau, Hiangkiang, Hiamun, Hwangpu, etc. Many of the discrepancies seen in the works of travellers and writers are owing to the fact that each is prone to follow his own fancy in transliterating foreign names ; uniformity is almost unattainable in this matter. Even, too, in what is called the court dialect there is a great diversity among educated Chinese, owing to the traditional way all learn the sounds of the characters. In this work, and on the map, the sounds are written uniformly according to the pronunciation given in Morrison’s Dictionary, but not according to his orthography. Almost every writer upon the Chinese language seems disposed to propose a new system, and the result is a great confusion in writing the same name ; for example, eull, olr, id, ulli, Ih, urh, ‘rh, ‘i, e, lur, nge, ngi, je, ji, are different ways of writing the sounds given to a single character. Amid these discrepancies, both among the Chinese themselves and those who endeavor to catch their pronunciation, it is almost impossible to settle upon one mode of writing the names of places. That which seems to offer the easiest pronunciation has been adopted in this work. It may, perhaps, be regarded as an unimportant matter, so long as the place is known, but to one living abroad, and unacquainted with the language, the discrepancy is a source of great confusion. He is unable to decide, for instance, whether Tang-ngan, Tangon hien, Tang-oune, and Tangao, refer to the same place or not.
    In writing Chinese proper names, authors differ greatly as to the style of placing them ; thus, Fuhchaufu, Fiih-chau fu, Fuh Chau Fu, Fuh-Chau fu, etc., are all seen. Analogy affords little guide here, for New York, Philadelphia, and Cambridge are severally unlike in the principle of writing them : the first, being really formed of an adjective and a noun, is not in this case united to the latter, as it is in Newport, Newtown, etc. ; the second is like the generality of Chinese towns, and while it is now written as one word, it would be written as two if the name were translated-as ‘Brotherly Love ;’ but the third, Cambridge, despite its derivation, is never written in two words, and many Chinese names are like this in origin. Thus applying these rules, properly enough, to Chinese places, they have been written here as single words, Suchau, Peking, Hongkong ; a hyphen has been inserted in some places only to avoid mispronunciation, as Hiau-‘i, St-ngan, etc. It is hardly supposed that this system will alter such names as are commonly written otherwise, nor, indeed, that it will be adhered to with absolute consistency in the following pages ; but the principle of the arrangement is perhaps the simplest possible. The additions fu, chau, ting, and hien, being classifying terms, should form a separate word. Li conclusion, it may be stated that this system could only be carried out approximately as regards the proper names in the colonies and outside of the Empire.

    CHAPTER I GENERAL DIVISIONS AND FEATURES OF THE EMPIRE

    The possessions of the ruling dynasty of China,—that portion of the Asiatic continent which is usually called by geographers the Chinese Empire,—form one of the most extensive dominions ever swayed by a single power in any age, or any part of the world. Comprising within its limits every variety of soil and climate, and watered by large rivers, which serve not only to irrigate and drain it, but, by means of their size and the course of their tributaries, affording unusual facilities for intercommunication, it produces within its own borders everything necessary for the comfort, support, and delight of its occupants, who have depended very slightly upon the assistance of other climes and nations for satisfying their own wants. Its civilization has been developed under its own institutions; its government has been modelled without knowledge or reference to that of any other kingdom ; its literature has borrowed nothing from the genius or research of the scholars of other lands ; its language is unique in its symbols, its structure, and its antiquity ; its inhabitants are remarkable for their industry, peacefulness, numbers, and peculiar habits. The examination of such a people, and so extensive a country, can hardly fail of being both instructive and entertaining, and if rightly pursued, lead to a stronger conviction of the need of the precepts and sanctions of the Bible to the highest development of every nation in its personal, social, and political relations in this world, as well as to individual happiness in another. It is to be hoped, too, that at this date in the world’s history, there are many more than formerly, who desire to learn the condition and wants of others, not entirely for their own amusement and congratulation at their superior knowledge and advantages, but also to promote the well-being of their fellow-men, and impart liberally of the gifts they themselves enjoy. Those who desire to do this, will find that few families of mankind are more worthy of their greatest efforts than those comprised within the limits of the Chinese Empire ; while none stand in more need of the purifying, ennobling, and invigorating principles of our holy religion to develop and enforce their own theories of social improvement.

    ORIGIN OF THE NAME CHINA

    The origin of the name China has not yet been fully settled. The people themselves have now no such name for their country, nor is there good evidence that they ever did apply it to the whole land. The occurrence in the Laws of Manu and in the Mahaharata of the name China, applied to a land or people with whom the Hindus had intercourse in the twelfth century B.C., and who were probably the Chinese, throws the origin far back into the remotest times, where probability must take the place of evidence. The most credible account ascribes its origin to the family of Tsin, whose chief first obtained complete sway, about b.c. 250, over all the other feudal principalities in the land, and whose exploits rendered him famous in India, Persia, and other Asiatic states. His sept had, however, long been renowned in Chinese history, and previous to this conquest had made itself widely known, not only in China, but in other countries. The kingdom lay in the northwestern parts of the empire, near the Yellow River, and according to Visdelon, who has examined the subject, the family was illustrious by its nobility and power. ” Its founder was Taye, son of the emperor Chuen-hu. It existed in great splendor for more than a thousand years, and was only inferior to the royal dignity. Feitsz’, a prince of this family, had the superintendence of the stud of the emperor Hiao, b.c. 909, and as a mark of favor his majesty conferred on him the sovereignty of the city of Tsinchau in mesne tenure with the title of sub-tributary king. One hundred and twenty-two years afterwards, b.c. 770, Siangkwan, jh’t’it vol of Tsinchau (having by his bravery revenged the insults offered to the emperor Ping by the Tartars, who slew his father Yu), was created king in full tenure, and without limitation or exception. The same monarch, abandoning Si-ngan (then called Hao-king, the capital of his empire) to transport his seat to Lohyang, Siangkwan was able to make himself master of the large province of Sliensi, which had composed the proper kingdom of the emperor. The king of Tsin thus became very powerful, but though his fortune changed, he did not alter his title, retaining always that of the city of Tsinchau, which had been the foundation of his elevation. The kingdom of Tsin soon became celebrated, and being the place of the first arrival by land of people from western countries, it seems probable that those who saw no more of China than the realm of Tsin, extended this name to all the rest, and called the whole empire Tsin or Chin.”(D’Herbelot, Bibliotheqne Orientale, quarto edition, 1779, Tome IV., p. 8.Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., pp. xxxiv., Ixviii. Edkiius, Chinese Buddhism, p. 93.)

    This extract refers to periods long before the dethronement of the house of Chan by princes of Tsin ; the position of this latter principality, contiguous to the desert, and holding the passes leading from the valley of the Tarim across the desert eastward to China, renders the supposition of the learned Jesuit highly probable. The possession of the old imperial capital would strengthen this idea in the minds of the traders resorting to China from the West ; and when the same family did obtain paramount sway over the whole empire, and its head render himself celebrated by his conquests, and by building the Great Wall, the name Tsin was still more widely diffused, and regarded as the name of the country. The Malays and Arabians, whose vessels were early found between Aden and Canton, knew it as China, and probably introduced the name into Europe before 1500. The Hindus contracted it into Machin, from Maha-china, i.e., ‘Great China;’ and the first of these was sometiuies confounded with Manj’i^ a term used for the tribes in Yunnan. Tlius it appears that these and other nations of Asia have known the country or its people by no other terms than Jin., Chin, Sin, Since, or Tziniske. The Persian name Cathay, and its Russian form of Kitai, is of modern orio-in ; it is altered from Ki-tah, the race Avhieh ruled northern China in the tenth century, and is quite unknown to the people it designates. The Latin word Seres is derived from the Chinese word sz’ (silk), and doubtless first came into use to denote the people during the Ilan dynasty.

    VARIOUS DESIGNATIONS

    The Chinese have many names to designate themselves and the land they inhabit. One of the most ancient is Tien Ilia, meaning ‘ Beneath the Skj^,’ and denoting the AVorld ; another, almost as ancient, is /&’ Ilai, i.e., ‘ [all within] the Four Seas,’ while a third is (Vtunr/ Kivoh, oy ‘Middle Kingdom.’ This dates from the establishment of the Chan dynasty, about b.c.1150, when the imperial family so called its own special state in Honan because it was surrounded by all the others. The name was retained as the empire grew, and thus has strengthened the popular belief that it is really situated in the centre of the earth; Chn,)i<j Kioohjln, or ‘men of the Middle Kingdom,’ denotes the Chinese. All these names indicate the vanity and ignorance of the people respecting their geographical position and their rank among the nations ; they have not been alone in this foible, for the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans all had terms for their possessions which intimated their own ideas of their superiority ; while, too, the area of none of those monarchies, in their widest extent, ecpialled that of China Proper. The family of Tsin also established the custom, since continued, of calling the country by the luimc of the dynasty then reigning; but, wliilc the brief duration of that house of forty-four years was not long enough to give it much currency among the people, snccueeding dynasties, by their talents and prowess, imparted their own as permanent appellations to the people and country. The terms Ilan-jhi and JLoi-tsz’ {i.e., men of Ilan or sons of llan) are now in use by the people to denote themselves : the last also means a ”brave man.” Tangjin, or ‘Men of Tang,’ is quite as frequently heard iu the southern provinces, where the phrase Tang Shan, or ‘ Hills of Tang,’ denotes the whole country. The Buddhists of India called the land Chin-tan, or the ‘ Dawn,’ and this appellation has been used in Chinese writings of that sect.

    The present dynasty calls the empire Ta Tsing Kivoh, or * Great Pure Kingdom;’ but the people themselves have refused the corresponding term of Tsing-jin, or ‘ Men of Tsing.’ The empire is also sometimes termed Tsing Chau, i.e., ‘ [land of the] Pure Dynasty,’ by metonymy for the family that rules it. The term now frequently heard in western countries—the Celestial Empire^is derived from Tien Chan, i.e., ‘ Heavenly Dynasty,’ meaning the kingdom which the dynasty appointed by heaven rules over ; but the term Celestials, for the people of that kingdom, is entirely of foreign manufacture, and their language could with difficulty be made to express such a patronymic.

    The phrase Li Jlin, or ‘ Black-haired Pace,’ is a common appellation ; the expressions Ilira Yen, the ‘ Flowery Language,’ and Chung lima Kiooh, the ‘ Middle Flowery Kingdom,’ are also frequently used for the written language of the country, because the Chinese consider themselves to be among the most polished and civilized of all nations—which is the sense of hwa in these phrases. The phrase I^ui T”i, or ‘ Inner Land,’ is often employed to distinguish it from countries beyond their borders, regarded as the desolate and barbarous regions of the earth. lima Ilia (the Glorious Hia) is an ancient term for China, the Hia dynasty being the first of the series; Tung Tu, or ” Land of the East,” is a name used in Mohammedan writings alone.

    The present ruling dynasty has extended the limits of the empire far beyond what they were under the Ming princes, and nearly to their extent in the reign of Kublai, a.d. 1290. In 1840, its borders were well defined, reaching fi*om Sagalien I. on the north-east, in lat. 48° 10′ jS”. and long. 144° 50′ E., to Hainan I. in the China Sea, on the south, in lat. 18° 10′ X., and westward to the Belur-tag, in long. T4° E., inclosing a continuous area, estimated, after the most careful valuation by McCullcjch, at 5,300,000 square miles. The longest line which could be drawn in this vast region, from the south-western part of tli, bordering on Kokand, north-easterly to the sea of Okhotsk, is 3350 miles ; its greatest breadth is 2,100 miles, from the Outer Hing-an or Stanovoi Mountains to the peninsula of Luichau in Kwangtung :—the first measuring 71 degrees of longitude, and the last over 34 of latitude.

    Since that year the process of disintegration has been going on, and the cession of Hongkong to the British has been followed by greater partitions to Russia, which have altogether reduced it more than half a million of square miles on the north-east and west. Its limits on the western frontiers are still somewhat undefined. The greatest breadth is from Albazin on the Amur, nearly south to Hainan, 2150 miles ; and the longest line which can be drawn in it runs from Sartokh in Tibet, north-east to the junction of the Usuri River with the Amur.

    GENERAL DIVISIONS

    The form of the empire approaches a rectangle. It is

    bounded on the east and south-east by various arms and portions

    of the Pacific Ocean, beginning at the frontier of Corea,

    and called on European maps the gulfs of Liautung and Pechele,

    the Yellow Sea, channel of Formosa, China Sea, and Gulf

    of Tonquin. Cochinchina and Burmali border on the provinces

    of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Yunnan, in the south-west;

    but most of the region near that frontier is inhabited by halfindependent tribes of Laos, Ivakyens, Singphos, and others.

    The southern ranges of the Himalaya separate Assam, Butan,

    Sikkim, Nipal and states in India from Tibet, whose western

    border is bounded by the nominally dependent country of

    Ladak, or if that be excluded, by the Kara-kormn Mountains.

    The kingdoms or states of Cashmere, Badakshan, Kokand, and

    the Kirghls steppe, lie upon the western frontiers of Little

    Tibet, Ladak, and 111′, as far north as the Russian border ; the

    high range of the Belur-tag or Tsung-ling separates the former

    countries from the Cliiiiese territory in this quarter. Russia is

    conterminous with China from the Kirghis steppe along the

    Altai chain and Kenteh range to the junction of the Argun

    and the Amur, from whence the latter river and its tributary,

    the Usuri, form the dividing line to the border of Corea, a

    total stretch of 5,300 miles. The circuit of tiie whole empire

    is 14,000 miles, or considerably over half the circumference of

    the globe. These measurements, it must be remembered, are

    of the roughest character. The coast line froiri the mouth of

    the river Yaluh in Corea to that of the Annam in Cochinchina

    is not far from 4,400 miles. This immense country comprises

    about one-third of the continent, and nearly one-tenth of the

    habitable part of the globe ; and, next to Russia, is the largest

    empire which has existed on the earth.

    It will, perhaps, contribute to a better comprehension of the

    area of the Chinese Empire to compare it with some other countries.

    Russia is nearly 6,500 miles in its greatest length, about 1,500 in its average breadth, and measures 8,369,144(Or 21,759,974 sq. km.—Gotha Almanack.) square miles, or one-seventh of the land on the globe. The United States of America extends about 3,000 miles from Monterey on the Pacific in a north-easterly direction to Maine, and

    about 1700 from Lake of the Woods to Florida. The area of

    this territory is now estimated at 2,936,166 square miles, with

    a coast line of 5,120 miles. The area of the British Empire

    is not far from 7,647,000 square miles, but the boundaries of

    some of the colonies in Hindostan and South Africa are not

    definitely laid down ; the superficies of the two colonies of

    Australia and Kew Zealand is nearly equal to that of all the

    other possessions of the British crown.

    The Chinese themselves divide the empire into three principal

    parts, rather by the different form of government in each,

    than by any geographical arrangement.

    I. The Eighteen Provinces^ including, with trivial additions, the country conquered by the Manchus in 1664.
    II. 3fmichuria, or the native country of the Manchus, lying north of the Gulf of Liautung as far as the Amur and west of the Usuri River.
    III. Colonial Possessions, including Mongolia, 111 (comprising Sungaria and Eastern Turkestan), Koko-uor, and Tibet.

    The first of these divisions alone is that to which other nations have given the name of China, and is the only part which is entirely settled by the Chinese. It lies on the eastern slope of the high table-land of Central Asia, in the south-east ern angle of the continent ; and for beauty of scenery, fertility of- soil, salubrity of climate, magnificent and navigable rivers, and variety and abundance of its productions, M’ill compare with any portion of the globe. The native name for this portion, as distinguished from the rest, is Shih-jxih Sang or the ‘ Eighteen Provinces,’ but the people themselves usually mean this part

    alone by the term Chung Juvoh. The area of the Eighteen

    Provinces is estimated by ‘McCulloch at 1,348,870 square miles,

    but if the full area of the provinces of Kansuh and Chihli be

    included, this figure is not large enough ; the usual computation

    is 1,297,999 square miles ; Mahe Brun reckons it at

    1,482,091 square miles ; but the entire dimensions of the Eighteen

    Provinces, as the Chinese define them, cannot be much

    under 2,000,000 square miles, the excess lying in the extension

    of the two provinces mentioned above. This part, consequently,

    is rather more than two-fifths of the area of tlie whole empire.

    MOUNTAIN CHAINS

    The old limits are, however, more natural, and being better known may still be retained. They give nearly a square form to the provinces, the length from north to south being 1,474

    miles, and the breadth 1,355 miles ; but the diagonal line from

    the north-east corner to Yunnan is 1,009 miles, and tliat from

    Amoy to the north-western part of Kansuh is 1,557 miles.

    China Proper, therefore, measures about seven times the size of

    France, and fifteen times that of the United Kingdom ; it is

    nearly half as large as all Europe, which is 3,050,000 square

    miles. Its area is, however, nearer that of all the States of the

    American Union lying east of the Mississippi Piver, with Texas,

    Arkansas, Missouri and Iowa added ; these all cover 1,355,309

    square miles. The position of the two countries facing the

    western borders of great oceans is another point of likeness,

    which involves considerable similarity in climate ; there is

    moreover a further reseml)lance between tlie size of the provinces

    in China and those of the newer States.

    Before proceeding to define the three great basins into which

    China may be divided, it will give a better idea of the whole

    subject to speak of the mountain ranges which lie within and

    near or along the limits of the country. The latter in them

    selves form almost an entire wall inclosing and defining the old

    empire ; the principal exceptions being the western boundaries

    of Yunnan, the border between Hi and the Kirghis steppe, and

    the trans-Anmr region.

    Commencing at the north-eastern corner of the basin of the

    Amur above its mouth, near lat. 56° N., are the first sunmiits

    of the Altai range, which during its long course of 2,000 miles

    takes several names ; this range forms the northern limit of the

    table-land of Central Asia. At its eastern part, the range is

    called Stanovoi by the Russians, and Wai Jling-an by the Chinese

    ; the first name is applied as far west as the confluence of

    the Songari with the Amur, beyond which, north-west as far

    as lake Baikal, the Russians call it the Daourian Mountains.

    The distance from the lake to the ocean is about 600 miles, and

    all within Russian limits. Beyond lake Baikal, westward, the

    chain is called the Altai, i.e.^ Golden Mountains, and sometimes

    Kinshan, having a similar meaning. Near the head-waters of

    the river Selenga this range separates into two nearly parallel

    systems running east and west. The southern one, which lies

    mostly in Mongolia, is called the Tangnu, and rises to a much

    liigher elevation than the northern spur. The Tangnu Mountains

    continue under that name on the Chinese maps in a southwesterly

    direction, but this chain properly joins the Tien shan,

    or Celestial Mountains, in the province of Cobdo, and continues

    until it again unites with the Altai further west, near the

    junction of the Kirghis steppe with China and Russia. The

    length of the whole chain is not far from 2,500 miles, and

    except near the Tshulyshman River, does not, so far as is

    known, rise to the snow line, save in detached peaks. The

    average elevation is supposed to be in the neighborhood of

    7,000 feet ; most of it lies between latitudes 47° and 52° X.,

    largely covered with forests and susceptible of cultivation.

    The next chain is the Belur-tag, Tartash ling, in Chinese

    Tsungling, Onion Mountains, or better. Blue Mountains, so called from their distant hue. (Klaproth (MemoireH sur VAsie, Tome II., p. 295) observes that the name is derived from the abundance of onions found upon tliese mountains. M. Abel-Remusat prefers to attribute it to the “bluish tint of onions.”) This range lies in the south-west of Songaria, separating that territory from Badakshan ; it commences about lat. 50° N., nearly at right angles with the Tien shan, and extends south, rising to a great height, though little is known of it. It may be considered as the connecting link between the Tien shan and the Kwanlun ; or rather, both this and the latter

    may be considered as proceeding from a mountain knot, detached

    from the llindu-kush, in the south-western part of Turkestan

    called Pushtikhur, the Belur-tag coming from its northern

    side, while the Kwanlun issues from its eastern side, and extends

    across the middle of the table-land to Koko-nor, there diverging

    into two branches. This mountain knot lies between latitudes

    36° and 37° Is., and longitudes 70° and 74° E. The Himalaya

    range proceeds from it south-easterly, along the southern frontier

    of Tibet, till it bi-eaks up near the head-waters of the

    Yangtsz’, Salween, and other rivers between Tibet, Burmali,

    and Yunnan, thus nearlj’ completing the inland fi’ontier of the

    empire. A small spur from the Yun ling, in the west of Yunnan,

    in the country of the Singphos and borders of Assam,

    may also be regarded as forming part of the boundary line.

    The C/ian(/-j)eh shan lies between the head-waters of the Yaluh

    and Toumen rivers, along the Corean frontier, forming a

    spur of the lower range of the Siliota or SUi-hlh-teh Mountains,

    east of the Usuri.

    Within the confines of the empire are four large chains,

    some of the peaks in their course rising to stupendous elevations,

    but the ridges generally falling below the snow line.

    The first is the Tien shan or Celestial Mountains, called Tengkiri

    b}’ the Mong(jls, and sometimes erroneously Alak Mountains.

    This chain begins at the northern extremity of the

    Belur-tag in lat. 40° N., or more properly comes in from the

    west, and extends from west to east between longitudes 76° and

    90° E., and generally along the 22° of north latitude, dividing

    Ili into the Northern and Southern Circuits. Its western portion

    is called Muz-tag ; the Muz-daban, about long. 79° E., between

    Kuldja and Aksu, is where the road from north to south

    runs across, leadino; over a hi”;h glacier above the snow line.

    East of this occurs a mass of peaks anK)ng the highest in Central

    Asia, called Bogdoula; and at the eastern end, near Ur

    THE TIEN SHAN AND KWANLUX RANGES. 11

    Qiiitsi, as it declines to the desert, are traces of volcanic action

    seen in solfataras and spaces covered with ashes, but no active

    volcanoes ai’C now known. The doubtful volcano of Pi shan,

    between the glacier and the Bogdo-ula, is the only one reported

    in continental China. The Tien shan end abruptly at their

    eastern point, w-here the ridge meets the desert, not far from

    the meridian of Barknl in Kansuh, though Humboldt considers

    the hills in l^Iongolia a continuation of the range eastward,

    as far as the Kui Iling-an. The space between the

    Altai and Tien shan is very nuich broken up by mountainous

    spurs, which may be considered as connecting links of them

    both, though no regular chain exists. The western prolongation

    of the Tien shan, under the name of tlie Muz-tag, extends

    from the high pass only as far as the junction of the Belurtag,

    beyond which, and out of the Chinese Empire, it continues

    nearly west, south of the river Sihon toward Kodjend, under

    the names of Ak-tag and Asferah-tag ; this part is covered with

    perpetual snow.

    Nearly parallel with the Tien shan in part of its course is

    the Kan shan, Ivwanlun or Koulkun range of mountains, also

    called Tien Chu or ‘ Celestial Pillar ‘ by Chinese geographers.

    The Ivwanlun starts from the Pushtikhur knot in lat. 3G° X.,

    and runs along easterly in nearly that parallel through the

    whole breadth of the tabledand, dividing Tibet from the desert

    of Gobi in part of its course. About the middle of its extent,

    not far from long. 00° E., it divides into several ranges,

    wliich decline to the south-east through Ivoko-nor and Sz’cliuen,

    under the names of the Bayan-kara, the Burklian-buddha,

    the Shuga and the Tanghi Mountains,—each more or less

    parallel in their general south-east course till they merge

    with the Yun ling {i.e., Cloudy Mountains), about lat. 33° !N.

    Another group bends northerly, beyond the sources of the Yellow

    Piver, and under the names of Altyn-tag, Xan shan, In

    shan, and Ala shan, passes through Ivansuh and Shensi to join

    the Xui IIino;-an, not far fi-om the o-reat bend of the Yellow

    River. Some portion of the country between the extremities

    of these two ranges is less elevated, but no plains occur, though

    the parts north of Kansuh, where the Great Wall runs, are rugged and unfertile. The large tract between the basins of the Tarini River and that of the Yaru-tsano . i, including the Kwanlun range, is mostly occupied by the desert of Gobi, and is now one of the least known parts of the globe. The mineral treasures of the Kwanlun are probably great, judging from the many precious stones ascribed to it ; this desolate region is the favorite arena for the monsters, fairies, genii, and other beings of Chinese legendary lore, and is the Olympus where the Buddhist and Taoist divinities hold their mystic

    sway, strange voices are lieard, and marvels accomplished.*

    From near the head-waters of the Yellow Iliver, the four ridges

    run south-easterly, and converge hard by the confines of Burmth

    and Yunnan, within an area about one hundred miles in breadth.

    The Yun ling range constitutes the western frontier of Sz’chuen,

    and going south-east into Yunnan, thence turns eastward, under

    the names of Kan ling, Mei ling, “Wu-i shan, and other local

    terms, passing through Kweichau, Hunan, and dividing Kwangtunoj

    and Fuhkien from Iviano-si and Chehkiano;, bends northeast

    till it reaches the sea opposite Chusan. One or two spurs

    branch off north from this range through Hunan and Iviangsi,

    as far as the Yangtsz’, but they are all of moderate elevation,

    covered with forests, and susceptible of cultivation. The descent

    from the Siueh ling or Bayan-kara Mountains, and the

    western part of the Yun ling, to the Pacific, is ^’ery gradual.

    The Chinese give a list of fifty peaks lying in the provinces

    w^hich are covered with snow for the whole ur part of the

    year, and describe glaciers on several of them.

    Another less extensive ridge branches off nearly due east

    from the Bayan-kara Mountains in Koko-nor, and forms a moderately

    high range of mountains between the Yellow Iliver and

    Yangtsz’ kiang as far as long. 112° E., on the western borders

    of Kganhwui ; this range is called Ivo-tsing shan, and Peh

    ling {i.e., Xorthern Mountains), on European maps. These two

    chains, viz., the Yun ling—with its continuation of the Mei

    ling—and the Peh ling, with their numerous offsets, render the

    whole of the western })art of C’hina very imeven.

    ‘ Compare Reimisiit, Ilistaire de la VUle de KJiotan, p. (ir), ff.

    HING-AN AND HIMALAYA KANGES. IB

    On the east of Mongolia, and cominencini!; near the hend of

    the Yellow Ilivei”, or i-ather forming a contiiniation of the

    range in Shansi, is the Nui lling-an ling or Sialkoi, called also

    kSoyorti range, which runs north-east on the west side of the

    basin of the Amur, till it reaches the Wai lling-an, in lat.

    56° N. The sides of the ridge toward the desert are nearly

    naked, but the eastern acclivities are AV’ell wooded and fertile.

    On the confines of Corea a spur strikes off westward through

    Shingking, called Kolmin-shanguin alin bj the Manchus, and

    Chang-pell shan {i.e., Long White Mountains) by the Chinese.

    Between the Sialkoi and Siliota are two smaller ridges defining

    the basin of the Nonni River on the east and west. Little is

    known of the elevation of these chains except that they are

    low in comparison with the great \vestern ranges, and under the

    snow line.

    The fourth system of mountains is the Himalaya, which

    bounds Tibet on the south, while the Kwanlun and Burkhan

    Buddha range defines it on the north. A small range runs

    through it from west to east, connected with the Himalaya by

    a high table-land, which surrounds the lakes Manasa-rowa and

    Ravan-hrad, and near or in which are the sources of the Indus,

    Ganges, and Yaru-tsangbu. This range is called Gang-dis-ri

    and Zang, and also Kailasa in Dr. Buchanan’s map, and its

    eastern end is separated from the Y^un ling b}’ the narrow valley

    of the Y’angtsz’, which here flows from north to south. The

    countr}’ north of the Gang-dis-ri is divided into two portions by a

    spur which extends in a north-west direction as far as the Kwanhm,’

    called the Kara-korum Mountains. On the western side

    of this range lies Ladak, di-ained by one of the largest branches

    of the Indus, and although included in the imperial domains

    on Chinese maps, has long been separated from imperial cognizance.

    The Kara-korum Mountains may therefore be taken

    as composing part of the boundary of the empire ; Chinese

    geographers regard them as forming a continuation of the Tsung ling.

    ‘ One among many native names given to tlie Kwanlun, or Koulkun Mountains, is Tien chv. ^ .^^ ‘Heaven’s Pillar,’ wliieli corresponds precise!)’ with the Atlas of China.

    This hasty sketch of the mountain chains in and around China needs to be further illustrated by Punipelly’s outlines of their general course and elevation in what he suitably terms the Sinian System^ applied ” to that extensive northeast-southwest system of upheaval which is traceable through nearly all Eastern Asia, and to which this portion of the continent owes its most salient features.” lie has developed this system in the liesearches in China, Moncfolla and Ja^Kin, issued by the Smithsonian Institution in 186G. The mountains of China correspond in many respects to the Appalachian system in America, and its revolution probably terminated soon after the deposition of

    the Chinese coal measures. Mr. Pumpelly describes the principal

    anticlinal axes of elevation in China Proper, beginning with the Barrier Range, extending through the northern part of Cliihli and Shansi, where it trends AV.S.W., prolonging across the Yellow River at Pao-teh, and hence S.W. through Shansi and Kansuh, coinciding with the watershed between the bend of that river, which traverses it through an immense gorge.

    The next axis east begins at the Tushih Gate, and goes S.W. to the Xankau Pass, both of them in the Great Wall, and thence across Shansi to the elbow of the Yellow River, and onward to Western Sz’chuen, forming the watershed within the bend of the Yangtsz’. In the regions between these two axes are found coal deposits. A central axis succeeds this in Shansi, crossing the Yangtsz’ near Ichang, and passing on S.W. through Kweichau to the Kan ling ; going X.E., it )-uns through IIonaTi and subsides as it gets over the Yellow River, till in Shantung and the Regent’s Sword it rises higher and higher as it stretches on to the Chang-peh shan in Manchuria, and the ridge between the Songai-i and Usuri rivers. Between the last

    two ranges lie the great coal, iron, and salt deposits in the

    provinces, and each side of the central axis huge troughs and

    basins occur, such as the valley of the Yangtsz’ in Yunnan, the

    Great Plain in Nganhwui and Chihli, the Gulf of Pechele, and

    the basins of the Liao and Songari rivers.

    The coast axis of elevation is indicated by ranges of granitic mountains between Kiangsi and Kiangsu on the north, and Chehkiang and Fuhkien on the south, extending S.W. through pumpelly’s sinian system.

    15 Kwangtung into the Yuii ling, and N.E. into the Chusan Arcliipelago, thence across to Corea and the Sihota Mountains east of the Usuri River. An outlying granitic range, reaching from Hongkong north-easterly to Wanchau, and IS.W. to Hainan Island, marks a fifth axis of elevation.

    Crossing these anticlinal axes are three ranges, coming into China Proper from the west in such a manner as to prove highly beneficial to its structure. The northern is apparently a continuation of the Bayan-kara Mountains in a S.E. direction into Kansuh, and south of the river Wei into Honan, inider the name of the Hiung slian or ‘ Bear Mountains.’ The centre is an offset from this, going across the north of Hupeh. The southern appears to be a prolongation of the IHmalaya into Yunnan and Kwangsi, making the watershed between the Yangtsz’ and Pearl river basins.

    Between the Tien slian and the Kwanlun range on the southwest,

    and reaching to the Sialkoi on the north-east, in an oblique

    direction, lies the great desert of Gobi or Sha-moh, both words

    signifying a ivaterless j)laln^ or sandy floats.’ The entire length

    of this waste is more than 1,800 miles, but if its limits are

    extended to the Belnr-tag and the Sialkoi, at its western and

    eastern extremity, it will reach 2,200 miles ; the avei-age breadth

    is between 350 and 400 miles, subject, however, to great variations.

    The area within the mountain ranges which define it is

    over a million square miles, and few of the streams occurring

    in it find their way to the ocean. The whole of this tract is not

    a barren desert, though no part of it can lay claim to more than

    comparative fertility ; and the great altitude of most portions

    seems to be as much the cause of its stei-ility as the nature of

    the soil. Some portions have relapsed into a waste because of

    the destruction of the inhabitants.

    The M^estern portion of Gobi, lying east of the Tsung ling

    and north of the Kwanlun, between long. 76° and 94° E., and

    in lat. 36° and 41° N., is about 1,000 miles in length, and

    between 300 and 400 wide. Along the southern side of the

    ‘ Another interpretation makes Gobi (Kopi) to apply to the stony, while Sha-moh denotes the sandy tracks of this desert, in which case the name would more correctly read, ” Great Desert of Gobi and Sha-moh.”

    Tien shan extends a strip of arable land from 50 to SO miles in width, producing grain, pastni’age, cotton, and other things, and in which lie nearly all the Mohammedan cities and forts of the JVcui Lu. The Tarim and its branches flow eastward into Lob-nor, through the best part of this ti-act, from 76° to 89° E. : and along; the banks of the Khoten River a road runs from Yarkand to that city, and thence to Il’lassa. Here the desert is comparatively narrow. This part is called Ilan ha I, or ‘ Mirao;e Sea,’ by the Chinese, and is sometimes known as the desert of Lob nor. The remainder of this region is an almost unnntigated waste, and north of Koko-nor assumes its most terrific appearance, being covered with dazzling stones, and rendered insufferably hot by the reflection of the sun’s rays from these and numerous movable mountains of sand. Kor in winter is the climate milder or more endurable. ” The icy winds of Siberia, the almost constantly unclouded sky, the bare saline soil, and its great altitude above the sea, combine to make the Gobi, or desert of Mongolia, one of the coldest countries in the whole of Asia.” *

    The sandhills —kmi/^jchi, as the Mongols call them—appear north of the Ala Shan and along the Yellow River, and when the wind sets them in motion they, gradually travel before it, and form a great danger to travelers who try to cross them.

    One Chinese author says, ” There is neither watei-, herb, man,

    nor smoke ;—if there is no smoke, there is absolutely nothing.”

    The limits of the actual desert are not easily defined, for near

    the base of the mountain ranges, streams and vegetation are

    usually found.

    Near the meridian of Hami, long. 9-1° E., the desert is narrowed to about 150 miles. The road from Kiayii kwan to Hami runs across this narrow part, and travellers find water at various places in their route. It divides Gobi into two parts—the desert of Lob-nor and the Great Gobi—the former being about 4,500 feet elevation, and the latter or eastern not higher than 4,000 feet. The borders of Kansuh now extend across this tract to the foot of the Tien shan. ‘Col. Prejevalskj, Travelis in Mongolia, i’U-. Vul. II., p. 22. London, 187(5.

    THE DESERT OF GOBI. 17

    The eastern part, or Great Gobi, stretches from the eastern declivity of the Tien shan, in long. 94° to 120° E., and about lat. 40° iS^., as far as the Inner Iling-aii. Its width between the Altai and the In shan range varies from 500 to 700 miles. Through the middle of this tract extends the depressed valley properly called Sha-moh, from 150 to 200 miles across, and whose lowest depression is from 2,000 to 2,000 feet above the sea. Sand almost covers the surface of this valley, generally level, but sometimes rising into low hills. The road from Urga to Kalgan, crossing this tract, is watered during certain seasons of the year, and clothed with grass. It is 660 miles, and forty-seven posts are placed along the route. The crow, lai-k, and sand-«:;rouse are abundant on this road, the first beins a real pest, from its pilfering habits. Such vegetation as occurs is scanty and stunted, affording indiiferent pasture, and the M-ater in the small streams and lakes is brackish and unpotable. North and south of the Sha-moh the surface is gravelly and sometimes rocky, the vegetation more vigorous, and in many places affords good pasturages for the herds of the Kalkas tribes. In those portions bordering on or included in Chihli province, among the Tsakhars, agricultural labors are repaid, and millet, oats,

    and barley are produced, though not to a great extent. Trees

    are met with on the water-courses, but not to form forests.

    This region is called tsaii-ti, or Grassland, and maintains large

    herds of sheep and cattle. It extends more or less northward

    towards Siberia. The Etsina is the largest inland stream in

    this division of Gobi, but on its north-eastern borders are some

    large tributaries of the Annir. On the south of the Sialkoi

    range the desert-lands reach nearly to the Chang-peh shan,

    about five degrees beyond those mountains. The general features

    of this portion of the earth’s surface are less forbidding

    than Sahara, but more so than the steppes of Siberia or the

    pampas of Buenos Ayres. The whole of Gobi is regarded by

    Pumpelly as having formed a portion of a great ocean, which,

    in comparatively recent geological times, extended south to the

    Caspian and Black Seas, and between the Ural and Inner Hing an

    Mountains, and was drained off by an upheaval whose traces

    and effects can be detected in many parts. ” It appears to me,”

    Vol. I.—2

    he adds, ” that the ancient physical geography of this region,

    and the effects of its elevation, present one of the most important

    fields of exploration.” It will no doubt soon be more fully

    explored. Baron Richthofen describes Central Asia as properly

    a shallow trough, 1,800 miles long and about 400 miles wude,

    whose bottom is about 1,800 feet above the ocean ; its ancient

    shore-line extended between the Kwanlun and Tien slian ranges

    on the west, from 5,000 to 10,000 feet high, and gradually falling

    to 3,600 feet in its eastern shore. This is the Ilan-ha’i •

    eastward is Sha-nioh.^ and outside of both these wildernesses

    are the peripheral regions, where the waters flow to the ocean,

    carrying their silt, the erosions from the mountains. Inside of

    the shore-line nothing reaches the oceans, and these results of

    degradation are washed or blown into the valleys, and the

    country is buried in its own dust.’

    The rivers of China are her glory, and no country can

    compare with her for natural facilities of inland navigation.

    The people themselves consider that portion of geography relating

    to their rivers as the most interesting, and give it the

    greatest attention. The four largest rivers in the empire are the

    Yellow River, the Yangtsz’, the Amur, and the Tarim ; the

    Yaru-tsangbu also runs more than a thousand miles within its

    borders.

    The Hwang ho, or ‘ Yellow River,’ rises in the plain of Odontala,

    called in Chinese Shuj-suh Juil, or ‘ Starry Sea,’ from the

    numerous springs or lakelets found there between the Shuga

    and Bayan-kara Mountains, in lat. 35^°, and about long. 96° E.,

    and Tiot a hundred miles from the Yangtsz’. The Chinese popularly

    believe that the Yellow River runs underground from

    Lob-nor to Sing-suh liai. In this region are two lakes—the

    Dzaring and Oling, which are its fountains ; and its course is

    very crooked after it leaves them. It turns first south 30 miles,

    then east 160, then nearly west about 120, winding through

    gorges of the Kwanlun; the river then flows north-east and

    east to Lanchau in Ivansuh, having gone about 700 miles in its

    devious line. From Lanchau it turns northward along the

    ‘ Von Richthofen, China. Ergebnisse eigener Heisen, Band I. Berlin, ISTt,

    THE YELLOW RIVEE. 19

    Great Wall for 430 miles, till deflected eastward by the fn shan,

    on the edge of the plateau, and incloses the country of the

    Ortous Mongols within this great bend. A spur of the Peh

    ling forces it south, about long. 110° E., between Shansi and

    Shensi, for some 500 miles, till it enters the Great Plain,

    having run 1,130 miles from Lanchau. Through this loess region

    it becomes tinged with the soil which imparts both color

    and name to it. At the northern bend it separates in several

    small lakes and branches, and during this part of its course,

    for more than 500 miles, receives not a single stream of any

    size, while it is still so rapid, in descending from the plateau,

    as to demand much care when crossing it by boats. At the

    south-western corner of Shansi this river meets its largest

    tributary, the Wei, which comes in from the westward after

    a course of 400 miles, and is more available as a navigable

    stream than any other of the aflHuents. The area of the whole

    basin is less than that of the Yangtsz’, and may be estimated

    at about 475,000 square miles ; though the source of this

    stream is only 1,290 miles in a direct line from its mouth,

    its numerous windings prolong its course to nearly double that

    distance.

    The great differences of level in winter and summer have

    always made this river nearly useless, except as a drain ; while

    the effect of the long-continued deposit of silt along its lower

    level course has finally choked the mouth altogether. This

    remarkable result has been hastened, no doubt, by the dikes

    built along the banks to the east of Kaifung, which thus forced

    the floods to fill up the channel, and pushed the waters back

    over 500 miles to Honan-fu. Here the land is low, and the

    refluent waters gradually worked their way through marshes

    and creeks into the river Wei on the north bank, and thus

    found a north-east ‘ channel into the Canal and the Ta-tsing

    River, till they reached the Gulf of Pechele. A small part of

    these floods have perhaps gone south into the head waters of

    the river Hwai, and thence into Hung-tsih Lake ; but that lake

    has shrivelled, like its great feeder, and all its waters flow into

    the Yangtsz’. The history of the Yellow River furnishes a conclusive

    argument against diking a river’s banks to restrain its floods. It lias now reverted to the channel it occupied about fourteen centuries ago.’

    Far more tranquil and useful is its rival, the Yangtsz’ kiang,

    called also simply Kiaivj or Ta kiang, the ‘ River,’ or ‘ Great

    River.’ It is often erroneously named on western maps, Kyang

    Ku, which merely means ‘ mouth of the river.’ The sources

    of the Kiang ai’e in the Tangla Mountains and the Kwanlun

    range, and are placed on native maps in three streams flowing

    from the southern side of the Bayan-kara, This has been

    partly confirmed by Col. Prejevalsky. In January, 1873, he

    reached the Murui-ussu (Tortuous River) in lat. 35°, long. 94°,

    at its junction with the Ts^apchitai, the northern of the three

    branches, and found it 750 feet wide at that season. In spring,

    the river’s bed there is filled up a mile wide. Its course thence

    is south-east, receiving three other streams, all of which may be

    considered as its head-waters. All their channels are over ten

    thousand feet above the sea, but the ranges near them are under

    the snow-line. There is no authentic account of its course from

    this union till it joins the Yalung kiang in Sz’chuen, a distance

    of nearly 1,300 miles ; but Chinese maps indicate a southeasterly

    direction through the gorges of the Yun ling, till it

    bursts out from the mountains in lat. 20° IST., where it turns

    north-east. During nmcli of this distance it bears the name of

    the Po-lai-tsz’. The Yalung River rises very near the Yellow

    River, and runs parallel with the Kiang in a valley further east,

    flowing upwards of 600 miles before they join. Great rafts

    of timber are floated down both these streams, for sale at

    the towns furtlier east, but no large boats are seen on them

    before they leave the mountains. The town of Batang, in

    Sz’chuen, on the road from Il’lassa, is the first large place on

    the river. The main trunk is called Kin sha kiang {I.e., Goldensand

    River), until it receives the Yalung in the southern part

    of Sz’chuen, which the Chinese there regard as the principal

    stream of the two. Beyond the junction, the united river is

    called Ta kiang as far as Wuchang, in Ilupeh, beyond which

    ‘ Report by Dr. W. A. P. Martin in Journal of N. C. Branch of R A.

    Society, Vol. III., pp. 33-38 ; 1860. Same journal, Vol. IV., pp. 80-86 ; 1867,-

    Notes by Ney Elias. Pumpelly’s Researches, 1866, chap, v., pp. 41-51

    THE YANGTSZ’ KIANG. 21

    the people know it also as the Cliang kiang, or ‘Long Tliver.’

    They do not often call it Yangtsz’, which is properly applied

    only to the reach from Xanking ont to sea, which lay within

    the old region of Yangchan. This name has been erroneously

    written in Chinese, and thence translated ‘ Son of the Ocean,’

    The French often call it the Fleuve Bleu, but the Chinese have

    no such name. Its general course from AYuchang is easterly,

    receiving various tributaries on both shores, until it discharges

    its waters at Tsungming Island, by two mouths, in hit, 32° N,,

    more than 1,850 miles from its mouth in a direct line, but flowing

    nearly 3,000 miles in all its windings.’

    One of the largest and most useful of its tributaries in its

    lower course is the Ivan kiang in Kiangsi, which empties

    through the Poyang lake, and continues the transverse communication

    from north to south, connecting with the Grand

    Canal. The Tungting lake receives the Siang and Yuen, which

    drain the northern sides of the Xan ling in Ilunan ; and west

    of them is the Kungtan or Wu, which comes in with its

    surplus waters from Kweichau. These are on the south ; the

    Ilan in Ilupeh, and the Kialing, Min, and Loh in Sz’chuen, are

    the main aifluents on the north, contributing the drainage

    south of the Peli ling. The Grand Canal comes in opposite

    Chinkiang, and from thence the deep channel, able to carry the

    largest men-of-war on its bosom, finds its way to the Pacific.

    No two rivers can be more unlike in their general features than

    these two mighty streams. While the Yellow Piver is unsteady,

    the Yangtsz’ is uniform and deep in its lower course,

    and available for rafts from Batang in the western confines of

    Sz’chuen, and for boats from beyond Tungchuen in Yunnan,

    more than 1,700 miles from its mouth. Its great body and

    depth afford ample I’oom for ocean steam-ships 200 miles, as far

    as Xanking, where in some places no bottom could be found at

    twenty fathoms, while the banks are not so low^ as to be often

    injured by the freshets, even when the flood is over thirty feet.

    ‘ See the account of Pere Laribe’s voyage on this river in 1843, Annates de

    la Propagation de la Foi, Tome XVII., pp. 207, 286, ff. Five Months on the

    Tang-tsze, by Capt. Thos.W. Blakiston ; London, 1862. Pumpelly’s Researches^chap. ii. , pp. 4-10. Capt. Gill, The River of Golden Sand.

    At Pingslian above Siicliau in Sz’chnen, 1,550 miles from its month, Blakiston reckons the river to be 1,500 feet above tidewater, which gives an average fall of 13 inches to a geographical mile ; the inclination is increased to 19 inches in some portions, and it is this force which carries the silt of this stream ont to sea, bnt which is wanting in the Yellow River. The fall of the Yangtsz’ is nearly donble that of the Nile and Amazon, and half that of the Mississippi. The amount of water discharged is estimated at 500,000 cubic feet a second at Ichang, about 700 miles up, and it may reasonably be concluded that at Tsungming it discharges in times of flood a million cubic feet per second. Barrow calculated the discharge of the Yellow River in 1798 to be 11,610 cubic feet per second, when the current ran seven miles an hour. Xo river in the world exceeds the Yangtsz’ for arrangement of subsidiary streams, which render the whole basin accessible as far as the Yalung. “When a ship-canal has been dug around the gorges and rapids between Ichang and Kwei, steam-vessels can ascend nearly two thousand miles. The area of its basin is estimated at 548,000 square miles ; and from its central course, and the number of provinces through which it 2:)asses, it has been termed the Girdle of China ; while for its size, perennial and ample supply of water, and accessibility for navigation, it ranks with the great rivers of the world.’

    Besides these two notable rivers, numerous others empty

    into the ocean along the coast from Hainan to the Amur, three

    of which drain large tracts of country, and afford access to

    many populous cities and districts. The third basin is that

    south of the I^an ling to the ocean ; it is drained chiefly by the

    Chu kiang, and its form is much less regular than those of the

    Yellow River and Yangtsz’. The Chu kiang or Pearl River,

    like most of the rivers in China, has many names during its

    course, and is formed by three principal branches, respectively

    called East, North, and West rivers, according to the quarter

    from whence they come. The last is by far the largest, and all

    ‘ Staunton’s Emhnssy, Vol. III., p. 233. Blakiston’s Yang-tsze, p. 294, etc

    Chinese Repodtoru^ Vol. II., p. 316,

    LAKES OF CHINA. 2^\

    of them are navigal)le most of their length. They disembogue

    togetlier at Canton, and drain a region of not nuich less than

    130,000 S(jiiare miles, being all the conntr}- east of the Ynn ling

    and south of the Nan ling ranges. The rivers in Yunnan, for

    the most part, empty into the Salween, Saigon, Meikon, and

    other streams in Coehinehina. The Min, which flows by Fnhchau,

    the Tsili, upon which Xingpo lies, the Tsientang, leading

    up to Hangchau, and the Pei ho, or White River, emptying into

    the Gulf of Pechele, are the most considerable among these

    lesser outlets in the provinces ; while the Liau ho and Yaliluh

    kiang, discharging into the Gulf of Liautung, are the only two

    that deserve mention in Southern Manchuria. The difference

    between the number of river-mouths cutting the Chinese coast

    and that of the United States is very striking, resulting from

    the diiferent direction of the mountain chains in the interior.

    The lah’s of China are comparatively few and small ; all

    those in the provinces of any size lie within the Plain, and are

    connected with the two.great rivers. The largest is tlie Tungting

    in Ilunan, about 220 miles in circumference, tlirough

    Avliich the waters of the Siang and Yuen rivers flow, and fill

    its channels and beds according to the season ; it is now the silted-

    up bed of a former inland sea in Ilupeh, lying on both sides

    of the Yangtsz’, and through which countless lakes, creeks, and

    canals form a navigable network between that river and the

    Han. The lake receives the silt as the tributaries flow on

    through it, and discharge themselves along the deep outlet

    near Yohchau ; this depression altogether is about 200 miles

    long and 80 broad. About 320 miles eastward lies the Poyang

    Lake in Kiangsi, which also discharges the surplus waters of

    the Kan into the Yangtsz’. It is nearly 90 miles long, and

    about 20 in breadth, inclosing within its bosom many beautiful

    and populous islets. The scenery around this lake is highly

    picturesque, and its trade and flsheries are inore important

    than those of the Tungting. The Yangtsz’ receives the waters

    of several other lakes as it approaches the ocean, the largest

    of which are the Ta liu or ‘ Great Lake ‘ near Suchau, and the Tsau hu, lying on the northern bank, between Nganking and Nanking ; both these lakes join the river by navigable streams and the former is connected with the ocean by more than one channel.

    The only considerahle lake connected with the Yellow River

    is the llungtsih in Iviangsu, situated near the junction of that

    river and the Grand Canal, into which it discharges the drainings

    of the Ilwai River ; it is more remarkable for the fleets of

    boats upon it than for scenery in the vicinity. The larger part

    of the country between the mouths of the two rivers is so

    marshy and full of lakes, as to suggest the idea that the

    whole was once an enormous estuary where their waters joined,

    or else that their deposits have filled up a huge lake which

    once occupied this tract, leaving only a number of lesser sheets.

    Besides these, there are small lakes in Chihli and Shantung; also the Tien, the /Sien, and the Tali, of moderate extent, in Yunnan ; all of them support an aquatic population upon the fish taken from their waters.

    The largest lake in Manchuria is the Hinkai-nor in Kirin,

    near the source of the Usuri ; the two.lakes Hurun and Puyur,

    or Pir, in the basin of the Nonni River, give their name to

    Hurun-pir, the western district of Tsitsihar ; but of the extent

    and productions of these sheets of water little is known.

    Tl”3 regions lying north and south of Gobi contain many

    salt lakes, none of them individually comparing with the Aral

    Sea, but collectively covering a much larger extent, and most

    of them receiving the waters of the streams which drain their

    own isolated basins. The peculiarities of these little known

    parts, especially the depression on each side of the Tien shan,

    are such as to render them among the most interesting fields

    for geographical and geological research in the world. The

    largest one in Turkestan is Lob-nor, stated to be a great marsh

    overgrown with tall reeds and having a length of 75 miles and

    width of 15 miles(Prejevalsky, Froni Kulja Across the Tien shnii to Lob-nor, p. 99.). Bostang-nor, said to connect with this

    lake, is placed on Chinese maps some 30 miles north of it.

    Korth of the Tien shan the lakes are larger and more numerous

    ; the Dzaisang, Kisil-bash and Issik-kul are the most important.

    All these lakes are salt.

    BOUNDARIES OF THE PROVINCES. 25

    The M’liole region of Koko-nor is a country of lakes. The

    Oling and Dzaring are among tlie sources of the Yellow Rivei”; and the Tsing Ixti^ or Azure Sea, better known as Koko-nor,

    gives its name to the province. The Tengkiri-nor in Tibet lies

    to the north of H’lassa, and is the largest sheet of water within

    the frontiers of the empire. In its neighborhood are numerous

    small lakes extending northward into Koko-nor. The

    Palti or Yamorouk is shaped like a ring, an island in its centre

    occupying nearly the whole surface. Ulterior Tibet possesses

    many lakes on both sides of the Gang-dis-ri range ; the Yik

    and Paha, near Gobi, are the largest, being only two of a long

    row of them south of the Kwanlun range.

    The Eighteen Provinces are bounded on the north-east by the

    colony of Shingking, from which they are separated by the

    line of a former palisade marking the boundary from the town

    of Shan-hai kwan to the Hwang ho. Following this stream to

    its sources in the In shan, the boundary then crosses these

    mountains and pursues a west and south-west course, through

    the territories of roving Mongol tribes, until it finds the Yellow

    River at the settlement of Hokiuli in Shensi. West of this

    the Great “Wall divides the provinces of Shensi and Ivansuh

    from the Mongolian deserts as far as the Kiayli Pass, beyond

    which lies the desert of Gobi, called Pch ha I (Xorth Sea) and Hah

    fiai (Black Sea). On the east are the Gulf of Pechele and the

    Yellow Sea or Hwang hai, also called Tang hai (Eastern Sea)

    as far south as the Channel of Formosa. This channel and

    the China Sea lie on the south-east and south, as far as the Gulf

    of Tongking and the confines of Annam. Kwangsi and Yunnan border on Annam and Siam on their south sides, while Burmali marks the western frontier, but nearly the whole southwest and western frontiers beyond Yunnan and Sz’chuen are possessed by small tribes of uncivilized people, over whom neither the Chinese nor Burmese have much real control.

    Koko-nor bounds Sz’chuen and Kansuh on their western and southwestern sides.

    The coast of China, from Hainan to the mouth of the Yangtsz’, is bordered with multitudes of islands and rocky islets; from that point northward to Liautung, the shores are low, and, except in Sliantuiiii’, the coast is rendered dangerous by shoals.

    South of the Pei ho, along to the end of Shantung Promontory, the coast is bolder, increasing in height after passing the Miautau Islands, though neither side of the promontory presents any point of remarkable elevation ; Cape Macartney, at the eastern end, is a conspicuous bluff when approaching it from sea. From this cape to the mouth of the Tsientang River, near Chapu, a distance of about 400 miles, the coast is

    low, especially between the mouths of the Yangtsz’ and Yellow

    rivers, and has but few good harbors. Quicksands in the

    regions near these rivers and the Bay of Ilangchau render the

    navigation dangerous to native junks. From Kitto Point, near

    Ningpo, down to Hongkong, the shores assume a bolder aspect,

    and numerous small bays and coves occur among the islands,

    affording safe refuge for vessels. The aspect along this part is

    uninviting in the extreme, consisting principally of a succession

    of yellowish cliffs and naked headlands, giving little promise

    of the highly cultivated country beyond them. This bleak appearance

    is caused by the rains washing the decomposed soil

    off the surface ; the rock being granite in a state of partial

    and progressive disintegration, the loose soil is easily carried

    down into the intervals. Another reason for its treeless sin–

    face is owing to the practice of annually cutting the coarse

    grass for fuel, and after the crop is gathered setting the stubble

    on fire, in order to manure the ground for the coming year; the fire and thinness of the soil together effectually prevent any large growth of trees or shrubbery upon the hills.

    The estuary of the Pearl Iliver from the Bocca Tigris down to the Grand Ladrones, a distance of TO miles, and from Hongkong westerly to the Island of Tungku, about 100 miles, is interspersed with islands. The strait which separates Hainan from the Peninsula of Luichau has been supposed to be the place called by Arabian travelers in the ninth century the Gates of China, but that channel was probably near the Chusan Archi})elago. That group of fertile islands is regarded as the l)rokeii termination of the continental range of mountains running throui^h Chehkiang.

    CHARACTER OF THE COAST.

    The Island of Formosa, or Taiwan, cmmects tlie islands of Japan and Lewchew with Lu9onia. Between Formosa and the coast lie the Pescadores or Panghu Islands, a group much less in extent and number than the Chusan Islands. The Chinese have itineraries of all the places, headlands, islands, etc., along the entire coast, but they do not afford much information respecting the names of positions.(CJiinese Repository, Vol. V., p. 337; Vol. X., pp. 351, 371. Williams’ Chinese Commerced Guide, fifth edition, second part, 1863.)

    The first objects that invite attention in the general aspect of China Proper are the Great Plain in the north-east, and the three longitudinal basins into which the country is divided by mountain chains running east and west(Remusat (Nouvennx Melanges, Tome I., p. 9) adds a fourth basin, that of the Sagalien. The latter, however, scarcely deserves the name, having so many interrupting cross-chains.). The three great rivers which drain these basins How through them very irregularly, but by means of their main trunks and the tributaries, water communication is easily kept up, not only from west to east along the great courses, but also across the country. These natural facilities for inland navigation have been greatly” improved by the people, but they still, in most cases, await the introduction of steam to assist them in stemming the rapid currents of some of their rivers, and bringing distant places into more frequent communication.

    The whole surface of China may be conveniently divided into the mountainous and hilly country and the Great Plain. The mountainous country comprehends more than luilf of the whole, lying west of the meridian of 112^ or 114° (nearly that of Canton), quite to the borders of Tibet. The hilly portion is that south of the Yangtsz’ kiang and east of this meridian, comprising the provinces of Fuhkien, Kiangsi, Kwangtung, and sections of Hunan and Ilupeh. The Great Plain lies in the northeast, and forms the richest part of the empire.

    This Plain extends in length 700 miles from the Great Wall and Barrier Range north of Peking to the confluence of Poyang Lake with the Yangtsz’ in Kiangsi, lat. 30° X. The latter river is considered as its southern boundary as far down as Nganking in Ngankwui, wlience to the sea it is formed by a line drawn nearly east throng] i llangchau. The western boundary may be marked by a line drawn from Kingchau in Ilupeh(lat. 30° 36′), nearly north to llwaiking, on the Yellow River, and thence due north to the Great Wall, 50 miles north-west of

    Peking. The breadth varies. North of lat. 35°, where it

    partly extends to the Yellow Sea, and partly borders on the

    western side of Shantung, thence across to tlie ]jear Mountains

    and Shansi, its measure is between 150 and 250 miles ; stating

    the average at 200 miles, this portion has an area of 70,000

    square miles. Between 3-i° and 35° the Plain enlarges, and in

    the parallel of the Yellow Piver has a breadth of some 300

    miles from east to west ; while further south, along the course

    of the Yangtsz’, it reaches nearly 400 miles inland. Estimating

    the mean breadth of this portion at 400 miles, there are

    140,000 square miles, which, watli the northern part, make an

    area of about 210,000 square miles—a surface seven times as

    large as that of Lombardy, and about the same area as the

    plain of Bengal drained by the Ganges. The northern portion

    in Chihli up to the edge of the Plateau is mostly a deposit

    of the yellow loess and alluvial on the river bottoms;

    that lying near the coast in Kiangsu is low and swampy, covered

    by lakes and intersected by water-courses. This portion

    is extremely fertile, and furnishes large quantities of silk, tea,

    cotton, grain, and tobacco. The most interesting feature of this

    Plain is tlie enormous population it supports, which is, according

    to the census of 1812, not less than 177 millions of human

    beings, if the whole number of inhabitants contained in the six

    provinces lying wholly or partly in it be included ; making it

    by far the most densely settled of any part of the world of the

    same size, and amounting to nearly two-thirds of the whole

    population of Europe.(Penny Cydojwidia, Vol. VII., p. 74. McCulloch’s Oeographicul Dictionary, Vol. I., p. 596.)

    THE GREAT WALL 29

    The public works of China are probably unequalled in any land or by any people, for the amount of human labor bestowed upon them; the natural aspect of the country has been materially changed by them, and it has been remarked that the Great Wall is the only artificial structure which would arrest attention in a hasty survey of the surface of the globe. But their usefulness, or the science exhibited in their construction, is far inferior to their extent. The Great Wall, called Wan-li Chang Cheng (i.e., Myriad-mile Wall), was built by Qin Shi-huangdi, in order to protect his dominions from

    the incursions of the northern tribes. Some portions of it

    were already in existence, and he formed the plan of joining

    and extending them along the whole northern frontier to

    guard it. It was finished b.c. 204, having been ten years in

    building, seven of which were done after the Emperor’s death.

    This gigantic work was probably a popular one in the main,

    and still remains as its own chief evidence of the energy,

    industry, and perseverance of its builders, as well as their

    unwisdom and waste. Its construction probably cost less than

    the usual sums spent by Eui-opean States for their standing

    armies. It commences at Shanhai wei or Shanhai kwan (lat.

    40°, long. 119° 50′), a coast town of some importance as on

    the boundary between Child i and Shingking, and a place of

    considerable trade. Lord Jocelyu describes the wall, when

    observed from the ships, as ” scaling the precipices and topping

    the craggy hills of the country, which have along this

    coast a most desolate appearance.”

    It runs along the shore for several miles, and terminates on

    the beach near a long reef. Its course from this point is

    west, a little northerly, along the old frontiers of the province

    of Chihli, and then in Shansi, till it strikes the Yellow River,

    in lat. 394° and long. 111^°. This is the best built part, and

    contains the most important gates, where garrisons and trading

    marts are established. Within the province of Chihli there

    are two walls, inclosing a good part of the basin of the Sangkan

    ho west of Peking ; the inner one was built by an emperor of the Ming dynasty. From the point where it strikes the Yellow River, near Pau-teh, it forms the northern boundary of Shensf, till it tonches that stream again in lat. 37°, inclosing the country of the Ortous Mongols. Its direction from this point is north-west along the northern frontier of Kansnh to its termination near Kiavii kwan, through which the road passes leading to llami.

    From Tiear the eastern extremity of tlio AVall in the province of Ciiihh’, extending in a north-easterly direction, there was once a wooden stockade or palisade, forming the boundary between Liautung and Ivirin, which has been often taken from its representation on maps as a continuation of the Great Wall. It was erected by the Manchus, but has long since become decayed and disused.

    The entire length of the Great Wall between its extremities is 22^ degrees of latitude, or 1,255 miles in a straight line; but its turnings and doublings increase it to fully 1,500 miles.

    It would stretch from Philadelphia to Topeka, or from Portugal to Naples, on nearly the same latitude. The construction of this gigantic work is somewhat adapted to the nature of the country it traverses, and the material was taken or made on the spot where it was used. In the western part of its course, it is in some places merely a mud or gravel wall, and in others earth cased with brick.

    The eastern part is generally composed of earth and pebbles faced with large bricks, weighing from 10 to GO lbs, each, supported on a coping of stone. The whole is about 25 feet thick at the base, and 15 feet at the top, and varying from 15 to 30 feet high; the top is protected with bricks, and defended by a slight parapet, the thinness of which has been taken as proof that cannon were unknown at the time it was erected.

    There are brick towers at different intei’vals, some of them more than 40 feet high, but not built upon the Wall. These are independent structures, usually about 40 feet square at the base, diminishing to 30 at the top; at particular spots the towers are of two stories.

    The impression left upon the mind of a foreigner, on seeing this monument of human toil and unremunerative outlay, is respect for a people that could in any manner build it. Standing on the jK-ak at Kn-jxh Knu (Old North (late), one sees the cloud-<-a[)ped towers extending away over the declivities in single tiles both east and west, until dwarfed by miles and miles of sk}’-w:ird jiei-sj)e(‘ti\(> as they dwindle inf(» niiiinte piles, yet stand

    THE GRAND CANAL. 31

    with solemn stillness where they were stationed twenty centuries ago, as though condemned to wait the march of time till their builders returned. The crumbling dike at their feet may be followed, winding, leaping across gorges, defiles, and steeps, now buried in sonie chasm, now scaling the cliffs and slopes, in very exuberance of power and M’antonness, as it vanishes in a thin, shadowy line, at the horizon. Once seen, the Great Wall of China can never be forgotten.

    At present this remarkable structure is simply a geographical boundary, and except at the Gates nothing is done to keep it in repair. Beyond the Yellow River to its western extremity, the Great Wall, according to Gerbillon, is mostly a mound of earth or gravel, about fifteen feet in height, with only occasional towers of brick, or gateways made of stone.

    At Kalgan portions of it are made of porphyry and other stones piled up in a pyramidal form between the brick towers, difficult to cross but easy enough to pull down. The appearance of this rampart at Ivu-peh kau is more imposing; the entire extent of the main and cross walls in sight from one of the towers there is over twenty miles. In one place it runs over a peak 5,225 feet high, where it is so steep as to make one wonder as much at the labor of erecting it on such a cliff as on the folly of supposing it could be of any use there as a defence. The wall is most visited at Xan-kau (South Gate), in the Ku-yung Pass, a remarkable Thermopyla fifteen miles in length, which leads from the Plain at Peking up to the first terrace above it, and at one time was guarded by five additional walls and gates, now all in ruins. From this spot, the wall reaches across Shansi, and was built at a later period.

    The other great public work is the Grand Canal, or Chah ho (i.e., river of Flood-gates), called also Yim ho or ‘ Transit River,’ an enterprise which reflects far more credit upon the monarchs who devised and executed it, than does the Great Wall, and if the time in which it was dug, and the character of the princes who planned it, be considered, few works can be mentioned in the history of any country more admirable and useful. When it was in order, before the inflow of the Yellow River failed, by means of its connection with its feeders, an uninterrupted water communication across the country from Peking to Canton existed, and goods and passengers passed from the capital to nearly every hirge town in the basins of the two great rivers. The canal was designed by Kublai to reach from his own capital as far as HangZhou, the former capital of the Sung dynasty, and cannot be better described than in Marco Polo’s language : ” You must understand that the Emperor has caused a water communication to be made from this city [Kwa-chau] to Cambaluc, in the shape of a wide and deep channel dug between stream and stream, between lake and lake, forming as it were a great river on which large vessels can ply.” ‘ The northern end is a channel fourteen miles long, from Tung-chau up to Peking, which, passing under the city walls, finishes its course of some 600 miles at the palace wall, close by the British Legation ; here it is called Jl^ Ao, or ‘ Imperial River,’ but all boats now unlade at the eastern gate. An abridged account of Davis’s observations ” will afford a good idea of its construction and appearance.

    “Early on the 23d September, we entered the canal through

    two stone piers and between very high banks. The mounds

    of earth in the immediate vicinity were evidently for the purpose

    of effecting repairs, which, to judge from the vestiges of

    inundation on either side, could not be infrequent. The canal

    joins the Yu ho, which we had just quitted, on its eastern

    bank, as that river flows towards the Pei ho. One of the

    most striking features of the canal is the comparative clearness

    of its waters, when contrasted with that of the two rivers

    on which we had hitherto travelled ; a circumstance reasonably

    attributable to the depositions occasioned by the greater stillness

    of its contents. The course of the canal at this point

    was evidently in the bed of a natural river, as might be perceived

    from its winding course, and the irregularity and inartificial

    appearance of its banks. The stone abutments and

    flood-gates are for the purpose of regulating its waters, which

    at present were in excess and flowing out of it. As we proceeded

    on the canal, the stone flood-gates or sluices occurred at the rate of three or four a day, sometimes oftener, according as the inequalities in the surface of the country rendered them necessary

    • Yuk-‘s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. KJG. ” Sketches of China, Vol. I., p. 245

    THE GRAND CANAL. 33

    ” As we advanced, the canal in some parts became narrower,

    and the banks had rather more of an artificial appearance than

    where we first entered it, being occasionally pretty high ; but

    still the winding course led to the inference, that as yet the

    canal was for the most part only a natural river, modified and

    regulated by sluices and embankments. The distance between

    the stone piers in some of the flood-gates was apparently so

    narrow as only just to admit the passage of our largest boats.

    The contrivance for arresting the course of the water through

    them was extremely simple ; stout boards, with ropes fastened

    to each end, were let down edgewise over each other through

    grooves in the stone piers. A number of soldiers and workmen

    alwaj’s attended at the sluices, and the danger to the boats

    was diminished by coils of rope being hung down at the sides

    to break tha force of l)lows. The slowness of our progress,

    which for the last week averaged only twenty miles a day,

    gave us abundant leisure to observe the country

    ” “We now began to make better progress on the canal than

    we had hitherto done. The stream, though against us, was

    not strong, except near the sluices, where it was confined. In

    the afternoon we stopped at Kai-ho chin (i.e., River-opening mart), so called, perhaps, because the canal was commenced near here. On the 28th we arrived at the influx of the Yun ho, where the stream turned in our favor, and flowed to the southward, being the highest point of the canal, and a place of some note. The Yun ho flows into the canal on its eastern side nearly at right angles, and a part of its waters flow north and part south, while a strong facing of stone on the western bank sustains the force of the influx. At this point is the temple of the Dragon King, or genius of the watery element, who is supposed to have the canal in his special keeping. This enterprise of leading in this river seems to have been the work of Sung Li, who lived under Hungwu, the first emperor of the Ming dynasty, about 1375. In his time, a part of the canal in Shantung became so impassable that the coasting passage by sea began to be most used. Tins was the very thing the canal had been intended to prevent ; Sung accordingly adopted the plan of an old man named Piying, to concentrate the waters of the Yun ho and neighboring streams, and bring them down upon the canal as they are at present. History states that Sung employed 300,000 men to carry the plan into operation, and that the work was completed in seven months.

    On both sides of ns, nearly level with the canal, were extensive swamps with a shallow covering of water, planted with the Keluml)ium ; they were occasionally separated by narrow banks, along which the trackers walked, and the width of the canal sometimes did not exceed twenty-five yards. On reaching the part which skirts the Tu-shan Lake, the left bank was entirely submertred, and the canal confounded with the lake. All within sight was swamp, coldness, and desolation—in fact, a vast iidand sea, as many of the large boats at a distance were hull down. The swamps on the following day were kept out of sight by some decent villages on the high banks, which from perpetual accunnilation assumed in some places the aspect of hills.

    ” A part of our journey on the first of October lay along a portion of the canal where the banks, particularly to the right, were elaborately and thoroughly faced with stone ; a precaution which seemed to imply a greater than ordinary danger from inundations. In fact, the lakes, or rather floods, seemed to extend at present nearly to the feet of the mountains which lay at a distance on our left. We were now approaching that part of China which is exposed to the disastrous overflowings of the Yellow River, a perpetual source of wasteful expenditure to the government, and of peril and calamity to the people ; it well deserves the name of China’s Sorrow. We observed the repairs of the banks diligently proceeding under the superintendence of the proper officer. For this purpose they use the natural soil in combination with the thick stalks of the gigantic millet.”

    THE GRAND CANAL. 35

    The canal reaches the Yellow River about TO miles from its mouth ; but before leaving the lakes in the southern part of Shantung, it used to run nearly parallel with that stream for more than a hundred miles, and between it and the New Salt River during a good part of this distance. It is hard to understand how, by natural causes, so powerful a river, as it is described to be by the historians of both the British enil^assies less than one hundred years ago, should have become so completely choked up. The difference of level near Kaifung is found to be so very little that the siltage there has been enough to turn the current into the river “Wei and elsewhere. When Amherst’s

    embassy passed, the boats struck right across the stream,

    and gained the opposite bank, about three-fourths of a mile

    distant, in less than an hour. They drifted about two miles

    down, and then slowly brought up against the current to the

    spot Avhere the canal entered. This opening was a sluice nearly

    a hundred yards across, and through it the waters rushed into

    the river like a mill-race ; the banks were constructed of earth,

    strengthened with sorghum stalks, and strongly bound with cordage.

    Sir John Davis remarks, with the instinct of a tradesman,

    as he commends the perseverance and industry which had

    overcome these obstacles, that if the science of a Brunei could

    be allowed to operate on the Yellow River and Grand Canal,” a

    benefit mio-ht be conferred on the Chinese that M^ould more

    than compensate for all the evil that M-e have inflicted with our

    opium and our guns.” The boats were dragged through and

    up the sluice close to the bank by ropes communicating with

    large windlasses worked on the bank, wdiich safely, though

    slowly, brought them into still water.

    The distance between the Yellow and Yangtsz’ rivers is about

    ninety miles, and the canal here is carried largely upon a raised

    w^ork of earth, kept together by retaining walls of stone, and

    not less that twenty feet above the surrounding country in

    some parts. This sheet of water is about two hundred feet wide,

    and its current nearly three miles an hour. South of the II%vang

    ho several large towns stand near the levees, below their level,

    whose safety wholly depends upon the care taken of the baidvs

    of the canal. Ilwai-ngan and Pauying lie thus under and near

    them, in such a position as to cause an involuntary shudder at

    the thought of the destruction which would take place if they

    should give way. The level descends from these towns to the Yangtsz’, and at ‘i’angeliau the canal is much below the houses on its sides. It also connects with every stream or lake whose waters can be led into it. There are two or three inlets into the Yangtsz’ where the canal reaches the northern bank, but Chinkiang, on the southern shore, is regarded as the principal defence and post of its crossing. The canal leaves the river east of that city, proceeds south-east to

    Sucliau, and thence southerly on the eastern side of lake Tai,

    with which it communicates, to Ilangchau in Chehkiang. This

    portion is by far the most interesting and picturesque of the

    whole line, owing to its rich and populous cities, the fertility

    and high cultivation of the banks, and the lively aspect imparted

    by the multitude of boats. Though Kublai has had the credit

    of this useful work, it existed in parts of its com-se long before his day. The reach between the two great rivers was opened in the 11 an dynasty, and repaired by the wise founder of the SuiChao dynasty (a.d. (500). The princes of the TangChao dynasty kept it (tpen, and when the Sung emperors lived at Ilangchau they made the extension up to Chinkiang the great highway which it is to this day. The work from Peking to the Yellow River Mas opened by the Mongols about 1289, in which they merely joined the rivers and lakes to each other as they now exist. The Ming and Tsing emperors have done all they could to keep it open throughout, and lately an attempt has been made to reopen the passage from Ilungtsih Lake north into the old bed, so that boats can reach Tientsin from Kwachau. Its entire length is about 650 miles, or not quite twice that of the Erie Canal, but it varies in its breadth and depth more than any important canal either of America or Europe.

    As a work of art, compared with canals now existing in western countries, the Transit river does not rank high ; but even at this day there is no work of the kind in Asia which can compare with it, and there was none in the world equal to it when first put in full operation. It passes through alluvial soil in every part of its course, and the chief labor was expended in constructing embankments, and not in digging a deep channel.

    CANALS. 37

    The junction of the Yun ho, about lat. 3(5° N., was probably taken as the summit level. From this point northward the trench was dug through to Liiitsing to join the Yu ho, and embankments thrown up from the same place southward to the Yellow River, the whole being a line of two hundred miles. In some places the bed is cut down thirty, forty, and even seventy feet, but it encountered no material obstacle. The sluices which keep the necessary level are of rude construction, and thick planks, sliding in grooves hewn in stone buttresses, form the only locks. Still, the objects intended are all fully gained, and the simplicity of the means certainly does not derogate from the merit and execution of the plan.’

    There are some other inferior canals in the empire. Kienlung

    constructed a waste-weir for carrying off the surplus waters

    of the Yellow River of about a hundred miles in length, by

    cutting a canal from Ifimg liien in llonan, to one of the principal

    affluents of lake Hungtsih. It also answered as a drain for

    the marshy land in that part, and has probably recently served

    to convey the Hoods from the main stream into the lake. In

    the vicinity of Canton and Sucliau are many channels cut

    through the plains, which serve both for irrigation and navigation,

    but they are not worthy the name of canals. Similar conveniences

    are more or less frequently met with in all parts of

    the provinces, notably those on the Plain and low coast-lands.

    The public roads, in a country so well provided with navigable

    streams, are of minor consequence, but these media of travel

    are not neglected. ” I have travelled near 600 leagues by land

    in China,” observes De Guignes, ^ and have found many good

    roads, most of them wide and planted with trees. They are

    not usually paved, and consequently in rainy weather are either

    channelled by the water or covered with nnid, and in dry weather

    so dusty that travellers are obliged to wear spectacles to protect

    their eyes. In Kwangtung transportation is perfornied almost

    wholly by water, the only roads being across the lines of navigation.

    ‘ Klaproth, Memoires, Tome III., p. 312 sqq. De Guignes’ Voyages a Peking. Tome II., p. 195. Davis’s Sketchets, Vol. I., passim.H8 almost nortlnv

    The pass across the Mei ling is paved or filled up with stones; at Kihngan, in Kiangsi, are paved roads in good condition, but beyond the Yangtsz’, in xSganhwui, they were impracticable, but became better as we proceeded ard, and in many places had trees on both sides. Beyond-the Hwang ho they were broader, and we saw crowds of travelers, carts, nudes, and horses.

    In Shantung and Chihli they were generally broad and shady, and very dusty. This is, no doubt, disagreeable, but we went smoothly over these places, while in the villages and towns we were miserably jolted on the pavements. I hope, for the sake of those who may come after me, that the Chinese will not pave their roads before they improve their carriages.

    Some of the thoroughfares leading to Peking are paved with thick slabs of stone. One feature of the roads through the northern provinces which attracts attention is the great miiiilxT that lie below the level of the country. It is caused by the wind sweeping along them, and carrying over

    A Rf ., I-Cut in thf Loess. runLic JioADS. 39

    the fields the dust made and raised by the carts. As soon as the pools left by the rains dry enough to let the carts pass, the earth is reduced to powder ; as the winds sweep through the passage and clear it out, the process in a few years cuts a defile through the loani often fifteen feet deep, which impedes travel by its narrow gauge, hindering the carts as they meet. The banks are protected by revetment Myalls or turf, if necessary. Those near I langchau, and the great road leading from Chehkiang into Kiangsi, are all in good condition. Generally speaking, however, as is the case with most things in China, the roads are not well repaired, and large holes are frequently allowed to remain unfilled in the path, to the great danger of those who travel by night.” ‘

    Mountain passes have been cut for facilitating the transit of goods and people over the high ranges in many parts of the empire. The great road leading from Peking south-west through Sliansi and Shensi, and thence to Sz’chuen, is carried across the Peli ling and the valley of the river Ilwai by a mountain road, ” which, for the difficulties it presents and the art and labor with which they have been overcome, does not appear to be inferior to the road over the Simplon.” * At one place on this route, called Li-nai, a passage has been cut through the rock, and steps hewn on both sides of the mountain from its base to the summit. The passage across the peak being only wide enough for one sedan, the guards are perched in little houses placed on poles over the pass. This road was in ancient times the path to the metropolis, and these immense excavations were made from time to time by different monarchs. The pass over the Mei ling, at Kan-ngan, is a work of later date, and so are most of the other roads across this range in Fuhkien and Ivwangtung.

    ^ Voyages a Peking, Vol. II., p. 214. Compare the letter of a Jesuit missionary (Annales de la Foi, Tome VII., p. 377), who describes houses of rest on the wayside. These singular road-gullies of the loess region have been very thoroughly examined by Baron von Richthofen, from whose work the cut above is taken.^ Penny Cyclopaedia, Vol. XXVIL, p. 656.

    The general aspect of the country is perhaps as much modified by labor of man in China as in England, but the appearance of a landscape in the two kingdoms is unlike. Whenever water is a\aihil)le, streams are led upon the rice fields, and this kind of cultivation allows few or no trees to grow in the plats.

    Such fields are divided by i-aised banks, which serve for pathways across the marshy enclosui-e, and assist in confining the water when let in upon the growing crop. The bounds of other fields are denoted by stones or other landmarks, and the entire absence of walls, fences, or hedgerows, makes a cultivated plain appear like a vast garden.

    The iireatest sameness exists in all the cities. A wall encloses all towns above a .s-^’ or township, and the suburbs are not unfrequently larger than their enceinte. The streets in large towns south of the Hwang ho are paved, and the sewers run under the cross slabs. What filth is not in them is generally in the street, as these drains easily become choked. The roadways arc not usually over ten feet wide, but the low houses on each side make them appear less like alleys than would be the case in western cities. Villages have a pleasant appearance at a distance, usually embowered among trees, between which the whitewashed houses look prettily ; but on entering them one is disappointed at their irregularit}’, dirtiness, and generally decayed look. The gardens and best houses are mostly walled in from sight, while the precincts of temples are the resort of idlers, beggars, and children, with a proportion of pigs and dogs.

    Elegance or ornament, orderly arrangement and grandeur of design, cleanliness, or comfort, as these terms are applied in Europe, are almost unknown in Chinese houses, cities, or gardens.

    GENERAL ASPECT AND RACE TYPES. 41

    Commanding or agreeable situations are chosen for temples and monasteries, which are not only the abode of priests but serve for inns, theatres, and other purposes. The terrace cultivation sometimes renders the acclivities of hills beautiful in the highest degree, but it does not often impart a distinguishing feature to the landscape. A lofty solitary pagoda, an extensive temple shaded by trees in the opening of a vale, a commemorative ^x«’-Z«i*, or boats inoving in every direction through narrow creeks or on broad streams, are some of the peculiar lin eanients of Chinese scenery. No imposing mansions with beautiful grounds are found on the skirts of a town, for the people huddle together in luunlets and villages for mutiuil aid and security.

    No tapering spires pointing out the rural chureli, nor towers, pillars, domes, or steeples in the cities, indicating buildings of public utility, rise upon the low level of dun-tiled roofs.

    No meadows or pastures, containing herds and tlocks, are visible from tlie hill-tops in China ; nor are coaches or railroad cars observed hurrying across its landscapes. Steamers have just begun to course through some of its rivers, and disturb, by theii whistles and wheels, the drowsy silence of past ages and the slow progress of unwieldy junks—the other changes have yet to come.

    The condition and characteristics of the various families of man inhabiting this great empire, render its study far more interesting than anything relating to its physical geography or public works. The Chinese forms the leading family, but the Miaotsz’, the Li-mu, the Kakyens, and other aborigines in the southern provinces, the Manchus, the Mongols, and various

    Tartar tribes, the Tibetans, and certain wild races in Kirin and

    Formosa, must not be overlooked. The sons of Ilan are indeed

    a remarkable race, whether regard be had to their antiquity,

    their numbers, their government, or their literature, and on

    these accounts deserve the study and respect of every intelligent

    student of mankind ; while their unwearied industry, their general

    peaceableness and good humor, and their attainments in

    domestic order and mechanical arts, connnend them to the notice

    of every one who sees in these points of character an earnest

    of their future position amid the great family of civilized

    nations when once they shall have attained the same.

    The physical traits of the Chinese may be described as being between the light and agile Hindu, and the muscular, fleshy European. Their form is well built and symmetrical ; their color is a brunette or sickly white, rather approaching to a yellowish than to a florid tint, but this yellow hue has been much exaggerated ; in the south they are swarthy but not black, ne\er becoming as dark even as the Portuguese, whose fifth or sixth ancestors dwelt near the Tagus. The shades of complexion differ much according to the latitude and degree of exposure to the -u-eather, especially in the females. The hair of the head is lank, black, coarse, and glossy; beard always black, thin, and deficient ; scanty or no whiskers ; and very little hair on the body. Eyes invariably black, and apparently oblique, owing to the slight degree in which the inner angles of the eyelids open, the internal canthi being more acute than in western races, and not allowing the whole iris to be seen ; this peculiarity in the eye distinguishes the eastern races of Asia from all other families of man. There is a marked difference between the features of the mixed race living south of the Mei ling, and the inhabitants of the Great Plain and in Shansi or further west ; the latter are the finer appearing. The hair and eyes being always black, a European with blue eyes and light hair appears strange to them; one reason given by the people of Canton for calling foreigners ‘yangguizi’ or ‘foreign devils,’ is, that they have sunken blue eyes, and red hair like demons.

    The cheek-bones are high, and the outline of the face remark ably round. The nose is rather small, much depressed, nearly even with the face at the root, and wide at the extremity ; there is, however, considerable difference in this respect, but no aquiline noses are seen. Lips thicker than among Europeans, but not at all approaching those of the negro. The hands are small, and the lower limbs better proportioned than among any other Asiatics. The height of those living north of the Yangtsz’ is about the same as that of Europeans. A thousand men taken as they come in the streets of Canton, will hardly equal in stature and weight the same number in Rome or New Orleans, while they would, perhaps, exceed these, if gathered in Peking;

    their nuiscular powers, however, would probably be less in

    either Chinese city than in those of Europe or America.

    In size, the women are smaller than European females ; antf

    in the eyes of those accustomed to the European style of beauty,

    the Chinese women possess little ; the broad upper face, low

    nose, and linear eyes, being quite the contrary of handsome.

    Nevertheless, the Chinese face is not destitute of beauty,

    and when animated with good humor and an expressive eye,

    and lighted by the glow of youth and health, the features lose

    much of their repulsiveness. Nor do they fade so soon and

    ABORIGINAL TRIBES. 43

    look as ugly and witliered wlien old as some travellers say, but

    are in respect to bearing children and keeping their vigor, more

    like Europeans than the Hindus or Persians.

    The mountainous regions in Yunnan, Kwangsi, and Ivweichau,

    give lodgement to many elans of the Miaotsz’ or ” children

    of the soil,” as the words may be rendered. It is singular that

    any of these people should have maintained their independence

    so long, when so lai’ge a portion of them have partially submitted

    to Chinese rule. Those who will not are called sang

    Miaots2\ i.e., wild or ‘ unsubdued,’ while the others are termed

    sh}ih or ‘ subdued.’ They present so many physical points of

    difference as to lead one to infer that they are a more ancient

    race than the Chinese around them, and the aborigines of

    Southern China. They are rather smaller in size and stature,

    have shorter necks, and their features are somewhat more

    angular. They are divided into many tribes, and have been

    described by Chinese travellers, who have illustrated their habits

    by paintings and sketches, from which a good idea can be

    obtained of their condition. Dr. Bridgman has translated such

    an account, written by a Chinese native traveller, in which he

    sketches the manners of eighty-two clans, especially those customs

    relating to worship and marriage, showing how little they

    have learned from their i-ulei’s or impi-oved from the savage

    state. An examination of their languages shows that those of

    the Miaotsz’ proper have strong affinities with the Siamese and

    Annamese, and those known as Lolo exhibit a decided likeness

    to the Burmese. The former of these are mentioned in Chinese

    histoi-y during 4,000 years ; the latter about a.d. 250, when a

    Shan nation came under Cliinese influence in Yunnan, and was

    the object of a warlike expedition. The same race still remain

    on the Upper Irrawadi and in Assam as Shans and Ivhamti, ami

    in the basins of the IMeinam and Mei-lung, all of them akin to

    the Tibetans and Burmese. They form together an interesting

    relic of the ancient peoples of the land, and further inquiries

    will doubtless develop something of their history and origin.’

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XIV., p. 105. Shanghai Journal, No. III., 1859.Journal of Indian Archipelago, 1852. Missionary Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33,02, 149, etc. T. T. Cooper, Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce, jiassim.

    An aboriginal race—the Li-mu—exists in the center of Hainan, an offset from the Miaotsz’, judging by the little that is known of their language. The natives of Formosa seem to have more affinity with their neighbors in Luzon and southwai-d than with the Chinese.

    The Mongol and Manchu races have been considered as springing from the same stock, but during centuries of separation under different ‘ circumstances they have altered much.

    The Mongols are essentially a nonuadic race, while the Manchus are an agricultural or a hunting people, according to the part of their country they inhabit. The Manchus are of a lighter complexion and somewhat larger than the Chinese, have the same conformation of the eyelids, but leather more beard, while their countenances indicate greater intellectual capacity. They seem to partake of both the Mongol and Chinese character, possessing more determination and largeness of plan than the latter, with much of the rudeness and haughtiness of the former.

    They have fair, if not florid, complexions, straight noses, and, in a few cases, brown hair and heavy beards. They are more allied to the Chinese, and when they ruled the northern provinces as the Kin dynasty, amalgamated with them. They may be regarded as the most improvable race in Central Asia, if not on the continent; and the skill with which they have governed the Chinese empire, and adopted a civilization higher than their own, gives promise of still further advances when they become familiar with the civilization of Christian lands.

    Under the term Mongols or Moguls a great number of tribes occupying the steppes of Central Asia are comprised. They extend from the borders of the Ivhirgis steppe and Kokand eastward to the Sialkoi Mountains, and it is particularly to this race that the name Tartars or Tatars is applicable. ‘ No such word is now known among the people, except as an ignominious epithet, by the Chinese, who usually write it with two characters—tah-tsz’—meaning ‘ trodden-down people.’ Klaproth confines the appellation of Tartars to the Mongols, Kalmucks, Kalkas, Eleuths, and Buriats, while the Kirghis, Usbecks, Cossacks, and Turks are of Kurdish and Ttirhrman origin.

    MANCIIUS AND MONGOLS. 46

    The Mongol tribes generally arc a stout, squat, swarthy, ill favored race of men, having high and broad shoulders, short, broad noses, pointed and prominent chins, long teeth distant from each other, eyes black, elliptical, and imsteady, thick, short necks, extremities bony and nervous, muscular thighs, but short legs, with a stature nearly or quite equal to the European.

    They have a written language, but their literature is limited and mostly religious. The same language is spoken by all the tribes, with slight variations and only a small admixture of foreign words. Most of the accounts of their origin, their wars, and their habits, were written by foreigners living or travelling among them ; but they themselves, as McCulloch remarks, know as little of these things as rats or marmots do of their descent.

    Yet it is not so easy to find the typical Mongol among the medley of nationalities in their towns. A crowd in a town like Yarkand exhibits all the varieties of the human race. The gaunt, almost beardless Manchu, with sunken eyes, high cheekbones, and projecting jowl, contrasts with the smooth face, pinky yellow, oblique eye, flat cheeks, and rounded jowl of the Chinese. The bearded, sallow Toork, the angular, rosy Kirghis, the coarse, hard Dungani, and thick-lipped, square-faced Eleuth, all show poorly with the tall, handsome Cashmerian, the swarthy liadakshi, and robust, intelligent Uzbek. The fate of the vast swarms of this race which have descended from the tal)le-land of Central Asia and overrun, in different ages, the plains of India, China, Syria, Egypt, and Eastern Europe, and the rise and fall of the gigantic empire they themselves erected under Genghis in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, are among the most remarkable episodes in the world’s history. They have always maintained the same character in their native wilds, their conquests have been exterminations rather than subjugations, their history a record of continual quarrels between clans.

    The last of the five races is the Tibetan, who partake of the physical characteristics of the Mongols and Hindus. They are short, squat, and broad-shouldered in body, with angular faces, wide, high cheek-bones, small black eyes, and scant beard. They are^ mild in disposition, have a stronger religious feeling than the Chinese, and have never left their own highlands either for emigration or conquest. Their civilization is fullj’ equal to that of tlie Siamese and Burmese, and life and property are more secure with them than among their turbulent neighbors in Butan, Lahore, or Cabul.

    It will be seen from this short survey that a full account of the geography, government, manners, literature, and civilization of so large a part of the world and its inhabitants requires the combined labors of many observers, all of them well acquainted with the languages and institutions of the people whom they describe. No one will look, therefore, for more than a brief outline of these subjects in the present work, minute enough, however, to enable readers to form a fair opinion of the people.

    It is the industry of the Chinese which has given them their high place among the nations of the earth. Not only has the indigenous vegetation been superseded wherever culture M-ould remunerate toil, but lofty hills have been tilled and terraced almost to their tops, cities have been built upon them, and extensive ranges of wall erected alone; their summits. They practise all the industrial arts whose objects are to feed, clothe, educate or adorn mankind, and maintain the largest population ever united under one system of rule. Ten centuries ago they were the most civilized nation on earth, and the incredulity manifested in Europe, five hundred years ago, at the recitals of Marco Polo regarding their condition, is the counterpart of the sentiments now expressed by the Chinese when they hear of the power and grandeur of western nations.

    Isolated by natural boundaries from other peoples, their civilization, developed under peculiar influences, must be compared to, ratlier than judged of, by European. A people from whom some of the most distinguishing inventions of modern Europe came (such as the compass, porcelain, gunpowder, and printing), and were known and practised many centuries earlier; who probably amount to more tlian three huTidred millions, united in one system of manners, letters, and polity; whose cities and capitals rival in numbers the greatest metropoles of any age; who have not only covered the earth, but the waters, with towns and streets—such a nation must occupy a conspicuous place in the history of mankind, and the study of their character and condition commend itself to every well-v/islier of his race.

    CIVILIZATION PAST AND FUTURK

    It lias been too much the custom of writers to overlook the influence of the Bible upon modern civilization ; but when a comparison is to be drawn between European and Asiatic civilization, this element forces itself upon the attention as the main cause of the superiority of the former. It is not the civilization of luxury or of letters, of arts or of priestcraft ; it is not the spirit of war, the passion for money, nor its exhibitions in trade and the application of machinery, that render a nation permanently great and prosperous. ” Christianity is the summary of all civilization,” says Chenevix ; ” it contains every argument which could be urged in its support, and every precept which explains its nature. Former systems of religion were in conformity with luxury, but this alone seems to have been conceived for the region of civilization. It has flourished in Europe, while it has decayed in Asia, and the most civilized nations are the most purely Christian.” Christianity is essentially the religion of the people, and when it is covered over with forms and contracted into a priesthood, its vitality goes out; this is one reason why it has declined in Asia. The attainments of the Chinese in the arts of life are perhaps as great as they can be without this spring of action, without any other motives to industry, obedience, and morality, than the commands or demands of the present life.

    A survey of the world and its various races in successive ages leads one to infer that God has some plan of national character, and that one nation exhibits the development of one trait, while another race gives prominence to another, and subordinates the first. Thus the Egyptian people were eminently a priestly race, devoted to science and occult lore ; the Greeks developed the imaginative powers, excelling in the fine arts ; the Romans were warlike, and the embodiment of force and law ; the Babylonians and Persians magnificent, like the head of gold in Daniel’s vision ; the Arabs predacious, volatile, and imaginative ; the Turks stolid, bigoted, and impassible ; the Hindus are contemplative, religious, and metaphysical ; the (yhinese industrious, peaceful, literary, atlieistic, and self-contained.’ The same religion, and constant intercommunication among European nations, has assimilated

    them more than these other races ever could have become ; but every one knows the national peculiarities of the Spaniards,

    Italians, French, English, etc., and how they are maintained,

    notwithstanding the motives to imitation and coalescence. The

    compai’ison of national character and civilization, M’ith the

    view of ascertaining such a plan, is a subject worthy the profound

    study of any scholar, and one which would orter new

    views of the human race. The Chinese would be found to

    iiave attained, it is believed, a higher position in general security

    of life and property, and in the arts of domestic life and

    comfort among the mass, and a greater degree of general literary

    intelligence, than any other heathen or Mohammedan nation

    that ever existed—or indeed than some now calling: themselves

    Christian, as Abyssinia. They have, however, probably done all they can do, reached as high a point as they can without the Gospel ; and its introduction, with its attendant intluences, will erelong change their political and social system. The rise and progress of this revolution among so mighty a mass of liuman beings will form one of the most interesting parts of the history of the world during the nineteenth century, and solve the problem whether it be possible to elevate a race without the intermediate steps of disorganization and reconstruction. ‘ For ol)Sprvations on the Chinese as compared witli other nations, see Sclilef^el’s Philoaifphy of llistuiy, p. 1 18, Bohu’s edition.

    CHAPTER II. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN PROVINCES

    The provinces of China Proper are poll tloally subdivided in a scientific manner, but in the regions beyond them, these divisions are considerably modified. Manchuria is regarded as belonging to the reigning family, somewhat as Hanover once pertained to the kings of England, and its scanty population is ruled by a simple military organization, the higliev officials being appointed by his majesty himself. The khans ot the Mongols in Mongolia and 111, the Mohammedan begs in Turkestan, and the lamas in Tibet, are assisted in their rule by Chinese residents and generals who direct and uphold the government.

    The geography of foreign countries has not been studied by the Chinese ; and so few educated men have travelled even into the islands of the Indian Archipelago, or the kingdoms of Siam, Corea, or Burmah, that the people have had no opportunity to become acquainted with the countries lying on their borders, much less with those in remoter parts, whose names, even, they hardly know. A few native works exist on foreign geography, among which four may be here noticed. ”

    1. Researches in the East and West^ 6 vols. Svo. It was written about two centuries ago ; the first volume contains some rude charts intendea to show the situation and form of foreign countries.
    2. Notices of the Seas, 1 vol. Its author, Yang Ping-nan, obtained his information from a townsman, who, being wrecked at sea, wss picked up by a foreign ship, and travelled abroad for fourteen years; on his return to China he became blind, and was engaged as an interpreter in Macao.
    3. JVotiees of Things heard and seen in Foreign Countries^ 2 vols. 12mo ; written about a century ago, containing among other things a chart of the wholb Vol. I.—4 Chinese coast,
    4. The Memoranda of Foreign Tribes, 4 vols.Svo, published in the reign of Kienlung.”‘ A more methodical

    work is that of Li Tsing-lai, called ‘Plates Illustrative of tJie

    Ileavens^ being an astronomical and geographical work, mucl^

    of whose contents were obtained from Europeans residing iiv

    the country. But even if the Chinese had better treatises on

    these subjects, the information contained in them would be

    of little use until it was taught in their schools. The high officers

    in the government begin now to see the importance of a

    better acquaintance with general geography. Commissioner

    Lin, in 1841, published a partial translation of Murray’s Cydol)(

    jidia of Geogrcfjjhy, in 20 volumes ; Gov. Seu Ki-yu, in 1850,

    issued a compend of geographical notices with maps, and many

    others, more accurate and extensive, are now extant.

    However scarce their geographical works upon foreign countries

    may be, those delineating the topography of their own are

    hardly equalled in number and minuteness in any language :

    every district and town of importance in the empire, as well as

    every department and province, has a local geography of its

    own. It may be said that the topographical and statistical

    works form, after the ethical, the most valuable portion of

    Chinese literature. It would not be difficult to collect a library

    of 10,000 volumes of such treatises alone ; the topography of the

    city of Suchau, and of the province of Chehkiang, are each in

    40 vols., while the Kwamjtuncj Tung Chi, an ‘ Historical and

    Statistical Account of Kwangtung,’ is in 182 volumes. Xone

    of these works, however, would bear to be translated entii’c,

    such is the amount of legendary and unimportant matter contained

    in them ; but they contain many data not to be overlooked

    by one who undertakes to write a geography of China.

    The Climate of the Eighteen Provinces has been represented

    in meteorological tables sufficiently well to ascertain its general

    salubrity. Pestilences do not frequently visit the land, nor, as

    in Southern India, is it deluged with rain during one monsoon,

    and parched with drought during the other. The average temperature

    of the whole empire is lower than that of any other

    ‘ Bridgman’s Chinese Chrestomathy, p. 420. Macao, 1841.

    CLIMATE OF THE PROVINCES. ol

    country on the same latitude, and the coast is subject to the

    same extremes as that of the Atlantic States in America. The

    isothermal line of 70° F. as the average for the year, which

    passes south of Canton, runs hy Cairo and Xew Orleans, eight

    degrees north of it ; the line of 60° F. average passes from

    Shanghai to Marseilles, Raleigh, St. Louis, and north of San

    Francisco ; and the line of 50° F. average goes near Peking,

    thence on to Vienna, Dublin, Philadelphia, and Puget’s Sound,

    in lat. 52°. These various lines show that while Shanghai and

    Peking liave temperatures similar to Paleigh and Philadelphia,

    nearly on their own parallels, Canton is the coldest place on the

    globe in its latitude, and the only place within the tropics

    where snow falls near the sea-shore. One result of this projection

    of the temperate zone into the tropical is seen in the

    greater vigor and size of the people of the three southern pi-ovinces

    over any races on the same parallel elsewhere ; and the

    productions are not so strictly tropical. The isothermal lines

    for the year, as given above, are not so irregular as those for

    winter. The line of 00° F. runs by the south of Formosa and

    Hongkong, to Cairo and St. Augustine, a range of nine degrees

    ;

    but the winter line of 40° F. passes from Shanghai to Constantinople,

    Milan, Dublin, and Ealeigh, ending at Puget’s

    Sound, a range of twenty degrees. A third line of 32° for

    winter passes through Shantnng to X. Tibet and the Black

    Sea, Norway, Xew York, and Sitka—a range of twenty-five

    degrees.

    Peking (lat. 39° 55′ N.) exhibits a fair average of the climate

    in that part of the Plain. The extremes range from 104° to

    zero F., but the mean annual temperature is 52.3° F., or more

    than 9° lower than Kaples ; the mean winter range is 12° below

    freezing, or about 18° lower than that of Paris (lat. 48° 50′),

    and 15° lower than Copenhagen. The rainfall seldom reaches

    sixteen inches in a year, most of it coming in July and August

    the little snow that descends remains only two or three days on

    the ground, and is blown away rather than melted ; no one associates

    white with winter, but snow is earnestly prayed for as

    a purifier of the air against diphtheria and fevers. The winds

    from the Plateau cause the barouieter and thermometer to fall, r])ut the sky is clear. In the spring, as the heat increases, the winds raise the dust and sand over the country ; some of these sand-storms extend even to Shanghai, carrying millions of tons of soil from its original place. The dryness of the region has apparently increased during the last century, and constant droughts destroy the trees, which by their absence increase the desiccation now going on. Frost closes the rivers for three months, and ice is cheap. After the second crops fully start in August, the autumns become mild, and till the lOtli of December are calm and genial.’

    The climate of the Plain is generally good, but near the rivers and marshy grounds along the Grand Canal, agues and bowel complaints prevail. A resident speaks of the temperature of banking and the region around it : ” This vast Plain being only a marsh half drained, the moisture is excessive, giving rise to many strange diseases, all of them serious, and not unfrequently mortal. The climate affects the natives from

    other provinces, and Europeans. I have not known one of the

    latter who was not sick for six months or a year after his arrival.

    Every one who comes here must prepare himself for a

    tertian or quotidian. For myself, after suffering two months

    fi’om a malignant fever, I had ten attacks of a maladv the Chinese

    here call the sand^ from the skin being covered with little

    blackish pimples, resembling grains of dust. It is prompt and

    \iolent in its progi’ess, and corrupts the blood so rapidly that in

    a few minutes it staijnates and coae-ulates in the veins. The

    best remedy the people have is to cicatrize the least fleshy j^arts

    of the body with a copper cash. The first attack I experienced

    rendered all my limbs insensible in two minutes, and I expected

    to die before I could receive extreme unction. After recovering

    a little, great lassitude succeeded.” ^ The monsoons

    form an important element in the seaside climate as far north

    as latitude 31°. The dry and wet seasons correspond to the

    north-east and south-west monsoons, assuaging the heats of

    summer by their cooling showers, and making the winters

    ^Comijare an article in the China Review for September-October, 1881, byII. Fritsche : The Amount of Baiii and Snow in Pekinf/.Annates de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 29^3.

    CLIMATE OF THE COAST TOWNS. 53

    bracing- and healthy. Above the Formosa Channel they are

    less regular in the summer than in winter.

    The inhabitants of Shanghai suffer from rapid changes in

    the autumn and spring months, and pulmonaiy and rheumatic

    complaints are connnon. The maximum of heat is 100° F.,

    and the minimum 2-i°, but ice is not common, nor does snow

    remain long on the ground. The average temperature of the

    sunnner is from 80° to 93° by day, and from G0° to 75.° by

    .night , the thermometer in winter ranges from 45° to 60° by

    day, and from 36° to 45° by night.

    Owing in some degree to the hills, the extremes are rather greater at Ningbo than Shanghai. The thermometer ranges from 24° to 107° during the twelvemonth, and changes of 20° in the course of two hours are not unusual, rendering it the most uidiealtliy station along the coast. There is a hot and cold season of three months each at this place. The cold is very piercing when the north-east winds set in, and fires are needed, but natives content themselves with additional clothing.

    The large brick beds {hang) common in Chihli are not often

    seen. Ice forms in pools, and is gathered to preserve fish.

    Snow frequently falls, but does not remain long. Occasionally

    it covers the hills in Chehkiang for several weeks to the depth

    of six inches. Fuhchau and Canton lie at the base of hills,

    Avithin a hundred miles of the sea-coast, and their climates exhibit

    greater extremes than Amoy and Hongkong. Frost and

    ice are common every winter at each of the former, and fires

    are therefore pleasant in the house. The extremes at Fuhchau

    are from 38° to 95°, with an average of 56° during December

    and 82° for August. Along this whole coast the most refreshing

    monsoon makes the summers very agreeable. The climate of

    Amoy is delightful, but its insular position renders a residetice

    somewhat less agreeable than on the main. Here the thermometer

    ranges from 40° to 96° during the year, without the

    rapid changes of Xingpo. The heat continues longer, though

    assuaged by breezes from the sea.

    Meteorology at Canton and its vicinity has been carefully studied ; on the whole, its climate, and especially that of Macao, may be considered more salubrious than in most other places situated between the tropics. The thermometer at Canton in July and August stands on an average at S0° to 88°, and in January and February at 50° to 60°. The highest recorded observation in 1831 was 94°, in July; and the lowest, 29° in January. Ice sometimes forms in shallow vessels a line or two in thickness, but no use is made of it. A fall of snow nearly two inches deep occurred there in February, 1835, which remained on the ground three hours. Having never seen any before, the citizens hardly knew what was its proper name, some calling \t falling cotton, and every one endeavoring to preserve a little for a febrifuge. Another similar fall occurred in the winter of 1861. Fogs are common during February and March, and the heat sometimes renders them very

    disagreeable, it being necessary to keep up a little fire to dry

    the house. Most of the rain falls in May and June, but there

    is nothing like the rainy season at Calcutta and Manilla in July,

    August, and September. The regular monsoon comes from

    the south-west, with frequent showers to allay the heat. In

    the succeeding months, northerly winds connnence, but from

    October to January the temperature is agreeable, the sky clear,

    and the air invigorating. Few large cities are more healthy

    than Canton ; no epidemics nor malaria prevail, notwithstanding

    the fact that much of the town is built upon piles.

    The climate of Macao and Hongkong has not so great a range

    as Canton, from their proximity to the sea. Few cities in Asia

    are more salntiferous than Macao, though it has been remarked

    that few of the natives there attain a great age. Themaxinnnn

    is 90°, with an average summer heat of 84°. The minimum is

    50°, and average winter weather 68°, with almost uninterrupted

    sunshine. Fogs are not often seen here, but on the river they

    prevail, being frequent at Whampoa. Korth-easterly gales

    are conmion in the spring and autumn, and have a noticeable

    periodicity of three days. The vegetation does not change its

    general aspect during the winter, the trees cease to grow, and the

    grass becomes brownish ; but the stimulus of the warm moisture

    in March soon makes a sinisilJe diffei’ence in the appearance of

    the landscape, and bright green leaves ra])idly replace the old.

    The reputed insalubrity of Hongkong, in early days, was owing

    RAIN-FALL ON CHINESE AND AMERICAN COASTS. 55

    to other causes than climate, and when it became a well-built and

    well-drained town, its unwholesomeness disappeared. The rainfall

    is greater than in Macao, owing to the attraction of the high

    peaks. During the rainy weather the walls of houses become

    damp, and if newlj plastered, drip with moisture.

    The Chinese consider the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi,

    and Yunnan to be the most unhealthy of the eighteen, and for

    this reason employ them as places of banishment for criminals

    from the north-eastern districts. The central portions of the

    country are on some accounts the most bracing, not so liable to

    sudden changes as the coast, nor so cold as the western and

    northern districts. Sz’chuen and tweichau are cooler than

    Fuhkien and Chehkiang, owing to the mountains in and upon

    their borders.

    The marked contrast between the Chinese and American coasts in regard to rain is doubtless owing, in a great degree, to the outlying islands from Formosa to Sagalien on the former, whose high mountains arrest the clouds in their progress inland.

    The iLuro-siwo, being outside of them, allows a far greater mass of cold water between it and the shore on the Chinese, than is the case on the Atlantic coast, and renders it the colder of the two by nearly eight degrees of latitude, if isothermal lines alone are regarded. This mass of cold water, having less evaporation, deprives the maritime provinces of rain in diminishing supply as one goes north along the skirts of the Plain, until the Chang-peh shan are reached. The rains which fall in the western provinces and the slopes of the Bayan kara Mountains, coming up from the Indian Ocean during the south-west

    monsoon, fall in decreasing quantities as the clouds are driven

    north-east across the basins of the Yangtsz’ and Yellow rivers.

    In the western part of Kansuh the humidity covers the mountains

    with more vegetation than further east, toward the ocean.

    Snow falls as late as June, and frosts occur in every month of the

    year. The enormous elevation of the western side of China near

    Tibet, the absence of an expanse of water like the great lakes,

    and the bareness of the mountains north of the Mei ling, account

    for much of this difference between the United States and China f

    but more extended data are needed for accurate deductions.

    The fall of rain at Canton is 70 inches annually, which is the mean of sixteen years’ observation. JS^inety inches was registered during one of these years. Kearly one-half of the whole falls during May, June, and September. The average at Shanghai for four years was 36 inches. Ko observations are recorded for the valley of the Yangtsz Near the edge of the Plateau the rainfall averages 10 inches in the province of Chihli, and rather more in Shansi and Shantung, where moisture is attracted by the mountains. More than three fourths of the rain falls during the ten weeks ending August 31st. Snow seldom remains on the level over a fortnight.

    The increased temperature on the southern coast during the months of June and July operates, with other causes, to produce violent storms along the seaboard, called typhoons, a word derived from the Chinese taifeng, or ‘great wind.’ These destructive tornadoes occur from Hainan to Chusan, between July and October, gradually progressing northward as the season advances, and diminishing in fury in the higher latitudes. They annually occasion great losses to the native and foreign shipping in Chinese waters, more than half the sailing ships lost on that coast having suffered in them. Happily, their fury is oftenest spent at sea, but when they occur inland, the loss of life is fearful.

    In August, 18G2, and September 21, 1ST4-, the deaths reported in two such storms near Canton, Hongkong, and their vicinity, were upward of 30,000 each. In the latter instance the American steamer Alaska, of 3,500 tons, M’as lifted from her anchorage and quietly put down in five feet of water near the shore, from whence she was safely floated some months afterward.

    TYFOONS. 57

    Typhoons exhaust their force within a narrow track, which, in such cases as have been registered, lies in no uniform direction, other than from south to north, at a greater or less angle, along the coast. The principal i)heni)iiiena indicating their approach are the direction of the wind, which commences to blow in soft zephyj-s from the north, without, however, assuaging the heat or disturbing the stifling calm, and the falling barometer. The glass usually begins to fall several hours before the storm commences, and the rarefaction of the air is further shown by the heavy swell rolling in upon the beach, though the sea remains unrutfled. The wind increases as it veers to the north-east, and from that point to south-east blows with the greatest force in iitful gusts. The rain falls heaviest toward the close of the gale, when the glass begins to rise. The barometer not unfrequently falls below 28 in. Capt. Krusenstern in 1804 records his surprise at seeing the mercury sink out of sight.

    The Chinese have erected temples in Hainan to the Tjfoon

    Mother, a goddess whom they supplicate for protection against

    these hurricanes. They say “that a few days before a tyfoon

    comes on, a slight noise is heard at intervals, whirling round

    and then stopping, sometimes impetuous and sometimes slow.

    This is a ‘ tyfoon brewing.’ Then fiery clouds collect in thick

    masses ; the thunder sounds deep and heavy. Kainbows appear,

    now forming an unbroken curve and again separating, and the

    ends of the bow dip into the sea. The sea sends back a bellowing

    sound, and boils with angry surges ; the loose rocks dash

    against each other, and detached sea-weed covers the water;

    there is a thick, murky atmosphere ; the water-fowl fly about

    affrighted ; the trees and leaves bend to the south—the tyfoon

    has connnenced. When to it is superadded a violent rain and

    a frightful surf, the force of the tempest is let loose, and away

    fly the houses up to the hills, and the ships and boats are

    removed to the dry land ; horses and cattle are turned heels

    over head, trees are torn up by the roots, and the sea boils up

    twenty or thirty feet, inundating the fields and destroying vegetation.

    This is called tleh la, or an iron tcJurlwindr ‘ Those

    remarkable gusts which annually occur in the Atlantic States,

    called tornadoes, defined as local storms affecting a thread of

    surface a few miles long, are unknown in China. The healthy

    climate of China has had much to do with the civilization of its

    inhabitants. Xo similar area in the world exceeds it for general

    salubrity.

    The Chinese are the only people who have, by means of a

    ‘ Chinese Repository. Vol. VIII ., p. 230 ; Vol. IV., p. 197. See also Fritsche’a

    paper in Journal of N. C. Branch Royal Asiatic Society, No. XII., 1878, pp.

    127-385; also Appendix II. in No. X., containing observations taken at Zi-ka

    wei.

    term added to the name of a place, endeavored to designate ita

    relative rank. Three of the words used for this purpose, viz.,

    fa, chau, and Men, have been translated as ‘ first,’ ‘ second,’ and

    ‘ third ‘ rank ; but this gradation is not quite correct, for the terms

    do not apply to the city or town alone, but to the portions of

    country of which it is the capital. The nature of these and

    other terms, and the divisions intended by them, are thus

    explained

    :

    “The Eighteen Provinces are divided into fu, ting, clinu, and Men. A fu

    is a large portion or department of a province, under the general control of

    one civil officer immediately subordinate to the heads of the provincial government.

    A ting is a division of a province smaller than a fu, and either like it

    governed by an officer immediately subject to the heads of the provincial

    government, or else forming a subordinate part of a/?/. In the former case it

    is called chih-l%, i.e. under the ‘direct rule’ of the provincial government;

    in the latter case it is sim^jly called ting. A chaii is a division similar to a

    ting, and like it either independent of any other division, or forming part of

    a/H. The difference between the two consists in the government of a ting

    resembling that of a fu more nearly than that of a chau does : that of the chau is less expensive. The ting and chau of the class to which the term chih-li is attached, may be denominated in common with the fu, departments or prefectures ; and the term cMh-Vi may be rendered by tlie word independent.

    The subordinate ting and chau may both be called districts. A ?den, which is also a district, is a small division or subordinate part of a department, whether of a,fu, or of an independent chau or ting.

    “Each/w, ting, chau, and hien, possesses at least one walled town, the seat of its government, which bears the same name as the department or district to which it pertains. Thus Hiangshan is the chief town of the district Hiang-.shan hien ; and Shanking, that of the department Shanking fu. By European writers, the chief towns of the/w or departments liave been called cities of the first order ; tho.se of the chau, cities of the second order ; and those of the hien, cities of the third order. The division called ting, being rarely met with, lias been left out of the arrangement—an arrangement not recognized in

    China. It must be observed that the cliief town of a fu is always also the

    cliief town of a hien district ; and sometimes, when of considerable size and

    importanc-e, it and the country around are divided into two Iden districts, both

    of which have the seat of their government within the same walls: but this

    is not the case with the ting and chau departments. A district is not always

    subdivided ; instances may occur of a whole district possessing but one important

    town. But as there are often large and even walled towns not included in the number of chief or of district towns, consequently not the seat of a regular chau or hien magistracy, a subdivision of a district is therefore frequently rendered necessary ; and for the better government of such towns and the towns surrounding them, magistrates are appointed to them, secondary to the magi.strates of the departments or the districts in which they are

    PtJ, TING, CHAU, AND HIEN. 59

    comprised. Thus Fnlishan is a very large commercial town or mart called a

    chin, situated in the district of Nanhai, of the department of Kwangchau,

    about twelve miles distant from Canton. The chief officer of the department

    has therefore an assistant residing there, and the town is partly under his

    government and partly under that of the Nanhai magistrate, within whose

    district it is included, but who resides at Canton. There are several of these

    c?iin in the provinces, as Kingteh in Kiangsi, Siangtan in Hunan, etc. ; they are not inclosed by walls. Macao affords another instance : being a place of some importance, both from its size and as the residence of foreigners, an assistant

    to the Hiangshan hien magistrate is placed over it, and it is also under

    the control of an assistant to the chief magistrate of the fu. Of these assistant

    magistrates, there are two ranks secondary to the chief magistrate of a///,

    two secondary to the magistrate of a chaii, and two also secondary to the magistrate

    of a liien. Tiie places under the rule of these assistant magistrates are

    called by various names, most frequently chin and so, and sometimes also chai

    and wei. These names do not appear to have reference to any particular form

    of municipal government existing in them ; but the chai and the loei are often

    military posts ; and sometimes a place is, with respect to its civil government,

    the chief city of a fu, while with respect to its military position it is called

    icei. There are other towns of still smaller importance ; these are under the

    government of inferior magistrates who are called siun kien : a division of

    country under such a magistrate is called a sz’, which is best represented by

    the term township or commune. The town of Whampoa and country around it form one such division, called Kiautang sz’, belonging to the district of Pwanyu, in the depai’tment of Kwangchau.

    “In the mountainous districts of Kwangsi, Yunnan, Kweichau, and Sz’-

    chuen, and in some other places, there are districts called tu sz’. Among

    these, the same distinctions of fu, chau, and hien exist, together with the

    minor division «2′. The magistrates of these departments and districts are liereditary in their succession, being the only hereditary local officers acknowledged by the supreme government.

    “There is a larger division than any of the above, but as it does not prevail universally, it was not mentioned in the first instance. It is called tau, a cottrse or circuit, and comprises two or more departments of a province, whether fu, or independent ting or cJtnu. These circuits are subject to the government of officers called tau-tai or intendants of circuit, who often combine with political and judicial powers a military authority and various duties relating to the territory or to the revenue.”

    ‘The eighteen provinces received their present boundaries and divisions in the reign of Ivienhmg ; and the little advance which has been made abroad in the geography of China is shown by the fact, that although these divisions were established a hundred years ago, the old deniarkations, existing at’ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 54.

    the time of the survey in 1710, are still found in many modern European geographies and maps. The following tahle shows their present divisions and government. The three columns under the head of JJepaiiiiieuts contain i\iQ fu, chUdl tiny^ and chihli chau, all of which are properly prefectures ; the three columns under the head of Districts contain the timj, cJiau, and Men.

    The province of CniiiLi is the most important of the whole. Qn foreign maps it is sometimes written Pechele {i.e., Korth vJhihii), a name formerly given it in order to distinguish it from Iviangnau, or Xaii-cUiJd’i, in which the seat of government w^as once located. This name is descriptive, rather than technical, and means ‘ Direct rule,’ denoting that from this province the supreme power which governs the empire proceeds; any province, in which the Emperor and court should be fixed, would therefore be termed Chihli, and its chief city King, ‘ capital,’ or King-ta or King-ss\ ‘ court of the capital.’ The surface of this province lying south of the Great Wall is level, excepting a few ridges of hills in the west and north, while the eastern parts, and those south to the Gulf, are among the flattest portions of the Great Plain.

    It is bounded on the north-east by Liautung, M’here for a short distance the Great AVall is the frontier line ; on the east by the Gulf of Pechele ; on the south-east and south by Shantung; on the south-west by llonan ; on the west by Shansi and north by Inner Mongolia, where the river Liau forms the boundary. The extensive region beyond the Wall, occupied mostly by the Tsakhar Mongols, is now included within the jurisdiction, and placed under the administration o*f officers residing at one of the garrisoned gates of the Great Wall ; the area of this part is about half that of the whole province. The chief department in the province, that of Shuntien, being both large and important, as containing the metropolis, is divided into four III or circuits, each under the rule of a sub-prefect, who issubordinate to the prefect living at Peking.

    Peking’ {i.e., Northern Capital) is situated upon a sandy’ This word shoixld not be written Pekin ; it is pronounced Pei-ching by the citizens, and by most of the people north of the Great River.

    TOPOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF CIIIXA PROPEPv, Gl 13 o) a o S 0′;’= so-e a ^ S to pc; Hfol o> ?s 2 5 _S S1^ S S ^ ^^3 « ^ig cs 2 ^ =3 “So g oO iD 3 Sfl £5tzT^ x’^cgO CIS3 O .a> cs> iio 2SC ” to *2 > ^2 o’ 2 ‘”‘ 6B;o -^ 5 o :5: cs £ 1: cs •-O c! CO BD^ 2u 5 ^OH C 2 SC3 M C4 *3 -3 c3

    plain, about twelve miles south-west of the Pei ho, and more than a hundred miles west-north-west of its month, in lat. 39° 54′ 36′ K., and long. 11(3° 27′ E., or nearly on the parallel of Samarkand, Naples, and Philadelphia. It is a city worthy of note on many accounts. Its ancient history as the capital of the Yen Kwoh (the ‘ Land of Swallows ‘) during the feudal times, and its later position as the metropolis of the empire for many centuries, give it historical importance ; while its imperial buildings, its broad avenues with their imposing gates and towers, its regular arrangement, extent, populousness, and diversity of costume and equipage, combine to render it to a traveler the most interesting and unique city in Asia. It is now ruinous and poor, but the remains of its former grandeur under Kienlung’s prosperous reign indicate the justness of the comparisons made by the Catholic writers with western cities one hundred and eighty years ago. The entire circuit of the walls and suburbs is reckoned by Ilyacinthe at twenty-five

    miles, and its area at twenty-seven square miles, but more accurate

    measurements of the walls alone give forty-one //, or

    14.25 miles (or 23.55 kilometers) for the Manchu city, including

    the cross-wall, and twenty-eight Z/, or ten miles, for the

    Chinese city on its south ; not counting the cross-wall, the circuit

    measures almost twenty-one miles. The suburbs near the

    thirteen outer gates altogether form a small pi-oportion to the

    whole ; the area within them is nearly twenty-six square miles.

    Those residents who have had the best opportunities estimate

    the entire population at a million or somewhat less ; no census

    returns are available to prove this figure, nor can it be stated

    what is the proportion of Manchus, Mongols, and Chinese, except

    that the latter outnumber all others. Du Ilalde reckoned it

    to be about three millions, and Klaproth one million three hundred

    thousand ; and each was probably true at some period,

    for the number has diminished with the poverty of the Government.

    Peking is regarded by the Chinese as one of their ancient

    cities, ])ut it was not made the capital of the whole empire

    until Kublai established his court at this spot in 1264. The

    Ming emperors who succeeded the Mongols held their court

    POSITION AND HISTORY OF PEKING. 63

    at Nanking until Yimgloh transferred the seat of government to Peking in 1411, where it lias since remained. Under the Mongols, the city was called Khan-haligh (*.<?., city of the Khan), changed into Cambalii in the accounts of those times; on Chinese maps it is usually called King-sz\ Peking has, during its history, existed under many different names ; after each disaster her walls have been changed and her houses rebuilt, so that to-day she stands, like the capitals of the ancient Roman and Byzantine empires, upon the debris of centuries of buildings. The most important renovations have been those by the Liao dynasty, in 937 A.D., who entirely rebuilt the city, and by the Kin rulers in 1151.

    It was at first surrounded by a single wall pierced by nine

    gates, whence it is sometimes called the City of Nine Gates.

    The southern suburbs were inclosed by Kiatsing in 1543, and

    the city now consists of two portions, the northern or inner

    city {JSFui ching), containing about fifteen square miles, where

    are the palace, government buildings, and barracks for troops; and the southern or Outer city ( Wai ching), where the Chinese live. The wall of the Manchu city averages fifty feet high, forty wide at top, and about sixty at bottom, most of the slope being on the inner face. That around the Outer city is no more than thirty in height, twenty-five thick at bottom, and about fifteen at top. The terre-plein throughout is pave^ with bricks weighing sixty pounds each ; a crenellated parapet runs around the entire town, intended only for archers or musketeers, as no port-holes for cannon exist. It is undoubtedly the finest wall surrounding any city now extant. Near the gates, of which there are sixteen in all, the walls are faced with stone, but in other places with these large bricks, laid in a concrete of lime and clay, which in process of time becomes almost as durable as stone. The intermediate space between facings is filled up with the earth taken from the ditch which surrounds the city. Square buttresses occur at intervals of sixty yards on the outer face, each projecting fifty feet, and every sixth one being twice the size of the others ; their tops furnish room for the troops posted there to resist side attacks. Each gate is surmounted with a brick tower of many stories, over a hundred feet high, built in galleries with port-holes, and giving a very imposing appearance to the city as one approaches it from the wide plain. The gates of the Mancliu city have a double entrance formed by joining their supporting bastions with a circular wall in which are side entrances, thus making an enceinte of several acres, in which the yellow-tiled temple to the tutelary God of War is conspicuous. The arches of all the gates are built solidly of granite; the massive doors are closed and barred every night soon after dark.

    At the sides of the gates, and also between them, are esplanades for mounting to the top ; this is shut to the common people, and the guards are not allowed to bring their women upon the wall, which would be deemed an affront to Kwanti. The moat around the city is fed from the Tunghwui River, which also supplies all the other canals leading across or through the city. The approach to Peking from Tung chau is by an elevated stone road, but nothing of the buildings inside the walls is seen ; and were it not for the lofty towers over the gates, it would more resemble an encampment inclosed by a massive wall than a large metropolis. No spires or towers of churches, no pillars or monuments, no domes or minarets, nor even many dw-ellings of superior elevation, break the dull uniformity of this or any Chinese city. In Peking, the different colored yellow or green tiles on official buildings,’ mixed with the brown roofs of common houses, impart a variety to the scene, but the chief objects to relieve the monotony are the large clumps of trees, and the flag -staffs in pairs near the temples.

    GENERAL ASPECT OF THE CAPITAL. 65

    The view from the walls impresses one with the grand ideas of the founders of the city ; and the palaces in the Forbidden City, towering above everything else, worthily exhibit their notions of what was befitting the sovereigns of the Middle Kingdom. The Bell and Clock Towers, the Prospect Hill, the dagobas, pagodas, and gate towers, and lastly the Temple of ‘ ” You woxald think them all made of, or at least covered with, piii’e gold enamelled in azure and green, so that the spectacle is at once majestic an^ channing.” Magaillans, Noavelln Dencriptioit dc Id Cliiiu\ p. 353.

    Heaven, are all likewise visible from this point, and render the scene picturesque and peculiar.*

    The plan of the city here given is reduced from a large Chinese

    map, but is not very exact. The northern portion occupies

    for the most part the same area as the Cambaluc of Marco

    Polo, which, however, extended about two miles north, where

    the remains of the old north wall of the Mongols still exist.

    On their expulsion Ilungwu erected the present northern wall,

    and his son Yungloh rebuilt the other three sides in 1419 on a

    rather larger scale ; but the ai’rangement of the streets and

    gates is due to the Great Khan. When taken possession of by

    the Manchus in 1611, they found a magnificent city ready for

    them, uninjured and strong, which they apportioned among

    their officers and bannermen ; but necessity soon obliged these

    men, less frugal and thrifty than the natives, to sell them, and

    content themselves with humbler abodes ; consequently, the

    greater part of tlie noi-thern city is now tenanted by Chmese.

    The innermost inclosure in the l!^ul Ching contains the palace

    and its surrounding buildings; the second is occupied by barracks

    and public offices, and by many private residences ; the

    outer one, for the most part, consists of dwelling-houses, with

    shops in the large avenues. The inner inclosui’e measures 6.3

    li^ or 2.23 miles, in circuit, and is called Ts£ Kin Ching, or

    ‘ Carnation Prohibited City ;

    ‘ the wall is less solid and high than the city wall ; it is covered with bright yellow tiles, guarded by numerous stations of bannermen and gendarmerie, and surrounded by a deep, wide moat. Two gates, the Tunghwa and Si-hiva, on the east and west, afford access to the interior of this habitation of the Emperor, as well as the space and rooms appertaining, which furnish lodgment to the guard

    c’afending the approach to the Dragon’s Throne ; a tower at

    each corner, and one over each gateway, also gi\’e accommodation

    to other troops. The interior of this inclosure is divided

    ‘ See also Ji’ Unwera Pittoresque, Chine Modern f, par MM. Pauthier et Bazin,

    Paris, 185:^, for a good map of Peking, with careful descriptions. Yule’s Murro

    Polo, passim. De Guigues, Voydr/cs, Tome I. Williamson, Journeys in North

    China, Vol. II. Dr. Rennie, Pckiny and tlixi Pekimjeae. Tour du Monde foi 1864, Tome II.

    A.

    B.

    C.

    D.

    E.

    F.

    G.

    H.

    1.

    J.

    K.

    K.

    L.

    M.

    N.

    O.

    P.

    Q.

    R.

    S.

    T.

    U.

    V.

    w.

    X.

    Y.

    Z.

    BEFEBENCES.

    The Meridian Gate.

    Gate of E.\tensive Peace.

    Hall of Perfect Peace.

    Hall of Secure Peace.

    Palace of Heaven—the Emperor’s.

    Palace of Earth’s Repose—the Empress’.

    Gate to Earth’s Repose, leads to a Garden.

    Ching-hwang miao.

    Temple of Great Happiness.

    Northern gate of Forbidden City.

    Nui Koh, or Privy Council Chamber, lies

    within the wall.

    Gate of Heavenly Rest.

    Hall of Intense Mental Exercises.

    Library, or Hall of Literary Abyis.

    Imperial Ancestral Hall.

    Hall of National Portrait-s.

    PrintinK Office.

    Court of Controllers of Imperial Clan.

    Marble Isle ; a marble bridge leads to it.

    Five Dragon Pavilion.

    Great Ancestral Temple.

    Altar to the Gods of Land and Grain.

    Artificial Mountain. The Russian school

    lies just north of the Eastern gate near N.

    A summer-houpc.

    Military Examination Hall.

    Plantain Garden, or Conservatory,

    A Pavilion.

    Medical College.

    Astronomical Board.

    Five of the Six Boards. The Hanlin Yu9n

    lies just above them.

    House of the Russian Mission.

    Colonial Office.

    Temple for Imperial worship.

    Imperial Observatory, partly on the wall-

    Hall of Literary Examination.

    Russian Church of the Assumption.

    Temple of Eternal Peace of the lamas.

    Kwoh Tsz’ Kien, a Manchii College.

    Temple of the God of the North Star.

    High Watch-tower and Police Office.

    Board of Punishments.

    Censorate.

    Mohammedan Mosque.

    I’ortugtiese Church.

    Elephant’s Inclosure.

    Principal Ching-hwang miau.

    Temple of Deceased Emperors of all ages.

    Obelisk covering a »cab of Buddha.

    Altar to Heaven.—Altar to Earth is on the

    north of the city.

    Altar to Ayriculture.

    Black Dragon Pool, and Temple of God ol

    Hain.

    Altar to the Moon.

    Altar to the Sun.

    PALACES OF THE PROHIBITED CITY. 67

    Into three parts by two walls running from south to north, and

    the whole is occupied by a suite of court-yards and halls, which,

    in their prrangenient and architecture, far exceed any other

    speciraer?. of the kind in China. According to the notions of a

    common Chinese, all here is gold and silver ; ” he will tell you

    of gold and silver pillars, gold and silver roofs, and gold and

    silver vases, in which swim gold and silver fishes.”

    The southern gate, called the Wu 3Idn, or ‘ Meridian Gate,’

    is the fourth in going north from the entrance opposite the

    Tsien. Mitii, and this distance of nearly half a mile is occupied

    by troops. The Wtc Ildn leads into the middle division, in

    which are the imperial buildings ; it is especially appropriated

    to the Emperor, and whenever he passes through it, a bell

    placed in the tower above is struck ; when his troops return in

    triumph, a drum is beaten, and the prisoners are here presented

    to him ; here, too, the presents he confers on vassals and ambassadors

    are pompously bestowed. Passing through this gate

    into a large court, over a small creek spanned by five marble

    bridges, ornamented with sculptures, the visitor is led through

    the Tai-ho Mdii into a second court paved with marble, and

    terminated on the sides by gates, porticos, and pillared corridors.

    The next building, at the head of this court, called the TaiheDian or ‘ Hall of Highest Peace,’ is a superb marble structure, one hundred and ten feet high, standing on a terrace that raises it twenty feet above the ground ; five flights of stairs, decorated with balustrades and sculptures, lead up to it, and five doors open through it into the next court-yard. It is a great hall of seventy-two pillars, measuring about two hundred feet by ninety broad, with a throne in the midst. Here

    the Emperor holds his levees on New Year’s Day, his birthdays,

    and other state occasions ; a cortege of about fifty household

    courtiers stand near him, while those of noble and inferior

    dignity and rank stand in the court below in regular grades,

    and, when called upon, fall prostrate as they all make the fixed

    obeisances. It was in this hall that Titsingh and Van Braam

    were banqueted by Kienlung, January 20, 1795, of which interesting

    ceremony the Dutch embassador gives an account, and

    since which event no European has entered the building. The three Tien in this iiiclosiire are the audience halls, and the sido buildings contain stores and treasures under the charge of the Household Board, with minor bureaus.

    Beyond it are two halls; the first, the CJmmjhe Dian, or ‘Hall of Central Peace,’ having a circular roof, that rests on columns arranged nearly four-square. Here the Emperor ‘jomes to examine the written prayers provided to be offered at the state worship. The second is the Baohe Dian, or ‘ Hall of Secure Peace,’ elevated on a high marble terrace, and containing nine rows of pillars. The highest degrees for literary merit are her6 conferred triennially by the Emperor upon one hundred and fifty or more scholars ; here, also, he banquets his foreign guests and other distinguished persons the day before New Year’s Day. After ascending a stairway, and passing the Iti-eii Tsing 2Idn, the visitor reaches the Kieii Tsing Jfiinj, or ‘Palace of Heavenly Purity’, into which no one can eiiter without special license. In it is the council-chamber, where the Emperor usually sits at morning audience up to eight o’clock, to transact business with his ministers, and see those appointed to office. The building is the most important as it is described to be the loftiest and most mao-nificent of all the palaces. In the court before it is a small tower of gilt copper, adorned with a great number of figures, and- on each side are large incense vases, the uses of which are no doubt religious.

    It Avas in this palace that Ivanghi celebrated a singular and

    unique festival, in 1722, for all the men in the enquire over

    sixty years of age, that being the sixtieth year of his reign.

    His grandson Ivienlung, in 1785, in the fiftieth year of his

    reign, repeated the ceremony, on which occasion the number

    of guests was about three thousand.’ Beyond it stands the

    ‘ Palace of Earth’s Bepose,’ where ‘ Heaven’s consort ‘ rules

    • ler niiniature court in the imperial harem ; there are numerous

    buildings of lesser size in this part of the inclosure, and

    adjoining the northern Avail of the Forbidden City is the imperial

    Flower Garden, designed for the use of its inmates. The

    gardens arc adorned with elegant pavilions, tenq)les, and. :

    ‘ Chinese liepobitory, Vol. IX., p. 259.

    IMPERIAL CITY. 69

    groves, and interspersed with canals, fountains, pools, and

    flower-beds. Two groves rising from the bosoms of small

    lakes, and another crowning the summit of an artificial mountain, add to the beauty of the scene, and afford the inmates of the palace an agreeable variety.

    In the eastern division of the Prohibited City are the otiices

    of the Cabinet, where its members hold their sessions, and the

    treasury of the palace. North of it lies the ‘Hall of Intense Thought,’ where sacrifices are presented to Confucius and other sages. Kot far from this hall stands the Wchi-//yen loA, or the Library, the catalogue of whose contents is published from time to time, forming an admirable synopsis of Chinese literature.

    At the northern end of the eastern division are numerous

    palaces and buildings occupied by princes of the blood, and

    those connected Avith them ; and in this quarter is placed the

    Fung Sien tien, a small temple where the Emperor comes to

    ‘ bless his ancestors.’ Here the Emperor and his family perform

    their devotions before the tablets of their departed progenitors;

    whenever he leaves or returns to his palace, the first

    day of a season, and on other occasions, the monarch goes

    through his devotions in this hall.

    The western division contains a great variety of edifices devoted

    to public and private purposes, among which may be

    mentioned the hall of distinguished sovereigns, statesmen, and

    literati, the printing-office, the Court of Controllers for the

    regulation of the receipts and disbursements of the court, and

    the Ching-Jncang Mlao^ or ‘Guardian Temple’ of the city.

    The number of people residing within the Prohibited City

    cannot 1)0 stated, .but probably is not large ; most of them are

    Manchus.

    The second inclosure, which surrounds the imperial palaces,

    is called Hwang Ching^ or ‘ Imperial City,’ and is an oblong rectangle

    about six miles in circuit, encompassed by a wall twenty

    feet high, and having a gate in each face. From the southern

    gate, called the Tlen-an Mdn^ or ‘ Heavenly Rest,’ a broad

    avenue leads up to the Kin Chiw/ ; and before it. outside of

    the M’all, is an extensive space walled in, and having one entrance

    on the south, called the gate of Great Purity, which 110 one is allowed to enter except on foot, unless by special permission. On the right of the avenue within the wall is a gateway leading to the TaiMiao, or ‘ Great Temple’ of the imperial ancestors, a large collection of buildings hiclosed by a wall 3,000 feet in circuit. It is the most honored of religious structures

    next to the Temple of Heaven, and contains tablets to princes

    and meritorious officers. Here offerings are presented before

    the tablets of deceased emperors and empresses, and worship

    performed at the end of the year by the members of the imperial

    family and clan to their departed forefathers. Across

    the avenue from this temple is a gateway leading to the Shie-

    Tsih tan, or altar of the gods of Land and Grain. These were

    originally Kaa-lung, a Minister of Works, b.c. 2500, and Hautsih,

    a remote ancestor of Chan Kung ; here the Emperor sacriiices

    in spring and autumn. This altar consists of two stories,

    each five feet high, the upper one being fifty-eight feet square; no other altar of the kind is found in the empire, and it would

    he tantamount to high treason to erect one and worship upon it.

    The north, east, south, and west altar are respectively black,

    green, red, and white, and the top yellow ; the ceremonies connected

    with the worship held here are among the most ancient practised among the Chinese.

    PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND BARKS. 71

    On the north of the palace, separated by a moat, and surrounded by a wall more than a mile in circuit, is the King Shan, or ‘ Prospect Hill,’ an artificial mound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, and having five summits, crowned with as many temples ; many of these show the neglect in which public edifices soon fall. Trees of various kinds border its base, and line the paths leading to the tops. Its height allows the spectator to overlook the whole city, while, too, it is itself a conspicuous object from every direction. The earth and stone in it were taken from the ditches and pools dug in and around the city, and near its base are many tanks of picturesque shape and appearance; so that altogether it forms a great ornament to the city. Another name for it is Mei Shan, or ‘ Coal Hill,’ from a tradition that a quantity of coal Avas placed there, as a supply in case of siege. The western part of this inelosure is chiefly occupied by the Si l”;<;6/<, or ‘Western Park,’ in and around which are found some of the most beautiful objects and spots in the uietropolis. An artificial lake, more than a mile long, and averaging a furlong in breadth, occupies the centre; it is supplied from the Western Hills, and its waters are adorned with the splendid lotus. A marble bridge of nine arches crosses it, and its banks are shaded by groves of trees, under which are well-paved walks. On its south-eastern side is a large summer-house, consisting of several edifices partly in or over the water, and inclosing a number of gardens and walks, in and around which are artificial hills of rock-work beautifully alternating or supporting groves of trees and parterres of flowers.

    On the western side is the hall for examining military candidates,

    where his majesty in person sees them exliibit their

    prowess in equestrian archery. At the north end of the lake is

    a bridge leading to an islet, wdiich presents the aspect of a hill

    of gentle ascent covered with groves, temples, and summerhouses,

    and surmounted with a tower, from which an extensive

    view can be enjoyed. On the north of the bridge is a hill on

    an island called Kiung-hwa tan^ capped by a white dagoba.

    Xear by is an altar forty feet in circuit, and four feet high,

    inclosed by a wall, and a temple dedicated to Yuenfi, the

    reputed discoverer of the silk-worm, where the Empress annually

    offers sacrifices to her ; in the vicinity a plantation of mulberry

    trees and a cocoonery are maintained. Xear the temple

    of ‘ Great Happiness,’ not far distant from the preceding, on

    the northern borders of the lake, is a gilded copper statue of

    Maitreya, or the coming Buddha, sixty feet high, with a hundred

    arms ; the temple is one of the greatest ornaments of the

    Park. Across the lake on its western bank, and entered

    through the first gate on the south side of the street, is the

    Ts^-kwamj Koh^ wdiere foreign ministers are received by the

    Emperor ; the inclosure is kept with great care, and numerous

    halls and temples are seen amidst groves of firs. The object

    kept in view in the arrangement of these gardens and grounds

    has been to make them an epitome of nature, and then furnish

    every part with conmiodious buildings. But however elegant

    the palaces and grounds may have appeared when new, it is to

    be feared that his majesty has no higher ideas of cleanliness and order tliuu lii.s subjects, and tluit the various public and private edifices and gardens in these two inelosures are despoiled of luilf their beauty bj dirt and neglect. The nundjer of the palaces in them both is estimated to be over two hundred, “each of which,” says Attinet, in vague terms, ” is suflSciently large to accommodate the greatest of European noblemen, with all his retijiue.*’

    Along the avenue leading south from the Imperial City to the division Avail, are found the principal government offices. Five of the ISix Boards have their bureaus on the east side, the Board of Punishments with its subordinate departments being situated with its courts on the west side; immediately south of this is the Censorate. The office attached to the Board of Itites, for the preparation of the Calendar, commonly called the Astronomical Board, stands directly east of this; and the Medical College has its hall not far off. The Ilanlhi l\en, or National Academy, and the Ll-fan Yuen., or Colonial Office, are also near the south-eastern corner of the Imperial City. Opposite to the Colonial Office is the Tang T)iz\ where the remote ancestors of the reigning family are worshipped by his majesty together with the princes of his family; when they come in procession to this temple in their state dresses, the Emperor, as high-priest of the family, performs the highest religious ceremony before his deified ancestors, viz., three kneelings and nine knockings. After he has completed his devotions, the attendant grandees go through the same ceremonies. The temple itself is pleasantly situated in the midst of a grove of fir and other trees, and the large inclosure around it is prettily laid out.

    BUDDHIST AND CONFUCIAN TEMPLES. 73

    In the south-eastern part of the city, built partly upon the wall, is the Observatory, which was placed imder the superintendence of the Komish missionaries by Ivanghi, but is now confided to the care of Chinese astronomers. The instruments are arranged on a terrace higher than the city wall, and are beautiful pieces of bronze art, though now antiquated and useless for practical observations. Nearly opposite to the Observatory stands the Ilall for Literary Examinations, Mdiere the candidates of the province assemble to write their essays. In the north-eastern corner of the city is the Bussian Mission and

    Astronomical Office, inclosed in a large compound ; near it live

    the converts. About half a mile west is the Yung-ho Kung, or

    ‘ Lamasar}’ of Eternal Peace,’ wherein alwut 1,500 Mongol and

    Tibetan priests study the dogmas of Buddhism, or spend their

    days in idleness, under the conti’ol of a Gegen or living Buddha.

    Their course of study comprises instruction in metaphysics, ascetic

    duties, astrology, and medicine ; their daily ritual is performed

    in several courts, and the rehearsal of prayers and chants

    by so many men strikes the hearer as very impressive. The I’ear

    building contains a wooden image, 70 feet in height, of Mait-

    •veya, the coming Buddha ; the whole establishment exhibits in its

    buildings, pictures, images, cells, and internal arrangemeuts for

    study, living, and worship, one of the most complete in the empire.

    Several smaller lamasaries occur in other parts of the city.

    Directly west of the Yimg-ho Kung^ and presenting the

    greatest contrast to its life and activity, lies the Confucian

    Temple, where embowered in a grove of ancient cypresses

    stands the imposing Wan Mlao^ or ‘ Literary Temple,’ in which

    the Example aiid Teacher of all Ages and ten of his great disciples

    are worshipped. The hall is 84 feet in front, and the lofty

    roof is supported on wooden pillars over 40 feet high, covering

    the single room in which their tablets are placed in separate

    niches, he in the high seat of honor. All is simple, quiet, and

    cheerless ; the scene liere presents an impressive instance of

    merited honors paid to the moral teachers of the people. Opposite

    and across the court are ten granite stones shaped like

    drums, which are believed to have been made about the eighth

    century b.c, and contain stanzas recording King Siien’s hunting

    expeditions. In another court are many stone tablets containing

    the lists of Tslii-sz’ graduates since the Mongol dynasty, many thousands of names with places of residence. Contiguous to this temple is the Pili-yung Kang^ or ‘Classic Ilall’, where the Emperor meets the graduates and literati. It is a beautiful specimen of Chinese architectural taste. Near it are 800 stone tablets on which the authorized texts of the classics are engraved.’

    ‘ Dr. Martin, The CJdnese (New York, 1881), p. 85.

    North of the Imperial City lies the extensive yamiui of fJie Tl-tuh, who has the police and garrison of the city under his control, and exercises great authority in its civil administration. The Drum and Bell Towers stand north of the Ti-ngan Mwi in the street leading to the city wall, each of them over a hundred feet high, and forming conspicuous objects ; the drum and bell are sounded at night watches, and can be heard throughout the city; a clepsydra is still maintained to mark time—a good instance of Chinese conservatism, for clocks are now in general use, and correct the errors of the clepsydra itself.

    SHRINES OF ALL KELIGIONS. 75

    Outside of the south-western angle of the Imperial City stands the Mohammedan mosque, and a large number of Turks whose ancestors were brought from Turkestan about a century ago live in its vicinity ; this quarter is consequently the chief resort of Moslems who come to the capital. South-%vest of the mosque, near the cross-wall, stands the Xan Tavy, or old For tugiiese church, and just west of the Forbidden City, inside of the Hwang Chlng, is the Peh 2’ang, or Cathedral; Loth are imposing edifices, and near them are large schools and seiiiinaries for the education of children and neophytes. There are religions edifices in the Chinese metropolis appropriated to many forms of religion, viz., the Greek, Latin, and Protestant churches, Islamism, Buddhism in its two principal forms, nationalism, ancestral worship, state worship, and temples dedicated to Confucius and other deified mortals, besides a great number in which the popular idols of the country are adored. One of the most worthy of notice is the Ti- Wang Miao, lying on the avenue leading to the west gate, a large collection of halls wherein all the tablets of former monarchs of China from remote ages are worshipped. The rule for admission into this Walhalla is to accept all save the vicious and oppressive, those who were assassinated and those who lost their kingdoms. This

    memorial temple was opened in 1522; the Manchus have even

    admitted some of the Tartar rulers of the Kin and Liao dynasties,

    raising the total number of tablets to nearly three hundred.

    It is an impressive sight, these simple tablets of men who once

    ruled the Middle Kingdom, standing .here side by side, wovshipped

    by their successors that their spirits may bless the state.

    This selection of the good sovereigns alone recalls to mind the

    custom in ancient Jerusalem of allowing wicked pi-inces no place

    in the sepulchres of the kings. Distinguished statesmen of all

    ages, called by the Chinese liroh cJiu, or ‘pillars of state,’ are

    associated with their masters in this temple, as not unworthy to

    receive equal honors.

    A little west of this remarkable temple is the Peli-ta sz\ or ‘White Pagoda Temple,’ so called from a costly dagoba near it erected about a.d. 1100, renovated by Kublai in the thirteenth century, and rebuilt in 1S19. Its most conspicuous feature is the great copper umbrella on the top. When finished, the dagoba was described as covered with jasper, and the projecting parts of the roof with ornaments of exquisite workmanship tastefully arranged. Around this edifice, which contains twenty beads or relics of Buddha, two thousand clay pagodas and five books of charms, are also one hundred and eight small pillars Oil which lamps are burned. The portion of the city lying south of the cross-wall is inhabited mostly by Chinese, and contains

    hundreds of /avui-kican, or club-liouses, erected by the gentry

    of cities and districts in all parts of the empire to accommodate

    their citizens resorting to the capital. Its streets are narrow

    and the whole aspect of its buildings and markets indicates the

    life and industry of the people. Hundreds of inns accommodate

    trayellers who lind no lodging-places in the Nul C/n’urj, and

    storehouses, theatres, granaries and markets attract or supply their customers from all parts. There is more dissipation and freedom from etiquette here, and the Chinese officials feel freer from their Manchu colleagues.

    Three miles south of the Palace, in the Chinese City, is situated the Tien Tan, or ‘ Altar to Ileayen,’ so placed because it was anciently customary to perform sacrifices to Heaven in the outskirts of the Emperor’s residence city. The compound is inclosed by more than three miles of wall, within which is planted a thick grove of locust {Sajj/iora), pine and fir trees, interspaced with stretches of grass. Within a second wall, which surrounds the sacred buildings, rises a copse of splendid and thickly growing cypress trees, reminding one of the solemn shade in the vicinity of famous temples in Ancient Greece, or of those celebrated shrines described in “Western Asia. The great South Altar, the most important of Chinese religious structures, is a beautiful triple circular terrace of white marble, whose base is 210, middle stage 150, and top 90 feet in width, each terrace encompassed by a richly caryed balustrade. A curious symbolism of the number three and its multiples may be noticed in the measurements of this pile. The uppermost terrace, whose height above the ground is about eighteen feet, is paved with marble slabs, forming nine concentric circles—the inner of nine stones inclosing a central piece, and around this each receding layer consisting of a successive multiple of nine until the square of nine (a favorite number of Chinese philosophy) is reached in the outermost row. It is upon the single nnind stone in the centre of the upper plateau that the Emperor kneels when worshipping Heaven and his ancestors at the winter solstice.

    THE TEMPLE OF HEAVEN”. 77

    Four lliglits of nine steps each lead from this elevation to the next lower stage, where are placed tablets to the spirits of the sun, the moon, the stars, and the Year God. On the ground at the end of the four stairways stand vessels of bronze in which are placed the bundles of cloth and sundry animals constituting part of the sacrilicial offerings. But of ^’astly greater importance than these in the matter of burnt-offering is the great furnace, nine feet high, faced with green porcelain, and ascended on three of its sides by porcelain staircases. In this receptacle, erected some hundred feet to the south-east of the altar, is consumed a burnt-offering of a bullock—entire and without blemish—at the yearly ceremony. The slaughter-house of the sacrificial bullock stands east of the North Altar, at the end of an elaborate winding passage, or cloister of 72 compartments, each 10 feet in length.

    Separated from the Altar to Heaven by a low wall, is a smaller though more conspicuous construction called Kl-l’iih Tan, or ‘ Altar of Prayer for Grain.’ Its proportions and arrangement are somewhat similar to those of the South Altar, but upon its upper terrace rises a magnificent triple-roofed, circular building known to foreigners as the ‘ Temple of Heaven.’

    This elaborate house of worship, whose surmounting gilded ball rests 100 feet above the platform, was originally roofed with blue, yellow and green tiles, but by Kienlung these colors were changed to blue. When, added to these brilliant hues, we consider the I’ichly carved and painted eaves, the windows shaded by Venetians of blue-glass rods strung together, and the I’ai’e symmetry of its proportions, it is no exaggeration to call this temple the most remarkable edifice in the capital—or indeed in the empire. The native name is Qi-Nian Dian, or ‘Temple of Prayer for the Year’. In the interior, the large shrines of carved wood for the tablets coiTespond to the movable blue wooden huts which on days of sacrifice are put up on the Southern Altar. Here, upon some day following the first of spring (Fel). G), the Emperor offers his supplications to Heaven for a blessing upon the year. In times of drought, prayer for rain is also made at this altar, the Emperor being obliged to proceed on foot, as a repentant suppliant, to the ‘ Hall of Peni tent Fasting,’ a distance of three miles. A green furnace for burnt-offerings lies to the south-east of this, as of the Korth Altar ; while in the open park not far from the two and seventy cloisters are seven great stones, said to have fallen from heaven and to secure good luck to the country.

    Across the avenue upon which is situated this great inclosure of the I’ien Tan, is the Sleii ^uny Tan, or ‘ Altar dedicated to Shinnung,’ the supposed inventor of agriculture. These precincts are about two miles in circumference, and contain four separate altars : to the gods of the heavens, of the earth, of the planet Jupiter, and to Shinnung, The worship here is performed at the vernal equinox, at which time the ceremony of ploughing a part of the inclosed park is performed by the Emperor, assisted by various officials and members of the Board of Rites, The district magistrates and prefect also plough their plats ; but no one touches the imperial portion save the monarch himself. The first two altars are rectangular ; that to the gods of heaven, on the east, is 50 feet long and 4^ feet high: four marble tablets on it contain the names of the gods of the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder. That to the gods of earth is 100 feet long by GO wide ; here the five marble tablets contain the names of celebrated mountains, seas, and lakes in China, Sacrifices are offered to these divinities at various times, and, with the prayers presented, are burned in the furnaces, thus to come before them in the unseen world ; the idea which runs through them partakes of the nature of homage, not of atonement, iS’ early one-half of the Chinese City is empty of dwellings, much of the open land being cultivated ; a large pond for rearing gold-fish near the T’ten Tan is an attractive place. West of this city wall is an old and conspicuous dagobain the Ti.enning sz\ nearly 200 feet high, and a landmark for the city gate. This part of Peking was much the best built when the Liao and Kin dynasties occupied it, west of the main city is the Temple of the Moon, and on the east side, directly opposite, stands the Temple to the Sun ; the T’l Tan, or ‘ Altar to Earth.’ is on the north over against the Altar to Heaven, just desciilicd.

    MONUMENT, OK TOPE, OF A LAMA. UWANG SZ’, PEKING.THE BELL TEMPLE AND HWANG SZ*. 79

    At all these the Emperor performs religious rites during the twelve months. The inciosure of the Altar to Earth is suuiller, and everything connected with the sacrifices is on an inferior scale to those conducted in the Altar to Heaven, The main altar has two terraces, each 6 feet high, and respectively lOG feet and 00 feet square ; the tablet to Imperial Earth is placed on the npper with those to the Imperial Ancestors, and all are adored at the summer solstice. The bullock for sacrifice is afterwards buried and not burned. Adjoining the terraced altar on the south is a small tank for Mater.

    About two miles from the Tl Tan, in a northerly direction, passing through one of the ruined gates of the Peking of Marco Polo’s time on the way, is found the Ta-chioig sz\ or ‘Bell Temple’, in which is hung the great bell of Peking. It was cast about 1406, in the reign of Yungloli, and was covered over in 1578 by a small temple. It is 14 feet high, including the nmbones, 34 feet in circumference at the lim, and 9 inches thick ; the weight is 120,000 lbs. av. ; it is struck by a heavy beam swung on the outside. The Emperor cast five bells in all, but this one alone was hung. It is covered with myriads of Chinese characters, both inside and out, consisting of extracts from the Fah-hwa King and TJng-yen King, two Buddhist classics. In some respects this may be called the most remarkable work of art now in China ; it is the largest suspended bell in the world. A square hole in the top prevents its fracture under the heaviest rinoino-.’

    ‘ Compare Kirclier, China Illustratn, where an engraving of it may be seen. A bell near Mandalay, mentioned by Dr. Anderson, is 13 feet high, 10 feet across tli3 lips, and weighs 90 tons—evidently a heavier monster than this in Peking. (Mandalay to Momien, p. 18.)

    A short distance outside the northern gate, Tah-shing Man, is an open ground for military reviews, and near it a Buddhist temple of some note, called Hwang sz\ containing in its enceinte a remarkable monument erected by Ivienlung. In 1779 the Teshu Lama started for Peking with an escort of 1,500 men; he was met by the Emperor near the city of Si-ning in Ivansuh, conducted to Peking with great honor, and lodged in this temple for several months. He died here of small-pox, November 12, 1780, and this cenotaph of white marble was erected to his nieinoi’v ; the body was inclosed in a <^old cuflin and sent to the Dalai Lama at Lliassa in 1781. The plinth of this beautiful work contains scenes in the })relate’s life carved on the panels, one of which represents a lion rubbing- his eyes with his paw as the tears fall for grief at the Lama’s death.

    The Summer Palace at Yiien-ming Yuen lies about seven miles from the north-west corner of Peking, and its entire circuit is reckoned to contain twelve square miles. The country in this direction rises into gentle hills, and advantage has been taken of the original surface in the arrangement of the different parts of the ground, so that ilie whole presents a great variety of hill and dale, woodlands and lawns, interspered with pools, lakes, caverns, and islets joined by bridges and walks, their banks thrown up or diversified like the free hand of nature. Some parts are tilled, groves or tangled thickets occur here and there, and places are purposely left wild to contrast the better with the cultivated precincts of a palace, or to form a rural pathway to a retired temple or arbor. Here were formerly no less than thirty distinct places of residence for various palace officials, around which were houses occupied by eumichs md servants, each constituting a little village.

    But all was swept away l)y the British and French troops in

    I860, and their ruins still i-cmain to irritate the officials and

    people of Peking against all foreigners. Xear the Summer

    Palace is the great cantomnent of llai-tien, where the Manchu

    garrison is stationed to defend the capital, and whose troops

    did their best in the vain effort to stay the attack in I860. As

    a contrast to the proceedings connected with this approach of

    the British, an extract fi-om Sir John Davis’s Chinese (chap, x.)

    will furnish an index of the changed condition of things.

    ” It was at a place called Jlai-tien, in the innnediate vicinity

    of these gardens, that the strange scene occurred which terminated

    in the dismissal of the embassy of 1816, On his arrival

    there, about daylight in the jnornii?g, with the coinmissioners

    and a few other gentlemen, tlie ambassador was drawn

    to one of the Emperor’s temporary residences by an invitation

    from Duke llo, as he was called, the imperial relative charged

    rt’ith the conduct of the negotiations. After passing through

    SUMMEIl PALACE AT YUEN-MING YUEN. 81

    an open court, where were assembled a vast number of grandees

    in their dresses of ceremony, they were shown into a WTetched

    room, and soon encompassed l)y a well-dressed crowd, among

    whom were princes of the blood by dozens, wearing yellow girdles.

    With a childish and unmannei-ly curiosity, consistent

    enough with the idle and disorderly life which many of them

    are said to lead, they examined the persons and dress of the

    gentlemen without ceremony ; while these, tired with their

    sleepless journey, and disgusted at the behavior of the celestials,

    turned their backs upon them, and laid themselves down to rest.

    Duke IIo soon appeared, and surpi’ised the ambassador hy urging

    him to proceed directly to an audience of the Emperor, who

    was waiting for him. His lordsliip iu vain remonstrated that

    to-morrow liad been fixed for the first audience, and that tired

    and dusty as they all were at present, it would be worthy

    neither of the Emperor nor of himself to wait on his majesty in

    a manner so unprepared. He urged, too, that he was unwell,

    and required innnediate rest. Duke llo became more and more

    pressiug, and at length forgot himself so far as to grasp the

    ambassador’s arm violently, and one of the others stepped up at

    the same time. His lordship immediately shook them oft’, and

    the gentlemen crowded about him ; while the highest indignation

    was expressed at such treatment, and a determined resolution

    to proceed to no audience this morning. The ambassador

    at leugth retired, with the appearance of satisfaction on the

    part of Duke Ho, that the audience should take place tomorrow.

    There is every reason, however, to suppose that this

    person had been largely bribed by the heads of the Canton

    local government to frustrate the views of the embassy, and

    prevent an audience of the Emperor. The mission, at least, was

    on its way back in the afternoon of the same day.”

    The principal part of the provisions recpiired for the supply of this iimnense city comes from the southern provinces, and from flocks reared beyond the wall. It has no important manufactures, horn lanterns, wall papers, stone snuff-bottles, and pipe mouth-pieces, being the principal. Trade in silks, foreign fabrics, and food is limited to supplying the local demand, inasmuch as a heavy octroi duty at the gates restrains all enterprise. No foreign merchants are allowed to carry on business here. The government of Peking differs from that of other cities in the empire, the affairs of the department being separated from it, and administered by officers residing in thvi four circuits into which it is divided. ” A minister of one of the Boards is appointed superintendent of the city, and subordinate to him is ^ fuyin, or mayor. Their duties consist in having charge of the metropolitan domain, for the purpose of extending good government to its four divisions. They have under them two district magistrates, each of Mhoni rules half the city; none of these officers are subordinate to the provincial governor, but carry affairs which they cannot determine to the Emperor. They preside or assist at many of the festivals observed in the capital, superintend the military police, and hold the courts which take cognizance of the offences committed there.”‘

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 181.

    STREET SCENES AND FEATURES OF PEKING. 80

    The thoroughfares leading across Peking, from one gate to the other, are broad, unpaved avenues, more than a hundred feet wide, which appear still wider owing to the lowness of the buildings; the centre is about two feet higher than the sides. The cross-streets in the main city are generally at right angles with them, not over forty feet wide, and for the most part occupied with dwellings. The inhabitants of the avenues are required to keep them well sprinkled in summer; but in rainy weather they are almost impassable from the mud and deep jniddles, the level surface of the ground, and obstructed, neglected drains, preventing rapid drainage. The crowds which throng these avenues, some engaged in various callings, along the sides or in the middle of the way, and others busily passing and repassing, together with the gay appearance of the signl)oards, and. an air of business in the shops, render the great streets of the Chinese metropolis very bustling, and to a foreigner a most interesting scene. Shop-fronts can be entirely opened when necessary ; they are constructed of panels or shutters fitting into grooves, and secured to a row of strong posts which set into mortises. At night, when the shop is

    closed, nothing of it is seen from without ; but in the daytime,

    when the goods are exposed, tlie scene becomes more animated.

    The sign-boards are often broad planks, fixed in stone bases

    on each side of the shop-front, and reaching to the eaves, or

    above them ; the characters are large and of different colors,

    and in order to attract more notice, the signs are often hung

    with various colored flags, bearing inscriptions setting forth the

    excellence of the goods. The sliops in the outer city are frequently

    constructed in this manner, others are made more compact

    for warmth in winter, but as a whole they are not brilliant

    in their fittings. Their signs are, when possible, images of

    the articles sold and always have a red pennon attached ; the

    finer shop-fronts are covered with gold-leaf, brilliant when new,

    but shabby enough when faded, as it soon does. The aj^pearance

    of the main streets exhibits therefore a curious mixture ol

    decay and renovation, which is not lessened by the dilapidated

    temples and governmental buildings everywhere seen, all indicating

    the impoverished state of the exchequer. In many parts of

    the city are placed 2>(^i-lau, or honorary gateways, erected to

    mark the approach to the palace, and M^orthy, by their size and

    ornamental entablatures, to adorn the avenues and impress the

    traveller, if they were kept in good condition.

    The police of the city is connected with the Bannermen, and

    is, on the whole, efiicient and successful in preserving the peace.

    During the night the thoroughfares are quiet ; they are lighted

    a little by lanterns hanging before the houses, but generally are

    dark and cheerless. In the metropolis, as in all Chinese cities,

    the air is constantly polluted by the stench arising from private

    vessels and pul)lic reservoirs for urine and every kind of offal,

    which is all carefully collected by scavengers. By this means,

    although the streets are kept clean, they are never sweet ; but

    habit renders the people almost insensible to this as well as

    other nuisances. Carts, mules, donkeys and horses are to be

    hired in all the thoroughfares. The Manchu women ride

    astride ; their number in the streets, both riding and walking,

    imparts a pleasant feature to the crowd, which is not seen in

    cities further south. The extraordinary length and elaborateness

    of marriage and funeral processions daily passing through the avenues, adds a pretty feature to them, which other cities Avitli narrow streets catinot emulate.

    The environs beyond the suburbs are occupied with niausolea, temples, private mansions, hamlets, and cultivated fields, in or near which are trees, so that the city, viewed from a distance, appears as if situated in a thick forest. Many interesting points for the antiquarian and scientist are to be found in and around this old city, which annually attracts more and more tlic attention of other nations. Its population has decreased regularly since the death of Kienlung in 1707, and is now probably rather less than one million, including the immediate suburbs. The clinuite is healthy, but subject to extremes from zero to 104°; the dryness during ten months of the year is, moreover, extremely irritating. The poor, who resort thither from other parts, form a needy and troublesome ingredient of the population, sometimes rising in large mobs and pillaging the granaries to supply themselves with food, but more commonly perishing in great numbers from cold and hunger. Its peace is always an object of considerable solicitude with the imperial government, not only as it may involve the personal safety of the Emperor, but still more from the disquieting effect it may have upon the administration of the empire. The possession of this capital by an invading force is more nearly equivalent to the control of the country than might be the case in most European kingdoms, but not as much as it might be in Siam, Burmah, or Japan.

    The good influences which nuiy be exerted upon the nation from the metropolis are likewise correspondingly great, while the purification of this source of contamiiuition, and the liberalizing of this centre of power, now well begun in various ways, will confer a vast benefit upon the Chinese people.’

    ‘ Compare the Aiinales de la Foi, Tome X., p. 100, for interesting details concerning the Romish missionurios in Peking. Also Pautliier’s CIdne Moderne,pp. 8-;}(i (I’iiris, l.sr)2), containing an oxccllont map. Bretschneider’s Archeokxjical and Jliitt’iricti! Rencarches on Pddiig, etc., published in the Chinese Recorder, Vol. VI. (1875, passim). Memnirea .mncernaiit fllistoire, les Sciences, les Arts, les A/oeiirs, /<?.<( Usages, etc., des Chinois. par les Mit,si(»inaires de Pckiii ; 16 vols., Paris, 1797-1814. N. B. Dtjimys, Notes for T(>iV.rwts in the: North of China ; Hongkong, 18(5G.

    Chihli contains several other large cities, among which Tau-ting, the foniier residence of the governor-general, and Tientsin, are the most important. The former lies about eighty miles south-west of the capital, on the Yungting River and the great road leading to Shansi. The whole department is described as a thoroughly cultivated, populous region ; it is well M’atered, and possesses two or three small lakes.

    Tientsin is the largest port on the coast above Shanghai. Owing, however, to the shallowness of the gulf and the bar at the mouth of the Pei ho, over which at neap tide only three or four feet of water flow, the port is rendered inaccessible to large foreign vessels. 1 tti size and importance were formerly chiefly owing to its being t’le terminus of the Grand Canal, where the produce and taxes for the use of the capital were brought. Mr. Gutzlaff, who visited Tientsin in 1831, described it as a bustling place, comparing the stirring life and crowds on the water and shores outside of the walls of the city with those of Liverpool.

    The enormous fleet of grain junks carrying rice to the capital is supplemented by a still greater number of vessels which take the food up to Tung chau. Formerly the coast trade increased the shipping at Tientsin to thousands of junks, including all which lined the river for about sixty miles. This native trade has diminished since 1861, inasmuch as steamers arc gradually ousting the native vessels, no one caring to risk insurxince on freight in junks. The country is not very fertile between the city and the sea, owing to the soda and nitre in the soil; but scanty crops are brought forth, and these only after much labor ; one is a species of grass(Phragmites) much used in making floor-mats. Sometimes the rains cause the Pei ho and its affluents to break over their banks, at which periods their waters deposit fertilizing matter over large areas.

    The approach to Tientsin from the eastward indicates its importance, and the change from the sparsely populated country lying along the banks of the Pei ho, to the dense crowds on shore and the fleets of boats, adds greatly to the vivacity of its aspect. ” If flue buildings and striking localities are required to give interest to a scene,” remarks Mr. Ellis, ” this has no claims; but, on the other hand, if the gradual crowding of junks till they become innumerable, a vast population, buildings, though not elegant, yet reguhir and peculiar, careful and successful cultivation, can supply these deficiencies, the entrance to Tientsin will not be without attractions to the traveler.’”

    The stacks of salt along the river arrest the attention of the voyager; the innuense quantity of this article collected at this city is only a small portion of the amount consumed in the interior. Tientsin will gradually increase in wealth, and nt)\v perhaps contains half a million of inhabitants. Its position renders it one of the most important cities in the empire, and the key of the capital.

    Near the endjouehure of the river is Ta-ku, with its forts and gari’ison, a small town noticeable as the spot where the first interview between the Chinese and English plenipotentiaries was held, in August, IS^tO ; and for three engagements between the British and Chinese forces in 1858, 1859, and ISGO. The general aspect of the province is flat and cheerless, the soil near the coast unpi’o(lucti\e, but, as a whole, rich and well cultivated, though the harvests are jeopardized by frequent droughts.

    The port of Peking is Tung chau on the Pei ho, twelve miles from the east gate, and joined to it by an elevated stone causeway. All boats here unload their passengers and freight, which are transported in carts, wheelbarrows, or on mules and donkeys.

    The city of Tung chau presents a dilapidated appearance amidst all its business and trade, and its population depends on the transit of goods for their chief support. The streets are paved, the largest of them having raised footpaths on their sides. The houses indicate a prosperous community. A single pagoda towers nearly 200 feet above them, and forms a waymark for miles across the country. Tung chau is only 100 feet above the sea, fi-om which it is distant 120 miles in a direct line; consequently, its liability to floods is a serious drawback to its permanent prosperity.

    ‘ Jourtud of Lord AinhcrsVs Emba.sKy to China^ Cd ed., p. 22. Lundon, 1840

    DOLOX-XUli \:SD TOV.^’.S IX THE NORTH. 87

    Another city of note is Siuenhwa fu, finely situated between the branches of the Great Wall. Tindvowski remarks, “the crenfvted wall which surrounds it is thirty feet high, and puts one in mind of that of the Krendin, and resembles those of several towns in Uussia; it consists of two thin parallel brick walls, the intennediate space being filled with clay and saud. The Avail is flanked with towers. AVe passed through three gates to enter the city : the first is covered with iron nails; at the second is the guard-house ; we thence proceeded along a broad street, bordered with shops of hardware ; we went through several large and small streets, which are broad and clean ; but, considering its extent, the city is thinly peopled.” ‘

    The department of Chahar, or Tsakhar, lies beyond the Great Wall, north and west of the province, a mountainous and thinly settled country, chiefly inhabited by Mongol shepherds who keep the flocks and herds of the Emperor.”

    ‘ Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, Vol. I., p. 293.London, 1837.•^ Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II. , p. 90.

    In the north-east of their grounds lies the thriving town of Dolon-nor (I.e., Seven Lakes), or Lama-miao, of about 20,000 Chinese, founded by Kanghi. The Buddhist temples and manufactories of bells, idols, praying machines, and other religious articles found here, give it its name, and attract “the Mongols, whose women array themselves in the jewelry made here. It is in latitude 42° 16′ X., about ten miles from the Shangtu river, a large branch of the river Liao, on a sandy plain, and is approached by a road Minding among several lakes. North-west of Dolon-nor are the ruins of the ancient Mongolian capital of Shangtu, rendered more famous among English reading people by Coleridge’s exquisite poem—

    In Xanadu did Kubla Khan
    A stately pleasure-dome decree :
    Where Alpli, the sacred river, ran
    Through caverns measureless to man
    Down to a sunless sea.
    So twice five miles of fertile ground
    With walls and towers were girdled round

    —than by Marco Polo’s relation, which moved the poet to pen the lines. It was planned as Mukden now is, an outer and inner Avail inclosing separate peoples, and its tumuli will probably furnish many tablets and relics of the Mongol emperors, when carefully dug over. It was too far from Peking for the Manclm monarchs to rebuild, and the Ming emperors had no power there. It was visited in 1 872 by Messrs. Grosvenor and Bushell of the British Legation ; Dr. BusheH’s description corroborates Polo’s account and Gerbillon’s later notices of its size.’

    There are several lakes, the largest of which, the Peh hu, in

    the south-western part, connects with the Pei ho throngh the

    river Hli-to. The various bi-anches of the five rivers, whose

    miited waters disembogue at Ta-ku, afford a precarious water

    communication through the southern half of Chihli. Their headwaters

    rise in Shan si and beyond the Great AVall, bringing down

    much silt, which their lower currents only partially take out into

    the gulf; this sediment soon destroys the usefulness of the

    channels by raising them dangerously ncai’ the level of the banks.

    The utilization of their streams is a difficult problem in civil

    engineering, not only here but throughout the Great Plain.

    Kear the banks of the Lan ho, a large stream flowing south

    from the eastern slopes of the (Jhahar Hills, past Yungping fu

    into the gulf, and about one hundred and seventy-four miles

    north of Ta-ku, lies Chingpeli, or Jeh-ho, the Emperor’s country

    palace. The approach to it is through a pass cut out of the

    rock, and resembles that leading to Damascus. The imperial

    grounds are embraced by a high range of hills forming a grand

    amphitheatre, which at this point is extremely fine. This descent

    to the city presents new and captivating views at every

    turn of the road. The hunting grounds are inclosed by a high

    wall stretching twenty miles over the hills, and stocked with

    deer, elks, and other game. The Buddhist temples form the

    chief attraction to a visitor. The largest one is square and castellated,

    eleven stories high, and about two hundred feet on

    each of its sides ; the stories are painted red, yellow and green

    alternating. There are several similar but smaller structures

    below this one, and on each of the first two or three series is a

    row of small chinaware pagodas of a blue color ; their tiles are

    ‘ Journal of the Boy. Qeog. Foe, 1874. Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., pp. 263-26S. Cathay and the Way Thither, Vol. I., p. 134. Gerbillon, Memoires concernant leu Vhinoin (Anih^y’^ cd.), Vol. IV., pp. 701-71(5. Joiiriuil AHutiqve,Ser. II., Tome XL, p. 345. Hue, Tiirtary, etc., Vol. I., p 34, 2d ed., London

    SHANDONG PROVINCE. 89

    likewise blue. In the bright sunlight the effect of these brilliant hands is very good, and the general neatness adds to the pleasing result of the gay coloring. Nearly a thousand lamas live about these shrines. The town of Re-he (I.e., Hot River) consists mostly of ons street coiling around the hills near the palace; its inhabitants are of a higher grade than usual in Chinese cities, the greater part being connected with the government.

    The road through Ku peh kau in the Great Wall from Peking to Jeh-ho is one of the best in the province, and the journey presents a variety of charming scenery ; its chief interest to foreigners is connected with the visit there of Lord Macartney, in 1793.’ This fertile prefecture is rapidly settling by Chinese, whose numbers are now not far from two millions.

    The principal productions of Chihli are millet and wheat, sorghum, maize, oats, and many kinds of pulse and fruits, among which are pears, dried and fresh dates(likamnus), apples and grapes ; all these are exported. Coal, both bituminous and anthracite, exists in great abundance ; one mode of using hard coal is to mix its dust with powdered clay and work them into balls and cakes for cooking and fuel. The province also furnishes good marble, granite, lime, and iron, some kinds of precious stones, and clay for bricks and pottery.

    ‘ Sir G. L. Staunton, Acconntof an KmhasRy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China. 3 vols. Lond., 179G.

    The province of Shandong (i.e., East of the Hills) has a long coast-line, its maritime border being more than half its whole circuit. It lies south of the Gulf of Pechele, south-east of Chihli, north of Kiangsu, and borders on Honan, where the Yellow River divides the two. Most of its area is level, the hilly part is the peninsula portion, where the highest points rise too high to admit of cultivation. The Grand Canal enters the province on its course from Tientsin at Lintsing chan in the north-west, passing in a south-easterly direction to the old Yellow River, and adds greatly to its importance. The shores of the promontory are generally l)old, and full of indentations, presenting several excellent harbors ; no important river disembogues within the province, and on each side of the peninsula the waters are shallow. Chifu, in the prefecture of Tangchau, has the hest harhor, and its trade will gradually draw toward it a large population. The hills along the shore have a reniarkahlj uniform, conical shape, resembling the bonnets worn by officers. The hilly regions are arranged in a series of chains running across the promontory, the longest and highest of which runs Avith the general trend of the coast in Tai-ngan fu, some peaks reaching over five thousand feet, but most of them being under three thousand feet high. Their intervales are highly cultivated. The soil is generally productive, except near the shores of the gulf, where it is nitrous. Two crops are aimually produced here as elsewhere in Northern China. The willow, aspen, ailantus, locust(Sop^ora), oak, mulberry, and conifera, are common trees; silk-worms fed on oak leaves furnish silk.

    This province is one of the most celebrated in Chinese history, partly from its having been the scene of many remarkable events in the early history of the people up to b.c. 200, but more particularly from its containing the birthplaces of Confucius and Mencius, wdiose fame has gone over the earth. The inhabitants of the province are proud of their nativity on this score, much as the woman of Samaria was because Jacob’s cattle had (huidv water at the well of Sychar.

    TAI SHAN, THE ‘ GREAT MOUNT,’ 91

    The high mountain called Taishan, or ‘great mount’, is situated near Tai-ngan fu in this province. This peak is mentioned in the Shu King as that where Shun sacrificed to Heaven (b.c.2254) ; it is accordingly celebrated for its historical as well as religious associations. It towers high above all other peaks in the range, as if keeping solitary watch over the country roundabout, and is the great rendezvous of devotees ; every sect has there its temples and idols, scattered up and down its sides, in which priests chant their prayers, and practise a thousand superstitions to attract pilgrims to their shrines. During the spring, the roads leading to the Tai shan are obstructed with long caravans of people coming to accomplish their vows, to supplicate the deities for health or riches, or to solicit the joys of heaven in exchange for the woes of earth. A French missionary mentions having met with pilgrims going to it, one party

    of whom consisted of old dames, who had with iulhiite fatigue

    and discomfort come from the south of llonan, about three

    hundred miles, to “‘remind their god of the long abstinence

    from flesh and fish thev had obsei’ved during the course of tlieir

    lives, and solicit, as a recompense, a happj transmigration for

    their souls.” The youngest of this party was 78, and the oldest

    90 years.’ Another traveller says that the pilgrims resort there

    during the spring, when there are fairs to attract tliem ; high

    and low, official and commoner, men and women,’ old and

    young, all sorts gather to worship and traffic. A great temple

    lies outside the town, whose grounds furnish a large and secure

    area for the tents where the devotees amuse themselves, after

    they have finished their devotions. The road to the summit is

    about five miles, well paved and furnished with rest-houses,

    tea-stalls, and stairways for the convenience of the pilgrims,

    and shaded with cypresses. It is beset with beggars, men and

    women with all kinds of sores and diseases, crippled and injured,

    besieging travellers with cries and self-imposed sufferings,

    frequently lying across the path so as to be stepped upon.

    A vast number of them live on alms thus collected, and have

    scooped themselves holes in the side of the way, where they

    live ; their numbers indicate the great crowds whose offerings

    support such a M’retched thi-ong on the hill.

    ‘ Annalcs de la Foi, 1844, Tome XVI., p. 421.

    The capital of the province is Tsinan, a well-built city of about 100,000 inhabitants. It was an important town in ancient times as the capital of Tsi, one of the influential feudal States, from b.c.1100 to its conquest by Chf Huangdi about 230 ; the present town lies not far east of the Ta-tsing ho, or new Yellow River, and is accessible by small steamers from sea. It has hills around it, and is protected by three lines of defence, composed of mud, granite, and brick. Three copious sprhigs near the western gate furnish pure water, which is tepid and so abundant as to fill the city moat and form a lake for the solace of the citizens whether in boats upon its bosom or from temples around its shores. Its manufactures are strong fabrics of wild silk, and ornaments of llit-ll, a vitreous substance like strass, of which pnuff-l)()ttlcp, bangles, cups, etc., are made in great variety, to reseuil)le serpentine, jade, ice, and other things. East of Tsinan is the prefect city of Tsing chau, once the provincial capital, and the centre of a populous and fertile region. Tsining chau is an opulent and flourishing place, judging from the gilded and carved shops, temples, and public offices in the suburbs, which stretch along the eastern banks of the Canal ; just beyond the town, the Canal is only a little raised above the level of the extensive marshes on each side, and further south the swamps increase rapidly : when Amherst’s embassy passed, the whole country, as far as the eye could reach, displayed the effects of a most extensive I’ecent inundation. Davis adds, ” The

    waters were on a level with those of the Canal, and there was

    no need of dams, which wei-e themselves nearly under water,

    and sluices for discharging the superfluous water were occasionally

    observed. Clumps of large trees, cottages, and towers, were

    to be seen on all sides, half under water, and deserted by the

    inhabitants ; the number of the latter led to the inference that

    they were provided as places of refuge in case of inundation,

    which must be here very frequent. Wretched villages t»ccuiTC(l

    frequently on the right-hand bank, along which the tracking

    path was in some places so completely undermined as to give

    way at every step, obliging them to lay down hurdles of reeds

    to afford a passage.” ‘

    Lin-tsing chau, on the Yu ho, at its junction with the Canal, lies in the midst of a beautiful country, full of gardens and cultivated grounds, interspersed with buildings. This place is the depot for produce brought on the Canal, and a rendezvous for large fleets of boats and baiges. ?sear it is a pagoda in good repair, about 150 feet high, the basement of which is built of granite, and the other stories of glazed bricks.

    ‘ SketcJies of CJu/ui, Yul. I., p. 257.

    CITIES AND CIIAnACTERISTICS OF SHANTUNG. 93

    The towns and villages of Shandong have been much ^•isited during the past few years, and tlu’ir inhabitants have become better acquainted with foreigners, with whom increased intercourse has developed its good and bad results. The productions of this fertile province comprise every kind of grain and vegetable finuid in Xoitlieni China, and its trade by sea and along the Canal opens many outlets for enterprising capital. Among its mineral productions are gold, copper, asbestos, galena, antimony, silver, sulphur, fine agates, and saltpetre ; the first occurs in the beds of streams. All these yield in real importance, however, to the coal and iron, which are abundant, and have been worked for ages. Its manufactures supply the common clothing and utensils of its people ; silk fabrics, straw braid woven from a kind of wheat, glass, cheap earthenware, and rugs of every pattern.

    Mr. Stevens, an American missionary who risited Wei-hai wei and Chifu in 1837, gives a description of the people, which is still applicable to most parts of the province : “These poor people know nothing, from youth to old age, but the same monotonous round of toil for a subsistence, ?nd never see, never hear anything of the world around them. Improvements in the useful arts and sciences, and an increase of the conveniences of life, are never known among them. In the place where their fathers lived and died, do they live, and toil, and die, to be succeeded by another generation in the same nuiimer.

    Few of the comforts of life can be found among them; their houses consisted in general of granite and thatched roofs, but neither table, chair, nor floor, nor any article of furniture could be seen in the houses of the poorest. Every man had his pipe, and tea was in most dwellings. They were industriously engaged, some in ploughing, others in reaping, some carrying out manure, and others bringing home produce; numbers were collected on the thrashing-floors, winnowing, sifting and packing wheat, rice, millet, peas, and in drying maize, all with the greatest diligence. Here, too, were their teams for ploughing, yoked together in all possible ludicrous combinations; sometimes a cow and an ass; or a cow, an ox and an ass; or a cow and two asses; or four asses; and all yoked abreast. All the women had small feet, and wore a pale and sallow aspect, and their miserable, squalid appearance excited an indelible feeling of compassion for their helpless lot. They were not always shy, but were generally ill-clad and ugly, apparently laboring in the fields like the men. But on several occasions, young ladies clothed in gay silks and satins, riding astride upon bags on donkeys, were seen. Ko prospect of melioration for either men or women appears but in the liberalizing and happy influences of Christianity.” ‘

    The province of ShanXxi (i.e., West of the Hills) lies between Ciiihli and Shensi, and north of HeNan ; the Yellow River bounds it on the west and partly on the south, and the Great Wall forms most of the northern frontier. It measures 55,2(38 square miles, nearly the same as England and Wales, or the State of Illinois. This province is the original seat of the Chinese people ; and many of the places mentioned and the

    scenes recorded in their ancient annals occurred within its borders.

    Its rugged surface presents a striking contrast to the level

    tracts in Chihli and Shantung. The southern portion of ShansI,

    including the region down to the Yellow River, in all an area

    of 30,000 square miles, presents a geological formation of great

    simplicity from Ilwai king a^ far north as Ping ting. The plain

    around the lirst-named cit)^ is bounded on the north by a steep,

    castellated raiige of hills which varies from 1,000 to 1,500 feet

    in height ; it has few roado ov streams crossing it. On reaching

    the top, an undulating table-land stretches northward, varying

    from 2,500 to 3,000 feet above the Plain, consisting of coal formation,

    above the limestone of the lower steep hills. About

    forty miles from those hills, there is a second rise like the first,

    up which the road takes one to another plateau, nearly 6,000

    feet above the sea. This plateau is built up of later rocks, sandstones,

    shales, and conglomerates of green, red, yellow, lilac,

    and brown colors, and is deeply eroded by branches of the Tsin

    Piver, which finally flow into the Yellow Piver. This plateau

    has its north-west boi-der in the Wu ling pass, beyond which

    besrins the descent to the basin of the Fan Piver. That basin

    is traversed near its eastern side by the Hob shan nearly to Taiyuen; its peaks rise to 8,000 feet in some places ; the rocks are granite and divide the coal measures, anthracite lying on its eastern side and bituminous on the west, as far as the Yellow.
    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., pp. 308-335. W. H. Medhurst’s China,chaps, xv.-xix.

    NAT- -HANSI. 95

    River, and nr \, On top of both plateaus is spread the loess deposi iu depth from ten to five hundred fe^ ” ‘ water-courses in every direction, Avhic’ ‘ ^ .nines.

    On the eastern side . Shansi the rocks are made up of ancient for Liatlons v»r deposits of the Sihirian age, presenting a series of peaks, piisses and ranges that render travel very difficult down to u’.j Plain. By these outlying ranges the province is isolated from Chihli, as no useful water communication exists. This coal and iron formation is probably the largest in the “world, and when railroads open it up to easy access it can be leadily -worked along the water-courses. The northern part of the province is drained through the rivers ending at Tientsin. This elevated region cannot be artificially irrigated, and when the rainfall is too small or too late, the people suffer from famine. The northern and southern prefectures exhibit great diversity in their animal, mineral, and vegetable productions. Some of the favorite imperial hunting-grounds are in the north; from the coal, iron, cinnabar, copper, marble, lapis-lazuli, jasper, salt, and other minerals which it affords, the inhabitants gain much of their wealth. The principal grains are wheat and millet, a large variety of vegetables and fruits, such as persimmons, pears, dates and grapes. The rivers are not large, and almost every one of them is a tributary of the Yellow River. The Fan ho, about 300 miles long, is the most important, and empties into it near the south-western corner of the province, after draining the central section. East of this stream, as far as the headwaters of those rivers flowing into Chihli, extends an undulating table-land, having a general altitude of 3,000 feet above the Plain. South of it runs the river Kiang, also an afiiuent of the Yellow River, and near this, in Kiai chau, is a remarkable deposit of salt in a shallow lake (18 miles long and 3 lu-oad), which is surrounded by a high wall. The salt is evaporated in the sun under government direction, the product bringing in a large revenue ; the adjacent town of Lung-tsiien, containing 80,000 inhabitants, is devoted to the business. Salt has been obtained from this region for two thousand years ; the water in some of the springs is only brackish, and used in culiiKiry operations. There are t\\ “> smaller lakes nearei” the Yellow River.

    The iron obtained in the lower puitean, ii: the sonth-east neaj Tsih chan, is from clay iron-ure and spathic ore with heniatite4 \vhich occurs in limestone strata at the bottom of the coal formations.

    It is extracted in a rude manner, but the produce is etpial to any iron in the world, while its price is only about two cents a pound. The working and transportation of coal and iron employ myriads of people, though they are miserably paid. The province barely supplies its own cotton, but woolen garments and sheepskins are produced to make up the demand for clothing.

    Taiyuen fu, the capital, lies on the northern border of a fertile plain, 3,000 feet above the sea level ; this plain extends about 2,000 square miles, and owes its existence to the gradual filling up of a lake there, the waters having cut their way out, and left the river Fan to drain the surplus. Across the IIo shan Range lies another basin of equal fertility and mineral wealth, in Ping-ting chau, where coal, iron, clay and stone exist in unlimited

    quantities. In the northern part of this province the Buddhist

    tenqjles at AVu-tai shan in Tai chau draw vast crowds of votaries

    to their shrines. The hills in which they are built rise

    jtroiuinently above the range, and each celebrated locality is

    memorialized by its own particular divinity, and the buildings

    where he is worshipped. The presence of a living Buddha, or

    G’egen, hei-e attracts thousands of Mongols from the north to

    adore him ; their toilsome journey adding to the worth of the

    \isit. Most of the lamas are from the noi-th and west. The

    region north of this seems to be gradually losing its fertility,

    owing to the sand which is drifted by north winds from the

    Ortous steppes ; and as all the hills are bare of trees, the whole

    of Shansi seems destined to increasing poverty and barrenness.

    Its inhabitants are shrewd, enterprising traders as well as frugal

    agriculturists ; many of the bankers in the Empire are from its

    cities.

    MOUNTAIN PASSES IN SFIANSl. 97

    The great roads from Peking to the south-west and west pass through all the chief towns of this province, and when new pi-()b:ibly (‘(|ualk'(l in eiiglneei’ing and construction anything o^ the kind ever biult by the Konuuis. The stones with which they are paved average 15 inches in thickness. Few regions can exceed in natural difficulties some of the passes over the loess-covered tracts of this province, where the road must wind the Loess-clefts from the Han-sing From Richthofen.

    through miles of narrow cuts in the light and tenacious soil, to emerge before a landscape such as that seen in the illustration.’

    The province of Henan (i.e. South of the River) comprises some of the most fertile parts of the Plain, and, on account of its abundance and central position, early received the name of

    ‘ Richthofen, China. Band I. S. 68. Ilcv. Arthur Smith, Glimpses of Travel in the Middle Kingdom. Shanghai, 1875.

    Chung Hwa T’l, or the ‘ Middle Flowery Land,’ afterwards enlarged into Chung Kicoh, or ‘ Middle Kingdom.’ Its form is an irregular triangle, and its size nearly the same as ISiiantmig ; it has iShansi and Cliihli on the north, ]S’ganliwui on the southeast, Ilupeh on the south and south-west, and Shensi on the west, bordering also on Shantung and Kiangsu. This area is divided into three basins, that of the Yellow River in the north, of the Hai River on the south, and the Han River on the south-west; the last two are separated by a marked range of mountains, the Fuh-niu shan, which is regarded as the eastern terminus of the Kwunlun Mountains ; it is about 300 miles long, and its eastern end is near Jii-ning fu. This range maintains an elevation of 4,000 to 6,000 feet, and is crossed at Xanchau, where a remarkable natural pass about 30 miles long, rising to 1,200 or 1,500 feet, affords the needed facilities for trade and travel between the central and northern provinces. The Peh and Tan rivers drain its southern slopes into the Ilan, and the eastern sides are abundantly watered by the numerous branches of the Hai River as they flow into Ilungtsih Lake. The northern portion of Henan along the Yellow River is level, fertile and populous, forming one of the richest portions of the province.

    For its climate, productions, literary reputation, historical associations, and variety of scenery, this province takes a prominent rank. The earliest records of the Black-haired race refer to this region, and the struggles for dominion among feudal and imperial armies occurred in its plains. Its’ present difficulty of access from the coast will ere long be overcome by railroads, when its capabilities may be further developed, and the cotton, hemp, iron, tutenag, silk and coal be increased for exportation.

    THE PKOVIXCE OF IIOXMST. 99

    The people at present consume their own food and manufactures, and only require a got)d demand to increase the quality and amounts and exchange them for other things. The three prefectures north of the Yellow River are low-lying; through these the waters of that river have recently found their way into the river Wei and thence to the (lulf of Pechele, at Mang-tsin or east of it ; the gradual rise of the l)ed renders their levels nearly the same, while it makes the main stream so broad and shallow that it is of little use for navigation. These plains are traversed by wheelbarrows and carts, whose drivers and trundlers form a vast body of stalwart men constantly going about in their employment from one city to another.

    Kaifung fu, or Pien-liang, the capital, is situated about a

    league from the southern bank of the Yellow Kiver, whose bed

    is here elevated above the adjacent country. It was the metropolis

    from A.D. 960 to 1120, and has often suffered from attacks

    of armies as well as from inundations. The dikes are mostly

    on the northern shore, and exhibit the industry and unavailing

    efforts of the people for scores of leagues. During the period

    of the Manchu conquest Kaifung was defended by a loyal general,

    who, seeing no other resource against the invaders, broke

    down the embankments to drown them, by which mantjeuvre

    upwards of 300,000 of the inhabitants perished. The city was

    rebuilt, but it has not attained to its ancient splendor, if credit

    can be given to the Statistics of Kaifumj^ in which work it

    is described as having been six leagues in circuit in the twelfth

    century, approached by five roads, and containing numerous

    palaces, gardens, and government houses. The valley of the

    Kiver Loll lies between the Yellow River and the Fuh-niu Mountains,

    a fertile, populous region wherein many of the remarkable

    events of Chinese history M’ere enacted. Loh-yang, near Honan,

    was the metropolis at three different intervals, and probably

    further researches here will bring to light many ancient relics; rock-cut temples and old inscriptions, with graceful bas-reliefs, near the natural gate of Lung-man, where the road crosses Sung slian, have already been seen. Owing to the direction of the roads leading through this region from the south and east, and the passes for travel towards the north-west, it will form a very important center of trade in the future of Central Asia and western China.

    The province of Iviangsu is named from the first syllable of the capital, Kiangning, joined to Su, part of the name of the richest city, Suchau. It lies along the sea-coast, in a northwesterly direction, having Shantung on the north, Xganhwnii on the west, and C’hehkiang on the south. The area is about 4:5,000 square miles, equaling Pennsylvania or a little less than England by it-self. It consists, with little interruption, of level tracts interspersed with lakes and marshes, through which How their two noble rivers, which as tliej are the source of the extraordinary fertility of this region, so also render it obnoxious to freshes, or cover the low portions with irreclaimable morasses.

    The region of Kiangnan is where the beauty and riches

    of China are most amply displayed ; ” and M-hether we considai*,”

    remarks Gutzlaff, speaking of this and the adjoining

    province, ” their agricultural resom-ces, their great manufactures,

    their various productions, their excellent situation on the

    banks of these t»vo large streams, their many canals and tributary

    rivers, these two provinces doubtless constitute the best

    territory of China.” The staple productions are grain, cotton,

    tea, silk, and rice, and most kinds of manufactures are here

    carried to the greatest perfection. The people have an exceptional

    reputation for intelligence and wit, and although the

    province has long ceased to possess a court, its cities still ])i’esent

    a ga^’er aspect, and are adorned W’ith better structures than

    any others in the empire. This province was the scene of the

    dreadful ravages of the Tai-ping rebellion, and large districts

    are still desolate, while their cities lie waste.

    Proljably no other country of equal extent is better watered

    than Kiangsu. The Great River, the Grand Canal, many

    smaller streams and canals, and a succession of lakes along the

    line of the canal, afford easy communication through everj’ part.

    The sea-coast has not been surveyed north of the Yangtsz’,

    where it is unapproachable in large vessels ; dykes have been

    constructed in some portions to prevent the in-flo\v of the

    ocean. The largest lake is the Ilungtsih, about two hundred

    miles in circumference. South of it lies Ivauyu Lake, and on

    the eastern side of the canal opposite is Pauying Lake, both of

    them broad sheets of water. Numerous small lakes lie around them. Tai hu, or ‘ Great Lake,’ lies partly in Jiangsu and partly in Zhejiang, and is the largest in the province. Its borders are skirted by romantic scenery, while its bosom is broken by numerous islets, affording convenient resort to the fishermen who get their subsistence from its waters.

    CITY OF NANKING. 10^

    Kiangning fu (better known abroad as Nanking), the capital

    of the province, is situated on the south sliore of tlie Yangtsz’,

    194 miles from Shanghai. It was the metropolis from a.d. 317

    to 582, and again for 35 years during the Ming dynasty (1368-

    1403). This city is the natural location of an imperial court,

    accessible by land and water from all cpiarters, and susceptible

    of sure defence. “When the Tai-pings were expelled in 1865,

    the city was nearly destroyed, and has since that date only

    slowly revived. When Hungwu made it his capital, he

    strengthened the wall around it, inclosing a great area, 35 miles

    in circuit, which was never fully covered with buildings, and at

    present has a most ruinous appearance. Davis remarks the

    striking resemblance between Home and Xanking, the area

    within the walls of both being partially inhabited, and ruins of

    buildings lying here and there among the cultivated fields, the

    melancholy remains of departed glory. Both of them, however,

    have now brighter prospects for the future.

    The part occupied by the Manchus is separated by a cross

    wall from the Chinese town. The great extent of the wall

    renders the defence of the city difficult, besides which it is

    overlooked from the hills on the east, from one of which, tlio

    Chung shan, a wide view of the surrounding country can be

    obtained. On this eastern face are three gates ; the land near

    the tM’o toward the river is marshy, and the gates are ap

    preached on stone causeys. A deep canal runs up from the

    river directly under the walls on the west, serving to strengthen

    the approaches on that side. Xanking is laid out in four

    rather wide and parallel avenues intersected by others of less

    width ; and though not so broad as those of Peking, are on the

    Mdiole clean, vrell-paved, and bordered Avith handsomely furnished

    shops.

    The only remarkable monuments of royalty which remain are

    several guardian statues situated not far from the walls. These

    statues form an avenue leading up to the sepulchre where the

    Emperor Hungwu was buried about 1398. They consist of

    gigantic figures like warriors cased in armor, standing on either

    side of the road, across which at intervals large stone tablets are

    extended, supported by great blocks of stone instead of pillars

    Situated at some distance arc a innnber of ]-ude colossal timires of horses, elephants, and other animals, all intended to repre eent the guardians of the mighty dead.’

    Nothing made Kanking more celebrated abroad than the

    Porcelain Tower, called Pao-nydn tah, or the ‘Recompensing

    Favor Monastery,’ which stood pre-eminent above all other

    similar buildings in China for its completeness and elegance,

    the material of which it was built, and the quantity of gikling

    with wliicli its interior was embellished. It was erected by

    Yungloh to recompense the great favor of her majesty the

    Empress, and occupied 19 years (1411-14:30) in its construction.

    It was maintained in good condition by the government, and

    three stories which had been thrown down by lightning in

    1801 were rebuilt. TheTai-pings blew it up and carried off the

    bricks in 1856, fearing lest its geomantic influences should work

    against the success of their cause. As to its dimensions : Its

    form was octagonal, divided into nine equal stories, the circumference

    of the lower story being 120 feet, decreasing gradually

    to the top. Its base rested upon a solid foundation of brickwork

    ten feet high, up which a flight of twelve steps led into

    the tower, whence a spiral staircase of 190 steps carried the

    visitor to the summit, 261 feet from the ground. The outer

    face was covered with slabs of glazed porcelain of various

    colors, principally green, red, yellow, and white, the body of

    the edifice being brick. At every story was a projecting roof,

    covered with green tiles ; from each corner and from the top of

    these roofs were suspended bells, numbering 150 in all.

    ‘ The curious reader can consult the article by Mayer, in Vol. XII. of the North China Jirnnch Royal Asiatic Societt/’s Journal, 1878, for the meaning of these various objects.

    ^ Five Years in China, Nashville, Tenn., 1860. See also Voyages of the Nemesis, pp. 450-452, for further details of this city in 1842 ; the Chinese Repository, Vols. I., p. 257, and XIII., p. 261, contain more details on the PagoJa

    PORCELAIl^ TOWEll OF NANKING. 103

    This beautiful structure was visited in 1852 by Dr. Charles Taylor, an American missionary, who has left a full account of his observations. It was to have been raised to an altitude of 329 feet and of thirteen stories, but only nine were built ; careful measurement gave 261 feet as its height, 8^ feet its thickness at top, and 12 feet at the base, wdiere it was 96 feet 10 inches in diameter. The facing was of bricks made of fine porcelain clay ; the prevailing color was green, owing to the predominance of the tiles on the nnnierous stories. The woodwork supporting these successive roofs was strong, curiously carved and richly painted. The many-colored tiles and bricks were highly glazed, giving the building a gay and beautiful appearance, that was greatly heightened when seen in the reflected sunlight.

    When new it had 140 lamps, most of them hanging outside; and a native writer says ” that when lighted they illumine the 33 heavens, and detect the good and evil among men, as well as forever ward off human miseries.” The destruction of a building like this, from mere fanciful ideas, goes far to explain the absence of all old or great edifices in China.

    Nanking has extensive manufactories of fiue satin and ci-upc, Nankeen cotton cloth, paper and ink of fine quality, and beautiful artificial flowers of pith paper. In distant parts of the empire, any article which is superior to the common run of workmanship, is said to be from Nanking, though the speaker means only that it was made in that region. It is renowned, too, for its scholars and literary character, and in this particular stands among the first places of learning in the country. It is the residence of the governor-general of three provinces, and consequently the centre of a large concourse of officials, educated men, and students seeking for promotion ; these, with its large libraries and bookstores, all indicating and assisting literary pursuits, combine to give it this distinguished position. In the monastery on Golden Island, near Chinkiang, a library was found by the English officers, but there was no haste in examining its contents, as they intended to have carried off the whole collection, had not peace prevented.

    The city of Suchau now exceeds Nanking in size and riches. It is situated on islands lying in the Ta hu, and from this sheet of water many streams and canals connect the city with most parts of the department. The walls are about ten miles in circumference; outside of them are four suburbs, one of which is said to extend ten miles, besides which there is an immense floating population. The whole space includes many canals and pools connected with the Grand Canal and the lake, and preeented in 1859 a scene of activity, industry, and riches whicieonJd not be surpassed elsewhere in China. The population probably then exceeded a million, including the suburbs. It lies north-west of Shanghai, the way passing through a continual range of villages and cities; the environs are highly cultivated, producing cotton, silk, rice, wheat, fruits, and vegetables. It was captured in 1860 by the rebels, and M’lien retaken in 1865 was nearly reduced to a heap of ruins. It is, however, rapidly reviving, as the loss of life was comparatively small.

    The Chinese regard this as one of their richest and most beautiful cities, and have a saying, ” that to be happy on earth, one must be born in Suchau, live in Canton, and die in Liauchau, for in the first are the handsomest people, in the second the most C(»8tly luxui-ies, and in the third the best coffins.”

    It has a high reputation for its Imildings, the elegance of its tombs, the picturesrpie scenery of its waters and gardens, the politeness and intelligence of its inhabitants, and the beauty of its women. Its manufactures of silk, linen, cotton, and works in iron, ivory, wood, horn, glass, lackered-ware, paper, and other articles, are the chief sources of its wealth and prosperity; the kinds of silk goods produced here surpass in variety and richness those woven in any other place. Vessels can proceed up to the city by several channels from the Yangzi jiang, but junks of large burden anchor at Shanghai, or Songjiang ; the whole country is so intersected by natural and artificial watercourses, that the people have hardly any need for roads and carts, but get about in barrows and sedans. Small steamers find their way to every large village at high tide.*

    THE CITIES OF SUCIIAU AND CIIIXKIANG. 105

    Chinkiang, situated at the junction of the Grand Canal with the Yangzi jiang, was captured by the British in July, 1842, at a great loss of life to its defenders ; the Manchu general Hailing, finding the city taken, seated himself in his office, and set fire to the house, making it his funeral pyre. Its position renders it the key of the country, in respect to the transport of produce, taxes and provisions for Peking, inasmuch as when the river and canal ai-e both blockaded, the supplies for the north and south are to a great extent intercepted. In times of peace the scenes at the junction afford a good e\hil)itinu of the Industry and trade of the people. BaiTow describes, in 1794, ” tlio multitude of ships of war, of burden and of pleasure, some glidin<^ down the stream, <^)thers sailing against it; some moving by oars, and others lying at anchor; the banks on either side covered with towns and houses as far as the eye could reach; as presenting a prospect more varied and cheerful than any that had hitherto occurred. Kor was the canal, on the opposite side, less lively. For two whole days we were contimially passing among fleets of vessels of different construction and dimensions.” ‘

    The country in the vicinity is well cultivated, moderately hilly, and presents a characteristic view of Chinese life and action. ” On the south-east, the hills broke into an undulating country clothed with verdure, and firs bordering upon small lakes. Beyond, stretched the vast river we had just ascended. In the other direction, the land in the foreground continued a low and swampy flat, leaving it difficult at a little distance to determine which of the serpentine channels was the main branch; there were imnnnerable sheets of water, separated by narrow mounds, so that the whole resembled a vast lake, intersected by causeways. Willows grew along their sides, and dwellings were erected on small patches somewhat higher than the common surface.” ” This whole country was the scene of dreadful fighting for many years. Between the Imperialists and Tai-pings the city was totally destroyed, so that in 1801 hardly a house was left. It is now roo-ainino- its natural trade and prosperity.

    Near the month of the Grand Canal is Kin shan, or Golden Island,’ a beautiful spot, covered with temples and monastic establishments. A pagoda crowns the summit, and there are many pavilions and halls, of various sizes and degrees of elegance, on its sides and at the base, many of them showing their imperial ownership by the yellow or green tiling. Since the river has been open to traffic, and the devastations of the Tai-pings have ceased, the priests have retui-ned in small munbers to their abodes, but the whole settlement is a pool mockery of its early splendor. A similar one, rather larger, is found at Siung shan, or Silv^er Island, below Chinkiang ; it is, however, on a less extensive scale, though in a beautiful situation.

    ‘ Travels in China. ‘^ Capt. G. G. Locli, Ecents in CMna, p. 74.^Mentioned by Marco Polo. Yule’s edition, Vol. II., p. 1<37.

    Priests are the only occupants; temples and palaces the principal buildings, surrounded by gardens and bowers. Massive granite terraces, decorated with huge stone monsters, are reached from the water by broad flights of steps; fine temples, placed to be seen, and yet shaded by trees, open pavilions, and secluded summer-houses, give it a delightful air of retreat and conifort, which a nearer inspection sadly disappoints.

    The banks of the Yangtsz’ during the 250 miles of its course through this province, are uniformly low, and no towns of importance occur close to them, as they would be exposed to the floods. The vast body of water, with its freight of millions of tons of silt goes on its way in a quiet equable current into the Yellow Sea. The dense population of the prefectures on the south bank, contrasted with the sparseness of the region between the Canal and seashore on the north side, indicate the comparative barrenness of the latter, and the difficulty of cultivating marshy lands so nearly level with the sea.

    SHANGHAI. 107

    The largest seaport in Jiangsu is Shanghai (i.e., Approaching the Sea), now become one of the leading emporia in Asia. It lies on the north shore of the Wusong River, about fourteen miles from its mouth, in lat. 31° 10′ N., and long. 121° 30′ E., at the junction of the Huangpu with it, and by means of both streams communicates with SuZhou, SongJiang, and other large cities on the Grand Canal ; while by the Yangzi’ it receives produce from Yunnan and Sichuan. In these respects its position resembles that of New Orleans.

    The town of Wusung is at the mouth of that river, here about a mile wide ; and two miles beyond lies the district town of Paushan. The wall of Shanghai is three miles in circuit, through which six gates open into extensive suburbs ; around the ramparts flows a ditch twenty feet wide. The city stands in a wide plain of extraordinary fertility, intersected by numerous streamlets, and aftoi-ding ample means of navigation and communication; its population is estimated to be at present over 500-000, but the data for this figure are rather imperfect. Since it was opened to foreign commerce in 1843, the growth of the town has been rapid in every element of prosperity, though subject to great vicissitudes by reason of the rebellion which devastated the adjoining country. Its capture by the insurgents in 1851, and their expulsion in February, 1853, with the destruction of the eastern and southern suburbs in 1800, have been its chief disasters since that date. The native trade has gradually passed from the unwieldy and unsafe junks which used to throng the Ilwang-pu east of the city, into steamers and foreign craft, and is now confined, so far as the vessels are concerned, to the inland and coast traffic in coarse, cheap articles.

    Shanghai city itself is a dirty place, and poorly built. The houses are mostly made of bluish square brick, imperfectly burned ; and the walls are constructed in a cellular manner by placing bricks on their edges, and covering them with stucco. The streets are about eight feet wide, paved with stone slabs, and in the daytime crowded with people. Silk and embroidery, cotton, and cotton goods, porcelain, ready-made clothes, beautiful skins and furs, bamboo pipes of every size, bamboo ornaments, pictures, bronzes, specimens of old porcelain, and other curiosities, to which the Chinese attach great value, attract the

    stranger’s notice. Articles of food form the most extensive

    trade of all ; and it is sometimes a difficult matter to get

    through the streets, owing to the iiwmense quantities of fish,

    pork, fruit, and vegetaUes, which crowd the stands in front of

    the shops. Dining-rooms, tea-houses, and bakers’ shops, are

    met with at every step, from the poor man who carries around

    his kitchen or bakehouse, altogether hardly worth a dollai-, to

    the most extensive tavern or tea-house, crowded with customers.

    ‘ Fortune’s Wanderings in China, p. 120.

    For a few cash, a Chinese can dine upon rice, fish, vegetables, and tea; nor does it matter much to him, whether his table is set in the streets or on the ground, in a house or on a deck, he makes himself merry with his chopsticks, and eats what is before him.’ The buildings composing the Cheng-huang miao, and the grounds attached to this establishment, present a good instance of Chinese style and taste in architecture. Large warehouses for storing goods, granaries, and temples, are common; but neither these, nor the public buildings, present any distinguishing features peculiar to this city alone.

    The contrast between the narrow, noisome and reeking parts of the native city, and the clean, spacious, well-shaded and well paved streets and large houses of the foreign municipalities, is like that seen in many cities in India. The Chinese are ready enough to enjoy and support the higher style of living, but they are not yet prepared to adopt and maintain similar improvements among themselves. The difficulty of being sure of the co-operation of the rulers in municipal improvements deters intelligent natives from initiating even the commonest sanitary enterprise of their foreign neighbors.

    The remaining cities and districts of Iviangsu present nothing worthy of special remark. The Grand Canal runs from north to south, and affords a safe and ample thoroughfare for multitudes of boats in its entire length. Tsing-kiang-pu and Ilwaingan, near the old Yellow River, receive the traffic from the north and Ilungtsih Lake, while Yangchau near the Yangtsz’ River, takes that going north. In this part of the channel, constant dyking has resulted in raising the banks ; the city of Ilwai-ngan, for example, lies below the canal which brings trade to its doors, and may one day be drowned by its benefactor. Salt is manufactured in the districts south of the Yellow River, where the people cultivate but rare patches of arable land.

    The island of Tsungming, at the mouth of the Yangtsz’, is about sixty miles long, and sixteen wide, containing over nine hundred square miles, and is gradually enlarging by the constant deposits from the river; it is flat, but contains fresh water. It is highly cultivated and populous, though some places on the northern side are so impregnated with salt, and others so marsh}’, as to be useless for raising food. This island produces a variety of kaoliang or sorghum (Holcus), which is sweet enough to furnish syrup, and is groMu for that purpose in the United States.

    POSITIOX AND TOWNS OF NGANIIWUI PllOVINCE, 109

    The pruvince of T^ganuwui was so named by condjining the rtrst words in its two large cities, Xgaiikiiig and llw uicliaii, and forms the south-western half of Kiangnan ; it is both larger and more uneven than Kiangsu, ranges of hills stretching along the southern portions, and between the River llwai and the Yangzi. It lies in the central and southern parts of the Plain, north of Kiangsi, west of Kiangsu and Chehkiang, and between them and IJonan and Ilupeh. Its productions and manufactures, the surface, cultivation of the country, and character of the people, are very similar to those of Kiangsu, but the cities are less celebrated. The terrible destruction of life in this province during the Tai-ping rule has only been partially remedied by immigration from other provinces ; it will require years of peace and industry to restore the prosperous days of Taokwang’s reign.

    The surface of the country is naturally divided into that portion which lies in the hilly regions around Ilwaichau and Ningkwoh connected with the Tsientang River, the central plain of the Yangtsz’ with its short affluents, and the northern portion which the River Ilwai drains. The southern districts are superior for climate, fertility, and value of their products to most parts of the Empire; and the numerous rivulets which irrigate and open their beautiful valleys to traffic with other districts, render them attractive to settlers. No expense has been spared in erecting and preserving the embankments along the streams, whose waters are thereby placed at the service of the farmers.

    The Great River passes through the south from south-west to north-east ; several small tributaries flow into it on both banks, one of which connects with Chao Hu, or Nest Lake, in Lu Zhou Fu, the principal sheet of water in the province. The largest section is drained by the River Huai and its branches, which flow into Hongze Lake ; most of these are navigable quite across to Ilonan. The productions comprise every kind of grain, vegetables, and fruit known in the Plain ; most of the green tea districts lie in the south-eastern parts, particularly in the Sunglo range of hills in ITwuichau prefecture. Silk, cotton, and hemp are also extensively raised ; but excepting iron, few metals are brought to market.

    The provincial capital, Xgaiikiiig or Anking, lies close to the northern shore of the Kiang. Davis describes the streets as very narrow, and the shops as unattractive ; the courts and gateways of many good dwelling-houses presented themselves as he passed along the streets. ” The palace of the governor we first took for a temple, but were soon undeceived by the inscriptions on the huge lanterns at the gateway. These official residences seldom display any magnificence. The pride of a Chinese officer of rank consists in his power and station, and as the display of mere wealth attracts little respect, it is neglected more than in any country of the world. The best shops that

    we saw were for the sale of horn lanterns and porcelaiu. They

    possess the art of softening horn by the application of a very

    high degree of moist heat, and extending it into thin laminse of

    any shape. These lamps are about as transparent as groundglass,

    and, M’hen ornamented with silken hangings, have an elegant

    appearance.” During the fifty years since his visit, this

    large city has been the sport of prosperous and adverse fortunes,

    and is now slowly recovering from its demolition during the

    Tai-ping rebellion. It is situated on rising ground near the base

    of a range of hills far in the north, the watershed of two basins.

    The banks of the river, between Kanking and Xganking, a

    distance of 300 miles, are well cultivated, and contain towns

    and villages at short intervals. The climate, the scenery, the

    bustle on the river near the towns, and the general aspect of

    peaceful thrift along this reach, makes it on ordinary occasions

    one of the bright scenes in China. AYuhu hien, about sixty

    miles above Xanking, lies near tlie mouth of the llwangchi, a

    stream connecting it with the back country, and making it the

    mart for much of that trade. It was next in importance to

    Chinkiang, but its sufferings between the rebels and imperialists

    nearly destroyed it. The revival in population and trade has

    been encouraging, and its former importance is sure to revive.

    Ilwuichau (or in Cantonese, Fychow) is celebrated, among

    other things, for its excellent ink and lackered-ware. Fung’

    yang (i.e., the Rising Phoenix), a town lying north-west of Thanking, on the River Huai, was intended, by Hongwu, the founder of the Ming dynasty, to have been the capital of the Empire instead of NanJing, and was thus named in anticipation of its future splendor.

    KIANGSf PROVINCE. Ill

    The province of IviAN<isi (/.<?., AVest of the River) lies south of Xganhwui and Ilupeh, between Chehkiaiig and Fuhkien on the east, and Ilunan on the west, reaching from the Yaugtsz’ to the Mei ling on the south. Its form is oblong, and its entire area is nuide up of the beautiful basin of the Kan kiang, including all the affluents and their minor valleys. The hilly portions form part of the remarkable series of mountainous ridges, which cover all south-eastern and southern China, an area of about 300,000 square miles, extending from Ningpo south-westerly to Annam. It is made up of ranges of short and moderate hills, cut up by a complicated net of water-courses, many of which present a succession of narrow defiles and gentle valleys with bottom lands from five to twelve miles wide. That part of this region in Kiangsi has an irregular watershed on the east, separating it from the Min basin, and a more definite divide on the west from Ilunan and its higher mountains. The province entire is a little larger than all New England, or twice the size of Portugal, but, in population, vastly exceeds those countries.

    The surface of the land is rugged, and the character of the inhabitants partakes in some respects of the roughness of their native hills. It is well watered and drained by the River Kan and its tributaries, most of which rise within the province; the main trunk empties into Poyang Lake by numerous mouths, whose silt has gradually made the country around it swampy. For many miles on its eastern and southern banks extends an almost uninhabitable marsh, presenting a dreary appearance. The soil, generally, is productive, and large quantities of rice, wheat, silk, cotton, indigo, tea, and sugar, are grown and exported. It shares, in some degree, the manufactures of the neighboring provinces, especially in Xankeen cloth, vast quantities of which are woven here, but excels them all in the quality and amount of its porcelain. The mountains produce camphor, varnish, oak, banian, fir, pine, and other trees ; those on the west are well wooded, but much of the timber has been carried away during the late rebellion, and left the hill-sides bare and profitless.

    Kancliang, the provincial capital, lies near the southern shore

    of the Poyang Lake ; the city walls are six miles in circuit, and

    accessible by water from all sides. The character of its population

    is not favorable among their countrymen, and owing to the

    difficulty of reaching it from the Yangtsz’, it escaped the ruin

    and rapine which befel Kiukiang. Small steamers can come

    up to its jetties, but as the tea and porcelain are shipped on the

    south-east side of the lake, Nanchang is not likely to become

    a large mart ; few of the cities above it can ever be reached l)y

    steamers. Barrow estimated that there were, independent of

    innumerable small craft, 100,000 tons of shipping lying before

    the place. The banks of the Kan kiang, near the lake, are flat,

    and not highly cultivated, but the scenery becomes more varied

    and agreeable the further one ascends the stream ; towns and

    villages constantly come in sight, and the cultivation, though

    not uiiiversal, is more extended. Among other sights on this

    river are the bamboo water-wheels, which are so built on the

    steep banksides, that the buckets lift their freight 20 or 25

    feet, and pour it out in a ceaseless stream over the fields. The

    flumes thrown out into the stieani to turn a stronger current on

    the wheel, often seriously interfere with navigation. Many

    pagodas are seen on eithei* bank of this water-course, some of

    them undoubtedly extremely old. As the voyager ascends the river, several large cities are passed, as Linkiang, Kih-ngan, Ivauchau, and Xan-ngan (all capitals of departments), besides numerous towns and villages; so that if the extent of this river and the area of the valley it drains be considered, it will probably bear comparison with that of any valley in the world for populousness, amount and variety of productions, and diligence of cultivation.

    Beyond Kihngan are the Shihpah tan, or ‘ Eighteen llapids,’ which are torrents formed by ledges of rocks running across the river, but not of such height or roughness as to seriously obstruct the navigation except at low water. The shores in their vicinage are exceedingly beautiful. The transparency of the stream, the bold I’ocks fringed with wood, and the varied forms of the mountains, call to mind those delightful streams that are discharged from the lakes and iioilh counties of England. The

    TOWNS AND PRODUCTIONS OF KIAN(iSI. 113

    hilly banks are in many places covered with the Camellia oleifera, whose white blossoms give them the appearance of snow, when the plant is in flower. Kanchan is the town where large boats are obliged to stop; but Nan-ngan is at the head of navigation, about three hundred miles from the lake, where all goods for the south are debarked to be carried across the Mei ling, or ‘ Plnm Pass.’

    Within the department of Janchan in Fanliang hien, east of Poyang Lake, are the celebrated porcelain manufactories of Ivingteh chin, named after an Emperor of the Sung dynasty, in whose reign, a.d. 1004, they were established. This mart still supplies all the fine porcelain used in the country, but was almost wholly destroyed during the rebellion, the kilns broken up, and the workmen dispersed to join the rebels or die from want. The million of workmen said to have been employed there thirty years ago are now only gradually resuming their operations, and slowly regaining their prosperity. The approach to the spot is announced by the smoke, and at night it appears like a town on fire, or a vast furnace emitting fiames from numerous vents, there. being, it is said, five hundred kilns constantly burning. Ivingteh chin stands on the river Chang in a plain flanked by high mountains, about forty miles north-east from Jauehau, through which its ware is distributed over the empire.

    Genius in China, as elsewhere, renders a place illustrious, and few spots are more celebrated than the vale of the white Deer in the Lii hills, near Kankang, on the west side of Lake Poyang, where Chu Hi, the great conniientator of Confucius, lived and taught, in the twelfth century. It is a secluded valley about seven miles from the city, situated in a nook by the side of a rivulet. The unpretending buildings are comprised in a number of different courts, evidently intended for use rather than show. In one of the halls, the White Deer is represented, and near by a tree is pointed out, said to have been planted by the philosopher’s own hand. This spot is a place of pilgrimage to Chinese literati at the present day, for his writings are prized by them next to their classics. The beauty and sublimity of this region arc lauded by Davis, and its praisea are frequent themes for poetical celebration among native scholars.”

    The maritime province of Ciiehkiang, the smallest of the eighteen, lies eastward of Kiangsi and ^N^ganhwui, and between Kiangsu and Fuhkein north and south, and derives its name from the river Cheh or ‘ Crooked,’ which runs across its southern part. Its area is 39,000 square miles, or nearly the same as Ohio; it lies south-east of the plain at the end of the Kan slian, and for fertility, numerous water-courses, rich and populous cities, variety of productions, and excellence of manufactures, is not at all inferior to the larger provinces. Baron Richthofen’s letter to the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce, July 25, 1871, contains a good account of its topography. The whole province produces cotton, silk, tea, rice, ground nuts, wheat, ‘indigo, vegetable tallow {stilUngia)^ and pulse, in abundance. It possesses within its limits every requisite for the food and clothing of its inhabitants, while the excellence of its manufactures insures it in exchange a supply of the luxuries of other regions.

    The rivers in Chehkiang rise in the province ; and, as might be inferred from the position of the hills, their course is generally short and the currents rapid. Fourteen principal streams are enumerated, of which the Tsientangis the most important.

    The main branch of this river rises in the southern districts in two head-waters, which join at Kiichau fu and run thence into Hangchau Bay. The bore which comes up into this river fifteen miles, as far as Hangchau, is the only one along the coast. As its wall of water approaches the city, the junks and boats prepare by turning their bows to meet it, and usually rise over its crest, G or 10 feet at times, without mishap.

    The basin of the Tsientang River measures nearly half of the province; by means of rafts and boats the people transport themselves and their produce for about 300 miles to its headwaters.

    ‘ Davis’s Sketches^ Vol. II., p. 55.

    NATURAL FEATURES OF CHEIIKIANG. 115

    The valley of Lanki is the largest of the bottom lands, 140 miles long and .5 to 15 wide, and passes north through a gorge 70 miles in length into the lower valley, where it receives the Sin-ngan River from the west in Xganhwui, and thus communicates with Tlwuichau at times of higli water. It is just fitted for the rafting navigation of the region, and by means of its tortuous channels each one of the 29 districts in its entire basin can be readied by water.

    The forest and fruit trees of Chehkiang comprise almost

    every vahiable species known in the eastern provinces. The

    larch, elcococcus, camphor, tallow, fir, mulberry, varnish, and

    others, are common, and prove sources of wealth in their timber

    and products. The climate is most salubrious ; the grains,

    vegetables, animals, and fishes, furnish food ; while its beautiful

    manufactures of silk are unrivalled in the world, and have found

    their way to all lands. Hemp, lackered- and bamboo-wares,

    tea, crockery, paper, ink, and other articles, are also exported.

    The inhabitants emulate those in the neighboring regions for

    wealth, learning, and refinements, with the exception of the

    hilly districts in the south bordering on Kiangsi and Fuhkien.

    The dwellers of these upland valleys are shut out by position

    and inclination, so that they form a singularly clannish race.

    Their dialects are peculiar and very limited in range, and each

    group of villagers suspects and shuns the others. They are sometimes rather turbulent, and in some parts the cultivation of the mountain lands is interdicted, and a line of military posts extends around them in the three provinces, in order to prevent the people from settling in their limits; though the interdiction does not forbid cutting the timber growing there.’

    HangZhou, the capital of the province, lies in the northern part, less than a mile from the Qiantang. The velocity of this stream indicates a rapid descent of the country towards the ocean, but it discharges very little silt ; the tide rises six or seven feet opposite the city, and nearly thirty at the mouth.

    >See Chinese Repository, Vol. FV., p. 488; Journal of N. C. Br. R. A. Society,Vol. VI., pp. 123-128; and Chinese Recorder, Vol. I., 1869, pp. 241-248. These people are relies of tribes of Miaotsz’.

    Only a moiety of the inhabitants reside within the walls of the city, the suburbs and the waters around them supporting a large population. A portion of the space in the north-western part is walled off for the accommodation of the Manchu garri-si)]i, which consists of 7,000 troops. The governor-general of Chehkiang and Fulikien has an official house here, as well, also, as the governor of the province, but since the increased importance of Fuhchan. he seldom resides in this city; these, with their courts and troops, in addition to the great trade passing through, render it one of the richest and most important cities in the empire. The position is the most picturesque of any of the numerous localities selected by the Chinese for their capital. It lies in full view of the ocean, and from the hill-top in the center a wide view of the plains south and east is obtained.

    ‘ Yule’s Marco Poh, Vol. IT., p. 145.

    IIANGCIIAU AND ITS ENVIKOISrS. 117

    The charming lake, Si Ilu, and the numerous houses on its shores, with the varied scenery of the hills, copses, glades, and river banks, all highly cultivated, within a radius of ten miles, fidly bear out the praises of the Chinese as to i’ts singular beauty. Marco Polo lavishes all his admiration upon its size, riches, manufactures, and government, from which it is to be inferred that it suffered little in the Mongolian conquest. He visited the place when governor of Yangchau in 1286, and enthusiastically describes it as ” beyond dispute the finest and the noblest in the world.” ‘ The Chinese have a proverb—-t^Ar^;?^yu. tlen tang : Hia ya Sa Hang—the purport of which is that Ilangchau and Suchau are fully equal to paradise ; but the comparison of the Venetian traveler gives one a poorer idea of the European cities of his day, than it does of the magnificence of the Chinese, to those who have seen them. The streets are well-paved, ornamented with numerous honorary tablets erected to the memoiy of distinguished individuals, and agreeably interrupting the passage through them. The long main street extending along the Grand Canal into and through the city, thence out by the Tsientang, was, before its ruthless demolition by the Tai-pings in 1S63, probably one of the finest streets in t’^? whole Empire. The shops and warehouses, in point of size and stock of goods contained in them, might vie with the best in London. In population, luxury, wealth, and influence this city rivals Suchau, and for excellence of manufactures probably exceeds the latter place. Were Ilangchau easily reached bji sea, and had it ample harbors, it would engross the trade of the eastern coast; but furious tides (running sometimes 11^ knots an hour) ; the bore jeoparding passage-boats and other small crafts ; sand banks and quick sands ;—these present insuperable difficulties to the commerce by the ocean.

    This city was the metropolis of the country during the nine latter princes of the Sung dynasty (1129 to 1280), when the northern parts were under dominion of the tribe of Kin Tartars. One cause of celebrity is found in the beauty of its environs, especially those near the Si llu, or West Lake, an irregular sheet of water about 12 miles in circuit. Barrow observes that ” the natural and artificial beauties of this lake far exceeded anything we had hitherto had an opportunity of seeing in China. The mountains surrounding it were lofty, and broken into a variety of forms that were highly picturesque ; and the valleys were richly clothed with trees of different kinds, among which three species were remarkably striking, not only by their intrinsic beauty, but also by the contrast they formed with themselves and the rest of the trees of the forest. These were the camphor and tallow trees, and the arl)or vitse. The bright, shining green foliage of the first, mhigled with the purple leaves of the second, and over-topped by the stately tree of life, of the deepest green, produced a pleasing effect to the eye ; and the landscape was rendered still more interesting to the mind by the very singular and diversified appearance of several thousand repositories of the dead upon the sloping sides of the inferior hills. Here, as well as elsewhere, the sombre and upright cypress was destined to be the melancholy companion of the tombs.

    ” Higher still, among the woods, avenues had been opened to admit of rows of small blue houses, exposed on white colonnades, which, on examination, were also found to be mansions of the dead. Xaked coffins, of extraordinary thickness, were everywhere Iving on the surface of the OTOund. The maro-ins of the lake w^ere studded with light aerial buildings, among W’hich one of more solidity and greater extent than the rest was said to belong to the emperor. The grounds were inclosed with brick walls, and mostly planted with vegetables and fruit trees; but in some there appeared to be collections of such shrubs and tiowers as are most esteemed in the country.” ‘

    Staunton speaks of the lake as a beautiful sheet of water, perfectly pellucid, full of fish, in most places shallow, and ornamented with a great number of light and fanciful stone bridges, thrown across the arms of the lake as it runs up into the hills.

    A stone tower on the summit of a projecting headland attracted attention, from its presenting a different architecture from that usually seen in Chinese buildings. This tower, called the Lui Fung t<(h, lit. ‘Tower of the Thunder Peak’ (not Thundering Wind, as Staunton renders it), from the hill being at first owned by Mr. Lui, was built about a.d. 050, and is to-day a solid structure, though much ruined. It has now four stories, and is about 120 feet high ; something like a regular order is still discernible in the moldering cornices. The legend of the White Snake is associated with this structure, and people constantly cany away pieces of its bricks as charms.

    An interesting corroboration of this account is given by Polo, who says, ” Inside the city there is a lake which has a compass of some 30 miles ; and all around it are erected beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest and most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles of the city. There are also on its shores many abbeys and churches of the idolaters. In the middle of the lake are two islands, on each of which stands a rich, beautiful and spacious edifice, furnished in such a style as to seem fit for the palace of an emperor. And when any one of the citizens desired to hold a marriage feast, or to give any other entertainment, it used to be done at one of these palaces.” ‘^

    • Travels ih China, p. 522. ‘^ Yule’s Murco Poh, Vol. II., p. 146.

    DESCRIPTION OF HANGZHOU. 119

    The splendor and size of the numerous Buddhist temples in and around HangZhou attracted travelers to the city more even than (lid its position; these shrines have, however, all been destroyed, and their thousands of priests driven away; the Taipings left no Iniilding untouched. The Yoh Miao stands near the north-west corner of the Si IIu, and contains the tombs of the patriot general ^’oh Pi of the Sung dynasty (a.d. 1125), and his son, who were unjustly executed as traitors. Two conical

    mounds mark their resting places, and separated bj a wall, but

    inside the inclosnre are four iron statues cast in a kneeling posture

    and loaded with chains,—on his right Qin Hui and his wife, on the left a judge and general, who subserved Qin Hui’s hatred of Yue Fei by their flagitious conduct. All four are here doing homage and penance to this just man whom they killed, and by the obloquy they receive serve as a warning to other traitors. In a temple, called Tmg-tHz’ s.z\ not far from the city, ths party of the Dutch embassy were well lodged, and attended by three hundred priests. The establishment was in good repair, and besides two guardian monsters more than thirty feet high, near the entrance, contained five hundred images of the Buddhist Arhans, with miniature pagodas of bronze, of beautiful workmanship.

    Ilangchau is better known abroad for manufactures of silk than for any other fabrics, but its position at the termination of the Canal may perhaps give its name to ujany articles which are not actually made there, for lluchau is now a greater depot for raw and woven silks. In the northern suburbs lies an irregular basin, forming the southern extremity of the Canal ; but between the river and the basin there is no communication, so that all goods brought hither nnist be landed. The city contains, among other public buildings, a mosque, bearing an iugcription in Arabic, stating that it is a ” temple for Mussnlmen, when travelling, who wish to consult the Koran,” ‘ It is higher than the adjacent buildings, and adorned with a cupola, pierced with holes at short intervals. It was spared in 1803, as not being an idolatrous temple. There are also several others in the city, it being a stronghold of Islamism in China. “Water communication exists between Ilangchau and Yiiyau, south-east through Shauhing, and thence to Ningbo, by means of which goods find their way to and from the capital. A good road also runs between the two former cities; indeed, elsewhere in the province the thoroughfares are very creditable; they are laid with broad slabs of granite and limestone, and lead over plains and hills in numberless directions.

    ‘ De Guigiies, Voyages a Peking, Vol. II., pp. 65-77.

    Ningbo fu (‘Peaceful AVave city*) is the next important city in Zhejiang, in consequence of its foreign relations. It is adniiiably situated for trade and intluence, at the junction of three streams, in hit. 20° 55′ ^”., and long. 121° 22’ E. ; the united river flows on to the ocean, eleven and a half miles distant, under the name of the Tatsieh. Opposite the city itself, there are but two streams, but the southern branch again subdivides a few miles south-west of Ningbo. Its population has been variously estimated from one-fourth to one-third of a million, and even more, including the subin-ban and floating inhabitants.

    This place was called Klng-yuen by the Sung, and received its present name from the Mongols. It was captured in 1862 by the insurgents, who were deterred from destroying it by the presence of foreign men-of-war ; the prosperity of the mart has since increased. When foreigners first resorted to China for trade, Ningbo soon became a centre of silk and other kinds of commodities; the Portuguese settled there, calling it Z/rt>/(^>o, “which is the same name. It is, moreover, an ancient city, and its Annals afford full information upon every point interesting to a Chinese antiquarian, though a foreigner soon tires of the numy insignificant details mixed up with a few valuable statements.’

    ‘ Compare R. M. Martin’s CJiiiui (Vol. II., ]>. 304), who gives considerable miscellaneous information about the open ports, jtrevious to 184(5; also Dennys’ Treaty Porta of (Jhiiut, 18(57, pp. ;52(5-:54!) ; Richthol’en’s Letlerx, No. T), 1871 ; Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 181 ; Mistsioaarij Recorder, 18(59, pp. 15(5,177.NINGPO. 121

    ” The plain in which Xingpo lies is a magnificent amphitheatre, stretching away from twelve to eighteen miles on one side to the base of the distant hills, and on the other to the verge of the ocean. As the eye travels along, it catches many a pleasing object. Turn landward, it will see canals and water-courses, fields and snug farm-houses, smiling cottages, family residences, hamlets and villages, family tombs, monasteries and temples. Turn in the opposite direction, and you perceive a plain country descending toward the ocean; but the river alive with all kinds of boats, and the banks studded with ice-houses, most of all attract the attention. From without the city, and while still

    Upon the ramparts, look within its walls, you. will be no less gratified. Here there is nothing European, little to remind you ut’ what you have seen in the west. The single-storied and the double-storied houses, the heavy prison-like family mansions, the family vaults and graveyards, the glittering roofs of the temples, the dilapidated official residences, the deserted literary and examination halls, and the prominent sombre Tower of Ningpo, are entirely Chinese. The attention is also arrested for a moment or two by ditches, canals, and reservoirs of water, with their wooden bridges and stone arches.” ‘ Two serious drawbacks to a residence here are the stifling heat of summer and the bad equality of the water.

    The circumference of the walls is nearly five miles ; they are

    about twenty-five feet high, fifteen feet wide at the top, and

    twenty-two at the base, built solidly, though somewhat dilapidated,

    and overgrown with grass. A deep moat partly surrounds

    them ; conimencing at the North gate, it runs on the west, south,

    and south-east side as far as Bridge gate, a distance of nearly

    thi’ee miles, and is in some places forty yards wide. Its constant

    use as a thoroughfare for boats insures its repair and proper

    depth ; the other faces of the city are defended by the river.

    There are six gates, and two sally-ports near the south and west

    approaches intended for the passage of the boats that ply on the

    city canals.

    On the east is Bridge gate, within which, and near the walls,

    the English factory was once situated. This opening leads out

    to the floating bridge ; the latter structure is two hundred yards

    long and five broad, made of planks firmly lashed, and laid

    upon sixteen lighters closely linked and chained together, but

    which can be opened. A busy market is held on the bridge,

    and the visitor following the lively crowd finds his way to an

    extensive suburb on the opposite side. Ferry boats ply across

    both streams in vast numbers, adding greatly to the vivacity of

    the scene. The custom-house is situated beyond the bridge,

    and this eastern suburb contains several buildings of a religious

    ‘ Milne, in Chinese Bepositorp, “Vol. XIII. , p. 22, and in liis Life in China, part second. London, 1857.

    :ind public cliaracter, lumber-yards, dock-yards, and rows of icelionses, inviting the notice of the traveler. The environs beyond the north gate are not so thickly settled as those across the rivers ; the well cultivated fields, divided and irrigated by numerous water-courses, with scattered hamlets, beguile the visitor in his rambles, and lead him onward.

    There are numerous temples and monasteries, and a large variety of assembly-halls, governmental offices, and educational establishments, but none of these edifices are remarkable in an architectural point of view. The assembly-halls or club-houses are numerous, and in their internal arrangements form a cm-ious feature of native society. It is the practice among residents or merchants from other provinces, to subscribe and erect on the spot where they are engaged in business, a temple, dedicated to the patron deity of their native province, in which a few priests are supported, and plays acted in its honor. Sometimes the building is put in charge of a layman, called a ” master of ceremonies,” and the cun-ent expenses defrayed by subscription.

    The club-houses are places of resort for travellers from the several provinces or districts, and answer, moreover, to European coffee-houses, in being points where news from abroad is heard and exchanged.

    The streets are well paved, and interrupted here and there

    by honorary portals of considei*able size and solidity, which also

    give variety to an otherwise dull succession of shops and signboards,

    or dead walls. Two small lagoons afford space for

    some aquatic amusements to the citizens. One called Sun Lake

    is only a thousand yards in circuit ; the other, called Moon

    Lake, is near the AVest gate, and has three times its perimeter.

    ]3oth are supplied by sluices passing through the city gates,

    while many canals are filled from them, which aid in irrigating

    the suburbs. Some of the pleasantest residences of the city are

    built on their banks.

    NINGPO, CHI.HIIAI, AND THE ARCHIPELAGO. 12B

    Among interesting edifices is the Tien-fung tah {i.e., Heavenconferred pagoda), a hexagonal seven-storied tower upward of 100 feet high, which, according to the Aanah of Ningbo, was first erected 1100 years ago, though during that period it has been destroyed and rebuilt several times. Upon the authority of this work, the tower was constructed before the city itself, and its })reservation is considered as connected with the good hick of the place. The visitor mounts to the summit by a flight of narrow stone steps, ascending spirally within the walls.

    The most elegant and solid building of the city lies on the water’s edge outside the walls, between the East and Bridge gates ; it is a temple dedicated to the marine goddess Ma Tsupu, and was founded by Fuhkien men in the 12th century, but the present structure was erected in IGSO, and largely endowed.

    Its ornaments are elaborate and rich, and its appearance on festival days, gay and animated in an unusual degree. The lanterns and scrolls hanging from the ceiling attract attention by the curious devices and beautiful characters written and drawn on them in bright colors, while the walls are concealed by innumerable drawings.

    Chinhai, at the mouth of the river, is so situated by nature and fortified by art, that it commands the passage. Its environs were the scene of a severe engagement between the Chinese and English in October, 1841, on which occasion great slaughter was committed npon the imperial troops. The town lies at the foot of a hill on a tongue of laud on the northern bank of the river, and is partly sheltei-ed from the sea on the north by a dyke about three miles long, composed of large blocks of hewn granite, and proving an admirable defence in severe weather. The walls are twenty feet high and three miles in circumference, but the suburbs extend along the water, attracted by, and for the convenience of, the shipping. Merchant ships report here when proceeding up the river, along whose banks the scenery is diversified, wdiile the water, as usual in China, presents a lively scene. Numerous ice-houses are seen constructed of thick stone walls twelve feet high, each having a door on one side and an incline on the other for the removal and introduction of the ice, and protected by straw and a heavily thatched roof.

    The Chusan archipelago forms a single district of which Tinghai is the capital ; it is divided into thirty-four chwang or townships, whose officers are responsible to the district magistrate.

    The southern limit of the group is Quesan or the Iviu shan islands, in lat. 29° 21′ X., and long. 121° 10′ E., consist ing of eleven islets, the nortlierninost of which is False Saddle Island ; their total number is over a hundred. Tinghai city lies on the southern side of Chau shan or Boat Island, which gives its name on foreign maps to the whole group. It is twenty miles long, from six to ten wide, and fifty one and a half in circumference. The archipelago seems to be the highest portion of a vast submarine plain, geologically comiected with the Kan shan range on the Continent and the mountains in Kiusiu and Nippon; it is a pi\’ot for the changes in weather and temperature observed north and south of this point along the coast.

    The general aspect of these islands and the mainland, is the same beautiful alternation of hills and narrow valleys, everywhere fertile and easily irrigated, with peaks, cascades, and woodlands interspersed. In Chusan itself the fertile and well watered valleys usnally reach to the sea, and are furnished with dykes along the beach, which convert them into plains of greater or less extent, through which run canals, used both for irrigation and navigation. Rice and barley, beans, yams, sweet potatoes, etc., are grown ; every spot of arable soil being cultivated, and terraces constructed on most of the slopes. The view from the tops of the ridges, looking athwart them, or adown their valleys, or to seaward, is highly picturesque. The prevailing rocks belong to the ancient volcanic class, comprising many varieties, but principally clay-stone, trachj^te, and compact and porphyritic felspar. The brief occupation of this island by the British forces in 1841 led to no permanent improvement in the condition of the people, and it has neither trade nor minerals sufficient to attract capital thither. Owing in part, perhaps, to this poverty, Tinghai escaped the ravages of the Tai-pings, and has now recovered from the damage sustained by its first capture.

    PUTO ISLAND AND ITS TEMPLES. 125

    Puto and a few smaller islands are independent of civil jurisdiction, being ruled by the abbot of the head monastery. This establishment, and that on Golden Island in the Yangtsz’ are among the ‘ richest and best patronized of all the bhiddhist monasteries in China ; both of them have been largely favored by emperors at diffirent periods.

    Puto is a narrow islet, 3^ miles long, and lies 1^ miles from the eastern point of Cliusan. Its surface is covered with sixty monasteries, pavilions, temples, and other religious buildings, besides grottos and sundry monuments of superstition, in which at least 2,000 idle priests chant the praises of their gods. One visitor describes his landing and ascending ” a broad and well beaten pathway which led to the top of one of the hills, at every: 5rag and turn of which we encountered a temple or a grotto, an inscription or an image, with here and there a garden tastefully laid out, and walks lined with aromatic shrubs, which diffused a grateful fragrance through the air. The prospect from these heights was extremely delightful; numerous islands, far and near, bestudded the main, rocks and precipices above and below, here and there a mountain monastery rearing its head, and in the valley the great temple, with its yellow tiles indicative of imperial distinction, basked like a basilisk in the noonday-sun. All the aid that could be collected from nature and from Chinese art, was here concentrated to render the scene enchanting. But to the eye of the Christian philanthropist it presented a melancholy picture of moral and spiritual death. The only tliuig we heard out of the mouths of the

    priests was Ometo Full ; to every observation that was made,

    re-echoed Ometo Full ; and the reply to every inquiry was

    Ometo Full. Each pi-iest was furnished with a rosary which

    lie was constantly counting, and as he counted repeated the

    same senseless, monotonous exclamation. These characters met

    the eye at every turn of the road, at every corner of the temples,

    and on every scrap of paper; on the bells, on the gateways,

    and on the walls, the same words presented themselves; indeed the whole island seemed to be under the spell of this talismanic phrase, and devoted to recording and re-echoing Ometo Full.” ‘ The pristine glory of these temples has become sadly dimmed, many of the buildings present marks of decay, and some of the priesthood are obliged to resort to honest labor in order to gain a living. Deaths in their number are supplied by purchasing youths, who are taught nothing but re-‘ Mcdhurst’s China, its State and Prospects, p. 393.

    Jigious literature, a tit training to stunt their minds to pursue the dull niunnuery of singing Onieto Full. The two inipeiial temples present good specimens of Chinese architecture ; but they as well as all other things to be seen at Puto are dilapidated and effete.

    Temples were erected on this island as early as a.d. 550, and since it became a resort for priests it seems to have enjoyed the patronage of the government. The goddess of Mercy is said to have visited this spot, and her image is the principal object of worship. No females are allowed to live on the island, nor any persons other than the priests, unless in their employ. The revenues are derived from rent of the lands belong-ino; to the temples, from the collection of those priests who go on begging excursions over the Empire, and from the alms of pilgrims who resort to this agreeable locality. It appears like one of the most beautiful spots on the earth when the ti’aveller lands, just such a place as his imagination had pictured as exclusively belonging to the sunny East, and so far as nature and art can combine, it is really so : but liere the illusion ends. Idleness and ignorance celibacy and idolatr}-, vice, dirt, and dilapidation, in the inmate! or in their habitations, form a poor back-ground for the well dressed connnunity, and gay, variegated prospect seen when stepping ashore.

    A town of considerable importance in this province is Chapu,

    about fifty miles north-west from Chinhai, across Ilangchau

    Pay, and connected with that city through a luxuriant plain by

    a well-paved causeway about thirty miles long. Chapu was the

    port of Ilangchau, and when it possessed the entii-e trade with

    Japan, boasted of being the largest mai’t on the seacoast of Chehkiang.

    The town lies at the bottom of a bay on the westei’n

    face of some hills fc)rming its eastern point ; and at low tide

    the mud extends a long way from the lowland. The suburbs

    are situated near a small headland ; the walled town stands

    about half a mile ])ehin(l. When attacked by the British in

    !^^ay, ]S42, the walls were found in ])()or condition, but the

    Manchu garrison stationed here upheld their ancient reputation

    for bravery. This body of troops occupies a separate division

    of the city, and their cantonment is j)lanned on the model of a

    CHAPU AND CAN FIT. 127

    camp. The outer defences are numerous, but most of tlie old

    fortifications are considerably decayed. The country in tlu;

    vicinity is highly cultivated, and possesses an unusual number

    of finely constructed, substantial houses.

    South-west from Chapu lies the old town of Canfu (called

    Kanpu by the Chinese), which was once the port of Ilangchau,

    but now deserted, since the stream on which it is situated has

    become choked with sand. This place is mentioned in the voyages

    of two Arabian travellers in the ninth century, as the chief

    port of China, where all shipping centred. The narrow entrance

    between Buffalo Island and Ivitto Point is probably the

    Gates of China mentioned by them ; and Marco Polo, in 1290,

    says, ” The Ocean Sea comes within 25 miles of the city at a

    place called Ganfu, where there is a town and an excellent

    haven, with a vast amount of shipping which is engaged in the

    traffic to and from India and other foreign parts. . . . And a

    great river flows from the city of Kinsay to that sea-haven, l)y

    which vessels can come up to the city itself.” ‘ Marsden erroneously

    supposes Kanpu to be Xingpo, If this was in fact the

    only port allowed to be opened for foreign trade, it shows that,

    even in the Tang dynasty, the same system of exclusion was

    maintained that has so recently been broken up ; though at that

    date the Emperors in Shansi had very little authority along the

    southern coasts. The changes in the Bay of Ilangchau have

    been more potent causes for the loss of trade, and Yule reasonably

    concludes that the upper part of it is believed to cover now

    the old site in Polo’s time.

    ‘ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 149. Cathay and the Way Thither, p.cxciii. Reinaud, Relations den Voyages faits par les Arabea dans VTnde et d la Chine, etc. (Paris, 1845), Tome I., p. 19.

    The province of Fujian (i.e. Happily Established) is bounded on the north by Zhejiang, north-west and west by Iviangsf, south-west by Ivwangtung, and east by the channel of Formosa. Its western borders are determined, for the most part, by the watershed of the basins of the rivers Min and Kan; a rugged and fertile region of the Xan shan. The line of seacoast is bold, and bordered with a great number of islands, whose lofty granitic or trappean peaks extend in precipitous,

    Larreu headlands from Xaiiioli as far as tlie Cliusan archipelago.

    Ill the general features of its surface, the islands on its

    coasts, and its position with reference to the ocean, it resembles

    the region lying east of Xew Hampshire in the United States ;

    including Formosa, it about equals Missouri in size.

    The Itiver Min is formed by the union of three large streams

    at Yenping fu ; it drains all the country lying east of the AVu-i

    (Bohea) hills, or about three-fourths of the province. It is

    more than three hundred miles long, and owing to its regular

    depth, is one of the most useful streams in China ; twenty-seven

    walled towns stand on its banks. The tide rises eighteen or

    twenty feet at the entrance, and this, with the many islands and

    reefs, renders the approach difficult. At Min-ngan hien, about

    fourteen miles from the mouth, the stream is contracted to less

    than half a mile for about three miles, the water being from

    twelve to twenty-five fathoms deep ; the hills on each side rise

    from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet. One traveller speaks

    of the walls of its forts and batteries, in this part, as affording

    a sort of stairs for the more convenient ascent of the hills on

    which they are situated. From the top, ” the view embraces a

    beautiful scene ; nothing can be more picturesque than the little

    plats of wheat and barley intermixing their yellow crops on the

    acclivities with bristling pines and arid rocks, and crowned with

    garden spots, or surrounded with rice fields and orchards of

    oranges. The valley of the Min, viewed from the summit of

    the fortress, is truly a beautiful sight.” ‘ The scenery on this

    river, though of a different character, will bear comparison with

    that of the Hudson for sublimity and beauty ; the hills are,

    however, much higher, and the country less fruitful, on the

    Min.

    * Borget, L(i Chine Ouverte, p. 13G.

    AVATKll-COUllSES OF FUIIKIEN ri:()VIX(n<:. 129

    Beyond Pagoda Anchorage the passage is too shallow for large vessels, and this obstacle tends to prevent Fuhchau from becoming a place of commerce in keeping with its size and geographical advantages. From the city upwards the river is partially obstructed with rocks and banks, rendering the navigation troublesome as far as Mintsing hien, about thirty miles above it, beyond which the strong rapids render the passageto Yenping extremely tedious,—in high water impossible even with trackers. The banks are steep, and the tow-rope is sometimes taken 50 to 70 feet above the water.

    Mr. Stevens says of this river, that ” bold, high, and romantic

    hills giA^e a uniform yet ever varying aspect to the country ;

    l)ut it partakes so much of the mountainous character, that it

    may be truly said that beyond the capital we saw not one plain

    even of small extent. Every hill was covered with verdure

    from the base to the summit. The less rugged were laid out in

    terraces, rising above each other sometimes to the number of

    thirty or forty. On these the yellow barley and wheat were

    waving over our heads. Here and there a laborer, with a bundle

    of grain which he had reaped, was bringing it down on his

    shoulder to thrash out. Orange, lemon, and mulberry, or other

    trees, sometimes shaded a narrow strip along the banks, half

    concealing the cottages of the inhabitants.” ‘

    Next in size is the Lung kiang, which flows by Changchau, and disembogues near Amoy after a course of two hundred miles. A large number of small islands lie on the coast of Fuhkien, the first of which, on the west, is Naraoh or ]^an-au, about thirteen miles long. Amoy and Quemoy are the largest islands of a group lying off the estuary of the Lung kiang.

    Chimmo Bay is north-east of Amoy, and is the entrance of the passage up to Chinchew, or Tsiuenchau fu, the Zayton * of Marco Polo, and still celebrated for the commercial enterprise of its inhabitants. Before the introduction of steamers into the oasting trade, the harbors and creeks along the provinces of Fuhkien and Kwangtung were infested with numerous fleets of pirates, which used to ” sneak about like rats,” and prey upon the peaceful traders.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. IV., p. 93.’Yule’s Mnrco Poh, Vol. II., pp. 183-185, etc. A Turkish geography,printed at Constantinople, describes this port under the name of Zeitouii.Compare Klaproth, Memoires sur VAsie, Tome II., p. 208. See further,CJdnese Recoider, Vol. III., p. 87; Vol. IV., p. 77; Vol. V., p. 327, and Vol VI., p. 31, sqq.Vol. I.—9

    The grain raised in Fujian is hardly enough to support its population, especially on the sea-board, and large quantities of rice are brought from Siani, Formosa, and elsewhere. Black tea, camphor and other woods, sugar, chinaware, and grass cloth, are the principal exports.

    The city of Fuzhou(i.e., Happy City), or Ilokchiu, as it is called by the inhabitants, lies in lat. 26° 5′ north, and long. 119° 20′ east, on the northern side of the Min, thirty -four miles from its mouth, and nine from Pagoda Island. The city lies in a plain, surrounded by hills, forming a natural and most magnificent amphitheatre of vast dimensions, whose fertility emulates and adds to its beauty. Suburbs extend from the walls three miles to the banks, and stretch along on both sides the stream.

    They are connected with each other, and a small islet in the

    river, by a stone bridge built in the eleventh century. The

    scenery is bold, and such parts of the surrounding hills as are not

    cultivated or used for graves, are covered with pines ; some of

    the hills north of the city are three thousand feet high. Opposite

    Fuhchau the land is lower, and the suburb is built upon an

    island formed by the division of the main channel, seven miles

    above the city ; the branches reunite at Pagoda Island. This

    island, and the plain on each side, forms a large basin, about

    twenty miles long by fifteen wide. The river is crowded with

    floating habitations, ferry-boats, and trading craft, rendering its

    surface an animated and noisy scene. The flowers grown in

    pots on the boats, and those usually worn by the boatwomen in

    their hair, all assist in imparting a pleasing aspect to the lively sight.

    The city walls ai-e about thirty feet high and twelve wide at the top. The gates, seven in number, are overlooked by high towers ; smaller guard-houses stand upon the walls at short intervals, in which a few soldiers lodge, and where two or three cannon indicate their object. The city is divided into wards and neighborhoods, each of which is under its own police and headmen, who are resjxnisible for the peace of their respective districts.

    APPEARANCE OF FUHCIIAU. 131

    From the Wu-shih slum, an eminence on the south of the city, the view is extensive, and presents a great diversity of charming objects. The square battlements of the wall are seen extending in a devious and irregular circuit for more than eight miles, and inclosing most of the buildings, except on the south.

    On the south-east, a hill rises abruptly more than two hundred feet, its sides built up with interspersed dwellings ; and another on the extreme north of the cit}’, surmounted by a “watch-tower,

    closes the prospect in that dii-ection. Two pagodas within, and

    fantastic looking watch-towers upon the walls, large, regularbuilt

    granaries, and a vast number of flag-staffs in pairs indicating

    temples and offices, contribute to relieve the otherwise dull

    monotony, which is still further diversified by many large trees.

    Several lookout houses are placed over the streets, or upon the

    roofs of buildings, for the accommodation of watchmen, one of

    M’hich immediately attracts the attention of the visitor, from

    its height, and its clock-dial with Koman letters. Few vacant

    spaces occur within the walls of the city, which is everywhere

    equally well built.

    Serpentine canals divide the country round about into plats of greater or less extent, of every form and hue ; while they help drain the city and provide channels for boats coming from the river. These parts of the landscape are dotted with hamlets and cottages, or, where the ground is higher, with graves and tombstones. To one seated on this eminence, the confused hum of mingling cries ascending from the town below,—the beating of gongs, crackling of fireworks, reports of guns, vociferous cries of hucksters and coolies, combining with the barking of dogs and other domestic sounds, as well as those from the crows, fish-hawks, and magpies nearer by,—inform him in the liv^eliest manner that the beautiful panorama he is looking down upon is filled with teeming multitudes in all the tide of life. On the western side of the city is a sheet of water, called Xi Hu, or West Lake, with a series of unpretending buildings and temples lying along its margin, a bridge crossing its expanse, and fishing-nets and boats floating upon its bosom. The watch-tower, on the hill in the northern part of the city, is upon the wall, which here runs near a precipice two hundred feet high ; it is a most conspicuous object when approaching the place.

    The Manchus occupy the eastern side of the city, and number altogether about 8,000 persons; the natives gcncrall}- are not allowed to enter their precincts. They live under their own officers, in much the same style as the Chinese, and, .not having any regular occupation, give no little trouble to the provincial authorities. Though vastly larger than Ningpo, the number of temples and substantial private residences in Fuhchau is much less, and as a whole it is not so well built. The streets are full of abominations, for which the people seem to care very little.

    Before foreign trade attained importance, paper money used to be issued by native mercantile iirms in the city, varying in denomination from forty cents to a thousand dollars, and supplying all the advantages with few of the dangers of bank notes.

    The blue, red, and black colors, which are blended on these promissory bills, present a gay appearance of signatures and eudorsings. The name of the issuing house, and a number of characters traced around the page, in briglit blue ink, form the original impression. The date of issue, and some ingeniously Avrought cyphers, for the recej^tion of signatures and prevention of forgeries, are of a deep red ; while the entry of the sum, and names of the partners and receiver, stand forth in large blade characters. On the back are the endorsements of various individuals, through whose hands the bill has passed, in order to facilitate the detection of forgeries, but not rendering the writer at all liable. These bills have now nearly disappeared, and bank bills from Hongkong are gradually coming into use. The streets usually are thronged with craftsmen and hucksters, in the fashion of Chinese towns, where the shopmen, in their desire to attract buyers, seem to inuigine, that the more they get in their customers’ way, the more likely they are to sell them something. The shops are thrown ojien so widely, and display such a variety of articles, or expose the M’orkmeii so plainly, that the whole street seems to be leather the stalls of a nuirket, or the aisle in a manufactory, than the town-thoroughfare.

    BUILDINGS AND TYPES OF INirABITANTS. 133

    The chief civil and military dignitaries of the province reside here, besides the profect and the magistrates of ]\rin and llaukwan districts. The (li’iiKj-lmxing mUio is one of the largest religious edifices in the place, and the temples tif the goddess of Mercy, and god of War, the most frequented. The KiuSien shan, or ‘ Hill of the Nine Genii,’ on the southern side of the town, is a pretty object. The city wall runs over it, and on its sides little houses are built upon rocky steps ; numerous inscriptions are carved in the face of the rocks. Near the eastern gate, called Tang Men., or ‘ Bath gate,’ is a small suburb, where Chinese and Manchus live together, and take care of many hot wells filled from springs near by ; the populace resort hither in large crowds to wash and amuse themselves.

    The citizens of Fuhchau bear the character of a reserved, proud, rather turbulent people, imlike the polite, affable natives further north. They are better educated, however, and plume themselves on never having been conquered by foreigners. Their dialect is harsh, contrasting strongly with the nasal tones of the patois of Amoy, and the melliflnous sounds heard at Ningpo. There are few manufactures of importance in the city, its commerce and resources depending almost wholly on the trade with the interior by the River Min. Many culprits wearing the cangue are to be seen in the streets, and in passing none of the hilarious merriment which is heard elsewhere greets the eai”. There is also a general lack of courtesy between acquaintances meeting in the higlnvay, a circumstance quite unusual in China. Beggars crowd the thoroughfares, showing both the poverty and the callousnesj of the inhabitants. One half the male population is supposed to be addicted to the opium pipe, and annually expend millions of dollars for this noxious gratification.

    The population of the city and suburljs is reckoned at rather over than under a million souls, including the boat people; it is, no doubt, one of tlie chief cities in the Empire \\\size, trade, and iidluence.

    The island in the river is settled by a trading p()])ulati(jii, a great part of whom consist of sailors and boatmen. The country-women, who bring vegetables and poultry to market, are a robust race, and contrast strikingly with the sickly-looking, little-footed ladies of the city, Fishing-boats are numerous in the river, many of which are furnished with cormorants.’

    Chinese liejwsitary, Vol. TSV., pp. 185, 225.

    Amoy is the best known port in the province, and 150 years ao-Q was the seat of a large foreign coniinercc. It lies in tha district of Tung-ngan, within the prefecture of Tsiuenchau, in lat. 2i° 4U’ X., and long. 118° 20′ E., upon the south-western corner of the island of Amoy, at the mouth of the Lung Kiang. The island itself is about forty miles in circumference, and contains scores of large villages besides the city. The scenery within the bay is picturesque, caused partly by the numerous islands which define it, some of them surmounted by pagodas or temples, and partly by the high hills behind the city, and

    crowds of vessels in the liarbor in the foreground.’ There is

    an outer and inner city, as one approaches it seaward—or more

    properly a citadel and a city—divided by a ridge of rocky hills

    having a fortified wall along the top. A paved road connects

    the two, which is concealed from the view of the beholder as

    he comes in from sea, until he has entered the Inner harbor.

    The entire circuit of the city and suburbs is about eight miles,

    containing a population of 185,000, while that of the island is

    estimated at 100,000 more.

    The harbor of Amoy is one of the best on the coast ; the tide

    rises and falls from fourteen to sixteen feet. The western side

    of the harbor is formed by the island of Kulang su, the batteries

    upon it completely commanding the city. It is about a

    mile long and two and three-quarters around, and maintains a

    large rural population, scattered among four or five hamlets.

    The foreign residences scattered over its hills add measurably

    to the charm of its aspect when viewed from the harbor. Eastward

    of Amoy is the island of Quemoy (/.6\, Golden harbor), whose low, rice grounds on the south-west shore produce a very different effect as opposed to the high land on Amoy ; its population is, moreover, much less.

    ‘ The Boston Missionary Herald for 1845 (p. 87) coutaius a notice of tha ” WfeHe Deer Cavern,” in tliu neighborhood.

    AMOY AND ITS ENVIRONS. 135

    The country in this part of Fuhkien is thickly settled and highly cultivated. Mr. Abeel, describing a trip toward TungngaTi, says, ” For a few miles up, the hills wore the same rugged, barren aspect which is so common on the southern coast of China, but fertility and cultivation grew upon us as we advanced ; the mountains on the east became hills, and these were adorned with fields. The villages were numerous at intervals; many of them were indicated in the distance by large groves of trees, but generally the landscape looked naked. Well-sweeps were scattered over the cultivated hills, affording evidence of the need and the means of irrigation.”

    In the other direction, toward Changchau, the traveller, beyond Pagoda Island, enters an oval bay ten or twelve miles long, bounded by numerous plains rising in the distance into steep barren mountains, and upon which numerous villages are found ; twenty-three were counted at once by Mr. Abeel, and the boatmen said that all could not be seen. Several large towns, and ” villages uncounted ” are visible in every direction, as one proceeds up the river toward Changchau, thirty-five miles from Amoy. This city is well built, the streets paved with granite, some of them twelve feet wide, and intolerably offensive. A bridge, about eight hundred feet long, spans the river, consisting of beams stretching from one abutment to another, covered with cross pieces. From the hill- top behind a temple at the north-western corner of the city, the prospect is charming.

    ” Imagine an amphitheatre,” says Mr. Lowrie, ” thirty miles in length and twenty in breadth, hemmed in on all sides by bare pointed hills, a river running through it, an immense city at our feet, with fields of rice and sugar-cane, noble trees and

    numerous villages stretching away in every direction. It was

    grand and beautiful beyond every conception we had ever

    formed of Chinese scenery. Beneath us lay the city, its shape

    nearly square, curving a little on the river’s banks, closely built,

    and having an amazing number of very large trees within and

    around. The guide said that in the last dynasty it had numl)

    ered 700,000 inhabitants, and now he thought it contained a

    million—probably a large allowance. The villages around also

    attracted our attention. I tried to enumerate them, but after counting thirty-nine of large size distinctly visible in less than half the field before us, I gave over the attempt. It is certainly Avithhi the mark to say that within the t-ircuit of thi.- immense plain there are at least one hundred villages, some of them small, but many numbering Inmdreds and even thousands of inliabitants.” ‘

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. XI., p. 506.

    ChangZhou was the last city in the eastern provinces held by the Tai-pings, a small remnant of their forces having come across the country after the loss of NanJing. They were expolled in 1806, after the town had suffered much from the contending forces. Traces of this destruction have not yet entirely disappeared from the vicinity.

    Shilima, or Chiohbe, is a place of some trade, extending a

    mile along the shore, and larger than Ilaitang hien, a district

    town between it and Amoy. Large numbers of people dwell

    in boats on this river, rendering a voyage up its channel somewhat

    like going through a street, for the noise and bustle.

    The city of Chinchew (or Tsiuenchau), north of Amoy, w’as

    once the larger of the two. It is described by Marco Polo, who

    reached it after iive days’ journey from Fuhchau, meeting with

    a constant succession of flourishing cities, towns and villages.

    “At this city is the haven of Zayton, frequented by all the

    ships from India, . . . and by all the merchants of Manzi, for

    hither is imported the most astonishing quantity of goods and

    of precious stones and pearls. . . . For it is one of the two

    greatest havens in the world for connnerce.”^ It was gradually

    forsaken for Amoy, which was more accessible to junks.

    ‘ Chinesie Rejmiton/, Vol. XIT., p. T^•.^0^, Fortune’s Tea Districts, chaps, xiv and XV.=” Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. IbG.

    THE ISLAND OF FORMOSA. 137

    From Zayton, Ivublai Khan’s expedition to Java and Japan sailed, and here the men from Egypt and Arabia traded for silks, sugar, and spices long after the Portuguese reached China. The department of Ilinghwa, situate on the coast between Tsiuenchau and Fuhchau, is exceedingly populous, and its dialect differs distinctly from both of the adjoining prefectures. Its people have a bad reputation, and female infanticide prevails here to a greater degree than elsewhere. At Yenping, on the Min River, the people speak the dialect of banking, showing their origin of not many scores of years past ; there are many patois in these hilly parts of Fnhkien, hirI tlio province as a whole exhibits probably greater discrepancies in its dialects than any other. Its produce is exported north and west, as well as coastwise, and this intcirconrse tends to assimilate the speech of the inhabitants with their neighbors. The natural scenery in the ranges near the Bohea Hills in the borders of Kiangsi attracts visitors from afar. Fortune describes the picturesque grouping of steep rocks, lonely temples on jutting ledges and hidden adits, alternating with hamlets, along the banks of the stream which carries the boats and produce away to a market. The rocks and cliffs here have furnished Chinese artists with many subjects for pen and pencil, while the valley in addition to its natural beauty brings forth the best of teas.

    The island of Formosa, lying 90 miles west of Amoy, together with the Pescadore group, forms a department called Taiwan. The former is a fertile, well-watered region, possessing a salubrious climate, and meriting in every respect its name Formosa—a descriptive term first given by the Portuguese to their settlement at Kilung in 1590, and extended afterward to the entire island. Its total length is about 235 miles, while the width at the centre is not far from 80 miles ; the limits of Chinese jurisdiction do not, however, end)race more than the western or level portion, leaving to untamed aborigines the

    thickly wooded districts beyond the ]\f((h htii sJkdk a lofty

    rantj-e of mountains runnino; north and south and formino- the

    backbone of the island. The western coast presents no good

    harbors, and vessels lying a long distance oft” shore are exposed

    to the double inconvenience of a dano-erons anchoraije and an

    inhospitable reception from the natives ; the eastern side is still

    less inviting, owing to its possession by savage tribes. From

    recent reports it appears, moreover, that the whole coast line is

    rising with unusual persistence and regularity, and that the

    streams are being choked up at their mouths.

    The aborigines of this island are, in those districts that lemain uncontaminated by mixture with Chinese settlers, a remarkably well-built, handsome race, strong, large of eye, bold, and devoted to hunting and ardent spirits (when the latter is procurable), after the manner of wild people the world over; no written language exists among them, nor do they employ any fixed method of reckoning time. They and the inhabitants of Lewchew and neighboring islands are probably of the same race with the Philippine Tagalas, though some have supposed them to be of Malay or Polynesian origin. Like the North American Indians they are divided into numerous clans,

    whose mutual feuds are likely to last until one party or another

    is exterminated ; this turbulence restrains them from any

    united action against the Chinese, whose occupation of the

    island has always been irksome to the natives. Their social

    condition is extremely low ; though free from the petty vices

    of thieving and deception, and friendly toward strangers, the

    principle of blood-requital holds among them with full force,

    and family revenge is usually the sole object of life among the

    men. I^o savage is esteemed who has not beheaded a Chinaman,

    while the greater the number of heads brought home from a fray, the higher the position of a brave in the comnumity.

    The women are forced to attend both to house and field, but share the laziness of their masters, insomuch that they never cut from the growing rice or millet more than enough for the day’s provision. ” Although these people have men’s forms,” observes a Chinese writer in the peculiar antithetical style common to their literary productions, ” they have not men’s natures. To govern them is impossible; to exterminate them not to be thought of; and so nothing can be done with them. The only thing left is to establish troops with cannon at all the passes through which they issue on their raids, and so overawe them, b^^ military display, from coming out of their fastnesses. The savage tracks lie only through the dense forests, thick with underbi’ush, where hiding is easy.

    PRODUCTIONS OF FORMOSA. 139

    When they cut off a head, they boil it to separate the flesh, adorn the skull with various ornaments, and hang it up in their huts as evidence of their valor.” In addition to a few native clans who have submitted to the rulers from the mainland and dwell in the border region between the colonists and :i])oi-igines proper, a peculiarly situated race, called Ilahhas^ maintains a neutral position between the hill tribes and the Cliinese. These people were formerly industrious but per«secuted inhabitants of Kwangtung province, who, in order to better their lot, emigrated to Formosa and established close communication with the natives there, making themselves indispensable to them by procuring arms, powder, and manufactured goods, while owing to their industry they were able in time to monopolize the camphor trade. Though retaining the Chinese costume and shaving their heads, they practically ignore Chinese rule, paying tribute and intermarrying with the mountaineers, from whom they have also obtained large tracts of land.

    Maize, potatoes, fruits, tobacco, indigo, sugar, rice, and tea, are all grown on this island, the three latter in rapidly increasing quantities for purposes of export. Of natural products salt, coal, sulphur, petroleum, and camphor are of the first importance.

    The vast coal basins have hardly been opened or even explored, the only mines now worked being those in the northern part, near Kilung. Native methods of mining are, however, the only ones employed thus far, and it is not surprising, considering their extreme simplicity, that they have not been able to extract coal from remote districts, where the natural difficulties encountered are greatest. Hand labor alone is used, and draining a pit unheard of—compelling a speedy abandoning of the mines when pierced to any great depth in the mountain side. The cost of the coal at the mouth of the pit is about 65 cents per ton for the first qualities, which price improved methods might reduce a third. The presence of volcanoes on this island will, nevertheless, present a serious obstacle to the employment of western mining machinery, especially along the coast, where the measures appear to be excessively dislocated and the work of draining is rendered more difficult. Petroleum is abundant in certain tracts of northern Formosa, flowing plentifully from crevices in the hills, and used to some extent for burning and medicinal purposes by the natives, but not exported. The possibilities of a large sulphur trade are much more important. It is brought from solfatarae and geysers at Tah-yu kang, near Kilung, where it is found in a nearly pure state, as well, too, as a great quantity of sulphurous acid which might with profit be used in the sugar refineries on the island. The manufacture of sidphur is, however forbidden by treaty, though its exportation goes on in small quantities, the contractors taking on themselves all risk of seizure. Camphoi”, perhaps the greatest source of wealth to Formosa, is obtained here by saturating small sticks of the wood with steam, not by boiling as in Japan. The crystals of camphor condense in a receiv-er placed above the furnace ; during the process of distillation an es-^ential oil is produced, which when chemically treated with nitric acid becomes solid camphor. The trees from which the wood is cut grow^ in the most inaccessible tracts of the island, and are, according to all descriptions, of innnense extent, though chopped down by the natives without discrimination or idea of encouraging a second growth.

    Among the most interesting natural phenomena of this district are the so-called volcanoes, whoso occasional eruptions have been noticed by many, Mr. Le Gendre, United States Consul at Amoy in 1869, upon a visit to Formosa took occasion to examine more closely into this subject. It appears from his report ‘ that a gas is constantly issuing from the earth, and when a hole to the depth of a few inches is made it can be lighted.

    It is most likely, he continues, that from time to time gas jets break forth at points of the hills where they had not been observed before, rushing through its long grass and forests of linge trees, and the rock oil which as a general thing flows in their vicinity. As they are apt to spontaneously ignite in contact with the atmosphere, they must set fire to these materials and cause a local conflagration, that gives to the many peaks of the chain the appearance of volcanoes.

    FORMOSA AND THE PESCADORES. 141

    Previous to the first half of the fifteenth century the Chinese had little knowledge of Formosa, nor was their sway established over any part of it until 1GS3. It was never really colonized, and became a misooverned and refractorv region from the earliest attempts at subjection. A great emigration is constantly going on from the main, and lands are taken up by capitalists, who not only encourage the people in settling there, but actually purchase large numbers of poor people to occupy these districts. Taiwan fu, the seat of local government, is the ‘ Commercial Relations between the U. S. and Voreign ‘iS(ttiiinx. lS(iO.

    largest place on the island ; other harbors or places of importance are Ku-sia and Takow, some miles south of Taiwan, the latter, with Tamsui, on the north-west coast, being one of the recently opened ports of trade. Kihmg possesses a good harbor and is the entrepot of goods for the northern end of the island. Snice the opening (in 1861) of these three towns to foreign intercourse, and the more careful examination of the neutral territory at the foot of the mountains, the resources, peoples, and condition of this productive isle have become better known.

    It may be of interest to refer, before leaving Formosa, to the extraordinary fabulous history of the island by one George Psalmanazar, the nam de lylmiie of a remarkable impostor of the commencement of the eighteenth century, who pretended to be a Japanese convert to CJhristianity from Formosa, and who created a profound sensation in Europe by the publication in Latin of a iictitious notice of that country.’

    About twenty-five miles west of Formosa, and attached to Taiwan fu, is the district of Pdvghu ting or Pescadore Islands, consisting of a group of twenty-one inhabited islets, the largest of which, called Panghu, is eighty-four miles in circumference; none of them rise three hundred feet above the sea. The two largest, called Prmgliu and Fisher Islands, ai-e situated near the centre of the cluster, and have an excellent harbor between them. The want of trees, and the absence of sheltered valleys, give these islands a barren appearance. Millet, ground-nuts, pine-apples, sweet potatoes, and vegetables are grown, but for most of their supplies they depend upon Formosa. The population of the group is estimated at ‘6()()(^^ of M’hom a large part are fishermen. The Dutch seized these islands in 1G22, and attempted to fortify them by forced Chinese laborers, but removed to Formosa two years after at the instance of the governor of Fuhkien.
    ‘ ” An nistoricrd and GeograpJdcal Description of Formosa, an Island subject to the Emperor of Japan, ^^ etc. YiXii^voili {MemoiressiirVAsie, Tome I., p. 321) translates an accovint of this island from Chinese sources. E. C. Taintor, The Aborigines of Northern /’l^’/w^Avn!—Shanghai, 1874—read before the North China branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p408, and Vol. V., p. 480.”

    CHAPTER III. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE WESTERN PROVINCES

    The central provinces of llnpeli and Hunan formerly constituted a single one under the name of Hukwang {i.e. Broad Lakes), and they are still commonly known by this appellation. HuPEH {i.e. Korth of the Lakes) is the smaller of the two, but contains the most arable land. It is bounded north by Honan, east by Kganhwui and Kiangsi, south by Hunan, and west by Sz’chuen and Shensi. Its area is about T0,000 square miles, or slightly above that of Kew England.

    The Great Tliver flows through the south, where it connects with all the lakes on both its shores, and nearly doubles its volume of water. The Han kiang, or Han shui rises in the southwest of Shensi, between the Fuh-niu shan and Tapa ling, and drains the south of that province and nearly the whole of Hupeh, joining Yangtsz’ at AVuehang. It is very tortuous in its course, flowing about 1300 miles in all, and is navigable only a portion of the year, during the freshes, as far as Siangyang, about 300 miles. Boats of small size come down, however, at all times from Sin-pu-wan, near its source in Shensi.

    THE PROVINCE OP IIUPEH. 143

    The mouth is not over 200 feet broad, but the bed of the river as one ascends soon widens to 400 and 500 feet, and at Shayang, 168 miles from Hankow, it is half a mile wide. The area of its whole basin is about the same as the province. The extraordinary effects of a large body of melted snow poured into a number of streams converging on the slopes of a range of hills, and then centering in a narrow valley, bringing their annual deposit of alluvial and silt are seen along the River Han. The rise of this stream is often fifty feet where it is narrowest, and the shores are high ; at Iching the channel varies from 300 to 1500 feet at different seasons, but the i-iverbed from 2000 to 9000 feet, the water rising 18 feet at the fresh. In these wide places, the river presents the aspect of a broad, winding belt of sand dunes, in which the stream meanders in one or many channels, l^avigation, therefore, is difficult and dangerous, since moving sands shift the deep water from place to place, and boats are delayed or run aground. In high water the banks are covered, but the current is then almost as serious an obstacle as the shallows are in winter.

    The southeastern part of Ilupeh is occupied by an extensive depression filled with a succession of lakes. The length and breadth of this plain are not far from two hundred miles, and it is considered the most fertile part of China, not being subject to overflows like the shores of the Yellow River, while the descent of the land allows its abundance of water to be readily distributed. Every spot is cultivated, and the surplus of productions is easily transported wherever there is a demand.

    The portions nearest the Yangtsz’ are too low for constant cultivation. The Ax Lake, Millet Lake, Red Horse Lake, and Mienyang Lake, are the largest in the province. The remaining parts of both the Lake provinces are hilly and mountainous ; the high range of the Ta-peh shan (‘ Great White Mountains ‘), commencing far into Shensi, extends to the west of Ilupeh, and separates the basins of the Great River from its tributary, the Han Jiang, some of its peaks rising to the snow line. The productions of Ilupeh are bread-stuffs, silk, cotton, tea, fish, and timber; its manufactures are paper, wax, and cloth. The climate is temperate and healthy.

    The favorable situation of “Wuchang, the provincial capital,

    lias drawn to it most of the trade, which has caused in the

    course of years the settlement of Hanyang and Hankow on the

    northern bank of the Yangtsz’ and River Han. The number

    of vessels gathered here in former years from the other cities

    on these two streams was enormous, and gave rise to exaggerated

    ideas of the value of the trade. The introduction of steamers has destroyed much of this native commerce, and the cities themselves suffered dreadfully Ijv the Tai-pings, from Mliicli thev are rapidly recovering, and oti a surer foundation. The cities ‘lie in lat. 30° 33′ X. and long. 114° 20’ E., 582 geographical miles distant from Shanghai.

    Wuchang is the residence of the provincial officers, the

    Manchu garrison, and a literary population of influence, while

    the working part depends mostly on Hankow for employment.

    Its walls are over twelve miles in circuit, inclosing more vacant

    than occupied surface, whose flatness is relieved by a range of

    low hills that extend bevond Ilanvano; on the other side of

    the liver. The narrow streets are noisome from the offal,

    and in summer are sources of malaria, as the drainage is had.

    AYhen Haidvow was opened to foreign trade in 1801, it presented

    AvucHAXd a:vd Hankou. 145

    a most ruinous appearance, but the sense of security inspired by the presence of the men and vessels from far lands rapidly drew the scattered citizens and artisans to rebuild the ruins. The foreigners live near the river side, east of Hankow and west of the River Han, where the anchorage is very favorable, and out of the powerful current of the Yangtsz’. The difference in level of the great stream is about forty feet in the year. In the long years of its early and peaceful trade up to 1850, this region had gathered probably more people on a given area than could be found elsewhere in the world ; and its repute for riches led foreigners to base great hopes on their share, which have been gradually dissipated. The appearance of the city as it was in 1845 is given by Abbt’^ Hue in a few sentences: ” The night had already closed in when we reached the place where the river is entirely covered with vessels, of every size and form, congregated here from all parts. I hardly think there is another port in the world so frequented as this, which passes, too, as among the most commercial in the empire. We entered one of the open ways, a sort of a street having each side defined by floating shops, and after four hours’ toilsome navigation through this difficult labyrinth, arrived at the place of debarkation. For the space of five leagues, one can only see houses along the shore, and an infinitude of beautiful and strange looking vessels in the river, some at anchor and others passing up and down at all hours.” ‘

    The coup d’a’il of these three cities is beautiful, their environs being highly cultivated and interspersed with the mansions of the great ; but he adds, “If you draw near, you will find on the margin of the river only a shapeless bank worn away with freshets, and in the streets stalls surmounted with palisades, and workshops undermined by the waters or tumbling to pieces from age. The open spots between these ruins are filled with abominations which diffuse around a suffocating odor. No regulation.s respecting the location of the dwellings, no sidewalks, no place to avoid the crowd which presses upon one, elbowing and disputing the passage, but all get along pell-mell, in the midst of cattle, hogvS, and other domestic animals, each protecting himself as he best can from the filth in his way, which the Chinese collect with care for agricultural uses, and carry along in little open buckets through the crowd.”

    Above Hankow, the towns on the Yangtsz’ lie n’earer its

    banks^lfsHiey are not so exposed to the freshets. The largest

    trading places in this part of Ilupeli on the river, are Shasi,

    opposite Kinchau fu, and Ichang near the borders of Sz’chuen,

    respectively 293 and 363 miles distance. From the first settlement

    there is a safe passage by canal across to Shayang, forty

    miles away on the iliver Han ; the travel thence goes north

    to Shansi. The other has recently been opened to foreign

    trade. It is the terminus of navigation for the large vessels

    used from Shanghai upward, as the rapids commence a few

    miles beyond, necessitating smaller craft that can be hauled by

    trackers. These two marts are large centres of trade and travel,

    and were not made desolate by the Tai-pings, as were all other

    towns of importance on the lower Yangtsz’.

    ‘ Annnles de la Fci. i845, Tome XVII., pp. 287, 290. See also Hue’s TravreU in the Chinese Empire, Harper’s Ed., 1855, Vol. II., pp. 142-144. Fnmpelly, pp. 224-22G ; Blakiston’s Yanrjtsze, p. 65 ; Treaty Ports of China, 1867,Art. Hankow.

    The portion of the Yangzi in this province, between Yichang and the Sichuan border, exhibits perhaps some of the most Jiiagnificenl- glunpse^,_.M_scenery in the world. Breaking through the limestone foundations that dip on either side of the granite core of the rapids, the river first penetrates the AVu shan, Mitan, and Lukan gorges on the one side, then the lono- defile of Ichang on the other. At various points between and beyond these the stream is broken by more or less formidable rapids. Among these grand ravines the most impressive, though not the longest, is that of Lukan, whose vertical walls rise a thousand feet or more above the narrow river. Nothing can be more striking, observes Blakiston, than suddenly coming upon this huge split in the mountain mass ” by which the river escapes as through a funnel,” The eastern portions of llupch are rougher than the southern, and were overrun during the rebellion by armed bands, so that their best towns were destroyed. Siangyang fu and Fanching, near the northern borders, arc important places in the internal commerce of this region. Its many associations with leading events in Chinese early and feudal history render it an interesting region to native scholars. A large part of the southwestern prefecture of Shingan is hilly, and its mountainous portions are inhabited by a rude, illiterate population, many of whom are partly governed by local rulers.

    The province of Hunan is bounded north by Ilupeh, east by Kiangsi, south by Kwangtung and Kwangsi, w.est by Ivweichau and Sz’chuen. Its area is reckoned at 84,000 square miles—equal to Great Britain or the State of Kansas. It is drained by four rivers, whose basins comprise nearly the whole province, and define its limits by their terminal watersheds. The largest is the Siang, which, rising in the hills on the south and east in numerous navigable streams, affords facilities for trade in small boats to the borders of Kiangsi and Kwangtung,

    the traffic concentring at Siangtan ; this fertile and populous

    basin occupies well-nigh half of the province. Through the

    western part of Hunan runs the Yuen kiang, but the rapids

    and cascades occur so frequently as to render it far less useful

    than the Siang. Boats are towed up to the towns in the southwest

    with great labor, carrying only four or five tons cargo;

    these are exchanged for mere scows at Ilangkia, 200 miles

    above Changteh, in order to reach Yuenchau. The contrast

    ‘UKAN GOKGE, YANGZI RlVER. NATURAL AND POLITICAL FEATURES OF HUNAN. 147

    between the two rivers as serviceable channels of intercourse is

    notable. Between these two main rivers runs the Tsz’ kiang,

    navigable for only small batteaux, which nnist be pulled up so

    many rapids that the river itself has been called Tan ho, or

    ‘ Rapid River ; ‘ its basin is narrow and fertile, and the produce

    is carried to market over the hills both east and west. The

    fourth river, the Li shui, empties, like all the others, into the

    Tungting Lake, and drains the northwestern portion of the

    province ; it is navigable only in its lower course, and is almost

    useless for travel. These rivers all keep their own chaimels

    through the lake, which is rather a cesspool for the overflow of

    the Yangtsz’ during its annual rise than a lake fed by its own

    springs and aflluents. At Siangyin, on the River Siang, the

    banks are 35 feet above low water, and gradually slope down

    to its mouth at Yohchau, or near it. The variation of this

    lake from a large sheet of water at one season to a marsh at

    another, must of course affect the whole internal trade of the

    province, inasnnich as the rivers running through it are in a

    continual condition of flood or low water—either extreme

    cannot but seriously interfere with steam vessels.

    The productions of Ilunan do not represent a very high development

    of its soil or mines. Tea and coal are the main exports; tea-oil, ground-nut and tun/j oils, hemp, tobacco, and rice, with iron, copper, tin, and coarse paper make up the list.

    The coal-fields of southern Hunan contain deposits equal to those in Pennsylvania ; anthracite occurs on the River Lui, and bituminous on the River Xiang, both beds reaching over the border into Kwangtung. The timber trade in pine, fir, laurel, and other woods is also important. The population of Hunan was somewhat reduced during the Tai-ping rebellion ; its inhabitants have in general a bad reputation among their countrymen for violence and rudeness. The hilly nature of the country tends to segregate them into small communities, which are imperfectly acquainted with each other, because travelling is difficult ; nor is the soil fertile enough to support in many districts a considerable increase of population.

    The capital of Hunan, Changsha, lies on the River Xiang, and is one of the most iofluentialj as it is historically one of the most interesting, cities in the central })urt of China ; the festival of the Dragon Boats originated here. Siangtan, at the confluence of the Lien kf, nioie than 200 miles above Yohchan, is one of the greatest tea-marts in China. Its population is reckoned to he a million, and it is a centre of trade and banking for the products of this and other legions ; it extends for three miles along the west bank, and nearly two miles inland, with thousands of boats lining the shores. Its return to prosperity since the rebellion has been marvellously rapid. The city of Changteh on the Yuen River is the next important town, as it is easily reached from Yohchan on the Yangzi; large amounts of rice are grown in the prefecture.

    Hunan has a high position for letters, the people are well dressed, healthy, and usually peaceable. The boating population is, however, exceptionally lawless, and forms a difficult class for the local authorities to control. Aboriginal hill-tribes exist in the sonthwestern districts, mIucIi are still more unmanageable, probably through the imjust taxation and oppression of the imperial officers set over them. In addition to these ungovernable elements a large area is occupied by the Yao-Jin, who have possessed themselves of the elevated territory lying between Ynngchau and Kweiyang, in the southern point of the province, and there barricaded the mountain passes so that no one can ascend against their will.

    MOUNTAINS AND HIVEKS OF SIIENSl. 140

    The province of SnENsi (i.e., Western Defiles) is bounded north by Inner Mongolia, from which it is divided by the Great Wall, cast by Shansi and Ilonan, southeast by Ilupeh, south by Sz’chuen, and west by Ivansuh. Its area is not far from 70,000 square miles, which is geologically and politically most distinctly marked by the Tsingling shan, the watershed between the Wei and Ilan I’ivers. There is only one good road across it to Ilanchung fu near its southern part ; another, farther east, goes from Si-ngan, by a natural pass between it and the Fuh-niu shan, to Shang, on the Tan ho, in the Ilan basin. This part conijM’ises about one-third of Shensf. The other portion includes the basins of the Wei, Loh an<l Wu-ting, and some smaller tributaries of the Yellow River, of which the Wei is the mo.-^t important. This I’iver joins tiie Yehow at the lowest point of its basin, the Tung-kwaii pass, where the larger stream breaks thj-ongh into the lowlands of llonan, and divides eastern and southern Cliina from the northwestern regions.

    The whole of this part presents a loess formation, and the beds of the streams are cut deep into it, the roads across them being few. The Wei basni is the most fertile part of the province; the history of the Chinese race has been more connected with its fortunes than with any other portion of their possessions. Its productiveness is shown in the rapid development and peopling of the districts along the banks and affluents.

    On the north, the Great Wall separates Shensi from the Ordos -Mongols, its western end reaching the Yellow River at Ninghia—the largest and only imjx^rtant city in that region. All the connections with this region are through Shensi and by Kwei-hwa-ching, l)ut the configuration of the ranges of hills prevents direct travel. Isone of the rivers in this region are serviceable to any great degree for navigation, and but few of them for irrigation ; the crops depend on the rainfall. The climate is more equable and mild than in Shansi, and not so wet as in many parts of Kansuh. The harvests of one good year here furnish food for three poor ones. The chief dependence of the people is on wheat, but rice is grown wherever water can be had; sorghum, millet, pulse, maize, barle}^ ground-nut, and fruits of many sorts fill up the list. Cotton, hemp, tobacco, rapeseed, and poppy are largely cultivated, but the surplus of any crop is not enough in average years to leave much for export.

    The ruthless civil war recently quenched in the destruction of the Mohannnedans in the province has left it quite desolate in many parts, and its restoi’ation to former prosperity and population must be slow.

    The travel between Shensi and Sz’chuen is almost wholly confined to the great road reaching from Si-ngan to Chingtu. It passes along the River Wei to Hienyang liien on the left bank, where the road north into Kansuh diverges, the other continuing west along the river through a populous region to Paoki hien, where it recrosses the Wei. During this portion, the Tai-peh Mountain, about eleven thousand feet high, with its white summit, adds a prominent feature to the scenery. At Paoki, the crossing at the Tsingliiig slian commences, and occupies seven days of difficult travel through a devious road of 163

    miles to Fung hien on the confines of Kansnh. It crosses successive

    ridges from C>,OUO to 9,000 feet higli, and is carried along

    the sides of hills and down the gorges in a manner reflecting

    nnich credit on the engineers of the third centuiy a.d. who

    made it. These mountainous regions ai-e thinly settled all the

    M’ay down to Paoching, near Ilanchung ; hut upon gaining the

    Kiver Ilan, one of the most beautiful and fertile valleys in

    China is reached. Its western watershed is the Kiu-tiao shan,’

    running southwesterly into Sz’chuen on the west side of the

    Kialing River.

    The city of Si-ngan is the capital of the northwest of China, and next to Peking in size, population, and importance. It surpasses that city in historical interest and records, and in the long centuries of its existence has upheld its earlier name of Chang-cm^ or ‘ Continuous Peace.’ The approach to it from the east lies across a bluff, whose eastern face is filled with houses cut in the dry earth, and from whose sunnnit the lofty towers and imposing walls are seen across the plain three miles away.

    These defences Avere too solid for the Mohammedan rebels, and protected the citizens while even their suburbs were burned. The population occupies the entire enciente, and presents a heterogeneous sprinkling of Tibetans, Mongols and Tartai’s, of whom many thousand Moslems are still spared because they were loyal. Si-ngan has been taken and retaken, rebuilt and destroyed, since its establishment in the twelfth century b.c. by the Martial King, but its position has always assured for it the control of trade between the central and western provinces and Central Asia. The city itself is picturesquely situated, and contains some few remains of its ancient importance, while the

    ‘ Usually known as the Ta-pa ling ; but Baron von Eiclithofen found that the natives of that region “call those mountains the Kiu-tiao shan, that is the ‘ nine mountain ridges,’ designating therewith the fact that the range is made up of a number of parallel ridges. This name should be retained in preference to the other.” Letter on the Promncc>< of Chihl’i, Shansi, Shenx’t, etc Shanghai, 1872. See also his CMim, Band II. S. SCJJ-STti ; Alex. Wylie, Notes of a Journey from Chin<jtoo to Hankow^ Journ. Roy. Qeoy. Sac. Vol XIV., p. 108.

    St-I^GA?^ ITS CAPITAL. 151

    neighborhood promises better returns to the sagacious antiquarian

    and explorer than any portion of China. The principal

    record of the Xestorian mission work in China, the famous tablet

    of A.D. 781, still remains in the yard of a temple. Some miles to

    the northwest lies the temple Ta-fu-sz’, containing a notable

    colossus of Buddha, the largest in China, said to have been cut

    by one of the Emperors of the Tang in the ninth century.

    This statue is in a cave hewn out of the sandstone rock, being

    cut out of the same material and left in the construction of the

    grotto. Its height is 56 feet ; the proportions of limbs and

    l)ody of the sitting figure are, on the whole, good, the Buddha

    being represented with right hand npraised in blessing, and the

    figure as well as garments richly covered with color and gilt.

    Before the god stand two smaller colossi of the Schang-hoa,

    Buddha’s favorite disciples ; their inferior art and workmanship,

    however, testify to a later origin. The cave is lighted from

    above, after the manner of the Pantheon, by a single round

    opening in the vaulting. Sixty feet over the rock temple rises

    a tile roofing, and upon the hillside without the cavern are a

    nimiber of minor temples and statues.’

    Next to this city in importance is Ilanchnng, near the bordor of Sz’chuen ; it was much injured by the Tai-pings, and is only slowly recovering, like all the towns in that valley which were exposed ; none of these rebels crossed the Tsingling Mountains. Yu-lin (‘Elm Forest’) is an important city on the Great Wall in the north of Shensi, the station of a garrison which overawes the Mongols. Several marts carrying on considerable trade are on or near the Wei and Han Rivers.

    Gold mines occur in Shensi, and gold is collected in some of the streams ; other metals also are worked. The climate is too cold for rice and silk ; wheat, millet, oats, maize, and cotton supply their places ; rhubarb, nuisk, wax, red-lead, coal, and nephrite are exported. The trade of Si-ngan is chiefly that of bartering the produce of the eastern provinces (reaching it by the great pass of Tung-kwan) and that from Tibet, Kansuh, and 111. Wild animals still inhabit the northern parts, and the number of horses, sheep, goats, and cattle raised for food and service is large compared with eastern China.

    ‘ See Kreituer, Tmfernen Osten, p. 504. Wien, 1881.

    The iniineiise province of Kansuh (/.(\, A^oluntary Reverence,

    made by uniting the names of Kanchaufu and ISuh chau) belonged

    at one time to Shensi, and extended no farther westtlian Kiayii

    kwan; but since the division by Ivienlung, its limits have been

    stretched across the desert to the confines of Songaria on the

    northwest, and to the borders of Tibet on the west. It is

    bounded north and northeast by Gobi and the Dsassaktu

    khanate, east by Shensi, south by Sz’chuen, southwest by Kokonor

    and the desert, and northwest by Cobdoand lli. Its entire

    area cannot be much under 400,000 square miles, the greater

    part of which is a barren waste ; it extends across twelve degrees

    of latitude and twenty-one degrees of longitude, and comprises

    all the best part of the ancient kingdom of Tangut, M’hich

    was destroyed by Genghis.

    The topography of this vast region is naturally divided into

    two distinct areas by the Kiayii kwan at the end of the Great

    Wall ; one a fertile, well-watered, populous country, differing

    toto cwlo from the sandy or mountainous wildernesses of the

    other. The eastern portion is further partitioned into two sections

    by the ranges of mountains which cross it nearly from

    south to north in parallel lines, dividing the basins of the AVei

    and Yellow Rivers near the latter. The passage between them

    is over the Fan-shui ling, not far from the Tao ho and by the

    town of Tihtao, leading thence up to Lanchau. This part of

    the province, watered by the Wei, resembles Shansi in fertility

    and productions, and its nearness to the elevated ranges of the

    Bayan-kara induces comparatively abundant rainfall. The

    streams in the extreme south flow into Sz’chuen, but furnish

    few facilities for navigation. The affluents of the Yellow River

    are on the whole less useful for irrigation and navigation, and

    the four or five which join it near Lanchau vary too nmch in

    their supply of water to be depended on.

    JIAiSSUII PROVINCE. 153

    The peculiar feature of Kansuh is the narrow strip projecting like a wedge into the Tibetan plateau, reaching from Lanchau northwesterly between the Ala shan and Kilien shan to the end of the Great Wall. This strip of territory commands the passage between the basin of the Tarini River and Central Asia and China Proper ; its passage nearly controls trade and power throughout the northern provinces. The Ta-tnng River flows on the south of the Kilien Mountains, but the travel goes near the Wall, where food and fuel are abundant, a long distance beyond its end—even to the desert. The roads from Si-ngan to Lanchan pass up the King River to Pingliang and across several ranges, or else go farther up the River Wei to Tsin chau; the distances are between 500 and 600 miles. From Lanchau one road goes along the Yellow River down to Ninghia, a town inhabited chiefly by Mongols. Another leads 90 miles west to Sining, whither the tribes around Koko-nor repair for trade. The most important continues to Suhchau, this being an easier journey, while its trade furnishes employment to denizens of the region, whose crops are taken by travellers on passage ; this road is about 500 miles in length. Its great importance from early days is indicated by the erection of the Great Wall, in order to prevent inroads along its sides, and by the fortress of Kiayii, which shuts the door upon enemies.

    The climate of Kansuh exhibits a remarkable contrast to that

    of the eastern provinces. Prejevalsky says it is damp in three

    of the seasons; clear, cold winds blowing in winter, and alternatiug

    witli calm, warm weather ; out of 92 days up to September

    3(>, he registered 72 rainy days, twelve of them snowy.

    The highest temperature was 8S° F. in July. Snow and hail

    also fall in May. Xorth of the Ala slian, which divides this

    moist region from the desert, everything is dry and sandy; their peaks attract the clouds, which sometimes discharge their

    contents in torrents, and leave the northern slopes dry ; a marsh

    appears over against and only a few miles from a sandy waste.’

    ‘ Prejevalsky’s Travels in Mongolia, Vol. II., pp. 256-266.

    The country east of the Yellow River is fertile, and produces wheat, oats, barley, millet, and other edible plants. Wild animals are frequent, wdiose chase affords both food and peltry; large flocks and herds are also maintained by Tartars living within the province. The mountains contain metals and minerals, among which are copper, almagatholite, jade, gold, and silver. The capital, Lanchau, lies on the south side of the Yellow River, where it turns northeast ; the valley is narrow, and defended on the west Ly a pass, through which the road goes westward. At Sming fii, about a hundred miles east of Qing Hai, the superintendent of Koico-nor resides ; its political importance has largely increased its trade within the last few yeais. Xinghia fu, in the northeast of the province, is the larofest tow’n on the borders of the desert. The destruction of life and all its resources during the recent JNIohannjiedan rebellion, which was crushed out at Suhchau in October, 1873, is not likely to be repeated soon, as the rebels were all destroyed ;’ their Toorkish origin can even now be traced in their features.” Ko relialjle desci’iption of the t(nvns belonging to Kansuh in the districts around Barkul, since the pacificatioTi of the country by the Chinese, has been made.

    The province of Sz’cuuen (‘ Four Streams ‘) was the largest of

    the old eighteen before Kansuh was extended across the desert,

    and is now one of the richest in its pi-oductions. It is bounded

    north by Kansuh and Shonsi, east by Ilupeh and Ilunan, south

    by Kweichau and Yunnan, west and northwest by Tibet and

    Koko-nor; its area is 1G0,S00 square miles, or double most of

    the other provinces, rather exceeding Sweden in supei-ticies, as it

    falls below California, while it is superior to both in navigable

    I’ivers and productions. The emperors at Si-ngan always de-

    ])ended upon it as the main prop of their power, and in the

    third century a.d. the After Hans I’uled at its capital over the

    west of China.

    ‘7)//). Cor., ^S7i, p. 251.

    • That this insurroction was not unprccodented we learn from a notice of a similar Moliammedan revolt here in 1784. NouveUes Lcttrcs h\lijiantes des MissiiiitK de Ik (‘}iini\ Tome II., p. 2;3.

    TOPOGKAPTIY 01″ SZ’CHUEN PROVINCE. lf).1

    Sz’chuen is naturally divided by the four great rivers which run from north to south into the Yangtsz’, and thus form parallel basins ; as a whole these comprise about half of the entire area, and all of the valuable portion. The western part beyond the Min Hiver belongs to the high table lands of Central Asia, and is little else than a series of mountain ranges, sparsely populated and unfit for cultivation, except in small spaces and bottom lands. The eastern portion is a triangular sluiped I’egion surrounded with high niountaiiis composed of Silurian and Devonian formations with intervening deposits, mostly of red clayey sandstone, imparting a peculiar brick color, which has

    led Baron von Richthofen to call it the Red Basin. The ranges

    of hills average about 3,500 feet high, but the rivers have cut

    their channels through the deposits from 1,500 to 2,500 feet

    deep, making the travel up and down their waters neither rapid

    nor easy. The towns which define this triangular red basin are

    Kweichau on the Yangtsz’, from which a line runnhig south

    of the river to Pingshan hien, not far from Siichau at its

    confluence with the Min, gives the southern border ; thence

    taking a circuit as far west as Yachau fu on the Tsing-i River,

    and turning northwesterly to Lung-ngan fu, the western side is

    roughly skirted, while the eastern side returns to Kweichau

    along the watershed of the River Ilan. Within this area, life,

    industry, wealth, prosperity, are all found; outside of it, as a

    rule, the rivers arc unnavigable, the country uncultivable, and

    the people wild and insubordinate, especially on the south and

    west.

    The four chief rivers in the province, flowing into the Yangtsz’,

    are the Kialing, the Loh, the Min, and the Yalung, the

    last and westerly beiiig regarded as the main stream of the

    Great River, which is called the Kin-sha kiang, west of the

    Min. The Kialing rises in Kansuh, and retains that name

    along one trunk stream to its mouth, receiving scores of tributaries

    from the ridges between its basin and the Ilan, until it

    develops into one of the most useful watercourses in China,

    coming perhaps next to the Pearl River in Kwangtung. Chungking,

    at its embouchure, is the largest dej^ot for trade west of

    Icliang, and like St. Louis, on the Mississippi, will grow in importance

    as the country beyond develops. The River Fo Loh

    (called Fa-sang by Blakiston) is the smallest of the four, its

    headwaters being comiected with the Min al)Ove Chingtu ; the

    town of Lu chau stands at its mouth ; through its upper part it

    is called Chuno; kiani>;. The Min River has its fountains near

    those of the Kialing in Koko-nor, and like that stream it gathers

    contributions from the ranges defining and crossing its basin; as it descends into the plain of Cliingtu, its waters divide into a dozen channels below 1 1 wan hien, and after ruiuiing more than a hundred miles reunite above ^Afei hien, forming a deep and picturesque riv n* down to Siichau, a thousand miles and more from the source. At its junction, the Min almost doubles the volume of water in summer, when the snows melt. The Ya-Innc River is the only large affluent between the Min and the main trunk ; it comes from the I>ayan-kara mountains, between the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers, and leceives no important tributaries in its long, solitary, and unfnictuous course. The Abbe Hue speaks of crossing its rapid channel near Makian-Dsung just before reaching Tatsienlu, the frontier town ; it takes three luimes in its course.

    From Chingtu as a centre, many roads radiate to the other

    large towns in the province, by which travel and trade find free

    course, and render the connections with other provinces safe

    and easy. The roads are paved with flagstones wide enough

    to allow passage for two pack-ti’ains abreast ; stairs are made

    on the inclines, up and down which mules and ponies travel

    without risk, though most of the goods and passengers are

    carried by coolies. In order to facilitate travel, footpaths are

    opened and paved, leading to every handet, and wherever the

    traffic will afford it, bridges of cut stone, iron chains or wii-e,

    span the torrent or chasm, according as the exigency’ requires ;

    towns or hamlets near these structures take pride in keeping

    them in repair.

    chIjStgtu a]nd the mix valley. 157

    The products of this fertile region are varied and abundant. nice and wheat alternate each other in summer and winter, but the amount of land producing food is barely sufficient for its dense population ; pulse, barley, maize, ground-mits, sorghum, sweet and connnon potatoes, buckwheat and tobacco, are each raised for home consumption. Sugar, hemp, oils of several kinds, cotton, and fruits complete the list of plants mostly grown for home use. The exports consist of raw and woven silk, of which more is sent abroad than from any province ; salt, opium, musk, croton (tun//) oil, gentian, rhubarb, tea, coal, spelter, copper, iron, and insect wax, are all grown oi* made for other regions. The peace which S//chuen enjoyed while other provinces were ravaged by rebels, has tended to develop all its products, and increase its abundance. The climate of this region favors the cultivation of the hillsides, which are composed of disintegrated sandstones, because the moist and mild winters bring forward the winter crops ; snow remains only a few days, if it fall at all, and Mdieat is cut before May. The summer rains and freshets furnish water for the rice fields by filling the streams on a thousand hills. This climate is a great contrast to the dry regions further north, and it is subject to less extremes of temperature and moisture than Yunnan south of it. When this usual experience is altered by exceptional dry or wet seasons, the people are left without food, and their wants cannot be supplied by the abundance of other provinces, owing to the slowness of transit. Brigandage, rioting, cannibalism, and other violence then add to the misery of the poor, and to the difficulty of government.

    Chingtu, the capital, lies on the River Min, in the largest plain in the province, roughly measuring a hundred miles one way, and fifty the other, conspicuous for its riches and populousness.

    The inhabitants are reckoned to number 3,500,000 souls. This city has been celebrated from the earliest days, but received its present name of the ‘Perfect Capital ‘ when Liu Pi made it his residence. Its population approaches a million, and its walls, shops, yamuns, sti-eets, warehouses, and suburbs, all indicate its wealth and political importance. Marco Polo calls it Sindafu, and the province Acbalec Manzi, describing the fine stone bridge, half a mile long, M’ith a roof resting on marble pillars, under Mhich “trade and industry is carried on,” ‘ which spans the Kian-suy, i.e.^ the Yangtsz’, as the Min is still often termed. The remarkable cave houses of the old iidiabitants still attract the traveler’s notice as he journeys up to Chingtu, along its banks.

    > Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II., p. 23.

    M. David, who lived at this city several months, declares it to be one of the most beautiful towns in China, placed in the midst of a fertile plain watered by many canals, which form a network of great solidity and usefulness. The number of honoraiy gateways in and near it attract the voyager’s eye, and their variety, size, inscriptions, and age furnish an interesting field of in(]iiiry. Many statues cut in fine stone are scattered about the city or used to adoi-n the cemeteries.

    The city of Chungking, on the Yangzi, at the mouth of the Jialing River, 725 miles from Hankow, is the next important city in Sichuan, and the center of a great trade on both rivers. The other marts on the Great River are also at the mouths of its affluents, and from Kwaichau to Siichau and Pingslian hien, a distance of 41)0 miles, there is easy and safe communication within the province for all kinds of boats; steam vessels will also liere find admirable opportunities for their employment.

    In the western half of Sz’clmen, the people are scattered over intervales and slopes between the numberless hills and mountains that make this one of the roughest parts of China; they are governed by their own local rulers, under Chinese superintendence. They belong to the Lolos race, and have been inimical and insubordinate to Chinese rule from earliest times, preventing their own progress and destroying all desire on the part of their rulers to benefit them. Yachau fu, Tatsieidu, and Datang are the largest towns Avest of Chingtu, on the road to Tibet. On the other side of the province, at

    Fungtu hien, occur the fire-wells, where great supplies of

    petroleum gas are used to evaporate the salt dug out near by.

    The many topics of interest in all parts of Sz’chuen, can only

    be referred to in a brief sketch, for it is of itself a kingdom.’

    ‘ Chinese Repository, “Vol XIX., pp. 317 and .394 Annnles de la Foi, Tome III., pp. :Ui9-:}81, and Tome IV., pp. 40!)-4ir>. J^ter by Baron Hiclithofen oit the Provinces of ChlM’i, Shdiisl, Sheiis’t, Sz’chueiiy etc. Shanghai, 1872-Krt’itiicr, Tiafcriien Onteit, pp. 780-829.

    THE PROVINCE OF KWAXGTUNG. 150

    The province of Kwangtuno {i.e., Broad East), from its having been for a long time the only one of the eighteen to which foreigners have had access, has almost become synonymous with (vhina, although but little more is really known of it than of the others—except in the vicinage of Canton, and along the course of the Peh kiang, from Xanhiung down to that city. It is bounded north by Kiangsi and llunan, northeast by Fuh-kieu, south by the ocean, and west and northwest hy Kwangsi; with an area about the same as that of the United Kingdom. The natural facilities for internal navigation and an extensive coasting trade, are unusually great ; for while its long line of ‘coast, nearly a thousand miles in length, affords many excellent harbors, the rivers communicate with the regions on the west, north, and east beyond its borders.

    The Xan shau runs along the north, between it and Kiangsi

    and Ilunan, in a northeasterly and southwesterly direction^

    presenting the same succession of short ridges, with bottom

    lands ‘and clear streams between them, which are seen in Fuhkien.

    These ridges take scores of names as they follow one

    another from Kwangsi to Fuhkien, but no part is so well known

    as the road, twenty-four miles in length, which crosses the Mei

    ling [i.e. Plum ridge), between Xan-ngan and Xanhiung. The

    elevation here is about a thousand feet, none of the peaks in

    this part exceeding two thousand, but rising higher to the west.

    Their summits are limestone, with granite underlying; granite

    is also the prevailing rock along the coast. Li-nm ridge in

    Hainan has some peaks reaching nearly to the snow-line. The

    bottoms of the I’ivers are wide, and their fertility amply repays

    the husbandman. Fruits, rice, silk, sugar, tobacco, and vegetables,

    constitute the greater part of the pi-oductions. Lead,

    iron, and coal, are abundant.

    The Zhu Jiang, or Pearl River, which flows past Canton, takes this name only in that short portion of its course ; it is however preferable to employ this as a distinctive name, comprehending the whole stream, rather than to confuse the reader by naming the numerous branches. It is formed by the union of three rivers, the West, Korth, and East, the two first of which unite at Sanshwui, west of the city, while the East River joins them at Whampoa. The Si kiang, or AVest Iliver, by far the largest, rises in the eastern part of Yunnan, and receives tributaries throughout the whole of Kwangsi, along the southern acclivities of the Xan shan, and after a course of 500 miles, passes out to sea through numerous mouths, the best known of which is the Boeca Tigris. The Peh kiang, or North Piver, joins it after a course of 200 miles, and the East Piver is nearly the same length; these two streams discharge the surplus waters of all the northern parts of Kwangtung. The country drained by the three cannot benmch less than 150,000 square miles, and most of their channels are navigable for boats to all the large towns in this and the province of Kwangsi. The Han kiang is the only river of importance in the eastern end of Kwangtung; the large town of Chauchau lies near its mouth. There can hardly be less than three hundred islands scattered along the deeply indented coast line of this province between Namoh Island and Annani, of which nearly one-third belong to the department of Kwangchau.

    Canton,, or Kwangchau fu (i.e. Broad City), the provincial capital, lies on the north bank of the Pearl River, in lat. 23° 7’10” K., and long. 113° 11:’ 30″ E., nearly parallel with Havana, Muskat, and Calcutta ; its climate is, however, colder than any of those cities. The name Canton is a corruption of Kwangtung, derived in English from Kamtoin, the Portuguese mode of writing it ; the citizens themselves usually call it Kicangtung Sling chinij, i.e. the provincial capital of Kwangtung or simply sdny cJilny. Another name is Yang-ching, or the ‘City of Rams,’ and a third the City of Cienii, both derived from ancient legends. It lies at the foot of the White Cloud hills, along the banks of the river, about seventy miles north of Macao in a direct line, and ninety northwest of Hongkong ; these distances are greater by the river.

    SIZE AND SITUATION OF CANTON. 161

    The delta into which the West, JSTorth, and East Rivei’S fall might be called a gulf, if the islands in it did not occupy so much of the area. The whole forms one of the most fertile parts of the province, and one of the most extensive estuaries of any river in the world,—being a rough triangle about a hundred miles long on each side. The bay of Lintin—so called from the islet of that name, where opium and other store ships formerly anchored—is the largest sheet of water, and lies below the principal embouchure of the river, called Fu, 3ft(.n, i.e. Bocca Tigi-is, or Bogue. Few rivers can be more completely protected by nature than this ; their defences of walls and guns at this spot, however, have availed the Chinese but little against the skill and power of their enemies. Ships pass through it up to the auchorage at Whainpoa, about thirty miles, from whence Canton lies twelve miles nearly due west. The approach to it is indicated by two lofty ]3agodas within the walls, and the multitude of boats and junks thronging the river, amidst which the most pleasing object to the ” far- travelled stranger” is the glimpse he gets through their masts of the foreign houses on Sha-meen, and the flagstaifs bearing their national ensigns.

    The part of Canton inclosed by walls is about six miles in circumference ; having a partition wall running east and west, which divides it into two unequal parts. The entire circuit, including the suburbs, is nearly ten miles. The population on land and water, so far as the best data enable one to judge, cannot be less than a million of inhabitants. This estimate has been doubted ; and certainty npon the subject is not to be attained, for the census affords no aid in determining this point, owing to the fact that it is set down hy districts, and Canton lies partly in two districts, Kanhai and Pwanyii, which extend beyond the walls many miles. Davis says, ” the whole circuit of the city has been compassed within two hours by persons on foot, and cannot exceed six or seven miles ;

    ”—-which is true, but he means only that portion contained within the walls ; and there are at least as many houses without the walls as within them, besides the boats. The city is constantly increasing, the western suburbs present many new streets entirely built up within the last ten years. The houses stretch along the river from opposite the Fa ti or Flower grounds to French Folly, a distance of four miles, and the banks are everywhere nearly concealed by the boats and rafts.

    The situation of Canton is one w^hich would naturally soon attract settlers. The earliest notices of the city date back two centuries befoi-e Christ, but traders were doubtless located here prior to that time. It grew in importance as the country became better settled, and in a.d. 700, a regular market was opened, and a collector of customs appointed. AYhenthe Manchus overran the country in 1650, this city resisted their ntmost efforts to reduce it for the space of eleven months, and was finally carried by treachery. Martini states that a hundred thousand men were killed at its sack ; and the whole number who lost their lives at the final assault and during the siege was 700,000—if the native accounts are trustworthy.’ Since then, it has been rebuilt, and has increased in prosperity until it is regarded as the second city in the empire for numbers, and is probably at present the first in wealth.

    The foundations of the city Avails are of sandstone, their upper

    part being brick ; they are about twenty feet thick, and from

    twenty-five to forty feet high, having an esplanade on the inside,

    and pathways leading to the i-aiiipart, on three sides. The

    houses are built near the wall on both sides of it, so that except

    on the north, one hardly sees it when walking around the

    city. There are twelve outer gates, four in the partition wall,

    and two water gates, through which boats pass, into the moat,

    from east to west. A ditch once encompassed the walls, now

    dry on the northern side ; on the other thi’cc, and within the

    city, it and most of the canals arc filled by the tide, which as it

    runs out does nmch to cleanse iUp city from its sewage. The

    gates are all shut at night, and a guard is stationed near them to

    preserve order, but the idle soldiers themselves cause at times

    no little disturbance. Among the names of the gates are Gfeat-

    Peace gate, Eternal-Rest gate, Five-Genii gate, Bainhoo- Wiehet

    gate, etc.

    The appearance of the city when viewed from the hills on the north is insipid and uninviting, compared with western cities, being an expanse of reddish roofs, often concealed by frames for drying or dyeing clothes, or shaded and relieved by a few large trees, and interspersed with high, red ])olcs used for flagstaffs. Two pagodas shoot up within the walls, far above the watch towers on them, and with the five-storied tower on Kwanyiji shan near the northern gate, form the most conspicuous objects in the prospect.

    ‘ The French bishop Palafox gives still another accoimt of the capture of Canton ; his statement contains, however, one or two glaring errors. Vid. Iliitoire de la Conquete de la Chine par lea Tartares^ pp. 150 ff.

    SIGHTS OF CANTON CITY. 163

    To a spectator at this elevation, the river is a prominent feature in the landscape, as it shines out covered with a great diversity of boats of different colors aiul sizes, some stationary others moving, and all resounding with the mingled hum of laborers, sailors, musicians, hucksters, children, and boatwonien, pursuing their several sports and occupations. On a low sandstone ledge, in the channel off the city, once stood the Sea Pearl(Hai Zhu) Fort, called Dutcli Folly by foreigners, the cpiietude reigning witliin which contrasted agreeably with the liveliness of the waters around. Beyond, on its southern shore, lie the suburb and island of Ilonam, and green fields and low hills are

    seen still farther in the distance ; at the western angle of this

    island the Pearl Piver divides, at the Peh-ngo tan or Macao

    Passage, the greatest body of water flowing south, and leaving a

    comparatively narrow channel before the city. The hills on the

    north rise twehe hundred feet, their acclivities for miles being

    covered with graves and tombs, the necropolis of this vast city.

    The streets are too narrow to be seen from such a spot.

    Among their names, amounting in all to more than six hundred,

    are Dragon street, Martial Dragon street, l\’arl street. Golden

    Fknver street, I^ew Green Pea street, Physic street, SjKctaele

    street, Old Clothes street, etc. They are not as dirty as those

    of some other cities in the empire, and on the whole, considering

    the habits of the people and surveillance of the government,

    which prevents almost everything like public spirit, Canton has

    been a well governed, cleanly city. In these respects it is not

    now as w^ell kept, perhaps, as it was before the war, nor was it

    ever comparable to modern cities in the West, nor should it be

    likened to them : without a coi’poration to attend to its condition,

    or having power to levy taxes to defray its unavoidable

    expenses, it cannot be expected that it should be as wholesome.

    It is more surprising, rather, that it is no worse than it is. The houses along the waterside are built upon piles and those portions of the city are subject to inundations. On the edge of the stream, the water percolates the soil, and spoils all the wells.

    The temples and public buildings of Canton are numerous. There are two pagodas near the west gate of the old city, and one hundred and twenty-four temples, pavilions, halls, and other religious edifices within the circuit of the city. The Kwang tah or ‘Plain pagoda,’ was erected by the Mohammedans (who still reside near it), about ten centuries ago, and is rather a minaret than a pagoda, though quite unlike those structures of Turkey in its style of architecture ; it shoots up in an angular, tapering tower, to the height of one hundred and sixty feet. The other is an octagonal ])agoda, of nine stories, one hundred and seventy feet high, first erected more than thirteen hundred years ago. The geoniancei’S say that the whole city is like a junk, these two pagodas are her masts, and the iive-storied tower on the northern wall, her stern sheets.

    Among the best known monuments to foreigners visiting this city was the monastery of ChorKj-shoin ^z\ ‘ Temple of Longevity,’ founded in 1573, and occupying spacious grounds. “In the iirst pavilion are three Buddhas ; in the second a sevenstory, gilt pagoda, in which are TO images of Buddha. In the third pavilion is an image of Buddha reclining,, and in a merry mood. A garden in the rear is an attractive place of resort, and another, on one side of the entrance, has a numher of tanks in which gold fish are reared. In the space in front of the temple a fair is held every morning for the sale of jade ornaments and other articles.” ‘ This temple was destroyed in Novemher, 1881, hy a mob who were incensed at the alleged jnisbehaviour of some of the priests toward the female devotees—an instance of the existence in China of a lively popular sentiment regarding certain matters. Near this compound stands the ‘Temple of the Five Hundred Genii,’ containing 500 statues of various sizes in honor of Buddha and his disciples.

    ‘Dr. Kerr, Cttntoiu (Inidc,

    BUDDHIST TEMPLES IN CANTON. 165

    The TTaJ-cJiwang sz\ a Buddhist temple at Ilonam usually known as the Plonam Joss-house, is one of the largest in Canton. Its grounds cover about seven aci-es, surrounded by a wall, and divided into courts, garden-spots, and a burial-gromid, where are deposited the ashes of priests after cremation. The buildings consist mostly of cloistei’s or apartments surrounding a court, within which is a temple, a pavilion, or a hall ; these courts are overshadowed by bastard-banian trees, the resort of thousands of birds. The outer gateway leads up a gravelled walk to a high portico guarded by two huge demoniac figures, through which the visitor enters a small inclosure, separated from the largest one by another spacious porch, in which are four colossal statues. This conducts him to the main temple, a low building one hundred feet square, and surrounded by pillars; it contains three wooden gilded images, in a sitting posture, called San Pao Fah, or the Past, Present, and Future Puddha, each of them about twenty-five feet high, and surrounded by numerous altars and attendant images. Daily prayers are chanted before them by a large chapter of priests, all of whom, dressed in yellow canonicals, go through the liturgy. Beyond this a smaller building contains a marble carving somewhat resembling a pagoda, under which is preserved a relic of Puddha, said to be one of his toe-nails. This court has other shrines, and many rooms for the accommodation of the priests, among which are the printing-office and library, both of them respectable for size, and containing the blocks of books issue by them, and sold to devotees.

    There are about one hundred and seventy-five priests connected with the establishment, only a portion of whom can read. Among the buildings are several small temples dedicated to national deities whom the Puddhists have adopted into their mythology. One of the houses adjoining holds the hogs (not hiKjs, as was stated in one work) offered by worshippers who feed them as long as they live.

    •Two other shrines belonging to the Buddhists, are both of them, like the Honam temple, well endowed. One called Kivanghiao s.i\ or ‘ Temple of Glorious Filial Duty,’ contains two hundred priests, who are supported from glebe lands, estimated at three thousand five hundred acres. The number of priests and nuns in Canton is not exactly known, but probably exceeds two thousand, nine-tenths of whom are Puddhists. There are only three temples of the Pationalists, their numbers and influence being far less in this city than those of the Puddhists.

    The Cluntj-liioang miao is an important religious institution in every Chinese city, the temple, being a sort of palladium, in which both rulers and people offer their devotions for the mcIfare of the city. The superintendent of that in Canton pays $4,000 for his situation, which sum, with a large profit, is obtained again in a few years, by the sale of candles, incense, etc., to the worshippers. The temples in China are generally cheerJJess and gloomy abodes, well enough fitted, however, for the residence of inanimate idols and the perfurmance of unsatisfying ceremonies. The entrance courts are usually occupied by liucksters, beggars, and idlers, who are occasionally driven off to give room for the mat-sheds in which theatrical performances got up by priests are acted. The principal hall, where the idol sits enshrined, is lighted only in fictnt, and the altar, drums, bells, and other furniture of the temple, are little calculated to enliven it ; the cells and cloisters are inhabited by men almost as senseless as the idols they serve, miserable beings, whose droning, useless life is too often only a cloak for vice, indolence, and crime, which make the class an opprobrium in the eyes of their countrymen.

    Canton is the most intluential city in Southern China, and its

    reputation for riches and luxury is established throughout the

    central and northern provinces, owing to its formerly engrossing

    the entire foreign trade np to 1843, for a period of about one

    hundred years. At that time the residence of the governorgeneral

    Avas at Shao-king fu, west of Canton, and his official

    guard of 5,000 troops is still quartered there, as the Manchii

    garrison is deemed enougli for the defence of Canton. He and

    the lloppo, or collector of customs, once had their yamuns in the

    Xew City, but a llomish C^athedral lias been built on the ^te

    of the former’s office since its capture in 1857. The governor,

    treasurer, Manchu commandant, chancellor, and the lower local

    magistrates (ten in all), live in the Old City, and with their official

    retinues compose a large body of underlings. Some of these

    establishments occupy four or five acres.

    The KanyYuenoY Examination Hall, lies in the southeastern corner of the Old City, similar in size and arrangement to these edifices in other cities. It is 1,330 feet long, 583 wide, and covers over sixteen acres. The wall surrounding it is entered at the east and west corners of the south end, where door-keepers are stationed to prevent a crowd of idlers. The cells are arranged in two sets on each side of the main passage^ which is paved and lined with trees: they are further disposed in rows of 57 and 63 cells each—all reached through one side door.

    The total is 8,653 ; each cell is 5 feet 9 inches deep, by 3 feet 8 inches wide ; grooves are made in the wall to admit a planlc, serving as a table by day and a bed by night. Once within, the students arc contined to their several stalls, and the outer gate is sealed. A single roof covers the cells of one range, the ranges being 3 feet 8 inches apart. The northern portion includes about one-third of the whole, and is built over with the lialls, courts, lodging-rooms, and guard or eating-houses of the highest examiners, their assistants and copyists, with thousands of waiters, printers, underlings, and soldiers. At the biennial examination the total number of students and others in the Hall reaches nearly twelve thousand men.

    THE THIRTEEN HONGS OR FACTORIES. 167

    There are four prisons in the city, all of them large establish- v^

    ments ; all the capital offenders in the province are brought to Canton for trial before the provincial officers, and this regulation makes it necessary to provide spacious accommodations for them. The execution-ground is a small yard near a pottery manufacture between the southern gate and the river side, and unless the ground is newly stained with blood, or cages containing the heads of the criminals are hung around, has nothing about it to attract the attention. Another public building, situated near the governor’s palace, is the Wan-s/iao Jiung, or ‘ Imperial Presence hall,’ where three days before and after his majesty’s birthday, the officers and citizens assemble to pay him adoration.

    The various guilds among the people, and the clubs of scholars

    and merchants from other provinces, have, each of them, public

    halls which are usually called consoo houses by foreigners, from

    a corruption of a native term hung-sz\ i.e., public hall ; but the

    usual designation is houi kwan or ‘ Assembly Hall.’ Their

    total number must be quite one hundred and fifty, and some of

    them are not destitute of elegance.’

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. II., pp. 145, 191, &c.

    The former residences of foreigners in the western suburbs were known as Shisan Hang or ‘ Thirteen Hangs,’ “” and for nearly two centuries furnished ulniust theonlv (!\hll)ition to the Chinese people of the Yangren or ‘ocean-men’. Here the fears and the greed of the rulers, landlords, and traders combined to restrain foreigners of all nations “within an area of about fifteen acres, a large part of this space being the Garden or licyxnidxiii’ta

    – This word is derived from the Chinese hong or hang, meaning a row or series, and is applied to warehouses because these consist of a succession of rooms. The foreign factories were built in this manner, and therefore the Chinese called each block a hong; the old security-merchants were dubbed liong-merchants, because they lived in such establishments.

    “Walk on the baidv of the river. All these houses and out-houses covered a space scarcely as great as the base of the Great Pyramid ; its total population, including native and foreign servants, was upwards of a thousand souls. The shops and nuirkets of the Chinese were separated from them only a few feet, and this greatly increased the danger from fire, as may be inferred from the sketch of the street next on the west side.

    VIEW OF A STKEET IN CANTON.ENVIKOXS OF CANTOX. 169

    In 1S50, the number of hongs was reckoned to be 16, and the local calendar for that A’ear contained 317 names, not including women and children. Besides the 16 Hangs, four native streets, boidered with shops for the sale of fancy and silk goods to their foreign customers, ran between the factories. This latter name was given to them from their being the residences of factors, for no handicraft was carried on here, nor were many goods stored in them. Fires were not unusual, which demolished jwrtions of them ; in 1822 they were completely consumed; another conflagration in 1843 destroyed two hongs and a street of shops ; and in 1842, owing to a sudden riot, connected with paying the English indemnity, the British Consulate was set on fire. Finally, as if to inaugurate a new era, they were all simultaneously burned by the local authorities to drive out the British forces, in December, 1856, and every trace of this interesting spot as it existed for so long a time in the annals of foreign intercourse obliterated. Since the return of trade, a new and better site has been fomned at Shameen, west of the old spot, by building a solid stone wall and filling in a long, marshy low-tide bank, formerly occupied by boats, to a height of 8 or 10 feet, on which there is room for gardens as well as houses. This is surrounded by water, and thereby secure from fire and mobs t() which the old hongs were exposed. Besidences are obtainable anywhere in the city by foreigners, and the common sight in the olden times of their standing outside of the Great Peace Gate to see the crowd pass in and out while

    they themselves could not enter, is no longer seen. A very

    good map of the enciente was made by an American missionary,

    Daniel Vrooman, by taking the angles of all the conspicuoni

    buildings therein, with the highest points in the suburbs ; he

    then taught a native to pace the streets between them, compass

    in liand (noting courses and distances, which he fixed by the principal gates), until a complete plan was filled out. When the city was opened four years afterwards this map was foundto need no important corrections.

    The trades and manufactories at Canton are mainly connected

    with the foreign commerce. Many silk fabrics are woven at

    Fatshan, a large town situated about ten miles west of the city ;

    fire-crackers, paper, mat-sails, cotton clotli, and other articles,

    are also made there for exportation. The number of persons

    engaged in M’eaving cloth in Canton is about 50000, including

    embroiderers ; nearly 7000 barbers and 4200 shoemakers are

    stated as the number licensed to shave the crowns and shoe the

    soles of their fellow-citizens.

    ^lie opposite suburb of Ilonam offers pleasant walks for recreation, and the citizens are in the habit of going over the river to saunter in its fields, or in the cool grounds of the great temple ; a race-course and many enjoyable rides on horseback also tempt foreigners into the country. A couple of miles up the river are the Fa ti or Flower gardens which once supplied the plants carried out of the country, and are resorted to bypleasure parties ; but to one accustomed to the squares, gardens, and esplanades of M’estern cities, these grounds appear mean in

    the extreme.y Foreigners randjle into the country, but rowing

    upon the river is their favorite reci-eation. Like Europeans in

    all parts of the East, they retain their own costume and modes

    of living, and do not espouse native styles ; though if it were

    not for the shaven crown, it is not unlikely that many of them

    would adopt the Chinese dress.

    The Cantonese enumerate eight remarkable localities, called

    l>ah hhuj^ which they consider worth}’ the attention of the

    stranger. The first is the peak of Yuehsiu, just within the

    walls on the north of the city, and commanding a fine view of

    the surrounding country. The Vi-])a Tah^ or Lyre pagoda at AVhampoa, and the ‘Eastern Sea Fish-pearl,’ a rock in the Pearl

    River off the city, on wliich the fort ah-eady referred to as

    the ‘ Dutch Folly ‘ was formerly situated, are two more ; the

    pavilion of the Five Genii, with the five stone rams, and print

    of a man’s foot in the rock, ” always filled with water,” near

    by ; the rocks of Yu-shan ; the lucky wells of Faukiu in the

    western suburbs ; cascade of Si-tsiau, forty miles west of the

    city ; and a famous red building in the city, complete the eight

    ” lions.”

    The foreign shipping all anchored, in the early days, at “Whampoa, but this once important anchorage has been nearly deserted since the river steamers began their trips to the outer waters. There are two islands on the south side of the anchorage, called French and Danes’ islands, on which foreigners are buried, some of the gravestones marking a century past. The prospect from the summit of the hills hereabonts is picturesque and charming, giving the spectator a high idea of the fertility and industry of the land and its people. The town of Whanipoa and its pagoda lie north of the anchorage; between this and Canton is another, called Lob creek pagoda, both of them uninhabited and decaying.

    MACAO AND HONGKONG. 171

    Macao (pronounced Mal’ov) is a Portuguese settlement on a small peninsula projecting from the south-eastern end of the large island of Iliangshan. Its Chinese inhabitants have been governed since 1S49 by the Portuguese authorities somewhat differently from their own people, but the mixed government has succeeded very well. The circuit of this settlement is about eight miles ; its position is beautiful and very agreeable ; nearly surrounded with water, and open to the sea breezes, having a good variety of hill and plain even in its little territory, and a large island on the west called Tul-vtien shan or La})a Island, on which arc pleasant rambles, to be reached by equally pleasant boat excursions, it offers, moreover, one of the healthiest residences in south-eastern Asia. The population is not far from 80,000, of whom more than ‘7,000 are Portuguese and other foreigners, living under the control of the Portuguese authorities. The Portuguese have refused to pay the former annual ground-rent of 000 taels to the Chinese Government, since the assassination of their governor in 1849, and now control all the inhabitants living within the Barrier wall, most of M’lioni have been born therein. The houses occupied by the foreign population aie solidly built of brick or adobie, large, roomy, and open, and from the rising nature of the ground on which they stand, present an imposing appearance to the visitor coming in from the sea.

    There are a few notable buildings in the settlement ; the most imposing edifice, St. Paul’s church, was burned in 1835.

    Three forts on connnanding eminences protect the town, and others outside of the walls defend its waters ; the governor takes the oaths of office in the Monte fort ; but the government offices are mostly in the Senate house, situated in the middle of the town. Macao was, up to 1813, the only residence for the

    families of merchants trading at Canton. Of late the authorities

    are doing much to revive the prospei-ity of the place, by making

    it a free port. The Typa anchorage lies’ between the islands

    Mackerara and Typa, about three miles off the southern end

    of the peninsula ; all small vessels go into the Inner harbor on

    the west side of the town. Ships anchoring in the Roads are

    obliged to lie about three miles off in consequence of shallow

    Mater, and large ones cannot come nearer than six or seven miles.’

    Since the ascendancy of Hongkong, this once celebrated poi-t

    has fallen away in trade and importance, and for many years

    had an infamous reputation for the protection its rulers afforded

    the coolie trade.

    Eastward from Macao, about, forty miles, lies, the English colony of Hongkong, an island in lat. 22° 16^’ K., and long. Ill” 8^’ E., on the eastern side of the estuary of the Pearl River. The island of Hongkong, or Xianggang (i.e., the Fragrant Streams), is nine miles long, eight broad, and twenty-six in circumference, presenting an exceedingly uneven, barren surface, consisting for the most part of ranges of hills, with narrow intervales, and a little level beach land. Victoria Peak is 1825 feet. Probably not one-twentieth of the surface is available for a<^riciiltural purposes. The island and harbor were first ceded to the Crown of England by the treaty made between Captain Elliot and Kishen, in January, 1841, and again by the treaty of Nanjing, in August, 1842 ; lastly, by the Convention of Peking, October 24, ISCO, the opposite peninsula of Ivowlung M’as added, in order to furnish space for quartering troops and storehouse room for naval and military supplies. The town of Victoria lies on the north side, and extends more than three miles along the shore. The secure and convenient harbor has attracted the settlement here, though the nne\en nature of the ground compels the inhabitants to stretch their warehouses and dwellings along the beach.

    ‘ Cldnese Rejwsitory, passim. An Historical Sketch of the Portwjxiese Settlements in China. Bj Hir A. Ljungstedt. Boston, 188(>.

    The architecture of most of the buildings erected in Victoria is eu})erior to anything heretofore seen in (^liina. Its population is now estimated at 130,000, of whom five-sixths are Chinese tradesmen, craftsmen, laborers, and boatmen, few of whom lune their families. • The government of the colony is vested ^’n a governor, chief-justice’, and a legislative council of five, assisted by various subordinate officers and secretaries, the M’liole forming a cumbrous and expensive machinery, compaied “with the needs and resources of the colony The Bishop of Victoria has an advisory control over the missions of the establishment in the southern provinces of China, and supervises the schools in the colony, where many youths are trained in English and Chinese literature.

    The supplies of the island are chiefly brought from the mainland where an increasing population of Chinese, under the control of the magistrate of Kowluiig, find ample demand for all the provisions they can furnish.

    Three newspapers are published in English, and two in Chinese. The Seaman’s and Military hospitals, the chapels and schools of the London and Church Missionary Society, St. John’s Cathedral, Tioman Catholic establishment, the government house, the magistracy, jail, the ordnance and engineer departments.

    TOWNS OF KWAXGTUNG PROVINCE. 173

    Exchange, and the Club house, are among the principal edifices. The amount of money expended in buildings in this colony is enormous, aiid most of them are substantial stone or brick houses. The view of the city as seen from the harbor is only excelled in beauty by the wider panorama spread out before the spectator on Victoria Peak. During the forty-odd years of its occupation, this colony lias slowly advanced in commercial importance, and become an entrepot for foreign goods designed for native markets in Southern China. Every facility has been given to the Chinese who resort to its shops to carry away their purchases, by making the port free of every impost,

    and preventing the imperial revenue cutters from interfering

    with their junks while in sight of the island. The arrangements

    of this contested point so that the Chinese revenue shall

    not suffer have not satisfied either party, and as it is in the similar

    case of Gibraltar, is not likely to soon be settled. Smugglers

    must run their own risks with the imperial officers. The

    most valuable article leaving Hongkong is opium, but the

    greatest portion of its exports pay the duties on entering China

    at the five open ports in the province of Kwangtung. As the

    focus of postal lines of passenger steamers, and the port where

    mercantile vessels come to learn markets, Ilonofkono; exerts a

    greater influence on the southeast of Asia than her trade and

    size indicate. The island of Shangclmen or San9ian, where Xavier

    died, lies southwest of Macao about thirty miles, and is sometimes

    visited by devout persons from that place to reverence his tomb, which they keep in repair.

    The city oi Shauchau in the northern part of the province lies at the fork of the river, which compels a change of boats for passengers and goods ; it is one of the largest cities after Canton, and a pontoon bridge furnishes the needed facilities for stopping and taxing the boats and goods passing through.

    Shanking, west of Canton, is another important town, which held out a long time against the Manchus ;* it was formerly the seat of the provincial authorities, till they removed to Canton in 1630 to keep the foreigners under control. It stretches along six miles of the river bank, a well-built city for China, in a beautiful position. Some of its districts furnish green teas and matting for the Canton market, and this trade has opened the way for a large emigration to foreign countries. Among other towns of note is Xanhiung, situated at the head of navigation on the North River, where goods cross the Mei ling.

    ‘ Palafox, Conquete de la CJdne, p. 172.

    Before the coast was opened to trade, fifty thousand porters obtained a livelihood by transporting packages, passengers, and merchandise to and from this town and Xan-ngan in Kiangsi. It is a thriving place, and the restless habits of these industrious carriers give its population somewhat of a turbulent character. Many of them are women, who usually pair off by themselves and carry as heavy burdens as the men.

    Not far from Yangshan hien is a fine cavern, the JV^iu Yen or ‘ Ox Cave,’ on a hillside near the North River. Its entrance is like a grand hall, with pillars TO feet high and 8 or 10 feet thick. The finest part is exposed to the sun, but many pretty rooms and niches are revealed by torches ; echoes 2-esound through their recesses. The stalactites and stalagmites present a vast variety of shapes—some like immense folds of di-apery, between which are lamps, thrones and windows of all shapes and sizes, while others hang from the roof in fanciful forms.

    ‘ Embassy (of Lord Amherst) to Cldna, Moxon’s ed., 1840, p. 98.

    THE ISLAND OF HAINAN. 175

    The scenery along the river, between Xanhiung and Shauchau, is described as wild, rugged, and barren in the extreme; the summits of the mountains seem to touch each other across the river, and massive fragments fallen from their sides, in and along the river, indicate that the passage is not altogether free from danger. In this mountainous region coal is procured by opening horizontal shafts to the mines. Ellis ‘ says, it was brought some distance to the place where he saw it, to be used in the manufacture of green vitriol. Many pagodas are passed in the stretch of 330 miles between Xanhiung and Canton, calculated to attract notice, and assure the native boatmen which swarm on its waters, of the protection of the two elements he has to deal with—wind and water. One of the most conspicuous objects in this part of the river are five rocks, which rise abruptly from the banks, and are fancifully called Wt(-7na-tao, or ‘Five-horses’ heads.’ The formation of this part of the province consists of compact, dark-colored limestone, overlying sandstone and breccia. Nearly halfway between Shauchau and Canton is a celebrated mountain and cavern temple, dedicated to Kwanjnn, the goddess of Mercy, and most charmingly situated amid waterfalls, groves, and fine scenery, near a hill about 1850 feet high. The cliff has a sheer descent of five hundred feet; the temple is in a fissure a hundred feet above the water, and consists of two stories; the steps leading up to them, the rooms, walls, and cells, are all cut out of the rock. Inscription;; and scrolls hide the naked walls, and a few inane priests inhabit this somewhat gloomy abode. Mr. Barrow draws a proper comparison between these men and the inmates of the Cork Convent in Portugal, or the Franciscan Convent in Madeira, who had likewise ” chained themselves to a rock, to be gnawed by the vultures of superstition and fanaticism,” but these last have less excuse.

    The island of Hainan constitutes a single department, Kiungchau,

    but its prefect has no power over the central and mountainous

    parts. In early European travels it is named Aynao, Kainan

    and Aniam. It is about one hundred and fifty miles long and

    one hundred broad, being in extent nearly twice the size of

    Sicily. It is separated from the main by Luichau Strait, sixteen

    miles wide, whose shoals and reefs render its passage uncertain.

    The interior of the island is mountainous, and well wooded, and the inhabitants give a partial submission to the Chinese ; Ihey are identical in race with the mountaineers in Kweichau. This ridge is called Li-mu ling; a remarkable peak in the centre of the southern half, Wuzhi Shan or ‘ Fivefinger Mountain,’ probably rises 10,000 feet. The Chinese inhabitants are mostly descendants of emigrants from Fuhkien, and are either trading, agricultural, marine, or piratical in their vocation, as they can make most money. The lands along the coast are fertile, producing areca-nuts, cocoa-nuts, and other tropical fruits, which are not found on the main. Kiungchau fu lies at the mouth of the Li-mu River, opposite Luichau. The port is Hoiliau, nineteen miles distant, but the entrance is too shallow for most vessels, and the trade consequently seeks a better market at Pakhoi, a town which has recently risen to importance as a treaty port on the mainland. All the thirteen district towns are situated on the coast, and within their circuit, on Chinese maps, a line is drawn, inclosing the centre of the island, within which the Li viin^ or Li people live, some of whom are acknowledged to he independent. They are therefore known as wild and civilized Li, and are usually in a state of chronic irritation from the harsh treatment of the rulers. It is prohahle that they originally came from the Malayan Peninsula (as their features, dress, and habits indicate their atiinity with those tribes), and have gradually withdrawn themselves into their recesses to avoid oppression. In 1202, the Emperor Kublai gave twenty thousand of them lands free for a time in the eastern parts, but the Ming sovereigns found them all intractable and l)elligerent. The population of the island is about a million. Its productions are rice, sweet potatoes, sugar, tobacco, fruits, timber, and insect wax.’

    The province of Guangxi(l.e. Broad West) extends westward of Guangdong to the borders of Annam, occupying the region on the southwest of the Xan ling, and has been seldom visited by foreigners, mIioso journeys have been up the Kwai Jiang: or ‘Cassia River’ into Hunan. The banks of the rivers sometimes spread out into plains, more in the eastern parts than elsewhere, on which an abundance of rice is grown. There are mines of gold, silver, and other metals, in this province, most of which are worked under the superintendence of government, but no data are accessible from whicli to ascertain the produce.

    Among the commercial productions of Guangxi, are cassia, cassia-oil, ijik-stones, and cabinet-woods; its natural ivsources supply the prin(;i})al articles of trade, for there are no manufactures of importance. IMany partially subdued tribes are found within the limits of this province, who are ruled by their own hereditary governors, under the supervision of the Chinese authorities; there are twenty-four vhau districts occupied by these people, the names of whose head-men are given in the lied

    ‘ E. C. Taintor, OeogrnpMeal Skelcit of the Mnnd of JTnlnnn, with map.

    (Canton. 18«8. Journal N. G. Br. R. A. S., No. VII., Arts. I., 11., and IN.C’/iiTKi li/anew, Vols. I., p. 124, and II., p. 382. N. B. Dennys, Report on thtnetoly-^jpeiied porta of Kiangchow {UoUkiu) in JIi<iu((n, <ind lldiphong in. Tonqidn. Ilouij’koug, 1878.

    THE PROVINCE OF KWANGSI. 177

    Book, and their position marked in the statistical maps of the

    empire, but no information is furnished in either, concerning

    the numbers, hmguage, or occupations, of the inhabitants.

    Guangxi is well watered by the west lliver and its branches, which enable traders to convey timber and surplus produce to Canton, and receive from thence salt and other articles. The mountains on the northwest are occasionally covered with siK)w; many of the western districts furnish little besides wood for buildings and boats. The basin of the West River is subdivided by ranges of hills into three large valleys, through which flow many tributaries of the leading streams, and as they each usually drop the old name on receiving a new affluent, it is a confusing study to follow them all. On the south the river Yiih rises near Yunnan, and deflects south to Kan-ning near

    the borders of Kwangtung, joining the central trunk at Sinchau,

    after a course of five hundred miles. On the north the

    river Lung and the Hiing-shui receive the surplus drainage

    of the northern districts and of Kweichau, a region where the

    Miaotsz’ have long kept watch and ward over their hilly abodes.

    The waters are then poured into the central trench a few miles

    west of Sinchau. This main artery of the province rises in

    Yunnan and would connect it by batteaux with Canton City if the channel were improved ; it is called Sz’ ho, and ranks as the largest tributary of the Pearl River.

    The capital, Guilin (i.e., Cassia Forest), lies on the Cassia River, a branch of the West River, in the northeast part of the province ; it is a poorly built city, surrounded by canals and branches of the river, destitute of any edifices wortliy of notice and having no great amount of trade. During the Tai-ping rebellion, this and the next town were nearly destroyed between the insurgents and imperialists.

    Wuchau fu, on the same river, at its junction with the Long Jiang, or ‘Dragon River’, where they unite and form the West River, is the largest trading town in the province. The independent chau districts are scattered over the southwest near the frontiers of Annam, and if anything can be inferred from their position, it may be concluded that they were settled by Laos tribes, who had been induced, by the comparative security of life and property within the frontiers, to acknowledge the Chinese sway.’

    The province of Kweichau (*.<?., Koblc Region) is on the whole the poorest of the eighteen in the character of its inhabitants, amount of its products, and development of its resources.

    A range of mountains passes from the northeast side in a southwesterly course to Yunnan, forming the watershed between the valleys of the Yangtsz’ and Siang rivers, a rough but fertile region. The western slopes are peopled by Chinese tillers of the soil, a rude and ignorant race, and rather turbulent; the eastern districts are largely in the hands of the Miaotsz’, who are considered by the officials and their troops to be lawful objects

    of oppression and destruction. The climate of the province

    is regarded as malarious, owing to the quantity of stagnant

    water and the impurity of that drawn from wells. Its productions

    consist of rice, wheat, musk, insect wax, tobacco, timber,

    and cassia, with lead, copper, silver, quicksilver, and iron. The

    quicksilver mines are in Kai chau, north of the provincial capital,

    and apparently exceed in extent and richness all other

    known deposits of this metal ; they have been worked for centuries.

    Cinnabar occurs at various places, about lat. 27°, in a

    belt extending quite across the province, and tei’minating near

    the borders of Yunnan. Two kinds of silk obtained from the

    worms which feed on the mulberry and oak, furnish material

    for clothing so cheaply that cotton is imported from other provinces.

    Horses and other domestic animals are reared in larger quantities than in the eastern provinces. •

    The largest river is the AVu, which drains the central and northern parts of the province, and empties into the Yangtsz’, through the river Kien near Chungking. Other tributaries of that river and West River, also have their sources in this province, and by means of batteaux and rafts are all more or less available for traffic. The natural outlet for the products of Ivweichau is the river Yuen in Ilunan, whose various branches flow into it from the eastern prefectures, but their unsettled condition prevents regular or successful intercourse.

    ‘ Chinese Repodtory, Vol. XIV., pp. 171 ff.

    KWEICHAU PROVINCE AND THE MIAOTSZ 179

    The capital, Kweijang, is situated among the mountains ; it is the smallest provincial capital of the eighteen, its walls not being more than two miles in circumference. The other chief towns or departments are of inferior note. There are many military stations in the southern prefectures at the foot of the mountains, intended to restrain the unsubdued tribes of Miaotsz’ who inhabit them.

    Miaotsz’ Types.

    This name Miaotsz’ is used among the Chinese as a general term for all the dwellers upon these mountains, but is not applied to every clan by the people themselves. They consist of eighty-two tribes in all (found scattered over the mountains in Kwangtung, ITunan, and Kwangsi, as well as in Kweichau), speaking several dialects, and diifering among themselves in their customs, government, and dress. The Chinese have often described and pictured these people, but the notices are confined to a list of their divisions, and an account of their most striking peculiarities. Their language dift’ei’s entirely from the Chinese, but too little is known of it to ascertain its analogies to other tonj^ues; its affinities are most likely with the Laos, and those

    tribes between Burmah, Siam, and China. One clan, inhabiting

    Lipo hien in the extreme south, is called Yau-jin, and

    although they occasionally come down to Canton to trade, the

    citizens of that place firmly believe them to be furnished with

    short tails like monkeys. They carry arms, are inclined to live

    at peace with the lowlanders, but resist eveiy attempt to penetrate

    into their fastnesses. The Yau-jin first settled in Kwangsi,

    and thence passed over into Lien chau about the twelfth century, where they have since maintained their footing. Both sexes wear their hair braided in a tuft on the top of the head—but never shaven and tressed as the Chinese—and dress in loose garments of cotton and linen ; earrings are in imiversal use among them. They live at strife among themselves, which becomes a source of safety to the Chinese, who are willing enough to liarass and oppress, but are ill able to resist, these hardy mountaineers. In 1832, they broke out in active hostilities, and destroyed numerous parties of troops sent to subdue them, but were finally induced to return to their retreats by offers^of pardon and largesses granted to those who submitted.

    A Chinese traveler among the Miaotsz’ says that some of them live in huts constructed upon the branches of trees, others in mud hovels ; and one tribe in clift” houses dug out of the hillsides, sometimes six hundred feet up. Their agriculture is rude, and their garments are obtained Ijy barter from the lowlanders in exchange for metals and grain, or wov^en by themselves.

    The religious observances of these tribes are carefully noted, and whatever is connected with nuirriages and funerals.

    THE PROVINCE OF YUNNAN. 181

    In one tribe, it is the custom for the father of a new-born child, as soon as its mother has become strone^ enouoh to leave her couch, to get into bed himself and there receive the congratulations of his acquaintances, as he exhibits his offspring—a custom which has been found among the Tibetan tribes and elsewhere. Another class has the counterpart of the may-pole and its jocund dance, which, like its corresponding game, is availed of by young men to select their mates.’

    The province of Yunnan {i.e., Cloudy South—south of the Yun ling, or ‘Cloudy Mountains”‘) is in the southwest of the empire, bounded by north Sz’chuen, east by Kweichau and Kwangsi, south by Annam, Laos, and Siam, and west by Burmah.

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 29; Vol. XIV., pp. 105-117; G. T. Lay,Chinese as They Are, p. 316 ; Journal of N’. C. Branch of Royal Asiatic Society,No. III., 1H59, and No. VI., 1869. Chinese Recorder, Vols. 11., p. 265, and III., pp. 33, 74, 96, 134 and 147. Peking Gazette for 1872. China Rei-ietc,Vol. v., p. 92.- Known as Widiharit in Pali records. Chinese Recorder, Vol. III., pp. 33,74, sqq. ; see also pp. 62, 93, 126, for the record of a visit.

    Its distance from the central authority of the Empire since its partial conquest under the Ilanjhjnasty has always made it a weak point, and the uneducated, mixed character of the inhabitants has given an advantage to enterprising leaders to resist Chinese rule. It was recovered from the aborigines by the Tang Emperors, who called it Jung chau, or the region of the Jung tribes, from which the name Karajang, i.e.. Black Jung, which Marco Polo calls it, is derived; Kublai Khan himself led an army in 1253 thither before he conquered China, and sent the Venetians on a mission there about the year 127S, after his establishment at Peking. A son of the Emperor was his Yiceroy over this outlying province at that time. The recent travels of Margary, Baber, and Anderson, of the British service, with Monhot and Garnier of the French, have done much to render this secluded province better known. The central portion is occupied by an extensive plateau, ramifying in various directions and intersected with valley-plains at altitudes of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, in Mdiich lie several large lakes and the seven principal cities in the province. These plains are overtopped by the ridges separating them, which, seen from the lower levels, appear, as in Sliansi, like horizontal, connected summit-lines. All are built up of red sandstone, like the basin in Sz’chuen, through which rivers, small and large, have furroM’ed their beds hundreds and thousands of feet, rendering communication almost impossible in certain directions as soon as one leaves the plateau. In the east and northwest, the defiles are less troublesome, and in this latter portion of the province are some peaks rising far above the snow line. These are called on Col. Yule’s map the Goolan Sigon range. The climate is cooler than in Sz’chuen, owing to this elevation, and not very healthy ; snow lies for weeks at Yunnan fu, and the summers are charming.

    The Yangtsz’ enters the province on the northwest for a short distance. The greatest river in it is the Lantsan, which rises in Tibet, and runs for a long distance parallel with and between the Yangzi and Xu Kivers till the three break through the mountains not far from each other, and take different courses,—the largest turning to the eastward across China, the Lantsan southeast throngh Ynnnan to the gulf of Siani, under the name of the Meikon or river of Cambodia, and the third, or Salween, westerly through Burmah. The Meikon receives many large tributaries in its course across the province, and its entire length is not less than 1500 miles. The Lungehuen,

    a large affluent of the Irrawadi, runs a little west of the

    Salween. The Meinam rises in Yunnan, and flows south into

    Siam under the name of the Xanting, and after a course of nearly

    eight hundred miles, empties into the sea below Bangkok.

    East of the Lantsan are several important streams, of which

    three that unite in Annam to form the Sangkoi, are the largest.

    The general course of these rivers is southeasterly, and their

    upper waters are separated by mountain lidges, between which

    the valleys are often reduced to very narrow limits. There are

    two lakes in the eastern part of the province, south of the capital,

    called Sien and Tien ; the latter is about seventy miles

    long by twenty wide, and the Sien hu {I.e., ‘ Fairy Lake ‘) about

    two-thirds as large. Another sheet of water in the northwest,

    near Tali fu, coiinnunicating with the Yangtsz’ kiang, is called

    Urh hai or Uhr sea, which is more* than a hundred miles long,

    and about twenty in width.

    INHABITANTS AND PRODUCTIONS OF YUNNAN. 183

    The capital, Yunnan, lies u})ou the north shore of Lake Tien, and is a town of note, having, moreover, considerable political importance from its trade with other parts of the country through the Yangtsz’, and with Burmah. The city was seriously injured in 1834, by an earthquake, which is said to have lasted three entire days, forcing the inhabitants into tents or the open fields, and overthrowing every important building.’

    The traffic between this province and Burinah centres at the fortified post of Tsantah, in the district of Tangjneh, both of them situated on a branch of the Irrawadi. The principal part of the commodities is transported upon animals from these depots to Bhamo, upon the Iri-awadi, the largest market-town in this part of Chin-India. The Chinese participate largely in this trade, which consists of raw and manufactured silk to the amount of §400,000 annualh’, tea, copper, carpets, orpiment, quicksilver, vermilion, drugs, fruits, and other things, carried from their country in exchange for raw cotton to the amount of $1,140,000 annually, ivory, wax, rhinoceros and deer’s horns, precious stones, birds’ nests, peacocks’ feathers, and foreign articles.

    The entire traffic is probably $2,500,000 annually, and for a few years past has been regularly increasing. There is considerable intercourse and trade on the southern frontiers with the Lolos, or Laos and Annamese,” partly by means of the head-waters of the Meinam and Meikon—which are supposed to communicate with each other by a natural canal—and partly by caravans over the mountains. Yunnan fu was the capital of a Chinese prince about the time of the decadence of the Ming dynasty, who had rendered himself independent in this part of their empire by the overthrow of the rebel Li, but having linked his fortunes with an imbecile scion of that house, he displeased his officers, and his territories gradually fell under the sway of the conquering Manchus.

    ‘ A/males de la Foi, Tome VIII. , p. 87.
    ‘ Two thousand Chinese families live in Amerapura.

    The southern and western districts of the province are inhabited by half-subdued tribes who are governed by their own rulers, under the nominal sway of the Chinese, and pass and repass across the frontiers in pursuit of trade or occupation. The extension of British trade from Bangoon toward this part of China, has brought those hill tribes more into notice, and proved in their present low and barbarous condition the accuracy of the ancient description by Marco Polo and the Boman Catholic missionaries. Colonel Yule aptly terms this wide region an “Ethnological Garden of tribes of various race and in every stage of uncivilization.” The unifying influence of the Chinese written language and literary institutions has been neutralized among these races by their tribal dissensions and inaptitude for study of any kind. Anderson gives short vocabularies of the Kakhyen, Shan, Ilotha Shan, Le-san and Poloung languages, all indicating radical differences of origin, the existence of which would keep them from mingling with each other as Avell as from the Chinese.’

    The mineral wealth of Yunnan is greater and more varied than that of any other province, certain of the mines having been worked since the Sung dynasty. Coal occurs in many places on the borders of the central plateau ; some of it is anthracite of remarkable solidity and uniformity. Salt occurs in hills, not in wells as in Sz’chuen ; the brine is sometimes obtained by diving tunnels into the hillsides. Metalliferous ores reach from this province into the three neighboring ones. Copper is the most abundant, and the mines in Kingyuen fu, in the southwestern ‘part of Sz’chuen, have supplied both copper and zinc ores during the troubles in Yunnan. The copper at Ilwuili chau in that prefecture is worked by companies which pay a royalty of two taels a pecul to the government, and furnish the metal to the mine owners for $S per pecul. The pehtaiKj or argentan ores are mixed with copper, tin, or lead, by the manufacturers according to the uses the alloys are put to.

    Silver exists in several places in the north, and the exploitation of the mines was successful until within 30 years past ; now they cannot be safely or profitably worked, in consequence of political disturbances. Gold is obtained in the sand of some rivers but not to a large extent; lead, iron, tin, and zinc occur in such plenty that they can be exported, but no data are accessible as to the entire product or export.
    ”’ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. II. Anderson, Mandalay to Momien.” rroced. Roy. Geog. Soc, Vols. XIII., p. 392, XIV.’, p. 335, XV., pp. 1G3 and 343. Col. Yule, Trade Routes to Westeru CJdiia—The Geo(jiuq,hic<d Mitynzine,April, 1875. Riclithofen, Recent Attoiipts to find a direct Trade-Road toSonthtDCstern China—Shoiif/fiai Budget, March 2(i, 1874. Journey of A. R.Margary from Shaiighae to Bhamo. Loudon, 1875. Col. H. Browne in Blue Books, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (1870-77).

    CHAPTER IV. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF MANCHURIA, MONGOLIA, ILi, AND TIBET

    The portions of the Chinese Empire beyond the limits of the Eighteen Provinces, though of far greater extent than China Proper, are comparatively of minor importance. Their vast regions are peopled by different races, whose languages are nnitually unintelligible, and whose tribes are held together under the Chinese sway rather by interest and reciprocal hostilities or dislike, than by force. European geographers have vaguely termed all that space lying north of Tibet to Siberia, and east of the Tsung ling to the Pacific, Chinese Tartary ; while the countries west of the Tsung ling or Belur tag, to the Aral Sea, have been collectively called Inde2}endtnt Tartary. Both these

    names have already become nearly obsolete on good maps of

    those regions ; the more accurate knowledge brought home by

    recent travellers having ascertained that their inhabitants are

    neither all Tartars (or Mongols) nor Turks, and further that

    the native names and divisions are preferable to a single comprehensive

    one. Such names as Manchuria, Mongolia, Songaria,

    and Turkestan, derived from the leading tribes dwelling in

    those countries, are more definite, though these are not permanent,

    owing to the migratory, changeable habits of the people.

    From their ignorance of scientific geography, the Chinese have

    no general designations for extensive countries, long chains of

    mountains, or devious rivers, but apply many names where, if

    they were better informed, they would be content with one.

    The following table presents a general view of these countries,

    giving their leading divisions and forms of government.

    EXTENT OF Manchuria. 187

    They cannot be classed, however, in the same manner as the provinces, nor are the divisions and capitals here given to be regarded as definitely settled. Their nnited area is 3,951,130 square miles, or a little more than all Europe ; their separate areas cannot be precisely given. Manchuria contains about 400,000 square miles ; Mongolia between 1,300,000 and 1,500,000 square miles ; III about 1,070,000 square miles ; and Tibei from 500,000 to 700,000 square miles.

    MANcnuRi.v is so termed from the leading race who dwell there, the 3IandJu/’s or Manclius ^ it is a word of foreign origin, the Chinese having no general appellation for the viceroyalty ruled from Mukden. It comprises the eastern portion of the high table land of Central Asia, and lies between latitudes 39° and 52° X., and longitudes 120° to 134° E. These points include the limits in l^otli directions, giving the region a rectangular shape lying in a north-east and sonth-west direction; roughly speaking, its dimensions are 800 by 500 miles. It is

    bounded on the south by the Gulf of Pechele, and the highlands

    of Corea on the north bank of the Yalnli River ; on the east

    by a line running from the Russian town of Possiet northerly

    to the River ITsuri, so as to include Ilinka Lake ; thence from

    its headwaters to its junction Nvith the Anmr. This river forms

    the northern frontier ; its tributary, the River Argun, together

    with the large lakes llurun and Puyur, lie on the west ; from

    the latter lake an artificial line stretching nearly due east for

    six degrees in lat. 47° strikes the town of Tsitsihar on the

    River Xonni. The rest of the western border follows the rivers

    Konni and Songari to the Palisade. This obsolete boundary

    commences at Shan-hai kwan on the Gulf of Liatung and runs

    north-easterly ; it nominally separates the Mongols from the

    Manchus for neai’ly 300 miles, and really exists only at the

    passes where the roads are guarded by military.

    But a portion of this region has yet been traversed by Europeans, and most of it is a wilderness. The entire population is not stated in the census of 1812, and from the nature of the country and wandering habits of the people, many tribes of whom render no allegiance to the Emperor, it would be impossible to take a regular census. Parts of Manchuria, as here defined, have been known under many names at different periods.

    LiaiUung (‘East of the River Lian’) has been applied to the country between that river, Corea, and the Sea of Japan ; Tungking(‘Eastern Capital’) referred to the chief town of that region, under the Ming dynasty ; and Kwantung (‘ East of the Pass ‘), denoting the same country, is still a common designation for the whole territory.

    Manchuria is now chiefly comprised in the valleys between the ITsuri and Nonni Rivers, up to the Amur on the north, while the basin of the Liau on the south embraces the rest. There are three principal mountain chains. Beginning nearly a hundred miles east of Mukden, in lat. 43°, are the Long White Mountains’ (Chang-bai Shan of the Chinese, or Kolmin-shanguin alin of the Manchus), which form the watershed between the Songari and Yaluh Rivers and serve for the northern frontier of Corea as far as Russian territory. There it divides

    and takes the name of Sih-hih-teh, or Sihoti Mountains, for the

    eastern spur which runs near the ocean, east of the River ITsuri; and the name of Hurkar Mountains for the western and lower

    spurs between that river and the Ilurkar. One noted peak,

    called Mount Chakoran, rising over 10,000 feet, lies south-east

    of San-sang on the Amur. On the plain, north of Ivirin,

    numerous buttes occur, sometimes isolated, and often in lines

    fifteen or twenty miles apart ; most of them are wooded.

    In the western part of Tsitsihar lies the third great range of

    mountains in Manchuria, called the Sialkoi Mountains, a continuation

    of the Inner Iling-an range of Mongolia, and separating

    the Argun and Nonni basins. The Sialkoi range extends over

    a great part of Mongolia, commencing near the bend of the Yellow

    River, and reaching in a north-easterly direction, it forms

    in Manchuria three sides of the extensive valley of the Xonni,

    ending between the Amur and Songari Rivers at their junction.

    These regions are more arid than the eastern portions, and

    the mountains are rather lower ; but our information is vague

    and scanty. As a whole, Manchuria should be called hilly

    rather than mountainous, its intervales alone repaying cultivation.

    ‘ Klaproth {Memoires Relatifs d PAsie, Tome I., Paris, 1834) has translated from the Manchu a narrative of a visit made in 1(577 by one of the grandees of Kanghi’s court to a summit in this range. Chlneise lieposilvry, Vol. XX. , p. 29G.

    THE AMUR AND ITS AFFLUENTS. 189

    The country north of the Chang-bai Shan as far as the Stanovoi Mountains is drained by one river, viz., the Sagalien, Amur, Kwantung, or Hehlung kiang (for it is known by all these names), and its affluents ; Scujalieii ula in Manchu and Heilong Jiang in Chinese, each mean ‘Black’ or ‘Black Dragon River’. The Amur drains the north-eastern slope of Central Asia by a circuitous course, aided by many large tributaries. Its source is in lat. 50° N. and long. 111° E., in a spur of the Daou-]”ian Mountains, called Kenteh, where it is called the Onon.

    After an east and north-east course of nearly five hundred miles,

    the Onon is joined in long. 115° E. by the Ingoda, a stream

    coming from the east of Lake Baikal, where it takes its rise by a

    peak called Tshokondo, the highest of the Yablonsi Khrebet

    Mountains. Beyond this junction, under the Bussian name of

    Shilka, it flows about two hundred and sixty miles north-east

    till it meets the Argun. The Argun rises about three degrees

    south of the Onon, on the south side of the Kenteh, and under

    the name of Kerlon runs a solitary north-east course for four

    Imndred and thirty miles to Lake Hurun, Kerlon, or Dalai-nur; the Kalka here comes in from Lake Buyur or Fir, and their waters leave Lake Hurun atUst-Strelotchnoi (the Arrow’s Mouth) under the name of the Argun, flowing north nearly four hundred miles to the union with the Shilka in lat. 53° ; from its exit as the Argun and onward to the entrance of the Usuri, it forms the boundary between China and Russia for 1,593 versts, or 1,062 miles.

    Beyond this town the united stream takes the name of the

    Amur (/.(‘., Great River) or Sagalien of the Manchus, running

    nearly east about 550 miles beyond Albazin, when its course is

    south-east till it joins the Songari. Most of the affluents are on

    the north bank ; the main channel grows wider as its size increases,

    having so many islands and banks as seriously to interfere

    with navigation. The valley thus watered possesses great

    natural advantages in soil, climate, and productions, which are

    now gradually attracting Russian settlers. In lat. 47^° the Songari River {Sung-hwa kiang of the Chinese) unites with the Amur on the right bank, 950 miles from Ust-Strelotchnoi,

    bringing the drainings of the greater portion of ]\ranehuria,

    and doubling the main volume of water. The headwaters of

    this stream issue from the northern slopes of the C”liang-peh

    shan ; quickly combined in a single channel, these waters tlow

    past the town of Ivirin, scarcely a hundred miles from the

    mountains, in a river twelve feet deep and 900 M-ide. Xear Petune

    the Iliver Xonni joins it from Tsitsihar, and their united

    stream takes the Chinese name of Kwantung (‘ Mingled Union ‘);

    it is a mile and a half wide here and only three or four feet

    deep, a sluggish river full of islands. Then going east b}- north,

    growing deeper by its affluents, the Ilurka, Mayen, Tunni,

    llulan, and other smaller ones, it unites with the Amur at

    at Changchu, a hundred miles west from the Usuri. All accounts

    agree in giving the Songari the superiority. At Sansing,

    it is a deep and rapid river, but further down islands and

    banks interfere with the navigation. The Ilurka drains the

    original country of the Manchus.’

    The district south-east of the desert, and north of the Great

    Wall, is drained and fertilized by the Sira-nniren, or Liau

    Iliver, which is nearly valueless for navigation. Its main and

    western branch divides near the In shan Mountains into the

    Hwang ho and Lahar; the former rises near the Pecha peak,

    a noted point in those mountains. The Sirainuren runs

    through a dry region for nearly 400 miles before it turns south,

    and in a zigzag channel reaches the Gulf of Liautung, a powerful stream carrying its quota of deposit into the ocean ; the M’idtli at Yingtsz’ is C50 feet. The depth is IG feet on the bar at high tide. The Yaluh kiang, nearly three hundred miles long, runs in a very crooked channel along the northern frontiers of Corea. iJut little is known about the two lakes, Ilurun and Pir, except that their waters are fresh and full of fish ; the river Urshun unites them, and several smaller streams run into the latter.

    ‘ Voyage Down the Amur, by Perry McD. Collins, in 1857. New York,1860, cliaps. xxxii.-lx., passim. Ravenstein’s Arnur. Chinese Repository,Vol. XIX., p. 289. Rev. A. Williamson, Journeys in North China, Vol. II.,eliap.s. x.-xiii.

    NATURAL RESOURCES OF MANCHURIA. 191

    The larger part of Manchuria is covered by forests, the

    abode of wild animals, whose capture affords employment,

    clothing, and food to their hunters. The rivers and coasts

    abound in fish ; among which carp, sturgeon, salmon, pike, and

    other species, as well as shell-fish, are plenty ; the pearl-fishery

    is sufficiently remunerative to employ many fishermen ; the

    Chinese Government used to take cognizance of their success,

    and collect a revenue in kind. The argali and jiggetai are

    found here as well as in Mongolia ; bears, wolves, tigers, deer,

    and numerous fur-bearing animals are hunted for their skins.

    The troops are required to furnish 2,4:00 stags annually to the

    Emperor, who reserves for his own use only the fieshy part of

    the tail as a delicacy. Larks, pheasants, and crows of various

    species, with pigeons, thrushes, and grouse, abound. The condor

    is the largest bird of prey, and for its size and fierceness rivals

    its congener of the Andes.

    The greater half of Shingking and the south of Ivirin is cultivated; maize, Setaria wheat, barley, pulse, millet, and buckwheat are the principal crops. Ginseng and rhubarb are collected by troops sent out in detachments under’ the charge of their proper officers. These sections support, moreover, large herds of various domestic animals. The timber which covers the mountains will prove a source of wealth as soon as a remunerative market stimulates the skill and enterprise of settlers; even now, logs over three feet in diameter find their way up to Peking, brought from the Liau valley.

    Manchuria is divided into three provinces, Shhujhing, Kirin,

    and Tsltnlhar. The province of Shingking includes the ancient

    Liautung, and is bounded north by Mongolia ; north-east and

    east by Kirin ; south by the Gulf of Liautung and Corea, from

    which latter it is separated by the Yaluh Eiver ; and west by

    Chahar in Chihli. It contains two departments, viz., Fungtien

    and Kinchau, subdivided into fifteen districts; there are also

    twelve gai-risoned posts at the twelve gates in the Palisade,

    whose inmates collect a small tax on travellers and goods. Manchuria

    is under a strictly military government, every male above

    eighteen being liable for military service, and being, in fact,

    enrolled under that one of the eight standards to which by Liith he belongs. The administration of Shingking is partl;yuivil and partly military ; that of Iviriu and Tsitsihar is entirely military.

    The popnlation of the province has been estimated by T. T.

    Meadows ‘ at twelve millions, consisting of Manclms and Chinese.

    The coast districts are now mostly occupied and cultivated

    by emigrants from Shantung, who are pushing the Manchus

    toward the Amur, or compelling them to leave their hunting

    and take to farming if they wish to stay where they ^vere born.

    The conquerors are being civilized and developed by their subjects,

    losing the use of their own meagre language, and becoming

    more comfortable as they learn to be industrious. But few

    aboriginal settlements now remain who still resist these influences.

    The inhabitants collect near the river, or along the great

    roads, where food or a market are easiest found.

    The capital of Shingking is usually known on the spot as

    Shin-yang, an older name than the Manchu Mukden, or the

    Chinese name Fungtien. As the metropolis of Manchuria, it is

    also known as Shingking (the ‘ Affluent Capital ‘), distinguished

    from the name of the province by the addition oi jjuti-chiny, or

    ‘head-garrison.’ It lies in lat. 41° 50^’ X. and long. 123° 30′ E., on the banks of the Shin, a small brancli of the Liau, and is reckoned to be five hundred miles north-east from Peking. The town is surrounded by a low mud wall about ten miles in circuit, at least half a mile distant from the main city wall, whose eight gates have double archways so that the crowd may not interfere in passing ; this wall is about three miles around, and its towers and bastions are in good condition. It is 35 or 40 feet high, and 15 feet wide at the top, of brick throughout ; a crenulated parapet protects the guard. But for its smaller scale, the walls and buildings here are precisely similar to those at Peking.

    ‘ The Chinese and their Rebdliona. Loudon, 1856.

    THE PROVINCE OF SHINGKING. 193

    The streets are wide, clean, and the main business avenues lined with large, well built shops, their counters, windows, and other arrangements indicating a great trade. This capital contains a large proportion of governmental establishments, yai/uins^ and nearly all the officials belong to the ruling race. Main streets run across the city from gate to gate, with narrow roads or ku-tung intersecting them. The palace of the early Manchn sovereigns occupies the center; while the large warehouses are outside of the inner city. Everywhere marks of prosperity and security indicate an enterprising population, and for its tidy look, industrious and courteous population, Mukden takes high rank among Chinese cities. Its population is estimated to be under 200,000, mostly Chinese. The Manchu monarchs made it the seat of their government in 1631, and the Emperors have since done everything in their power to enlarge and beautify it. The Emperor Kienlung rendered himself celebrated among his subjects, and made the city of Mukden better known abroad, by a poetical eulogy upon the city and province, which was printed in sixty-four different forms of Chinese writing. This curious piece of imperial vanity and literary effort was translated into French by Amyot.

    The town of Ilingking,’ sixty miles east of it, is one of the favored places in Shingking, from its being the family residence of the Manchu monarchs, and the burial-ground of their ancestors.

    It is pleasantly situated in an elevated valley, the tombs being three miles north of it upon a mountain called Tsz’yun shan. The circuit of the walls is about three miles. Ilingking lies near the Palisade which separates the province from Ivirin, and its officers have the rule over the surrounding country, and the entrances into that province. It has now dwindled to a small handet, and the guards connected with the tombs comprise most of the inhabitants.

    Ivinchau, fifteen leagues from Mukden, carries on considerable

    trade in cattle, pulse, and drugs. Gutzlaff ‘ describes the

    harbor as shallow, and exposed to southern gales ; the houses

    in the town are built of stone, the environs well cultivated and

    settled by Chinese from Shantung, while natives of Fuhkien

    conduct the trade. The Manchus lead an idle life, but keep

    on good terms with the Chinese. When he was there in 1832,

    ‘Also called Yertden ; Klaprcth, Meinoire.% Tcvme T., p. 446. Remusat

    informs us that this name formerly included all vf Kirin, or that which was placed under it.- Voyages Along the Coast of China. New York, 1833»Vol. I.— 18

    the authorities had ordered all the females to seclude themselves

    in order to put a stop to debauchery among the native

    sailors. Horses and camels are numerous and cheap, but the

    carriages are clumsy. Kaichau, another port lying on the east

    side of the gulf, possesses a better liarboi-, but is not so much

    frequented.

    Since the treaty of 1858 opened the port of Xiuchwang or

    Yingts//, on the Iliver Liau, to foreign trade, the development

    of Shingking has rapidly increased. The trade in pulse and

    bean-cake and oil employs many vessels annually. Opium,

    silk, and paper are prepared for export thi’ough this mart, besides

    foreign goods. Fung-hwang ting, lying near the Yaluh

    liiver, commands all the trade with Corea, which must pass

    through it. There are many restrictions upon this intercourse

    by both governments, and the Chinese forbid their subjects

    passing the frontiers. The trade is conducted at fairs, under

    the supervision of officers and soldiers ; the short time allowed

    for concluding the bargains, and the great numbers resorting to

    them, render these bazaars more like the frays of opposing clans

    than the scenes of peaceable trade. There is a market-town in

    Corea itself, called Ki-iu w^an, about four leagues from the

    frontier, wliei’e the Chinese ” supply the Coreans with dogs,

    cats, pipes, leather, stags’ horns, copper, horses, mules, and

    asses ; and receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice,

    corn, swine, paper, mats, oxen, furs, and small horses.” Merchants

    are allowed not more than four or five hours in which

    to conduct this fair, and the Corean officers under whose charge

    it is placed, drive all strangers back to the frontier as soon as

    the day closes.’

    The borders of the sea consist of alluvial soil, efflorescing

    a nitrous white salt near the beach, .but very fertile inland,

    well cultivated and populous. Beyond, the hill-country is extremely

    picturesque. Ever-changing views, torrents and fountains,

    varied and abounding vegetation, flocks of black cattle

    grazing on the hillsides, goats perched on the overhanging crags,

    liorses, asses, and sheep lower down in the intervales, numerous

    ‘ Annales de la Foi, Tome XVIII., 1840, p. 302.

    TRADE AND CLIMATE OF MANCHURIA. 195

    well-built Iiamlets, eveiywliere enliven the scene. The department

    of Kinchau lies along the Gulf of Liautung, between the

    Palisade and the sea, and contains four small district towns,

    with forts, around whose garrisons of agricultural troops have

    collected a few settlers. On the south, toward Chilili and the

    “Wall, the country is better cultivated.

    The climate of Manchuria, as a whole, is healthy and moderate,

    far removed from the rigor of the plateau on its west, and

    not so moist as the outlying islands on the east. In summer

    the ranges are TO” to 90° F., thence down to 10° or 20° below

    zero. The rivers remain frozen from December nearly to

    April, and the fall of snow is less than in Eastern America.

    The seasons are really six weeks of spring, five months of summer,

    six weeks of autumn and four months of winter ; the last

    is in some respects the enjoyable period, and is used l)y the

    farmers to l)ring produce to market. If the houses were

    tighter, their inmates would suffer little during the cold season.

    Hue speaks of hail storms which killed tlocks of sheep in Mongolia,

    near’Chahar. Darwin (^N^aturalisfs Yoymje, 2d ed., 1845,

    p. 115) corroborates the possibility of his statement by a somewhat

    similar experience near Buenos Ayres. He here saw many

    deer and other wild animals killed by ” hail as large as small

    apples and extremely hard.’” Of the denuded country, near the

    Liau River, Abbe Hue says : ” Although it is uncertain where

    God placed paradise, we may be sure that he chose some other

    country than Liautung ; for of all savage regions, this takes a

    distinguished rank for the aridity of the soil and rigor of the

    climate. On his entrance, the traveller remarks the barren

    aspect of most of the hills, and the nakedness of the plains,

    where not a tree nor a thicket, and hardly a slip of a herb is to

    be seen. The natives are superior to any Europeans I have

    ever seen fof their powers of eating ; beef and pork abound on

    their tables, and I think dogs and horses, too, under some other

    name ; rich people eat i-ice, the poor are content with boiled

    millet, or with another grain called hac-ham,, about thrice the

    size of millet and tasting like wheat, which I never saw elsewhere.

    The vine is cultivated, but must be covered from October to April ; the grapes are so watery that a hundred liters of juice produce by distillation only forty of poor spirit. The leaves of an oak are used to rear wild silkworms, and this is a considerable branch of industry. The people relish the worms as food after the cocoons have been boiled, drawing them out with a pin, and sucking the whole until nothing but the pellicle is left.” ‘ Another says, the ground freezes seven feet in Kirin, and about three in Shingking ; the thermometer in winter is thirty degrees below zero. The snow is raised into the air by the north-east winds, and becomes so fine that it penetrates the clothes, houses, and enters even the lungs. When travelling, the eyebrows become a mass of ice, the beard a large flake, and the eyelashes are frozen together ; the wind cuts and pierces the skin like razors or needles. The earth is frozen during eight months, but vegetation in summer is rapid, and the streams are swollen by the thawing drifts of snow.

    The province of Kikin, or Girin, comprises the country northeast

    of Shingking, as far as the Annir and Usuri, which bound

    it on the north and east, while Corea and Shingking lie on the

    south-east (better separated by the Chang-peh shan than any

    political confine) and Mongolia on the west. All signs of the line

    of palisades have disappeared (save at the Passes) in the entire

    trajct between the Songari and Shan-hai kwan. The region is

    mountainous, except in the link of that river after the Xonni

    joins it till the Usuri comes in, measuring about one-fourth of

    the M’hole. This extensive region is thinly inhabited by Manchus

    settled in garrisons along the bottoms of the rivers, by

    Goldies, Mangoons, Ghiliaks, and tribes having afiinity with

    them, mIio subsist principall}^ by hunting and fishing, and acknowledge

    their fealty by a tribute of peltry, but who have no

    officers of government placed over them. Du llalde calls them

    Kicking Tatse^ Yuj)i Tatse^ and other names, which seem, indeed,

    to have been their ancient designations. The Y^u-jn TdJifs’i,

    or ‘Fish-skin Tartars,’^ are said to inhabit the extensive valley

    of the Usuri, and do not allow the subjects of the Emperor to

    ‘ AnnaleR de la Foi, Tomo XVI. , p. ‘^i’iO.

    – The inhabitants of ancient Gedrosia, now Beloochi.stan, are said to have

    clothed themselves in lish-skins. Heereu, Historical Researches among Asiatic

    Nations^ Vol. I., p. 175.

    TOWNS AND PRODUCTIONS OB’ KIRIN PROVINCE. 197

    live among them. In winter they nestle together in kraals like

    the Bushmen, and subsist upon the products of their summer’s

    tishing, having cut down fuel enough to last them till warm

    weather. Shut out, as they have been during the past, from all

    elevating influences, these people are likely to be ei-e long amalgamated

    and lost, as well among liussian and other settlers coming

    in from the north, as amid the Chinese immigrants who occupy

    their land in the south. The entire population of this province

    cannot be reckoned, from present information, as high as three

    millions, the greater part of which live along the Songari valley.

    Kirin is divided into three ruling tlmj departments or commanderies,

    viz., Kirin ula, or the garrison of Kirin, Petune or

    Pedne, and Changchun ting. Kirin, the largest of the three, is

    subdivided into eight garrison districts. The town, called

    Chaen Chwang, or ‘ Navy Yard,’ in Chinese, is finely situated

    on the Songari, in lat. 43” 45′ N., and long. 127° 25′ E., at the

    foot of encircling hills, where the river is a thousand feet wide.

    The streets are narrow and irregular, the shops low and small,

    and much ground in the city is unoccupied. Two great streets

    cross each other at right angles, one of them running far into

    the river on the west supported by piles. The highways are

    paved with wooden blocks, and adorned with flowers, gold fish,

    and squares ; its population is about 50,000.

    The four other important places in Kirin are Petune, Larin,

    Altchuku, or A-shi-ho, and Sansing, the latter at the confluent of

    the Sono-ari and Ilurka. Altchuku is the largest, and Petune

    next in size, each town having not far from 35,000 inhabitants

    ;

    Larin is perhaps half as lai’ge, and like the others steadily increasing

    in numbers and importance. jS inguta on the river Ilurka

    has wide regions under its sway where ginseng is gathered ; near

    the stockaded town is a subterranean body of water that furnishes

    large fish. A great and influential portion of the Chinese

    population is Moslem, but no Manchus reside in the place.

    The former control trade and travel in every town.

    Petune, in lat. 45° 20′ X., and long. 125° 10′ E., is inhabited

    by troops and many persons banished from C’hina for their

    crimes. Its favorable position renders it a place of considerable

    trade, and during the suunner ujonths it is a busy mart for

    198 TlIK MIDDLE KINCiDOM.

    these tliiiilj peopled regions. It consists of two main streets,

    with the chief market at their crossing. .\. large mosque attracts

    attention. The third commandery of Changchun, west

    of Kirin and south of Petunc, just beyond the Palisade, is a

    mere post for overseeing the Manchus and Mongols passing to

    and fro on the edge of the steppe.

    The resources of this wide domain in timber, minerals, metals,

    cattle and grain Ivaxq not yet been explored or developed. The

    hills are wooded to the top, the bottoms bring forth two crops

    anmially, and the rivers take down timber and grain to the

    llussian settlers. Sorghum, millet, barley, maize, pulse, indigo,

    and tobacco are the chief crops ; and latterly opium, wdiicli has

    rapidly extended, because it pays well. Oil and whiskey are extensi\’

    ely manufactured, packed in wicker baskets lined with

    paper and transported on Avheelbarrows. The wild and domestic

    animals are numerous. ^Vmong the latter the hogs and mules,

    more than any other kind, furnish food and transportation ;

    while tigers, panthers, and leopards, bears, wolves, and foxes

    reward the hunters for their pains in killing them.

    The province of Tsi-tsi-hak, or Ilehlung kiang, comprises the

    northwest of Manchuria, extending four hundred miles from

    east to west, and about five hundred from north to south. It is

    bounded north by the Amur, from Sliilka to its junction with

    the Songari ; east and southeast by Ivirin, from which the

    Songari partly separates it ; southwest by Mongolia, and west

    by the lliver Argun, dividing it from Russia. The greatest part

    of it is occupied by the valley of the Noimi, jSToun or IS^iin ; its

    area of about two hundred thousand square miles is mostly an

    iminhabited, mountainous wilderness. It is divided into six

    commanderies, viz. : Tsitsihar, Ilulan, Putek, Merguen, Sagalien

    ula, and Ilurun-pir, whose officers have control over the

    tribes within their limits; of these, Sagalien or Igoon is the

    chief town in the northeast districts, and is used by the government

    of Peking as a penal settlement. The town stands on a

    plain but a rood or so above the river, Avhich sweeps off to the

    mountains in the distance. Here is posted a large force of officers

    and men, their extensive barracks indicating the importance

    attached to the place. The garrison has gradually attracted a

    THE PROVINCE OF TSI-TSI-IIAR. 199

    population of natives and Chinese from the south, who live by

    fishing and hunting, as well as farming.

    Tsitsihar, the capital of the province, lies on the River

    ]^onni, in lat. 47° 20′ N., and long, 124° E., and is a place of some

    trade, resorted to by the tribes near the river. Merguen, Hurunpir,

    and Ilulan are situated upon rivers, and accessible when

    the waters are free from ice. Tsitsihar was built in 1692 by

    Kanghi to owerawe the neighboring tribes. It is inclosed hy a

    stockade and a ditch. The one-stoi-ied houses are constructed

    of logs, or of brick stuccoed, where timber is dear, and warmed

    by the brick beds ; the tall chimneys outside the main buildings

    give a peculiar appearance to villages. Pulse, maize, tobacco,

    millet, and wheat, and latterly poppy are common crops. The

    valley of the Nonni is cultivated by the Taguri Manchus, among

    whom six thousand six hundred families of Yakutes settled in

    1687, when they emigrated from Siberia. The Korchin Mongols

    occupy the country south and west of this valley. Some

    of its streams produce large pearls. The region lying between

    the Sialkoi Mountains and the River Argun is rough and sterile,

    presenting few inducements to agriculturalists. Fish abound

    in all the rivers, and furs are sought in the hills. Pasturage is

    excellent in the bottoms. Fairs, between the natives and Cossacks,

    are constantly held at convenient places on the Argun

    and other rivers. The racial distinction between the Mongols

    and Manchus is here seen in the agricultural labors of the latter,

    so opposed to the nomadic habits of the former. This

    region has, within the last half century, attracted Chinese settlers

    from Shantung and Chihli. These colonists are fast filling

    up the vacant lands along the rivers, dispossessing the Manchus

    by their thrift and industry, and making the country far more

    valuable. They will in this way secure its possession to the

    Peking Government, and bring it, by degrees, under Chinese

    control, greatly to the benefit of all. In early days the policy

    of the Manchus, like that of the E. I. Company in India towardg

    British immigration, discountenanced the entrance of Chinese

    settlers, and in both cases to the disadvantage of the ruling

    power.

    The administration of Manchuria consists of a supreme civil

    200 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    government at Mukden, and three provincial military one.’-,

    though Shingking is under both civil and military. There are

    live Boards, each under a president, whose duties are analogous

    to those at Peking. The oversight of the city itself is under a

    fiiyia or mayor, superior to the prefect. The three provinces

    are under as many marshals, whose subordinates rule the conimanderies,

    and these last have garrison officers subject to them,

    whose rank and power correspond to the size and importance of

    their districts. These delegate part of their power to ” assistant

    directors,” or residents, who are stationed in every town ; on

    the frontier posts, the officers have a higher grade, and report

    directly to the marshals or their lieutenants. All the officers,

    both civil and military, are Manchus, and a great portion of

    them belong to the imperial clan, or are intimately connected

    with it. By this arrangement, the Manchus are in a measure

    disconnected with the general government of the provinces,

    furnished wnth offices and titles, and induced to recommend

    themselves for promotion in the Empire by their zeal and fidelity

    in their distant posts.’

    Mongolia is the first in order of the colonies, by which are

    meant those parts of the Empire under the control of the Ll-fan

    Yaen, or Foi’eign Office.” According to the statistics of the

    Empire, it comprises the region lying between lats. 35° and 52°

    X., and from long. 82° to 123° E. ; bounded north by the

    Russian governments of Trans-Baikalia, L’kutsk, Yeniseisk,

    Tomsk, and Semipolatinsk ; northeast and east by Manchuria

    ;

    south by the provinces of Chihli and Shansi, and the Yellow

    River ; southwest by Kansuh ; and west by Cobdo and Ili.

    These limits are not very strictly marked at all points, but the

    lengtli from east to west is about seventeen hundred miles,

    and one thousand in its greatest breadth, inclosing an area of

    ‘ Rev. Alex. Williamson, Travels in Northern China. London, 1870.

    Vol. II., Chaps. I. to XIV. ; Chinene Reposltorij, Vols. IV., p. 57 ; XV., p. 454 -,

    Phinene Itecorder, Vol. VII., \HH\, ” The Ris« and Progress of the Maujows,”

    by J. Ross, pp. 155, 2;}5, and ;515.

    ” Compare Niebuhr’s Flistori/ of Rome, Vol. II., Sect. “Of the Colonies,”

    where can be observed the essential differences between Roman settlements

    abroad and those of the Chinese ; and still greater differences will be fonnd in

    contrasting these with the offsets of Grecian States.

    CLIMATE AXU DIVISIOXS OF MONGOLIA. 201

    1,400,000 square miles, supporting an estimated population uf

    two millions. This elevated plain is almost destitute of wood

    or water, inclosed southward by the mountains of Tibet, and

    northward by offsets from the Altai range. The central part

    is occupied by the desert of Gobi, a barren steppe having an

    average height of 4,000 feet above the sea level, and destitute

    of all running water. Owing to its elevation, extremely vari.:-

    l)le climate, and the absence of oases, it may be considered quite

    as terrible as Sahara, although the sand-waste liere is, perhaps,

    hardly as unmitigated.

    The climate of Mongolia is excessively cold for the latitude,

    arising partly from its elevation and dry atmosphere, and, on

    the steppes, to the want of shelter from the winds. But this

    has its compensation in an unclouded sky and the genial rays of

    the sun, which support and cheer the people to exertion when

    the thermometer is far below zero. The air has been drained of

    its moisture by the ridges on every side ; day after day the

    sun’s heat reaches the eartli with smaller loss than obtains in

    moister regions in the same latitudes. Otherwise these wastes

    would support no life at all at such an elevation. In the districts

    bordering on Chihli, the people make their houses partly

    under ground, in order to avoid the inclemency of the season.

    The soil in and upon the confines of this high land is unfit for

    agricultural purposes, neither snow nor rain falling in suflicient

    quantities, except on the acclivities of the mountain ranges ;

    but millet, barley, and wheat might be raised north and south

    of it. The nomads rejoice in their freedom from tillage, however,

    and move about with their herds and possessions Avithin

    the limits marked out by the Chinese for each tribe to occupy.

    The space on the north of Gobi to the confines of Russia,

    about one hundred and fifty miles wide, is warmer than the

    desert, and supports a greater population than the southern

    sides. Cattle arc numerous on the hilly tracts, but none are

    found in the desert, where wild animals and birds hold undisputed

    possession. The thermometer in winter sinks to thirty

    and forty degrees below zero (Fr.), and sudden and great

    changes are frequent. Xo month in the year is free from snow

    or frost ; but on the steppes, the heat in summer is almost

    202 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    intolerable, owing to the radiation from the sandy or stony

    surface. The snow does not fall very deep, and even in cold

    weather the cattle find food under it ; the flocks and herds are

    not, however, large.

    The principal divisions of Mongolia are four, viz. : 1, Inner

    Mongolia, lying between the Wall and south of the desert ; 2,

    Outer Mongolia, between the desert and the Altai Mountains,

    and reaching from the Inner Iling-an to the Tien shan ; 3, the

    country about Koko-nor, between Kansuh, Sz’chuen, and Tibet

    ;

    and, 4, the dependencies of Uliasutai, lying northwestward of

    the Kalkas khanates. The whole of this region has been included

    under the comprehensive name of Tartary, and if the

    limits of Inner and Outer Mongolia had been the bounds of Tartary,

    the appellation would have been somewhat appropriate.

    But when Genghis arose to power, he called his own tribe

    Kitkai Mongol^ ‘ Celestial People,’ and designated all the

    other tribes Tatars^ that is ‘ tributaries.’ ‘ The three tribes of

    Kalkas, Tsakhars, and Sunnites, now constitute the great body

    of Mongols under Chinese rule.

    Inner Mongolia, or Nui MunyJcu, is bounded north by

    Tsitsihar, the Tsetsen khanate, and Gobi, their frontiers being

    ‘ Abulgasi-Bayadui-clian (lIi»toire Genenlogique des Tatars, traduite du

    Manuscript Tartare ; Leyde : 172G), gives another derivation for these two

    names. ” Alanza-chan eut deux lils jumeaiix I’un appelle Tatar and I’autre

    Mogull oil pour bien dire Muiig’l, entre les quels il partagea ses Estates lorsqu’il

    se vit sur la fin de sa vie.” It is the first prince, he adds, from whom

    came the name Tartar—not from a river called Tata, as some liave .stated—

    wliile of the second : ” Le terme Mung’l a ests change par une corruption generale

    en Mogull ; Mung vent dire trMe on un homme triste, et i)aroeque ce

    prince estoit naturellement d’une humeur fort triste, il porta ce nom dans la

    verite”—(pp. 27-29). But Visdelon (D’Herbelot, ed. 1778, Tome IV., p. 327)

    shows more acquaintance with their history in producing proofs that the name

    Tatar was applied in the eightli century by the Chinese to certain tribes living

    north of the in shan, Ala shan, and River Liau. In the dissensions following

    upon the ruin of the Tang dynasty, some of them migrated eastwards beyond

    the Songari, and there in time rallied to subdue the northern provinces,

    under the name of Nu-cldh. These are the ancestors of the Manchus. Another

    fraction went north to the marshy banks of Lakes Hurun and Puyur,

    where they received the name of Moungul Tahtsz\ i.e., Marsh Tatars. This

    tribe and name it was that the warlike Genghis afterwards made conspicuous

    The sound Mogul used in India is a dialectal variation.

    TRIBES OF INNER MONGOLIA. 203

    almost luidefinable ; east by Ivirin and Sliingking ; south hy

    Chihli and Shansi ; and west by Kansuli. Wherever it runs

    the Wall is popularly regarded as the boundary between China

    and Mongolia. The country is divided into six m/’nj or clialkans^

    like our corps, and twenty-four aimahs ‘ (tribes), which are

    again placed under forty-nine standards or Ihochoun^ each of

    which generally includes about two thousand families, commanded

    l)y hereditary princes, or dsassaks. The principal

    tribes are the Kortchin and Ortous. The large tribe of the

    Tsakhars, which occupies the region north of the Wall, is governed

    by a tatanfj, or general, residing at Kalgan, and their

    pasture gi-ounds are now nominally included in the province of

    Chihli. The province of Shansi in like manner includes the

    lands occupied by the Toumets, who are under the control of a

    general stationed at Suiyuen, beyond the Yellow E-iver. In the

    pastures northwest from Kalgan, in the vicinity of Lakes

    Chazau and Ichi, and reaching more than a hundred miles from

    the Great Wall, lie the tracts appropriated to raising horses for

    the ” Yellow Banner Corps.” Excepting such grazing lands or

    the vast hunting grounds near Jeh-lio, reserved in like manner

    by the government, small settlements of Chinese are continually

    squatting over the plains of Inner Mongolia, from whence they

    have already succeeded in driving many of the aboriginal Mongol

    tribes off to the north. Those natives who will not retire

    are fain to save themselves from starvation or absorption by

    cultivating the soil after the fashion of their neighbors, the

    Chinese immigrants. It was, indeed, this influx of settlers

    which led Ivanghi to erect the southern portion of Inner Mongolia

    into prefectures and districts like China Proper. This

    alteration of habits among its population seems destined, ere

    long, to modify the aspect of the country.

    Most of the smaller tribes, except the Ortous, live between

    the western frontiers of Manchuria, and the steppes reaching

    north to the Sialkoi range, and south to Chahar. These tribes

    are peculiarly favored by the Manchus, from their having joined

    them in their conquest of China, and their leading men are

    ‘ Abulgasi (p. 8:’) fviniislies a notice of these aiinaks and their origin.

    204 thp: middle kingdom.

    often promoted to liigh stations in the government of the

    country.

    OcjTEK Mongolia, or Wal Muivjhu^ is the wild tract Iving

    north of the last as far as Russia. It is bounded north bv

    Russia, east by Tsitsihar, southeast and south by Inner Mongolia,

    southwest by Bai’kul in Kansuli, west by Tarbagatai,

    and northwest by Cobdo and Uliasutui. The desert of CJobi

    occupies the southern half of the i-egion. It is divided into

    four lu^ or circuits, each of which is governed by a khan or

    prince, claiming direct descent fi’om Genghis, and superintending

    the internal management of his own khanate. The Tsetseu

    khanate lies west of Ilurun-pir in Tsitsiliar, extending from

    Russia south to Inner Mongolia. West of it, reaching from

    Siberia across the desert to Inner Mongolia, lies the Tuchetu

    (or Tut<letii of Klaproth’) khanate, the most considerable of the

    four ; the road fi’om Iviakhta to Ivalgan lies within its borders.

    “West of the last, and bounded south by Gobi and northeast

    by Uliasutai, lies the region of the Kalkas of Sainnoin ; and on

    its northwest li(3S the Dsassaktu khanate, south of Uliasutai,

    and reaching to Barkul and Cobdo on the south and west. All

    of them are politically under the control of two IManchu residents

    stationed at I’rga, who direct the mutual interests of the

    Mongols, Chinese, and Russians.

    Ilrga, or Ivuren, the capital, is situated in the Tuchetu khanate,

    in lat. 48° 20′ X., and long. 1()T^° E., on the Tola River, a

    branch of the Selenga. It is the largest and most important

    place in Mongolia, and is divided into ^fahiia’i cJi’tn, the Chinese

    quartei’, and Jhxjdo-Iviu’c’ii^ the Mongol settlement, nearly

    three miles from the other. Its total population is estimated at

    30,000, the Chinese inhabitants of M’hich are forbidden by law

    to live with their families ; of the Mongols here, by far the larger

    part is composed of lamas. In the estimation of these people

    Ilrga stands next to Il’lassa in degree of sanctity, being the seat

    of the third person in the Tibetan 2)atriarchate. According to

    the Lama doctrine this dignitary—the Kutuktu—is the terrestrial

    impersonation of the Godhead and never dies, but passes.

    ‘ Meinoires, Tome I., p. 3.

    OUTER MONGOLIA. 205

    after lils apparent decease, into the body of some newly born

    boy, who is songlit for afterwards according to the prophetic

    indications of the Dalai-lania in Tibet. Tliis holy potentate,

    thongh of limited education and entirely nnder the control of

    the attendant lamas, exercises an nnbonnded influence over the

    Kalkas. It is, indeed, by means of him that the Chinese officials

    control the native I’aces of Mongolia. His wealth, owing to

    contributions of enthusiastic devotees, is enoi-mous ; in and

    about Urga he owns 150,000 slaves, an abundance of worldly

    goods, and the most pretentious palace in Mongolia. Outside

    of its religious buildings, Urga is disgustingly dirty ; the filth

    is thrown into the streets, and the habits of the people are

    loathsome. Decrepid beggars and starving dogs infest the

    Avays ; dead bodies, instead of being interred, are flung to birds

    and beasts of prey ; Imts and liovels afford shelter for both rich

    and poor.*

    The four khanates constitute one ahaah or tribe, subdivided

    into eighty-six standards, each of which is restricted to a certain

    territory, within which it wanders about at pleasure. There

    are altogether one hundred and thirty-five standards of the

    Mongols. The Kalkas chiefiy live between the Altai Mountains

    and Gobi, but do not cultivate the soil to much effect.

    They are devoted to Buddhism, and the lamas hold most of the

    power in their hands through the KatfiMu. They render an

    annual tribute to the Emperor of horses, camels, sheep, and

    other animals or their skins, and receive presents in return of

    many times its value, so that they are kept in subjection by

    constant bril)ing ; the least restiveness on their part is visited

    by a reduction of presents and other penalties. An energetic

    government, however, is not wanting in addition. The supreme

    tribunal is at Urga ; it is the yaiiiKii, par excellence, and has

    both civil and military jurisdiction. The decisions are subject

    to the revision of the two Chinese residents, and sentences

    are usually carried into execution after their confirmation.

    The punishments are horribly sev^ere ; but only a decided

    ‘ Prejevalsky, Monrjolia, Vol. I. ; Pumpelly, Across America, pp. 382-385 ;

    Michie, Across Siberia.

    206 THE MIDDLE KINGDOM.

    and cruel hand over these wild tribes can keep them from constant

    strife.

    Letters are encouraged among them by the Manchus, but

    Avith little success. Many Buddhist books have been translated

    into Mongolian by order of the Emperors ; nor can we wonder

    at the indifference to literature when this stuff is the aliment

    ])rovided them. Their tents, or yu/’ts, are made of wooden

    laths fastened together so as to form a coarse lattice-work ; the

    framework consists of several lengths securer! with ropes, leaving

    a door about three feet square. The average size is twelve

    feet across and ten feet high ; its shape is round and the conical

    roof admits light where it emits smoke. The poles or rafters

    are looped to the sides, and fastened to a hoop at the top.

    Upon this framework sheets of heavy felt are secured according

    to the season. A hearth in the centre holds the fire which

    heats the kettle hanging over it, and warms the inmates squatted

    round, who usually place only felt and sheepskins under

    them. The felt protects from cold, rain, snow, and heat in a

    wonderful manner. A first-class yiwt is by no means an uncomfortable

    dwelling, with its furniture, lining, shrine, and hot

    kettle in the centre. A carpet for sleeping and sitting on is sometimes

    seen in yurts of the wealthier classes; in these, too, the

    walls are lined with cotton or silk, and the floors are of wood.

    The lodges of the rich Kalkas have several apartments, and are

    elegantly furnished, but destitute of cleanliness, comfort, or

    airiness. Most of their cloths, utensils, and arms ai’o procured

    from the Chinese. The Sunnites are fewer than the Kalkas,

    and roam the wide wastes of Gobi. Both derive some revenue

    fi’om conducting caravans across their counti-y, but depend for

    their livelihood chiefly upon the produce of their herds and

    hunting. Their princes are obliged to reside in Urga, or keep

    hostages there, in order that the residents nuiy direct and restrain

    their conduct ; but their devotion to the Katitktu^ and

    the easy life they lead, are the strongest inducements to remain.

    The trade with Tlussia formerly all passed through Iviakhta,

    a town near the frontier, and was carried on by special agents

    and officials appointed by each nation. The whole business

    was managed in the interest of the govermnent, and its ramiK-

    IAKHTA AND THE TRADE WITH RUSSIA. 207

    fications furnished employment, position, and support to so

    many persons as to form a bond of union and guaranty of peace

    between them and their subjects. Timkowski’s jonrney with

    the decennial mission to Peking in 1820-21 furnishes one of

    the best accounts of this trade and intercourse now accessible,

    and with Klaproth’s notes, given iti the English translation

    published in 1827, has long been the chief reliable authority

    for the divisions and organization of the Mongol tribes. Since

    the opening of the Suez Canal, through which Russian steamers

    carry goods to and fro between Odessa and China, the largest

    portion of the Chinese produce no longer goes to Kiakhta.

    That which is required for Siberia is sent from Hankow by way

    of Shansi’, or from Kalgan and Tientsin, under the direction of

    Russian merchants at those places. Furs, which once formed

    the richest part of this produce, are gradually diminishing in

    quality and quantity wdth the increase of settlers. In 1843 the

    export of black tea for Russian consumption was only eight

    millions of pounds, besides the brick tea taken by the Mongols.

    Cottrell states the total value of the trade, annually, at that

    period, at a hundred millions of rubles, reckoned then to be equal

    to $20,830,000, on w^hich the Russians paid, in 1836, about

    $2,500,000 as import duty. The data respecting this trade of

    forty years ago are not very accurate, probably ; the monopoly

    was upheld mostly for the benefit (.>f the officials, as private

    traders found it too much burdened.

    Kiakhta is a haudet of no importance apart from the trade.

    The frontier here is marked by a row of granite columns ; a stockade

    separates it from Maimai chin. Pumpelly says : ” One

    can hardly imagine a sharper line than is here drawn. On the

    one side of the stockade wall, the houses, churches, and people

    are European, on the other, Chinese. With one step the traveller

    passes really from Asia and Asiatic customs and language,

    into a refined European society.’” The goods pay duty at the

    Russian douane in a suburb of fifty houses, near Kiakhta. The

    Chinese town is also a small place, numbering between twelve

    and fifteen hundred men (no women being allowed in the settlement)

    who lived in idleness most of the year. This curious

    haudet has two principal streets crossing at right angles, and gates at the four ends, in the wooden muU which surrounds it.

    These streets are badly paved, while their narrowness barely allows the passage of two camels abreast. The one-storied houses are constructed of wood, roofed Avith turf or boards, and consist of two small rooms, one used as a shop and the other as a bedroom. The windows in the rear apartment are made of oiled paper or mica, but the door is the only opening in the shop.

    The dwellings are kept clean, the furniture is of a superior description, and considerable taste and show are seen in displaying the goods. The traders live hixuriously, and attract a great crowd there during the fair in February, when the goods are exchanged. They are under the control of a Manchu, called the dzargneh’i, who is appointed for three years, and superintends the police of the settlement as Mell as the commercial proceedings. There are two Buddhist temples here served by lamas, and containing five colossal images sitting cross-legged, and numerous smaller idols.’

    The western portion of Mongolia, between the meridians of

    84^ and *JG^ E., extending from near the western extremity of

    Kansuh province to the confines of Russia, comprising Uliasutai

    and its dependencies, Cobdo, and the Kalkas and Tom–gouths of the Tangini JNEountains, is less kiunvn than any other part of it. The residence of the superintending officer of this province is at [Tliasutai (i.e., ‘ Poplar drove ‘), a tt»wn lying northwest of the Seleuira, in the khanate of Sainnoin, in a wiill cultivated and pleasant valley.

    Conno, according to the ( 1iin(\se ma])s, lies in the northwest of Mongolia ; it isbounded north and west by the government Yeniseisk, northeast by I’lianghai, and southeast by the Dsassakt.i khanate, south by Kansidi, and west by Tarbagatai. The part occupied by the Ulianghai or Fi-iyangkit tribes of the Tangmi ^lountains lies northeast of ( ‘olxlo, and nctrth of the Sainnoin and Dsassaktu khanates, and separated from Kussia by the Altai.

    These tribes are allied to the Samoj^eds, and the i ule over th(Mn is ^CoiirAV?, Recollections of Sibena, Chap. IX., p. 314; Timkowski’s T/aveU, Vol. I., ])p. 4-91, 1821 ; PumpHlly, Acnm America and Asia, p. ;]S7, 1871 ; Klapi-oth, Memoires, Toiuu I., p. (Jo ; Kittor, J),’e Erdkuiule run Asien, Bd. II., l>l.. 11)8-1220.

    THE PROVINCE OF COBDO. 200

    administered bv twenty-five siiljordinate military officers, subject

    to the resident at Uliasutai. This city is said to contain

    about two tliousand liouses, is regularly built, and carries on

    some trade with Urga ; it lies on the Iro, a tributary of the

    Jabkan. Cobdo comprises eleven tribes of Kalkas divided into

    thirty-one standards, whose princes obey an amban at Cobdo

    City, himself subordinate to the resident at Uliasutai. The

    Chinese rule over these tribes is conducted on the same principles

    as that over the other IVLjngols, and they all render fealty to

    the Emperor through the chief resident at Uliasutai, but liow

    much obedience is really paid his orders is not known. The

    Kalkas submitted to the Emperor in 1688 to avoid extinction in

    their war with the Eleuths, by whom they had been defeated.

    Cobdo contains several lakes, many of which I’eceivc rivers without having any outlet. The largest is Upsa-nor, which receives from the east the Kiver Tes, and the Iki-aral-nor into which the Jabkan runs. The Hiver Irtysh falls into Lake Dzaisang.

    The existence of so many rivers indicates a more fertile country north of the Altai or Ektag Mountains, but no bounties of nature would avail to induce the inhabitants to adopt settled modes of living and cultivate the soil, if such a clannish state of society exists among them as is described by M. Levchine to be the case among their neighbors, the Kirghis.

    The tribes in Cobdo resemble the American Lidians in their habits, disputes, and modes of life, more than the eastern Kalkas, who approximate in their migratory character to the Arabs.

    The province of Qinghai, or Koko-nor (called Tsok-gumbam by the Tanguts), is not included in Mongolia by European geographers, nor in the Chinese statistical works is it comprised within its borders ; the inhabitants are, however, mostly Mongols, both Buddhist and Moslem, and the government is conducted on the same plan as that over the Kalkas tribes further north.

    This region is known in the histories of Central Asia under the names of Tangout, Sifan, Turfan, etc. On Chinese maps it is politically called Qinghai(‘Azure Sea’), but in their books is named Si Tn or Si Yi/t, ‘ western Limits.’ The borders are now limited on the north by Kansuh, southeast by Sz’chuen, south by Anterior Tibet, and west by the desert, comprising about four degrees of latitude and eleven of longitude. It includes within its limits several large lakes, which receive rivers into their bosoms, and many of them having no outlets.

    The Azure Sea is the largest, lying at an altitude of 10,500 feet and overlooked by high mountains, which in winter are covered with snow, and in summer form an emerald frame that deepens the blueness of the Avater. . It is over 200 miles in circuit, and its evaporation is replaced by the inflowing waters of eight large streams ; oue small islet contains a monaster}’, whose inmates are freed from their solitude only when the ice makes a bridge, as no boat is known to have floated on its salt

    water. The wide, moist plains on the east and west furnish

    pasturage for domestic and wild animals, and constant collisions

    occur between the tribes resorting there for food. The travels

    of Abbe Hue and Col. Prejevalsky furnish nearly all that is

    known concerning the productions and inhabitants of Koko-nor.

    The country is nominally divided into thirty-four banners, and

    its Chinese rulers reside at Si’ning, east of the lake ; but they

    have more to do in defending themselves than in protecting

    their subjects. The Avhole country is occupied by the Tanguts

    of Til)etan origin, who are brigands by profession, and roam

    over the mountains around the headwaters of the Yangtsz’ and

    Yellow Kivers ; by the Mohammedan Dunganis, who have latterly

    been nearly destroyed in their recent rebellion ; and by

    tribes of Mongols under the various names of Eleuths, Kolos,

    Kalkas, Surgouths, and Koits. The Chinese maps are filled

    with names of various tribes, but their statistical accounts are as

    meagre of information as the maps are deficient in accurate and

    satisfactory delineations.

    THE PROVINCE AND LAKE OF KOKO-NOR. 211

    The topographical features of this region are still imperfectly known, and its inhospitable climate is rendered more dangerous by man’s barbarity. High mountain masses alternate with narrow valleys and a few large depressions containing lakes ; the country lying south of the Azure Sea, as far as Burmah, is exceedingly mountainous. “West and southwest of the lake extends the plain of Chaidamu, which at a recent geological age has been the bed of a huge lake; it is now covered with morasses, shaking bogs, small rivers, and sheets of water—the most considerable of the latter bemg Lake Kara, in the extreme western portion.

    The saline argillaceous soil of this region is not adapted to vegetation. Large animals are scarce, due in part to the plague of

    insects which compels even the natives to retreat to the mountains

    with their herds during certain seasons. Its inhabitants

    are the same as those of Eastei-n Koko-nor ; thej are divided

    into five banners, and number about 1,000 yurts^ or 5,000 souls.

    The Burkhan-buddha range forms the southern boundary of

    this plain, and the northernmost limit of the lofty plateau of

    Tibet. Its length from east to west is not far from 130 miles,

    its eastern extremity being near the Yegrai-ula (the near sources

    of the Yellow Eiver) and Toso-nor. The range has no lofty

    peaks, and stretches in an unbroken chain at a height of 15,000

    to 16,000 feet ; it is terribly barren, but does not attain the

    line of perpetual snow. The southern range, which separates

    the headwaters of the Yellow and Yangtsz’ Rivers, is called the

    Bayan-kara Mountains ; that northw^est of this is called on

    Chinese maps, Kilien shan and Kan shan, and bounds the desert

    on the south. On the northern declivities of the T^an shan

    range are several towns lying on or near the road leading across

    Central Asia, which leaves the valley of the Yellow Eiver at

    Lanchau, in Kansuh, and runs X.X.W. over a rough country to

    Liangchau, a town of some importance situated in a fertile and

    populous district. From this place it goes northwest to Kanchau,

    noted for its manufactures of felted cloths which are in

    demand among the Mongol tribes of Koko-nor, and where large

    quantities of rhubarb, horses, sheep, and other commodities are

    procured. Going still northwest, the traveller reaches Suhchau,

    the last large place before passing the Great Wall, which renders

    it a mart for provisions and all articles brought from the

    west in exchange for the manufactures of China. This city

    was the last stronghold of the Dungani Moslems, and when

    they were destroyed in 1873 it began to revive out of its ruins.

    About fifty miles from this town is the pass of Kiayii, beyond

    which the road to Hami, Urumtsi, and 111 leads directly across

    the desert, here about three hundred miles wide. This route

    has been for ages the line of internal communication between the west of China and the regions lying around and in the basins of the Tarini river and the (‘asi)ian.’ A better idea of the security of traffic and caravans within the Empire, and consequently of the goodness of the Chinese rule, is obtained by comparing the usually safe travel on this route with the hazards, robberies, and poverty formerly met with on the great roads in ]5okhara, and the regions south and west of the Belur tag.

    The productions of Koko-nor consist of grain and other vegetables raised along the bottoms of the rivers and margins of the lakes ; sheep, cattle, horses, camels, and other aninuds. Alpine liares, wild asses,’ wild yaks, vultures, lammergeiers, pheasants, antelopes, wolves, mountain sheep, and wild camels are among the denizens of the wilds. The Chinese have settled among the tribes, and Mohammedans of Turkish origin are found in the large towns. There are eight corps between Koko-nor and

    Iliasutai, comprising all the tribes and banners, and over which

    are placed as many supreme generals or commanders appointed

    from Peking. The leading tribes in Ivoko-nor are Eleuths,

    Tanguts, and Tourbeths, the former of M’hom are the remnants

    of one of the most powerful tribes in Centi-al Asia. Tangout

    submitted to the Emperor in 1G90, and its population since the

    incorporation has greatly increased. They iidiabit the hilly region

    of Kansuh, Ivoko-nor^ Eastern Tsaidam, and the basin of

    the Upper Yellow Kiver. They resemble gipsies, being above

    the average in height, with thick-set features, broad shoulders,

    liair and whiskers, black, dark eyes, nose straight, lips thick

    and protruding, face long and never flat, skin tawny. Unlike

    the Mongols aiul Chinese they have a strong growth of beard

    and whiskers which, however, they always shave. They wear

    no tail, Ijut shave their heads; their dress consists of furs and

    cloths made into long coats that reach to the knees. Shirts or

    trowsers are not made use of ; their upper logs are generally

    left bare. Women dress like the men. Their habitations are wooden huts or black cloth tents. The Tangut is cunning,

    ‘Compare Richthofen, China, Band I., 2or Thoil. ; Yulo, Cathaij and t/ie Way Thither, passim.

    •The wild ass is called by Prejevalsky the most remarkable animal of these steppes. Compare Yule’s Marco Polo, Vol. I., p. 220 (2d edition).

    THE TANGUTS AND NOMADS OF KOKO-NOR. 218

    stingy, lazy, and sliiftless. His sole occupation that of tending

    cattle (yaks). He is even more zealous a Buddhist than are the

    Mongols, and extremely superstitious.” The trade at Sining is

    large, but not equal to that between Yunnan and Burniah at

    Tall and Bhamo ; dates, rhubarb, chowries, precious stones, felts,

    cloths, etc., are among the commodities seen in the bazaar. It

    lies about a hundred miles from the sea, at an elevation of

    V,800 feet, and near it is the famous laraasary of Ivunibum,

    where MM. Hue and Gabet lived in 1845. The town is well

    situated upon the Sining ho, and though constructed for the

    most part of wood, presents a fine appearance owing to the

    number of official buildings therein. The population numbers

    some 00,00(1 souls.”

    ‘ For a notice of the Ouigours, who formerly ruled Tangout, consult Klaproth, Memmres, Tome II., p. 301, if. See also Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges Asiati’ques, Tome II., p. 61, for a notice of the Ta-ta tung’o, who applied their letters to write Mongolian.

    * Chinese Repository, Vol. IX., p. 113; Vol. I., p. 118. Penny Cyclopaedia, Arts. Bayan Kara, Tangut. Kreitner, Imfemen Osten, p. 703. Hue, Tr^i*-els, passim.

    The towns lying between the treat Wall and ill, though politically belonging to Xansuh, are more connected with the colonies in their form of government than with the Eighteen Provinces. The first town beyond the Kiayii Pass is Yulimim, distant about ninety miles, and is the residence of officers, who attend to the caravans going to and from the pass. It is represented as lying near the junction of two streams, which flow northerly into the Purunki. The other district town of Tunhwang lies across a mountainous country, upwards of two hundred miles distant. The city of Xgansi chau has been built to facilitate the communication across the desert to Hami or Kamil, the first town in Songaria, and the depot of troops, arms, and munitions of Avar. “With the town of Hami,” says an Austrian visitor in these regions, ” the traveller comes upon the southern foot-hills of the Tien shan, and the first traces of Siberian civilization. Magnificent mountain scenery accompanies him on his way toward the west to the Pussian line. In the government of Semipolatinsk are the express mail-wagons wliicli stand ready at his order to carry him at furious speed to the town of the same name, then to the right bank of the River Irtjsh, and so to Omsk.” ‘ This route and that stretching towards the southwest bring an important trade to llanii ; the country around it is cuUivated by poor Mongols.” Barkul, or Chinsi fu, in hit. 43° 40′ ]X., and long. 93° 30’ E., is the most important place in the department ; the district is called Iho hien. A thousand Manchus, and three thousand Chinese, guard the post. The town is situated on the south of Lake Barkul, and its vicinity receives some cultivation, llami and Turfan each form a ihi(j district in the southeast and west of the department. The trade at all these places consists mostly of articles of food and clothing.

    Urumtsi, c)r Tih-hwa chau (the Bivh-halih of the Ouigours in 1100 % in hit. 43° 45′ N., and long. 89° E., is the westernmost department of Kansuh, divided into three districts, and containing many posts and settlements. In the war with the Eleuths in 1770, the inhabitants around this place were exterminated, and the countiy afterwards repeopled by upwards of ten thousand troops, with their families, and by exiles; emigrants from Kansuh were also induced to settle there. The Chinese accounts

    speak of a high monntain near the city, always covered

    with ice and snow, whose base is wooded, and abounding with

    pheasants ; coal is also obtained in this region. The cold is

    great, and snow falls as late as July. Many parts produce

    grain and vegetables. All this department formerly constituted

    a portion of Songaria. The policy of the Chinese government

    is to induce the tribes to settle, by placing large bodies of troops

    with their families at all important points, and sending their

    exiled criminals to till the soil ; the Mongols then find an increasing demand for their cattle and other products, and are induced to become stationary to meet it. So far as is known, this policy had succeeded well in the regions beyond the Wall, and those around Koko-nor ; but the rebellion of the Dunganis, who arose in these outlying regions at the moment when the energies of the Peking government were all directed to suppressing the Tai-ping insurrection, destroyed these improvements, and frustrated, for an indefinite period, the promising development of civilization among the inhabitants.

    ‘ Lieut. Krcitner, Imfernen Osten.

    ” In Remusat’s Ilii^toire de la VUle de Khotun (p. 70) there is an account of a journey made in the lOth century between Kanchan and Klioten.

    ^ Remusat calls it PciUiUope. Nouveaux MelamjeSy Tome I., p. 5.

    DIVISIONS AND BOUNDARIES OF ILI. 215

    That part of the Empire called Ili is a vast region lying on

    each side of the Tien shan, and including a tract nearly as large

    as Mongolia, and not much more susceptible of cultivation. Its

    limits may be stated as extending from lat. 36° to 49° K., and

    from long. 71° to 96° E., and its entire area, although difficult

    to estimate from its irregularity, can hardly be less than 900,000

    square miles, of which Songaria occupies rattier more than onethird.

    It is divided into two Lu^ or ‘ Circuits,’ viz., the Tien

    shan Pell Lu, and Tien shan Nan Lu, or the circuits north and

    south of the Celestial Mountains. The former is commonly

    designated Songaria, or Dzungaria, from the Songares or

    Eleuths, who ruled it till a few scores of years past, and the latter

    used to be known as Little Bokhara, or Eastern Turkestan.

    tli is bounded north by the Altai range, separating it from

    the Kirghls ; northeast by the Irtysh Piver and Outer Mongolia

    ; east and southeast by ITrumtsi and Barkul in Ivansuh ;

    south by the desert and the Ivwanlun range ; and west by the

    Belur-tag, dividing it from Badakshan and Russian territory.’

    ‘ The recent treaty between Russia and China (ratified in 1881), marks the boundaries between Ili and Russian territory in the following sections: Art. VII. A tract of country in the west of Ili is ceded to Russia, where those who go over to Russia and are thereby dispossessed of their land in tli may settle. The boundary line of Chinese tli and Russian territory will stretch from the Pieh-chen-tao [Bedschin-tau] Mountains along the course of the Hocrh-kwo-ssU [Yehorsos] River, to its junction with the Ili River, thence across the 111 River, and south to the east of the village of Kwo-li-cha-ti”‘ [Kaldschatl on the Wu-tsung-tau range, and from this point south along the old boundary line fixed by the agreement of Ta-Cheng [Tashkend] in the year 1864.

    Art. VIII. The boundary line to the east of the Chi-sang lake, fixed iu the year 1864 by the agreement of Ta-Cheng [Tashkend], having proved unsatisfactory, high officers will be specially deputed by both countries jointly to examine and alter it so that a satisfactory result may be attained. That there may be no doubt what part of the Kliassak country belongs to China and what to Russia, the boundary will consist of a straight line drawn from the Kwei Tung Mountains across the Hei-i-erh-te-shih River to the Sa-wu-crh range, and Ill lenoftli, the Northern Circuit extends about nine hundred miles, and the width, on an average, is three hundred miles. The Southern Circuit reaches nearly twelve hundred and fifty miles from west to east, and varies from three hundred to five hundred in breadth, as it extends to the IvM’unhm range on the south. There is probably most arable land in the Northern Circuit.

    Ili, taken north of the Tarim basin, may be regarded as an

    inland isthmus, extending southwest from the south of Siberia,

    off between the Gobi and Caspian deserts, till it reaches the

    Hindu Kush, leading down to the valley of the Indus. The

    former of these deserts incloses it on the east and south, the

    other on the west and northwest, separated from each other by

    the Belur and Muz-tag ranges, which join with the Tien shan,

    that divide the isthmus itself into t\\o parts. These deserts

    united are equal in extent to that of Sahara, l)ut are not as arid

    and tenantless.

    This region has some peculiar features, among which its great

    elevation, its isolation in respect to its water-courses, and the

    character of its vegetation, are the most remarkable. Songaria

    is especially noticeable for the many closed river-basins which

    occur between the Altai and Tien shan, among the various

    liiinor ranges of hills, each of which is entirely isolated, and

    containing a lake, the receptacle of its drainage. The largest

    of these singular basins is that of the Kiver 111, which runs

    about three hundred miles westward, from its rise in the Tien

    shan (lat. 85°) till it falls into Lake Balkash, which also receives

    some other streams ; the superficies of the whole basin is about forty thousand square miles. The other lakes lie northeastward of Balkash ; the largest of them are the Dzaisang, which receives the Irtysh, the Kisilbasli, into which the ITrungu the liigli of Beors deputed to settle the boundiuy will fix the iit>\v boundary .along such straight line which is within the old bounchxry.

    Art. IX. As to the boundary on the west, between the Province of Fei-rrhkan[Ferghana], which is subject to Russia, and Chinese Kashgar, officials will be deputed V)y both countries to examine it, and they will fix the boundary line between the territories at present actually under the jurisdiction of either country, and they will erect boundary stones thereon.

    TOPOGRAPHY OF ILI. 217

    flows, and four or five smaller ones between them, lying north

    of the city of III. Lake Tenmrtu, or Issik-kul, lies now just

    beyond the southwestern part of this Circuit, and was until

    recently contained therein. This sheet of water is deep and

    never freezes ; it is brackish, but full of fish ; the dimensions

    are about one liundred miles long, and thirty-five wide ; its

    superabundant waters flow oif through the Chu ho into the

    Xirghis steppe.

    The Ala-tau range defines the lake on the north shore. Says

    a Hussian traveller in describing this region, ” It M^ould be difl[icnlt

    to imagine anything more splendid than the view of the

    Tien shan from this spot. The dark blue surface of the Issikkul,

    like sapphire, may M’ell bear comparison with the equally

    blue surface of Geneva Lake, but its expanse—five times as

    great—seeming almost unlimited, and the matchless splendor of

    its background, gives it a grandeur which the Swiss lake does

    not possess. The unbroken, snowy chain liere stretches away

    for at least 200 miles of the length of the Issik-kul ; the sharp

    outlines of the spurs and dark valleys in the front range are

    softened by a thin mist, which hangs over the water and

    heightens the clear, sharp outlines of the white heads of the

    Tien shan giants, as they rise and glisten on the azure canopy

    of a central Asian sky. The line of perpetual snow connnences

    at three-fifths of their slope up, but as one looks, their snowless

    base seems to sink the deeper in the far east, till the waves of

    the lake seem to wash the snowy crests of Ivhan-Tengse.” Forty

    small rivers flow into it, but its size is gradually lessening.’

    Little is known concerning the topography, the productions,

    or the civilization of the tribes who inhabit a large part of Songaria,

    but the efforts of the Chinese government have been

    systematically directed to developing its agricultural resources,

    by stationing bodies of troops, who cultivate the soil, there, and

    by banishing criminals thither, who are obliged to work for and

    assist the troops. It gives one a higher idea of the rulers of

    China, themselves wandering nomads originally, when they are

    seen carrying on such a plan for extending the capabilities of

    these remote parts of their Empire, and teaching, partly by force, partly by bribes, and partly by example, the Mongol tribes under them the advantages of a settled life.

    ‘ Compare also Schuyler, Turkistan, Vol. II., pp. 137 ff

    The productions of Songaria are nnmerons. Wheat, barley,

    rice and millet, are the chief corn stuffs ; tobacco, cotton, melons,

    and some fruits, are grown ; herds of horses, camels, cattle, and

    sheep, afford means of locomotion and food to the people, while

    the mountains and lakes supply game and fish. The inhabitants

    are composed mostly of Eleuths, with a tribe of Tourgouths,

    and remnants of the Songares, together with Mongols, Manchus,

    and Chinese troops, settlers and criminals.

    TiEN-SHAN Peh Lu is divided by the Chinese into three commanderies, llh, on the west, Tarhagatai on the north, and Kurkara usu on the east, between Ili and the west end of Kansuh.

    The government of the ISTorth and South Circuits is under the control of Manchu military officers residing at Ili. This city, called by the Chinese Ilwuiyuen ching, and Gouldja (orlvuldja) and Kuren by the natives, lies on the north bank of the Ili River, in lat. 43° 55′ K., and long. 81^° E. ; it contains about fifty thousand inhabitants, and carries on considerable trade with China through the towns in Ivansuh. The city was defended by six strong fortresses in its neighborhood, and tho solidity of the stone walls enabled it to resist a vigorous assault in the Dungani rebellion. Its circuit is nearly four miles, and two wide avenues cross its centre, dividing it into four equal parts, through each of which run many lanes. Its houses indicate the Turkish origin of its builders in their clay or adobe walls and flat roofs, and this impression is increased by the Junnna mosque of the Taranchis, and the Dungan mosque, outside of the walls. The last has a wonderful minaret built of small roofed pavilions one over another; both of them affect the Chinese architecture in their roofs, and their walls are faced with diamond-shaped tiles. The Buddhist temple has hardly been rebuilt since the city has returned to Chinese rule. The supply of meats and vegetables is constant, and the variety and quality exceed that of most other towns in the region. The population is gradually increasing with the return of peace and trade, but is still under twenty thousand, of which not one-fifth are Chinese and Manchus : the Taranchis constitute half of the whole, and Dunganis are the next in number. The province is the richest and best cultivated of all this reijion of fli : its coal, metals, and fruits are sources of prosperity, and with its return to Chinese sway under new relations in respect to Russian trade, its future is promising.

    TIEN-SHAlSr PEU LU AXD THE TOWX OF KULDJA. 219

    The destruction of life was dreadful at the capture of Kuldja and other towns, which were then left a heap of ruins.’

    Schuyler estimates that not more than a hundred thousand people remained in the province, out of a third of a million in 1860. It is stated in Chinese works that when Amursana, the discontented chief of the Songares, applied, in 1775, to Kienlung for assistance against his rival Tawats or Davatsi, and was sent back with a Chinese army, in the engagements which ensued, more than a million of people were destroyed, and the whole country depopulated. At that time, Knldja was built by

    Kienlung, and soon became a place of note. Outside of the

    town are the barracks for the troops, which consist of Eleuths

    and Mohammedans, as well as ]\[anchus and Chinese. Coal is

    found in this region, and most of the inland rivers produce

    abundance of fish, wliile wild animals and birds are numerous.

    The resources of the country are, however, insufficient to meet

    the expenses of the military establishment, and the presents

    made to the begs, and the deficit is supplied from China.”

    ‘ 175,000 perished in Kuklja alone.
    ” The question of the existence of volcanoes in Central Asia, especially on the Knldja frontier, has always been a matter of doubt and discussion among geologists and Russian explorers. The Governor of Semiretchinsk, General Kolpakofsky, was, in 1881, able to report the discovery of the perpetual fires in the Tien shan range of mountains. The mountain Bai shan was found twelve miles northeast of Kuldja, in a basin surrounded by the massive Ailak mountains ; its fires are not volcanic, but proceed from burning coal. On the sides of the mountain there are caves emitting smoke and sulphurous gas. Mr. Schuyler, in his Turkistan, mentions that these perpetual fires in the mountains, referred to by Chinese historians, were considered by Severtzofif, a Russian, who explored the region, as being caused by the ignition of the seams of coal, or the carburetted h^’drogen gas in the seams. The same author further mentions that Captain Tosnofskey, another Russian explorer, was told of a place in the neighborhood from which steam constantly rose, and that near this crevice there had existed, from ancient times, three pits, where per sons afflicted with rheumatism or skin diseases were in the habit of bathing.

    Subordinate to the control of the commandant at Knldja are nine garrisoned places situated in the same valley, at each of which are bodies of Chinese convicts. The two remaining districts of Tarbagatai and Ivur-kara usu are small compared with 111 ; the first lies between Cobdo and the Kirghis steppe, and is inhabited mostly by emigrants from the steppes of the latter, who render merely a nominal subjection to the gari’isons placed over them, but are easily governed through their tribal rulers. The Tourgouths, who emigrated from Kussia in 1772, into China, are located in this district and Cobdo, as well as in the valleys of the Tekes and Kunges rivers. They have become more or less assimilated with other tribes since they were placed here. In the war with the Songares, many of the people fled from the valley of IK to this region, and after that country was

    settled, they submitted to the Emperor, and partly returned to

    111. The chief town, called Tuguchuk by the Kirghis, and

    Suitsing cliing by the Chinese, is situated not far from the

    southern base of the Tarbagatai Mountains, and contains about

    six hundred houses, half of which belong to the garrison. It

    is one of the nine fortified towns under the control of the commandant

    at Kuldja, and a place of some trade with the Kirghis.

    There are two residents stationed here, with high powers to oversee

    the trade across the frontier, but their duties are inferior

    in importance to those of the officials at Ilrga. 2,500 Manchu

    and Chinese troops remain at this post, and since the conquest

    of the country in 1772 by Kienhmg, its agricniltural products

    have gradually increased under the industry of the Chinese.

    The tribes dwelling in this distant province are restricted within

    certain limits, and their obedience secured by presents. The

    climate of Tarbagatai is changeable, and the cold weather

    comprises more than half the year. The basin of Lake

    Aladvul, or Alaktu-kul, occupies the southwest, and part of the

    Trtysh and Lake Dzaisang the northeast, so that it is well

    watered. The trade consists chiefiy of domestic animals and

    cloths.

    POSITION OF TIEN-SHAN NAN LU. 221

    The town of Kur-kara usu lies on the Ttiver Kur, northeast from Kuldja and oti the road between it and TTrumtsi ; it ia called Kingsui ching by the Chinese. The number of troops stationed at all these posts is estimated at sixty thousand, and the total population of Songaria under two millions.

    The TiEN-SHAN Kan Lit, or Southern C^ircuit of Ili,the territory

    of ‘ the eight Mohammedan cities,’ was named Sin

    Kiang (‘ New Frontier ‘) by Kienlung. It is less fertile than

    the T^orthern Circuit, the greatest part of its area consisting of

    ruffo-ed mountains or barren wastes, barelv affordino; subsistence

    for herds of cattle and goats. The principal boundaries are the

    Kwanlun Mountains, and the desert, separating it from Tibet on

    the south ; Cashmere lies on the southwest, and Badukshan and

    Kokand are separated from it on the west and northwest by

    the Belur-tag, all of them defined and partitioned by the mountain

    ranges over which the passes 12,000 to 16,000 feet high

    furnish both defence and travel according to the season.

    The greater part of this Circuit is occupied with the basin of

    the Tarim or Ergu, which flows from the Belur range in four

    principal branches ‘ (called from the towns lying upon their

    banks the Yarkand, Kashgar, Aksu, and Khoten Rivers), and

    running eastward, receives several affluents from the north and

    south, and falls into Lake Lob in long. 89^ E., after a course,

    including windings, of between 1,100 and 1,300 miles. Of the

    river system from which this stream flows Baron Ilichthofen

    says, ” the region which gives birth to this river is on a scale of

    grandeur such as no other river in the world can boast. It is

    girt round by a wide semicircular collar of mountains of the

    loftiest and grandest character, often rising in ridges of 18,000

    to 20,000 feet in height, while the peaks shoot up to 25,000 and

    even 28,000 feet. The basin which fills in the horse-shoe shaped

    space encompassed by these gigantic elevations, though deeply

    depressed below them, stands at a height above the sea varying

    from 6,000 feet at the margin to about 2,000 in the middle,

    and formed the bed of an ancient sea. From its wall-like sides

    on the south, west, and north, the waters rush headlong down,

    and though the winds blowing from all directions deposit most

    of their moisture on the remoter sides of the surrounding

    ‘ Wood, Jmirney to the Source of the River Oxus, p. 356. From the hills that encircle Lake Sir-i-kol rise some of the principal rivers in Asia : the Yarkand, Kashgar, Sirr, Kuner, and Oxus.

    ranges, viz., the southern foot of the Himalayas, the west side

    of the Paniii-, and the northern slope of the Tien shan, the

    streams formed thereby windhig through the cloud-capped lofty

    cradle-land, and breaking tlirough the mountain chains, reach

    the old ocean bed onlj^ partly well watered. The smallest of

    them disappear in the sand, others flow some distance before

    expanding into a level salt basin and are there absorbed. Only

    the largest, whose munber the Chinese estimate at sixty, unite

    with the Tarim, a river 1,150 miles long, and therefore in

    length between the Khine and Danube, but far surpassing both

    in the massiveness of surrounding mountains, just as it exceeds

    the Daimbe in the extent of its basin. Its tributaries foi-m

    along the foot of the mountains a number of fruitful oases, and

    these by means of artificial irrigation have been converted into

    flourishing, cultivated states, and have played an important part

    in the history of these regions.” ‘ Col. Prejevalsky’s explorations

    in this totally unknown country have brought out a multitude

    of facts pregnant with interest both for histoi’ical and geographical

    study. Among the most important results of his discoveries is the location of Lob more than a degree to the south of its position on Chinese maps, and a consequent bend of the Tarim from its due eastern course before it reaches its outlet.

    This lake, consisting of two sheets of water, the Kara-buran

    and Kara-kurc’hin (or Chon-kul), lies on the edge of the deseit,

    in an uniidiabited region, and surrounded by great swamps,

    which extend also northwest along the Tarim to its junction

    with the Kaidu. It is shallow, overgrown with weeds, and is

    for the most part a morass, the water being fresh, despite the sail

    marshes in the vicinity. The people living near it speak a language

    most like that of Ivhoten ; they are Moslems. Lake Lob is elliptical, 90 to 100 versts long and 20 wide, 2,200 feet above the sea. Enormous flocks of birds come from Khoten on the southwest, as they go north, and make Lob-nor their stopping-place. The desert in this region is poor and desolate in the extreme.

    ‘ RicJitJioferi’ s Bemarks in Prejevalsky’s Loh-nor, p. i;?8. London, 1879.

    THE RIVER TARIM AND LOB-NOR. 223

    Its southern side is formed by the Altyn-tag range, a spur of the Kwanlun Mountains that rises about 14,000 feet in a sheer wall. Wild camels are found in its ravines, whose sight, hearing, and smell are marvellously acute. No other river basins of any size are found within the Circuit, except a large tributary called the Kaidu, which, draining a parallel valley north of Lobnor, two hundred miles long, runs into a lake nearly as large, called Bostang-nor, from which an outlet on the south continues it into the Tarim, about eighty miles from its mouth.

    The tributaries of this river are represented as much more serviceable for agricultural purposes than the main trunk is for navigation. The plain through which the Tarim flows is about two hundred miles broad and not far from nine hundred miles long, most of it unfit for cultivation or pasturage. The desert extends considerably west of the two lakes. The climate of this region is exceedingly dry, and its barrenness is owing, apparently, more to the want of moisture than to the nature of the soil. The western parts are colder than those toward Kansuh, the river being passable on ice at Yarkand, in lat. 38°, for three months, while frost is hardly known at Hami, in lat. 43°.

    The productions of the valley of the Tai’im comprise most of the grains and fruits found in Southern Europe ; the sesamum is cultivated for oil instead of the olive. Few trees or shrubs cover the mountain acclivities or plains. All the domestic animals abound, except the hog, which is i-eared in small numbers by the Chinese. The camel and yak are hunted and raised for food and service, their coats affording both skins and hair for garments. The horse, camel, black cattle, ass, and sheep, are found wild on the edge of the desert, where they find a precarious subsistence. The mountains and marshes contain jackals, tigers, bears, wolves, lynxes, and deer, together with some large species of birds of prey. Gold, copper, and iron are brought from this region, but the amount is not large, and as articles of trade they are less important than the sal-ammoniac, saltpetre, sulphur, and asbestos obtained from the volcanic region in the east of the Celestial Mountains. The best specimens of the yuh or nephrite, so highly prized by the Chinese, are obtained in the Southern Circuit.

    The present divisions of this Circuit are regulated by the position of the eight Mohammedan cities. The western departments of Kansnh naturally belong to the same region, and the cities now pertaining to that province are inhabited by entirely

    similar races, and governed in the same feudal manner, with

    some advantages in consideration of their early submission to

    Kienlung. The first town on the road, of note, is Ilami ; Turfan

    and Pidshan are less important as trading posts than as

    garrisons. The eight cities are named in the Statistics of the

    Empire in the following order, beginning at the east : Harashar,

    Kuche, Ushi (including Sairim and Bai), Aksu, Khoten,

    Yarkand, Kashgar, and Yingkeshar or Yangi Hissar. The

    superior officers live at Yarkand, but the Southern Circuit is

    divided into four minor governments at Ilarashar, Ushi, Yarkand,

    and Khoten, each of whose residents reports both to Kuldja

    and Peking. There is constant restiveness on the part of the

    subject races, who are all Moslems, arising from their clannish

    habits and feuds ; they have not the elements of substantial

    progress and national growth, either under their own rulers or

    Chinese. They have lately thrown off the Peking Government,

    but they have generally regretted the rapines and waste caused

    by the strifes and change, and Avould probably receive the

    Kitai (so they term the Chinese) back again. The latter are

    not hard masters, and bring trade and wealth the longer they

    remain. One of the IJsbek chiefs under Yakub khan gave

    the pith of the situation between the two, when he replied to

    Dr. Bellew’s remark that he talked like a Chinese himself,

    ” Ko, I hate them. But they were not bad rulers. “We had

    everything then ; we have nothing now. We never see any

    signs of the Kitai trade, nor of the wealth they brought here.”‘

    Ilarashar (or Karashar) lies on the Kaidu River, not far from

    Lake Bagarash or Bostang, about two hundred and ninety miles

    west of Turfan, in lat. 42° 15′ N., and long. 87° E. It is a

    large district, and has two towns of some note within the jurisdiction

    of its officers—namely, Korla and Bukur. Ilarashar is

    fortified, and from its being a secure position, and the seat of

    the chief resident, attracts considerable trade. The embroidery

    is superior ; but the tribes living in the district are more addicted

    to hunting than disposed to sedentary trades. Korla lies

    TOWNS OF THE SOUTheRISr CIIiCUIT. 225

    southwest of llarasliar on the Kaidii, between lakes Bostany;

    and Lob, and the productions of the town and its vicinity indi

    cate a fertile soil ; the Chinese say the Mohammedans who live

    here are fond of singing, but have no ideas of ceremony or

    Virbanity. Bukur lies two hundred miles Avest of Korla and

    ” might be a rich and delicious country,”” says the Chinese account,

    ” but those idle, vagrant Mohannnedans only use their

    strength in theft and plunder ; the Avomen blush at nothing.”

    The town formerly contained upward of ten thousand inhal)-

    itants, but Kienlung nearly destroyed it ; the district has been

    since resettled by Iloshoits, Tourbeths, and Turks, and the people

    carry on some trade in the produce of their herds, skins, copper,

    and agates.

    Kuche, about eighty miles west from Bukur, hit. 41° 3T’ X.,

    and long. 83° 20′ E., is a larger an<l more important city than that

    t)f Ilarashar, for the road which crosses the Tien shan l)y the

    pass Muz-daban to Ili, here joins tliat coming from Aksu on

    the west and Ilami on the east. It is three miles in circuit, and

    is defended by ten forts and three hundred troops. The

    bazaars contain grain, fruits, and vegetables, raised in the vicinity

    by great labor, for the land requires to be irrigated by hand

    from Avells, pools, and streams. Copper, sulphur, and saltpeti’e

    are carried across to 111, for use of government as well as traffic,

    being partly levied from the inhabitants as taxes ; linen is

    manufactured in the town, and sal ammoniac, cimiabar, and

    quicksilver are procured fi’oni the mountains. Kuche is considered

    the gate of Turkestan, and is the chief town, politically

    speaking, between Ilami and Yarkand. The district and town

    of Shayar lie south of Kuche, in a marshy valley producing

    abundance of rice, melons, and fruit ; the pears are particularly

    good. Two small lakes, Baba-kul and Sary-kamysch, lie to the

    east of this town, and are the only bodies of water between

    Bostang-nor and Issik-kul. The population is about four thousand,

    ruled by hegs subordinate to the general at Kuche.

    The valley of. the Aksu contains two large towms, Aksu and Ushi or Ush-turfan, besides several posts and villages. Between the former and Kuche, lie the small garrisons and districts of Bai and Sairim. The first contains from four to five hundred families, ruled by their own chiefs. Sairim or Ilanlemuli is siiboi-dinate to Ushi in some degree, but its productions, climate, and inhabitants are like those of Kuche. ” Their manners are simple,” remarks a Chinese writer, speaking of the people; ” they are neither cowards nor rogues like the other Mohammedans; they are fond of singing, drinking, and dancing, like those of Kuche.” Aksu is a large commercial and manufacturing

    town, containing twenty thousand inhabitants, situated,

    like Kuche, at the termination of a road leading across the Tien

    slian to til, and attracting to its market traders from Siberia,

    i)okhara, and Kokand, as well as along the great road. Its manufactures

    of cotton, silk, leather, harnesses, crockery, precious

    stones, and metals are good, and sent abroad in great numbers.

    The country produces grain, fruits, vegetables, and cattle in perfection, and the people are more civilized than those on the east and north; “they are generous and nol)lo, and both slug and ] idieulc the oddities and niggardliness of the other jMobammedans.”

    The Chinese garrison consists of three thousand soldiers, and the officers are accountable to those at Ushi. Ushi lies al)Out TO miles due west of Aksu, in lat. 41° 15′ N. and long. 79° 40′ E., and is stated to contain ten thousand inhabitants.

    ^ CiilU’d aho Pourouts. Compare Klaproth {Memoircs, Tome III., p. 332), who has a notice of these tribes.

    THE GOVERNMENT AND TOWN OF KASJIGAR. 227

    The Chinese name is Yung-ning ching(ie. ‘City of Eternal Tranquillity’). The officers stationed here report to the commandant at Ili, but they communicate directly with Peking, and receive the Emperor’s sanction to their choice of begs, and to the envoys forwarded to the capital with tribute. Copper money is cast here in ingots, somewhat like the ingots of sycee in the provinces. There are six forts attached to Uslif, to keep in order the wandering tribes of the Kii’ghis, called I’ruth l\irghi’s,’ which roam over the fi’ontier regions between Ushi and ^’arkand. They pay homage to the officers at Ushi, but give no tribute. Those who do pay tribute are taxed a tenth, but the Kii-ghis on this frontier are usually allowed to roam where they like, provided they keep the peace. This region was nearly depopulated by Kienlung’s generals, and at present supports a sparse population compared with its fertility and resources.

    The government of Kashgar, known, at the time of the Arab conquest, as Klehlh Bul’hara, presents a vast, undulating plain, of which the slope is very gradual toward the east, and of which the general elevation maybe reckoned at from three to four thousand feet above the sea. The aspect of its surface is mostly one of unmitigated waste—a vast spread of bare sand and gloomy salts, traversed in all directions by dunes and banks of gravel, with the scantiest vegetation, and all but absence of animal life. Such is the view that meets the eye ajid joins the horizon everywhere on the plain immediately beyond the river courses and the settlements planted on their banks.’ The population of this whole district is considerably less than a million

    and a half. The natural mineral productions hei’e are of great

    value, and it is a knowledge of this fact which has induced the

    Chinese to persevere in retaining so expensive and turl)ulent a

    frontier province. The gold and jade of Ivhoten, silver and

    lead of Cosharab, and copper of Khalistan, have given abundant

    employment to Chinese settlers ; while coal, iron, sulphur,

    alum, sal ammoniac, and zinc, though worked in unimportant

    quantities before the insurrection of Yakub khan (Atalik

    Gliazi), furnished the inhabitants with supplies for domestic

    use. An important hinderance to building villages in many sections

    of this territory is the prevalence of sand dunes here.

    Solitary houses and even whole settlements lying in the path of

    these moving hills are suddenly overwhelmed and oftentimes

    totalh’ effaced.

    The town of Kashgar is situated at the northwestern angle

    of the Southern Circuit, on the Kashgar River, a branch of the

    Tarim, in lat. 39° 25′ X., and long. 76° 5′ E., at the extreme

    west of the Empire. Several roads meet here. Going in a

    northw^est direction, one leads over the Tien shan to Kokand ; a

    second passes south, through Yarkand and Khoten, to Leh and

    Cashmere ; a third, the great caravan route, from China through

    1 H. W. Bellew, Kashmir and Kashgar. A Narrative of the Journey of the Embassy to Kashgar in 1873-4, p. 2.

    Uslii, iiiav be said to end liere ; and the fourth and most frequented,

    leads off northwest over the Tien shan through the

    llowat Pass, and along the western banks of Lake Issik-kul to

    111. Kashgar was the capital of the Oigours for a long time, and

    its ruler forced his people, as far east as llanii, to accept Islaniisni

    about the year lUCiO. They then came under Genghis’

    sway, and this city increased its iuiportance. but when Abubahr

    JMiza took Yarkand, he razed Kashgar to the ground. Under

    Chinese rule it became one of the richest marts in Central

    Asia, and its future im])ortance is secured by its position. The

    city is enclosed with high and massive walls, supported by buttress

    bastions, and protected by a deep ditcli on three sides, the river flowing under the fourth. There are but two gates ; the area within is about fifty acres. Around it are populous suburbs.

    In the middle of the town is a large s(piare, and four bazaars

    branch from it through to the gates ; the gari-ison is placed

    without the wall^. The nuinufactures of Kashgar excel those

    of any other town in the two Circuits, especially in jade, gold,

    silk, cotton, gold and silver cloths, and carpets. The country

    around produces fruit and grain in abundance; “the manners

    of the people have an appearance of elegance and politeness,”

    says the Chinese geographer ;

    ” the women dance

    and sing in fanuly parties ; they fear and respect the officers,

    and have not the M’ild, uncultivated aspect of those in

    Ushi.” This judgment is in a measure confirmed by Bellew,

    who credits the people with being singularly free from prejudice

    against the foreigners, quite indifferent on any score of his

    nationality or religion, and content so long as lie pays his way

    and does not offend the customs of the natives. Sevei-al towns

    arc subordinate to Kashgar, because of its oversight of their

    I’ulers, and consumption of their products. Southwest lies Tashl)

    alig, and on the road leading to Yarkand is Yangi Tlissar, both

    of them towns of some importance ; the whole distance from

    Kashgar presents a succession of sandy or saline tracts, alternating

    with fertile bottoms wherever water runs. Small villages

    and post houses serve to connect the larger towns, but the soil

    does not reward the cultivators with much produce.

    THE CITY OF YARKAND. 229

    Tarkand, or Yerkiang, is the political capital of the Southern

    Circuit, as the highest militaiy officers and strongest force

    are stationed liere. It is situated on the Yarkand Itiver, in hit.

    36° 30′ X., and long. 77° 15′ E., in the midst of a sand-girt

    oasis of great fertility. The environs are ai)undantlv su])plied

    with water by canals. The stone walls are three miles in circumference,

    but its suburbs are nuicli larger ; the houses are

    built of dried bricks, and the town has a more substantial appearance

    than others in III. There are njanj mosques and colleges,

    which, with the public buildings occupied by the government

    and ti’oops, add to its consideration. Yarkand is one of

    the ancient cities of Tartary, and was, in remote times, a royal

    residence of Turk princes of the Afrasyab dynasty. In modern

    times it owes its rank as a well-built city chiefly to Abubahr

    Miza, whose short-lived sway from Aksu to Wakhan left its

    chief results in the mosques and bazaars erected or enlarged by

    him. By means of quarrying jade in the Karakash valley, and

    W’orking the bangles, ear-rings and other articles in the city,

    thousands of families found employment under Chinese rule.

    With the overthrow of that sway and then of Yakub khan in

    its restoration, all this industry disappeared. In the destruction

    ensuing on these long struggles for supremac}^, one learns the

    explanation of the barbarism which has succeeded the downfall

    of mighty empires all over AYestern ^isia. The city has no important

    manufactures ; it enjoys a local reputation for its

    leather, and boots and shoes made here are esteemed all over

    the province. Among other articles of trade are horses, silk,

    and wool, and fabrics made from them ; but everything found

    at Ivashgar is sold also at this market. In a Chinese notice of

    the city, the customs at Yarkand are stated to have yielded over

    $45,000 annually ; the taxes are 35,400 sacks of grain, 57,569

    pieces of linen, 15,000 lbs. of copper, besides gold, silk, varnish,

    and hemp, part of which are carried to 111. Jade is obtained

    from the river in large pieces, yellow, white, black, and reddish,

    and the articles made from it are cariied to China. The Chinese

    authorities have no olqection to the resorting thither of

    natives of Kokand, Badakshan, and other neighboring states,

    many of whom settle and marry.

    Klioten is situated on the southern side of the desert, and the

    district embraces all the country south of Aksu and \ arkand,

    alono- the northern base of the Kwanlun Mountains, for more

    tlian three hundred miles from east to west. The capital is

    called Ilchi on Chmese maps, and lies in an extensive plain on

    the Khoten Kiver in lat. 37° N., and long. 80^ E. The town

    of Karakash (meaning ‘Black Jade’)’ lies in lat. 37° 10′, long.

    80″ 13′ 30″, a few miles northwest in the same valley, and is

    said by traders to be the capital rather than Ilchi ; it is located

    on the road to Yarkaud, distant twelve days’ journey. On

    this road the town of (iumnu is also placed, whose chief had in

    his possession a stone supposed to have the power of causing

    rain. Kirrea lies five days’ journey east of Ilchi, near the pass

    across the mountains into Tibet and Ladak ; a gold mine is

    M’orked near this place, the produce of which is monopolized by

    the Chinese. The three towns of Karakash, tlchi, and Kirrea,

    are the only places of importance between the valley of the

    Tarim and Tibet, but none of them have been visited for a long

    time by Europeans.* The population of the town or district is

    unknown ; one notice ‘ gives it a very large number, approaching

    three millions and even more, which at any rate indicates

    a more fertile soil and genial climate than the regions north and

    south of it. Dr. Morrison, in his Yieia of China, puts it at

    44,630 inhabitants ; and although the former includes the whole

    district, and is probably too large, the second seems to be nnich

    too small.

    Khoten is known, in Chinese books, by the names of Yu-tu’/i,

    Ilwan-na, KleuAan, and Klu,-sa-tan-na—the last meaning, in

    Sanscrit, ” Breast of tiie Earth.” * Its eastern part is marshy,

    i)ut that the country nnist have a considerable elevation is

    manifest from the fact that the river which drains and connects

    it with the Tarim runs quite across the desert in its

    course. The country is governed by two high officei-s and a

    ‘ But Remusat says that Karakash is a river and no town.

    ‘” Wood {Journey to the Oxuk, p. 279) refers to a frontier town by the name

    of Ecla.

    ‘ Penny Ci/clopcedia, Art. Tuian Shan nan lu.

    * Rdmusat, Ilis’oire de Hhotan, p. 35.

    KHOTEN DISTRICT. 2^1

    detachment of troops ; there are six towns under their jurisdiction,

    the inhabitants of which are ruled in the same manner as

    the other Mohammedan cities. The people, however, are said

    to be mostly of the JJuddhist faith, and the Chinese give a good

    accoimt of their peacefulness and industi-y. The trade with

    Leh and ll’lassa is carried on by a road crossing the Kwunlun

    over the Kirrea Pass, beyond which it divides. The productions

    of Khoten are fine linen and cotton stuffs, jade ornaments,

    amber, copper, grain, fruits, and vegetables ; the former for exportation,

    the latter for use. It was in this region that Col.

    Prejcvalsky discovered (in 1879) a new variety of wild horse, a

    specimen of which has been stuffed and exhibited in St. Petersburg.

    The animal in question, though belonging undoubtedly

    to the genus J^quus, presents, in many respects, an intermediate

    form between the domestic horse and the wdld ass.

    Remusat published, in 1820, an account of this country,

    drawn from Chinese books, in wdiich the principal events in its

    histoiy are stated, commencing with the Han dynasty, before

    the Christian era, down to the Manchu conquest. In the early

    part of its history, Khoten was the resort of many priests from

    India, and the Buddhist faith was early established there. It

    was an independent kingdom most of the time, from its earliest

    mention to the era of Genghis khan, the princes sometimes extending

    their sway from the Iviayii pass and Koko-nor to the

    Tsung ling, and then being obliged to contract to the valley now

    designated as Khoten. After the expulsion of the Mongols

    from China, Khoten asserted its independence, but afterward

    fell under the sway of the Songares and Eleuths, and lost many

    of its inhabitants. The Manchus conquered it in 1770, when

    the rest of the region between the Tien shan and Kwanlun fell

    under their sway, but neither have they settled in it to the same

    extent, nor made thereof a penal settlement, as in other parts

    of 111.-

    The government of Ili differs in some respects from that of

    Mongolia, where religion is partly called in to aid the state. In

    ‘ Concerning the nomenclature of this region compare Remusat, Histoire de

    Khotan, p. 66. See, moreover, ib., p. 47 ff., the legend of a drove of desert

    rats assisting the king of this land against the army of his enemies.

    the Northern Circuit, the authority is strictly military, exercised

    by means of residents and generals, with bodies of troops under

    their control. The supreme connnand of all Hi is intrusted by

    the colonial office to a Manchu UiaH(jl(an,ov military governorgeneral

    at Kuldja, who has under him two coimcillors to take

    cognizance of civil cases, and thirty -four residents scattered

    about in both Circuits. This governor has also the control of

    the troops stationed in the three western departments of Kansuh,

    but has nothing to do M’ith the civil jurisdiction of those

    towns. The entire number of soldiers under his hand is stated

    at 60,000, most of whom have families, and add agricultural,

    mechanical, or other labors to the profession of arms. The

    councillors are not altogether sul)ordhiatc to the general, but report

    to the Colonial Office.

    In the Northern Circuit, there is a deputy appointed for every village and town, invested with military powers over the troops and convicts, and civil supervision over the native jpiko or chieftains, who are the real rulers acknowledged by the clans.

    The character of the inhabitants north of the Tien shan is rendered

    unlike that of those dwelling in the Southern Circuit, not

    more by the diversity in their language and nomadic habits,

    than by the sway religious rites and allegiance have over them.

    Through this latter motive, the government of Mongolia and

    the Xorthern Circuit is rendered far easier and more effectual

    for the distant court of Peking than it otherwise Avould be.

    The appointment of the native chieftains is first announced to

    the general at Kuldja and the Colonial Office, and they succeed

    to their post when confirmed, which, as the station is in a measure

    hereditaiy, usually follows in course.

    The inhabitants of the Southern Circuit are Mohammedans

    and acknowledge a less Milling subjection to the Emperor than

    those in the Xorthern, the differences in race, religion, and language

    being probably the leading reasons. The government

    of the whole rejjrion is divided amoni»; the Manchu residents or

    aiiihatin at the eight cities, who are nominally responsible to the

    general at Ili, and independent of each other, but there is a

    gradation in rank and power, the one at Yarkaiid having the

    priority. The begs are chosen by the tribes themselves, and

    GOVERNMEXT OF IlI 233

    exercise authority in all petty cases arising among the people,

    without the interference of the Chinese. The troops are all

    Manchu or Chinese, none of the Turks being enrolled in separate

    bodies, though individuals are employed with safety.

    There is considerable difference in the rank and inliuence of

    the begs, which is upheld and respected by the amhcDis. The

    allowances and style granted them are regulated in a measure

    by their feudal importance. The revenue is derived from a

    monthly capitation tax on each man of about half a dollar, and

    tithes on the produce ; there are no transit duties as in China,

    but custom-houses are established at the frontier trading towns.

    The language generally used in the Southern Circuit is the

    Jaghatai Turki of the Kalmucks ; the Usbecks constitute the majority

    of the people, but Eleuths and Kalmucks are everywhere

    intermixed. The Tibetans have settled in Khoten, or more

    probably, remnants still exist there of the former ijihabitants.

    The history of the vast region constituting the present government

    of 111 early attracted the attention of oriental scholars,

    and few portions of the world have had a more exciting historj’.

    After the expulsion of the Mongols from China by

    Hungwu, A.D. 1366, they found that they, as a tribe, were inferior

    in power to the westei’u triljes, but it was not till about

    1680 that the Eleuths, noi-th of the Tien slian under the Galdan,’

    began to attack the Kalkas, and drive them eastward.

    The Sunnites, Tsakhars, and Solons, portions of the Eastern

    Mongols, had already joined the Manchus ; and the Kalkas, to

    avoid extermination, submitted to them also, and besought their

    assistance against the Eleuths. Kanghi received their allegiance,

    and tried to settle the difficulties peaceably, but was

    obliged to send his troops against the Galdan, and drivj him

    from the territory of the Kalkas to the westward of Lob-nor

    and Barkul. The Emperor was materially aided in this enterprise

    by the secession from the Eleuths of the Songares,

    whose khan had taken offence, and drawn his hordes off to the

    south. The khans of the Kalkas and their vast territory thus

    ‘ “Galdan, better kuown by his title of Contaisch “—Remusat, Nouveaux

    Melanges, Tome II., p. 29, See also Scliuyler’s TurkiMan, Vol. II., p. 168.

    became subject to the Chinese. The Galdan lost all his forces,

    and expired bj poison, in 1697, his power dying with him, and

    his tribe having already become too weak to resist.

    Upon the ruins of his power arose that of Arabdan, the khan

    of the Songares. lie subjugated the ]S’orthern Circuit, passed

    over into Turkestan, Tangout, and Khoten, and gradually reduced

    to his sway nearly all the elevated region of Central Asia

    M’est of Kansuh. lie expelled the Tourgouths from their possessions

    in Cobdo, and compelled them to retreat to the banks

    of the Volga. Ivanghi expelled the Songares from the districts

    about Koko-nor, but made no impression upon their authority

    in Songaria. After the death of Arabdan, about 1720, his

    throne was disputed, and the power weakened by dissensions

    among his sons, so that it Avas seized by two usurpers, Amursana

    and Tawats, Avho also fell out after their object was gained.

    Annn-sana repaired to Peking for assistance, and with the aid

    of a Chinese army expelled Tawats, and took possession of the

    throne of Arabdan. But he had no intention of becoming a

    vassal to Ivienlung, and was no sooner reinstated than he resisted

    him ; he defeated two Chinese armies sent against him,

    but succumbed on the third attack, and fled to Tobolsk, -where

    he died in 1757.

    The territory of Arabdan then fell to Ivienlung, and he pursued

    his successes with such cruelty that the Northern Circuit

    was nearly depopulated, and the Songares and Eleuths became

    almost extinct as distinct tribes. The banished tribe of Tourgouths

    was then invited by the Emperor to retui-n from Russian

    sway to their ancient possessions, which they accepted in

    1772; the history of the Chinese embassy to them, and their

    disastrous journey back to Cobdo over the Ivirghis steppe and

    through the midst of their enemies, is one of the most remarkable

    instances of nomadic wanderings and unexampled suffering

    in modern times.’ Chinese troops, emigrants, exiles, and

    nomadic tribes and families, M^ere sent and encouraged to come

    ‘ Compare Remusat (Nouvrnvx Melanges, Tome II., p. 102), who lias compiled

    a brief life of their leader Ubusha. De Quincey’s essay, The Flight of a

    Tartar Tribe. Ritter, Asien, Bd. V. pp. 531-58:^ : Welthistorischer Einflusa

    des chinenicheu lieichs auf Central- tinU West-Asien.

    HISTORY AND CONQUEST OF ILI 235

    into the vacant territory, so that erelong it began to resume its

    former importance. In the period which has since elapsed, the

    Manchus have been enabled to prevent any combination among

    the clans, and maintain their own authority by a mixed system

    of coercion and coaxing which they well know how to practise.

    The agricultural and mineral resources of the country have

    been developed, many of the nomads induced to attend to agriculture

    by making their chieftains emulous of each others prosperity,

    and by exciting a spirit of traffic among all.

    There have been some disturbances from time to time, but no

    master spirit has arisen ^v]lo has been able to unite the tribes

    against the Chinese. In 1825, there “svas an attempt made

    from Kokand by Jehangir, grandson of the l:ojeh or prince of

    Kashgar, to regain possession of Turkestan ; the khan of Kokand

    assisted him with a small army, and such was their dislike

    of the Chinese, that as soon as Jehangir appeared, the Mohammedans

    arose and drove the Chinese troops away or put them

    to death, opening the gates to the invader, lie took possession

    of Tarkand and Kashgar, and advanced to Aksu” where the

    winter put a stop to the campaign. In the next year, the khan

    of Kokand, seeing the disposition of the people, thought he

    would embark himself in the same cause, and made an incursion

    as far as Aksu and Khoten, reducing more than half the

    Southern Circuit to himself, but ostensibly in aid of Jehangir.

    The kojeh, beginning to fear his aid, withdrew ; and the khan,

    having suffered some reverses from the Chinese troops, made his

    peace on very favorable terms, and returned to his own country.

    Jehangir went to Khoten fi-om Yarkand, but his conduct there

    displeasing the people, the Chinese troops, about 60,000 in

    number, had no difficulty in dispersing his force, and resuming

    their sway. The adherents of the kojeh fled toward Badakshan,

    while he himself repaired to Isaac, the newly appointed kojeh

    of Kashgar, by whom he was delivered up to the Chinese with

    his family, and all of them most barbarously destroyed.

    The kojeh was rewarded with the office of prince of Kashgar,

    but having been accused of treasonable designs he was ordered

    to come to Peking for trial ; the charges were all disproved,

    and he returned to Kashgar after several years’ residence at the capital of the Empire. The country was gradually reduced

    by Changliiig, the general at Ili, but Kashgar suffered so nuich

    by the war and removal of the chief authority to Yarkand,

    that it has not since regained its Importance. During this war,

    the dislike of the Mohammedans to the Chinese sway M’as exhibited

    in the large forces Jehangir brought into the field ; and

    if he had been a popular spirited leader, there is reason for

    supposing he might have finally wrested these cities from the

    Chinese. The joy of Taukwang at the successful termination

    of the expedition and capture of the rebel, was so extravagant

    as to appear childish ; and when Jehangir was executed at

    Peking, he ordered the sons of two officers who had been reported

    killed, ” to witness his execution, in order to give expansion

    to the indignation which had accumulated in their

    breasts ; and let the rebel’s heart be torn out and given to them

    to sacrifice it at the tombs of their fathers, and thus console

    their faithful spirits.” Honors Avere heaped upon Changling at

    his return to Peking, and rewards and titles showered upon all

    the troops engaged in the war.

    Since this insurrection, the frontiers of Kashgar and Kokand

    have been passed and repassed by the Pruth Kirghis; iiil830,

    they excited so much trouble because their trade was restricted,

    that a large force was called out to restrain them, and many

    lives were lost before the rising was subdued. The causes of

    the dispute wei-e then examined, and the trade allowed to go on

    as befoi’e. The oppressions of the residents sometimes goad

    on the Mohammedans to rise against the Chinese, but the

    policy of the Emperor is conciliatory, and the complaints of the

    people are in general listened to. The visits of the begs and

    princes to Peking with tribute affords them an opportunity to

    state their grievances, while it also prevents them from caballing

    among themselves. In 1871 the Russians took possession of

    nearly the whole of Tien-Shan Peh Lu during an insurrection of

    the Dunganis against Chinese control. The Tarantchis having

    attacked a Russian outpost, and Yakub Beg being on suspiciously

    good terms with the rebels, it was determined to occupy

    Kuldja—which was effected after a campaign of less than a

    month, led by Gen. l\olpakofsky. The Chinese government was

    BOUNDARIES OF TIBET. 2S1

    imniediatelv informed that the place should be restored whenever

    a sutHcient force could be brought there to hold it against

    attacks, and preserve order. After the final conquest of the

    Dungan tribes in 1S79-SO, this territory was returned by the

    Ilussians upon conclusion of their last treaty M’ith China, exactly

    ten years from the date of possession. The old manner

    of government is now resumed and the country slowly recoveriiiiT

    from the fri^-htful devastation of the insurrection. The

    salai’ies of the governor-general and his councillors, and the

    residents, are small, and they are all obliged to resort to illegal

    means to reimburse their outlays. The highest officer receives

    about $5,200 annually, and his councillors about $2,000 ; the residents

    from $2,300 down to $500 and less. These sums do not,

    probably, constitute one-tenth of the receipts of their situations.’

    The third gi-eat division of the colonial part of the Chinese

    empire, that of Tibet, is less known than III, though its area is

    hardly less extensive. It constitutes the most southern of the

    three great table lands of Central Asia, and is surrounded with

    high mountains which separate it from all the contiguous regions.

    The word Tibet or Tubet is unknown among the inhabitants

    as the name of their country ; it is a corruption by the

    Mongols of T(c po,’ the country of the Tu, a race w^hich overran

    it in the sixth century ; Turner gives another name, Pue-hoachim-,

    signifying the ‘ snowy country of the north,’ doubtless a

    local or ancient term. The general appellation by the people is

    Pot or Bod, or Bod yul—”- the land of Bod.” ‘ It is roughly

    bounded northeast by Ivoko-nor ; east by Sz’chuen and Yunnan ;

    south by Assam, Butan, Xipal, and Gurhwal ; west by Cashmere

    ; and north by the unknown i-anges of the Kwanlun Mountains.

    The southern frontier curves considerably in its course,

    1 Chinese Repository, Vol. V., pp. 267, 316, 351, etc. ; Vol. IX., p. 113.

    Penny Uyclo^mUa, Art. Songaria. Boiilger, Russia and England in Central

    Asia, 2 Vols., London, 1879. Schuyler, Turkistan, 2 vols., N. Y., 1877.

    Petermann’s Mlttheilungen, Appendices XLII. and XLIII., 1875.

    – This derivation is explained somewhat differently in R^musat, Nouveaux

    Melanges, Tome I., p. 190.

    3 To these Ritter adds the names of Wei, Dzang, Nga-ri, Kham, Bhodi, Peuu-

    Tsang, Si-Dzang, Tliupho, Tubl.at, TGbGt, Tiibet, Tibet, and Barantola, asall

    applying to this country. Asien, Bd. III., S. 174-183.

    but is not less than 1,500 miles from the western extremity of

    Kipal to the province of Yunnan ; the northern border is about

    1,300 miles ; the western frontiers cannot be accurately defined,

    and depend more upon the possession of the passes through which

    trade is carried on than any political separation. Beltistan,

    Little Tibet, and Ladak, although included in its limits on

    Chinese maps, have too little subjection or connection with the

    court of Peking, to be reckoned among its dependencies.

    Tibet, in its largest limits, is a table land, the highest plains

    of which have a mean elevation of 11,510 feet, or about 1,300

    feet lower than the plateau of Bolivia, near Lake Titicaca.

    The snow-line on the north side of the Himalaya is at an altitude

    of 16,630 feet ; on the southern slope it is at 12,982 feet.

    Several striking analogies may be traced between this country

    and Peru : the tripartite divisions caused by lofty ranges ; their

    common staples of wool, from alpacas and vicunas in one, and

    sheep and goats in the other ; the abundance of precious

    metals, and many specific customs. The entire province of

    Tibet is divided by mountain chains into three distinct parts; its western portion consists of the basin of the Lidus, until it breaks through into Cashmere at Makpon-i-Shagaron. It begins near Mount Ivailasa, and stretches northwest between the Hindu Ivush and Himalaya, comprising the whole of Beltistan and Ladak ; the Kara-korum, Mus-tag, or Tsung ling range defines it on the northeast. The second part consists of an extensive desert land, commencing at Mount Kailasa, and having the Tsung ling on the west, the Kwjlnlun on the north

    (which separates it from Khoten, and the high waterslied of the

    Yangtsz’, Salween, and other rivers), and Lake Tengkiri, on the

    east ; the Himalaya constitutes its southern boundary. This

    high i-egion, called Katshe or Kor-kache, has not been traversed

    by intelligent travellers and is one of the few yet unknown regions

    of the earth, and is nearly uninhabitable, owing to the extreme rigor of its climate.’

    ‘ Se<‘ Ri’musat, Nouvennx Milnnc/es, T. , p. 100, for notices of tribes anciently inliabiting this district and Bokhara. Compare also Heeren {Historical Re’ aenrcJies, Vol. I., j)p. 180-186), who gives in brief the accounts of Herodotus k)id Ctesias.

    \ NATURAL FEATURES OF TIBET. 239

    The eastern part, consisting of the basin of the Yaru-tsangbu,

    contains, in its plains, most of the towns in Tibet, until it

    reaches the Alpine region which lies between the River Yarn

    and the Yangtsz’, a space extending from long. 1)5° to 99° E.

    This district is described as a succession of ridges and gorges,

    over which the road takes the traveller on narrow and steep

    paths, crossing the valleys by ropes and bridges enveloped in

    the clouds. Mount Kailasa, a notable peak lying in the northeastern

    part of Xari, is not far from 26,000 feet high. The

    number of summits covered with perpetual snow exceeds that

    of any other part of the world of the same extent.

    The road from Sz’chuen to H’lassa strikes the Yalung kiang,

    in the district of Ta tsien lu, and then goes southwesterly to

    Batang on the Yangtsz’ kiang ; crossing the river it proceeds

    up the narrow valley a short distance, and then crosses the

    mountains northwest to the Lantsan kiang or River Meikon, by

    a series of pathways leading over the gorges, till it reaches

    Tsiamdo ; from this point the road turns gradually southwest,

    following the valleys when practicable, till it ends at H’lassa.

    The largest river in Tibet is the Erechumbu, or Yaru-tsangbu ;

    tsangha means river, and is often alone used for this whole

    name. It rises in the Tamchuk range, at the Mariam-la pass

    in Nari, 60 miles east of Lake Manasarowa, the source of the

    Sutlej ; it flows a little south of east for about seven hundred

    miles, through the whole of Southern Tibet, between the first

    and second ranges of the Himalayas, as far as long. 90° E.

    Its tributaries on the north are mimerous, and among them the

    Nauk-tsani>;bu and Dzany;tsu are the larij-est. The volume of

    water which flows through the mountains into Assam by this

    river, is equal to that by the Indus into Scinde. The disputed

    question, whether the Yaru-tsangbu joins the Brahmaputra or

    Irrawadi, has been settled by presumptive evidence in favor

    of the former, but a distance of about 400 miles is still unexplored; ‘ the fall in this part is about 11,000 feet, to where the river Dihong has been traced in Assam. This makes the Brah-‘ Introduction by Col. Yule, iu Gill’s River of Golden 8and.luaputra the largest and longest river in Southern Asia ; Its passage into Assam is near 95° E. longitude.

    The eastern part of Tibet, beyond this meridian, is traversed

    by numerous ranges of lofty mountains, having no separate

    names, the direction of which is from west to east, and from

    northwest to southeast. From these ranges, lateral branches

    run out in different directions, containing deep valleys between

    them. In proportion as the principal chains advance towards

    the southeast they converge towards one another, and thus the

    valleys between them gradually become narrower, until at last,

    on the frontiers of Yunnan and Burmah, they are mere mountain

    passes, whose entire breadth does not much exceed a

    hundred miles, having four streams flowing through them.

    In fact, Tibet incloses the fountain heads of all the large rivers

    of Southern and Eastern Asia. The names and courses of those

    in Eastern Tibet are known ordy imperfectly from Chinese

    maps, but others have described them after their entrance into

    the lowlands.

    Tibet, especially the central part, is a country of lakes, in this

    respect resembling Cobdo. The largest, Tengkiri-nor, situated

    in the midst of stupendous mountains, about one hundred and

    ten miles northwest of Il’lassa, is over a hundred miles long and

    about thirty wide. The i-egion north of it contains many isolated

    lakes, most of them salt. Two of the largest, the Bouka

    and Kara, are represented as connected with the Tliver Xu.

    Lake Khamba-la, Yamoruk or Yarbrokyu, sometimes called

    Palti, from a town on its northern sliore, is a large lake south of

    iriassa, remarkable for its ring shape, the centi-e being filled

    by a large island, around which its waters flow in a chamiel

    thirty miles or more in width. On the island is a nunnery,

    called the Palace of the Holy Sow, said to be the finest in the

    country. In Balti or Little Tibet are many sheets of water, the

    largest of which, the Yik and Paha, are connected by a river

    flowing through a marshy country. A long succession of lakes

    fill one of the basins in Katsche, suggesting the former existence

    of another Aral Sea. The sacred lakes of Manasarowa and

    Ilavan-hrad (Ma])am-dalai and Langga-nor, of the Cliinese)

    form the headwaters of the Sutlej.

    CLIMATE, FOOD ANJ) l’K<>DUCTIONS. 241

    The climate of Tibet is cliaracterized by its purity and excessive

    dryness. The valleys are hot, notwithstanding their proximity

    to snow-capped mountains; from May to October the sky

    is clear in the table -lands, and in the valleys the moisture and

    temperature are favorable to vegetation, the harvest being gathered

    before the gales and snows set in, after October. The

    effects of the air resemble or are worse than those of the kamsin

    in Egypt. The trees wither, and their leaves may be ground

    to powder between the fingers ; planks and beams break, and

    the iidial)itants cover the tind)ers and wood-work of their houses

    with coarse cotton, in order to preserve them against the destructive

    saccidity. The timber neither rots nor is worm-eaten.

    Mutton, exposed to the open air, Ijecomes so “dry that it may be

    powdered like bread ; when once dried it is preserved during

    years. This flesh-bread is a common food in Tibet. The carcass

    of the animal, divested of its skin and viscera, is placed

    where the frosty air Mnll have free access to it, until all the

    juices of the body dry np, and the whole becomes one stiffened

    mass. Xo salt is used, nor does it ever become tainted, and is

    eaten without any further dressing or cooking ; the natives eat it

    at all periods after it is frozen, and prefer the fresh to that which

    has been kept some months. The food called janiha is prepared

    by cooking brick tea during several hours, then adding butter

    and salt, and stirring the mixture until it becomes a thick broth.

    AVhen eaten the stuff is served in wooden bowls, and a plentiful,

    supply of roasted barley-meal poured in, the whole being kneaded

    by the hands and devoured in the shape of dough pellets.

    The productions of Tibet consist of domestic animals, cattle,

    horses, pigs ; some wild animals, such as the white-breasted

    argali, orongo-antelope, ata-dzeren, wolf, and steppe-fox ; and few

    plants or forests, presenting a strong contrast with Nipal and

    Butan, where vegetable life flourishes more luxuriantly. Sheep

    and goats are reared in immense flocks, for beasts of burden

    over the passes, and for their flesh, hair, and coats. Chiefest

    among the animals of tliis mountain land is the yak.’ The

    ‘ Called by Wood Kasli-gow {Journey to the Oxus, p. 319). Chauri gau^aarlykt and sarlac, are other names. doiiiesticated variety, or long-haired yak, is the inseparable companion and most trusty servant not only of the Tibetans, but of tribes in Cashmere, Ladak, Tangout, and JVIongolia, even as far north as Urga. It is a cross-breed, or mule from the yak bull and native cow, which alone is hardy enough for these elevated regions.’ These creatures are of the same size as our cattle, strong, sure-footed and possessed of extraordinary endurance; they retain, however, something of their wild nature, even after long domestication, and must be carefully treated,

    Domesticated Yak.

    especially when being loaded and unloaded. They thrive best

    in hilly countries, well watered and covered with grass—the two

    last being indispensable. The hair is black or black and white,

    seldom entirely white. One sort is without horns, and when

    crossed with the cow bears sterile males, or females which are

    fertile for one generation. As to the wild yak of Til)et, a traveller

    says : ” This handsome animal is of extraordinary size and

    beauty, measuring, when grown, eleven feet in length, exclusive

    of its bushy tail, which is three feet long; its height at the

    hump is six feet ; girth around the body eleven feet, and its

    ‘ This cross is mentioned by Maroo Polo, Yule^a ed., Vol. I., p. 241.

    AlSriMALS OP TIBET. 243

    weight ten or eleven liundred weight. The head is aaorned

    with ponderous liorns, two feet nine inches h)ng, and one foot

    four indies in circumference at the root. The body is covered

    with tliick, black hair, which in the old males assumes a chestnut

    color on the back and upper parts of the sides, and a deep

    fringe of black hair hangs down from the flanks. The muzzle

    is partly gray, and the younger males liave marks of the same

    color on the upper part of the body, whilst a narrow, silverygray

    stripe runs down the centre of the back. The hair of

    young yaks is much softer than that of older ones ; they are

    also distinguishable by their smaller size, and by handsomer

    horns, with the points turned up. The females are much

    smaller than the males, and not nearly so striking in appearance

    ; their horns are shorter and lighter, the hump smaller,

    and the tail and flanks not nearly as hairy.” ‘ This animal is

    useful for its milk, flesh, and wool, as well as for agricultural

    purposes and travel.

    There is comparatively little agriculture. The variety of

    wild animals, birds, and fishes, is very great ; among them the

    musk deer, feline animals, eagles, and wild sheep, are objects

    of the chase. The brute creation are generally clothed with an

    abundance of fine hair or wool ; even the horses have a shaggier

    coat than is granted to bears in more genial climes. The

    Tibetan mastiff is one of the largest and fiercest of its race,

    almost nntamable, and unknown out of its native country.

    The nnisk deer is clothed with a thick coverino; of hair two or

    three inches long, standing erect over the whole body ; the

    animal resembles a hog in size and form, having, however,

    slender legs. The Tibetan goat affords the shawl wool, so

    highly prized for the manufacture of garments.^

    ‘ Prejevalsky, Travels in Mongolia, etc., Vol. I., p. 187.

    “^ B. H. Hodgson, Notice of the Mammals of Tibet, Journal As. Soc. of BeU’gal, Vol. XI., pp. 275 ff. ; also ib. Vols. XVI., p. 763, XIX., p. 466, and XXVI., No. 3, 1857. Abbe Armand David-, Notes sur quelques oiseaux de Thibet, Nouv. Arch, du MuMum, Bull, V. 1869, p. 33; ib. Bull, VI., pp. 19 and 33. Bull, VIII., 1872, pp. 3-128, IX., pp. 15-48, X., pp. 3-82. Recherches pour servir a Vhistoire naturelle des mammiferes comprennant des considerations su)’ la classification de ces animaux, etc. , des etudes sur la faiine de la Chineel du Tibet oriental, par MM. Milne-Edwards, etc, 2 vols. Paris, 1868-74.

    Fruits are common ; small peaches, grapes, apples, and nuts, constitute the limited variety. Barley is raised more than any

    other grain the principal part of agricultural labors being performed

    by the Avomen. Pulse and wheat ai’e cultivated, but no

    rice “svest of Illassa. Ithubarl), asaf{jL’tida, ginger, madder, and

    safflower are collected or prepared, but most of the medicines

    come from China and Butan. Turnips, rape, garlic, onions, and

    melons are raised in small quantities. The mineral productions

    are exceedingly rich. Gold occurs in mines and placer diggings,

    and forms a constant article of export ; lead, silver, copper, and

    cinnabar are also dug out of the ground, but iron has not been

    found to much extent. The great difficulty in the way of the

    inhabitants availing themselves of their metallic Avealth, apart

    fi’om their ignorance of the best modes of mining, is the want

    t>f fuel with which to smelt the ore. Tincal, or crude borax,

    is gathered on the borders of a small lake in the neighborhood

    of Tengkiri-nor, where also any quantity of rock salt can be

    obtained. Precious stones are met with, most of which find

    their way to China.

    The 2)resent divisions of Tibet, by the Chinese, are Tsien

    Tsang^ or Anterior Tibet, and JIau Tsang, or Ulterior Tibet.

    Anterior Tibet is also called U (Wei) and U-tsang, and includes

    the central part of Bod-yur where Il’lassa is ; east of

    this lies Ivham (Kang) or Khamyul, and northeast toward

    Ivoko-nor is Ivhamsok, /.(?., Ivham on the River Sok. Kear the

    bend of the Brahmaputra is the district of Ivongbo, where I’ice

    can be raised ; going westward are Takpo, doUs and gTsang on

    the borders of Xari, ending in a line nearly continuous with

    the eastern border of Kipal. The Chinese books mention eight

    cantons in Anterior Tibet, five of them lying east of ITlassa,

    added to which are thirty-nine feudal townships in Khamsok

    called tu-sz\ all of them chiefiy nominal or at present antiquated.

    Csoma de Ivciros speaks of several small principalities

    in Kham, and describes the inhabitants as differing from the

    rest of the Tibetans in appearance and language ; they assimilate

    probably with the tribes on the l]urman and Chinese frontiers.

    Xari ( A-li in Chinese) is divided into Mangyul, Khorsum,

    and Maryul. The first of these districts lies nearly centerh’LASSA

    the (ATITAL. 24^

    iiiinous with Xipal, and its area is probably about the same, but

    its cold, drj, and elevated i-egions, support only a few sliepherds

    ; Khorsuni and Maryul lie north and northwest in a

    still more inhospitable clime ; the latter adjoins Ladak and

    Balti and is the reservoir of hundreds of lakes situated from

    12,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea. A ridge separates the

    valley of the Indus from the Sutlej, crossed at the Bogola Pass,

    19,220 feet high, and then- over the Gugtila Pass, 19,500 feet

    into Gartok. The people throughout this elevated region are

    forced to live in tents, wood being ahuost unknown for buildil’lassa,

    the gyalsa or capital of Tibet, is situated on the Kichu

    River, about twelve leagues from its junction with the

    Yarn, in lat. 29° 39′ ]S\, and long. 91°05’E. ; the name signifies

    God’s ground^ and it is the largest town in this part of Asia.

    It is famous for the convents near it, composing the ecclesiastical

    establishments of the Dalai (or ‘ Ocean ‘)-lama, whose residence

    is in the monastery of Pobrang-marbu {I.e., ‘ Red town ‘) on

    Mount Putala. The principal building of this establishment is

    three hundred and sixty-seven feet high, and it contains, as the

    Chinese expression is, ” a myriad of rooms.” This city is the

    head-quarters of Buddhism, and the hierarchy of lamas, who, by

    means of the Dalai-lama, and his subordinate the Kiituktu, exercise

    priestly control over wellnigh all Mongolia as well as Tibet.

    The city lies in a fertile plain nearly 12,000 feet high, about

    twelve miles wide, and one hundred and twenty-five from north

    to south, producing harvests of barlej^ and millet, with abundant

    pasturage and some fruit trees. Mountains and hills encircle it; of these the westernmost is Putala, the liver running so near its base that a wall has been built to preserve the buildings from the rise of the waters. The Chinese garrison is quartered about two miles north of this mount, and two large temples, called ITlassa tm-‘kang and Bamotsietso-hang, resplendent with gold and precious stones, stand very near it. The four monasteries.

    Sera, Brebung, Samye, and Galdan, constitute as many separate establishuients.’ During the sway of the Songares in’ Klaproth, Description du Ttibet, p. 246.Ill, their prince xVrabdan made a descent npon IPlassa, and the Lama Avas killed. Kanglu placed a new one upon the see, in 1720, appointing six leading officers of the old Lama to assist him in the government. Three of these joined in an insurrection, and in the conflicts which succeeded, IFlassa suffered considerably.

    The population of the town is conjectured to be 24,000 ; that of the province is reckoned by Csoma at about 050,000.

    The town was visited in the year 1811 by j\rr. Manning whose description of its dirty and miserable streets swarming Mitli dogs and beggars, and the meanness of its buildings, corresponds

    with what Hue and Gabet found in 1846. Mr. Manning

    remained there nearly five months, and had several intei:-

    views with the Dalai-lama ; lie was much impeded in his

    observations by a Cantonese viansJd or teachei’, and exposed to

    danger of illness from insufficient shelter and clothing. His

    reception by the chief of the Buddhist faith on the 17th of

    December, was equally remarkable with that by the Teshu-lama

    of Bogle in 1774, and of Turner in 1783. Mr. Manning was

    alone and unprotected and had very few presents, but his offering

    was accepted ; it consisted of a piece of fine broadcloth, two

    brass candlesticks, twenty new dollars, and two vials of lavender

    water. He rode to the foot of the mountain Putala, and

    dismounted on the first platform to ascend by a long stairway

    of four hundred steps, part of them cut in the rock, and the

    rest ladder steps from story to stoiy in the palace, till he

    reached a large platform roof off which was the reception hall.

    Upon entering this he found that the Ti-mu-fu or Gesiib Jiwihoche,

    the highest civil functionary in Tibet, was also present,

    wliich caused him some confusion : “I did not know how

    much ceremony to go through with one before I began with

    the other. I made the due obeisance, touching the ground three times with my head to the (ii’and Lama, and once to the 2\-ina-fu. I presented my gifts, delivering the coins with a handsome silk scarf with my own hands to them both. While I was Jxotovnmj, the awkward servants let one of the bottles of lavender water fall and break. Havin<i: delivered the scarf to the Grand Lama, I took oft” my hat, and humbly gave him my clean shaven head to lay his hands upon. . . . The Lama’s beautiful and interesting face and manner engrossed all my attention.

    SIIIGATSE AND TESIIU-LUMBO. 247

    He was about seven yeai-s old ; had the simple manners

    of a well educated princely child. His face was, I thought,

    poetically and affectingly beautiful. He was of a cheerful disposition,

    his beautiful mouth perpetually unbending into a

    graceful smile, which illuminated his whole countenance. No

    doubt my grim beard and spectacles excited his risibility. “We

    had not been seated long before he put questions which we rose

    to receive and answer. He inquired whether I had met with

    difficulties on the road ; to which I replied that I had had

    troubles, but now that I had the happiness of being in his presence

    they were amply compensated. I could see that this

    answer pleased both him and his people, for they found that I

    was not a mere rustic, but had some tincture of civility in me.” ‘

    The capital of Tsangor Ulterior Tibet is Shigatse, situated 126

    miles west of H’lassa, and under its control. The monastery

    where the Teshu-lama and his court resides is a few miles

    distant, and constitutes a town of about 4,000 priests, named

    Teshu-Lumbo. He is styled Panchen Rimboche, and is the

    incarnation of Amitabha ]>uddha. His palace is built of dark

    l)rick and has a roof of gilded copper ; the houses rise one

    above another and the gilt ornaments on the temples combine

    to give a princely appearance to the town. The fortress of

    Shigatse stands so as to command both places. The plain

    between this town and H’lassa is a fertile tract, and judging

    from the number of towns in the valleys of the basin of the

    Yaru, its productive powers are comparatively great. Ulterior

    Tibet is divided into six other cantons, besides the territory

    under the jurisdiction of the chief town, most of their fortified

    capitals lying westward of Shigatse.

    ‘ Mis-sion of George Bogle to Tibet and Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhaaa^Edited by C. R. Markliam. London, 1876, p. 265.

    The degree of skill the Tibetans have attained in manufactures, mechanical arts, and general civilization, is less than that of the Chinese, but superior to the Mongols. They appear to be a mild and humane people, possessing a religious sense and enjoying an easy life compared with their southern neighbors.

    They are well-bred and affable, fond of gossiping and festivities, which soften the heart and cheer the temper. Women are treated with care and are not often compelled to work out of doors, ^s’o two people or countries widely separated present a stronger contrast than do the stout, tall, muscular, and floi-id Butias, upon their fertile fields and wooded hills, with the squat, puny, sluggish, and swarthy Tibetans in their rugged, barren mountains. They distinguish five sorts of people among

    themselves, the last of whom are the Butias ; the others are

    the inhabitants of Kham, or Anterior Tibet, those in Tsang, the

    nomads of Kor-kache, and the people of Little Tibet. All of

    them speak Tibetan with some variations. The Tibetans are

    clad with woollens and furs to such a degree that they appear

    to emulate the animals they derive’ them from in their weight

    and warmth ; and with this clothing is found no small quantity

    of dirt. The dress of the sexes varies slightly in its shape ;

    yellow and red are the predominant colors. Large bulgar boots

    of hide are worn by all persons ; the remainder of the dress

    consists of woollen robes and furs like those of the Chinese.

    The women wear many jewels, and adorn their hair as do the

    Mongols with pearls, coral, and turquoises. Girls braid their

    hair in three tresses, married women in two. The head is protected

    by high velvet caps ; the men wear broad-brimmed

    coverings of various materials.

    The two religious sects are distinguished by yellow and red

    caps ; the latter are comparatively few, allow marriage to the

    lamas, but do not differ materially in their ritual or tenets.

    There is no country where so large a proportion of the people

    are devoted to religious service as in Tibet, nor .one where the

    secular part of the inhabitants pays such implicit deference to

    the clergy. The food of the Tibetans is taken at all hours,

    nmtton, barley, and tea constituting the staple articles. On

    all visits tea is presented, and the cup replenished as often as it

    is drained. Spirits and beer, both made from barley, are common

    beverages. On every visit of ceremony, and whenever a

    letter is sent from one person to another, it is necessary to connect

    a silk scarf with it, the size and texture being proportioned

    to the rank and condition of the parties. The sentence Omviaiil 2)ttdiiii- hum is woven upon each end.

    OM MANX PADMI HUM. 249

    The following note by Col. Yule, condensed from Koeppen’s

    Lamaisehe Hlcrai’clde iind Kurhe, contains the most satisfactory

    explanation of this puzzling mystic formnla : ” Om mani

    padmi hum!—the primeval six syllables, as the lamas l ly,

    among all prayers on earth form that which is most abundantly

    recited, written, printed, and even spun by machines for the

    good of the faithful. These syllables form the only prayer

    knoM’u to the ordinary Tibetans and Mongols; they are the first

    words that the child learns to stannner, and the last gasping

    utterance of the dying. The wanderer nmrmurs them on his

    M’ay, the herdsman beside his cattle, the matron at her household

    tasks, the monk in all the stages of contemplation (/.^., of

    fa7- niente) y they form at once a cry of battle and a shout of

    victory ! They are to be read wherever the Lama church

    hath spread, upon banners, upon rocks, upon trees, upon walls,

    upon monuments of stone, upon household utensils, upon strips

    of paper, upon human skulls and skeletons ! They foi*m, according

    to the idea of the believers, the utmost conception of all

    religion, of all wisdom, of all revelation, the path of rescue and

    the gate of salvation ! Properly and literally these

    four words, a single utterance of which is sufficient of itself

    to purchase an inestimable salvation, signify nothing more

    than : ” O the Jewel in the Lotus ! Amen !

    ” Li this interpretation,

    most probably, the Jetcel stands for the Bodhisatva

    Avalokite5vara, so often born from the bud of a lotus flower.

    According to this the whole fornmla is simply a salutation to

    the mighty saint who has taken under his especial chai-ge the

    conversion of the Xorth, and with him who first employed it

    the mystic formula meant no more than Ave AvaloJiitecvara !

    But this simple explanation of course does not satisfy the Lama

    schoolmen, who revel in glorifications and multitudinous glossifications

    of this formula. The six syllables are the heart of

    hearts, the root of all knowledge, the ladder to re-birth in

    higher forms of being, the conquerors of the five evils, the

    flame that burns up sin, the hannner that breaks up torment,

    and so on. Om saves the gods, tua the Asuras, ni the men, jH((7 the animals, ?//< the spectre world oi p?’etas, ^lan the in

    habitants of hell! O/a^ is ‘the blessing of self-renunciation,

    ma of mercy, ?u’ of chastity, etc’ * Truly monstrous,’ says

    Koeppen,”is the number oi pcuh/us \\\nch in the great festivals

    Imm and buzz through the air like flies.’ In some places

    each worshipper reports to the highest Lama how many oni

    ‘jiKinis he has nttered, and the total immber emitted by the

    congregation is counted by the billion.”

    Grueber and Dorville describe Manij>e as an idol, befoi’e

    which xtidfa yens insol’dis gcdleulatlonihus sacra sua faclt.,

    hlentldtn verTja haec repetens:

    —’ O JManipe, mi hum, O Manipe,

    mi hum ; id est Manipe, salva nos !

    ‘ ” Ileniusat {Melanges

    I^ostJiuiiies, Paris, 1843, p. 90) translates this phrase by:

    ” Adoration, O thou precious stone who art in the lotus ! ” and

    observes that it illustrates the fundamental dogma of Buddhism,

    viz. : the production of the material universe by an absolute

    being; all things which exist are shut up in the breast of the

    divine substance ; the ‘ precious stone ‘ signifying that tJte

    world is in God. Mr. Jameson says that the sentence Oni

    tnaxi jxtdiiii JuDKj is formed of the initial letters of various

    deities, all of whom are supposed to be implored in the prayer.’

    In reverential salutations, the cap is removed by the inferior,

    and tbe arms hang by the side. The bodies of the dead are

    placed in an open inclosure, in the same nuumer as practised by

    the Parsees, where birds and beasts of prey devour them, or

    they are dismembered in an exposed place. Lanuis are burned,

    and their ashes collected into urns. As soon as the breath has

    departed, the body is seated in the same attitude as Buddha is

    represented, with the legs bent before, aiul the soles of the feet

    turned upwards. The right hand rests upon the thigh, the

    left turns up near the body, the tlnnnb touching the shoulder.

    In this attitude of contemplation, the corpse is burned.

    In Tibet, as in Butan, the custom of polyandry prevails. The

    choice of a Avife lies with the eldest son, who having made

    known his intentions to his parents sends a matchmaker to pro-

    ‘ Comjiare, for further discussion of this suhjoct, Timkowski’s Misffion ts Peking, London. 1827, Vol. II., p. :i4y. Wilson’s Abode of >S/toiC, p. 329.

    TIBETAN TYPES AND CUSTOMS. 251

    pose the matter to the parents of the girl. The consent of the

    parents being obtained, the matchmaker places an ornament of

    a jewel set in gold, called sedskc upon the head of the damsel,

    and gives her presents of jewels, dresses, cattle, etc., according

    to the means of the young man. The guests invited on the

    day of the marriage bring presents of such things as they

    choose, which augments the dowry, A tent is set up before

    the bride’s house, in which are placed three or four square

    cushions, and the ground around sprinkled with wheat ; the

    bride is seated on the highest cushion, her parents and friends

    standing near her according to their rank, and the assembled

    party there partake of a feast. The bride is then conducted to

    the house of her lover by the friends present, her person being

    sprinkled with wheat or barley as she goes along, and there

    placed by his side, and both of them served with tea and spirits.

    Soon after, the groom seats himself apart, and every one present

    gives a scarf, those of superior rank binding them around their

    necks, equals and inferiors laying them by their sides. The

    next day, a procession is formed of the relatives of the newly

    married pair, wdiich visits all the friends, and the marriage is

    conqjleted. The girl thus becomes the wife of all the brothers,

    and manages the domestic concerns of their household. The

    number of her husbands is son)etimes indicated by as many

    points in her cap. This custom is strengthened by the desire,

    on the part of the family, to keep the property intact among

    its members ; but it does not prevent one of the husbands leaving

    the roof and marrying another woman, nor is the usage

    universal, liemusat speaks of a novel in Tibetan, in which the

    author admirably portrays the love of his heroine, Triharticha,

    for her four lovers, and bi’ings their marriage in at the end in

    the happiest manner.

    The dwellings of the poor are built of unhewn stones, rudely piled upon each other without cement, two stories high, and resembling brick-kilns in shape and size ; the windows are small, in order not to weaken the structure ; the roof is flat, defended by a brushwood parapet, and protected from the molestation of evil spirits by flags, strips of paper tied to strings, or branches of trees. Timber is costly and little used ; the floors are of marble or tiles, and the furniture consists of little else than mats and cushions. The temples and convents are more imposing and commodious structures ; some of those at Il’lassa are among the noblest specimens of architecture in Central Asia.

    The mausoleum of the Teshu-lama at Teshu Lumbu resembles

    a plain square watch-tower surmounted by a double Chinese

    canopy roof, the eaves of which are hung with Ijells, on which

    the breeze plays a ceaseless dirge. The body of the lama reposes

    in a coffin of gold, and his effigy, also of gold, is placed

    within the concavity of a large shell upon the top of the pyramidal

    structure which contains it. The sides of the pyramid

    are silver plates, and on the steps are deposited the jewels and

    other costly articles which once appertained to him. An altar

    in front receives the oblations and incense daily presented before

    the tomb, and near by is a second statue of the deceased as

    large as life in the attitude of reading. Scrolls and pennons of

    silk hang from the ceiling, and the walls are adorned with

    paintings of priests engaged in prayer. The whole structure is

    substantially built, and its rich ornaments are placed there n<jt

    less for security than to do honor to the revered person deposited

    beneath. The windows are closed with mohair curtains,

    and a skylight in the upper story serves for lighting the room,

    and for passing out upon the roof. The roof or parapet is

    ornamented with cylinders of copper or other nuiteiials, which

    imparts a brilliant appearance to the ediiices.

    The manufactures of Tibet consist of woollens, cloth, blankets,

    yarn, goat-hair shawls, musk, paper, metals, and jewelry.

    Their lapidaries cut every kind of oriuiment in superior style,

    and gold and silverware forms a considerable article of trade to

    China. These and other crafts nmst necessai’ily languish, liowever,

    from the immense proportion of men who are witiidi’awn

    from labor into monasteries, compelling the residue to devote

    most of their strength to tillage. The most important exports

    to China consist of gold dust, precious stones, bezoars, asafcetida,

    musk, woollens, and skins ; for which the people receive

    silks, teas, chinaware, tobacco, musical instruments, and metals.

    The trade is carried on throuy-h Sinino- fu in Kansuh, and Batang in Sz’chneii. Tincal, rock-salt, and shawl wool, are additional articles sent to Ladak, Biitan, and India.

    COMMERCE AND LANGUAGE OF TIBET. 25;}

    Music is studied by the priesthood for their ceremonies, and

    with much better effect than among the Chinese priests. Their

    amusements consist in archery, dancing, and observance of

    many festivals connected with the worship of the dead or of

    the living. Dram-drinking is common, but the people camiot

    be called a drunken race, nor does the habit of opium eating or

    smoking, so fatally general in Assam, prevail, inasmuch as the

    poppy cannot well be cultivated among the mountains.

    Education is confined to the priesthood, but the women, who conduct much of the traffic, also learn arithmetic and writing. The language is alphabetical, and reads from left to right; there are two forms of the character, the uchen used for books, and the umin employed in writing, which do not differ more than the Iloman and the running-hand in English. The form of the characters shows their Sanscrit origin, but there are many consonants in the language not found in that tongue, and silent letters are not unfrequent in the written words. There are thirty consonants in the alphbet, distributed into eight classes, with four additional voM-el signs ; each of them ends in a short a, as la, oiga, cJia, which can be lengthened by a diacritical mark placed underneath. The syllables are separated

    from each other by a point ; the accented consonant is that

    which follows the vowel, and the others, whether before or

    after it, are pronounced as rapidly as possible, and not unfrequently

    omitted altogether in speaking. The variations in this

    respect constitute the chief features of the patois found in different

    parts where Tibetan is spoken. A dictionary and grammar ‘

    of this language were printed in 1S34 in Calcutta by (‘soma de

    Korcis, a Hungarian who resided among the priests near Ladak.

    The literature is almost wholly theological, as far as it has been

    examined, and such works as are not of this character, have

    probably been introduced from China. Their divisions of time,

    numeration, chronology, and weights, have also been adopted

    ‘ Essay towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English. A Grammar of the Tibetan Lauguage in English. Calcutta, 1834. from that country with a few alterations. An Englishman, Mr. Brian Hodgson, who lived in Kipal from lb20 to 1843, has added more than any one else to our knowledge of the literature of this country. This gentleman procured complete copies of the original documents of the Buddhist canon preserved in Sanscrit in Nipalese monasteries, as well as (by a present from the Dalai-lama) the whole of the existing literary remains of the once flourishing Christian mission at Il’lassa. His more important essays on these lands have now been brought together in a single volume.’

    The history of Tibet has been made partially known to Europe through the Mongol author, Sanang Setsen,^ but if free access could be had to their annals, it is probable that a methodical history could be extracted, reaching back at least three centuries before Christ. Tibet was ruled by its ow^n princes till the rise of Genghis ; the first monarch, who united the various tribes under his sway b. c. 313, was Seger-Sandilutu-Kagan-Tlil-Esen,^ and from the fact that Buddhism was introduced during his reign, it miglit be inferred that he came from the south. Il’lassa was founded by Srongzan-Ctambo, or Srongbdzan sgambouo,^ about a.d. 630, after which time Tibetan

    history becomes more authentic, inasmuch as this king introduced

    the alphabet. The Tang dynasty carried their arms into

    Tibet from Khoten, but the people threw off their yoke during

    the decline of that family. Mohammedanism also disturbed the

    supremacy of the Buddhist faith, and severe persecutions followed

    about the beginning of the tenth century by an Islam

    prince Darma, but it was rej^elled at liis death, and has neversince

    made the least impression upon the people. Genghis reduced

    Tangout, one of the principalities, northeast of Koko-nor,

    and soon after brought the whole country under his sway ; this

    ‘ Essays on the Language, Literature, and Religion of Nejial and Tibet, etc.Loudon, 1874.-‘ R musat, Observations stir VlJistoire des Mongols orientemix de S:inang Setsen,Paris, I’an 8. Ssanang Ssetsen, Oeschichte der Mongolen, Uebers., von. J.J. Schmidt, Petersb., 1829.^ Remusat relates tlic story of his origin, Melanges Posthmnes, p. 400.• Klaproth, Description du Tubet.

    HISTORY OF TIBET. 255

    Kiiblai still further settled as a dependency of his empire. The people recovered their independence on the expulsion of the Mongols, and under the Ming dynasty formed several small kingdoms, among which were Ladak and Rodok, both of them still existing.

    From a short resume of letters written from Tibet in 162(), by Romish missionaries living there, it appears that the kingdom of Sopo was the most powerful in the north, and Cogur, IT-tsang, and Mai-yul were three southern principalities. The king of Cogue allowed these missionaries to reside in his territories, and took pleasure in hearing them converse and dispute with the lamas. The Dalai-lama at this time was the king’s brother, and possessed subordinate influence in the state, but the priests were numerous and influential. The conquest of Mongolia and Tangout opened the way for Ivanglil to enter Tibet, but the intercourse between the Emperor and Dalai-lama was chiefly connected with religion and carrying tribute. An index of the freedom of communication between Tibet and the west is found in the passports issued to the traders visiting iriassa in lOSS. The lamas held the supreme power imtil towards the end of his reign, when Chinese influence became paramount. The country had already been concpiered by the Songar chieftain, so that on his defeat it could ofPer little resistance.

    Ivanghi appointed six of the highest princes or gidlho over the provinces ; but soon after his death, in 1727, three of them conspired against Yungching, and were not subdued without considerable resistance. The Emperor then appointed the loyal prince or gialbo as governor-general, and he remained in his vice-regal office till his death, about 1750. Kienlung, finding that his son was endeavoring to make himself fully independent, executed him as a rebel, suppressed the office, and appointed two Chinese generals to be associated with the Dalailama and his coadjutoi-, in the administration of the country.

    The troops were increased and forts erected in all parts of the country to awe the people and facilitate trade.

    The present government of Tibet is superintended by two ta chilly ‘or great ministers,’ residing at Il’lassa, who act con-“‘ointly, while they serve as checks upon each other ; they do not hold their office for a long time. They have absolute control over all the troops in the country, and the military are generally confined to the garrisons, and do not cultivate the soil. The collection of revenue, transmission of tribute to Peking, and direction of the persons who carry it, and those mIu) conduct the trade at Batang and Sining fu, are all under their control. The Dalai-lama, and the Teshu-lama are the high religious officers of the country, each of them independent in his own province, but the former holding the highest place in the hierarchy. The Chinese residents confer with each concerning the direction of his own province. All their appointments to office or nobility must be sanctioned by the residents before they are A’alid, but merely religious officers are not under this surveillance. In the villages, the authority is administered by secular deputy lamas called delni^ and by commandants called kaiipon^ who are sent from the capital. Each dcha is assisted by a native vazir of the place, who, Avith the chief lama, foiiii the local government, amenable to the supreme magistracy. The western province of Kari is peopled by nomads, who wander over the regions north of Tlavan-hrad, and are under the authority of larjxni-‘^ sent from IFlassa, without the assistance of lamas. The two higli-pi-iests themselves are likewise assisted by councillors. One of these, called Soopoon(‘hoondx)o, who held the office of sadeeh or adviser when Turner visited Teshu-Lumbo, was a ]V[anchu by birth, but had long lived in Tibet.

    GOVERNMENT OF TIBET. 257

    The nomadic clans of Dam Mongols and other tribes occupying the thirty-nine feudal townships or ta-sz’ in Anterior Tibet, are governed by the residents without the intervention of the lamas. The disturbances in Ulterior Tibet in 1792, resulting from the irruption of the Kipalese and sack of Teshu-Lumbo, were speedily quelled by the energy of Kienlung’s government, and the invaders forced to sue for mercy. The southern frontier was, in consequence of this inroad, strongly fortified by a chain of posts, and the communication with the states between Tibet and India strictly forbidden and w^atched. It gave the Chinese an opportunity to strengthen their rule and extend their inlluence north to Khoten and into Ladak. The natural mildness of character of the Tibetans, and similarity of religion renders thera much easier under the Chinese joke, than the Mohammedans.*
    ‘ Authorities on Tibet besides those already referred to: Journal Asiatique,Tomes IV., p. 281 ; VIII., p. 117; IX., p. 81 ; XIV., pp. 177, ff. 277, 406,etc. Dii Halde, DescHption of (Jhiim., Vol. II., pp. 884-888. Capt. Samuel Turner, Account of an Embassy to the Court of Teslioo Lama in Tibet, London, 1800. Histoire cic ce qui s’est ]Mi>se au lioyaume du Tibet, en Pann’e 1(}26 ; trad de I’ltalien. Paris, 1829. P. Kircher, CJiinn llhistrnta. MM. Peron et Billecocq, liecueil de Voyages du lldbet, Paris, 1796. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal^ passim. Chinese Repository, Vols. VI., pp. 28, 494,IX., p. 20, and XIII., p. 50.5. Hitter, Asien, Bd. II., 4er Abschnitt, and Bd.III., S. 187-424. Richthofen, China, Bd. I., S. 228, 247, 466, 670, 688, etc.C. H. Desgodin, La mission du Tibet de 1855 a 1870, comprennant Pexpose desaffaires rdigieuses, etc. Dhtpres les lettres de M. fabbe Desgodins, missionaireapofitoliquc, Verdun, 1872. Lieut.’ Kreitner, Jm fernen Osten, pp. 829 ff.,and in The r»jndar Science Monthly, for August, 1882. Emil Schlagintweit,Tibetan Buddhism, Illustrated by Literary Documents and Objects of Religious Worship, London, 1868. Abbe Hue, I’ravels through Tartary, Tibet and China, 2 vols.Vol. I.—17

    CHAPTER V. POPULATION AND STATISTICS

    Much of the interest appertaining to the country and people here treated of, in the minds of philanthropic and intelligent men, has arisen from the impression they have received of its vast population. A country twice the size of the Chinese empire would present few attractions to the Christian^ the merchant, or the ethnologist, if it were no better inhabited than Sahara, or Arizona : a people might possess most admirable institutions, and a matchless form of government, yet these excellencies would lose their interest, did we hear that it is the republic of San Marino or the kingdom of Muscat, where they are found. The population of few countries in the world has been accurately ascertained, and probably that of China is less satisfactory than any European or American state of the present day. It is far easier to take a census among a people who understand its object, and will honestly assist in its execution, than in a despotic, half-civilized country, Avherc the mass of the inhabitants are afraid of contact or intercourse with their rulers; in most of such states, as Abyssinia, Turkey, Persia, etc., there is either no regular emnneration at all, or merely a general estimate for the purposes of i-cvemie or conscription.

    CREDIT DUE TO CHINESE CENSUSES. 259

    The subject of the population of Cliiiui has engaged the attention of the monarchs of the present dynasty, and their censuses have been the best sources of information in making up an intelligent opinion upon the matter. Whatever may be our views of the actual population, it is plain that these censuses, with all their discrepancies and inaccuracies, are the only reliable sources of information. The conflicting opinions and

    conclusions of foreign writers neither give any additional weight

    to them, nor detract at all from their credibility. As the question

    stands at present, they can be doubted, but cannot be

    denied ; it is impossible to prove them, while there are many

    grounds for believing them; the enormous total which they

    exhibit can be declared to be improbable, but not shown to be

    impossible.

    No one who has been in China can hesitate to acknowledge that there are some strong grounds for giving credit to them, but the total goes so far beyond his calculations, that entire belief nmst, indeed, be deferred till some new data have been furnished. There are, perhaps, more peculiar encouragements

    to the increase of population there than in any other

    country, mostly arising from a salubrious climate, semi-annual

    crops, unceasing industry, early marriages, and an equable

    taxation, involving reasonable security of life and property.

    Turning to other countries of Asia, we soon observe that in

    Japan and Persia these causes have less influence ; in Siam

    and Burmah they are weak ; in Tibet they are almost powerless.

    At this point every one must rest, as the result of an examination

    into the population of the Chinese Empire ; though,

    from the survey of its principal divisions, made in the preceding

    chapters, its capability of maintaining a dense population needs

    no additional- evidence. The mind, however, is bewildered in

    some degree by the contemplation of millions upon millions of

    human beings thus collected under one government ; and it

    almost wishes there might be grounds for disbelieving the

    enormous total, from the dieadful results that might follow

    the tyrannical caprice or unrestrained fury of their rulers,

    or the still more shocking scenes of rapine and the hideous

    extremities of want which a bad harvest would necessarily

    cause.

    Chinese literature contains many documents describing

    classes of society comprised in censuses in the various dynasties.

    The results of those enumerations have been digested by Ma

    Twan-lin in a judicious and intelligent manner in the chapters

    treating on population, from which M. Ed. Biot has elaborated

    many important data.’ The early records show that the census

    was designed to contain only the number of taxable people, excluding all persons bound to give personal service, who were

    under the control of others. Moreover, all othcials and slaves,

    all persons over 60 or 66 years of age, the weak or sick, those

    needing help, and sometimes such as were newly placed on state

    lands, were likewise omitted. Deducting these classes. Ma

    Twan-lin gives one census taken in the ninth century, b.c, as

    13,704,923 persons, between the ages of 15 and 05, living

    within the frontiers north of the Yangtsz’ Eiver. This figure

    would be worth, according to the tables of modern statistics,

    about 65 per cent, of the entire population, or as representing

    21,753,528 inhabitants.

    The mighty conqueror, Tsin Chi Ilwangtf, changed the personal

    corvc’c to scutage, and introduced a kind of poll tax, by

    accepting the money from many who could not be forced to do

    the work required. This practice was followed in the 11 an

    dynasty, and in b.c. 194, the poll-tax was legalized, to include

    all men between 15 and 66, while a lighter impost was le\ ied

    on those between 7 and 14. During the four centuries of this

    family’s regime, the object and modes of a census were well

    understood. Ma Twan-lin gives the results of ten taken between

    A.D. 2 and 155. His details show that it was done

    simply for revenue, and was omitted in bad years, when drought

    or freshets destroyed the harvests ; they show, too, an increase

    in the number of slaves, that women were now enumerated,

    and that girls between 15 and 30 paid a poll-tax. In b.c. 30,

    the limits of age were placed between 7 and 56. The average

    of these ten censuses is 63,500,600, the first one being as high

    as 83,640,000, while the next and lowest, taken fifty-five years

    afterwards, is only 29,180,000, and the third is 47,396,<»00.

    These great variations are explained by the disturbances arising

    in consequence of the usurpation of Wangmang, a.d. 9-27, and

    subsequent change of the ca})ital, and the impossibility, during

    this troubled period, of canvassing all parts of the Empire.

    ‘ This careful digest is contained in the Journal Asiatique for 1836 (April and May), and will repay perusal.

    MA TWAN-LIN’s study OF THE cp:nsu8es. 261

    The irfcroiice from thesc data, that tlio real population of the Chinese Empire north of the Nan ling at the time of Christ was at least eighty millions, is as well groinided as almost any fact in its history.’

    After the downfall of the Ilan dynasty, a long period of

    civil war ensued, in which the destruction of life and property

    was so enormous that the population was i-educed to one-sixth

    of the amount set down in a.d. 230, when disease, epidemics,

    and earthquakes increased the losses caused by war and the cessation

    of agricultui’e, according to Ma Twan-lin ; and it is not

    till A.D. 280, when the Tsin dynasty had subjected all to its

    sway, that the country began to revive. In that year an enumeration

    was made which stated the free peojjle between 12

    and 66 years in the land at 14,163,863, or 23,180,000 in all.

    From this period till the Sui dynasty came into power, in 589,

    Cliina was torn by dissensions and rival monarchs, and the

    recorded censuses covered only a portion of the land, the figures

    including even fewer of the people, owing to the great number

    of serfs or bondmen who had sought safety under the protection

    of landowners. At this time a new mode of taking the census

    was ordered, in M’hich the people were classified into those from

    1 to 3 years, then 3 to 10, then 10 to IT, and 17 to 60, after

    which age they were not taxed ; the ratio of the land tax was

    also fixed. A .census taken in 606 in this way gives an estimated

    population of 46,019,956 in all China ; the frontiers, at

    this period, hardly reached to the Xan ling Mountains, and the

    author’s explanation of the manner of carrying on some public

    works shows that even this sum did not include persons who were

    liable to l)e called on for personal service, while all officials, slaves,

    and beggars were omitted. Troubles arose again from these

    enforced works, and it was not till the advent to power of the

    Tang dynasty, in 618, that a regular enumeration was possible.

    ‘ The population of the Ronican Empire at the same period is estimated at 85,000,000 bj Merivale (Vol. IV., pp. ‘^,?,Q-M’^i), but the data are less complete than in China; he reckons the European provinces at 45,000,000, and the Asiatic and African colonies at the remainder, giving 27,000,000 to Asia Minor and Syria. The area of China, at this time, was less than Rome by about one fourth.

    This family reigned 287 years, and Ma Twan-lin gives fifteen

    returns of the population up to 841. They show great variations,

    some of them difficult to explain even by omitting ot

    supplying large classes of the inhabitants. The one most carefully

    taken was in a.d. 75-i, and gives an estimated total of

    about seventy millions for the whole Empire, which, though

    nearly the same as that in the Ilan dynasty in a.d. 2, extended

    over a far greater area, even to the whole southern seaboard.

    In addition to former enumerated classes, many thousands of priests were passed by in this census.

    The years of anarchy following the Tang, till a.d. 976, M-hen the Sung dynasty obtained possession, caused their usual effect. Its first census gives only about sixteen millions of taxable population that year, when its authority was not firmly assured ; but

    in 1021 the returns rise to 43,388,380, and thence gradually

    increase to 100,095,250 in 1102, just before the provinces north

    of the Yellow River, by far the most fertile and loyal, were lost.

    The last enumeration, in 1223, while Ma Twan-lin was living,

    places the returns in the southern provinces at 63,304,000 ; this

    was fifty years before Kublai khan conquered the Empire. Our

    author gives some details concerning the classes included in the

    census during his own lifetime, which prove to a reasonable

    mind that the real number of mouths living on the land Avas, if

    anything, higher than the estimates. In 1290, the Mongol

    Emperor published his enumeration, placing the taxable population

    at 58,834,711, “not counting those who had fled to the

    mountains and lakes, or who had joined the rebels.” This was

    not long after his ruthless hand had almost depopulated vast

    regions in the northern provinces, before he could quiet them.

    In the continuation of Ma Twan-lin’s Ti (‘searches, thei-e are

    sixteen censuses given for the Ming dynasty between 1381 and

    1580 ; the lowest figure is 46,800,000, in 1506, and the highest,

    66,590,000, in 1412, the average for the two centuries being

    56,715,360 inhabitants. One of its compilers declares that he

    cannot reconcile their great discrepancies, and throws doubts on

    their totals from his inability to learn the mo(^leof emimeration.

    Three are given for three consecutive years (1402-1404), the

    difference between the extremes of which amounts to sixteen

    millions, but they were all taken when Yungloh was fighting Kienwan, his nephew, at Nanking, and settling himself at Peking as Emperor, during which years large districts could not possibly have been counted.

    COMPARATIVE CENSUS TABLES. 263

    Before entering upon a careful examination of this question,

    it will be well to bring together the various estimates taken of

    the population during the present dynasty. The details given

    in the table on page 264 have been taken from the best sources,

    and are as good as the people themselves possess.

    Besides these detailed accounts, there have been several

    aggregates of the whole country given by other native writers

    than Ma Twan-lin, and some by foreigners, professedly drawn

    from original sources, but who have not stated their authorities.

    The most trustworthy, together with those given in the other

    table, are here placed in chronological order.

    Authorities.

    / Continuation of MaTwan-lin. Ed.I Biot, Jour7ial Asiatique, 1836.

    Oeneral Statistics of the Empire ;Medhurst’s China, p. 53.

    ‘, Till Tung Chi, a statistical work; \ Morrison’s View of China.

    j General Statistica ; Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 359.

    I Memoires sur les Chinois, Tome f VI., p. 377 ff.

    ] Les Missionaires, De Guignes,

    I Tomelll, p. 67.

    i General Statistics ; Chinese Repo-

    \ sitory. Vol. I., p. 359.

    J

    Yih Tung Chi, a statistical work ;

    ( Morrison’s Vieto of China.

    I Memoiressur lesChinois^TomeYI.

    f De Guignes, Tome III. , p. 73.

    j Allerstein ; Grosier ; De Guignes,

    ] Tome III., p. 67.

    \ ” Z.” of Berlin, in Chinese Repo-

    \ sitory. Vol. I., p. 361.

    j General Statistics ; Dr. Morrison,

    I Anglo-Chinese Coll. Report,

    \ 1839. Statement made to Lord

    ( Macartney.

    ] General Statistics ; Chinese Repo-

    ( sitory. Vol. I., p. 359.

    \ VassUivitch.

    ] Chinese Ciistoni’s Reports.

    Seven of these censuses, viz., the 7th, 8th, 12th, 13th, 17th,

    20th, 21st and 23d, are given in detail in the following table.

    364 tiij: middle kingdom.

    c O 3) CP o o^o^o —^ ~_ —_ —_ o ^_ :r_ —__ o

    ©j”-^’cct-*” CO* -T ;r”-r – to 7?’ ::’ //cc -T ir: r*’

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    x’jT C-“cTi–rT^jij ;^’ -^ (^ —’ ^ ;^” 4^ai”X iO ifj

    1(5 = 100 o ooin o

    :c JO t- a, -^ lO =- r; o

    o iO X CO ;o 00 ?* T 😮

    I- rt as i: i- «:ca:_^ s-j

    ;C5’rX!W CO ;c”iCt:^ -^

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    JB ‘—O i-H TJ ‘-‘.’5”

    a;i-r^5’*o^»:c-jrm -r o c: ir: ‘t t-_^oo (»

    cS X vr rr .r CO = 7′ – i m /; th x g 3 o (- :^

    <r« !- t- ^r ^ (- c; -r :^ = x o; x i- t-_~ -r o 😮

    irfic c:’i; ITT* r-‘ lo’xTx.’ x’ i- 1- ttScovi tT

    t-i U r-l(N T( ri 1-1

    ‘”id

    •52J «

    000=0000 oO oO oO oO oO O00!=0G> oO oO O00O0-^ 000= O — 00 C= 0^=:__0_0 0^0 0^=^ 0000 cT o”o cTo^oo cTcTo ^o

    o

    O0O0^0J0O Oo o_^o^o__o_o_0o_0o;3o_o=_^0oo0_o0_^

    oo*-*i-^io” 5* cTi-j’io’^’MocrirJtfT-fo’oroo’

    o

    roi-HrtS:ci-*ooot-5einQooif5 05o;e

    :*-Hi-oin~ X — oioiocii-o^Cii-H^^X’

    –r(T-<inOOC-**3’Ol0^rlO 0_’X^T* ?? c*^

    d” -T t–‘ cc^X :c o” i-^ oT ^* i-^ CO irf~ TT co’cd” T—* tjoccTco-

    Tioi-i-inoOicoi-t-ixco’-o

    15 O O 00 ri O S^ l-^CC CO ‘^^’^..^ •^’*^*’^ ^

    <i-iff{ra?;s«T<r-ie«i-ii-i>-i(NT-i

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    t-.’NTH-Ot-i-iT-IQ035O(NWMC0 00C:XlX5»

    r-lt-0-n’CC;CiOOO:COTO-TIN3:-TT-ITJ>in-T

    OT0003C00iCC’NQ0C000?rO’W”T ^^CO X O t-^

    -^aTs^-^ooiffiO ‘?f0^00 cc^r-Tco co”oi”u5 x’ CO r-T

    t-OOt-Ht-IC0OC0»-lCCC010:CC0C0l— rHOS-^

    COt-T-ii-i;C-»OCO£- lO^CO O0_t-H CO cb os_i-_^o ‘»

    ofw itT t-^ cfcTiO*x -^ ‘^’” t”cc 5^ T-T cc’ T-T r-T r-T

    IS

    . OJXt-TH3:05iOt-e«o:»»T)’Xin3:cO’l’

    •(NXOCOC:-TTr(MXOt-lO:-‘£. XCD35 -~ — ~ ‘ “) 05 T-i_o; o^ o :c »-»

    _. -_ _ – _ TrH-^’oO lOrH *rf ‘t’ C:0~’-ilO«i-(CCCDt–^i-l-T-^Ol010 ” ^”^CCWCOfHT-HT* 74

    t-T itT

    uoi:(‘B[ndod uaAV

    lO^’NOOlOO^COCirlCOlOXrHCO*”-!

    t-^lflT^iOOC^t’-l’-XiQirtt-fN-TasXO

    •^Tji’TiTJ’Xt— COCD’WCC(?*»-<THf-ifW

    s

    THE CENSUSES INDIVIDUALLY CONSIDERED. 265

    The first three belong to the Ming dynasty, and are taken from

    a continuation of Ma Twan din’s Researches, whence they were

    quoted in the Mtrror of Hlstonj, without their details. During

    the Ming dynasty, a portion of the country now called the

    Eighteen Provinces, was not under the control of IlungM’u and

    his descendants. The wars with the Japanese, and with tribes

    on the north and west, together with the civil wars and struggles

    between the Chinese themselves, and with the Nu-chi in

    Manchuria, nmst have somewhat decreased the population.

    The first census of 1662 (No. 4), is incidentally mentioned by

    Kierlung in 1791, as having been taken at that time, from his

    making some observations upon the increase of the population

    and comparing the early censuses with the one he had recently

    ordered. This sum of 21,068,600 does not, however, include

    all the inhabitants of China at that date ; for the Manchus

    commenced their sway in 161:’±, and did not exercise full authority

    over all the provinces much before 1700 ; Canton was

    taken in 1650, Formosa in 1683.

    The census of 1668 (Ko. 5), shows a little increase over that

    of 1662, but is likewise confined to the conquered portions ; and

    in those provinces which had been subdued, there were extensive

    tracts which had been almost depopulated at the conquest.

    Any one who reads the recitals of Semedo, Martini, Trigautius,

    and othei’s, concerning the massaci-es and destruction of life

    both by the Manchus and by Chinese l)andits, between 1630

    and 1650, M’ill feel no loss in accounting for the diminution of

    numbers, down to 1710. But the chief explanation of the decrease

    from sixty to twenty-seven millions is to be found in the

    object of taking the census, viz., to levy a poll-tax, and get at

    the number of men fit for the army—two reasons for most men

    to avoid the registration.

    The census of 1711 (No. 8), is the first one on record which bears the appearance of crediljility, when its several parts are compared with each other. The dates of the preceding (Nos. 6 and 7), are rather uncertain ; the last was extracted by Dr. Morrison from a book published in 1790, and he thought it was probably taken as early as 1650, though that is unlikely.

    The other is given by Dr. Medhurst without any explanation, and their great disparity leads us to think that both are dated wrongly. The census of 1711 is much more consistent in itself, though there are some reasons for supposing that neither did it include all the population then in China. The census was still taken for enrolment in the army, and to levy a capitation tax upon all males between the ages of sixteen and sixty. But this tax and registration were evaded and resisted by the indignant Chinese, who had never been chronicled in this fashion by their own princes; the Emperor Kanghi, therefore, abolished the capitation tax. It was not till about this time that the

    Manchus had subdued and pacified the southern provinces, and

    it is not improbable that this census, and the survey taken by

    the Jesuits, were among their acts of sovereignty. Finding

    the people unwilling to be registered, the poll tax was merged

    in the land tax, and no census ordered during the reign of

    Yungching, till Kienlung revived it in order to have some

    guide in apportioning relief during seasons of distress and scarcity,

    establishing granaries, and aiding the police in their duties.

    Many, therefore, who would do all in their power to prevent

    their names being taken, when they were liable to be taxed or

    called on to do military service, could have no objection to

    come forward, when the design of the census was to benefit

    themselves. It matters very little, however, for what object the

    census was taken, if there is reason to believe it to have been

    accurate. It might indeed act as a stimulus to multiply names

    and figures whom there were no people to represent, as the

    principle of paying the marshals a percentage on the numbers

    they reported did in some parts of New York State in 1840.

    The three next numbers (9, 10, and 11), are taken from De

    Guignes, who quotes Amiot, but gives no Chinese authorities.

    The last is given in full by De Guignes, and both this and that

    of Allerstein, dated twenty years after, ai-e introduced into the

    table. There are some disci’epancies between these two and

    the census of 1753, taken from the General Statistics, which

    cannot easily be reconciled. The internal evidence is in favor

    of the latter, over the census of 1743 ; it is taken from a new

    edition of the Ta Tsing IFioul Tien, or ‘ General Statistics of

    the Empire,’ and the increase during the forty-two years which

    COMPAIJISON OF LATER CENSUSES. 267

    had elapsed since the last census is regular in all the provinces,

    with the exception of Shantung and Kiangnan. The extraordinary

    fertility of these provinces would easily induce immigration,

    while in the war of conquest, their popnlousness and wealth attracted the armies of the Manchus, and the destruction of life was disproportionably great. The smaller numbers given to the western and southern provinces correspond

    moreover to the opposition experienced in those regions.

    On the whole, the census taken in 1753 compares very well

    with that of 1711, and both of them bear an aspect of verity,

    which does not belong to the table of 1743 quoted by De Guignes.

    From 1711 to 1753, the population doubled itself in about

    twenty-two years, premising that the whole country was faithfully

    registered at the iii-st census. For instance, the province

    of Kweichau, in 1711, presents on the average a mere fraction

    of a little more than a single person to two square miles ; while

    in 1753 it had increased in the unexampled ratio of three to a square mile, which is doubling its population every seven years ; Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Kansuh (all of them containing to this day, partially subdued tribes), had also multiplied their numbers in nearly the same proportion, owing in great measure, probably, to the more extended census than to the mere increase of population.

    The amounts for 173G, three of 1743, and those of 1760,

    1761, and 1762 (Xos. 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, and 17), are all extracted

    from De Guignes, who took them from the Memolres

    sur les Chlnois. The last, that of 1762, is given in detail in the

    table. The discrepancy of sixty millions between that given

    by Amiot for 1760, and that by Dr. Morrison for the same

    year, is owing, there can be little doubt, to foreigners, and not

    to an error of the Chinese. The work from which Dr. Morrison

    extracted his estimate for that year was published in 1790,

    but the census was taken between 1760 and 1765. The same

    work contains the census of 1711 (Xo. 8), quoted by him, and

    there is good cause for believing that Amiot’s or Grosier’s

    estimate of 157,343,975 for 1743, is the very same census, he having multiplied the number 28,605,716 by five, supposing them to have been families and not individuals. The three ascribed to the year 1743, are probably all derived from the same native authorities by different individuals.

    The three dated in 1760, 1761, and 1762, are harmonious with each other ; but if they are taken, those of 1753 and 1760, extracted from the Ylh Tung CIu hy I)i-. Morrison, must be rejected, which are far more reasonable, and correspond better with the preceding one of 1711. It may be remarked, that by reckoning five persons to a family in calculating the census of 1753, as Amiot does for 1743, the population would be 189,223,820 instead of 103,050,060, as given in the table. This explains the apparent decrease of fifty millions. All the discrepancies between these various tables and censuses must not be charged upon the Chinese, since it is by no means easy to ascertain their modes of taking the census and their use of terms. In the tables, for example, they employ the phrase y^/lting, for a male over 15 years of age, as the integer ; this has, then, to be multiplied by some factor of increase to get at the total population ; and this last figure must be obtained elsewhere.

    It must not be overlooked that the object in taking a census being to calcidate the probable revenue by enumei’atingthe taxable persons, the margin of error and deficiency depends on the peace of the state at the time, and not chiefly on the estimate of five or more to a household.

    The amount for 1736 corresponds sufficiently closely with that for 1743 ; and reckoning the same number of persons in a family in 1753, that tallies well enough with those for 1760, 1761, and 1762, the whole showing a gradual increase for twenty-five years. But all of them, except that of 1753, ai’6 probably rated too high. That for 1762 (Xo. 17), has been justly considered as one of the most authentic.

    THE FOUR MOST RELIABLE CEISTSUSES. 269

    The amount given by ” Z.” of Berlin (Xo. 18), of 155^ millions for 1790 is quoted in the Clihiem liejms’dot’y, but the writer states no authorities, was probably never in China, and as it appears at present, is undeserving the least notice. That given by Dr. Morrison for 1792 (Xo. 19), the year before Lord Macartney’s embassy’, is quoted from an edition of that date, but probably Avas really taken in 1765 or thereabouts, but he did nut publish it in detail.’ It is probably much nearer the truth than the amount of ao’d millions by the commissioner Chau to the English ambassador. This estimate has had much more respect paid to it as an authentic document than it deserved.

    The Chinese connnissioner would naturally wish to exalt his country in the eyes of its far-travelled visitors, and not having the official returns to refer to, would not be likely to state them less than they were. lie gave the population of the provinces in round numbers, perhaps altogether from his own memory, aided by those of his attendant clerks, with the impression that his hearers would never be able to refer to the original native authorities.

    The next one quoted (Xo. 21) is the most satisfactory of all the censuses in Chinese works, and was considered by both the Morrisons and by Dr. Bridgman, editor of the Chinese Jiejwsitori/, as ” the most accurate that has yet been given of the population.”

    In questions of this nature, one well authenticated table is

    worth a score of doubtful origin. It has been shown how

    apocryphal are many of the statements given in foreign books,

    but with the census of 1812, the source of error which is chiefly

    to be guarded against is the average given to a family. This

    is done by the Chinese themselves on no uniform plan, and it

    may be the case that the estimate of individuals from the number

    of families is made in separate towns, fi-oni an intimate

    acquaintance with the particular district, which would be less

    liable to eri-or than a general average. The number of families

    given in the census of 1753, is 37,785,552, which is more than

    one-third of the population.

    The four censuses which deserve the most credit, so far as

    the sources are considered, are those of 1711, 1753, 1792, and

    1812 {i.e., Nos. 8, 13, 19, and 21) ; these, when compared,

    show the following rate of increase: From 1711 to 1753, the population increased 7”1,222,602,

    which was an annual advance of l,70-±,82-l: inhabitants, or a’ Sir G. Staunton, PJmbassy to China, Vol. II., Appendix, p. 615 : ” Table of the Population and Extent of China proper, within the Great V/all. Taken in round numbers from the Statements of Chow ta-zhin.” little more than six per cent, per annum for forty-two years.

    Tiiis high rate, it must be remembered, does not take into account

    the more thorough subjugation of the south and west at

    the later date, when the Manchus could safely enrol large districts,

    where in 1711 they would have found so much difficulty

    that they would not have attempted it.

    From 1753 to 1792, the increase was 104,636,882, or an annual

    advance of 2,682,997 inhabitants, or about 2^ per cent,

    per annum for thirty-nine years. During this period, the

    country enjoyed almost uninterrupted peace under the vigorous

    sway of Kienlung, and the unsettled regions of the south and

    west rapidly filled up.

    From 1792 to 1812, the increase was 51:,126,679, or an annual

    advance of 2,706,333—not quite one per cent, per annum

    —for twenty years. At the same rate of progress the present

    population would amount to over 150,000,000, and this might

    have been the case had not the Tai-ping rebellion reduced the

    numbers. An enumeration (Xo. 22), was published by the

    Russian Professor of Chinese Yassilivitch in 1868 as a translation

    from official documents. Foreigners have had greater

    opportunities for travel through the country, between the years

    1840 to 1880, and have ascertained the enormous depopulation

    in some places caused by wars, short supplies of food in consequence

    of scarcity of laborers, famines, or brigandage, each

    adding its own power of destruction at different places and

    times. The conclusion will not completely satisfy any inquirer,

    but the population of the Empire cannot now reasonably

    be estimated as high as the census of 1812, by at

    least twenty-five millions. The last in the list of these censuses

    (No. 23), is added as an example of the efforts of intelligent

    persons residing in China to come to a definite and

    independent conclusion on this point from such data as they

    can obtain. The Imperial Customs’ Service has been able to

    command the best native assistance in their researches, and the

    table of population given above fi-om the Gotha Almanac is

    the sunnnary of what has been ascertained. The population

    of extra-})rovincial (^hina is really uulvnown at present. Manclmria

    is put down at twelve millions by one author, and three

    PRESUMPTIVE EVIDENCE IN THEIR FAVOR. 271

    or four millions, by another, without any official autliurity for

    either ; and all those vast regions in Ili and Tibet may easily

    be set down at from twelve to fifteen millions. To sum up,

    one must confess that if the Chinese censuses are worth but

    little, compared with those taken in European states, they are

    better than the guesses of foreigners who have never been in

    the country, or who have travelled only partially in it.

    The Chinese are doubtless one of the most conceited nations

    on the earth, but with all their vanity, they have never bethought

    themselves of rating their population twenty-five or

    thirty per cent, higher than they suppose it to be, for the purpose

    of exalting themselves in the eyes of foreigners or in their

    own. Except in one case none of the estimates were presented

    to. Of intended to be known by foreigners. The distances in U

    between places given in Chinese itineraries correspond very

    well with the real distances ; the number of districts, towns,

    and villages in the departments and provinces, as stated in

    their local and general topographical works, agree with the

    actual examination, so far as it can be made : why should their

    censuses be charged with gross error, when, however much we

    may doubt them, we cannot disprove them, and the weight of

    evidence derived from actual observation rather confirms them

    than otherwise ; and while their account of towns, villages,

    distances, etc., are unhesitatingly adopted until better can be

    obtained ? Some discrepancies in the various tables are ascribable

    to foreigners, and some of the censuses are incomplete,

    or the year cannot be precisely fixed, both of which vitiate the

    deductions made from them as to the rate of increase. Some

    reasons for believing that the highest population ascribed to

    the Chinese Empire is not greater than the country can support,

    will first be stated, and the objections against receiving the

    censuses then considered.’

    ‘ This interesting subject can then be left with the reader, who will find

    further remarks in Medhurst’s China, De Guignes’ Voyages d Peking, The Missionaries,

    in Tomes VI. and VIII. of Memoires, Ed. Biot, in Journal Asiatique

    for 1836. The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during the 4,000

    Years of its Historical Existence ; or the Rise and Fall of the Chinese Pojmlation,

    by T. Sacharoflf. Translated into English by the Rev. W. Lobscheid, Hongkong,

    1862. Notes and Queries on China and Japan, Vol. II., pp. 88, 103, and 117

    The area of the Eighteen Provinces is rather imperfectly given

    at 1,348,870 sqnare miles, and the average population, there

    fore, for the whole, in 1812, was 268 persons on every sqnare

    mile ; that of the nine eastern provinces in and near the Great

    Plain, comprising 502,192 sqnare miles, or two-fifths of the

    whole, is 458 persons, and the nine southern and western provinces,

    constituting the other three-fifths, is 154 to a square mile.

    The surface and fertility of the country in these two portions

    differ so greatly, as to lead one to look for results like these.

    The areas of some European states and their population, are

    added to assist in making a comparison with China, and coming

    to a clearer idea about their relative density.

    states.

    France

    German}’ . ..

    Great Britain

    Italy

    Holland

    Spain

    Japan

    Benural

    204.092

    212,091

    121,608

    114,296

    20,497

    190,625

    160,474

    156,200

    Population.

    dp:nsity of populations in Europe and china. 273

    ture-lands, and only ten millions devoted to grain and vegeta

    bles ; the other two millions consist of fallow-ground, hop-beds,

    etc. One author estimates that in England 42 acres in a hundred,

    and in Ireland G4, are pastures—a little more than half of

    the whole. There are, then, on the average about two acres of

    land for the support of each individual, or rather less than this,

    if the land required for the food of horses be subtracted. It

    has been calculated that eight men can be fed on the same

    amount of land that one horse requires ; and that four acres of

    pasture-land will furnish no more food for man than one of

    ploughed land. The introduction of railroads has superseded

    the use of horses to such an extent that it is estimated there are

    only 200,000 horses now in England, instead of a million in 1830.

    If, therefore, one-half the land appropriated to pasture should

    be devoted to grain, and no more horses and dogs raised than a

    million of acres could support, England and Wales could easily

    maintain a population of more than four hundred to a square

    mile, supposing them to be willing to live on what the land and

    water can furnish.

    The Irish consume a greater proportion of vegetables than

    the English, even since the improvement by emigration after

    1851 ; many of these live a beggaily life upon half an acre, and

    even less, -and seldom taste animal food. The quantity of land

    under cultivation in Belgium is about fifteen-seventeenths of

    the whole, which gives an average of about two acres to each

    person, or the same as in England. In these two countries, the

    people consume more meat than in Ireland, and the amoimt of

    land occupied for pasturage is in nearly equal proportions in

    Belgium and England. In France, the average of cultivated

    land is If acre ; in Holland, If acre to each person.

    If the same proportion between the arable and uncultivated

    land exists in China as in England, namely one-fourth, there are

    about six hundred and fifty millions of acres under cultivation

    in China ; and we are not left altogether to conjecture, for by a

    report made to Ivienlung in 1745, it appears that the area of

    the land under cultivation was 595,598,221 acres ; a subsequent

    calculation places it at 640,579,381 acres, which is almost the

    same proportion as in England. Estimating it at six hundred and fifty millions—for it lias since increased rather than diminished—it gives one acre and four-fifths to every person, Which is by no means a small supply for the Chinese, considering that there are no cultivated pastures or meadows.

    In comparing the population of different countries, the

    manner of living and the articles of food in use, form such important

    elements of the calculation, in ascertaining whether the

    country be overstocked or not, that a mere tabular view of the

    number of persons on a square mile is an imperfect criterion of

    the amount of inhabitants the land would maintain if they consumed

    the same food, and lived in the same manner in all of

    them. Living as the Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and other

    Asiatics do, chiefly upon vegetables, the country can hardly be

    said to maintain more than one-half or one-third as many people

    on a square mile as it might do, if their energies were developed

    to the same extent with those of the English or Belgians.

    The population of these eastern regions has been repressed by the combined influences of ignorance, insecurity of life and property, religious prejudices, vice, and wars, so that the land has never maintained as many inhabitants as one would have otherwise reasonably expected therefrom.

    Nearly all the cultivated soil in China is employed in raising food for man. AVoollen garments and leather are little used, while cotton and mulberry cultivation take np only a small proportion of the soil. There is not, so far as is known, a single acre of land sown with grass-seed, and therefore almost no human labor is devoted to raising food for animals, which will not also serve to sustain man. Horses are seldom used for pomp or war, for travelling or carrying burdens, but mules, camels, asses, and goats are employed for transportation and other purposes north of the Yangtsz’ River. Horses are fed on cooked rice, bran, sorghum seed, pulse, oats, and grass cut along

    the banks of streams, or on hillsides. In the southern and

    eastern provinces, all animals are rare, the transport of goods

    and passengers being done by boats or by men. The natives

    make no use of butter, cheese, or milk, and the few cattle employed

    in agriculture easily gather a living on the waste ground

    around the villages. In the south, the buffalo is applied more

    AREA AND VALUE OF ARABLE LAND IN CHINA. 275

    than the ox to plough the rice fields, and the habits of this

    animal make it cheaper to keep him in good condition, while he

    can also do more work. The winter stock is grass cut upon the

    hills, straw, bean stalks, and vegetables, ^o wool being wanted

    for making cloth, flocks of sheep and goats are seldom seen—it

    may almost be said are unknown in the east and south.

    No animal is reared cheaper than the hog ; hatching and

    raising ducks affords employment to thousands of people ; hundreds

    of these fowl gather their own food along the river

    shore, being easily attended by a single keeper. Geese and

    poultry are also cheaply reared. In fishing, which is carried on

    to an enormous extent, no pasture-grounds, no manuring, no

    barns, are needed, nor are taxes paid by the cultivator and consumer.

    While the people get their animal food in these ways, its preparation takes away the least possible amount of cultivated soil. The space occupied for roads and pleasure-gromids is insignificant, but there is perhaps an amount appropriated for burial places quite equal to the area used for those purposes in European countries ; it is, however, less valuable land, and much of it would be useless for culture, even if otherwise unoccupied.

    Graves are dug on hills, in ravines and copses, and wherever they will be retired and dry; or if in the ancestral field, they do not hinder the crop growing close around them.

    Moreover, it is very common to preserve the coffin in temples

    and cemeteries until it is decayed, partly in order to save the

    expense of a grave, and partly to worship the remains, or preserve

    them until gathered to their fathers, in their distant

    native places. They are often placed in the corners of the fields,

    or under precipices where they remain till dust returns to dust,

    and bones and wood both moulder away. These and other customs

    limit the consumption of land for graves much more than

    would be supposed, when one sees, as at Macao, almost as much

    space taken up by the dead for a grave as by the living for a

    hut. The necropolis of Canton occupies the hills north of the

    city, of which not one-fiftieth part could ever have been used

    for agriculture, but where cattle are allowed to graze, as much

    as if there were no tombs.

    Under its genial and equable climate, nioi’e than three-fourths

    of the area of China Proper produces two crops annually. In

    Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Fuhkien, two ci’ops of rice are taken

    year after year from the low lauds ; while in the loess regions

    of the northwest, a three-fold return from the grain fields is

    annually looked for, if the rain-fall is not withheld. In the

    winter season, in the neighborhood of towns, a third crop of

    sweet potatoes, cabbages, turnips, or some other vegetable is

    grown, T)e Guignes estimates the retui-ns of a rice crop at ten

    for one, which, with the vegetables, will give full twenty-five

    fold from an acre in a year ; few parts, however, yield this increase.

    Little or no land lies fallow, for constant manuring and

    turning of the soil prevents the necessity of repose. The diligence

    exhibited in collecting and applying manure is Avell

    known, and if all this industry result in the production of two

    crops instead of one, it really doubles the area under cultivation,

    Avhen its superficies are compared with those of other

    countries. If the amount of land which produces two ci’ops be

    estimated at one-fourth of the whole (and it is perhaps as near

    one-third), the area of arable land in the provinces may be considered

    as representing a total of 812 millions of acres, or 2f

    acres to an individual. The land is not, however, cut up into such

    small farms as to prevent its being managed as w^ell as the people

    know how to stock and cultivate it ; manual labor is the chief

    dependence of the farmer, fewer cattle, carts, ploughs, and machines being employed than in other countries. In rice fields no aninuils are used after the wet land has received the shoots, transplanting, weeding, and reaping being done by men.

    In no other country besides Japan is so much food derived from the water. Not only arc the coasts, estuaries, rivers, and lakes, covered with fishing-boats of various sizes, which are provided with everything fitted for the capture of whatever lives in the waters, but the spawn of fish is collected and reared.

    TENDENCIKS TO INCREASE OF POrULATION”. 277

    Rice fields are often converted into pools in the winter season, and stocked with fish; and the tanks dug for irrigation usually contain fish. By all these means, an immense supply of food is obtained at a cheap rate, which is eaten fresh or preserved with or without salt, and sent over the Empire, at a cost which places it within the reach of all above beggary. Other articles of food, both animal and vegetable, such as dogs, game, worms, spring greens, tripang, leaves, etc., do indeed compose part of their meals, but it is comparatively an inconsiderable fraction, and need not enter into the calculation. Enough has been stated to show that the land is abundantly able to support the population ascribed to it, even with all the drawbacks known to exist; and that, taking the highest estimate to be true, and considering the mode of living, the average population on a square mile in China is less than in several European countries.

    The political and social causes which tend to multiply the inhabitants are numerous and powerful. The failure of male posterity to continue the succession of the family, and worship at the tombs of parents, is considered by all classes as one of the most afflictive misfortunes of life; the laws allow unlimited facilities of adoption, and secure the rights of those taken into the family in this way. The custom of betrothing children, and the obligation society imposes upon the youth when arrived at maturity, to fulfil the contracts entered into by their parents, acts favorably to the establishment of families and the nurture of children, and restricts polygamy. Parents desire children for a support in old age, as there is no legal or benevolent provision

    for aged poverty, and public opinion stigmatizes the man

    who allows his aged or infirm parents to suffer when he can

    help them. The law requires the owners of domestic slaves to

    provide husbands for their females, and prohibits the involuntary

    or forcible separation of husband and wife, or parents and

    children, when the latter are of tender age. All these causes

    and influences tend to increase population, and equalize the

    consumption and use of property more, perhaps, than in any

    other land.

    The custom of families remaining together tends to the

    same result. The local importance of a large family in the

    country is weakened by its male members removing to town, or

    emigrating; consequently, the patriarch of three or four generations

    endeavors to retain his sons and grandsons around him, their houses joining his, and they and their families forming a social, united company. Such cases as those mentioned in the.

    Sacred Commands are of course rare, where nine generations of the family of Chang Kung-i inhabited one lioiise, or of Chin, at whose table seven hundred mouths were daily fed,’ but it is the tendency of society. This remark does not indicate that great landed proprietors exist, whose hereditary estates are secured by entail to the great injur}- of the state, as in Great Britain,

    for the farms are generally small and cultivated by the

    owner or on the metayer system. Families are supported on a

    more economical plan, the claims of kindred are better enforced,

    the land is cultivated with more care, and the local importance

    of the family perpetuated. This is, however, a very different system from that advocated by Fourier in France, or Greeley in America, for these little communities are placed

    under one natural head, whose authority is acknowledged and

    upheld, and his indignation feared. Workmen of the same profession form unions, each person contributing a certain sum on the promise of assistance when sick or disabled, and this custom prevents and alleviates a vast amount of poverty.

    ‘ Sacred Edict, pp. 51, 60.

    RESTRICTIONS UPON EMIGRATION. 279

    The obstacles put in the way of emigrating beyond sea, both in law and prejudice, operate to deter respectable persons from leaving their native land. Necessity has made the law a dead letter, and thousands annually leave their homes. No better evidence of the dense population can be offered to those acquainted with Chinese feelings and character, than the extent of emigration. “What stronger proof,” observes Medhurst,” of the dense population of China could be afforded than the fact, that emigration is going on in spite of restrictions and disabilities, from a country where learning and civilization reign, and where all the dearest interests and prejudices of the emigrants are found, to lands like Burmah, Siam, Cambodia, Tibet, Manchuria, and the Indian Archipelago, where comparative ignorance and barbarity prevail, and where the extremes of a tropical or frozen region are to be exchanged for a mild and temperate climate? Added to this consideration, that not a single female is permitted or ventures to leave the country, when consequently, all the tender attachments that bind heart to heart must be burst asunder, and, perhaps, forever.”‘

    Moreover, if they return with wealth enough to live upon, they are liable to the vexatious extortions of needy relatives, sharpers, and police, who have a handle for their fleecing whip in the law against leaving the country ; although this clause has been neutralized by subsequent acts, and is not in force, the power of public opinion is against going. A case occurred in 1832, at Canton, where the son of a Chinese living in Calcutta, who had been sent home by his parent with his mother, to perform the usual ceremonies in the ancestral hall, was seized by his uncle as he was about to be married, on the pretext that his father had unequally divided the paternal inheritance; he

    was obliged to pay a thousand dollars to free himself. Soon

    after his marriage, a few sharpers laid hold of him and bore

    him away in a sedan, as he was walking near his house, but his

    cries attracted the police, who carried them all to the magistrates,

    where he was liberated—after being obliged to fee his

    deliverers.’ Another case occurred in Macao in 1838. A

    man had been living several years in Singapore as a merchant,

    and when he settled in Macao still kept up an interest in the

    trade with that place. Accounts of his great wealth became

    rumored abroad, and he was seriously annoyed by relatives.

    One night, a number of thieves, dressed like police-runners,

    came to his house to search for opium, and their boisterous

    manner terrified him to such a degree, that in order to escape

    them he jumped from the terrace upon the hard gravelled

    court-yard, and broke his leg, of which he shortly afterward

    died. A third case is mentioned, where the returned emigrants,

    consisting of a man and his wife, who was a Malay, and

    two children, were rescued from extortion, when before the

    magistrate, by the kindness of his wife and mother, who wished

    to see the foreign woman.” Such instances are now unknown,

    owing to the increase of emigration ; they were, indeed, never numerically great, on account of the small number of those who came back.

    ‘ China : Its State ojid Prospects, p. 42.

    ^ Ta Tslag Leu Lee ; being the Fundamental Laws, etc., of the Penal Codt of China, by Sir G. T. Staunton, Bart , London, 1810. Section CCXXV.

    ^ Chinese Repository, Vol. I., p. 382.

    * Ibid., Vol. VII., p. 503; Vol. II., p. 161.

    The anxiety of the government to provide stores of food for times of scarcity, shows rather its fear of the disastrous residts following a short crop—such as the gathering of clamoi’ous crowds of starving poor, the increase of bandits and disorganization of society—than any peculiar care of the rulers, or that these storehouses really supply deficiencies. The evil consequences resulting from an overgrown population are experienced in one or another part of the provinces almost every year ; and drought, inundations, locusts, mildew, or other natural causes, often give rise to insurrections and disturbances. There can be no doubt, however, that, without adding a single acre to the area of arable land, these evils would be materially alleviated, if the intercommunication of traders and their goods, between distant parts of the country, were more frequent, speedy, and safe; but this is not likely to be the case until both rulers and ruled make greater advances in just government, science, obedience, and regard for each other s right.

    It would be a satisfaction if foreigners could verify any part

    of the census. But this is, at present, impossible. They cannot

    examine the records in the ofiice of the Board of Revenue,

    nor can they ascertain the population in a given district from

    the archives in the hands of the local authorities, or the mode

    of taking it. Neither can they go through a village or town to

    count the number of houses and their inhabitants, and calculate

    from actual examination of a few parts what the whole would

    be. “Where\er foreigners have journeyed, there has appeared

    much the same succession of waste land, hilly regions, cultivated

    plains, and M’ooded heights, as in other countries, M’ith an

    abundance of people, but not more than the land could support,

    if properly tilled.

    METHOD OF TAKING THE CENSUS. 281

    The people are grouped into hamlets and villages, under the control of village elders and officers. In the district of Nanhai, Avhich forms the western part of the city of Canton, and the surrounding country for more than a hundred square miles, there are one hundred and eighty /it'((/if/ or villages; the population of each hiang varies from two hundred and upwards to one hundred thousand, but ordinarily ranges between three hundred and thirty-five hundred. If each of the eighty-eight districts in the province of Kwangtung contains the same number of JtlaiKj, there will be, including the district towns, 15,928 villages, towns, and cities in all, with an average population of twelve hundred inhabitants to each. From the top of the hills on Dane’s Island, at Whampoa, thirty-six towns and villages can

    be counted, of which Canton is one; and four of these contain

    from twelve to fifteen hundred houses. The whole district of

    Hiangshan, in which Macao lies, is also well covered with villages,

    though their exact number is not known. The island of

    Anioy contains more than fourscore villages and towns, and

    this island forms only a part of the district of Tung-ngan. The

    banks of the river leading from Amoy up to Changchau fu, are

    likewise well peopled. The environs of Ningpo and Shanghai

    are closely settled, though that is no more than one always expects

    near large cities, where the demand for food in the city

    itself causes the vicinity to be well peopled and tilled. In a

    notice of an irruption of the sea in 1819, along the coast of

    Shantung, it was reported that a hundred and forty villages

    were laid under water.

    Marco Polo describes the mode followed in the days of Kublai

    khan : ” It is the custom for every burgess of the city, and

    in fact for every description of person in it, to write over his

    door his own name, the name of his wife, and those of his children,

    his slaves, and all the inmates of his house, and also the number of animals that he keeps. And if any one dies in the house, then the name of that person is erased, and if a child is born its name is added. So in this way the sovereign is able to know exactly the population of the city. And this is the practice throughout all Manzi and Cathay.” ‘ This custom was observed long before the Mongol conquest, and is followed at present ; so that it is perhaps easier to take a census in China than in most European countries.

    The law upon this subject is contained in Sees. LXXV. and

    ‘ Yule’s Marco Polo, Vul. II., p. 152.

    LXXVI. of the statutes. It enacts various penalties for not

    registering the members of a family, and its provisions all go to

    show that the people are desirous rather of evading the census

    than of exaggerating it. When a family has omitted to make

    any entry, the head of it is liable to be punished with one hundred

    blows if he is a freeholder, and with eighty if he is not.

    If the master of a family has among his household another distinct family whom he omits to register, the punishment is the same as in the last clause, with a modification, according as the unregistered persons and family are relatives or strangers.

    Persons in government employ omitting to register their families, are less severely punished. A master of family failing to register all the males in his household who are lia1)le to public service, shall be punished with from sixty to one hundred blows,

    according to the demerits of the ofPence ; this clause was in

    effect repealed, when the land tax was substituted for the capitation

    tax. Omissions, from neglect or inadvertency to register

    all the individuals and families in a village or town, on the part

    of the headmen or government clerks, are punishable with

    different degrees of severity. All persons whatsoever are to

    be registered according to their accustomed occupations or professions,

    whether civil or military, whether couriers, artisans,

    physicians, asti’ologers, laborers, musicians, or of any other denomination

    whatever ; and subterfuges in representing one’s self

    as belonging to a profession not liable to public service, are

    visited as usual with the bamboo ; persons falsely describing

    themselves as belonging to the army, in order to evade public

    service, are banished as well as beaten. From these clauses it

    is seen that the Manchus have extended the enumeration to

    classes M’hich were exempted in the Ilan, Tang, and other

    dynasties, and thus come nearer to the actual population.

    ‘ Penal Code, p. 79, Staunton’s translation.

    ITS PROBABLE ACCURACY. 283

    ” In the Chinese government,” observes Dr. Morrison, ” there appears great regularity and system. Every district has its appropriate officers, every street its constable, and every ten houses their tything man. Thus they have all the requisite means of ascertaining the population with considerable accuracy. Every family is required to have a board always hanging up in the house, and ready for the inspection of authorized officers,

    on which the names of all persons, men, women, and children,

    in the house are inscribed. This board is called mun-j>ai

    or ‘door-tablet,’ because when there are women and children

    within, the officers are expected to take the account from the

    board at the door. Were all the inmates of a family faithfully

    inserted, the amount of the population would, of course, be

    ascertained with great accuracy. But it is said that names are

    sometimes omitted through neglect or design ; others think

    that the account of persons given in is generally correct.”

    The door-tablets are sometimes pasted on the door, thus serving

    as a kind of door-plate ; in these cases correctness of enumeration

    is readily secured, for the neighbors are likely to know

    if the record is below the truth, and the householder is not

    likely to exaggerate the taxable inmates under his roof. I have

    read these inun-jMil on the doors of a long ro\v of houses ; they

    were pi-inted blanks filled in, and then pasted outside for thejy<;o-

    Mah or tithing man to examine. Both Dr. Morrison and his

    son, than whom no one has had better opportunities to know the

    true state of the ease, or been more desirous (^f dealing fairly

    with the Chinese, regarded the censuses given in the General

    Statistics as more trustworthy than any other documents available.

    In conclusion, it may be asked, are the results of the enumeration

    of the people, as contained in the statistical works published

    by the government, to be rejected or doubted, therefore,

    because the Chinese officers do not wish to ascertain the exact

    population ; or because they are not capable of doing it ; or,

    lastly, because they wish to impose upon foreign powers by an

    arithmetical array of millions they do not possess ? The question

    seems to hang upon this trilemma. It is acknowledged

    that they falsify or garble statements in a manner calculated to

    throw doubt upon everything they write, as in the reports of

    victories and battles sent to the Emperor, in the memorials upon

    the opium trade, in their descriptions of natural objects in

    books of medicine, and in many other things. But the question

    is as applicable to China as to France : is the estimated population of France in 1801 to be called in question, because the Moniteur gsive false accounts of Napoleon’s battles in 18131

    It would be a strange combination of conceit and folly, for a

    ministry composed of men able to carry on all the details of a

    complicated government like that of China, to systematically

    exaggerate the population, and then proceed, for more than a

    century, with taxation, disbursements, and official appointments,

    founded upon these censuses. Somebody at least must know

    them to be worthless, and the proof that they were so, must,

    one would think, ere long Jbe apparent. The provinces and

    departments have been divided and subdivided since the Jesuits

    made their survey, because they were becoming too densely

    settled for the same officers to rule over them.

    Still less will any one assert that the Chinese are not capable

    of taking as accurate a census as they are of measuring distances,

    or laying out districts and townships. Errors may be

    found in the former as well as in the latter, and doubtless are

    so ; for it is not contended that the four censuses of 1711, 1Y53,

    1792, and 1812 are as accurate as those now taken in England,

    France, or the United States, but that they are the best data

    extant, and that if they are rejected we leave tolerable evidence

    and take up with that which is doubtful and suppositive. The

    censuses taken in China since the Christian era are, on the

    whole, more satisfactory than those of all other nations put

    together up to the Reformation, and further careful research

    will no doubt increase our respect for them.

    Ere long we may be able to traverse a census in its details of

    record and deduction, and thus satisfy a reasonable curiosity,

    especially as to the last reported total after the carnage of the

    rebellion. On the other hand, it may be stated that in the last

    census, the entire population of Manchuria, Koko-nor, 111, and

    Mongolia, is estimated at only 2,107,286 persons, and nearly all

    the inhabitants of those vast regions are subject to the Emperor.

    The population of Tibet is not included in any census,

    its people not being taxable. It is doubtful if an enumeration

    of any part of the extra provincial territory has ever been

    taken, inasmuch as the Mongol tril)es, and still less the TTsbeck

    or other Moslem races, are unused to such a thing, and would

    EVIDENCES IN FAVOR OF THE CENSUS, 28,”)

    not be nnnibered. Yet, the Chinese cannot be eliarged with

    exaggeration, when good judges, as Klaproth and others, reckon

    the whole at between six and seven millions ; and Khoten alone,

    one author states, has three and a half millions. No writer of

    importance estimates the inhabitants of these regions as high

    as thirty millions— as does 11. Mont. Martin—which would be

    more than ten to a square mile, excluding Gobi ; while Siberia

    (though not so well peopled) has only 3,611,300 persons on an

    area of 2,649,600 square miles, or 1^ to each square mile.

    The reasons just given why the Chinese desire posterity are

    not all those which have favored national increase. The uninterrupted

    peace’ which the country enjoyed between the years

    1700 and 1850 operated to greatly develop its resources. Every

    encouragement has been given to all classes to multiply and

    fill the land. Polygamy, slavery, and prostitution, three social

    evils which check increase, have been circumscribed in their

    effects. Early betrothment and poverty do much to prevent

    the first ; female slaves can be and are usually married ; while

    public prostitution is reduced by a separation of the sexes and

    early marriages. No fears of overpassing the supply of food

    restrain the people from rearing families, though the Emperor

    Kienlung issued a proclamation in 1793, calling upon all ranks

    of his subjects to economize the gifts of heaven, lest, erelong,

    the people exceed the means of subsistence.

    It is difficult to see what this or that reason or objection has to do with the subject, except where the laws of population are set at defiance, which is not the case in China. Food and work, peace and security, climate and fertile soil, not universities or

    steamboats, are the encouragements needed for the multiplication

    of mankind ; though they do not have that effect in all

    countries (as in Mexico and Brazil), it is no reason why they

    should not in others. There are grounds for believing that not

    more than two-thirds of the whole population of China were

    included in the census of 1711, but that allowance cannot be

    made for Ireland in 1785 ; and consequently, her annual percentage

    of increase, up to 18-41, would then be greater than

    China, during the forty-two years ending with 1753. McCulloch

    quotes De Guignes approvingly, but the Frenchman takes the rough estimate of 333,000,000 given to Macartney, which is less trustworthy than that of 307,407,200, and compares it with Grosier’s of 157,343,975, which is certainly wrong through his misinterpretation. De Guignes proceeds from the data in his possession in 1802 (which were less than those now available), and from his own observations in travelling through the country in 179G, to show the improbability of the estimated population.

    But the observations made in journeys, taken as were those of the English and Dutch embassies, though they passed through some of the best provinces, cannot be regarded as good evidence against official statistics.

    “Would any one suppose, in travelling from Boston to Chatham,

    and then from Albany to Buffalo, along the railroad, that

    Massachusetts contained, in 1870, exactly double the population

    on a square mile of New York ? So, in going from Peking to

    Canton, the judgment which six intelligent travellers might

    form of the population of China could easily be found to differ

    by one-half. De Guignes says, after comparing China with

    Holland and France, ” All these reasons clearly demonstrate

    that the population of China does not exceed that of other

    countries ;” and such is in truth the case, if the kind of food,

    number of crops, and materials of dress be taken into account.

    His remarks on the population and productiveness of the country are, like his whole work, replete with good sense and candor; but some of his deductions would have been different, had he

    been in possession of all the data since obtained.’ The discrepancies

    between the different censuses have been usually considered

    a strong internal evidence against them, and they should receive

    due consideration. The really difficult point is to fix the

    percentage that must be allowed for the classes not included as

    taxable, and the power of the government to enumerate those

    who wished to avoid a census and the subsequent taxation.

    After all these reasons for receiving the total of 1812 as the

    best one, there are, on the other hand, two principal objections

    against taking the Chinese census as altogether tinistworthy.

    ‘ Voyages a Peking, Tome III. , pp. 55-80.

    POSSIBILITIES OF ERROR. 287

    The first is the enormous averages of 850, 705, and 071 inhabitants on a square mile, severally apportioned to Kiangsu, Xganliwui, and Cliehkiang, or, what is perhaps a fairer calculation, of 458 persons to the nine eastern provinces. Whatever amount of circumstantial evidence may be brought forward in confirmation of the census as a whole, and explanation of the mode of taking it, a more positive proof seems to be necessary before giving implicit credence to this result. Such a population on such an extensive area is marvellous, notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, facilities of navigation, and salubrity of the

    climate of these regions, although acknowledged to be almost

    unequalled. While we admit the full force of all that has been

    urged in support of the census, and are willing to take it as the

    best document on the subject extant, it is desirable to have

    proofs derived from personal observation, and to defer the settlement

    of this question until better opportunities are afforded.

    So high an average is, indeed, not without example. Captain

    Wilkes ascertained, in 1840, that one of the islands of the Fiji

    group supported a population of over a thousand on a square

    mile. On Lord North’s Island, in the Pelew group, the crew

    of the American whaler Mentor ascertained there were four

    hundred inhabitants living on half a square mile. These, and

    many other islands in that genial clime, contain a population

    far exceeding that of any large country, and each separate community

    is obliged to depend M’holly on its own labor. They

    cannot, however, be cited as altogether parallel cases, though if

    it be true, as Barrow says, ” that an acre of cotton will clothe

    two or three hundred persons,” not much more land need be

    occupied with cotton or mulberry plants, for clothing in China,

    than in the South Sea Islands.

    The second objection against receiving the result of the census

    is, that we are not well informed as to the mode of enumerating

    the people by families, and the manner of taking the account,

    when the patriarch of two or three generations lives in

    a hamlet, with all his children and domestics around him. Two

    of the provisions in Sec. XXY. of the Code^ seem to be designed

    for some such state of society ; and the liability to underrate

    the males fit for public service, when a capitation tax was

    ordered, and to overrate the inmates of such a house, when the head of it might suppose he would thereby receive increased aid from government when calamity overtook him, are equally apparent.

    The door-tablet is also liable to mistake, and in shops and workhouses, where the clerks and workmen live and sleep on the premises, it is not known what kind of report of families the assessors make. On these important points our present information is imperfect, while the evident liability to serious error in the ultimate results makes one hesitate. The Chinese may have taken a census satisfactory’ for their purposes, showing

    the number of families, and the a^•erage in each ; but the point

    of this objection is, that ^ve do not know how the families aie

    enumerated, and therefore are at fault in reckoning the individuals.

    The average of persons in a household is set down at five

    by the Chinese, and in England, in 1831, *t was 4.7, but it is

    probably less than that in a thickly settled country, if every

    married couple and their children be taken as a family, whether

    living by themselves, or grouped in patriarchal hamlets.

    Ko one doubts that the population is enormous, constituting

    by far the greatest assemblage of human beings using one speech

    ever congreo ated under one monarch. To the merchants and

    manufacturers of the West, the determination of this question

    is of some importance, and through them to their governments.

    The political economist and philologist, the naturalist and geographer,

    have also greater or less degrees of interest in the

    contemplation of such a people, iiduibiting so beautiful and feitile

    a country. But the Christian philanthropist tui-ns to the

    consideration of this subject with the liveliest solicitude ; for if

    the weight of evidence is in favor of the highest estimate, he

    feels his responsibility increase to a painful degree. The danger

    to this people is furthermore greatly enhanced by the 0})ium

    traffic—a trade which, as if the Rivers Phlegethon and Lethe

    were united in it, carries fire and destruction wherever it flows,

    and leaves a deadly forgetfulness wherever it has passed. Let

    these facts appeal to all calling themselves Christians, to send

    the antidote to this baleful drug, and diffuse a knowledge of the

    principles of the Gospel among them, thereby placing life as

    well as death before them.

    REVENUE OF THE EMPIRE. 289

    If the population of the Empire is not easily ascertained, a satisfactory account of the public revenue and expenditures is still more difficult to obtain ; it possesses far less interest, of course, in itself, and in such a country as China is subject to many variations. The market value of the grain, silk, and other products in which a large proportion of the taxes are paid, varies from year to year; and although this does not materially affect the government which receives these articles, it complicates the subject very much when attempting to ascertain the real taxation. Statistics on these subjects are only of recent date in Europe, and should not yet be looked for in China, drawn up with much regard to truth. The central government requires each province to support itself, and furnish a certain surplusage for the maintenance of the Emperor and his court; but it is well known that his Majesty is continually embarrassed for the want of funds, and that the provinces do not all supply enough revenue to meet their own outlays.

    The amounts given by various authors as the revenue of

    China at different times, are so discordant, that a single glance

    shows that they were obtained from partial or incomplete returns,

    or else refer only to the surplusage sent to the capital.

    De Guignes remarks very truly, that the Chinese are so fully persuaded of the riches, power, and resources of their country, that a foreigner is likely to receive different accounts from every

    native he asks ; but there appears to be no good reason why the

    government should falsify or abridge their fiscal accounts. In

    1587, Trigault, one of the French missionaries, stated the revenue

    at only tls. 20,000,000. In 1655, Xieuhoff reckoned it at

    tls. 108,000,000. About twelve years after, Magalhaens gave

    the treasures of the Emperor at $20,423,962 ; and Le Comte,

    about the same time, placed the revenue at $22,000,000, and

    both of them estimated the receipts from rice, silk, etc., at

    $30,000,000, making the whole revenue previous to Kanghi’s

    death, in 1721, between fifty and seventy millions of dollars.

    Barrow reckoned the receipts from all sources in 1796 at

    tls. 198,000,000, derived from a rough estimate given by the

    commissioner who accompanied the embassy. Sir George

    Staunton places the total sum at $330,000,000 ; of which

    $60,000,000 only were transmitted to Peking. Medhurst,

    Vol. T.—19.

    drawing his iiiforuiation from original sources, thus states the

    principal items of the receipts :

    Land taxes in money,)

    ( Tie. 3I,745,9()6 valued at $42,327,954

    Land taxes in grain, }- sent to Peking, ^ Shih 4,2:30,’.)57 ” 12,692,871

    Custom and transit duties, ) ( Tls. 1,480,997 ” 1,974,662

    Land taxes in money, l kent in Drovinces ‘ ”^^«- 28,705,125 ” 38,373,500

    Grain, ( ^^P’^^P’^*”‘^””®^

    1 Shih 31,596,569 ” 105,689,707

    $200,958,694

    The shih of rice is estimated at $3, but this does not include

    the cost of transportation to the capital.’ At $200,000,-

    000, the tax received by government from each person on an

    average is about sixty cents ; Barrow estimates the capitation

    at about ninety cents. The account of the revenue in taels

    from each province given in the table of population on page

    264, is extracted from the Hed Mooh for 18-40 ; ” the account

    of the revenue in rice, as stated in the official documents

    for that year, is 4,114,000 shih, or about five hundred and

    fifty millions of pounds, calling each shUi a pecul. The

    manner in wdiich the various items of the revenue are divided

    is thus stated for Kwangtung, in the Ited Booh for 1842 :

    Taels.

    Land tax in money 1,264,304

    Pawnl)rokers’ taxes 5,990

    Taxes at the frontier and on transportation 719,307

    Retained 339,143

    Miscellaneous sources 59,530

    Salt department (gabel) 47,510

    Revenue from customs <at Canton 43,750

    Other stations iu the province 53,670

    2,533,204

    This is evidently only the sum sent to the capital from this

    province, ostensibly as the revenue, and which the provincial

    treasury must collect. The real receipts from this province or

    any other cannot well be ascertained by foreigners ; it is, however,

    known, that in former years, the collector of customs at

    Canton was obliged to remit annually from eight hundred

    thousand to one million three hundred thousand taels, and

    ‘ The fihih, says Medhurst, is a measure of grain containing 3,460 English

    cubic inches. China : Its State and Prospects, p. 68. London, 1838.

    * Aiinalea de la Foi, Tome XVI., p. 440.

    SOURCES AND AMOUNT OF REVENUE. 291

    the gross receipts of bis office were not far from three millions

    of taels.’ This was then the richest collectorate in the

    Empire ; hut since the foreign trade at the open ports has been

    placed under foreign supervision, the resoui’ces of the Empire

    have been better reported. A recent analysis of the sources of

    revenue in the Eighteen Provinces has been furnished by the

    eustoms service ; it places them under different headings from

    the preceding list, though the total does not materially differ.

    Out of this whole amount the sum derived from the trade in

    foreign shipping goes most directly to the central exchequer.

    Taels.

    Land tax in money 18,000,000

    Li-kin or internal excise on goods 20,000,000

    Import and export duties collected by foreigners 12,000,000

    Import and export duties on native commerce 3,000,000

    Salt gabel 5,000,000

    Sales of offices and degrees 7,000,000

    Sundries „ 1,400,000

    Amount paid in silver 66,400,000

    Land tax paid in produce 13,100,000

    79,500,000

    De Guignes has examined the subject of the revenue with

    his usual caution, and bases his calculations on a proclamation

    of Kienlung in 1777, in which it was stated that the total income

    in bullion at that period was tls. 27,967,000.

    Taels.

    Income in money as above 27,967,000

    Equal revenue in kind from grain 27,967,000

    Tax on the second crop in the southern provinces 21 ,800,000

    Gabel, coal, transit duties, etc 6,479,400

    Customs at Canton. .’. 800,000

    Revenue from silk, porcelain, varnish, and other manufactures.. 7,000,000

    Adding house and shop taxes, licenses, tonnage duties, etc 4,000,000

    Total revenue 89,713,400

    The difference of about eighty millions of dollars between

    this amount and that given by Medhurst, will not surprise one

    who has looked into this perplexing matter. All these calculations

    are based on approximations, which, although easily made

    ‘ Chinese Commercial Guide, 2d edition, 1842, p. 143.

    up, cannot be verified to onr satisfaction ; but all agree in placing

    the total amount of revenue below that of any European

    government in proportion to the population. In 1823, a paper

    M-as published by a graduate uj^on the fiscal condition of the

    country, in which he gave a careful analysis of the receij)ts and

    disbursements. P. P. Thoms translated it in detail, and summarized

    the former under three heads of taxes reckoned at

    tls. 33,327,056, rice sent to Peking 0,34(5,438, and supplies to

    army 7,227,300—in all tls. 46,900,854. Out of the first snni

    tls. 24,507,933 went to civilians and the army, leaving tls. 5,819,-

    123 for the Peking government, and tls. 3,000,000 for the Yellow

    Piver repairs and Yuen-ming Palace. The resources of the

    Empire this writer foots up at tls. 74,461,633, or just one-half

    of what Medhurst gives. The extraordinary sources of revenue

    which are resorted to in time of war or bad harvests, are sale of

    oflSce and honors, temporary increase of duties, and demands

    for contributions from wealthy merchants and landholders. The first is the most fruitful source, and nniy be regarded rather as a permanent than a temporary expediency employed to make

    up deficiencies. The mines of gold and silver, pearl fisheries in

    Manchuria and elsewhere, precious stones brought from 111 and

    Ivhoten, and other localities, furnish several millions.

    The expenditures, almost every year, exceed the revenue, but

    how the deficit is supplied does not clearly appear ; it has been sometimes drawn from the rich by force, at other times made good by paltering with the currency, as in 1852-55, and again by reducing rations and salaries. In 1832, the Emperor said the excess of disbursements was tls. 28,000,000 ;

    ‘ and, in 1836, the defalcation was still greater, and oflfices and titles to the amount of tls. 10,000,000 were put up for sale to supply it.

    This deficiency has become more and more alarming since the drain of specie annually sent abroad in payment for opium has been increased by military exactions for suppressing the lebellion up to 1867. At that date the Empire began to recuperate.

    ‘ Chinese Rejiositorij, Vol. I., p. 159.

    PRINCIPAL ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE. 293

    The principal items of the expenditure are thus stated by De Guignes:

    Taels,

    Salary of civil and military officers, a tithe of the impost on lands. 7,773,500

    Pay of 00(),()U0 infantry, three taels per month, half in money and

    half in rations •21,G00,()()&

    Pay of 242,000 cavalry, at four taels jjer month 11,010,000

    Mounting the cavalry, twenty taels each 4,840,000

    Uniforms for both arms of the service, four taels 3,308,000

    Arms and ammunition 842,000

    Navy, revenue cutters, etc 13,500,000

    Canals and transportation of revenue 4,000,000

    Forts, artillery, and munitions of war 3,800,000

    71,339,500

    This, according to his calculation, shows a surplus of nearly twenty millions of taels every year. But the outlays for quelling insurrections and transporting troops, deficiency from bad harvests, defalcation of officers, payments to the tribes and princes in Mongolia and 111, and other unitsual demands, more than exceed Ihis surplus. In 1833, the Peking Gazette contained an elaborate paper on the revenue, proposing various ways and means for increasing it. The author, named Xa, says

    the income from land tax, the gabel, customs and transit duty,

    does not in all exceed forty millions of taels, while the expenditures

    should not much transcend thirty in years of peace.* This

    places the budget much lower than other authorities, but the

    censor perhaps includes only the imperial resources, though the

    estimate would then be too high. The pay and equipment of

    the troops is the largest item of expenditure, and it is probable

    that here the apparent force and pay are far too great, and that

    reductions are constantly made in this department by compelling

    the soldiers to depend more and more for support upon

    the plats of land belonging to them. It is considered the best

    evidence of good government on the part of an officer to render

    his account of the revenue satisfactorily, but from the injudicious

    system which exists of combining fiscal, legislative, and

    judicial functions and control in the same person, the temptations

    to defraud are strong, and the pecuhitions proportionabl}’ great.

    The salaries of officers, for some reasons, are placed so low as

    ‘ Chinese Repository, Vol. II., p. 481.

    to prove that the legal allowances were really the nominal incomes,

    and the sums set against their names in the lied Book

    as y<-ing tlen, or anti-extortion perquisites (lit., ‘ nourishing

    frugality ‘), are the salaries.. That of a governor-general is

    from 15,000 to 25,000 taels for the latter, and only ISO or 200

    taels for the legal salary ; a governor gets 15,0UO when he is

    alone, and 10,000 or 12,000 when under a governor-general ; a

    treasurer from 4,500 to 10,000 ; a judge from 3,000 to 8,000 ;

    a prefect from 2,0(»0 to 4,5U0 ; district nuigistrates from 700 to 1,000, according to the onerousness of the post ; an intendant from 3,000 to 4,500 ; a literary chancellor from 2,000 to 5,000 ; and military men from 4,0(»0 taels down to 100 or 150 per annum. The perquisites of the highest and lowest officers are disproportionate, for the people prefer to lay their important cases before the highest courts at once, in order to avoid the expense of passing through those of a lower grade. The personal disposition of the functionary modifies the exactions lie makes upon the people so much, that no guess can be made as to the amount.

    The land tax is the principal resource for the revenue in rural districts, and this is well understood by all parties, so that there is less room for exactions. The land tax is from 1^ to 10 cents a inao (or from 10 to QQ cents an acre), according to the quality of the land, and difficulty of tillage ; taking the average at 25 cents an acre, the income from this source would be up- M^ard of 150 millions of dollars. The clerks, constables, lictors, and underlings of the courts ..ud prisons, are the “claws” of their superiors, as the Chinese aptly call them, and perform most of their extortions, and are correspondingly odious to the people. In toM’ns and trading places, it is easier for the officers to exact in various Avays from wealthy people, than in the country, where rich people often hire bodies of retainers to defy the police, and practise extortion and i-obbery themselves. Like other Asiatic governments, China suffers from the consequences of Ijribery, peculation, extortion, and poorly paid officers, but she has no powerful aristocracy to retain the money thus squeezed out of the people, and ere long it finds its way out of the hands of emperors and ministei’S back into the mass of the people, officers’ salaries and the land-tax. 295

    The Chinese believe, however, that the Emperor annually remits such amounts as he is able to collect into Mukden, in time of extremity ; but latterly he has not been able to do so at all, and probably never sent as much to that city as the popular ideas imagine. The sum applied to filling the granaries is much larger, but this popular provision in case of need is really a light draft upon the resources of the country, as it is usually managed. In Canton, there are onh fourteen buildings appropriated to this purpose, few of them more than thirty feet square, and none of them full.

  • 亨利·梅因《古代法》

    目录

    导 言
    第 一 章   古 代 法 典
    第 二 章   法 律 拟 制
    第 三 章   自 然 法 与 衡 平
    第 四 章   自 然 法 的 现 代 史
    第 五 章   原 始 社 会 与 古 代 法
    第 六 章   遗 嘱 继 承 的 早 期 史
    第 七 章   古 今 有 关 遗 嘱 与 继 承 的 各 种 思 想
    第 八 章   财 产 的 早 期 史
    第 九 章   契 约 的 早 期 史
    第 十 章   侵 权 和 犯 罪 的 早 期 史

    本书的 主 要 目 的 , 在 扼 要 地 说 明 反 映 于 “ 古 代 法 ” 中 的人 类 最 早 的 某 些 观 念 , 并 指 出 这 些 观 念 同 现 代 思 想 的 关 系 。 如果 没 有 像 罗 马 法 那 样 的 一 套 法 律 , 本 文 中 企 图 进 行 的 研 究 , 多数 将 不 能 有 丝 毫 希 望 达 到 有 用 的 结 果 。 因 为 在 罗 马 法 的 最 古部 分 中 , 有 着 最 久 远 的 古 代 事 物 的 痕 迹 , 而 在 其 后 期 规 定 中 ,又 提 供 了 甚 至 到 现 在 还 支 配 着 现 代 社 会 的 民 事 制 度 资 料 。 由于 必 须 把 罗 马 法 当 作 一 个 典 型 的 制 度 , 这 使 著 者 不 得 不 从 其中 采 取 了 数 目 似 不 相 称 的 例 证 ; 但 他 的 本 意 并 非 在 写 一 篇 关于 罗 马 法 律 学 的 论 文 , 他 并 且 尽 可 能 竭 力 避 免 足以 使 其 作 品具 有 这 样 的 外 貌 的 一 切 论 述 。 第 三 和 第 四 章以 一 定 篇 幅 用 来说 明 罗 马 法 学 专 家 的 某 些 哲 学 理 论 , 这 样 做 , 有 两 个 理 由 。 第一 , 著 者 认 为 这 些 理 论 对 世 界 的 思 想 和 行 为 , 比 一 般 所 设 想的 有 较 为 广 泛 、 永 久 的 影 响 。 其 次 , 这 些 理 论 被 深 信 为 是 有关 本 书 所 讨 论 的 各 个 问 题 直 到 最 近 还 流 行 着 的 大 多 数 见 解 的根 源 。 对 于 这 些 纯 理 论 的 渊 源 、 意 义 与 价 值 , 著 者 如 不 说 明其 意 见 , 则 其 所 承 担 的 工 作 , 将 不 能 做 得 深 入 透 澈 。 ——亨利·梅因

    导言

    有 关 法 律 的书 籍 , 不 论 是 古 代 法 或 现 代 法 , 并 不 常 常 能吸 引 很 多 的读 者 ; 但 十 八 世 纪 和 十 九 世 纪 分 别 产 生 了 一 本 著名 的 法律 书 籍 ,对 当 代 的 和 以 后 的 思 想 发 展 方 向 , 有 着 深 远的影 响 。 孟德 斯 鸠的 “ 论 法 的 精 神 ”是 法 国 十 八 世 纪 最 杰 出 的作 品 之一 , 它 标 志 着 历 史 法 律 学 上 的 一 个 重 要 阶 段 , 虽然 具 有梅 因 在 “ 古 代 法 ” ( 第 五 章 ) 中 所 评 论 的 某 些 偏 颇之 处 。“ 古 代 法 ” 在 十 九 世 纪 执 行 了 甚 至 更 为 重 大 的 职 能; 真 的, 就 英 国 而 论 , 如 果 说 现代 历 史 法 律 学 是 随 着 这本 书 的出 现 而 出 生 的 , 也 不 能 谓 言 之过 甚。

    虽 然 在 梅 因 的 卓 越 的 文 体 中 所 表 达 的 , 有 一 些 也 不 能 认为 是 普 通 的 东 西 , 但 “ 古 代 法 ” 中 有 相 当 部 分 , 在 过 去 七 十年 中 , 几 乎 是 学 习 法 律 制 度 的 学 生 所 不 可 或 缺 的 。 为 了 要 能体 现 它 在 当 时 是 怎 样 一 个 独 具 见 解 的 作 品 , 我 们 有 必 要 来 回顾 一 下 当 时 流 行 着 的 一 些 智 力 状 态 。

    1758年 时 作 为 第 一 个 佛 尼 林 派( V i n e r i a n)教授的 布 拉 克 斯 顿 ( B l a c k s t o n e ) 进 行 了 未 有 先 例 的 试 验 , 他在 牛 津 大 学 讲 授 英 国 法 律 。 当 时 , 他 不 得 不 用 法 律 研 究 是 一个 有 教 养 绅 士 的 一 种 适 宜 的 职 业 , 来 说 服 他 的 听 众 ; 虽 然 甚至 他 自 己 或 许 也 不 会 相 信 这 是 像 猎 狐 一 样 一 种 非 常 绅 士 般 的职 业 。 七 十 年 以 后 , 约 翰 · 奥 斯 丁 ( J o h n   A u s t i n ) 在 伦 敦 大学 以 法 律 学 的 吸 引 力 与 实 利 向 其 听 众 吹 嘘 ( 结 果 收 效 很 少 ) ,同 时 却 坦 白 地 承 认 有 许 多 心 地 宽 厚 的 人 们 不 愿 研 习 法 律,主要 是 由 于 它 所 来 自 的 渊 源 , 其 性 质 “ 令 人 可 厌 ” 。 有 一 次,他这 样 写 道 , “ 我 胆 敢 断 言 , 在 一 个 文 明 社 会 中 , 没 有 一 套 法 律会 像 我 们 的 那 样 缺 乏 一 致 性 和 均 称 性 ” 。 除 了 海 尔 ( H a l e ) 和布 拉 克 斯 顿 外 , 没 有 人 曾 把 它 作 过 有 系 统 的 阐 明 。 过 去 , 法律 是 根 据 有 试 验 必 有 错 误 的 原 则 学 习 的 , 现 在 还 活 着 的 一 些老 法 学 家 可 以 记 得 那 样 一 个 时 期 , 用 一 个 著 名 的 美 国 老法官— — 荷 姆 斯 法 官 先 生 ( M r . j u s t i c e   h o l m e s ) — — 的 话 来 描写 , 法 律 只 是 一 麻 袋 的 琐 细 东 西 ; 真 的 , 在 某 些 开 业 律 师 中,赞 成 用 这 种 纯 粹 实 验 的 、 听 天 由 命 的 方 法 来 精 通 法 律 的 偏 见,甚 至 到 今 天 忘 没 有 完 全 消 除 。

    至 于 英 国 的 法 律 史 , 不 仅 被 忽 视 了 , 简 直 是 被 蔑 视 了 。 例如 , 边沁竟 然 建 议 — — 除 了 作 为 批 判 之 外 — — 完全 不 顾 所 有 的 先 例 而 把 英 国 法 律 全 部 重 新 写 过 : 对 于 他 , 甚至 其 最 卓 越 的 学 生 约 翰 · 斯 图 亚 特 · 密 尔也 不 得 不 说 , “ 他 宁 愿 完 全 不 顾 过 去 的 全 部 成 就 , 而 重新 从 头 写 起 ” 。 如 果 对 于 英 国 法 律 史 的 态 度 是 这 样 , 那 就 可 以想 象 到 , 对 于 外 国 制 度 或 对 于 今 昔 法 律 现 象 的 比 较 研 究 , 又将 会 有 怎 样 轻 蔑 的 感 情 了 。这 种 褊 狭 的 心 情 , 在 对 待 罗 马 法 上 , 特 别 显 而 易 见 。1816年 尼 布 尔 ( N i e b u b r ) 在 维 罗 纳 ( V e r o n a ) 发 掘 到 该 雅 士( G a i u s ) “ 法 学 教 典 ” ( I n s t i t u t e s ) 的 手 稿 — — 这 当 然 是 学 术史 上 最 著 名 的 发 现 之 一 : 因 为 这 篇 论 文 不 仅 是 我 们 对 于 古 代罗 马 法 律 甚 至 是 我 们 对 于 雅 利 安 ( A r y a n ) 法 律 一 些 最 有 启 发 性 的 方 面 的 唯 一 知 识 来 源 , 并 且 在 它 写 成 四 百 年 后 的 一 部 不朽 杰 作 查 斯 丁 尼 安 ( J u s t i n i a n ) 的 “ 法 学 阶 梯 ” ( I n s t i t u t e s ) 曾根 据 其 中 极 大 部 分 作 为 编 纂 的 范 本 。 英 国 对 这 样 的 重 大 事 件漠 不 关 心 。 在 本 书 第 九 章 中 , 可 以 看 到 梅 因 痛 切 地 — — 最 终是 有 效 地 — — 抗 议 “ 对 罗 马 法 的 无 知 , 这 是 英 国 人 欣 然 承 认 ,且 有 时 不 以 为 耻 地 引 以自夸的 ” 。

    但 是 , 对 于 过 去 法 律 制 度 和 政 治 制 度 中 可 以 确 定 的 事 实,不 愿 加 以 探 究 的 情 况 , 不 独 英 国 如 此 。 全 欧 洲 有 许 多关 于 政治 社 会 、 自 然 法 以 及 “ 自 然 状 态 ” 的 起 源 的 假 说 , 这 些 假 设,从 现 代 观 点 看 来 , 似 乎 是 很 可 笑 , 并 且 一 点 也 不 像 历 史 上 的事 实 , 以 致 在 今 日 , 我 们 竟 难 于 理 解 他 们 怎 样 会 这 样 强有力地 深 入 当 时 人 们 的 想 像 的 。 我 们 必 须 耐 心 地 、 宽 容 地、并 且也 许 谦 逊 地 ( 否 则 将 来 我 们 自 己 的 信 念 也 将 同 样 地 成 为 毫 无根 据 ) 牢 记 着 梅 因 所 说 的 “ 推 理 的 错 误 的 非 常 活 力 ” 。 这 使 我们 记 起 赫 伯 特 · 斯 宾 塞的 意 见 , 即 “ 一种 思 想 体 系 在 自 杀 以 后 , 有 可 能 精 神 焕 发 地 到 处 流 行 ” 。 十 八世 纪 中 流 行 着 的 关 于 政 治 起 源 的 各 种 观 念 , 在 卢 梭的 奇 怪 的 假 定 中 达 到 了 极 点 , 并 且 直 到 十 九 世 纪中 叶 即 使 已 濒 于 死 亡 , 却 仍 活 着 、 呼 吸 着 , 但 如 果 说 这 些 观念 在 过 去 二 千 年 的 长 时 期 中 实 在 一 无 进 步 , 那 是 不 能 说 是 言之 过 甚 的 。 关 于 社 会 人 的 性 质 , 同 这 些 虚 说 讽 喻 同 时 流 行 的 ,另 外 有 一 种 广 泛 传 布 的 信 念 , 认 为 政 治 历 史 是 一 些 退 化 的 而不 是 发 展 的 故 事 , 认 为 人 类 及 其 大 部 分 的 制 度 已 从 一 个 神 秘地 遥 远 的 时 代 的 较 为 幸 福 的 状 况 中 趋 向 衰 颓 。 因 此 , 既 然 恢复 原 始 的 天 真 状 态 已 不 可 能 , 则 我 们 为 民 族 所 能 做 的 最 好 的工 作 就 是 珍 惜 地 保 存 事 物 的 现 存 秩 序 , 至 少 要 阻 止 它 进 一 步堕 落 。

    由 于 对 历 史 的 藐 视 , 幸 而 它 是 同 比 较 体 面 的 动 机 相 结 合着 的 — — 一 种 动 机 是 对 于 这 种 卓 越 的 自 然 法 的 正 当 反 应 , 另一 种 动 机 是 要 对 法 律 概 念 的 实 质 进 行 有 系 统 分 析 的 一 种 非 常及 时 的 愿 望 — — , 就 在 英 国 产 生 了 另 一 种 法 律 理 论 , 这 主 要同 霍 布 斯和 奥 斯 丁 有 关 , 但 和 边 沁 也 不 无 关 系 。 这种 理 论 , 我 们 为 了 便 利 称 它 为 法 律 与 主 权 的 命 令 说 。 它 认 为 法 律最突出的 是 一 个 在 法 律 上 有 无 限 权 力 的 主 权 者 或 “ 政 治领 袖 ” 对 一 个 臣 民 或 “ 政 治 下 属 ” 所 颁 发 的 不 可 抗 拒 的 命令 ,后 者 既 被 假 定 为 具 有 服 从 的 习 惯 , 就 有 绝 对 服 从 的 义 务。对于自 然 法 或 理 想 法 中 模 糊 的 赏 罚 观 念 发 生 着 怀 疑 , 并 且 是 正当 地 怀 疑 , 它 就 集 中 其 全 部 注 意 力 于 现 实 法 的 强 制 性 质 , 至于 它 在 历 史 上 或 伦 理 上 的 各 种 要 素 , 则 坚 决 不 加 考 虑 。这 种理 论 虽 然 在 其 他 地 方 很 少 受 到 注 意 , 但 在 英 国 直 到 现 在仍 旧常 常 被 讨 论 到 ; 不 过 至 少 有 一 种 意 见 是 大 家 一 致 同 意 的, 即它 既 然 从 法 律 学 的 领 域 中 排 斥 了 历 史 考 虑 , 就 使 它 陷入了一 种 根 本 的 谬 误 , 即 把 一 切 法 律 制 度 都 认 为 是 以 西 欧 的 君 主国 家 作 为 典 型 的 。

    对 于 这 些 倾 向 , 不 是 没 有 阻 力 的 , 这 些 阻 力 就 存 在 于 梅因 的 作 品 中 。 德 国 有 一 个冯·萨维尼,他是历 来 最 著 名 的 法 学 家 之 一 , 他 在 十 九 世 纪 初 期 曾 对 十 八 世 纪非 历 史 的 思 想 习 惯 加 以 激 烈 的 攻 击 。 虽 然 他 对 于 国 家 法 律 与习 惯 并 没 有 真 正 找 到 一 种 科 学 的 历 史 的 研 究 方 法 , 但 他 提 供了 向 这 个 方 向 努 力 的 主 要 推 动 力 量 ; 他 从 事 于 法 律 学 研 究 的精 神 , 辉 煌 地 表 达 在 他 自 己 的 研 究 中 , 此 种 精 神 在 以 后 就 从来 没 有 被 人 们 舍 弃 过 , 虽 然 其 中 有 些 夸 张 之 处 , 随 着 时 间 的变 迁 已 有 所 变 更 。 他 在 英 国 很 少 直 接 影 响 , 就 是 曾 在 德 国 求学 的 奥 斯 丁 , 也 常 常 反 对 他 所 提 出 的 结 论 , 并 且 我 认 为 虽 然没 有 很 多 证 据 , 足 以 证 明 梅 因 非 常 熟 悉 丰 · 萨 维 尼 及 其 门 徒的 著 作 , 但 他 是 深 知 他 们 的 观 点 的 一 般 要 旨 的 , 并 且 无 疑 地在 实 质 上 是 同 意 这 种 观 点 的 。 梅 因 可 能 从 洛 多 尔 夫 · 丰 · 伊叶 林  在1858年 出 版 的 巨 著 “ 罗 马 法 精 神 ”受 到 更 加 直 接 的 影 响 。 伊 叶 林 在 几 个 重 要 问 题 方 面 , 与 萨 维 尼 的 观 点 不 同 , 但 他 肯 定 地 主 张 把 历 史 方 法 用 于 法 律 学 中 。 他 也 对 罗 马 法 的 研究 带 来 了 一 种 新 的 和 活 泼 的 精 神 , 与 长 期 在 德 国 压 制 着 罗 马法 的 无 生 气 的 经 院 哲 学 派 不 同 ; 有 许 多 证 据 足 以 表 明 这 对 于梅 因 是 一 种 真 正 的 刺 激 , 正 像 吉 朋对 伊 叶 林 同 样 是 一 种 刺 激 一 样 。
    “ 古 代 法 ” 出 现 的 时 期 , 也 是 人 类 思 想 史 上 有 最 深 远 影 响 的 事 件 之 一 , 即 达 尔 文自 然 选 择 原 则 形 成 的 时 期 。
    “ 物 种 起 源 ”发 表 于 “ 古 代 法 ” 出 版 前 两 年 。 在 梅 因 的 主 要 著 作 中 , 据 我 所 知 , 只 有 一 处 直 接提 到 了 达 尔 文 ; 在 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” 第 七 章 中 , 他 认 为 达 尔 文 从 自 然 科 学 上 提 供 了 有 利于 父 权 制 理 论 的 证 据 。 究 竟 梅 因 是 否 接 受 进 化 论 的 理 论包 括其 全 部 含 意 在 内 , 这 是 本 文 作 者 所 不 了 解 的 , 但 梅 因 在历 史法 律 学 方 面 的 著 作 自 然 地 同 十 九 世 纪 中 叶 广 为 传 布 的 新 的 研究 精 神 平 列 在 一 起 , 则 是 没 有 疑 问 的 。
    关 于 这 种 “ 新 学 问 ” , 就 其 对 法 律 的 影 响 而 论 , 梅 因 的 全部 著 作 可 以 被 认 为 是 一 种 有 生 气 的 表 现 。 他 对 那 些 不 科 学的缺 乏 批 判 的 , 被 野 蛮 地 但 简 略 地 称 为 “ 先 天 主 义 ” 的 那 种很盛 行 的 思 想 习 惯 , 从 不 放 松 加 以 反 对 。 他 在 “ 古 代 法 制 史 ”( 第 十 二 讲 ) 中 写 道 ,“ 为 英 国 法 学 家 一 般 接 受 的 各 种 历 史 理 论 , 不 但 对 于 法 律 的 研究 有 很 大 的 损 害 , 即 使 对 历 史 的 研 究 也 是 如 此 , 因 此 , 当 前英 国 学 术 上 最 迫 切 需 要 增 益 的 , 也 许 是 新 材 料 的 审 查 , 旧材料 的 再 度 审 查 , 并 在 这 基 础 上 把 我 们 法 律 制 度 的 来 源 及 其 发展 , 加 以 阐 明 。 ” 对 英 国 法 律 应 该 这 样 , 对 其 他 一 般 法 律 也 同样 应 该 这 样 。 在 “ 古 代 法 ” 中 , 梅 因 对 当 时 流 行 的 政 治 纯 理论 中 最 为 旁 若 无 人 的 、 根 深 蒂 固 的 某 种 “ 先 天 主 义 ” 给 以第一 次 的 攻 击 ( 这 在 他 以 后 的 著 作 中 , 常 被 重 复 地 进 行 着)。例如 , 在 第 四 章 中 的 “ ‘ 自 然 平 等 ’ 的 教 条 ” , 第 五 章 中 的 “ 幻想 的 ‘ 自 然 状 态 ’ ” , 第 八 章 中 的 “ 认 为 财 产 起 源 于 单 独 的个人 对 物 质 财 富 的 ‘ 占 有 ’ 这 毫 无 根 据 的 观 点 ” , 第 九 章 中 的“ 社 会 契 约 的 梦 呓 ” , 没 有 一 个 人 曾 像 他 那 样 恶 毒 地 辱 骂这 些一 度 声 势 极 盛 的 说 教 的 严 重 错 误 。 他 说 : 这 些 有 关 “ 世界最古 年 代 人 类 情 况 的 描 写 受 到 这 两 种 假 设 的 影 响 , 首 先 是假定人 类 并 不 具 有 今 天 围 绕 者 他 们 的 大 部 分 环 境 , 其 次 ,是假定在 这 样 想 像 的 条 件 下 他 们 会 保 存 现 在 刺 激 他 们 进 行 活 动的同样 的 情 绪 和 偏 见 ” 。 至 少 对 于 英 国 , 梅 因 可 以 说 是 已 经改变了“自然” 的 面 貌 。

    这 种 智 力 状 态 使 梅 因 完 全 不 可 能 接 受 霍 布 斯 与 奥 斯 丁 的主 权 命 令 说 , 把 它 视 为 是 一 切 法 律 的 起 源 和 性 质 的 特 征 。 这 是 在 “ 古 代 法 ” 最 初 的 篇 幅 中 就 加 以 说 明 的 ; 并 且 他 在 十 四 年 后 出 版 的 “ 古 代 法 制 史 ” 最 后 两 讲 中 更 深 入 地 加 以 发 挥 。 奇 怪 的 是 , 梅 因 虽 然 是 奥 斯 丁 最 严 格 的 批 评 者 之 一 , 但 他 把 奥 斯 丁 在 法 律 分 析 上 所 作 努 力 的 真 正 成 绩 推 荐 给 英 国 法 学 家 , 则 有 甚 于 任 何 人 。 奥 斯 丁 在 1 8 2 8 年 所 作 的 演 讲 , 除 了 培 养 人才 补 足 审 判 席 缺 额 以 外 , 似 乎 很 少 成 就 ; 他 的 演 讲 集 在 1 8 32年 出 版 时 , 依 旧 毫 无 影 响 ; 只 是 通 过 了 梅 因 的 各 种 著 作 和 他在 1 8 5 2 年 对 法 学 院 所 作 的 演 讲 才 把 这 一 热 诚 的 、 太 过 热 诚 的真 理 追 求 者 所 作 耐 性 的 但 落 空 的 努 力 , 从 湮 没 中 援 救 出 来 。 但是 , 虽 然 他 对 奥 斯 丁 的 分 析 天 才 比 以 后 许 多 争 论 者 给 予 更 多的 赞 誉 , 但 他 对 于 把 法 律 视 作 为 命 令 , 并 且 只 是 命 令 这 一个论 点 , 却 无 疑 地 论 证 了 它 的 缺 点 。

    我 在 前 面 已 经 提 到 梅 因 对 于 英 国 人 对 罗 马 法 的 “ 极 端 无知 ” , 提 出 了 非 难 。 1847年 , 他 接 受 了 剑 桥 大 学 民 法 学 钦 定 讲座 的 教 授 职 位 , 因 为 这 个 任 命 , 使 他 得 以 专 心 研 究 古 代 法 而获 益 不 少 。 在 关 于 罗 马 遗 嘱 ( 第 六 章 ) 、 法 律 诉 讼 ( 第十 章 )、家 父 权 ( 第 五 章 ) 以 及 罗 马 契 约 分 类 ( 第 八 章 ) 等 这 些 辉 煌的 纲 要 中 , 包 含 着 许 多 新 奇 的 东 西 , 这 些 东 西 现 在 虽 已毫 不新 奇 , 但 在 1 8 6 1 年 它 们 都 是 很 新 奇 的 ; 我 们 必 须 指 出 其 中 也有 许 多 到 现 在 已 成 为 有 疑 问 的 了 , 但 是 , 对 于 并 不 熟 悉专 门的 罗 马 法 的 读 者 , 还 不 能 在 英 文 中 找 到 一 本 书 , 能 对 那伟 大法 制 中 某 些 独 特 的 制 度 , “ 像 古 代 法 ” 这 样 提 供 生 气 勃 勃 的说明 , 并 且 就 罗 马 法 对 于 欧 洲 人 生 活 上 和 思 想 上 几 乎 每 一 个 部门 所 发 生 的 巨 大 影 响 , 现 在 当 然 还 找 不 到 比 第 九 章 中 所 作 的更 好 的 、 更 有 说 服 力 的 描 写 。 还 不 很 熟 悉 这 一 切 的 读 者 , 可以 从 吉 朋 所 著 “ 罗 马 帝 国 衰 亡 史 ” 这 一 无 比 精 辟 的 书 的 第 四十 四 章 中 找 到 很 适 宜 的 补 充 材 料 。

    梅 因 与 进 化 论 学 派 的 密 切 关 系 , 可 以 从 他 对 于 法 律 制 度史 中 某 种 进 步 因 素 所 具 有 的 确 实 而 决 不 空 洞 的 信 念 , 明 白 表现 出 来 , 他 完 全 意 识 到 进 步 一 字 的 含 义 含 糊 : 在 其 无 数警句之 一 中 , 他 告 诉 我 们 : “ 对 于 人 们 , 不 论 是 个 人 或 是 集体,没有 东 西 比 把 他 们 的 道 德 进 步 认 作 一 个 实 体 的 现 实 性 , 更可厌恶 的 了 ” ; 他 认 为 绝 大 部 分 人 类 往 往 对 于 任 何 有 意 识 地努力改进 民 主 制 度 表 示 漠 不 关 心 , 对 于 这 种 现 象 , 他 表 示 大 为惊奇( 见 第 二 章 ) 。 他 从 不 怀 疑 , 社 会 是 明 显 地 向 着 一 种 稳健的坚实 的 方 向 前 进 的 ; 这 样 , 在 契 约 的 发 展 史 中 , 他 发 现 了善意这 个 道 德 观 念 的 逐 步 出 现 , 并 且 虽 然 从 没 有 停 止 和 自 然 法 非历 史 性 的 谬 论 作 斗 争 , 但 他 依 然 在 其 中 看 到 了 一 个 可 以 促 使改 进 的 有 力 因 素 , 以 反 对 法 律 的 保 守 主 义 的 禀 性 ,即认为法律 是 只 能 通 过 相 当 难 以 运 用 的 如 拟 制 、 衡 平 和 立 法 等 权宜手段 来 改 进 本 身 的 。 他 同 样 清 楚 地 认 识 到 社 会 是 天 然 地 分 为“ 进 步 的 ” 和 “ 不 进 步 的 ” 的 — — 这 种 两 分 法 , 相 当 于 西 方 与东 方 的 两 分 法 。 他 不 愿 为 “ 进 步 ” 的 标 准 下 一 个 定 义 ; 但 在“ 古 代 法 制 史 ” 中 , 他 提 出 了 至 少 两 种 可 能 的 区 别 标 准 — — 一种 是 有 意 识 地 采 用 对 最 大 多 数 人 给 以 最 大 幸 福 的 原 则 作 为 立法 政 策 , 另 一 种 是 对 待 妇 女 地 位 的 流 行 态 度 。 有 许 多 其 他 标准 可 以 提 出 来 讨 论 ; 没 有 一 个 可 以 不 变 地 加 以 应 用 ; 但 谁 会怀 疑 , 在 进 步 的 社 会 和 不 进 步 的 社 会 之 间确有 不 同 , 或 是 谁会 认 为 , 梅 因 在 这 样 相 信 了 以 后 已 作 出 了 过 分 满 足 的 假 设 呢 ?

    在 进 一 步 介 绍 “ 古 代 法 ” 中 某 几 个 时 常 引 起 争 论 的 部 分以 前 , 必 须 首 先 注 意 到 本 书 的 一 个 独 特 之 点 。 大 多 数 人 在 对某 一 门 科 学 作 专 门 研 究 时 , 在 发 表 ( 如 果 他 们 的 确 发 表 了 ) 他们 的 一 般 结 论 前 , 必 先 就 其 各 个 细 节 , 加 以 详 细 研 究 , 并可能 要 先 加 以 说 明 。 而 梅 因 的 做 法 , 恰 恰 与 此 相 反 。 在 其 第 一本 书 中 , 他 叙 述 了 最 粗 糙 的 一 般 原 理 , 而 在 他 所 有 的 后 期 作品 中 , 除 了 二 本 比 较 不 重 要 的 之 外 , 只 是 用 了 更 详 细 的 和 更明 确 具 体 的 例 证 , 以 深 入 阐 明 他 在 开 始 其 专 业 时 新 提 出 的 各项 原 理 。 这 种 方 法 是 大 胆 的 , 并 不 是 毫 无 危 险 的 :除 了 对 于事 物 的 要 点 具 有 非 常 的 直 觉 的 理 解 力 的 人 , 采 用 这 种 做 法 , 很难 获 得 成 功 。 学 者 们 为 了 使 其 结 论 能 达 到 精 确 无 误 , 一般 对于 概 括 是 非 常 谨 慎 的 , 有 时 简 直 是 不 健 康 地 谨 慎 ; 但 是 对 于“ 古 代 法 ” , 如 果 真 有 任 何 成 语 与 它 联 用 得 最 最 经 常 , 那 就 是“ 辉 煌 的 概 括 ” 这 一 个 成 语 。 在 “ 古 代 法 ” 中 , 很 少 有 一 页 没有 几 句 著 名 的 警 句 , 突 出 于 字 里 、 行 间 ; 可 怪 的 是 , 梅 因 在经 过 长 期 的 辛 勤 的 进 一 步 研 究 后 , 竟 发 现 很 少 有 必 要 就 其 最早 的 意 见 , 进 行 修 正 。 这 本 书 充 满 了 渊 博 的 知 识 , 却 没 有 表示 博 学 的 一 般 附 属 物 ; 究 竟 是 由 于 政 策 , 或 是 由 于 厌 恶,还是由于 无 能 , 无 论 如 何 , 梅 因 坚 决 拒 绝 采 用 似 乎 常 常 需 要 的旁 注 和 详 细 证 据 , 以 为 其 明 白 直 率 的 主 文 的 累 赘 。 虽 然具结果 有 时 使 经 过 专 门 训 练 的 读 者 感 到 不 便 , 但 免 除 学 术上的累赘 , 无 疑 地 大 大 增 加 了 “ 古 代 法 ” 和 梅 因 的 其 他 一 切 著 作的声 望 。 我 们 享 受 着 文 字 的 乳 汁 , 而 不 被 迫 目 击 挤 乳 的 这种繁重 的 、 有 时 候 很 辛 苦 的 劳 动 , 虽 然 在 “ 东 西 方 村 落 共 产 体 ”( V i l l a g e   C o m m u n i t i e s   i n   t h e   E a s t   a n d   W e s t ,1871) 、 “ 古 代 法 制 史 ” (1875) 及 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” ( 1 8 8 3年)中 都 用 了 比 “ 古 代 法 ” 更 正 确 的 、 更 有 批 评 眼 光 的 考 查以 观 察 古 代 法 律 中 的 各 个 问 题 , 但 梅 因 在 “ 古 代 法 ” 之 后 写的 一 些 作 品 , 都 不 及 这 个 初 生 儿 , 甚 至 一 半 也 及 不 到 。

    因 此 , “ 古 代 法 ” 应 该 被 认 为 好 像 是 梅 因 毕 生 工 作 中 的 一个 宣 言 书 , 这 是 雅 利 安 民 族 各 个 不 同 支 系 , 尤 其 是 罗 马 人 、 英国 人 、 爱 尔 兰 人 、 斯 拉 夫 人 以 及 印 度 人 的 古 代 法 律 制 度 的 一个 比 较 研 究 。 由 于 它 本 身 是 一 个 令 人 满 意 的 统 一 体 , 它 不 能被 视 为 仅 仅 是 一 篇 绪 论 ; 不 过 , 对 于 他 粗 糙 地 谈 到 的 许 多 问题 , 如 果 要 获 得 更 丰 富 的 知 识 , 读 者 还 必 须 借 助 于 梅 因 的 后期 作 品 。 例 如 第 八 章 提 到 的 村 落 共 产 体 是 一 篇 用 同 名 的 完 整的 ( 虽 然 是 简 短 的 ) 论 文 的 主 题 , 由 于 当 时 那 士 ( N a s s e ) 和G.L . 丰 · 毛 勒 ( G . L . v o n   M a u r e r ) 的 新 近 研 究 而 引 起的 ; 关 于 父 权 家 族 的 说 明 , 当 然 应 该 以 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” 为补 充 材 料 , 这 是 梅 因 的 最 后 一 部 重 要 著 作 , 在 其 中 , 他 用 了同 样 的 说 服 力 和 机 智 , 乘 便 对 主 张 母 权 制 理 论 的 几 个 主 要 代表人 予 以 答 复 。 在 这 里 , 由 于 篇 幅 的 限 制 , 难 以 就 “ 古 代法”中 讨 论 的 各 个 题 目 , 一 一 指 出 究 竟 在 他 后 期 作 品 中 哪 些地 方 曾 详 加 说 明 ; 但 就 主 要 的 题 目 中 , 可 以 提 出 的 有 主 权 、 集体 财 产 的 早 期 形 式 ( 其 重 要 的 一 方 面 , 即 联 合 家 族 , 在 “ 古代 法 ” 中 没 有 提 到 , 但 在 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 和 “ 古 代 法 制 史 ” 中 ,都 有 详 尽 的 讨 论 ) , 封 建 制 度 化 的 过 程 , 各 种 古 代 法 典 ( 例 如在 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” 的 第 一 章 中 , 详 细 叙 述 了 “ 摩 奴法典 ” ),法 学 家 〔 特 别 是 罗 马法学专家 ( J u r i s p r u d e n t e s ) 和 爱尔 兰 “ 古 代 法 官 ” 〕 在 制 成 法 律 上 所 起 的 影 响 , 原 始 的 亲 属 关系,动 产 所 有 权 〔 关 于 第 八 章 中 所 讨 论 的要式交易物 ( r e s m a n Acipi) 更 详 细 的 说 明 , 可 参 考 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” 第 十 章 〕 , 土地 所 有 权 , 长 子 继 承 权 , 拟 制 ( 例 如 , 关 于 收 养 这 个 拟 制 的补 充 说 明 , 可 见 “ 古 代 法 制 史 ” 第 八 讲 和 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” 第 四 章 ) , 原 始 诉 讼 程 序 〔 著 名 “ 戏 剧 化 ” 的誓金(Sacra m e n At u m ) 可 在 “ 古 代 法 制 史 ” 第 九 讲 中 再 发 现 〕 , 强 制 执 行 的 各种 早 期 形式,祖先 崇 拜 和 家 族圣物,以 及 衡 平 的 发 展 等。
    “ 古 代 法 ” 中 有 许 多 部 分 , 在 后 来 成 为 批 评 或 者 有 时 是 别人 所 不 同 意 的 主 题 , 对 于 这 些 , 只 可 浏 览 一 过 。 在 一 般 人的心目中 , 梅 因 的 名 字 也 许 最 容 易 同 父 权 制 的 理 论 联 系 在 一 起 。
    大 家 都 知 道 , 有 一 个 以 巴 觉 芬 ( B a c h o f e n ) 〔 他 的 “ 母 权 制论 ” ( D a s   M u t t e r r e c h e t ) 由 于 巧 合 , 恰 在 “ 古 代 法 ” 出 版 的同 一 年 中 出 版 〕 、 马 克 林 南 ( M c l e n n a n ) 、 摩 尔 根 ( M o r g a n ) 、约 瑟 夫 · 库 勒 ( J o s e f   k o h l e r ) 和 法 拉 善 ( F r a z e r ) 为 其 主 要代 表 人 物 的 反 对 学 派 , 主 张 人 类 社 会 以 一 个 人 群 开 始 ,其中男 女 两 性 处 于 一 种 没 有 节 制 的 杂 交 状 态 中 互 相 匹 配 , 主张首先 出 现 的 家 族 集 团 是 以 母 氏 为 中 心 的 , 并 且 主 张 以 认 定 的 生父 的 体 力 和 独 占 禁 忌 占 优 势 的 家 族 集 团 , 在 发 展 的 过 程中,应属 于 一 个 较 后 的 阶 段 。 而 在 “ 古 代 法 ” 和 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习惯 ” 的 简 要 研 究 中 , 显 然 梅 因 所 描 写 的 社 会 , 既 不 是 一 个 以“ 自 然 状 态 中 的 人 ” 也 不 是 以 母 系 子 嗣 , 而 是 一 个 以 父 权 的 、宗 亲 的 家 作 为 单 位 的 社 会 。
    但 是 , 梅 因 所 重 新 假 设 的 这 种 共 产 体 , 从 来 没 有 要 被 认为 是 人 类 社 会 渊 源 的 代 表 之 意 。 他 的 研 究 明 白 地 限 于 雅 利 安民 族 , 尤 其 是 其 中 比 较 进 步 的 几 个 支 系 ( 但 有 显 著 的 例 外 , 如印 度 村 落 共 产 体 ) ; 虽 然 在 其 他 方 面 可 能 有 些 争 执 , 但 雅 利 安家 族 制 度 主 要 是 父 权 的 , 这 是 没 有 争 议 的 。 在 “ 古 代 法 律 与习 惯 ” 中 , 梅 因 不 但 不 主 张 人 类 种 族 的 各 个 支 系 应 该 有 一 个单 一 的 、 一 成 不 变 的 发 展 图 式 , 他 并 且 毫 无 隐 瞒 地 对 这 种 想法 表 示 着 怀 疑 。 现 代 学 说 所 主 张 的 , 正 和 这 个 意 见 相 同 : 现在 认 为 , 把 父 权 制 理 论 和 母 权 制 理 论 作 为 相 互 之 间 不 能调和的 对 立 物 是 完 全 人 为 的 。 男 性 和 女 性 在 家 族 中 和 社 会 上 的 相对 重 要 性 决 定 于 许 多 变 化 着 的 情 况 , 譬 如 各 家 族 集 团 是孤立的 还 是 互 相 邻 接 的 , 男 女 两 性 的 相 对 人 数 , 战 争 的 影 响,可用 以 瞻 养 妻 子 的 财 富 , 灭 婴 的 习 俗 , 以 及 许 多 其 他 类 似 的 因素 , 决 不 可 能 在 一 切 时 代 和 一 切 地 点 , 完 全 相 同 。 即 使 在 大量 证 据 中 仅 仅 熟 悉 其 中 一 部 分 的 人 ( 或 仅 仅 熟 悉 其 中 可靠部分 的 人 , 并 且 不 包 括 梅 因 讽 刺 地 称 之 为 “ 道 听 途 说 ” 的 人 ) ,现 在 也 不 再 怀 疑 母 系 的 安 排 曾 流 行 于 世 界 的 许 多 地 方 。 梅 因曾 被 责 难 为 在 承 认 马 克 林 南 和 摩 尔 根 所 提 出 母 权 制 的 证 据 时过 分 勉 强 , 并 且 过 分 严 格 地 坚 持 着 男 性 的 体 力 和 性 的 忌 妒 这些 支 配 的 因 素 。 实 际 上 , 梅 因 完 全 承 认 父 权 制 并 不 能 适用 于一 切 形 式 的 社 会 ; 他 所 主 张 的 , 只 是 父 权 制 是 雅 利 安 人 所 特有 的 , 同 时 母 权 制 的 证 据 并 不 足 以 支 持 有 一 种 原 始 群 杂交的通 说 而 已 。 对 于 这 两 种 说 法 , 现 代 的 意 见 都 支 持 着 他 ; 任 何普 遍 的 原 始 杂 交 的 假 设 , 现 在 为 一 般 人 所 不 信 , 虽 然 作为偶然 的 热 情 奔 放 的 那 种 所 谓 性 的 共 产 主 义 , 证 据 还 是 不 少 ; 在雅 利 安 人 中 间 确 有 母 权 制 的 遗 迹 , 但 他 们 认 为 这 很 可 能 不 是人 类 家 族 中 这 一 支 系 的 一 种 较 古 时 期 的 原 有 情 况 , 而 是 它 同非 雅 利 安 种 族 习 惯 相 接 触 的 结 果 。

    梅 因 的 行 文 流 畅 , 偶 尔 ( 但 只 是 偶 尔 ) 也 有 自 相 矛 盾 之处 , 这 是 不 能 毫 无 保 留 地 加 以 接 受 的 。 这 类 矛 盾 在 “ 古 代法 ” 最 初 的 篇 幅 中 就 可 以 看 到 , 在 第 一 章 中 , 关 于 半 司 法 的 、半 宗 教 的θεμιτε 觉 得 出 了 在 原 始 社 会 中 “ 判 决 先 于 习 惯 ” 的结 论 。 在 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 中 , 梅 因 回 到 了 “ 主 权 者 有 权 创造习 惯 ” 。 在 这 个 问 题 上 , 有 两 种 不 同 信 念 的 学 派 ; 一 派 主 张 在最 古 时 期 高 级 官 吏 的 宣 告 只 是 宣 布 业 已 存 在 的 习 惯 , 另一派则 认 为 这 些 宣 告 却 真 正 是 创 设 和 塑 造 通 俗 惯 例 的 决 定 因 素 。真 相 似 乎 是 在 这 两 种 相 反 的 观 点 的 中 间 。 毫 无 疑 问 , 早期的判 决 , 不 论 是 国 王 的 或 是 祭 司 的 , 不 论 是 纯 粹 世 俗 的或是幻想为 神 灵 所 启 示 的 , 在 确 定 习 惯 的 形 式 、 范 围 以 及 方 向 上,确有 很 大 的 影 响 。 同 时 , 一 切 证 据 似 乎 都 说 明 , 最 古 时 期 的 司法 职 能 被 认 为 是 以发现现存的法律 为 其 主 要 目 的 。 在 西 方 世界,到处都有关 于 这 种 “ 发 现 法 律 ” 以 及 以 发 现 法 律 为 专 职的 公 认 专 家 的 各 种 记 录 。 甚 至 在 解 释 过 程 中 采 用 了 ( 这 也 常是 必 然 的 ) 新 的 成 分 , 在 这 种 情 况 下 , 实 际 上 已 从 单 纯 的 宣布 进 入 了 创 设 的 时 期 , 甚 至 在 这 种 时 候 , 这 种 改 革 仍 旧被装扮成 只 是 发 现 : 正 像 英 国 法 官 在 实 质 上 是 把 新 的 成 分 转 入 到法 律 中 去 , 却 仍 旧 尽 可 能 地 把 它 们 说 成 是 根 据 于 现 存 的 先 例一 样 。 梅 因 对 于 这 种 看 法 , 曾 经 详 细 考 虑 而 加 以 同 意 , 因 为在 “ 古 代 法 律 与 习 惯 ” ( 第 六 章 ) 中 , 当 他 写 到θεμιτε时 , 认为 它 “ 无 疑 地 来 自 早 已 存 在 的 习 惯 或 惯 例 ” ; 虽 然 他 也 许 是 为了 表 示 公 正 起 见 , 接 着 说 ; “ 这观念是,它 们 是 由 国 王 自 发 地或 经 过 神 的 提 示 而 想 出 来 的 ” 。

    “ 古 代 法 ” 中 没 有 一 部 分 像万民法的 叙述 那 样 需 要 更 多 的 详 细 说 明 。 “ 古 代 法 ” 的 最 大 缺 点 , 在 于 它跳 过 了 从 罗 马 人 到 格 罗 秋 ( Grotius) 之 间 的 几 个 世 纪 , 忽 略了中古世纪的时期 , 在 这 个 时 期 内 , “ 自 然 法 ” 转 变 成 为 有 无限 活 力 和 影 响 的 一 种 神 学 概 念 。 对 于 像 梅 因 这 样 有 非 常 的 均衡 感 和 透 视 力 的 人 , 这 真 是 一 个 奇 怪 的 遗 漏 , 而 每 一 个 读 者希 望 对 这 一 漫 长 时 期 的 法 律 理 论 有 比 较 正 确 的 印 象 的 ,应该至 少 参 考 一 下 布 赖 斯 爵 士 (B r y c e ) 和 菲 莱 特 烈 克 · 濮洛 克 爵 士 (F r e d e r i c k   P o l l o c k ) 关 于 “ 自 然 法 律 史 ” 的几 篇 论 文 , 以 及喀莱尔博士 (A. J. C a r l y l e ) 的“ 西 方 中 世 纪 政 治 理 论 ” 。

    梅 因 对 于 罗 马 契 约 法 发 展 的 说 明 , 是 他 论 文 中 最 雄 辩 的部 分 之 一 。 但 这 部 分 有 些 浪 漫 的 倾 向 , 则 是 无 法 掩 盖 的 事 实 。 在 有 些 方 面 , 他 似 乎 显 然 是 错 误 的 ; 例 如约定,根据现代意 见 , 不 能 被 真 正 地 认 为 是 来 源 于耐克逊( n e x u m ) : 它也 许 在宗教的 神 圣 性 中 有 完 全 不 同 的 历 史 , 不 同 的 来 源 。在其 他 方 面 , 如 关 于耐克逊 的 确 切 性 质 , 他 所 表 示 的 见 解 , 有些 也 只 能 认 为 是 似 乎 可 信 的 猜 测 ; 但 这 样 说 , 并 不 能 被 认 为是 对 他 责 难 , 因 为 从 梅 因 的 时 代 起 , 对 于 这 一 个 问 题 曾 发 生过 无 休 无 止 的 争 论 , 而 争 论 的 结 果 也 还 只 是 一 些 可 能 和 推 测而 已 , 实 际 上 , 以 证 据 而 论 , 也 只 能 得 到 这 样 的 结 果 。 梅 因对 于 罗 马 契 约 的 历 史 分 类 存 在 着 真 正 的 弱 点 , 这 与 罗 马 法 学家 自 己 对 于 合 意 的 分 类 的 存 在 着 弱 点 , 完 全 相 同 — 弱 点是在于 它 图 表 式 的 但 靠 不 住 的 单 纯 。 梅 因 所 提 出 的 各 个 阶段是:把债 务 同 真 正 的 以 身 体 自 由 为 质 物 ( 耐 克 逊 借 贷 ) 看 做 一 回 事 , 带 有 严 格 的 神 圣 仪 式 ; 其 次 是 以 庄 严 的 口 头 问 答 和 以 诚 意 担保 的 债 务 ; 其 次 是 有 书 面 文 字 的 无 可 辩 驳 的 证 据 ; 其 次 是 真正 契 约 的 “ 巨 大 道 德 进 步 ” , 这 些 契 约 代 表 着 公 正 的 基 本 原 理 ,即 根 据 一 致 同 意 的 条 件 , 受 领 和 享 有 他 人 有 价 物 件 的 人 , 有归 还 它 或 其 价 值 的 义 务 ; 其 次 是 在 任 何 经 济 发 达 的 社 会 中 , 在四 种 最 普 通 和 重 要 的 交 易 中 一 致 的 效 力 ; 以 及 最 后 , 通 过 裁判 官的 自 由 学 说 , 在 任 何 严 肃 的 和 合 法 的 场 合 中 所取 得 纯 粹 一 致 的 拘 束 力 。 我 们 不 能 说 这 种 根 据 于 道 德 进 步 路线 的 历 史 顺 序 , 是 明 显 地 错 误 的 , 但 为 慎 重 起 见 , 我 们 必 须承 认 要 证 实 其 一 切 细 节 , 现 有 的 证 据 显 然 并 不 充 分 。 事 实 正如 我 们 常 常 指 出 来 的 那 样 , 罗 马 人 在 有 关 合 意 的 法 律 方 面 是独 特 地 凭 经 验 的 , 他 们 从 来 没 有 发 展 一 个 令 人 满 意 的 和 不 矛盾 的 真 正作为 契 约 的 契 约 理 论 , 他 们 的市民法要因(causa civilis)学说, 被 假 定 为 是 一 切 有 拘 束 力 的 合 意 所 依 据 的 , 是完 全 没 有 可 靠 的 法 律 基 础 的 。 梅 因 留 给 我 们 的 印 象 是 , 裁 判官 凭 着 体 现 “ 能 达 到 正 当 后 果 的 ‘ 诺 成 契 约 ’ 原 则 ” 的 ‘ 裁判 官 告 令 ” , 把 合 意 的 可 诉 性 扩 大 到 几 乎 毫 无 限 制 。 这 是 一 种严 重 的 夸 大 。 实 际 上 , 裁 判 官 告 令 , 在 数 量 上 是 很 少 的 , 在性 质 上 是 很 专 门 的 , 在 范 围 上 是 很 狭 小 的 。 毫 无 疑 义 , 到 了古 典 时 期 , 契 约 的 领 域 在 理 论 上 和 在 实 际 上 , 都 已 变 得 很 广泛 , 足 以 满 足 一 切 普 通 目 的 了 ; 但 是 它 还 不 能 公 正 地 被 认 为具 有 梅 因 这 样 热 诚 地 归 功 于 它 的 那 种 科 学 的 均 称 性 或 道 德 的一 致 性 。

    在 第 五 章 的 结 尾 , 可 以 看 到 梅 因 对 他 所 想 象 的 “ 各 国 民事 法 律 ” 的 发 展 , 进 行 了 干 练 的 总 结 , 同 时 读 者 在 开 始 阅 读本 书之 前 , 最 好 先 熟 读 这 一 段 文 字 , 即 以 “ 到 现 在 为 止 , 我 们 已 经研 究 过 有 关 古 代 ‘ 人 法 ’ 的 各 个 部 分 ” 开 始 的 几 页 , 并 且 先 要 把 本 书 开 头 的 主 要 的 五 章 所 依 据 的 要 旨 牢 记 在 心 中 。这 几 页 中 最 后 一 句 话 是 全 部 英 国 法 律 文 献 中 最 著 名 的 “ 进 步社 会 的 运 动 , 到 此 处 为 止 , 是 一个从身分到契约 的 运 动 。 ” 这些 文 句 在 它 写 成 的 当 时 , 是 适 当 的 、 可 以 接 受 的 — —那 个 时候 , 十 九 世 纪 个 人 主 义 的 全 部 力 量 正 在 逐 渐 增 加 其 动 力。关于 梅 因 所 应 用 的 “ 身 分 ” 这 个 字 , 是 否 适 当 , 这 里 不 拟作专门 的 详 尽 讨 论 , 但 作 为 一 个 法 律 “ 术 语 ” , 就 他 所 接 受 的 含 义来 讲 , 是 有 讨 论 的 余 地 的 ; 但 他 的 结 论 实 足 以 表 现 一 条为当今 历 史 法 学 家 没 有 任 何 争 执 的 原 则 — — 即 个 人 自 决 的原则,把 个 人 从 家 庭 和 集 团 束 缚 的 罗 网 中 分 离 开 来 ; 或 者 , 用 最 简单 的 话 来 说 , 即 从 集 体 走 向 个 人 的 运 动 。 这 是 梅 因 的 论文的主 要 观 点 , 是 他 对 所 有 那 些先天 的 空 想 进 行 攻 击 的 矛 头,这些 空 想 创 造 了 抽 象 的人 , 作 为 年 轻 世 界 的 天 命 的 君 主 , 这样就 颠 倒 了 全 部 的 历 史 进 程 。 可 以 看 到 , 梅 因 在 说 这 个 运 动到此处为止 是 进 步 社 会 的 特 征 时 , 是 很 慎 重 的 。 现 在 有 许 多 人在 问 , 有 的 带 着 怀 疑 , 有 的 可 以 看 出 是 有 礼 貌 地 , 究 竟 有 没有 从 契 约 到 身 分 的 相 反 运 动 发 生 过 。 我 们 可 以 完 全 肯 定 , 这个 由 十 九 世 纪放任主义 ( l a i s s e z f a i r e ) 安 放 在 “ 契 约 自 由 ” 这神 圣 语 句 的 神 龛 内 的 个 人 绝 对 自 决 , 到 了 今 日 已 经 有 了 很 多的 改 变 ; 现 在 , 个 人 在 社 会 中 的 地 位 , 远 较 著 作 “ 古 代 法 ” 的时 候 更 广 泛 地 受 到 特 别 团 体 、 尤 其 是 职 业 团 体 的 支 配 , 而 他的 进 入 这 些 团 体 并 非 都 出 于 他 自 己 的 自 由 选 择 。 很 可 能 , 过去 一 度 由 家 庭 这 个 发 源 地 担 任 的 任 务 , 在 将 来 要 由 工 团 这 个发 源 地 来 担 任 了 ; 也 可 能 梅 因 的 这 个 著 名 原 则 , 将 会 有 一 天被 简 单 地 认 为 只 是 社 会 史 中 的 一 个 插 曲 。 如 果 竟 然 是 这 样 发生 了 , 这 究 竟 是 标 志 着 社 会 的 进 步 还 是 退 化 , 是 一 个 非 常 适合 于 每 一 个 有 思 想 的 人 仔 细 研 究 的 问 题 , 但 在 这 里 , 是 不 宜于 作 任 何 讨 论 的 。

    本 书 中 有 些 不 重 要 的 疏 漏 之 处 , 对 于 一 般 读 者 , 是 可 以不 必 特 别 提 出 的 。 但 有 一 点 必 须 加 以 指 出 。 在 第 四 章 中 梅 因竟 以 为 布 拉 克 顿 ( B r a c t o n ) 曾 “ 把 全 部 形 式 和 三 分 之 一 内 容直 接 剽 窃 自 ‘ 民 法 大 全 ’ ” 的 一 篇 论 文 , 作 为 纯 粹 英 国 法 的 一个 纲 要 , 向 其 同 胞 推 销 。 这 与 现 在 由 麦 特 兰 ( M a i t l a n d ) 研 究结 果 确 定 的 事 实 严 重 地 不 相 符 合 , 这 些 事 实 , 在1861年 时 是不 可 避 免 地 被 误 解 了 。 布 拉 克 顿 的 亨 利 或 布 拉 顿 ( B r a t o n ) 是除 了 法 学 家 和 历 史 学 家 外 , 一 般 人 很 少 知 道 的 一 个 作 家 , 因此 请 原 谅 我 为 他 作 一 介 绍 , 他 是 亨 利 三 世 皇 朝 后 半 期 中 一 个王 室 法 庭 的 法 官 , 并 且 是 研 究 中 世 纪 时 期 “ 英 国 法 律 和 习惯 ” 方 面 一 个 最 重 要 的 “ 寺 院 派 ” 作 家 。 像 他 当 时 所 有 的 教士 一 样 , 他 用 拉 丁 文 纂 述 文 章 , 他 应 用 罗 马 法 的 传 统 分 类 与排 列 ; 虽 然 决 不 至 于 有 “ 三 分 之 一 内 容 ” , 但 他 的 著 名 论 文 中确 有 相 当 部 分 借 助 于 罗 马 法 — — 但 不 是 “ 民 法 大 全 ” 的 本 身 ,而是 十 二 世 纪 “ 波 罗 诺 学 派 ” ( B o l o g n e s e ) 注 释 者 所 “ 修 正 ”的 罗 马 法 律 学 。 但 他 的 著 作 , 不 论 在 意 图 上 或 是 在 效 果 上 , 绝不 是 欺 人 之 谈 : 他 的 主 题 是 真 实 的 、 本 土 风 光 的 、 英 国 的 封建 法 律 , 虽 然 曾 受 到 当 时 所 公 认 的 研 究 法 律 学 的 方 法 — — 一个 必 然 是 罗 马 式 的 方 法 — — 的 影 响 , 而 它 受 到 这 种 影 响 , 实在 也 是 无 可 避 免 的 。
    最 后 必 须 加 以 说 明 , 在 本 书 中 提 到 的 一 二 椿 有 关 英 国 法的 事 , 最 近 已 经 有 了 变 化 。 一 般 都 知 道 , 在 梅 因 著 作 中 占 有非 常 显 著 地 位 的 并 且 是 他 所 一 贯 不 赞 成 的 长 子 继 承 权, 在 现 在 , 除 了 荣 誉 称 号 以 外 , 在 一 切 主 要 方 面都 已 从 英 国 继 承 法 中 消 失 了 。 第 八 章 中 有 关 英 国 动 产 法 “ 威胁着要 并 吞 和 毁 灭 不 动 产 法 ” 的 预 言 , 现 在 大 部 已 经 实 现 了 。
    至 于 英国已婚妇 女 的 无 能 力 ( 第 五 章 ) ,这种 现 象 在1861年时 是 任 何 文 明 社 会 的 一 种 耻 辱 , 在 二 十 一 年 以 后 已 被 彻 底 消灭 , 这 原 是 众 所 周 知 而 毋 庸 加 以 说 明 的 事。
    ——C a r l e t o n   k e m p   A l l e n,1931

    第一章   古代法典

    世 界 上 最 著 名 的 一 个 法 律 学 制 度 从 一 部 “ 法 典 ” (code)开 始 , 也 随 着 它 而 结 束 。 从 罗 马 法 历 史 的 开 始 到 结 束 , 它 的释 义 者 一 贯 地 在 其 用 语 中 暗 示 着 , 他 们 制 度 的 实 体 是 建 筑 于“ 十 二 铜 表 法 ”、因 此 也 就 是 建 筑 于 成 文 法 的 基 础 上 的 。 在 罗 马 , 对 于 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 以前 的 一 切 制 度 , 除 了 一 特 殊 之 点 外 , 都 不 予 承 认 。 罗 马 法 律学 在 理 论 上 是 来 自 一 部 法 典 , 而 英 国 法 律 在 理 论 上 则 被 认 为是 来 自 古 代 的 不 成 文 惯 例 , 这 是 他 们 制 度 的 发 展 和 我 们 制 度的 发 展 所 以 不 同 的 主 要 原 因 。 这 两 种 理 论 与 事 实 不 完 全 相 符,但 却 都 产 生 了 极 端 重 要 的 后 果 。

    “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 的 公 布 并 不 能 作 为 我 们 开 始 研 究 法 律 史 的最 早 起 点 , 这 是 毋 庸 多 说 的 。 古 代 罗 马 法 典 , 是 属 于 这 样 一类 的 法 典 , 几 乎 世 界 上 每 一 个 文 明 国 家 都 可 以 提 出 一 个 范 例 ,并 且 以 罗 马 和 希 腊 而 论 , 它 们 是 在 彼 此 之 间 相 距 并 不 过 分 遥远 的 时 代 中 在 它 们 各 自 的 领 域 中 广 泛 地 传 布 着 。 它 们 是 在 非常 类 似 的 情 况 下 出 现 的 , 并 且 据 我 们 所 知 , 也 是 由 类 似 的 原因 产 生 的 。 毫 无 疑 问 , 在 这 些 法 典 的 后 面 , 存 在 许 多 法 律 现象 , 这 些 法 律 现 象 在 时 间 上 是 发 生 在 法 典 之 前 的 。 现 在 有 很多 文 件 记 录 , 明 白 地 提 供 我 们 关 于 这 种 早 期 法 律 现 象 的 知 识 ;但 在 语 言 学 家 能 对 “ 梵 文 ”文 学 作 出 完 全的 分 析以 前 , 我 们 知 识 的 最 好 来 源 无 疑 地 只 有 希 腊 的 荷 马 诗 篇, 当 然 我 们 不 能 把 它 认 作 一 种 确 实 事 件 的历 史 , 而 只 能 把 它 作 为 作 者 所 知 道 的 不 是 完 全 出 于 想 象 的 一种 社 会 状 态 的 描 写 。 纵 使 诗 人 的 想 象 力 对 于 这 种 英 雄 时代的某 些 特 征 , 如 战 士 的 勇 猛 以 及 神 的 威 武 , 可 能 有 些 夸 张 之 处 ,但 我 们 没 有 理 由 相 信 , 他 的 想 象 力 曾 受 到 道 德 或 形 而 上 学 的概 念 的 影 响 , 因 为 , 这 些 概 念 当 时 当 没 有 作 为 有 意 识 观察的对 象 。 就 这 一 点 而 论 , 荷 马 文 学 实 远 比 后 期 的 文 件 更为真实可 靠 , 因 为 , 这 些 文 件 虽 然 也 是 为 了 要 说 明 同 样 的 较 早时期的 情 况 , 但 是 它 们 的 编 纂 是 在 哲 学 的 或 神 学 的 影 响 之 下 进 行的 。 如 果 我 们 能 通 过 任 何 方 法 , 断 定 法 律 概 念 的 早 期 形 式 , 这将 对 我 们 有 无 限 的 价 值 。 这 些 基 本 观 念 对 于 法 学 家 , 真 象 原始 地 壳 对 于 地 质 学 家 一 样 的 可 贵 。 这 些 观 念 中 , 可 能 含 有 法律 在 后 来 表 现 其 自 己 的 一 切 形 式 。 我 们 的 法 律 科 学 所 以 处 于这 样 不 能 令 人 满 意 的 状 态 , 主 要 由 于 对 于 这 些 观 念 除 了最最肤 浅 的 研 究 之 外 , 采 取 了 一 概 加 以 拒 绝 的 草 率 态 度 或 偏 见 。 在采 用 观 察 的 方 法 以 代 替 假 设 法 之 前 , 法 学 家 进 行 调 查 研究的方 法 真 和 物 理 学 与 生 物 学 中 所 用 的 调 查 研 究 方 法 十 分 近 似 。凡 是 似 乎 可 信 的 和 内 容 丰 富 的 、 但 却 绝 对 未 经 证 实 的 各 种 理论 , 像 “ 自 然 法 ”或 “ 社 会 契 约 ” 之 类 , 往 往 为 一 般 人 所 爱 好 , 很 少 有 踏 实 地 探 究社 会 和 法 律 的 原 始 历 史 的 ; 这 些 理 论 不 但 使 注 意 力 离 开 了 可以 发 现 真 理 的 唯 一 出 处 , 并 且 当 它 们 一 度 被 接 受 和 相 信 了 以后 , 就 有 可 能 使 法 律 学 以 后 各 个 阶 段 都 受 到 其 最 真 实 和 最 大的 影 响 , 因 而 也 就 模 糊 了 真 理 。

    在 荷 马 诗 篇 中 曾 经 提 到 “ 地 美 士 ” ( T h e m i s ) 和 “ 地 美 士第 ” ( T h e m i s t e s ) 的 字 眼 , 这 是 一 些 最 早 期 的 概 念 , 它 们 和 现在 已 经 充 分 发 达 的 法 律 观 念 和 生 活 规 律 有 着 密 切 的 关 系 。 如所 周 知 , “ 地 美 士 ” 在 后 期 希 腊 万 神 庙 中 是 “ 司 法 女 神 ” ( A Goddess   o f J u s t i c e ) , 但 这 是 一 个 现 代 的 并 且 已 经 很 发 达 的 观念 , 同 “ 伊 利 亚 特 ” ( I l i a d ) 中 把 “ 地 美 士 ” 描 写 为 宙 斯的 陪 审 官 的 原 意 , 完 全 不 同 。 所 有 对 于 人 类 原 始 状 态的 忠 实 观 察 者 现 在 都 能 清 楚 地 看 到 , 在 人 类 的 初 生 时 代 , 人 们 对 于 持 续 不 变 的 或 定 期 循 坏 发 生 的 一 些 活 动 只 能 假 用 一 个有 人 格 的 代 理 人 来 加 以 说 明 。 这 样 , 吹 看 的 风 是 一 个 人 , 并且 当 然 是 一 个 神 圣 的 人 ; 上 升 、 上 升 、 到 达 极 顶 然 后 下 落 的太 阳 是 一 个 人 , 并 且 是 一 个 神 圣 的 人 ; 生 长 庄 稼 的 土 地 是 一个 人 , 也 是 神 圣 的 人 。 在 物 理 世 界 中 如 此 , 在 道 德 世 界 中 也是 如 此 。 当 国 王 用 判 决 解 决 纠 纷 时 , 他 的 判 决 假 设 是 直接灵感 的 结 果 。 把 司 法 审 判 权 交 给 国 王 或 上 帝 的 神 圣 代 理 人 , 万王 之 中 最 伟 大 的 国 王 , 就 是地美士 。 这 个 概 念 的 特 点 , 表 现在 这 个 字 的 复 数 用 法 。地美士第,即地美西斯 , 是 “ 地 美士 ” 的 复 数 , 意 指 审 判 的 本 身 , 是 由 神 授 予 法 官 的 。 在 谈 到 国 王 时 , 好 像 他 们 的 手 中 就 有 着 丰 富 的 “ 地 美 士 第 ” , 随 时 可 以 应 用 似 的 。 但 是 我 们 必 须 明 白 了 解 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 并 不 就 是 法 律 而 是 判 决 。 格 罗 脱 ( G r o t e ) 先 生 在 其 “ 希 腊 史 ”中 说, “宙 斯 或 是 地 球 上 的 人 王 , 不 是 一 个 立法 者 而 是 一 个 法 官 ” 。 他 有 充 足 的 “ 地 美 士 第 ” , 但 是 , 虽 然始 终 相 信 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 来 自 天 上 , 我 们 却 并 不 能 就 假 设 在 各个 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 之 间 , 有 着 任 何 一 条 原 则 贯 串 着 ; 它 们 是 各别 的 、 单 独 的 判 决 。

    甚 至 在 荷 马 诗 篇 中 , 我 们 也 还 可 以 看 出 , 这 些 观 念 只 是暂 时 的 。 在 古 代 社 会 的 简 单 机 构 中 , 情 况 类 似 的 情 形 可 能 比现 在 还 要 普 遍 , 而 在 一 系 列 的 类 似 案 件 中 , 就 有 可 能 采用彼此 近 似 的 审 判 。 我 们 由 此 就 有 了 一 种 “ 习 惯 ” 的 胚 种 或者雏形 , 这 是 在 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 或 判 决 的 概 念 之 后 的 一 种 概 念。由于 我 们 的 现 代 联 想 , 我 们 就先天地 倾 向 于 以 为 一 个 “ 习 惯 ” 观念 必 然 是 先 于 一 个 司 法 判 决 的 概 念 , 以 为 一 个 判 决 必 然是肯定 一 个 “ 习 惯 ” , 或 是 对 于 违 犯 “ 习 惯 ” 的 人 加 以 处 罚 , 纵 使我 们 的 思 想 倾 向 是 这 样 , 但 是 , 非 常 明 确 , 各 种 观 念 的 历 史

    顺 序 却 真 正 是 象 我 在 前 面 所 排 列 的 那 样 排 列 的 。 荷 马 对 于 一个 在 胚 胎 中 的 习 惯 , 有 时 用 单 数 的 “ 地 美 士 ” — — 更 多 的 时候 则 用 “ 达 克 ” ( D i k e ) , 它 的 意 义 明 显 地 介 于 一 个 “ 判 决 ” 和一 个 “ 习 惯 ” 或 “ 惯 例 ” 之 间 。 至 于 N Fμ σ � 是 指 一 条 “ 法律 ” , 这 是 后 期 希 腊 社 会 政 治 语 言 中 一 个 非 常 伟 大 而 著 名 的 名辞 , 但 在 荷 马 诗 篇 中 却 没 有 见 到 过。

    所 谓 神 圣 的 代 理 人 这 种 观 念 , 暗 示 着 “ 地 美 士 第 ” , 而 其本 身 又 人 格 化 在 “ 地 美 士 ” 中 。 这 种 观 念 一 个 肤 浅 的 研 究 者可 能 会 把 它 和 其 他 原 始 信 念 混 淆 起 来 , 我 们 必 须 把 它 们 区 分开 来 。 有 一 种 概 念 认 为 整 部 的 法 典 是 由 “ 神 ” ( D e i t y ) 口 授 的 ,例 如 印 度 的 “ 摩 奴 ” 法 典 ( H i n d o o   laws of Manu), 这 种概 念 似 乎 属 于 比 较 后 期 和 比 较 发 达 的 思 想 , “ 地 美 士 ” 和 “ 地美 士 第 ” 是 同 长 久 以 来 顽 固 地 为 人 们 拘 泥 着 的 一 种 信 念 密 切地 联 系 着 的 , 这 种 信 念 认 为 在 生 活 的 每 一 个 关 系 中 , 在 每 一个 社 会 制 度 中 , 都 有 一 种 神 的 影 响 作 为 它 的 基 础 , 并 支 持 着它 。 在 每 一 古 代 法 律 中 , 在 每 一 政 治 思 想 的 雏 形 中 , 到 处 都可 以 遇 到 这 种 信 念 的 征 象 。 那 时 候 所 有 的 根 本 制 度 如 “ 国家 ” 、 “ 种 族 ” 和 “ 家 族 ” 都 是 假 定 为 贡 献 给 一 个 超 自 然 的 主宰 , 并 由 这 个 主 宰 把 它 们 结 合 在 一 起 的 。 在 这 些 制 度 所 包 含的 各 种 不 同 关 系 中 集 合 起 来 的 人 们 , 必 然 地 要 定 期 举 行 公 共的 祭 礼 , 供 奉 公 共 的 祭 品 , 他 们 时 时 为 了 祈 求 赦 免 因 无 意 或疏 忽 的 侮 慢 而 招 惹 的 刑 罚 举 行 着 斋 戒 和 赎 罪 ,在 这 中 间 这 种同 样 的 义 务 甚 至 被 更 有 意 义 地 承 认 着 。 凡 是 熟 悉 普 通 古 典 文学 的 人 , 都 会 记 得家祭 ( s a c r a   g e n t i l i c i a ) 这 个 名 词 , 这 对于 古 代 罗 马 的 收 养 法 和 遗 嘱 法 都 有 着 极 重 要 的 影 响 。 到 现 在为 止 , 还 保 存 着 原 始 社 会 某 些 最 古 怪 特 点 的 印 度 习 惯 法 ( H i n Ad o o   C u s t o m a t y   law),对 于 人 们 所 有 的 一 切 权 利 和 继 承 的一 切 规 定 , 几 乎 都 要 在 死 人 安 葬 时 , 也 就 是 说 在 家 族 延 续 发生 中 断 时 , 按 照 举 行 规 定 仪 式 时 的 严 肃 程 度 而 决 定 。

    在 我 们 离 开 这 一 法 律 学 阶 段 以 前 , 凡 是 英 国 学 生 都 必 须注 意 到 这 样 的 一 点 。 在 边 沁 的 “ 政 府 论 丛 ” 以 及 奥 斯 丁 的 “ 法 律 学 范 围 论 ”中 , 他 们 把 每 一 项 法 律 分 解 为立 法 者 的 一 个命令,因 此 是 一 种 强 加 于 公 民 身 上 的义务,并且 是 在 发 生 反 抗 时 的 一 种制裁 ; 他 们 并 且 进 一 步 断 定 这 个 作为 法 律 第 一 个 要 素 的命 令,必 须 不 仅 是 针 对 一 个 单 一 的 行 为,而 且 是 对 着 一 系 列 的 或 者 许 多 属 于 同 一 类 型 和 性 质 的 行 为 。这 样 把 法 律 的 各 种 要 素 加 以 分 析 的 结 果 , 同 已 经 成 熟 的 法 律学 的 事 实 完 全 相 符 ; 并 且 只 要 在 用 语 上 稍 为 引 伸 一 下 ,它们就 能 在 形 式 上 适 用 于 各 种 各 样 的 、 各 个 时 代 的 一 切 法 律 。 但是 , 这 并 不 就 是 说 , 在 这 个 概 括 中 所 含 有 的 法 律 观 念 , 即 使到 现 在 , 还 完 全 同 这 个 解 剖 相 符 合 ; 可 奇 怪 的 是 , 我 们 对 于古 代 思 想 史 如 果 研 究 得 越 深 入 , 我 们 发 现 我 们 自 己 同 边 沁 所主 张 的 所 谓 法 律 是 几 个 要 素 的 混 合 物 的 这 种 概 念 , 距 离 越 远 。可 以 断 言 , 在 人 类 初 生 时 代 , 不 可 能 想 象 会 有 任 何 种 类 的 立法 机 关 , 甚 至 一 个 明 确 的 立 法 者 。 法 律 还 没 有 达 到 习 惯的程度 , 它 只 是 一 种 惯 行 。 用 一 句 法 国 成 语 , 它 还 只 是 一种“气氛 ” 。 对 于 是 或 非 唯 一 有 权 威 性 的 说 明 是 根 据 事 实 作 出 的 司 法判 决 , 并 不 是 由 于 违 犯 了 预 先 假 定 的 一 条 法 律 , 而 是 在 审 判时 中 一 个 较 高 的 权 力 第 一 次 灌 输 入 法 官 脑 中 的 。 我 们 要想理解 这 些 在 时 间 上 和 在 联 想 上 同 我 们 距 离 这 样 遥 远 的 种 种 见解 , 当 然 是 极 端 困 难 的 , 但 是 , 我 们 如 果 能 比 较 详 细 地 研 究一 下 古 代 社 会 的 构 成 , 了 解 到 在 古 代 社 会 中 , 每 个 人 的生命有 极 大 部 分 都 生 活 在 族 长 的 专 制 之 下 , 他 的 一 切 行 为 实 际 上

    不 是 由 法 律 的 而 是 由 翻 复 无 常 的 一 种 统 治 所 控 制 着 , 这 就 比

    较 可 信 了 。 我 可 以 说 , 一 个 英 国 人 应 该 比 外 国 人 更 能 够 理 解

    这 样 的 一 个 历 史 事 实 , 即 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 的 发 生 先 于 任 何 法 律

    概 念 , 这 是 因 为 , 在 流 行 着 的 有 关 英 国 法 律 学 性 质 的 许 多 相

    互 矛 盾 的 理 论 中 , 其 最 得 人 心 的 , 或 者 无 论 如 何 是 最 能 影 响

    实 践 的 , 当 然 是 假 定 成 案 和 先 例 先 于 规 则 、 原 则 及 差 别 而 存

    在 的 理 论 。 应 该 指 出 , 根 据 边 沁 和 奥 斯 丁 的 见 解 , “ 地 美 士

    第 ” 还 有 把 单 一 的 或 唯 一 的 命 令 从 法 律 中 区 分 开 来 的 特 性 。 真

    正 的 法 律 使 所 有 公 民 毫 无 差 别 地 一 致 遵 守 着 种 类 相 似 的 许 多

    条 例 ; 这 正 是 法 律 的 最 为 一 般 人 所 深 切 感 觉 到 的 特 征 , 使

    “ 法 律 ” 这 个 名 词 只 能 适 用 于 一 致 、 连 续 和 类 似 。 至 于 ·

    命令 只规 定 一 个 单 独 的 行 为 , 因 此 同 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 比 较 近 似 的 是 命令而不是法律 。 命 令 只 是 对 孤 立 的 事 实 状 态 的 宣 告 , 并 不 必然 地 按 照 一 定 的 顺 序 一 个 和 另 一 个 相 速 。

    英 雄 时 代 的 文 学 告 诉 我 们 的 法 律 萌 芽 , 一 种 是 “ 地 美 士第 ” , 还 有 一 种 是 在 稍 为 发 展 的 “ 达 克 ” 的 概 念 中 。 我 们 在 法律 学 史 上 达 到 的 下 一 个 阶 段 是 非 常 著 名 的 , 并 且 也 是 饶 有 兴趣 的 。 格 罗 脱 先 生 在 其 “ 希 腊 史 ” 第 二 篇 第 二 章 中 , 曾 把 已逐 渐 不 同 于 荷 马 所 纂绘的社 会 生 活 方 式 详 细 加 以 描 写 。英雄时 代 的 王 权 , 部 分 地 依 靠着神所赋与的特 权 , 部 分 地 依 靠着拥 有 出 类 拔 萃 的 体 力 、 勇 敢 和 智 慧 。 逐 渐 地 , 君 主 神 圣不可侵 犯 的 印 象 开 始 淡 薄 , 当 一 系 列 的 世 袭 国 王 中 产 生 了 柔 弱 无能 的 人 , 王 家 的 权 力 就 开 始 削 弱 , 并 且 终 于 让 位 于 贵 族 统 治 。如 果 我 们 可 以 正 确 地 应 用 革 命 的 术 语 , 则 我 们 可 以 说 , 王 位是 被 荷 马 一 再 提 到 的 和 加 以 描 写 的 领 袖 议 会 所 篡 夺 了 。 无 论如 何 , 在 欧 洲 各 地 , 这 时 已 经 从 国 王 统 治 时 代 转 变 到 一 个 寡头 政 治 时 代 ; 即 使 在 名 义 上 君 主 职 能 还 没 有 绝 对 消 失 ,然而王 权 已 缩 小 到 只 剩 下 一 个 暗 影 。 他 成 为 只 是 一 个 世 袭 将 军 , 像在 拉 栖 第 梦 ( L a c e d Em o n ) , 只 是 一 个 官 吏 , 像 雅 典 的 执 政 王(King Archon at Athens ) , 或 仅 仅 是 一 个 形 式 上 的 祭司 , 像 罗 马 的献身王 ( R e x   S a c r i f i c u l u s ) 。 在 希 腊 、 意 大 利和 小 亚 细 亚 , 统 治 阶 级 似 乎 一 般 都 包 括 着 由 一 种 假 定 的 血 缘关 系 结 合 在 一 起 的 许 多 家 族 , 他 们 虽 然 在 开 始 时 似 乎 都 主 张有 一 种 近 似 神 圣 的 性 质 , 但 他 们 的 力 量 在 实 际 上 却 并 不 在 于他 们 所 标 榜 的 神 圣 性 。 除 非 他 们 过 早 地 被 平 民 团 体 所 推 翻 , 他们 都 会 走 向 我 们 现 在 所 理 解 的 一 种 贵 族 政 治 。 在 更 远 一 些 的亚洲 国 家 , 社 会 所 遭 遇 的 变 革 , 在 时 间 上 , 当 然 要 比 意 大 利和 希 腊 所 发 生 的 这 些 革 命 早 得 多 ; 但 这 些 革 命 在 文 化 上 的 相对 地 位 , 则 似 乎 是 完 全 一 样 的 , 并 且 在 一 般 性 质 上 , 它 们 也似 乎 是 极 端 相 似 的 。 有 些 证 据 证 明 , 后 来 结 合 在 波 斯 王 朝 统治 下 的 各 个 民 族 以 及 散 居 在 印 度 半 岛 上 的 各 个 民 族 , 都 有 其英 雄 时 代 和 贵 族 政 治 时 代 ; 但 是 在 它 们 那 里 , 分 别 产 生 了 军事 的 寡 头 政 治 和 宗 教 的 寡 头 政 治 , 而 国 王 的 权 威 则 一 般 并没有 被 取 而 代 之 。 同 西 方 事 物 的 发 展 过 程 相 反 , 在 东 方 , 宗 教因 素 有 胜 过 军 事 因 素 和 政 治 因 素 的 倾 向 。 在 国 王 和 僧 侣阶级之间,军事和 民 事 的 贵 族 政 治 消 失 了 , 灭 绝 了 , 或 者 微 不 足道 ; 我 们 所 看 到 的 最 后 结 果 , 是 一 个 君 主 享 有 大 权 , 但是受到了祭 司 阶 级 的 特 权 的 拘 束 。 在 东 方 , 贵 族 政 治 成 为 宗 教 的 ,而 在 西 方 , 贵 族 政 治 成 为 民 事 的 或 政 治 的 , 虽 然 有 着 这些区别 , 但 是 , 在 一 个 英 雄 国 王 历 史 时 代 的 后 面 跟 着 来 了 一 个 贵族 政 治 的 历 史 时 代 , 这 样 一 个 命 题 是 可 以 被 认 为 正 确 的,纵使 并 不 对 于 全 人 类 都 是 如 此 , 但 无 论 如 何 , 对 于 印 度 — 欧 罗巴系 各 国 是 一 概 可 以 适 用 的 。

    有 一 点 对 于 法 学 家 很 重 要 , 就 是 这 些 贵 族 都 是 法 律 的 受托 人 和 执 行 人 。 他 们 似 乎 已 经 继 承 了 国 王 的 特 权 , 唯 一 的 重要 区 别 , 在 于 他 们 并 不 对 每 一 个 判 决 都 装 作 出 于 直 接 的 神 示 。主 张 全 部 法 律 或 是 部 分 法 律 来 自 神 授 的 思 想 联 系 , 仍 旧 到 处表 现 出 来 , 这 使 族 长 所 作 的 判 决 被 诿 诸 于 超 人 类 的 口 授 , 但是 思 想 的 进 步 已 不 复 允 许 把 个 别 争 议 的 解 决 , 用 假 定 一 种 超人 的 仲 裁 来 解 释 。 法 律 寡 头 政 治 现 在 所 主 张 的 是 要 垄 断 法 律知识 , 要 对 决 定 争 论 所 依 据 的 各 项 原 则 有 独 占 的 权 利 。 我 们在事 实 上 已 到 了 “ 习 惯 法 ” 的 时 代 。 “ 习 惯 ” 或 “ 惯 例 ” 现 在已 成 为 一 个 有 实 质 的 集 合 体 而 存 在 , 并 被 假 定 为 贵 族 阶 层 或阶 级 所 精 确 知 道 的 。 我 们 所 依 据 的 权 威 使 我 们 深 信 , 这 种 寄托 于 寡 头 政 治 的 信 任 有 时 不 免 要 被 滥 用 , 但 这 当 然 不 应 该 仅仅 视 为 一 种 僭 取 或 暴 政 的 手 段 。 在 文 字 发 明 以 前 , 以 及 当 这门 技 术 还 处 于 初 创 时 代 , 一 个 赋 与 司 法 特 权 的 贵 族 政 治 成 了唯 一 的 权 宜 手 段 , 依 靠 这 种 手 段 可 以 把 民 族 或 部 族 的 习 惯 相当 正 确 地 保 存 着 。 正 是 由 于 它 们 被 托 付 于 社 会 中 少 数 人 的 记忆 力 , 习 惯 的 真 实 性 才 能 尽 可 能 地 得 到 保 证。

    “习惯法” 以 及 它 为 一 个 特 权 阶 级 所 秘 藏 的 时 代 , 是 一 个很 值 得 注 意 的 时 代 。 这 个 时 代 的 法 律 学 处 于 怎 样 一 个 状 态 , 其残 留 痕 迹 到 现 在 仍 旧 可 以 在 法 律 的 和 民 间 的 用 语 中 发 现 。 这种 专 门 为 有 特 权 的 少 数 人 所 知 道 的 法 律 , 不 论 这 少 数 人是一个 等 级 , 一 个 贵 族 团 体 , 一 个 祭 司 团 体 , 或 者 一 个 僧侣学院,是 一 种 真 正 的 不 成 文 法 。 除 此 以 外 , 世 界 上 就 没 有 所 谓不成文 法 这 样 东 西 了 。 英 国 的 判 例 法 有 时 被 称 为 不 成 文 法,有些英 国 理 论 家 正 告 我 们 说 , 如 果 真 要 编 订 一 部 英 国 法 律 学 的 法

    典 , 我 们 必 须 把 不 成 文 法 变 为 成 文 法 — — 他 们 坚 持 说 , 这 一

    个 转 变 , 如 果 不 是 在 政 策 上 有 可 疑 之 处 , 无 论 如 何 , 是 非 常

    重 大 的 。 实 际 上 , 在 有 一 个 时 期 中 , 英 国 普 通 法 的 确 可 以 合

    理 地 称 为 不 成 文 法 。 前 一 辈 的 英 国 法 官 们 确 实 标 榜 着 具 有 为

    法 院 和 人 民 群 众 所 不 完 全 知 道 的 规 则 、 原 则 及 差 别 的 知 识 。 他

    们 要 垄 断 的 法 律 , 究 竟 是 不 是 完 全 不 成 文 的 , 是 非 常 可 疑 的 ;

    但 是 , 无 论 如 何 , 纵 使 可 以 假 定 过 去 确 实 曾 经 一 度 有 着 许 多

    专 门 为 法 官 们 所 知 道 的 民 事 和 刑 事 规 则 , 但 它 在 不 久 以 后 即已 不 再 成 为 不 成 文 法 了 。 在 “ 威 斯 敏 斯 特 法 院 ”开 始 根 据 档 案 , 不 论 是 根 据 年 鉴 或 是其 他 资 料 作 出 判 决 时 , 他 们 所 执 行 的 法 律 已 是 成 文 法 。 到 这个 时 候 英 国 法 律 中 任 何 一 条 规 则 , 必 须 首 先 从 印 成 的 许 多 判决 先 例 所 记 录 的 事 实 中 清 理 出 来 , 然 后 再 由 特 定 法 官 根 据 其不 同 的 风 格 、 精 确 度 以 及 知 识 而 表 现 于 不 同 的 文 字 形 式 中 , 最后 再 把 它 运 用 于 审 判 的 案 件 。 在 这 过 程 中 , 没 有 一 个 阶 段 显示 出 有 任 何 特 点 , 使 它 和 成 文 法 有 什 么 不 同 之 处 。 英 国 法 律是 成 文 的 判 例 法 , 它 和 法 典 法 的 唯 一 不 同 之 处 , 只 在 于 它 是用 不 同 的 方 法 写 成 的 。

    离 开 “ 习 惯 法 ” 时 代 , 我 们 再 来 谈 谈 法 律 学 史 上 另 一 明确 划 分 的 时 代 , 也 就 是 “ 法 典 ” 时 代 , 在 那 些 古 代 法 典 中 , 罗马 的 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 是 最 著 名 的 范 例 。 在 希 腊 、 在 意 大 利 、 在西 亚 的 希 腊 化 海 岸 上 , 这 些 法 典 几 乎 到 处 都 在 同 一 个 时 期 出现 , 这 所 谓 同 一 个 时 期 , 我 的 意 思 当 然 并 不 是 指 在 时 间 上 的同 一 个 时 期 , 而 是 说 在 每 一 个 社 会 相 对 地 进 步 到 类 似 的 情 况下 出 现 的 。 在 我 所 提 到 的 几 个 国 家 中 , 到 处 都 把 法 律 铭 刻 在石 碑 上 , 向 人 民 公 布 , 以 代 替 一 个 单 恁 有 特 权 的 寡 头 统 治 阶级 的 记 忆 的 惯 例 。 在 我 所 说 的 这 种 变 化 中 , 我 们 决 不 能 设 想当 时 已 有 了 现 代 编 纂 法 典 时 所 必 须 有 的 各 种 精 密 考 虑 。 毫 无疑 问 , 古 代 法 典 的 所 以 全 创 造 成 功 是 由 于 文 字 的 发 现 和 传 布 。诚 然 , 贵 族 们 似 乎 曾 经 滥 用 具 对 于 法 律 知 识 的 独 占 : 并 且 无论 如 何 , 他 们 对 于 法 律 的 独 占 有 力 地 阻 碍 了 当 时 在 西 方 世 界开 始 逐 渐 普 遍 的 那 些 平 民 运 动 获 得 成 功 。 不 过 虽 然 民 主 情 绪可 能 使 这 些 法 典 更 加 深 得 人 心 , 但 是 法 典 的 产 生 当 然 主 要 还是 由 于 文 字 发 明 的 直 接 结 果 。 铭 刻 的 石 碑 被 证 明 真 是 一 种 比较 好 的 法 律 保 存 者 , 并 且 是 一 种 使 其 正 确 保 存 的 更 好 保 证 , 这比 仅 仅 依 靠 着 少 数 人 的 记 忆 要 好 得 多 , 虽 然 这 种 记 忆 由 于 惯常 运 用 的 结 果 也 是 在 不 断 地 加 强 着 的 。

    罗 马 法 典 就 是 属 于 上 面 所 说 的 那 一 类 法 典 , 这 类 法 典 的价 值 不 在 于 其 分 类 比 较 匀 称 或 用 词 比 较 简 洁 明 了 , 而 在 于 它们 为 众 所 周 知 , 以 及 它 们 能 使 每 个 人 知 道 应 该 做 些 什 么 和 不应 该 做 些 什 么 的 知 识 。 罗 马 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 中 确 实 显 示 出有排 列 匀 稀 的 某 种 迹 象 ; 但 根 据 傅 说 , 这 可 能 是 由 于 当 时这个法 律 的 编 纂 者 曾 求 助 于 希 腊 人 , 这 些 希 腊 人 具 有 后 期希腊在编 纂 法 律 工 作 上 的 经 验 。 从 “ 核 伦 的 阿 提 喀 法 典 ” ( A t t i cC o d e   o f   S o l o n ) 所 遗 留 下 来 的 片 断 , 可 以 看 到 它 很 少 有秩序,而 在 “ 德 里 科 ” 的 法 律 ( L a w s   o f   D r a c o ) 中 也 许 更 少 。这 些 东 方 的 和 西 方 的 法 典 的 遗 迹 , 也 都 明 显 地 证 明 不 管它们的 主 要 性 质 是 如 何 的 不 同 , 它 们 中 间 都 混 杂 着 宗 教 的、民事的 以 及 仅 仅 是 道 德 的 各 种 命 令 ; 而 这 是 和 我 们 从 其 他 来源所知 道 的 古 代 思 想 完 全 一 致 的 , 至 于 把 法 律 从 道 德 中 分离出来,把 宗 教 从 法 律 中 分 离 出 来 , 则 非 常 明 显 是 属 于 智 力 发 展 的 较后 阶 段 的 事 。

    但 是 , 不 论 从 现 代 的 眼 光 看 来 这 些 “ 法 典 ” 的 特 点 是 什么 , 它 们 对 于 古 代 社 会 的 重 要 性 , 是 无 法 用 言 词 来 形 容 的 。 问题 — — 而 这 个 问 题 影 响 着 每 一 个 社 会 的 全 部 将 来 — — 并不在于 究 竟 该 不 该 有 一 个 法 典 , 因 为 大 多 数 古 代 社 会 似 乎 迟 早 都会 有 法 典 的 , 并 且 如 果 不 是 由 于 封 建 制 度 造 成 了 法 律 学史上重 要 的 中 断 , 则 所 有 的 现 代 法 律 很 可 能 都 将 明 显 地 追 溯 到 这些 渊 源 中 的 一 个 或 一 个 以 上 上 去 。 但 是 民 族 历 史的转 折 点 , 是要 看 在 哪 一 个 时 期 , 在 社 会 进 步 的 哪 一 个 阶 段 , 他 们应该把法 律 书 写 成 为 文 字 。 在 西 方 世 界 中 每 一 个 国 家 的 平 民 成分都成 功 地 击 溃 了 寡 头 政 治 的 垄 断 , 几 乎 普 遍 地 在 “ 共 和 政治”史的初期 就 获 得 了 一 个 法 典 。 但 是 在 东 方 , 像 我 已 在 前 面 说 过

    的 , 统 治 的 贵 族 们 逐 渐 倾 向 于 变 为 宗 教 的 而 不 是 军 事 的 或 政

    治 的 , 并 因 此 不 但 不 失 去 反 而 获 得 了 权 力 ; 同 时 , 在 有 些 事

    例 中 , 亚 细 亚 国 家 的 地 理 构 造 促 使 各 个 社 会 比 西 方 社 会 的 面

    积 更 大 , 人 口 更 多 ; 根 据 公 认 的 社 会 规 律 , 一 套 特 定 制 度 传

    布 的 空 间 越 广 , 它 的 韧 性 和 活 力 也 越 大 。 不 论 由 于 何 种 原 因 ,

    东 方 各 国 社 会 编 制 法 典 , 相 对 地 讲 , 要 比 西 方 国 家 迟 得 多 , 并

    且 有 很 不 相 同 的 性 质 。 亚 细 亚 的 宗 教 寡 头 , 或 者 是 为 了 他 们

    自 己 参 考 , 或 者 是 为 了 帮 助 记 忆 , 或 者 是 为 了 教 育 生 徒 , 都

    终 于 把 他 们 的 法 律 知 识 具 体 地 编 订 成 为 法 典 ; 但 也 许 促 使 他

    们 这 样 做 的 最 难 于 拒 绝 的诱力,还 在 于 这 是 一 个 可 以 增 加 和

    巩 固 他 们 影 响 的 机 会 。 他 们 完 全 垄 断 法 律 知 识 , 这 一 点 使 它

    们 能 用 汇 编 来 欺 骗 世 人 , 而 汇 编 中 所 包 括 的 确 实 已 被 遵 守 的规 则 , 还 不 及 祭 司 阶 级 认 为 应 当 被 遵 守 的 规 则 多 。 称 为 “ 摩奴 ” 法 律 的 印 度 法 典 , 当 然 是 婆 罗 门所 编 辑 的 ,无 疑 地 包 含 了 印 度 民 族 的 许 多 真 正的惯例,但根据现代最好的 东 方 学 者 的 见 解 , 整 个 讲 起 来 , 它 并 不 代 表 确 实 曾 经 在 印度 斯 坦 执 行 过 的 一 套 规 则 。 在 它 里 面 有 一 大 部 分 只 是 在 婆 罗门 的 眼 光 中应该 作 为 法 律 的 一 幅 理 想 图 画 。 这 是 和 人 类 的 性质 相 适 应 的 , 也 是 和 作 者 的 特 殊 动 机 相 一 致 的 : 即 像 “ 摩 奴法 典 ” 这 样 的 一 些 法 典 , 应 该 假 托 为 最 古 的 , 并 且 应 认 为 完全 从 “ 神 ” 得 来 的 。 按 照 印 度 的 神 话 学 , “ 摩 奴 ” 是 至 尊 “ 上帝 ” 的 一 种 分 出 物 ; 但 是 这 个 冠 以 他 的 名 称 的 汇 编 , 虽 然 其确 切 日 期 已 不 易 查 考 , 从 印 度 法 律 学 的 相 对 进 步 来 看 , 实 在是 一 种 近 代 的 产 品 。

    “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 以 及 类 似 的 法 典 赋 予 有 关 社 会 的 好 处 , 主要 是 保 护 这 些 社 会 使 它 们 不 受 有 特 权 的 寡 头 政 治 的 欺 诈 , 使国 家 制 度 不 致 自 发 地 腐 化 和 败 坏 。 “ 罗 马 法 典 ” 只 是 把 罗马人的 现 存 习 惯 表 述 于 文 字 中 。 从 罗 马 人 在 文 化 进 步 中 的 相 对 地位 来 看 , 它 是 一 非 常 早 的 法 典 , 而 它 公 布 的 时 间 , 正 当罗马社 会 还 没 有 从 这 样 一 种 智 力 状 态 中 脱 身 出 来 , 也 就 是 正 当 他们 的 智 力 状 态 还 处 在 政 治 和 宗 教 义 务 不 可 避 免 地 混 淆 在 一 起的 时 候 。 一 个 野 蛮 社 会 实 行 的 一 套 习 惯 , 往 往 对 其 文 化 进 步绝 对 有 害 或 有 某 种 特 殊 的 危 险 。 一 个 特 定 社 会 从 其 初 生 时 代和 在 其 原 始 状 态 就 已 经 采 用 的 一 些 惯 例 , 一 般 是 一 些 在 大体上 最 能 适 合 于 促 进 其 物 质 和 道 德 福 利 的 惯 例 ; 如 果 它 们 能 保持 其 完 整 性 , 以 至 新 的 社 会 需 要 培 养 出 新 的 惯 行 , 则 这个社会 几 乎 可 以 肯 定 是 向 上 发 展 的 。 但 不 幸 的 是 , 发 展 的 规 律始终 威 胁 着 要 影 响 这 些 不 成 文 的 惯 例 。 习 惯 是 为 群 众 所 遵 守 的 ,但 他 们 当 然 未 必 能 理 解 它 们 所 以 存 在 的 真 正 原 因 , 因 此 , 也

    就 不 可 避 免 地 要 创 造 出 迷 信 的 理 由 以 说 明 它 们 的 永 恒 存 在 。

    于 是 就 开 始 着 这 样 一 种 过 程 , 简 单 地 讲 , 就 是 从 合 理 的 惯 例

    产 生 出 不 合 理 的 惯 例 。 类 比 , 这 是 法 律 学 成 熟 时 期 中 最 有 价

    值 的 工 具 , 但 在 法 律 学 的 初 生 时 代 却 是 最 危 险 的 陷 阱 。 禁 令

    和 命 令 在 开 始 时 由 于 正 当 理 由 原 来 只 限 于 某 一 种 性 质 的 行

    为 , 后 来 就 被 适 用 于 属 于 同 一 类 别 的 一 切 行 为 , 因 为 一 个 人做 了一椿要受到 上 帝 谴 责 的 行 为 , 他 在 做 任 何 稍 有 些 类 似 的

    行 为 时 , 就 必 然 地 要 感 到 一 种 自 然 的 恐 惧 。 当 一 种 食 物 由 于

    卫 生 的 理 由 被 禁 止 , 禁 令 就 要 适 用 于 一 切 类 似 的 食 物 , 虽 然

    类 比 在 有 的 时 候 完 全 是 建 筑 在 想 象 的 基 础 上 的 。 同 样 的 , 为

    了 保 证 一 般 清 洁 而 作 出 的 明 智 的 规 定 , 终 于 竟 变 成 了 教 仪 上

    净 身 的 冗 繁 的 手 续 。 又 如 等 级 的 划 分 是 在 社 会 史 上 特 定 紧 急

    关 头 为 保 持 民 族 生 存 所 必 需 的 , 但 逐 渐 退 化 而 成 为 所 有 人 类一 切 制 度 中 最 不 幸 的 和 最 有 损 害 的 制 度 — — “ 族 籍 制 度 ”(C a s t e ) 。 印 度 法 的 命 运 , 在 事 实 上 , 是 衡 量 罗 马 法 典 价 值 的尺 度 。 人 种 学 告 诉 我 们 , 罗 马 人 与 印 度 人 来 自 同 一 个 原始祖先 , 而 在 他 们 的 原 来 习 惯 中 , 也 确 实 有 显 著 的 类 似 之处,即使 在 现 在 , 印 度 法 律 学 还 存 留 着 考 虑 周 到 和 判 断 正 确 的 实 体 ,只 是 不 合 理 的 摹 仿 已 使 它 在 实 体 上 面 附 加 着 残 酷 妄 诞 的 巨 大附 着 物 。 罗 马 人 由 于 得 到 了 法 典 的 保 护 , 没 有 受 到 这 一类腐蚀 。 在 它 编 纂 的 时 期 , 惯 例 还 是 很 健 康 的 , 如 果 推 迟 到 一 百年 以 后 , 或 许 就 太 迟 了 。 印 度 法 的 大 部 分 是 具 体 规 定 于文字中 的 , 但 是 , 在 “ 梵 文 ” 中 到 现 在 仍 旧 保 存 着的撮要 虽 然在一 种 意 义 上 是 很 古 的 , 但 在 它 们 中 间 有 充 分 证 据 , 证 明 它 们的 编 制 是 在 错 误 造 成 之 后 。 当 然 , 我 们 不 能 就 因 此 而 有 权 利说 , 如 果 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 没 有 公 布 , 罗 马 人 的 文 明 将 像 印 度文 明 那 样 地 无 力 和 恶 化 , 但 至 少 这 是 可 以 断 定 的 , 他 们有了 法 典 , 才 避 免 了 那 样 不 幸 的 遭 遇 。

    第二章 法律拟制

    当 原 始 法 律 一 经 制 成 “ 法 典 ” , 所 谓 法 律 自 发 的 发 展 , 便告 中 止 。 自 此 以 后 , 对 它 起 着 影 响 的 , 如 果 确 有 影 响 的 话 , 便都 是 有 意 的 和 来 自 外 界 的 。 。 我 们 不 能 设 想 , 任 何 民 族 或 部 族的 习 惯 , 从 一 个 族 长 把 它 们 宣 告 以 后 一 直 到 把 它 们 用 文 字 公布 为 止 在 这 一 个 长 久 的 — — 在 有 些 情 况 下 , 非 常 悠 久 的 — —期 间 内 , 会 一 无 变 更 。 如 果 认 为 在 这 个 期 间 以 内 的 任 何 变 更都 不 是 有 意 地 进 行 的 , 也 是 不 妥 当 的 。 但 就 我 们 对 于 这 个 时期 内 法 律 进 步 所 掌 握 的 一 些 知 识 来 说 , 我 们 确 有 理 由 假 定 , 在造 成 变 化 中 , 故 意 只 占 着 极 小 的 部 分 。 远 古 惯 例 中 曾 经 发 生过 一 些 改 革 , 但 促 使 这 些 改 革 发 生 的 情 感 作 用 和 思 想 方 式 , 却不 是 我 们 在 现 在 智 慧 状 态 下 所 能 理 解 的 。 但 是 , 有 了 “ 法典 ” 就 开 始 了 一 个 新 纪 元 。 在 这 时 期 以 后 , 当 我 们 追 溯 一 下法 律 变 更 的 经 过 时 , 我 们 就 能 发 现 这 些 变 更 都 是 出 于 一 种 要求 改 进 的 、 有 意 识 的 愿 望 , 或 者 无 论 如 何 , 是 出 于 一 种 具 有一 定 目 的 的 有 意 识 的 愿 望 , 这 同 原 始 时 代 所 企 求 的 完 全 不 同 。

    初 看 起 来 , 我 们 从 法 典 产 生 以 后 的 法 律 制 度 史 中 , 似 乎很 难 引 伸 出 来 足 以 深 信 不 疑 的 各 种 一 般 命 题 。 涉 及 的 领 域是太 广 泛 了 。 我 们 很 难 肯 定 , 在 我 们 的 观 察 中 是 否 已 包 括 了 足够 数 量 的 现 象 , 或 者 我 们 对 于 所 观 察 的 现 象 , 是 否 已 有了正确 的 理 解 。 但 如 果 我 们 注 意 到 , 在 法 典 时 代 开 始 后 , 静 止 的社 会 和 进 步 的 社 会 之 间 的 区 分 已 开 始 暴 露 出 来 的 事 实 , 我 们

    的 工 作 就 比 较 容 易 进 行 。 我 们 所 关 心 的 只 是 进 步 的 社 会 , 而

    这 类 社 会 显 然 是 极 端 少 数 的 。 虽 然 有 着 充 分 的 证 据 , 但 是 对

    于 一 个 西 欧 的 公 民 , 还 是 非 常 难 于 使 他 完 全 领 会 这 样 一 个 真

    理 , 即 环 绕 在 他 周 围 的 文 明 , 在 整 个 世 界 史 中 , 实 在 是 一 个

    罕 有 的 例 外 。 如 果 把 各 个 进 步 民 族 同 人 类 生 活 总 体 的 关 系 鲜

    明 地 放 在 我 们 的 前 面 , 则 我 们 中 间 共 有 的 思 想 感 情 , 我 们 所

    有 的 一 切 希 望 、 恐 惧 和 理 想 必 将 受 到 重 大 的 影 响 。 这 是 无 可

    争 辩 的 , 几 乎 绝 大 部 分 的 人 类 , 在 其 民 事 制 度 因 被 纳 入 某 种

    永 久 纪 录 中 而 第 一 次 使 其 具 有 外 表 上 的 完 善 性 时 , 就 绝 少 有

    表 示 要 再 加 以 改 进 的 愿 望 。 一 套 惯 例 有 时 被 另 外 一 套 惯 例 强

    暴 地 推 翻 和 代 替 了 ; 到 处 , 标 榜 着 来 自 超 自 然 渊 源 的 一 个 原

    始 法 典 , 往 往 由 于 僧 侣 注 释 者 的 牵 强 附 会 而 被 大 大 地 扩 大 了 ,

    并 被 歪 曲 成 为 最 可 惊 人 的 形 式 ; 但 是 , 除 了 世 界 上 极 小 部 分

    外 , 从 没 有 发 生 过 一 个 法 律 制 度 的 逐 渐 改 良 。 世 界 有 物 质 文

    明 , 但 不 是 文 明 发 展 法 律 , 而 是 法 律 限 制 着 文 明 。 研 究 现 在

    处 在 原 始 状 态 下 的 各 民 族 , 使 我 们 得 到 了 某 些 社 会 所 以 停 止

    发 展 的 线 索 。 我 们 可 以 看 到 , 婆 罗 门 教 的 印 度 还 没 有 超 过 所

    有 人 类 各 民 族 历 史 都 发 生 过 的 阶 段 , 就 是 法 律 的 统 治 尚 未 从

    宗 教 的 统 治 中 区 分 出 来 的 那 个 阶 段 。 在 这 类 社 会 中 的 成 员 , 认

    为 违 犯 了 一 条 宗 教 命 令 应 该 用 普 通 刑 罚 来 处 罚 , 而 违 背 了 一

    个 民 事 义 务 则 要 使 过 失 者 受 到 神 的 惩 戒 。 在 中 国 ,这 一 点 是

    过 去 了 , 但 进 步 又 似 乎 就 到 此 为 止 了 , 因 为 在 它 的民事法律中,同 时 又 包 括 了 这 个 民 族 所 可 能 想 象 到 的 一 切 观 念 。 静 止的 和 进 步 的 社 会 之 间 的 差 别 , 是 还 须 继 续 加 以 探 究 的 大 秘 密之 一 。 在 对 于 它 的 局 部 的 解 释 中 , 我 敢 把 上 章 之 末 所 提 出 的意 见 , 提 供 考 虑 。 我 也 许 必 须 进 一 度 说 明 , 如 果 不 明 白 地 理解 到 , 在 人 类 民 族 中 , 静 止 状 态 是 常 规 , 而 进 步 恰 恰 是 例 外 ,这 样 研 究 就 很 少 可 能 有 结 果 。 成 功 的 另 一 个 不 可 或 缺 的 条 件 ,是 对 于 罗 马 法 的 所 有 各 主 要 阶 段 , 都 要 有 精 确 的 知 识 。 罗 马法 律 学 中 , 有 着 任 何 一 套 人 类 制 度 中 最 长 久 著 名 的 历 史 。 它所 经 历 的 一 切 变 化 的 性 质 , 已 经 在 大 体 上 得 到 很 好 的 肯 定 。 从它 的 开 始 到 它 的 结 束 , 它 是 逐 步 地 改 变 得 更 好 , 或 向 着 修 改者 所 认 为 更 好 的 方 向 发 展 , 而 且 改 进 是 在 各 个 时 期 中 不 断 地进 行 着 的 , 在 这 些 时 期 中 , 所 有 其 余 的 人 类 的 思 想 和 行 动 , 在实 质 上 都 已 经 放 慢 了 脚 步 , 并 且 不 止 一 次 地 陷 于 完 全 停 滞 不前 的 状 态 。

    我 将 把 我 的 叙 述 局 限 于 进 步 社 会 中 所 发 生 的 情 况 。 关于这 些 社 会 , 可 以 这 样 说 , 社 会 的 需 要 和 社 会 的 意 见 常 常 是或多或少 走 在 “ 法 律 ” 的 前 面 的 。 我 们 可 能 非 常 接 近 地 达 到 它们 之 间 缺 口 的 接 合 处 , 但 永 远 存 在 的 趋 向 是 要 把 这 缺 口 重 新

    打 开 来 。 因 为 法 律 是 稳 定 的 ; 而 我 们 所 谈 到 的 社 会 是 进 步 的 ,

    人 民 幸 福 的 或 大 或 小 , 完 全 决 定 于 缺 口 缩 小 的 快 慢 程 度 。

    关 于 使 “ 法 律 ” 和 社 会 相 协 调 的 媒 介 , 有 一 个 有 些 价 值

    的 一 般 命 题 可 以 提 出 。 据 我 看 来 , 这 些 手 段 有 三 , 即 “ 法 律

    拟 制 ” 、 “ 衡 平 ” 和 “ 立 法 ” 。 它 们 的 历 史 顺 序 就 像 我 在 上 面 所

    排 列 的 , 有 时 , 其 中 两 个 在 同 时 进 行 , 也 有 些 法 律 制 度 没 有

    受 到 它 们 中 的 这 一 个 或 另 一 个 的 影 响 。 但 我 从 没 有 看 到 过 一

    个 例 子 , 它 们 出 现 的 顺 序 会 是 不 同 的 或 颠 倒 过 来 的 。 “ 衡 平 ”

    的 早 期 历 史 , 一 般 讲 起 来 , 都 是 比 较 模 糊 的 , 因 此 , 有 人 以为 某 些 改 进 民 法 的 单 独 条 例 , 就 早 于 任 何 衡 平 的 审 判 权 。 我

    的 意 见 是 , 不 论 任 何 地 方 , 补 救 的 “ 衡 平 ” 必 早 于 补 救 的 立

    法 ; 但 是 , 倘 使 事 实 上 并 不 严 格 地 是 这 样 , 那 就 只 须 把 关 于

    它 们 先 后 顺 序 的 命 题 局 限 于 那 些 时 期 , 即 , 它 们 在 改 变 原 始法 律 中 发 生 持 续 和 实 质 影 响 的 时 期 内 。

    我 在 应 用 “ 拟 制 ” 这 个 字 时 , 其 含 意 比 英 国 法 学 家 习 用的 意 义 要 广 泛 一 些 , 比 罗 马 的 “ 拟 制 ” ( f i c t i o n e s ) 则 要 广 泛得 多 。 “ 拟 制 ” ( f i c t i o ) 在 旧 罗 马 法 中 , 恰 当 地 讲 , 是 一 个 辩诉 的 名 词 , 表 示 原 告 一 方 的 虚 伪 证 言 是 不 准 被 告 反 驳 的 ; 例如 原 告 实 际 上 是 一 个 外 国 人 而 提 出 他 是 一 个 罗 马 公 民 的 证 言是 。 这 种 “ 拟 制 ” 的 目 的 , 当 然 是 为 了 给 予 审 判 权 , 因 此,他们 与 英 国 后 座 法 院 和 理 财 法 院 命 令 状 中 的 主 张 非 常 类 似 , 这些 法 院 就 是 通 过 这 些 主 张 来 剥 夺 普 通 诉 证 的 审 判 权 的 ; — —主 张 被 告 已 为 国 王 执 行 官 所 拘 留 , 或 是 主 张 原 告 为 国 王 的 债务 人 , 并 以 被 告 的 拖 欠 为 理 由 而 不 能 清 偿 债 务 。 但 我 现 在应用 “ 法 律 拟 制 ” 这 一 个 用 语 , 是 要 用 以 表 示 掩 盖 、 或 目 的 在

    掩 盖 一 条 法 律 规 定 已 经 发 生 变 化 这 事 实 的 任 何 假 定 , 其 时 法

    律 的 文 字 并 没 有 被 改 变 , 但 其 运 用 则 已 经 发 生 了 变 化 。 因 此 ,

    这 个 用 语 包 括 了 上 面 我 从 英 国 法 和 罗 马 法 中 所 引 证 的 拟 制 的

    实 例 , 但 是 它 们 所 包 括 的 范 围 还 要 广 泛 得 多 , 因 为 我 认 为 英

    国 的 “ 判 例 法 ” 和 罗 马 的 “ 法 律 解 答 ” ( R e s p o n s a Pr u d e n t i u m ) 都 是 以 拟 制 为 其 基 础 的 。 这 两 方 面 的 例 子 立 刻就 要 加 以 研 究 。

    事实 是 , 在 这 两 种 情 况 下,法 律 都 已 经 完 全 被 变 更 了 ; 而拟制 是 它 仍 旧 和 改 变 以 前 一 样 。 为 什 么 各 种 不 同 形 式 的 拟 制 特 别 适 合 于 社 会 的 新 生 时 代 , 这 是 不 难 理 解 的 。

    它 们 能 满 足 并 不 十 分 缺 乏 的 改 进 的 愿 望 , 而 同 时 又 可 以 不 触

    犯 当 时 始 终 存 在 的 、 对 于 变 更 的 迷 信 般 的 嫌 恶 。 在 社 会 进 步

    到 了 一 定 阶 段 时 , 它 们 是 克 服 法 律 严 格 性 最 有 价 值 的 权 宜 办

    法 。 真 的 , 如 果 没 有 其 中 之 一 , 即 “ 收 养 的 拟 制 ” , 准 许 人 为

    地 产 生 血 缘 关 系 , 就 很 难 理 解 社 会 怎 样 能 脱 出 其 襁 褓 而 开 始

    其 向 文 明 前 进 的 第 一 步 。 因 此 , 我 们 不 应 该 受 着 边 沁 的 影 响 ,

    他 一 遇 到 法 律 拟 制 就 要 加 以 嘲 笑 谩 骂 。 他 认 为 拟 制 只 是 诈 欺 ,

    这 适 足 以 说 明 对 于 它 们 在 法 律 发 展 史 中 所 担 任 的 特 殊 任 务 ,

    愚 昧 无 知 。 但 同 时 有 些 理 论 家 看 到 了 拟 制 的 用 处 , 即 据 而 认

    为 它 们 应 该 在 我 们 制 度 中 固 定 下 来 , 如 果 我 们 同 意 他 们 的 见

    解 , 也 同 样 的 是 愚 蠢 的 。 它 们 有 它 们 的 时 代 , 但 是 它 们 的 时

    代 早 已 过 去 了 。 我 们 现 在 已 不 值 得 要 去 用 像 法 律 拟 制 这 样 一

    种 粗 糙 的 方 式 以 求 达 到 一 个 公 认 为 有 益 的 目 的 。 我 不 能 承 认

    任 何 变 例 都 是 合 法 的 , 如 果 它 只 有 使 法 律 更 难 解 , 或 者 是 更

    难 按 照 和 谐 的 顺 序 排 列 起 来 , 因 为 , 法 律 拟 制 是 均 称 分 类 的

    最 大 障 碍 。 法 律 制 度 仍 旧 保 持 原 样 , 原 封 不 动 , 但 它 已 只 成

    为 一 个 躯 壳 。 它 已 经 早 被 破 坏 了 , 而 藏 在 其 外 衣 里 面 的 则 是

    新 的 规 定 。 于 是 , 困 难 就 立 刻 发 生 了 , 我 们 将 很 难 断 定 , 实

    际 上 可 以 适 用 的 规 定 究 竟 应 该 归 类 于 其 真 正 的 还 是 归 类 于 其

    表 面 的 地 位 , 同 时 , 禀 性 不 同 的 人 在 不 同 的 部 门 中 进 行 选 择

    时 , 也 将 得 到 不 同 的 结 果 。 如 果 英 国 法 真 要 得 到 有 秩 序 的 分门 别 类 , 那 就 必 须 剪 除 这 些 法 律 拟 制 , 虽 然 最 近 在 立 法上有所 改 进 , 但 在 英 国 法 律 中 , 拟 制 仍 旧 是 很 多的。

    法 律 用 以 适 应 社 会 需 要 的 其 次 一 个 手 段 , 我 称 之 为 “ 衡平 ” ( E q u i t y ) 。 这 个 名 词 的 含 义 , 是 指 同 原 有 民 法 同 时 存 在 的某 一 些 规 定 , 它 们 建 筑 在 各 别 原 则 的 基 础 上 , 并 且 由 于 这 些原 则 所 固 有 的 一 种 无 上 神 圣 性 , 它 们 竟 然 可 以 代 替 民 法 。 不论 是 罗 马 的 “ 裁 判 官 ” 或 是 英 国 的 大 法 官 的 “ 衡 平 ” , 同 出 现比 较 早 的 “ 拟 制 ” 都 有 不 同 , 其 不 同 之 点 在 于 它 能 公 开 地 、 明

    白 地 干 涉 法 律 。 另 一 方 面 , 它 又 和 “ 立 法 ” 不 同 , 这 是 发 生

    在 它 之 后 的 另 外 一 种 法 律 改 进 的 媒 介 , 其 不 同 之 点 在 于 它 的

    权 力 基 础 并 不 建 筑 在 任 何 外 界 的 人 或 团 体 的 特 权 上 面 , 甚 至

    也 不 建 筑 在 宣 布 它 的 官 吏 的 特 权 上 面 , 而 是 建 筑 在 它 原 则 的

    特 殊 性 上 面 , 这 些 原 则 , 据 说 是 一 切 法 律 应 该 加 以 遵 循 的 。 这

    种 认 为 有 一 套 原 则 比 普 通 法 律 具 有 更 高 的 神 圣 性 并 且 可 以 不

    经 任 何 外 界 团 体 的 同 意 而 主 张 单 独 适 用 的 概 念 , 要 比 法 律 拟制 最 初 出 现 时 属 于 进 步 得 多 的 一 个 思 想 阶 段 。

    最 后 一 个 改 进 的 手 段 是 “ 立 法 ” ( L e g i s l a t i o n ) , 就 是 由 一个 立 法 机 关 制 定 的 法 规 。 这 种 立 法 机 关 , 不 论 它 的 形 式 是 一个 专 制 君 主 或 是 一 个 议 会 , 总 之 是 一 个 为 社 会 所 公 认 的 机 关 。

    它 和 “ 法 律 拟 制 ” 不 同 , 正 像 “ 衡 平 ” 和 “ 法 律 拟 制 ” 不 同一 样 。 它 和 “ 衡 平 ” 也 有 不 同 , 因 为 它 的 权 威 来 自 一 个 外 界团 体 或 人 。 它 所 以 有 强 制 力 , 与 其 原 则 无 关 。 不 论 社 会 舆 论对 立 法 机 关 加 以 任 何 现 实 的 约 束 , 在 理 论 上 , 它 有 权 把 它 所认 为 适 宜 的 义 务 加 在 社 会 的 成 员 身 上 。 没 有 谁 能 够 限 制 它 任意 制 定 法 律 。 如 果 衡 平 的 名 词 可 以 用 作 是 或 非 的 标 准 , 而 立法 机 关 所 制 定 的 法 规 恰 巧 是 根 据 了 这 些 标 准 而 调 整 的 , 则 立法 可 以 说 是 根 据 了 衡 平 而 制 定 的 ; 但 即 使 是 这 样 , 这 些 法 规所 以 能 有 拘 束 力 , 仍 旧 是 由 于 立 法 机 关 本 身 的 权 力 , 并 不 是由 于 立 法 机 关 制 定 法 律 所 根 据 的 原 则 的 权 力 。 因 此 , 它 们 在专 门 术 语 的 意 义 上 与 “ 衡 平 法 ” 不 同 , 后 者 标 榜 着 有 一 种 高度 的 神 圣 性 , 这 使 它 们 即 使 没 有 经 过 君 主 或 议 会 同 意 , 也 应该 为 法 院 立 即 承 认 。 这 些 差 别 特 别 重 要 , 因 为 一 个 边 沁 的 学生 很 容 易 把 “ 拟 制 ” 、 “ 衡 平 ” 和 “ 制 定 法 ” 混 淆 起 来 , 把 它们 统 统 归 属 于 立 法 的 一 个 项 目 下 。 他 会 说 , 它 们 都 包 括制定法律 ; 它 们 之 所 以 不 同 , 只 是 在 新 法 律 产 生 的 机 构 。 这 个 说法 是 完 全 正 确 的 , 我 们 永 远 不 应 该 忘 记 ; 但 这 并 不 使 我 们 有理 由 不 去 利 用 这 样 一 个 便 利 的 名 词 , 表 达 出 立 法 的 特 殊 意 义 。“ 立 法 ” 与 “ 衡 平 ” 在 一 般 人 的 心 目 中 和 在 大 多 数 法 律 家 的 心目 中 , 是 分 开 的 ; 我 们 决 不 能 忽 略 它 们 之 间 的 区 分 , 纵 使 是习 惯 上 的 区 分 , 因 为 这 个 区 分 有 着 重 要 的 实 际 后 果 。

    法律拟制的 例 子 , 几 乎 可 以 很 容 易 地 在 任 何 正 常 发 展 的法 律 规 定 中 找 到 , 因 为 它 们 的 真 正 性 质 立 刻 可 以 为 现 代 观 察者 所 发 觉 。 在 我 即 将 进 而 研 究 的 两 个 例 子 中 , 其 所 用 权 宜 的性 质 不 是 很 容 易 立 刻 就 发 现 的 。 这 些 拟 制 的 第 一 批 作 者 , 其目 的 也 许 并 不 在 改 革 , 当 然 更 不 希 望 被 人 怀 疑 是 在 改 革 。 此外 , 有 一 些 人 , 并 且 是 始 终 有 着 这 样 一 些 人 , 拒 绝 看 到在发展 过 程 中 的 任 何 拟 制 , 而 习 惯 言 语 证 实 了 他 们 的 拒 绝 。因此,没 有 其 他 的 例 子 能 够 被 更 好 地 用 来 说 明 法 律 拟 制 的 分 布广泛 , 以 及 它 们 在 完 成 其 双 重 任 务 , 即 一 方 面 改 变 一 个 法律制度 , 而 另 一 方 面 又 掩 盖 这 种 改 变 时 所 有 的 效 率 。

    我 们 在 英 国 惯 常 看 到 有 一 种 机 构 , 在 扩 大 、 变 更 和 改 进法 律 。 但 在 理 论 上 这 种 机 构 原 是 不 能 改 变 现 存 法 律 一 丝 一毫的 。 这 种 用 以 完 成 实 际 立 法 工 作 的 过 程 , 并 非 是 不 可 感知的,只 是 不 被 承 认 而 已 。 关 于 包 括 在 判 例 中 和 记 录 在 法 律 报 告 中的 我 们 大 部 分 的 法 律 制 度 , 我 们 习 惯 于 用 一 种 双 重 言 语 , 并

    往 往 持 有 一 种 双 重 的 互 不 一 致 的 两 套 观 念 。 当 有 一 些 事 实 被

    提 出 于 英 国 法 院 请 求 审 判 时 , 在 法 官 与 辩 护 人 之 间 进 行 讨 论

    的 全 部 进 程 中 , 决 不 会 、 也 决 不 可 能 提 出 要 在 旧 的 原 则 之 外

    应 用 其 他 任 何 原 则 , 或 者 除 早 已 允 许 的 差 别 外 应 用 任 何 差 别

    的 问 题 。 被 绝 对 地 认 为 当 然 的 , 是 在 某 些 地 方 , 必 然 会 有 这

    样 一 条 法 律 能 够 包 括 现 在 诉 诸 法 律 以 求 解 决 的 事 实 , 如 果 不

    能 发 现 这 样 一 条 法 律 , 那 只 是 由 于 缺 乏 必 要 的 耐 性 、 知 识 或

    智 力 把 它 发 现 而 已 。 但 是 一 当 判 决 被 宣 告 并 列 入 纪 录 以 后 , 我

    们 就 不 自 觉 地 、 不 公 开 地 潜 入 到 一 种 新 的 言 语 和 一 串 新 的 思

    想 中 。 到 这 时 , 我 们 不 得 不 承 认 新 的 判 决已经 改 变 了 法 律 。 如

    果 我 们 用 有 时 被 应 用 的 一 个 非 常 不 正 确 的 说 法 , 那 就 是 可 以

    适 用 的 规 定 已 经 成 为 比 较 有 弹 性 的 了 。 事 实 上 , 它 们 已 经 发

    生 变 化 。 在 已 有 的 先 例 中 , 现 在 已 显 然 地 多 了 一 条 , 比 较 各

    个 先 例 而 得 出 的 法 律 准 则 , 必 将 和 仅 仅 从 一 个 例 子 所 能 得 到

    的 法 律 准 则 完 全 不 同 。 旧 的 规 定 已 经 被 废 除 , 而 一 个 新 的 规

    定 已 被 用 来 代 替 它 , 但 这 个 事 实 往 往 不 容 易 觉 察 , 因 为 们 们

    不 习 惯 于 把 我 们 从 先 例 中 引 伸 出 来 的 法 律 公 式 用 正 确 的 文 字

    表 现 出 来 , 因 此 , 它 们 性 质 的 改 变 , 除 非 是 剧 烈 而 明 显 的 以

    外 , 就 不 很 容 易 被 发 觉 了 。 我 现 在 不 打 算 停 下 来 详 细 讨 论 使

    英 国 法 学 家 同 意 这 些 古 怪 变 例 的 原 因 。 情 况 可 能 是 这 样 的 , 即

    原 来 可 能 有 一 条 公 认 的 学 说 , 认 为 在 某 些 地 方 ,在太虚幻境中 (in nu b i b u s ) 或 者在官吏的胸怀中 ( i n   g r e m i o   m a g i s At r a t u u m ) , 有 着 一 套 完 全 的 、 有 条 理 的 、 匀 称 的 英 国 法 律 , 其内 容 广 泛 , 足 以 提 供 各 种 原 则 以 适 用 于 任 何 可 以 想 象 到 的 一组 情 况 。 这 个 理 论 在 当 初 比 在 现 在 更 为 人 们 深 信 不 疑 , 并 且

    这 也 许 真 正 有 很 好 的 根 据 。 十 三 世 纪 的 法 官 们 也 许 的 确 掌 握

    着 一 些 为 律 师 和 一 般 人 民 所 不 知 道 的 法 律 宝 藏 , 因 为 我 们 有

    理 由 怀 疑 他 们 秘 密 地 从 罗 马 法 和 “ 寺 院 法 ” 的 流 行 纲 要 中 任

    意 地 但 不 一 定 是 始 终 聪 明 地 套 用 着 一 些 东 西 。 但 是 当 韦 斯 敏

    斯 德 法 院 所 判 决 的 问 题 逐 渐 增 加 , 足 以 组 成 一 个 独 立 存 在 的

    法 律 制 度 基 础 时 , 这 个 仓 库 就 被 封 闭 ; 而 现 在 , 几 世 纪 以 来 ,

    英 国 法 律 学 者 竟 然 提 出 了 这 样 一 个 自 相 矛 盾 的 命 题 , 认 为 除

    “ 衡 平 法 ” 和 “ 制 定 法 ” 以 外 , 在 英 国 法 的 基 础 上 , 从 它 第 一

    次 形 成 的 时 候 起 , 就 没 有 什 么 东 西 加 上 去 过 。 我 们 不 承 认 我

    们 的 法 庭 从 事 于 立 法 工 作 ; 我 们 暗 示 着 , 它 们 从 来 没 有 做 过

    立 法 工 作 ; 然 而 我 们 又 主 张 , 英 国 普 通 法 的 规 定 , 在 衡 平 法

    院 和 国 会 的 帮 助 下 , 是 可 以 同 现 代 社 会 的 复 杂 利 益 相 适 应 的 。

    在 罗 马 有 一 种 法 律 , 具 有 非 常 类 似 我 们 判 例 法 中 我 所 说的 那 些 特 点 的 , 称 为 “ 法 律 解 答 ” , 即 “ 法 学 家 的 回 答 ” 。 这些 “ 解 答 ” 的 形 式 , 在 罗 马 法 律 学 的 各 个 时 期 中 有 极 大 的不同 , 但 自 始 至 终 它 们 都 是 由 对 权 威 文 件 的 注 解 组 成 的 , 而 在最 初 , 它 们 只 是 解 释 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 的 各 种 意 见 的 专 门 性的汇 编 。 同 我 们 一 样 , 在 这 些 解 答 中 所 有 的 法 律 用 语 都 从 这 样一 个 假 设 出 发 , 即 古 代 “ 法 典 ” 的 原 文 应 被 保 存 不 变 。 这就是 明 白 的 规 定 。 它 废 止 了 一 切 注 解 和 评 注 , 并 且 不 论 解 释 者是 如 何 的 优 秀 , 对 于 法 典 的 任 何 解 释 , 在 参 照 古 老 的 原文时,没 有 人 敢 公 开 承 认 , 他 所 作 的 解 释 不 会 发 生 修 正 。 但 在 事 实上 , 冠 以 重 要 法 学 专 家名 字 的 “ 法 律 解 答 汇编 ”,至 少 具 有 与 我 们 报 告 案 件 同 样的 威 权 , 并 且 不 断 地 变 更 、 扩 大 、 限 制 或 在 实 际 上 废 弃 “ 十二 铜 表 法 ” 的 规 定 。 在 新 法 律 学 逐 步 形 成 的 过 程 中 , 它 的 作者 们 自 认 为 非 常 专 心 地 尊 重 着 “ 法 典 ” 的 原 来 文 字 。 他 们 只是在 解 释 它 , 阐 明 它 , 引 伸 其 全 部 含 义 ; 但 其 结 果 , 通 过 把

    原 文 凑 合 在 一 起 , 通 过 把 法 律 加 以 调 整 使 适 应 于 确 实 发 生 的

    事 实 状 态 以 及 通 过 推 测 其 可 能 适 用 于 或 许 要 发 生 的 其 他 事 实

    状 态 , 通 过 介 绍 他 们 从 其 他 文 件 注 释 中 看 到 的 解 释 原 则 , 他

    们 引 伸 出 来 大 量 的 多 种 多 样 的 法 律 准 则 , 为 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 的

    编 纂 者 所 梦 想 不 到 的 , 并 且 在 实 际 上 是 很 难 或 者 不 能 在 其 中

    找 到 的 。 法 学 专 家 的 全 部 论 文 都 受 到 尊 重 , 因 为 它 们 是 被 假

    定 为 完 全 符 合 “ 法 典 ” 的 , 但 它 们 的 相 当 高 的 权 威 是 植 基 在

    把 它 们 公 诸 于 世 的 各 个 法 学 专 家 的 声 望 上 的 。 凡 是 举 世 公 认

    为 伟 大 的 任 何 名 字 , 必 使 一 本 “ 法 律 解 答 汇 编 ” 具 有 一 种 不

    小 于 立 法 机 关 制 定 法 规 所 有 的 拘 束 力 ; 而 这 样 一 本 汇 编 的 本

    身 又 成 为 更 进 一 步 的 法 律 学 所 根 据 的 新 基 础 。 但 是 , 早 期 法

    学 家 的 “ 解 答 ” 并 不 由 原 著 者 像 现 在 那 样 印 行 的 。 它 们 由 其

    学 生 加 以 记 录 和 编 辑 , 因 此 , 多 半 都 不 是 按 照 任 何 分 类 方 法

    排 列 的 。 学 生 们 在 这 些 出 版 物 中 所 处 的 地 位 , 应 加 特 别 注 意 ,

    因 为 他 们 对 老 师 服 务 , 一 般 都 因 老 师 对 学 生 孜 孜 不 倦 的 教 育

    而 得 到 补 偿 。 被 称 为 “ 法 学 教 典 ” 或 “ 评 释 ”(C o m m e n t a r i e s ) 的 教 育 论 文 为 当 时 承 认 的 义 务 的 一 种 后 来果 实 , 是 罗 马 制 度 中 最 显 著 的 特 色 之 一 。 至 于 法 学 专 家 们 公诸 于 世 的 他 们 的 分 类 法 以 及 他 们 对 于 变 更 和 改 进 专 门 术 语 的建 议 , 显 然 不 是 在 他 们 用 以 训 练 法 学 家 的 解 答 中 , 而 是 在 这些 涉 及 原 理 的 作 品 中 。

    在 把 罗 马 的 “ 法 律 解 答 ” 同 英 国 法 律 中 最 相 近 的 相 应 部分 进 行 比 较 时 , 我 们 必 须 牢 记 着 , 说 明 罗 马 这 一 部 分 法 律 学的 权 威 者 不 是法院 而 是律师 。 罗 马 法 庭 的 判 决 虽 然 在 特 定 案件 中 是 终 局 的 判 决 , 但 除 了 当 时 承 审 官 吏 在 职 位 上 极 有威信者外 , 并 无 使 它 可 以 适 用 于 其 他 案 件 的 权 力 。 更 确 当 地 讲,在共 和 时 期 内 罗 马 并 没 有 和 英 国 法 院 、 日 耳 曼 帝 国 审 判院或法兰 西 君 主 国 高 等 审 判 厅 相 类 似 的 机 构 。 罗 马 有 许 多 高 级官吏在 其 各 该 部 门 中 都 握 有 重 要 的 司 法 职 能 , 但 他 们 的 官 职 任 期只 有 一 年 , 因 此 它 们 不 能 与 一 个 永 久 的 裁 判 所 相 比 , 只 能 作为 在 律 师 领 袖 中 间 迅 速 地 流 转 着 的 一 个 循 环 职 位 。 对 这种奇特 状 态 的 来 源 , 可 能 有 很 多 的 说 明 , 在 我 们 看 来 是 一种可惊的 变 例 , 但 是 事 实 上 , 它 比 我 们 自 己 的 制 度 更 能 适 合 于 古 代社 会 精 神 , 因 为 这 种 社 会 常 常 不 断 地 分 裂 为 许 多 各 别 的 阶 级 ,在 它 们 之 间 虽 然 互 不 往 来 , 但 却 都 不 愿 在 他 们 上 面 有 一 个 职业 的 教 阶 组 织 存 在 。

    值 得 注 意 的 是 , 这 种 制 度 并 没 有 产 生 某 种 很 可 能 会 产 生的 结 果 。 例 如 , 它 并 没 有 使 罗 马 法通俗化— — 它 没 有 像 有 些希 腊 共 和 国 那 样 削 弱 知 识 分 子 精 通 这 门 科 学 所 需 要 的 努力,虽 然 并 没 有 人 为 的 障 碍 阻 碍 其 普 及 和 作 权 威 的 解 释。相反的,如 果 不 是 由 于 其 他 许 多 原 因 在 发 生 作 用 , 那 就 非 常 可 能,这种 罗 马 法 律 学 就 会 成 为 琐 细 、 专 门 和 难 以 解 释 的 东 西,像从那 时 候 起 流 行 着 的 任 何 制 度 一 样 。 其 次 , 另 外 有 一 种 可能更加 自 然 地 预 期 会 发 生 的 后 果 , 却 没 有 在 任 何 时 期 中 表显出来 。直到 罗 马 的 共 和 政 权 被 颠 复 时 , 法 学 专 家 还 只 是 一 个 界 限不十 分 明 显 并 在 数 量 上 有 很 大 消 长 的 阶 级 ; 虽 然 , 他 们 之 中 任何 特 定 的 个 人 , 对 于 在 他 们 面 前 提 出 的 任 何 案 件 能 发 表 终 局的 意 见 , 则 似 乎 从 来 就 没 有 发 生 过 疑 问 。 在 拉 丁 文 学 中,有大 量 的 关 于 著 名 法 学 专 家 日 常 活 动 的 生 动 描 写 — — 从全 国 各地 蜂 拥 而 来 的 当 事 人 在 清 晨 到 达 他 的 接 待 室 , 他 的 学 生环 立在 周 围 , 手 里 都 拿 着 笔 记 簿 , 记 录 着 这 伟 大 法 学 家 的 回 答——,但 这 样 描 写 的 著 名 人 物 在 任 何 既 定 时 期 内 , 很 少 或 从来 没 有 超 过 一 个 或 二 个 人 的 。 同 时 正 由 于 当 事 人 和 辩 护人的

    直 接 接 触 , 罗 马 人 民 也 就 似 乎 经 常 注 意 着 职 业 威 信 的 升 降 。 现

    在 有 充 分 的 证 据 , 特 别 是 在 西 塞 罗的 著 名 演 讲 “ 为黑 罗 那 辩 ” ( Pro M u r En a ) 中 , 证 明 群 众 对 于 胜 诉 的 重 视 往往不 是 不 够 而 是 过 度 的 。

    我 们 毫 不 怀 疑 , 我 们 在 罗 马 法 最 早 依 靠 了 它 而 得 以 发 展的 这 种 手 段 中 所 发 现 的 各 种 特 点 , 就 是 使 罗 马 法 独 特 卓 越的渊 源 , 也 是 使 它 很 早 就 能 有 丰 富 原 则 的 渊 源 。 原 则 的 成长和茂 盛 , 部 分 地 是 法 律 注 释 者 之 间 的 竞 争 所 造 成 的 , 而这种竞争 , 在 有 法 院 的 地 方 , 即 有 国 王 或 政 府 授 以 司 法 特 权 的 受 托人 的 地 方 , 是 不 被 人 们 所 完 全 知 道 的 。 但 是 主 要 的 媒 介 ,无疑 地 还 在 于 提 请 法 律 判 决 的 各 种 案 件 的 无 限 制 地 大 量 增加。有 些 事 实 状 态 虽 会 使 一 个 乡 村 当 事 人 真 诚 地 感 到 不 知 所 措,但 这 些 事 实 状 态 对 于 形 成 法 学 专 家 “ 解 答 ” 或 法 律 判 决基础的 价 值 , 还 不 如 一 个 有 才 智 的 学 生 所 提 出 的 各 种 假 设情况。成千 成 百 的 事 实 , 不 论 是 真 的 或 是 出 于 想 象 的 , 都 被 一 律 看 待 。

    对 于 一 个 法 学 专 家 , 如 果 他 的 意 见 为 审 判 其 当 事 人 案 件 的 官

    吏 暂 时 废 弃 , 他 会 毫 不 介 意 , 除 非 这 个 官 吏 的 法 律 知 识 或 在

    专 业 上 受 到 的 尊 敬 都 恰 恰 高 过 于 他 。 当 然 , 我 的 意 思 并 不 是说 他 会 完 全 不 考 虑 其 当 事 人 的 利 益 , 因 为 , 这 些 当 事 人 在 较早 时 期 就 是 大 律 师 的 选 举 人 , 到 后 来 才 成 为 他 的 付 款 人 的 , 但

    是 , 一 个 法 学 专 家 走 向 成 功 之 路 要 依 靠 他 的 公 会 的 好 评 ; 显

    然 , 在 我 所 描 写 的 这 样 一 个 制 度 下 , 要 达 到 这 样 一 个 结 果 , 就

    必 须 把 每 一 个 案 件 作 为 一 条 重 大 原 则 的 一 个 例 证 或 是 一 条 广

    泛 规 定 的 一 个 示 范 来 考 虑 , 而 不 能 斤 斤 于 个 别 案 件 的 得 失 。 另

    外 一 种 更 有 力 的 影 响 , 发 生 在 对 各 种 可 能 的 问 题 任 意 提 出 或

    创 造 , 不 加 任 何 明 确 的 限 制 。 资 料 既 然 可 以 任 意 增 加 , 则 发

    展 成 为 一 条 总 则 的 方 便 便 也 无 限 地 增 多 。 法 律 是 在 我 们 自 己

    中 间 执 行 的 , 法 官 不 能 逾 越 展 示 于 他 或 他 的 先 辈 之 前 的 各 种

    事 实 的 范 围 。 因 此 , 受 到 审 判 的 每 一 种 情 况 , 借 用 一 个 法 国

    成 语 , 就 被 奉 之 为 神 圣 。 它 具 有 与 每 一 个 其 他 真 正 的 或 假 设

    的 案 件 不 同 的 某 种 特 点 。 但 是 在 罗 马 , 像 我 已 经 在 前 面 企 图

    说 明 的 , 没 有 像 “ 法 院 ” 或 “ 审 判 院 ” 这 一 类 的 机 构 ; 因 此 ,

    也 没 有 一 组 事 实 会 比 其 他 事 实 具 有 更 多 的 特 殊 价 值 。 当 有 一

    种 困 难 提 交 法 学 专 家 征 求 意 见 时 , 决 没 有 东 西 会 阻 止 一 个 赋

    有 很 好 类 比 力 的 人 立 即 进 而 援 引 和 考 虑 同 它 有 些 联 系 的 全 部

    假 设 问 题 。 不 论 给 予 当 事 人 的 实 际 劝 告 是 怎 样 , 其 由 倾 听着的 学 生 在 笔 记 簿 上 慎 重 保 存 起 来 的 解 答 , 无 疑 地 会 考 虑 到 由一 重 大 原 则 所 能 适 用 的 、 或 为 一 条 包 罗 无 遗 的 规 定 所 能 包 括的 一 切 情 况 , 在 我 们 中 间 , 这 种 情 况 是 不 可 能 的 , 并 且 应 该承 认 , 在 对 英 国 法 提 出 的 许 多 批 评 中 , 它 提 出 时 所 用 的 方 式似 乎 已 经 不 存 在 了 。 我 们 的 法 院 所 以 不 愿 直 截 了 当 地 宣 布 原则 , 很 可 能 不 是 由 于 我 们 法 官 的 禀 性 , 而 是 由 于 我 们 的 先 例比 较 少 , 虽 然 我 们 的 先 例 , 在 不 知 其 他 制 度 的 人 看 来 已 是 卷帙 浩 繁 的 了 。 就 法 律 原 则 的 财 富 而 论 , 我 们 显 然 比有些现代欧 洲 国 家 贫 乏 得 多 。 但 必 须 记 着 , 它 们 是 以 罗 马 法 律 学 为 其民 事 制 度 的 基 础 的 。 它 们 把 罗 马 法 的碎石残屑 建 筑 在 它 们墙垣 之 中 ; 但 就 其 材 料 和 工 作 技 巧 来 看 , 则 并 没 有 使 它 好 过 英国 司 法 机 关 所 造 的 建 筑 物 。

    罗 马 共 和 时 期 是 使 罗 马 法 律 学 具 有 特 别 性 质 的 一 个 时期 ; 在 其 最 初 的 一 部 分 时 间 中 , 法 律 的 发 展 主 要 依 靠 着法学专 家 的 “ 解 答 ” 。 但 当 它 临 到 共 和 国 衰 败 的 时 候 , 在 “ 解 答 ”的 形 式 上 显 示 出 它 们 已 不 可 能 再 作 进 一 步 扩 展 的 预 兆 。它们已 经 开 始 系 统 化 , 并 且 被 提 炼 成 为 纲 要 。 据 说 曾 有 一 个 名 为缪 子 · 沙 沃 拉 ( Q . M u c i u s   S c Ev o l a ) 的 “ 教 长 ”( P o n t i f e x ) 公 布 过 一 本 包 括 全 部 “ 市 民 法 ” 的 手 册 , 在 西 塞罗 的 著 作 中 , 也 显 示 出 对 于 旧 方 法 日 益 不 满 的 迹 象 , 所 谓 旧方 法 是 指 与 法 律 改 革 这 个 更 活 泼 的 手 段 比 较 而 言 的 。 到 了 这个时候 , 其 他 各 种 媒 介 也 在 事 实 上 对 法 律 开 始 发 生 影 响 。 所谓 “ 告 令 ” ( E d i c t ) 或 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 年 度 布 告 已 被 日 益 重 视,并 用 作 法 律 改 革 的 主 要 手 段 , 而 哥 尼 流 · 西 拉 ( L . C o r n e l i u s S y l l a ) 把 称 为 “ 哥 尼 流 律 ” ( L e g e s   C o r n e l i E) 的 大 量 条 例经 过 立 法 而 制 定 为 法 律 , 就 显 示 出 用 直 接 立 法 的 方 法 能 达 到如 何 迅 速 的 改 进 。 至 于 对 “ 解 答 ” 的 致 命 打 击 则 来 自 奥古斯都,他 限 制 少 数 主 要 的 法 学 专 家 对 案 件 发 表 有 拘束 力 的 意 见 的 权 利 , 这 个 变 化 虽 使 我 们 能 更 接 近 于 现 代 世 界的 观 念 , 但 显 然 根 本 地 改 变 了 法 律 职 业 的 特 点 以 及 它 对 罗 马法 影 响 的 性 质 。 在 一 个 较 后 的 时 期 中 , 另 外 一 个 学 派 的 法 学专 家 又 产 生 了 , 这 些 都 是 各 时 代 中 法 律 学 的 巨 大 人 物 。 但 是阿 尔 比 安 ( U l p i a n ) 和 保 罗 斯 ( P a u l u s ) 、 该 雅 士 和 巴 平 尼 安( p a p i n i a n ) 都 不 是 “ 解 答 ” 的 作 者 。 他 们 的 作 品 都 是 论 述 法律 特 定 部 门 尤 其 是 “ 裁 判 官 告 令 ” 的 正 式 论 文 。

    罗 马 人 的 “ 衡 平 法 ” 以 及 使 衡 平 法 成 为 其 制 度 一 部 分 的“ 裁 判 官 告 令 ” , 将 在 下 面 的 一 章 中 加 以 研 究 。 至 于 对 “ 制 元法 ” , 须 要 说 明 的 只 是 它 在 共 和 时 期 是 很 少 的 , 但 到 了 帝 国 时期 则 有 大 量 增 加 。 在 一 个 国 家 还 是 青 年 和 幼 年 的 时 代 , 绝 少要 求 借 助 于 立 法 机 关 的 活 动 以 求 对 私 法 作 一 般 的 改 进 的 。 人民 所 要 求 的 不 是 变 更 法 律 , 这 些 法 律 通 常 被 估 计 得 高 过 它 们的 真 正 价 值 , 人 民 的 要 求 只 在 能 很 纯 洁 地 、 完 善 地 和 容 易 地执 行 法 律 ; 一 般 是 在 要 除 去 某 种 大 积 弊 , 或 是 要 处 理 阶 级 与阶 级 之 间 和 朝 代 与 朝 代 之 间 某 种 无 可 调 和 的 争 执 时 , 才 求 助于 立 法 机 关 。 依 罗 马 人 看 来 , 在 社 会 发 生 了 一 次 重 大 民 变 后,必 须 制 定 一 大 批 的 条 例 , 才 得 以 安 定 社 会 秩 序 。 西 拉 用 “ 哥尼 流 律 ” 来 宣 布 他 的 改 造 共 和 国 ; 朱 理 亚 · 凯 撒在 “ 制 定 法 ” 中 作 了 大 量 增 加 ; 奥 古 斯 多 促 使 通 过 了最 重 要 的 “ 朱 理 亚 律 ”; 在 以 后 的 一 些 皇 帝 中 ,最 积 极 于 颁 布 宪 令 的 是 像 君 士 坦 丁那 些 要 想统 治 世 界 事 务 的 君 主 。 真 正 的 罗 马 制 定 法 时 期 要 直 到 帝 国 建立 以 后 方 才 开 始 。 皇 帝 们 的 各 种 立 法 起 初 还 伪 装 经 过 群 众 同意 , 但 在 后 来 就 毫 不 掩 饰 地 利 用 皇 权 , 从 奥 古 斯 多 政 权 巩 固后 到 “ 查 斯 丁 尼 安 法 典 ” 公 布 , 这 种法 规 有 大 量 的 增 加 。 可 以 看 到 , 甚 至 在 第 二 个 皇 帝 的 统 治 时期 内 , 法 律 的 条 件 和 其 执 行 的 方 式 就 已 逐 渐 地 接 近 于 我 们 都熟 悉 的 了 。 一 个 制 定 法 和 一 个 有 限 制 的 释 义 局 已 产 生 了 ; 一个 永 久 的 上 诉 法 院 和 一 个 特 许 的 评 释 集 将 在 不 久 之 后 产 生了 ; 这 样 , 我 们 就 被 带 到 更 接 近 于 我 们 今 日 的 观 念 了 。

    第 三 章   自 然法 与 衡 平

    有 些 法 律 原 则 由 于 固 有 的 优 越 性 而 有 代 替 旧 有 法 律 的 权利 , 这 种 理 论 很 早 就 在 罗 马 国 家 和 英 国 广 泛 流 行 。 这 一 类 原则 存 在 于 任 何 制 度 中 , 在 以 前 各 章 中 曾 被 称 为 “ 衡 平 ” , 像 我们 立 刻 就 要 谈 到 的 , 这 个 名 词 是 罗 马 法 学 专 家 用 以 称 呼 法 律变 化 中 这 种 媒 介 的 名 称 之 一 ( 虽 然 是 唯 一 的 一 个 ) 。 在 英 国 ,冠 以 “ 衡 平 ” 名 称 的 衡 平 法 院 , 其 有 关 的 法 律 学 只 能 在 另 一论 文 中 充 分 讨 论 。 它 的 组 成 是 极 端 复 杂 的 , 它 的 资 料 来 自 几个 不 同 的 渊 源 。 早 期 的 教 会 大 法 官 曾 从 “ 寺 院 法 ” 中 采 取 了许 多 原 则 , 这 些 原 则 已 深 深 地 根 植 在 其 结 构 中 。 罗 马 法 中 可以 适 用 于 世 俗 纠 纷 的 规 定 远 多 于 “ 寺 院 法 ” , 因 此 罗 马 法 便 常为 下 一 代 的 衡 平 法 官 所 借 重 , 在 他 们 的 审 判 意 见 录 中 , 我 们常 常 发 现 列 入 了 从 “ 民 法 大 会 ” ( C o r p u s   J u r i s   C i v i l i s ) 中采 摘 的 整 段 原 文 , 其 中 的 名 词 不 加 更 动 , 虽 然 它 们 的 来 源 是从 来 没 有 注 明 的 。 在 近 代 , 尤 其 是 在 十 八 世 纪 中 叶 和 其 后 半期 中 , 尼 德 兰 ( L o w   C o u n t r i e s ) 的 公 法 学 家 所 创 造 的 法 律与 道 德 的 混 合 制 度 似 乎 曾 经 为 英 国 法 学 家 详 细 研 究 过 , 从 泰

    尔 波 爵 士 ( L o r d   T a l b o t ) 大 法 官 到 厄 尔 顿 爵 士 ( L o r d   E l A

    d o n ) 就 任 大 法 官 职 位 时 为 止 , 这 些 作 品 对 衡 平 法 院 的 裁 定 实

    有 相 当 的 影 响 。 构 成 这 个 制 度 的 各 种 要 素 虽 然 来 自 许 多 不 同

    方 面 , 但 由 于 它 必 须 与 普 通 法 近 似 , 它 的 发 展 受 到 了 很 大 的抑 制 , 不 过 它 始 终 能 符 合 一 个 比 较 新 的 法 律 原 则 的 要 求 , 能

    因 其 固 有 的 伦 理 优 越 性 而 有 权 废 弃 国 内 旧 有 的 法 律 。

    罗 马 的 “ 衡 平 法 ” 在 结 构 上 比 较 简 单 , 它 从 开 始 出 现 时

    起 的 全 部 发 展 过 程 是 很 容 易 查 考 的 。 它 的 性 质 和 它 的 历 史 都

    有 详 加 研 究 的 必 要 。 它 是 对 人 类 思 想 有 着 深 远 影 响 的 、 通 过

    人 类 思 想 严 重 地 影 响 了 人 类 命 运 的 那 几 种 概 念 的 根 源 。

    罗 马 人 认 为 他 们 的 法 律 制 度 是 由 两 个 要 素 组 成 的 。 经 查

    斯 丁 尼 安 皇 帝 钦 定 出 版 的 “ 法 学 阶 梯 ” ( I n s t i t u t i o n a l   T r e a At i s e s ) 中 说 , “ 受 法 律 和 习 惯 统 治 的 一 切 国 家 , 部 分 是 受 其 固有 的 特 定 法 律 支 配 , 部 分 是 受 全 人 类 共 有 的 法 律 支 配 。一 个民 族 所 制 定 的 法 律 , 称 为 该 民 族 的 ‘ 民 事 法 律 ’ , 但 是 , 由 自

    然 理 性 指 定 给 全 人 类 的 法 律 , 则 称 为 ‘ 国 际 法 ’ , 因 为 所 有 的

    国 家 都 采 用 它 。 ” 所 谓 “ 由 自 然 理 性 指 定 给 全 人 类 的 ” 这 一 部

    分 法 律 , 就 是 被 假 定 为 由 “ 裁 判 官 告 令 ” 带 入 罗 马 法 律 学 中

    的 原 素 。 在 有 些 地 方 , 它 被 简 单 地 称 为 “ 自 然 法 ” ( J u s   N a t u Ar a l e ) ; 它 的 规 定 据 说 是 受 命 于自然 衡平 ( n a t u r a l i s  Eq u i t a s ) 和 自 然 理 性 。 我 将 设 法 发 掘 这 些 著 名 成 语 如 “ 国 际法 ” 、 “ 自 然 法 ” 、 “ 衡 平 法 ” 的 渊 源 , 并 进 而 决 定 它 们 所 表 示的 概 念 在 相 互 之 间 存 在 着 什 么 关 系 。

    有 一 些 学 者 对 于 罗 马 历 史 只 有 极 肤 浅 的 知 识 , 当 他 看 到

    许 多 外 国 人 用 各 种 名 义 在 共 和 国 境 内 出 现 , 以 及 共 和 国 的 命

    运 竟 会 受 到 非 常 程 度 的 影 响 , 一 定 有 很 深 刻 的 印 象 。 在 较 后

    时 期 , 这 种 侨 民 入 境 的 原 因 是 很 容 易 被 理 解 的 , 因 为 我 们 很

    容 易 体 会 为 什 么 各 族 人 民 都 要 成 群 结 队 地 到 这 世 界 霸 主 的 国

    家 来 ; 在 罗 马 国 家 最 早 的 纪 录 中 , 我 们 就 发 现 有 这 种 大 量 外国 人 和 归 化 者 移 入 的 现 象 。 毫 无 疑 义 , 古 代 意 大 利 大 半 是 由

    强 盗 部 落 所 组 成 的 , 社 会 的 不 安 定 使 得 人 们 集 居 在 有 力 量 来

    保 护 自 己 并 可 以 不 受 外 界 攻 击 的 任 何 社 会 领 土 内 , 纵 使 这 种

    保 护 要 以 付 重 税 、 以 政 治 上 权 利 的 被 剥 夺 、 以 忍 受 社 会 耻 辱

    作 为 代 价 , 也 在 所 不 惜 。 这 个 解 释 也 许 是 不 完 全 的 , 要 作 一

    比 较 完 全 的 解 释 , 还 必 须 考 虑 到 当 时 活 跃 的 商 业 关 系 , 这 种

    关 系 虽 然 很 少 在 共 和 国 的 军 事 传 统 中 反 映 出 来 , 但 罗 马 在 史

    前 时 期 是 必 然 地 和 迦 太 基 ( C a r t h a g e ) 以 及 和 意 大 利 内 地 存 在

    着 这 种 关 系 。 不 论 情 况 究 竟 是 怎 样 , 共 和 国 中 的 外 国 人 实 决

    定 着 其 历 史 的 全 部 过 程 , 在 这 个 历 史 的 各 个 阶 段 中 , 几 乎 完

    全 是 在 说 明 一 个 顽 强 的 民 族 与 一 个 外 来 的 人 民 之 间 的 冲 突 。

    在 现 代 世 界 中 从 来 没 有 发 生 过 这 种 情 况 , 一 方 面 , 因 为 现 代

    欧 洲 社 会 很 少 或 从 来 没 有 受 到 过 足 以 使 土 著 公 民 感 觉 得 到 的

    大 量 的 外 国 移 民 侵 入 , 另 一 方 面 , 因 为 现 代 国 家 的 团 结 一 起

    是 依 靠 着 对 于 一 个 国 王 或 政 治 上 强 有 力 者 的 忠 诚 , 因 此 这 些

    国 家 可 以 用 古 代 世 界 所 没 有 见 到 过 的 速 度 吸 收 着 相 当 数 量 的

    入 境 移 民 , 但 在 古 代 世 界 中 , 一 个 社 会 的 本 地 公 民 常 常 自 以

    为 是 由 于 血 统 而 结 合 在 一 起 的 ; 他 们 反 对 外 来 人 民 主 张 平 等

    权 利 , 认 为 这 是 对 于 他 们 生 来 固 有 权 利 的 一 种 篡 夺 。 早 期 罗

    马 共 和 国 在 “ 宪 令 ” 中 规 定 有 绝 对 排 斥 外 国 人 的 原 则 , 在

    “ 市 民 法 ” 中 也 有 同 样 规 定 。 外 国 人 或 归 化 者 在 “ 国 家 ” 利 益

    休 戚 相 关 的 任 何 机 构 中 , 是 不 能 参 与 的 。 他 不 能 享 受 “ 公 民

    法 ” ( Q u i r i t a   r i a n   l a w ) 的 利 益 。 他 不 能 成 为耐克逊的当事人 , 这 种 契 约 在 有 一 个 时 期 是 原 始 罗 马 人 的 让 与 证 据 同 时 也是 契 约 。 他 不 能 用 “ 提 供 誓 金 之 诉 ” ( S a c r a m e n t a l   A c t i o n )起 诉 , 这 种 涉 讼 的 方 式 其 渊 源 可 以 追 溯 到 文 明 的 萌 芽 时 代 。 但是 , 不 论 是 为 了 罗 马 的 利 益 或 是 为 了 罗 马 的 安 全 , 都 不允许把 外 国 人 完 全 剥 夺 法 律 的 保 护 。 所 有 古 代 社 会 往 往 为 了 轻 微的 骚 动 就 有 被 颠 复 的 危 险 , 所 以 单 单 出 于 自 卫 的 本 能 ,就足以 迫 使 罗 马 人 要 想 出 某 种 方 法 来 安 排 外 国 人 的 权 利 和 义 务 ,

    否 则 他 们 也 许 会 — — 而 这 是 古 代 世 界 中 一 种 真 正 重 要 的 危 险

    — — 用 武 力 斗 争 来 解 决 争 执 。 况 且 , 在 罗 马 史 中 从 来 没 有 一

    个 时 期 完 全 忽 略 对 外 贸 易 。 因 此 , 对 于 当 事 人 双 方 都 是 外 国

    人 或 者 一 方 是 本 国 人 一 方 是 外 国 人 的 争 议 , 在 最 初 所 以 有 审

    判 权 , 也 许 一 半 是 作 为 一 种 警 察 手 段 , 一 半 是 为 了 要 促 进 商

    业 。 由 于 这 类 审 判 权 的 存 在 , 就 有 必 要 立 即 发 见 某 种 原 则 , 以

    便 据 以 解 决 提 交 审 判 的 问 题 , 而 罗 马 法 律 家 为 了 达 到 这 目 的

    而 采 用 的 原 则 是 卓 越 地 反 映 着 当 时 的 特 点 的 。 像 我 在 前 面 已

    经 说 过 的 , 他 们 拒 绝 用 纯 粹 的 罗 马 “ 市 民 法 ” 来 判 决 新 的 案

    件 。 他 们 拒 绝 采 用 外 国 诉 讼 人 “ 本 国 ” 的 特 定 法 律 , 显 然 这

    是 因 为 , 如 果 这 样 做 了 , 也 许 要 造 成 法 律 的 退 化 。 他 们 最 后

    采 用 的 方 法 , 是 选 择 罗 马 同 外 来 移 民 所 出 生 的 意 大 利 各 个 不

    同 社 会 中 共 有 的 法 律 规 定 。 换 言 之 , 他 们 开 始 形 成 一 种 符 合于 “ 万 民 法 ” ( J u s   G e n t i u m ) 的 原 始 的 和 字 面 的 意 义 的 制 度 。所 谓 “ 万 民 法 ” , 即 “ 所 有 国 家 共 有 的 法 律 ” 。 事 实 上 , “ 万 民法 ” 是 古 意 大 利 各 部 落 各 种 习 惯 共 同 要 素 的 总 和 , 因 为 这 些部 落 是 罗 马 人 有 办 法 可 以 观 察 到 的 、 并 且 是 不 断 把 移 民 一 群群 送 到 罗 马 土 地 上 来 的所有国家 。 当 有 一 种 特 别 惯 例 被 看 到为 大 量 的 各 别 民 族 共 同 应 用 时 , 它 即 被 纪 录 下 来 作 为 “ 所有国 家 共 有 的 法 律 ” 或 是 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 一 部 分 。 像 这 样 , 在 罗马 四 周 各 个 不 同 的 国 家 中 , 对 于 财 产 的 让 与 虽 然 都 必 然 地 伴随 着 很 不 同 的 形 式 , 但 是 准 备 要 让 与 的 物 品 的 实 际 移 转 、 交

    付 或 是 送 达 乃 是 它 们 之 中 共 有 仪 式 的 一 部 分 。 例 如 , 这 就 是

    “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” ( M a n c i p a t i o n ) 或 是 罗 马 所 特 有 的 让 与 方 式 中

    的 一 部 分 , 虽 然 是 一 个 次 要 的 部 分 。 因 此 , 交 付 既 然 很 可 能

    是 被 法 学 专 家 有 机 会 观 察 到 的 各 种 让 与 方 式 中 的 唯 一 共 同 要

    素 , 它 就 被 订 作 “ 万 民 法 ” 中 的 一 种 制 度 , 或 是 “ 所 有 国 家

    共 有 法 律 ” 的 一 项 规 定 。 大 量 的 其 他 惯 例 在 经 过 仔 细 研 究 后 ,

    也 得 到 同 样 的 结 果 。 它 们 都 有 一 个 共 同 目 的 , 具 有 某 些 共 同

    特 点 , 这 些 特 点 就 被 归 类 在 “ 万 民 法 ” 中 。 因 此 , “ 万 民 法 ”

    是 规 则 和 原 则 的 一 个 集 合 物 , 这 些 规 则 和 原 则 经 过 观 察 后 被

    决 定 是 各 个 意 大 利 部 落 间 当 时 通 行 的 各 种 制 度 所 共 有 的 。

    上 面 所 说 的 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 起 源 情 况 , 也 许 足 以 消 除 这 样

    一 种 误 解 , 即 认 为 罗 马 法 学 家 似 乎 对 “ 万 民 法 ” 特 别 重 视 。

    “ 万 民 法 ” 的 产 生 , 一 部 分 是 由 于 他 们 轻 视 所 有 的 外 国 法 律 ,

    一 部 分 是 由 于 他 们 不 愿 以 其 本 土 的 “ 市 民 法 ” ( J u s   C i v i l e ) 的

    利 益 给 予 外 国 人 。 诚 然 , 现 在 如 果 我 们 执 行 着 罗 马 法 学 专 家

    当 时 所 进 行 的 工 作 , 我 们 对 于 “ 万 民 法 ” 可 能 会 采 取 一 种 完

    全 不 同 的 看 法 。 我 们 对 于 这 样 辨 别 出 来 的 作 为 大 量 不 同 惯 例

    的 基 础 而 普 遍 存 在 的 要 素 , 必 然 会 附 着 某 种 模 糊 的 优 越 或 占

    先 之 感 。 我 们 对 于 这 样 普 遍 地 适 用 的 规 则 和 原 则 , 必 然 会 有

    几 分 尊 重 。 也 许 我 们 会 认 为 , 这 种 共 同 的 要 素 是 进 行 交 易 所

    必 需 的 本 质 , 而 剩 下 来 的 在 各 个 社 会 中 不 相 同 的 仪 式 , 则 只

    能 被 认 为 是 偶 然 的 和 非 必 要 的 。 我 们 也 可 能 会 作 出 这 样 的 推

    论 , 认 为 我 们 正 在 进 行 比 较 的 各 个 民 族 , 在 过 去 可 能 曾 经 一度 遵 守 过 一 种 共 同 的 伟 大 制 度 , 而 “ 万 民 法 ” 就 是 这 个 制 度

    的 一 个 复 制 品 , 认 为 各 个 国 家 中 错 综 复 杂 的 惯 例 , 只 是 过 去

    曾 经 一 度 管 理 过 他 们 的 原 始 状 态 的 比 较 简 单 的 法 规 的 讹 误 和

    残 余 。 但 现 代 思 想 引 导 观 察 者 达 到 的 这 些 结 论 , 与 原 始 罗 马

    人 本 能 地 感 到 的 结 论 几 乎 恰 恰 相 反 。 我 们 所 尊 重 或 赞 美 的 , 正

    是 他 所 不 喜 欢 的 或 疑 惧 的 。 他 所 爱 好 的 那 部 分 法 律 学 , 正 是

    现 代 理 论 家 认 为 不 必 加 以 考 虑 的 和 暂 时 的 ; 例 如 “ 曼 企 帕 地

    荷 ” 中 的 庄 严 手 势 ; 口 头 契 约 中 巧 妙 地 安 排 的 问 和 答 ; 辩 护

    与 诉 讼 中 不 胜 枚 举 的 手 续 程 序 。 “ 万 民 法 ” 只 是 由 于 政 治 需 要

    而 强 使 他 注 意 的 一 种 制 度 。 他 不 爱 “ 万 民 法 ” 正 像 他 不 爱 外

    国 人 一 样 , 因 为 “ 万 民 法 ” 是 从 这 些 外 国 人 的 制 度 中 来 的 , 并

    且 是 为 了 外 国 人 的 利 益 而 制 定 的 。 在 “ 万 民 法 ” 能 得 到 他 的

    重 视 以 前 , 必 须 在 他 思 想 中 有 一 次 彻 底 的 革 命 , 但 当 这 个 革

    命 确 实 发 生 时 , 它 真 进 行 得 非 常 的 彻 底 , 我 们 现 在 对 于 “ 万

    民 法 ” 的 估 计 所 以 与 刚 才 所 说 的 完 全 不 同 , 其 真 正 理 由 就 在

    于 现 代 法 律 学 和 现 代 哲 学 所 持 的 观 点 都 是 继 承 着 后 期 法 学 专

    家 就 这 问 题 所 持 的 成 熟 见 解 的 。 过 去 确 实 有 过 这 样 一 个 时 期 ,

    把 这 仅 仅 是 “ 市 民 法 ” 的 一 个 卑 贱 附 属 物 的 “ 万 民 法 ” 认 作

    为 一 切 法 律 所 应 该 尽 可 能 依 从 的 一 个 伟 大 的 、 虽 然 还 没 有 完

    全 发 展 的 模 范 。 这 个 剧 变 的 发 生 是 正 当 希 腊 的 “ 自 然 法 ” 理论 被 适 用 于 罗 马 的 “ 所 有 国 家 共 有 法 律 ” 的 实 践 中 的 时 期。所 谓 “ 自 然 法 ” ( j u s   N a t u r a l e ) 只 是 从 一 个 特 别 理 论 的角 度 来 看 的 “ 万 民 法 ” 或 “ 国 际 法 ” 。 法 学 专 家 阿 尔 比 安 曾 经

    以 一 个 法 学 家 所 特 有 的 辨 别 的 癖 好 , 企 图 把 它 们 加 以 区 别 , 但

    结 果 没 有 成 功 。 根 据 有 更 高 权 威 的 该 雅 士 的 言 论 , 以 及 前 面从 “ 法 学 教 典 ” 中 所 摘 引 的 部 分 , 使 我 们 毫 不 怀 疑 , 这 些 用

    语 在 实 际 上 是 可 以 通 用 的 。 它 们 之 间 的 差 别 完 全 是 历 史 的 , 在

    本 质 上 , 它 们 之 间 不 可 能 有 什 么 区 别 。 “ 万 民 法 ” 或 “ 所 有 国

    家 共 有 法 律 ” 与 “ 国 际 法 ” 之 间 的 混 淆 不 清 , 完 全 是 现 代 的 ,

    这 几 乎 是 不 必 加 以 说 明 的 。 国 际 法 的 古 典 用 语 是 “ 使 节 法 ”( J u s   F e c i a l e ) 或 谈 判 与 外 交 的 法 律 。 但 是 毫 无 疑 问 , “ 万 民法 ” 的 含 义 不 明 对 于 独 立 国 家 之 间 的 关 系 应 由 自 然 法 来 管 理这 一 个 现 代 理 论 的 产 生 曾 经 起 过 很 大 的 作 用 。

    我 们 有 必 要 研 究 一 下 希 腊 的 自 然 和 自 然 法 律 的 两 个 概念 。 � Gσ ι � 这 个 字 在 拉 丁 文 中 是 n a t u r a , 在 英 文 中 是nature,它的 含 义 毫 无 疑 问 原 来 是 指 物 质 宇 宙 , 但 这 个 物 质 宇 宙 是 从 完全 另 外 一 个 角 度 来 领 会 的 , 由 于 我 们 的 智 力 与 当 时 的 智 力 有着 距 离 , 这 一 个 角 度 , 在 现 代 语 言 中 , 就 不 很 容 易 加 以说 明。自 然 指 的 是 物 质 世 界 , 是 某 种 原 始 元 素 或 规 律 的 结 果 。 最 古的 希 腊 哲 学 家 习 惯 把 宇 宙 结 构 解 释 为 某 种 单 一 原 则 的 表现,这 种 原 则 , 他 们 有 不 同 的 看 法 , 认 为 是 运 动 、 是 强 力 、 是 火、是 湿 气 、 是 生 殖 。 “ 自 然 ” 的 最 简 单 和 最 古 远 的 意 义 , 正 就 是从 作 为 一 条 原 则 表 现 的 角 度 来 看 的 物 质 宇 宙 。 此 后 , 后 期 希腊 各 学 派 回 到 了 希 腊 最 伟 大 知 识 分 子 当 时 迷 失 的 道 路 上 , 他们 在 “ 自 然 ” 的 概 念 中 , 在物质 世 界 上 加 上 了 一 个道德 世 界 。他 们 把 这 个 名 词 的 范 围 加 以 扩 展 , 使 它 不 仅 包 括 了 有 形的 宇宙 , 并 且 包 括 了 人 类 的 思 想 、 惯 例 和 希 望 。 这 里 , 像 以前一样 , 他 们 所 理 解 的自然 不 仅 仅 是 人 类 的 社 会 的 道 德 现 象 , 而且 是 那 些 被 认 为 可 以 分 解 为 某 种 一 般 的 和 简 单 的 规 律 的现象。

    犹 如 最 古 的 希 腊 理 论 家 所 假 定 的 机 会 的 嘲 弄 使 物 质 宇 宙

    从 其 简 单 的 原 始 形 式 变 成 为 现 今 的 庞 杂 状 态 , 他 们 的 聪 明 的

    后 裔 幻 想 着 , 倘 若 不 是 凑 巧 的 意 外 人 类 很 可 能 会 使 其 自 己 生

    活 于 较 简 单 的 行 动 规 律 和 一 种 比 较 平 静 的 生 活 中 。 按 照 ·

    自 ·

    而 生 活 , 曾 被 认 为 是 人 类 生 存 的 目 的 , 并 且 是 最 优 秀 的 人 必

    须 要 达 到 的 目 的 。 按 照 自 然 而 生 活 , 是 解 脱 粗 俗 人 民 的 混 乱

    习 惯 和 粗 野 放 纵 而 达 到 较 高 级 的 行 为 规 律 , 这 些 规 律 只 有 有

    志 者 通 过 克 己 和 自 制 才 能 加 以 遵 守 。 尽 人 皆 知 , 这 个 命 题 — —按 照 自 然 而 生 活 — — 是 著 名 的 斯 多 葛 派 哲 学 哲 理 的总 和 。 在 希 腊 被 征 服 后 , 这 种 哲 学 在 罗 马 社 会 中 立 刻 有 了 长足 的 发 展 。 它 对 于 有 权 势 的 阶 级 有 着 自 然 的 魔 力 , 这 个 阶 级

    的 人 们 至 少 在 理 论 上 还 墨 守 着 古 代 意 大 利 民 族 的 简 单 习 惯 ,

    不 愿 意 使 自 己 屈 从 于 新 的 外 来 的 风 俗 习 惯 。 他 们 于 是 立 即 开

    始 爱 好 斯 多 葛 派 关 于 按 照 自 然 而 生 活 的 训 戒 。 当 时 由 于 对 世

    界 的 掠 夺 , 由 于 各 地 最 奢 侈 民 族 的 榜 样 , 罗 马 城 中 充 满 了 荡

    佚 荒 淫 , 这 种 爱 好 , 相 比 之 下 , 益 加 可 喜 , 我 并 且 要 说 , 益

    加 可 以 尊 贵 。 纵 使 我 们 不 能 从 历 史 上 来 加 以 证 实 , 但 我 们 仍

    可 以 断 定 , 出 现 于 这 新 希 腊 学 派 门 徒 的 前 列 的 , 一 定 是 罗 马

    法 学 家 。 我 们 有 大 量 证 据 , 证 明 在 罗 马 共 和 国 中 , 实 质 上 只

    有 两 种 职 业 , 军 人 一 般 地 就 是 行 动 的 一 派 , 而 法 学 家 则 普 遍地 站 在 反 抗 派 的 前 列 。

    法 学 家 同 斯 多 葛 派 哲 学 家 的 联 盟 , 延 续 到 数 世 纪 之 久 。 在一 系 列 的 著 名 法 学 专 家 中 , 其 最 早 的 几 个 名 人 都 同 斯 多 葛 学派 有 联 系 , 最 后 , 一 般 公 认 罗 马 法 律 学 的 黄 金 时 代 是 在 安 托宁 · 凯 撒 ( A n t o n i n e   C Es a r s ) 的 时 代 , 而 他 们 就 是 从 这 派哲 学 中 取 得 一 种 生 活 规 则 的 最 著 名 的 门 徒 。 这 些 学 理 在 一 些从 事 特 殊 职 业 的 人 中 间 长 期 广 泛 传 播 , 必 然 要 影 响 他 们所执行 的 和 掌 握 的 艺 术 。 在 罗 马 法 学 专 家 的 遗 著 中 , 有 些论 点 简直 不 能 理 解 , 除 非 我 们 掌 握 了 斯 多 葛 派 的 哲 理 把 它 用 作 一 把

    钥 匙 ; 但 同 时 , 如 果 我 们 只 计 算 那 些 肯 定 归 属 于 斯 多 葛 派 教

    条 的 法 律 条 文 的 数 目 来 衡 量 斯 多 葛 学 派 对 于 罗 马 法 所 发 生 的

    影 响 , 这 将 是 一 个 严 重 的 、 虽 然 是 很 普 通 的 错 误 。 一 般 人 以

    为 , 斯 多 葛 学 派 的 力 量 并 不 在 其 规 定 的 行 为 准 则 中 , 因 为 这

    些 准 则 常 是 可 厌 和 可 笑 的 , 而 是 在 于 伟 大 的 ( 虽 然 是 模 糊

    的 ) 教 人 抑 制 情 欲 的 一 些 原 则 中 。 同 样 地 , 最 明 显 地 表 现 于

    斯 多 葛 哲 学 上 的 希 腊 理 论 对 法 律 学 上 的 影 响 , 并 不 在 于 它 们

    提 供 给 罗 马 法 的 特 殊 论 点 的 数 量 , 而 在 于 它 们 结 予 它 的 单 一

    的 基 本 假 设 。 自 从 自 然 一 语 已 成 为 罗 马 人 口 头 上 一 个 家 喻 户

    晓 的 名 词 以 后 , 这 样 一 种 信 念 便 逐 渐 在 罗 马 法 学 家 中 间 流 行

    着 , 即 旧 的 “ 万 民 法 ” 实 际 是 已 经 失 去 的 “ 自 然 ” 法 典 , 至

    于 “ 裁 判 官 ” 根 据 “ 万 民 法 ” 原 则 而 创 制 的 “ 告 令 ” 法 律 学 ,

    则 正 在 逐 渐 恢 复 法 律 因 为 背 离 了 它 而 退 化 的 一 种 范 式 。 从 这

    信 念 出 发 , 我 们 立 即 得 到 了 这 样 一 个 推 断 , 即 “ 裁 判 官 ” 有

    责 任 尽 量 以 “ 告 令 ” 来 代 替 “ 市 民 法 ” , 尽 可 能 把 “ 自 然 ” 用

    以 管 理 处 于 原 始 状 态 中 的 人 们 的 各 种 制 度 恢 复 过 来 。 当 然 , 用

    这 个 媒 介 来 改 良 法 律 , 还 存 在 着 许 多 障 碍 。 甚 至 在 法 律 界 本

    身 , 可 能 还 要 克 服 各 种 偏 见 , 而 罗 马 人 的 习 惯 也 是 非 常 固 执 ,

    不 肯 很 快 屈 服 于 单 纯 的 哲 学 理 论 。 “ 告 令 ” 用 以 反 抗 某 种 专 门的 变 例 的 间 接 方 法 , 显 示 出 作 者 的 不 得 不 非 常 谨 慎 注 意,而且 直 到 查 斯 丁 尼 安 时 代 , 还 有 部 分 的 旧 法 固 执 地 拒 绝 它 的 影响 。 但 是 , 从 整 体 来 讲 , 罗 马 人 在 法 律 改 进 方 面 , 当 受 到“ 自 然 法 ” 的 理 论 的 刺 激 时 , 就 发 生 了 惊 人 迅 速 的 进 步 。 单 纯化 和 概 括 化 的 观 念 , 是 常 常 和 “ 自 然 ” 这 个 概 念 联 系 着 的 ; 因此 单 纯 匀 称 和 通 晓 易 懂 就 被 认 为 是 一 个 好 的 法 律 制 度 的 特点 , 过 去 对 于 复 杂 言 语 、 繁 褥 仪 式 和 不 必 要 困 难 的 好 尚,便完 全 消 除 。 罗 马 法 所 以 能 具 有 现 存 形 式 , 是 依 靠 着 查 斯 丁 尼安 的 坚 强 意 志 以 及 不 寻 常 的 机 会 , 但 是 制 度 的 基 本 图 形 , 则在 皇 帝 的 改 革 实 行 以 前 很 早 就 计 划 定 当 了 。

    旧 “ 万 民 法 ” 与 “ 自 然 法 ” 之 间 , 真 确 切 的 接 触 之 点 是什 么 ? 我 以 为 它 们 是 通 过 原 来 意 义 的 “ 衡 平 ” ( Hq u i t a s ) 而接 触 和 混 合 的 ; 这 里 , 我 们 似 乎 在 法 律 学 上 第 一 次 遇 到“衡平 ” 这 个 著 名 的 名 词 。 在 研 究 一 个 来 源 如 此 古 远 、 历 史 如此悠 久 的 用 语 上 , 如 果 可 能 , 最 妥 当 的 办 法 是 深 追 最 初 隐 藏 这

    概 念 的 简 单 隐 喻 或 比 喻 。 一 般 认 为 Hq u i t a s 就 是 希 腊 文

    Iσ IDη � , 即 平 均 或 按 比 例 分 配 的 原 则 。 数 或 量 的 平 均 分 配 无 疑

    地 是 和 我 们 对 公 正 的 理 解 密 切 地 交 织 在 一 起 的 ; 很 少 联 想 能

    象 这 样 顽 固 地 坚 持 在 人 们 的 心 中 , 即 使 是 最 深 刻 的 思 想 家 也

    很 难 把 它 从 脑 海 中 加 以 清 除 。 但 在 探 求 这 种 联 想 的 来 历 时 , 我

    们 当 然 还 不 能 证 明 它 是 一 种 早 期 的 思 想 , 它 只 是 比 较 后 来 的

    一 种 哲 学 的 产 物 , 同 时 也 必 须 注 意 , 希 腊 民 主 政 治 用 以 夸 耀

    的 法 律 “ 平 等 ” — — 这 种 平 等 , 在 卡 利 斯 屈 拉 得 斯 ( G a l l i s t r a A

    t u s ) 的 美 丽 的 酒 歌 中 , 据 说 是 哈 马 笛 斯 ( H a r m o d i u s ) 和 阿 利

    斯 托 杰 顿 ( A r i s t o g i r o n ) 给 予 雅 典 人 的 — — 与 罗 马 人 的 “ 衡平 ” 很 少 共 同 之 处 。 前 者 表 示 在 公 民 中 间 平 等 施 行 民 事 法 律 ,

    纵 使 公 民 这 一 个 阶 级 的 人 数 是 非 常 有 限 的 ; 后 者 的 含 义 是 把民 事 法 律 以 外 的 一 种 法 律 适 用 于 不 一 定 要 由 公 民 组 成 的 一 个

    阶 级 。 前 者 不 包 括 暴 君 ; 后 者 包 括 着 外 国 人 , 在 某 种 情 况 下 ,并 且 包 括 奴 隶 。 总 的 讲 来 , 我 倾 向 于 从 另 外 一 个 角 度 来 探 求罗 马 “ 衡 平 ” 的 胚 种 。 拉 丁 文 “ Eq u u s ” 比 希 腊 文 “ Iσ F� ” 更明 确地 带 有平准 的 意 思 。 平 准 的 倾 向 正 是 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 特 点 ,这 种 倾 向 是 一 个 原 始 罗 马 人 最 注 意 的 。 纯 粹 的 “ 公 民 法 ” 承认 在 各 阶 级 人 类 和 各 种 类 财 产 之 间 有 大 量 的 武 断 的 区 分 ; 至于 把 许 多 不 同 习 惯 加 以 比 较 概 括 起 来 的 “ 万 民 法 ” 则 不 承 认“ 公 民 法 ” 的 这 些 区 分 。 例 如 , 古 罗 马 法 规 定 在 “ 宗 亲 ”( A g n a t i c ) 与 “ 血 亲 ” ( C o g n a t i c ) 关 系 之 间 具 有 一 种 根 本 的区 别 , 前 者 是 指 基 于 共 同 服 从 于 同 一 家 父 权 的 “ 家 族 ” , 后 者是 指 ( 按 照 现 代 的 观 点 ) 单 单 由 于 源 自 共 同 祖 先 的 事 实而结合 起 来 的 “ 家 族 ” 。 这 个 区 分 在 “ 各 国 共 有 法 律 ” 中 不 复 存 在,在 财 产 的 古 代 形 式 之 间 、 即 所 谓 “ 要 式 交 易 ” 物 ( T h i n g s  “ M a n c i p i ” ) 与 “ 非 要 式 交 易 ” 物 ( T h i n g s   “ n e c  M a n c i p i ” ) 之 间 的 区 别 , 也 是 如 此 。 因 此 , 据 我 看 来 , 这 种 界限 不 清 , 就 是 以 “ 衡 平 ” 表 示 的 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 特 色 。 当 裁 判官 制 度 适 用 于 涉 及 外 国 诉 讼 人 的 案 件 时 , 常 常 发 生 有 要 求平准 或 排 除 不 规 则 的 必 要 , 我 猜 想 这 个 字 在 最 初 就 是 用 来 描 述

    这 种 情 况 的 。 起 始 , 在 这 个 用 语 中 可 能 没 有 任 何 伦 理 的 色 彩 ;

    也 没 有 任 何 理 由 可 以 相 信 它 所 指 的 诉 讼 程 序 就 不 是 原 始 罗 马

    人 心 目 中 所 极 端 嫌 恶 的 诉 讼 程 序 , 而 是 另 一 种 诉 讼 程 序 。

    在 另 一 方 面 , 罗 马 人 通 过 “ 衡 平 ” 这 个 名 词 所 理 解 的

    “ 万 民 法 ” 的 特 点 , 正 就 是 对 假 想 中 的 自 然 状 态 的 第 一 次 和 最

    鲜 明 地 感 觉 到 的 特 点 。 “ 自 然 ” 含 有 匀 称 秩 序 的 意 思 , 先 是 在物 质 世 界 中 , 而 后 是 在 道 德 世 界 中 , 而 对 秩 序 的 最 早 的 看 法 ,

    无 疑 地 含 有 直 线 、 平 面 和 长 短 之 意 。 人 们 不 论 是 在 想 象 假 定

    中 的 自 然 状 态 的 轮 廓 , 也 不 论 是 在 想 象 “ 各 国 共 有 法 律 ” 的

    确 实 行 使 情 况 时 , 都 会 不 自 觉 地 想 到 这 种 同 样 种 类 的 图 画 或

    数 字 , 并 且 我 们 所 知 道 的 关 于 原 始 思 想 的 知 识 , 会 使 我 们 达

    到 这 样 一 个 结 论 , 即 这 种 想 象 上 的 相 似 性 很 可 能 会 促 使 我 们

    相 信 这 两 种 概 念 在 实 际 上 是 一 同 事 。 可 是 , 虽 然 “ 万 民 法 ” 在

    罗 马 在 事 前 很 少 有 或 者 没 有 什 么 声 望 , 但 是 当 “ 自 然 法 ” 的

    理 论 被 介 绍 到 罗 马 时 , 带 来 了 高 度 的 哲 学 权 威 的 威 望 , 并 且

    被 认 为 是 同 罗 马 民 族 较 早 和 更 幸 福 的 情 况 有 联 系 的 。 不 难 理

    解 , 观 点 的 不 同 会 如 何 地 影 响 到 这 名 词 的 含 义 , 它 既 描 述 了

    旧 原 则 的 运 用 , 又 描 述 了 新 理 论 的 结 果 。 即 在 现 代 的 人 看 来 ,

    把 一 个 过 程 描 述 为 “ 平 准 ” 的 过 程 , 而 同 时 把 这 个 过 程 称 为

    “ 变 例 的 纠 正 ” , 也 不 能 认 为 完 全 是 一 回 事 , 虽 然 两 者 的 含 义

    确 切 地 讲 来 是 一 样 的 。 我 也 并 不 怀 疑 , 当 “ 衡 平 ” 一 经 被 理

    解 为 具 有 希 腊 理 论 的 含 义 时 , 从 希 腊平均 ( Iσ IDη � ) 观 念 所 发生 的 各 种 联 想 , 便 开 始 环 绕 在 衡 平 的 周 围 。 西 塞 罗 的 言 论 把

    它 夸 大 了 , 而 这 就 是 衡 平 这 个 概 念 发 生 变 质 的 第 一 个 阶 段 , 并

    为 自 从 那 个 时 候 起 的 几 乎 每 一 个 伦 理 制 度 或 多 或 少 推 动 着 进行 的 。

    这 里 必 须 说 明 一 下 , 起 初 同 “ 各 国 共 有 法 律 ” 发 生 联 系 、后 来 又 同 “ 自 然 法 ” 联 系 的 各 种 原 则 和 差 别 , 是 通 过 了 什 么正 式 手 段 而 逐 渐 结 合 到 罗 马 法 律 中 去 的 。 因 塔 垦 士( T a r q u i n s ) 的 被 放 逐 而 在 古 罗 马 史 上 引 起 的 危 机 中 , 发 生 了在 许 多 古 代 国 家 早 期 史 乘 中 相 类 似 的 一 种 变 化 , 但 这 种 变 化同 我 们 今 天 所 称 为 革 命 的 那 些 政 治 事 件 , 很 少 共 同 之 处 。 最妥 当 的 说 法 , 可 以 说 是 君 主 政 体 被 转 变 为 委 员 政 治 。 以 往 被集 中 在 一 个 人 手 中 的 权 力 , 现 在 被 分 配 给 了 许 多 选 任 官吏,王位 这 个 名 称 仍 旧 被 保 持 着 , 放 在 后 来 被 称 为 “ 献 身 王 ” (Re x  S a r o r u m   或   R e x   S a c r i f i c u l u s ) 的 一 个 人 物 身 上 。 变 化的 一 部 分 是 把 最 高 司 法 机 关 的 固 定 职 务 移 转 给 了 “ 裁 判 官 ” ,他 同 时 是 共 和 国 的 首 席 官 吏 , 跟 着 这 些 职 务 一 并 移 转 的 有法律 的 和 立 法 的 无 限 制 的 最 高 统 治 权 , 这 是 始 终 为 古 代 主权者所 掌 握 , 并 且 是 显 然 地 同 他 们 一 度 所 享 有 的 宗 法 的 和 英 雄 的

    权 力 有 关 系 的 。 罗 马 当 时 的 情 况 , 使 这 些 被 移 转 的 职 能 中 这

    个 比 较 不 确 定 的 部 分 特 别 显 得 重 要 , 因 为 , 随 着 共 和 国 的 建

    立 , 迫 使 国 家 不 得 不 进 行 一 系 列 反 复 的 试 验 , 以 求 解 决 这 样

    一 个 困 难 , 使 能 很 好 处 理 这 一 部 分 人 , 他 们 在 技 术 上 不 符 合

    于 土 著 罗 马 人 的 标 准 , 但 却 长 期 隶 属 于 罗 马 审 判 权 之 内 。 在

    这 类 人 之 间 或 在 这 类 人 和 土 著 公 民 之 间 所 发 生 的 争 执 , 如 果

    “ 裁 判 官 ” 不 进 行 处 理 , 则 将 永 远 处 于 罗 马 法 所 能 提 供 的 救 济

    的 范 围 之 外 。 随 着 商 业 的 扩 展 , 在 罗 马 人 民 和 真 正 的 外 国 人

    之 间 发 生 了 更 为 严 重 的 纠 纷 , 不 久 也 迫 使 他 不 得 不 加 以 处 理 。

    约 在 第 一 次 布 匿 战 争 ( P u n i c   W a r ) 时 期 , 罗 马 法 院 中 这 类

    案 件 的 数 量 , 大 量 增 加 , 当 时 就 任 命 了 一 个 专 任 “ 裁 判 官 ” 即

    后 来 被 称 为 “ 外 事 裁 判 官 ” 的 ( P r Et o r   P e r e g r i n n s ) 来 专 门

    处 理 这 些 案 件 。 同 时 , 罗 马 人 为 了 预 防 暴 政 的 复 辟 , 使 职 责

    范 围 有 逐 渐 扩 张 趋 势 的 每 一 个 高 级 官 史 在 他 就 职 之 时 , 公 布

    一 个 “ 告 令 ” 或 布 告 , 在 这 个 “ 告 令 ” 或 布 告 中 , 他 把 他 负

    责 部 门 的 管 理 方 式 公 布 出 来 。 “ 裁 判 官 ” 采 用 了 与 其 他 高 级 官吏 同 样 的 规 定 ; 但 每 年 规 定 一 套 原 则 制 度 , 必 然 是 不 可 能 的 ,

    他 只 是 照 例 把 他 前 任 的 “ 告 令 ” 重 新 公 布 一 次 , 并 针 对 当 前

    的 迫 切 需 要 或 根 据 他 自 己 对 于 法 律 的 见 解 , 作 一 些 增 加 或 者

    变 更 。 这 样 每 年 由 于 新 增 部 分 的 不 断 加 长 , “ 裁 判 官 ” 告 令 就

    获 得 了 “ 常 续 告 令 ” ( E d i c t u m   P e r p e u u m ) 的 名 称 , 意 即连续的和不断的 告 令 。 它 的 无 限 长 度 , 再 加 上 了 它 结 构 必 然 地杂 乱 无 章 , 引 起 了 嫌 恶 , 使 一 次 次 往 上 增 加 的 习 惯 , 到 了 萨尔 维 士 · 犹 令 安 ( S a l v i u s   J n l i a n u s ) 的 年 代 就 被 终 止 了 , 犹令 安 是 汉 德 林 皇 帝 ( E m p e r o r   H a d r i a n ) 朝 代 的 一 个 高 级 官吏 。 这 一 个 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 告 令 便 包 括 了 全 部 的 衡 平 法 律 学 , 可能 被 用 了 新 的 和 均 称 的 顺 序 加 以 排 列 , 于 是 , 在 罗 马 法 中 , 常续 告 令 便 常 被 称 为 “ 犹 令 安 告 令 ” ( E d i c t   o f   J u l i a n u s ) 。

    一 个 研 究 “ 告 令 ” 这 特 殊 机 构 的 英 国 人 , 可 能 会 发 生 的第 一 个 问 题 , 是 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 这 些 广 泛 权 力 , 究 竟 有 没 有 限制 的 范 围 ? 这 样 很 少 有 明 确 界 限 的 权 威 , 如 何 与 社 会 的 和 法律 的 稳 定 条 件 相 适 应 ? 要 求 得 一 个 答 案 , 只 有 通 过 详 细 研 究我 们 自 己 施 行 英 国 法 律 的 各 种 条 件 。 必 须 记 着 “ 裁 判 官 ” 本身 是 一 个 法 学 专 家 , 或 者 是 一 个 完 全 掌 握 在 都 是 些 法 学专家的 顾 问 手 中 的 人 , 那 就 很 可 能 , 每 一 个 罗 马 法 学 家 都 焦 急 地在 等 待 着 有 一 天 时 间 到 来 , 他 能 充 任 或 掌 握 这 伟 大 的 司 法 高级 官 职 。 在 这 期 间 内 , 他 的 嗜 好 、 情 感 、 偏 见 和 教 养 程度不可 避 免 地 是 属 于 他 自 己 阶 级 的 , 而 他 最 后 带 到 他 职 位 上 的 资格 也 必 然 是 他 在 职 业 的 实 践 和 研 究 中 所 获 得 的 。 每 一 个英国大 法 官 所 受 到 的 正 是 完 全 同 样 的 训 练 , 他 所 带 到 大 法 官 席 上的 正 是 同 样 的 资 格 。 在 他 就 任 时 就 可 以 决 定 , 到 他 离 职 前 必将 在 某 种 程 度 上 变 更 法 律 , 但 是 直 到 他 离 去 职 位 和 直 到 他 所

    作 的 一 系 列 判 决 完 全 被 记 载 于 “ 法 律 记 录 ” 以 前 , 我 们 不 能

    发 现 他 对 于 前 辈 所 遗 留 下 来 的 原 则 , 究 竟 有 了 多 少 的 简 明 或

    增 加 。 “ 裁 判 官 ” 对 罗 马 法 的 影 响 , 和 我 们 所 不 同 的 , 只 在 其

    结 果 被 确 定 的 期 间 。 像 前 面 已 说 过 的 , 他 的 任 期 只 有 一 年 , 而

    他 在 任 期 以 内 所 作 的 判 决 , 虽 然 对 于 诉 讼 人 当 然 是 不 可 推 翻

    的 , 但 此 外 就 没 有 别 的 价 值 。 因 此 , 他 宣 布 想 实 行 变 革 的 最

    顺 利 的 时 期 即 是 在 他 就 “ 裁 判 官 ” 职 位 的 时 候 ; 所 以 , 他 在

    就 职 时 公 开 地 做 的 , 正 是 其 英 国 代 表 在 最 后 不 声 不 响 和 有 时

    不 自 觉 地 做 的 。 对 于 这 种 显 然 的 自 由 所 加 的 节 制 , 也 正 和 加

    于 一 个 英 国 法 官 的 完 全 一 样 。 理 论 上 , 对 于 他 们 二 者 的 权 力 ,

    似 乎 都 并 没 有 任 何 限 制 , 但 是 在 事 实 上 , 罗 马 “ 裁 判 官 ” 和

    英 国 大 法 官 一 样 , 被 其 早 期 训 练 浸 润 的 先 入 之 见 以 及 职 业 论

    点 的 有 力 抑 制 束 缚 在 极 其 狭 小 的 活 动 范 围 之 内 , 这 些 抑 制 的

    严 格 程 度 非 身 受 者 是 不 能 体 会 的 。 应 该 附 加 说 明 的 , 那 许 可

    行 动 的 范 围 以 及 其 不 准 逾 越 的 范 围 , 都 是 非 常 清 楚 地 被 标 明

    的 。 在 英 国 , 法 官 遵 循 着 记 录 判 决 中 各 类 事 实 而 进 行 类 比 。 在

    罗 马 , 由 于 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 干 预 在 最 初 仅 仅 是 为 了 关 心 社 会 的

    安 全 , 那 就 很 可 能 , 在 最 早 的 时 候 , 干 预 的 多 少 决 定 于 它 所

    必 须 解 决 的 困 难 的 程 度 。 后 来 , 当 “ 解 答 ” 引 起 了 大 家 对 于

    原 则 的 兴 味 时 , 他 就 无 疑 地 利 用 “ 告 令 ” 作 为 一 种 手 段 , 来

    广 泛 推 行 他 和 同 时 代 的 其 他 法 学 专 家 认 之 为 法 律 基 础 的 那 些

    原 则 。 最 后 , 他 竟 完 全 处 在 希 腊 哲 学 理 论 的 影 响 之 下 , 这 些

    理 论 立 即 推 动 他 前 进 , 并 把 他 局 限 于 一 个 特 殊 的 发 展 过 程 中 。

    对 于 萨 尔 维 士 · 犹 令 安 所 采 取 的 措 施 的 性 质 , 有 很 多 的争 论 , 无 论 如 何 , 这 些 措 施 对 于 “ 告 令 ” 的 影 响 是 非 常 明 显的 。 “ 告 令 ” 不 再 因 每 年 有 所 增 加 而 延 长 。 在 这 以 后 , 罗 马 衡平 法 律 学 由 于 汉 德 林 朝 代 到 亚 力 山 大 · 赛 弗 拉 斯 ( A l e x a n d e r  S e v e r u s ) 朝 代 一 系 列 伟 大 法 律 学 专 家 的 辛 勤 著 作 而 得 到 发展 。 他 们 所 建 立 起 来 的 奇 伟 制 度 , 在 查 斯 丁 尼 安 “ 法 学 汇纂 ” ( P a n d e c t s   o f   J u s t i n i a n ) 中 还 保 存 着 一 些 片 断 , 证 明 他们 的 著 作 采 用 了 论 文 的 形 式 讨 论 了 “ 罗 马 法 ” 的 全 部 , 但 主要 的 是 对 “ 告 令 ” 加 以 解 释 。 真 的 , 在 这 个 时 代 中 , 一 个 法学 专 家 不 论 其 处 理 的 是 什 么 , 他 总 可 以 称 为 是 “ 衡 平 法 ”的一 个 释 义 者 。 在 “ 告 令 ” 被 停 止 应 用 的 时 代 以 前 , “ 告 令 ” 的

    原 则 已 经 渗 入 了 罗 马 法 律 学 的 每 一 个 部 门 。 必 须 了 解 , 罗 马

    的 “ 衡 平 法 ” 纵 使 在 和 “ 市 民 法 ” 完 全 不 同 的 时 候 , 也 始 终

    是 在 同 一 个 法 院 内 执 行 的 。 “ 裁 判 官 ” 是 普 通 法 的 大 官 吏 , 也

    是 衡 平 法 的 首 席 法 官 , 并 且 一 到 “ 告 令 ” 发 展 成 为 一 种 衡 平

    规 定 时 , “ 裁 判 官 ” 法 院 立 即 开 始 适 用 它 , 以 代 替 “ 市 民 法 ”

    的 旧 规 定 , 或 者 与 其 同 时 适 用 , 这 样 旧 规 定 就 不 经 过 立 法 机关 的 立 法 行 为 而 直 接 或 间 接 地 被 废 弃 了 , 其 结 果 , 当 然只是法 律 与 衡 平 完 全 不 相 融 合 而 已 , 这 种 融 合 要 直 到 查 斯丁尼安改 革 时 方 才 实 现 。 法 律 学 上 这 两 个 要 素 在 技 术 上 的 分 割 , 必然 地 造 成 了 某 种 混 乱 和 不 便 , 而 “ 市 民 法 ” 中 有 些 比 较 顽固的 学 理 , 则 又 是 “ 告 令 ” 著 者 或 释 义 者 都 不 敢 加 以 干 涉 的。不过 在 同 时 , 在 法 律 学 的 领 域 内 , 几 乎 没 有 一 个 角 落 没 有 受 到“ 衡 平 法 ” 或 多 或 少 的 影 响 。 它 供 给 了 法 学 家 他 所 用 的 一 切 概括 材 料 、 所 用 的 解 释 方 法 、 他 对 原 理 的 释 明 , 以 及 大 量 的 限制 规 定 , 这 些 规 定 很 少 受 到 立 法 者 的 干 预 , 但 却 严 密 地 控 制着 每 一 个 立 法 法 案 的 应 用。

    法 学 家 的 时 期 同 亚 力 山 大 · 赛 弗 拉 斯 同 时 告 终 。 从 汉 德林 到 这 个 皇 帝 时 为 止 , 法 律 在 继 续 不 断 地 改 进 着 , 正 如 现 在在 大 多 数 大 陆 国 家 中 一 样 , 一 部 分 通 过 审 定 的 解 释 , 一 部 分

    通 过 直 接 立 法 。 但 在 亚 力 山 大 · 赛 弗 拉 斯 在 位 的 时 期 , “ 罗 马

    衡 平 法 ” 的 发 展 力 量 似 乎 已 到 了 枯 竭 的 时 候 , 法 学 专 家 的 延

    续 也 停 止 了 下 来 。 余 下 来 的 一 部 分 罗 马 法 律 史 是 君 主 立 法 史 ,

    最 后 , 则 是 试 图 把 到 这 时 为 止 已 成 为 罗 马 法 律 学 的 这 个 庞 大

    躯 体 编 成 法 典 的 历 史 时 期 。 这 样 一 种 最 后 的 和 最 著 名 的 试 验就 是 查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 “ 民 法 大 全 ” 。

    要 把 英 国 的 和 罗 马 的 衡 平 法 详 细 地 加 以 比 较 或 对 照 , 是一 件 冗 长 可 厌 的 事 , 但 有 必 要 提 出 它 们 所 共 有 的 两 个 特 点 。 第一 个 特 点 是 这 样 的 。 它 们 都 倾 向 于 、 并 且 所 有 这 类 制 度 都 是这 样 地 倾 向 于 和 旧 普 通 法 第 一 次 为 衡 平 法 所 干 涉 时 的 那 种 状态 完 全 一 样 的 状 态 。 这 样 一 个 时 期 是 必 然 会 到 来 的 , 就 是 原来 采 用 的 道 德 原 则 已 经 发 挥 出 了 所 有 的 合 法 的 结 果 , 于 是 , 建筑 在 这 些 道 德 原 则 上 面 的 制 度 , 就 会 像 最 严 峻 的 法 律 法 典 那样 地 生 硬 、 那 样 地 没 有 伸 缩 、 那 样 地 不 得 不 落 后 于 道 德 的 进步 。 在 罗 马 , 这 样 一 个 时 期 正 是 亚 力 山 大 · 赛 弗 拉 斯 在 位 的时 期 ; 在 这 以 后 , 虽 然 整 个 罗 马 世 界 正 在 经 历 着 一 次 道德革命 , 但 “ 罗 马 衡 平 法 ” 已 停 止 扩 展 。 英 国 法 律 史 达 到 这同一阶 段 时 , 正 是 大 法 官 厄 尔 顿 爵 士 在 职 的 时 候 , 在 我 们的衡平法 官 中 , 他 是 第 一 个 人 不 但 不 用 间 接 立 法 的 方 法 来 扩 大 其法院 的 法 律 学 , 并 且 终 其 身 致 力 于 解 释 它 和 协 调 它 。 如 果 法 律史 的 哲 学 会 在 英 国 被 更 好 地 理 解 , 则 厄 尔 顿 爵 士 的 贡 献 , 将不 会 像 同 时 代 法 学 家 对 待 它 那 样 , 一 方 面 加 以 夸 张 而 另 一 方面 则 不 予 重 视 。 还 有 其 他 各 种 误 解 , 曾 发 生 某 种 实 际 效 果 的 ,也 许 可 能 会 得 到 避 免 。 英 国 法 学 家 很 容 易 看 出 , “ 英 国 衡 平法 ” 是 建 筑 在 道 德 规 则 上 的 一 种 制 度 ; 但 是 却 忘 记 了 这 些 规则 是 过 去 几 世 纪 的 — — 而 不 是 现 在 的 — — 道 德 , 忘 记 了 这 些

    规 则 已 经 几 乎 尽 它 们 所 能 的 受 到 了 多 方 面 的 应 用 , 并 且 忘 记

    了 它 们 虽 然 同 我 们 今 天 的 伦 理 信 条 当 然 并 没 有 很 大 的 区 别 ,

    但 它 们 并 不 一 定 同 我 们 今 天 的 伦 理 信 条 处 在 同 一 个 水 平 上 。

    一 般 人 对 于 这 个 主 题 所 采 用 的 各 种 理 论 并 不 完 全 , 这 造 成 了

    两 种 相 反 的 误 解 。 许 多 研 究 “ 衡 平 法 ” 的 著 者 , 看 到 了 这 个

    制 度 在 今 日 的 完 整 状 态 , 竟 然 会 明 显 地 或 暗 示 地 自 陷 于 这 样

    一 种 矛 盾 的 说 法 , 即 认 为 衡 平 法 律 学 的 始 创 人 在 奠 定 第 一 块

    墙 基 时 , 就 已 经 筹 划 着 它 今 日 的 固 定 形 式 。 而 另 外 一 些 人 则

    抱 怨 着 — — 这 是 一 种 时 常 在 法 庭 辩 论 中 提 到 的 不 平 — — 以 为

    衡 平 法 院 所 执 行 的 道 德 规 定 已 不 完 全 合 乎 今 日 的 伦 理 标 准 。

    他 们 希 望 每 一 个 大 法 官 对 法 律 学 所 做 的 , 能 完 全 和 英 国 衡 平

    法 的 先 辈 们 对 旧 普 通 法 所 做 的 一 样 。 但 这 是 和 促 使 法 律 改 进的 媒 介 顺 序 , 恰 恰 相 反 的 。 衡 平 法 自 有 它 的 地 位 和 它 的 时 期 ;但 我 在 前 面 已 经 指 出 了 , 当 衡 平 法 的 活 力 消 耗 完 了 时 , 另 一个 手 段 已 经 准 备 好 来 继 承 它 了 。

    英 国 和 罗 马 衡 平 法 还 有 另 一 个 显 著 的 共 同 特 点 , 即 原 来用 以 辩 护 衡 平 主 张 比 法 律 规 定 优 越 的 这 个 假 定 , 是 虚 伪 的 。 对于 人 们 , 不 论 是 个 人 或 是 集 体 , 没 有 东 西 比 把 他 们 的 道德进步 认 作 一 个 实 体 的 现 实 性 , 更 可 厌 恶 的 了 。 这 种 厌 恶 情 绪 , 就个 人 而 言 , 表 现 在 过 分 的 尊 敬 , 这 种 过 分 的 尊 敬 通 常 是 只 用以 对 一 致 性 的 这 个 可 疑 的 美 德 的 。 全 社 会 集 体 意 见 的 动 向 是非 常 明 显 , 不 应 加 以 忽 视 的 , 并 且 一 般 是 非 常 明 显 地 为 了 求得 进 步 不 应 加 以 诋 毁 的 ; 但 是 社 会 上 有 一 种 巨 大 的 阻 力,不愿 接 受 它 , 把 它 作 为 一 种 原 始 现 象 来 对 待 , 而 一 般 都 只 把 它解 释 为 恢 复 一 个 失 去 的 至 善 ( L o s t   p e r f e c t i o n ) — — 逐 渐 回返 到 民 族 未 堕 落 以 前 的 状 态 。 这 种 向 后 而 不 是 向 前 去 寻 求 道德 进 步 目 标 的 倾 向 , 像 我 们 已 看 到 的 , 在 古 代 就 对 罗 马 法 律学 产 生 了 最 深 远 的 影 响 。 罗 马 法 学 专 家 为 了 要 说 明 “ 裁 判官 ” 对 法 律 学 所 作 的 改 进 , 从 希 腊 借 用 了 一 个 人 类 “ 自 然 ” 状态 — — 一 个 “ 自 然 ” 社 会 — — 的 学 理 , 这 种 自 然 社 会 是 出 现于 由 现 实 法 统 治 的 社 会 组 织 之 前 的 社 会 。 另 一 方 面 在 英 国 , 则用 一 些 特 别 适 合 于 当 时 英 国 人 口 味 的 观 念 , 来 解 释 “ 衡 平法 ” 主 张 的 优 于 普 通 法 , 这 些 观 念 假 定 国 王 作 为 其 宗 主 权 的自 然 结 果 , 是 应 该 被 推 定 为 具 有 监 督 公 正 执 行 的 一 般 权 利 的 ,过 去 有 这 样 一 种 旧 的 学 理 , 认 为 “ 衡 平 法 ” 来 自 国 王 的 良 心— — 这 种 改 进 在 实 际 上 已 经 发 生 在 被 指 为 主 权 者 在 道 德 意 义上 的 一 个 固 有 的 提 高 的 社 会 道 德 标 准 中 了 , 这 种 见 解 是 和 前述 的 见 解 相 同 的 , 不 过 表 现 于 一 种 不 同 的 和 一 种 更 为 离奇古怪 的 方 式 中 而 已 。 英 国 宪 法 的 发 展 , 使 这 种 一 条 理 论 在 过 了一 个 时 期 以 后 , 就 不 合 口 味 ; 但 是 , 衡 平 法 院 的 审 判 权在当时 既 然 已 经 是 坚 定 地 确 定 了 , 那 就 没 有 另 设 任 何 正 式代 替 物的 必 要 。 在 现 代 教 科 书 中 , 关 于 “ 衡 平 法 ” 的 理 论 是 多 种多样 的 , 但 都 是 同 样 的 不 足 取 。 其 中 绝 大 部 分 都 只 是 把 罗马的自 然 法 学 理 加 以 改 头 换 面 , 尤 其 是 那 些 著 者 , 他 们 在 开 始 讨论 衡 平 法 院 的 审 判 权 时 就 在 自 然 公 正 和 民 事 公 正 之 间 加 以 明白 的 区 分 , 那 真 是 把 罗 马 自 然 法 学 理 的 要 旨 全 部 采 纳 了 。

    第 四 章   自 然 法 的 现 代 史

    从 前 面 所 说 的 , 可 以 推 断 , 改 变 罗 马 法 律 学 的 理 论 决 不能 被 认 为 有 哲 学 上 的 正 确 性 。 这 种 理 论 事 实 上 包 括 了 “ 思 想的 混 合 方 式 ” 之 一 , 这 种 所 谓 思 想 的 混 合 方 式 现 在 被 认为是人 类 思 想 初 期 的 最 高 思 想 的 特 点 , 同 时 也 是 我 们 今 天 的 智 慧的 努 力 所 不 难 发 现 的 。 “ 自 然 法 ” 把 “ 过 去 ” 与 “ 现 在 ” 混 淆起 来 了 。 逻 辑 上 , 它 意 味 着 曾 经 一 度 由 自 然 法 支 配 的 一 种 “ 自 然 ” 状 态 ; 但 法 学 专 家 并 不 明 白 地 或 确 信 地 说 到 过 有 这 样一 个 状 态 存 在 , 这 种 状 态 除 了 偶 然 在 幻 想 黄 金 时 代 的 诗 歌 中能 发 现 外 , 的 确 也 绝 少 为 古 人 们 所 注 意 到 。 自 然 法 从 实 际 效果 讲 , 是 属 于 现 代 的 产 物 , 和 现 存 制 度 交 织 在 一 起 的 东 西 , 是一 个 有 资 格 的 观 察 家 可 以 从 现 存 制 度 中 区 分 出 来 的 东 西 。 把“ 自 然 ” 的 法 规 从 同 这 些 法 规 混 淆 在 一 起 的 各 种 粗 陋 成 分 中 分离 开 来 的 鉴 别 方 法 , 是 一 种 单 纯 和 调 和 的 感 觉 。 但 是 这 些 经过 提 炼 出 来 的 原 素 所 以 能 受 到 重 视 , 却 并 不 是 由 于 它 们 的 单纯 和 调 和 , 而 是 由 于 它 们 来 自 太 古 的 “ 自 然 ” 统 治 。 这 种 混淆 并 没 有 为 法 学 专 家 的 现 代 学 生 们 成 功 地 解 释 清 楚 , 而 对

    “ 自 然 法 ” 提 出 的 一 些 近 代 纯 理 论 中 暴 露 出 来 的 认 识 模 糊 、 用

    语 含 混 不 清 之 处 , 实 际 上 远 比 我 们 公 正 地 责 咎 于 罗 马 法 学 家

    的 还 要 来 得 厉 害 。 有 些 研 究 这 个 主 题 的 著 者 , 认 为 “ 自 然 ” 法

    典 存 在 于 将 来 , 是 所 有 民 事 法 律 正 在 走 向 的 目 的 , 他 们 企 图用 这 种 方 法 来 避 免 基 本 的 困 难 , 但 是 这 非 但 同 旧 理 论 所 根 据的 假 设 完 全 相 反 , 而 且 也 许 混 杂 了 两 种 自 相 矛 盾 的 理 论 。 这种 不 问 过 去 只 向 将 来 寻 求 完 善 典 型 的 倾 向 , 是 由 基 督 教 带 到这 世 界 上 来 的 , 古 代 文 学 很 少 或 者 没 有 暗 示 过 这 样 一 种 信 念 ,即 认 为 社 会 进 步 必 然 地 是 从 坏 到 好 的 。

    但 是 , 这 个 理 论 在 哲 学 上 虽 然 有 其 缺 陷 , 我 们 却 不 能 因此 而 忽 视 其 对 于 人 类 的 重 要 性 。 真 的 , 如 果 自 然 法 没 有 成 为古 代 世 界 中 一 种 普 遍 的 信 念 , 这 就 很 难 说 思 想 的 历 史 、 因 此也 就 是 人 类 的 历 史 , 究 竟 会 朝 哪 一 个 方 向 发 展 了 。

    法 律 以 及 由 法 律 结 合 在 一 起 的 社 会 , 在 其 幼 稚 时 代 , 似乎 很 容 易 遭 受 两 种 特 殊 危 险 。 其 中 之 一 是 , 法 律 可 能 发 展 得太 快 。 在 比 较 进 步 的 希 腊 社 会 中 , 它 们 的 法 典 就 发 生 过这 种情 形 , 这 些 法 典 用 惊 人 的 速 度 从 繁 杂 的 程 序 形 式 和 不 必 需 的术 语 中 解 脱 出 来 , 并 且 不 久 以 后 就 使 各 种 严 峻 的 规 定 和 规 则上 不 再 依 附 着 任 何 迷 信 色 彩 。 它 们 这 样 做 , 其 本 意 并 不 是 为了 人 类 的 最 终 利 益 , 虽 然 因 此 而 使 其 公 民 获 得 的 直 接 好 处 可能 是 相 当 大 的 。 国 民 性 中 最 罕 见 的 特 性 之 一 , 是 这 样 的 来 应用 和 制 定 法 律 的 能 力 , 即 一 方 面 在 达 到 抽 象 公 正 中 忍 受 着 不断 地 发 生 的 错 误 , 而 在 同 时 却 不 丧 失 法 律 可 能 符 合 于 一 个 较高 理 想 的 希 望 或 愿 望 。 希 腊 的 思 想 家 本 其 高 贵 的 和 顺 应的特性 , 没 有 把 自 己 局 限 在 窄 狭 的 法 律 公 式 中 ; 我 们 对 于 雅 典 平民 法 院 的 工 作 情 况 掌 握 着 正 确 的 知 识 , 如 果 我 们 用 雅 典 平 民法 院 来 推 测 希 腊 的 法 院 , 则 我 们 可 以 知 道 , 在 希 腊 法 院 中 有着 非 常 强 有 力 的 倾 向 把 法 律 与 事 实 混 淆 在 一 起 。 当 时 “ 演 说家 ”的 遗 著 , 以 及 亚 里 士 多 德在 “ 修辞 学 论 ”中 所 保 存 的 法 庭 语 录 , 显示 出 当 时 对 纯 粹 的 法 律 问 题 往 往 是 用 可 能 影 响 法 官 心 理 的 各 种 理 由 来 进 行 辩 论 的 。 通 过 这 种 方 法 , 不 可 能 产 生 持 久 的 法律 学 制 度 。 一 个 社 会 对 于 某 些 特 殊 案 件 , 为 了 要 得 到 一 个 理想 的 完 美 的 判 决 , 就 毫 不 迟 疑 的 把 阻 碍 着 完 美 判 决 的 成 文 法律 规 定 变 通 一 下 , 如 果 这 个 社 会 确 有 任 何 司 法 原 则 可 以传诸后 世 , 那 它 所 能 传 下 来 的 司 法 原 则 只 可 能 仅 仅 是 包 括 着 当 时正 在 流 行 的 是 非 观 念 。 这 种 法 律 学 就 不 能 具 有 为 后 世 比 较 进步 的 概 念 所 能 适 合 的 骨 架 。 充 其 量 , 它 只 是 在 带 有 缺 点 的 文明 之 下 成 长 起 来 的 一 种 哲 学 而 已 。

    很 少 民 族 社 会 的 法 律 学 曾 受 到 这 种 或 则 过 早 成 熟 或 则 时机 未 熟 就 已 经 瓦 解 的 特 殊 危 险 的 威 胁 。 究 竟 罗 马 人 有 没 有 受到 过 它 的 严 重 威 胁 , 当 然 还 不 能 确 定 , 但 是 无 论 如 何 ,罗马人 在 其 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 理 论 中 是 有 着 适 当 的 保 护 的 。 因 为法学专 家 显 明 地 把 “ 自 然 法 ” 想 象 为 一 种 应 该 逐 渐 吸 收 各 种民事法 律 的 制 度 , 但 是 在 民 事 法 律 还 没 有 被 废 弃 以 前 , 自 然 法 却不 能 把 它 们 取 而 代 之 。 在 国 外 自 然 法 是 没 有 这 种 神 圣 不可侵犯 的 印 象 的 , 就 是 只 要 向 它 提 出 申 诉 就 有 可 能 使 处 理 特 定 诉讼 案 件 的 法 官 的 心 理 为 之 折 服 。 这 个 概 念 的 所 以 有 其 价 值 和作 用 , 是 因 为 它 能 使 人 在 想 象 中 出 现 一 个 完 美 法 律 的 典 型 , 它并 且 能 够 鼓 舞 起 一 种 要 无 限 地 接 近 于 它 的 希 望 , 而 在 同 时 , 对于 还 没 有 适 应 于 这 个 理 论 的 那 些 现 存 法 律 义 务 , 它 又 从 不 使法 律 实 务 者 或 市 民 加 以 否 认 。 同 样 重 要 的 , 应 该 看 到 , 这 个模 范 制 度 同 许 多 在 以 后 时 期 曾 嘲 弄 过 人 们 的 希 望 的 制 度 不同 , 并 不 完 全 是 幻 想 的 产 物 。 从 来 没 有 人 把 它 看 作 是 建 筑 在完 全 没 有 经 过 考 验 的 原 则 之 上 的 。 一 般 的 看 法 , 它 是 现 存 法律 的 基 础 , 并 且 一 定 要 通 过 现 存 法 律 才 能 找 到 它 。 它 的 职 能 ,简 单 地 讲 , 是 补 救 性 的 , 而 不 是 革 命 性 的 或 无 政 府 状 态 的 。 这一 点 , 不 幸 地 , 恰 恰 就 是 现 代 对 于 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 见 解 常 常 不再 和 古 代 见 解 相 同 的 地 方 。

    社 会 在 幼 年 时 代 要 招 惹 到 的 另 外 一 种 危 险 , 曾 阻 碍 了 或停 住 了 更 大 一 部 分 人 类 的 进 步 。 原 始 法 律 的 僵 硬 性 , 主 要 是由 于 它 同 宗 教 的 早 期 联 系 和 同 一 性 而 造 成 的 , 这 种 僵 硬 性 曾

    把 大 多 数 人 在 生 活 和 行 为 上 的 见 解 束 缚 住 , 使 它 们 和 人 们 的惯 例 第 一 次 被 固 定 为 有 系 统 形 式 时 的 见 解 一 样 。 世 界 上 只 有

    一 二 个 民 族 由 于 奇 异 的 命 运 才 能 使 它 们 免 除 了 这 种 不 幸 , 而

    从 这 些 民 族 所 出 的 支 系 曾 丰 富 了 少 数 现 代 社 会 , 但 是 情 况 仍

    旧 是 这 样 : 在 大 部 分 世 界 中 , 只 有 墨 守 着 由 原 始 立 法 者 所 设

    计 的 最 初 计 划 , 法 律 才 能 达 到 其 完 美 性 。 如 果 在 这 类 情 形 中 ,

    智 慧 确 曾 对 法 律 发 生 过 影 响 , 那 它 能 一 致 地 以 之 自 夸 的 , 就

    是 它 能 在 古 原 文 的 基 础 上 , 求 得 种 种 机 巧 的 牵 强 附 会 的 结 论 ,

    而 在 其 文 字 性 质 上 却 毫 无 显 著 的 背 离 。 我 找 不 出 任 何 理 由 , 为

    什 么 罗 马 法 律 会 优 于 印 度 法 律 , 假 使 不 是 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 理 论

    给 了 它 一 种 与 众 不 同 的 优 秀 典 型 。 在 这 个 稀 有 的 事 例 中 , 这

    个 由 于 其 他 原 因 而 注 定 了 对 人 类 发 生 巨 大 影 响 的 社 会 , 把 单

    纯 和 匀 称 作 为 其 心 目 中 一 个 理 想 的 和 绝 对 的 完 美 法 律 的 特

    证 。 一 个 国 家 或 者 一 个 职 业 在 其 力 求 改 进 时 , 如 果 能 有 一 个

    明 显 的 要 达 到 的 目 标 , 其 重 要 性 是 不 能 忽 视 的 。 在 过 去 三 十

    年 间 , 边 沁 之 所 以 能 在 英 国 发 生 巨 大 影 响 , 其 秘 密 就 是 在 于他 能 成 功 地 把 这 样 一 个 目 的 , 向 国 人 提 出 。 他 给 我 们 一 个 明白 的 改 良 规 则 。 前 一 世 纪 中 的 英 国 法 学 家 是 敏 锐 的 , 当 然 不致 于 会 被 这 样 一 个 似 是 而 非 的 言 论 所 蒙 蔽 , 以 为 英 国 法 律 是人 类 完 美 的 理 想 , 但 是 由 于 缺 乏 任 何 其 他 原 则 可 资 依 据 , 他们 在 行 动 上 似 乎 就 相 信 着 这 样 一 个 说 法 。 边 沁 提 出 社 会 幸 福 ,

    把 它 作 为 优 先 于 其 他 一 切 的 首 要 目 的 , 这 样 , 就 使 一 个 长 期以 来 正 在 寻 找 出 路 的 洪 流 , 得 到 了 发洩 。

    如 果 我 们 把 前 面 所 描 述 的 假 定 作 为 边 沁 主 义 的 古 代 对 称物 , 这 不 能 说 是 完 全 出 于 妄 想 的 一 种 比 较 。 罗 马 理 论 引 导 人们 努 力 的 方 向 , 正 和 这 个 英 国 人 计 划 的 理 论 所 导 致 的 方 向 , 完全 相 同 ; 罗 马 理 论 的 实 际 结 果 , 同 主 张 坚 决 地 追 求 社 会 一 般幸 福 的 改 良 法 学 派 所 可 能 达 到 的 结 果 , 不 致 于 有 很 大 的 区 别 。但 如 果 认 为 这 个 理 论 是 边 沁 原 则 的 有 意 识 的 豫 期 , 则 是一种错 误 。 毫 无 疑 义 , 在 罗 马 的 普 通 文 献 和 法 律 文 献 中 ,确有时以 人 类 幸 福 作 为 补 救 立 法 的 正 当 目 的 , 但 如 果 拿 有 关 这 个 原则 的 证 据 , 同 不 断 地 给 予 “ 自 然 法 ” 笼 盖 一 切 的 主 张 的 颂扬相 比 , 则 前 者 是 显 著 地 少 而 无 力 的 。 罗 马 法 学 专 家 所 甘 心 悦

    服 的 , 不 是 近 似 博 爱 的 东 西 , 而 是 它 们 的 单 纯 和 调 和 之 感 — —

    就 是 他 们 意 味 深 长 地 称 为 “ 文 雅 ” 的 东 西 。 他 们 辛 勤 劳 力 的

    结 果 , 恰 和 一 个 更 精 确 的 哲 学 所 企 求 的 相 一 致 , 这 正 是 人 类

    好 运 的 一 部 分 。

    回 过 头 来 看 自 然 法 的 现 代 史 , 我 们 断 然 相 信 它 的 影 响 是

    广 泛 深 入 的 , 但 这 种 影 响 的 是 好 是 坏 , 则 就 比 较 难 以 坚 定 地

    加 以 肯 定 。 同 它 有 关 的 各 种 学 说 和 制 度 , 是 在 我 们 时 代 中 争

    论 最 剧 烈 的 一 些 资 料 。 譬 如 说 , “ 自 然 法 ” 理 论 是 一 切 特 殊 观

    念 如 法 律 、 政 治 与 社 会 的 渊 源 , 在 过 去 一 百 年 间 通 过 法 国 而传 遍 西 方 世 界 。 法 学 家 在 法 国 史 上 所 占 有 的 地 位 以 及 法 律 概

    念 在 法 国 思 想 中 所 占 的 领 域 , 始 终 是 非 常 巨 大 的 。 但 现 代 欧

    洲 的 法 律 科 学 , 其 起 源 实 在 不 是 在 法 国 , 而 是 在 意 大 利 , 在

    意 大 利 各 大 学 的 使 者 在 大 陆 各 地 创 设 的 和 企 图 ( 虽 然 结 果 是

    徒 劳 的 ) 在 我 岛 国 创 立 的 学 校 中 , 建 立 在 法 国 的 学 校 对 这 个

    国 家 的 命 运 产 生 了 最 大 的 影 响 。 当 时 的 法 国 法 学 家 立 即 同 加佩 皇 族 ( h o u s e   o f   C a p e t ) 的 国 王 们 结 成 了 密 切 的 联 盟 , 而法 兰 西 君 主 国 之 所 以 能 从 省 邦 和 藩 属 的 割 据 状 态 中 成 长 起来 , 一 方 面 固 然 是 由 于 武 力 , 同 时 也 借 助 他 们 对 帝 王 特 权 的主 张 以 及 他 们 对 封 建 承 继 规 则 的 解 释 。 法 国 国 王 们 同 法 律 家之 间 的 谅 解 , 使 国 王 们 在 对 大 封 建 主 、 贵 族 和 教 会 的 斗 争 中

    取 得 巨 大 的 利 益 , 我 们 只 要 研 究 一 下 直 到 中 世 纪 还 在 欧 洲 流

    行 着 的 各 种 观 念 就 能 够 体 会 到 这 一 点 。 首 先 是 对 于 概 括 的 非

    常 醉 心 以 及 对 于 一 般 命 题 的 出 奇 的 崇 拜 , 因 此 , 在 法 律 的 分

    野 内 , 对 于 看 上 去 似 乎 能 包 含 和 总 括 在 各 地 区 作 为 惯 例 实 行

    的 许 多 各 别 规 则 的 每 一 条 一 般 公 式 就 都 油 然 而 产 生 一 种 虔 敬

    之 心 。 像 这 样 一 类 的 一 般 公 式 , 对 于 熟 习 “ 民 法 大 全 ” 或

    “ 注 释 集 ” 的 法 律 实 务 者 说 来 , 当 然 是 不 难 尽 量 提 供 的 。 但 是

    此 外 还 有 其 他 原 因 使 法 学 家 的 权 力 有 更 大 的 增 加 。 在 我 们 所

    谈 到 的 时 期 中 , 对 于 成 文 法 律 究 竟 有 怎 样 程 度 和 怎 样 性 质 的

    权 力 , 在 观 念 上 是 普 遍 地 模 糊 的 。 一 般 讲 来 , 独 断 的 序 言 ,兹规定 ( I t a   s c r i p t u m   e s t ) , 似 乎 即 足 以 止 息 所 有 的 异 议 。 按

    照 我 们 今 日 的 心 意 , 我 们 对 于 所 引 证 的 公 式 , 必 将 审 慎 地 加

    以 研 究 , 查 询 其 来 源 , 必 要 时 并 会 否 认 它 所 属 的 法 律 有 代 替

    当 地 习 惯 之 权 , 但 前 辈 法 学 家 可 能 就 不 敢 这 样 做 , 他 们 只 是考 究 一 下 法 律 的 规 定 是 否 可 以 适 用 , 充 其 量 , 也 只 是 从 “ 法

    学 汇 纂 ” 或 “ 寺 院 法 ” 中 引 一 些 相 反 的 命 题 而 已 。 对 于 各 种

    法 律 争 论 中 这 个 最 重 要 的 方 面 人 们 看 法 的 变 化 无 定 , 必 须 牢

    记 在 心 中 , 因 为 这 不 但 可 以 帮 助 说 明 法 学 家 对 于 帝 王 出 过 一

    臂 之 力 , 同 时 也 可 以 使 几 个 古 怪 的 历 史 问 题 得 以 阐 明 。 “ 伪 教皇 教 令 集 ” ( F o r g e d   D e c r e t a l s ) 著 者 的 动 机 以 及 他 的 非 常 成功 , 也 能 因 此 而更 加 容 易 领 会 。 再 就 一 个 关 系 较 小 的 现 象 而论 , 它 能 够 帮 助 我 们 、 虽 然 只 是 部 分 地 , 了 解 布 拉 克 顿 的 抄袭 主 义 。 这 个 生 活 在 亨 利 三 世 ( H e n r y   Ⅲ ) 时 代 的 英 国 著 者 ,竟 会 把 他 的 一 篇 全 部 形 式 和 三 分 之 一 内 容 直 接 剽 窃 自 “ 民 法大 全 ” 的 论 文 , 作 为 纯 粹 国 英 法 的 纲 要 , 而 向 其 同 胞 宣 扬 。 他竟 敢 在 正 式 禁 止 系 统 地 研 究 罗 马 法 的 一 个 国 家 内 作 这 样 的 试验 , 这 在 法 学 史 上 将 始 终 成 为 一 个 最 不 可 解 之 谜 。 但 当 我 们了 解 到 当 时 对 于 成 文 法 律 有 拘 束 力 的 一 般 意 见 , 不 论 其 来 源 如 何 , 则 我 们 的 惊 异 是 仍 旧 可 以 略 为 减 少 的 。

    当 法 国 的 国 王 们 在 长 期 争 取 最 高 统 治 权 的 斗 争 中 得 到 胜

    利 的 结 束 时 , 约 相 当 于 瓦 罗 亚 · 安 古 伦 ( V a l o i s A n g o u l e Jm e ) 王 族 继 承 皇 位 的 时 候 , 法 国 法 学 家 的 地 位 是 特 殊 的 , 并 且 延续 到 革 命 暴 发 为 止 。 一 方 面 , 他 们 形 成 了 国 内 最 有 教 养 的 并且 是 最 有 势 力 的 阶 级 。 他 们 尽 量 利 用 他 们 在 封 建 贵 族 以 外 的

    一 个 特 殊 阶 级 的 地 位 , 他 们 并 且 通 过 了 一 个 组 织 把 他 们 的 职

    业 分 布 到 全 法 国 来 确 保 他 们 的 影 响 , 这 个 组 织 包 括 许 多 巨 大

    的 特 许 公 司 , 具 有 广 泛 而 明 确 的 权 力 , 以 及 更 为 广 泛 无 限 制

    的 发 言 权 。 不 论 他 们 所 担 任 的 是 辩 护 人 , 是 法 官 , 或 是 立 法

    者 , 在 其 性 质 上 他 们 都 远 超 过 全 欧 洲 的 同 辈 。 他 们 的 法 律 技巧 , 他 们 的 能 言 善 辩 , 他 们 的 善 于 类 比 和 调 和 , 以 及 ( 如 果以 他 们 中 最 著 名 的 人 物 来 评 定 ) 他 们 对 公 正 概 念 的 热 诚 , 正和 他 们 所 赋 有 的 各 式 各 样 的 独 特 天 才 , 同 样 是 十 分 引 人 注 意的 。 在 这 多 样 的 天 才 中 包 括 着 由 古 乍 斯 ( C u j a s ) 到 孟 德 斯 鸠 ,由 达 该 素 ( D ’ A g u e s s e a u ) 到 都 漠 兰 ( D u m o u l i n ) 的 两 个 相反 的 极 端 之 间 的 全 部 人 物 。 但 是 在 另 一 方 面 , 他 们 必 须 执 行

    的 法 律 制 度 , 则 与 他 们 所 养 成 的 习 性 完 全 不 同 。 这 个 主 要 经

    由 他 们 的 努 力 而 组 成 的 法 国 , 当 时 从 一 种 畸 形 的 和 不 协 调 的

    法 律 学 受 到 的 苦 恼 , 远 超 过 了 其 他 的 任 何 欧 洲 国 家 。 一 次 巨

    大 的 分 裂 终 于 在 这 个 国 家 发 生 , 把 它 分 为成文法区域和习惯 ·

    法 ·

    区域,前 者 承 认 成 文 的 罗 马 法 为 其 法 律 学 的 基 础 , 后 者 只

    在 它 能 提 供 一 般 表 现 形 式 或 是 它 能 提 供 同 当 地 惯 例 相 一 致 的

    法 律 推 理 方 法 时 , 才 加 以 采 用 。 这 样 划 分 的 区 域 , 又 被 划 分为 不 同 的 小 区 域 。 在习惯法区域中 , 就 其 习 惯 的 性 质 来 说 、 省与 省 之 间 不 同 , 县 与 县 之 间 、 市 与 市 之 间 又 有 不 同 。 在成文法区域 中 , 掩 盖 在 罗 马 法 上 面 的 封 建 规 则 , 具 层 次 组 成 亦 非常 复 杂 。 英 国 从 来 没 有 发 生 过 这 样 的 混 乱 情 况 。 在 德 国,这种 情 况 曾 经 存 在 , 但 因 为 和 该 国 政 治 宗 教 间 的 深 刻 划 分 , 在很 大 程 度 上 是 非 常 协 调 的 , 所 以 很 少 影 响 , 甚 至 难 以 感觉到法 国 的 独 特 之 点 在 于 当 君 主 的 中 央 政 权 正 在 不 断 加 强 , 完 全

    的 行 政 统 一 工 作 正 在 迅 速 完 成 , 以 及 在 人 民 中 间 一 种 热 烈 的

    国 家 精 神 正 在 发 展 起 来 的 时 候 , 这 种 法 律 上 非 常 参 差 的 情 况

    还 是 继 续 着 , 丝 毫 不 感 到 有 什 么 改 变 。 这 种 矛 盾 现 象 产 生 了

    许 多 严 重 的 后 果 , 其 中 , 尤 以 它 在 法 国 法 学 家 心 神 上 所 产 生的 效 果 , 最 为 重 要 。 他 们 在 推 理 上 的 意 见 和 他 们 在 智 力 上 的

    偏 见 , 恰 恰 和 他 们 的 利 益 和 职 业 习 惯 完 全 相 反 。 他 们 既 深 深

    地 感 觉 到 并 完 全 认 识 到 法 律 学 上 的 完 美 是 在 于 单 纯 性 和 一 致

    性 , 因 此 便 以 为 或 似 乎 以 为 那 些 确 实 感 染 着 法 国 法 律 的 缺 点

    是 难 以 革 除 的 , 因 此 , 在 实 际 上 , 他 们 常 拒 绝 纠 正 这 些 缺 点 ,

    其 顽 固 程 度 即 在 比 较 不 开 明 的 同 胞 中 也 是 不 常 有 的 。 但 当 时

    有 一 种 方 法 可 以 用 来 调 和 这 些 矛 盾 。 他 们 变 成 了 “ 自 然 法 ” 的

    热 烈 拥 护 者 。 “ 自 然 法 ” 跳 过 了 所 有 的 省 市 界 限 ; 它 不 管 一 切

    区 分 , 不 论 是 贵 族 和 市 民 之 间 的 , 市 民 和 农 民 之 间 的 ; 它 给

    明 白 、 单 纯 和 系 统 以 极 端 崇 高 的 地 位 ; 但 是 它 并 没 有 促 使 其

    拥 护 者 进 行 任 何 特 殊 的 改 进 , 亦 没 有 直 接 威 胁 到 任 何 可 尊 敬

    的 或 有 利 的 专 门 性 质 。 “ 自 然 法 ” 可 以 说 已 成 为 法 国 的 普 通 法 ,

    或 者 , 无 论 如 何 , 承 认 它 的 尊 严 和 要 求 已 成 为 所 有 法 国 法 律

    实 务 者 一 致 同 意 的 一 个 哲 理 。 革 命 前 法 学 家 的 言 论 中 , 对

    “ 自 然 法 ” 毫 无 保 留 地 一 致 颂 扬 , 而 值 得 注 意 的 是 , 那 些 专 事诽 谤 纯 粹 罗 马 法 的 “ 习 惯 ” 论 者 , 在 谈 到 “ 自 然 ” 及 其 规 定时 , 往 往 甚 至 比 自 认 为 只 尊 重 “ 法 学 汇 纂 ” ( D i g e s t ) 及 “ 法典 ” 的 民 法 学 家 , 更 为 热 烈 。 都 漠 兰 是 古 “ 法 兰 西 习 惯 法 ” 所

    有 权 威 学 者 中 的 最 高 权 威 , 却 有 几 篇 非 常 透 彻 详 尽 的 有 关

    “ 自 然 法 ” 的 论 文 , 他 的 颂 词 并 且 有 一 种 特 殊 的 风 格 , 显 然 同罗 马 法 学 专 家 的 小 心 慎 重 有 着 距 离 。 一 个 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 假 说已 成 为 不 复 是 指 导 实 际 的 一 种 理 论 , 而 是 纯 理 论 信 仰 的 一 种信 条 ; 因 此 , 我 们 将 发 现 在 它 比 较 近 来 所 经 受 的 变 化 中 , 由于 其 拥 护 者 的 推 崇 , 它 的 最 弱 部 分 也 上 升 到 了 其 最 强 部 分 的水 平 。

    在 “ 自 然 法 ” 史 达 到 最 紧 要 的 关 头 时 , 十 八 世 纪 已 经 过去 了 一 半 。 如 果 对 于 自 然 法 理 论 及 其 后 果 的 讨 论 继 续 专 属 于法 律 界 , 则 它 所 受 到 的 重 视 可 能 要 有 一 些 减 少 ; 因 为 到 这 个

    时 候 , “ 论 法 的 精 神 ” 出 版 了 。 孟 德 斯 鸠 在 这 本 书 中 , 一 方 面

    相 当 夸 张 地 显 示 出 作 者 强 烈 地 不 愿 接 受 以 前 通 常 是 不 加 详 细

    审 查 而 予 以 容 忍 的 各 种 假 设 , 另 一 方 面 又 相 当 模 糊 地 表 现 出

    作 者 要 与 现 存 偏 见 相 调 和 的 愿 望 , 但 是 , 这 本 书 虽 有 其 缺 点 ,

    却 仍 按 照 着 “ 历 史 方 法 ” 进 行 研 究 , 在 这 种 方 法 之 前 , “ 自 然

    法 ” 是 从 来 没 有 能 瞬 息 维 持 其 立 足 点 的 。 它 不 但 受 到 了 大 众

    的 欢 迎 , 并 且 在 思 想 上 也 发 生 了 巨 大 的 影 响 ; 但 是 , 在 事 实

    上 它 并 没 有 得 到 进 一 步 深 入 的 机 会 , 因 为 似 乎 注 定 要 被 它 所

    毁 灭 的 反 假 说 突 然 从 法 庭 传 到 了 民 间 , 并 且 成 为 远 较 法 院 或

    学 校 中 曾 经 激 辩 过 的 主 题 更 能 引 起 激 烈 争 执 的 主 题 。 这 个 把

    它 放 在 新 地 位 的 人 , 是 一 个 非 常 的 人 , 他 没 有 学 识 , 很 少 美

    德 , 并 且 也 没 有 十 分 坚 强 的 个 性 , 但 由 于 一 种 鲜 明 的 想 象 力 ,

    以 及 他 对 于 人 类 的 真 诚 的 热 爱 ( 为 了 这 , 我 们 对 他 有 许 多 地

    方 应 该 原 谅 的 ) , 却 使 他 成 为 历 史 上 不 可 磨 灭 的 人 物 。 在 我 们

    自 己 的 一 代 中 , 我 们 从 来 没 有 看 到 过 — — 的 确 , 即 在 全 世 界

    整 个 历 史 过 程 中 , 也 不 会 看 到 一 次 或 二 次 以 上 的 — — 这 样 一

    个 文 件 , 曾 对 人 类 的 心 灵 、 对 知 识 分 子 的 躯 体 和 灵 魂 产 生 过

    像 卢 梭 在 1 7 4 9 年 和 1 7 6 2 年 之 间 所 产 生 的 那 样 巨 大 的 影 响的 。 在 由 贝 尔 ( B a y l e ) 和 部 分 地 由 我 国 的 洛 克开 始 ,最 后 却 由 伏 尔 泰完 成 的 纯 然 是 偶 象 破 坏 的 努 力 以后 , 这 是 要 重 新 建 立 人 类 信 念 的 第 一 次 尝 试 ; 并 且 除 了 每 一个 有 建 设 性 的 努 力 常 常 必 然 优 于 单 纯 的 破 坏 性 的 努 力 以 外,它 还 有 着 一 个 卓 越 之 处 , 就 是 在 一 个 几 乎 普 遍 的 怀 疑 论 的 氛围 中 间 , 提 出 了 所 有 过 去 推 理 方 面 知 识 的 健 全 性 问 题 。 在 卢梭 的 一 切 理 论 中 , 其 中 心 人 物 , 不 论 是 穿 着 英 国 服 装 在 一 个

    社 会 契 约 上 签 名 的 或 者 是 率 直 地 把 所 有 历 史 特 性 完 全 剥 光

    的 , 都 一 律 是 在 一 种 假 设 的 自 然 状 态 中 的 “ 人 ” 。 每 一 种 法 律

    和 制 度 , 凡 是 不 能 适 合 于 这 些 理 想 情 况 下 的 这 种 想 象 的 人 , 都

    被 加 以 非 难 , 认 为 是 从 一 种 原 始 完 美 状 态 的 堕 落 ; 对 于 每 一

    种 能 使 社 会 更 接 近 于 “ 自 然 ” 生 物 统 治 着 的 世 界 的 社 会 变 革 ,

    都 认 为 是 可 以 赞 美 的 , 并 值 得 用 任 何 明 显 的 代 价 使 其 实 现 。 这

    个 确 论 仍 旧 是 罗 马 法 学 家 的 理 论 , 因 为 在 这 个 人 类 居 住 的“ 自 然 条 件 ” ( N a t u r a l   C o n d i t i o n ) 的 暗 影 中 , 除 了 对 于 法 学

    专 家 具 有 非 常 魔 力 的 单 纯 和 调 和 之 外 , 竟 没 有 一 个 特 色 和 特

    点 为 人 们 所 注 意 到 ; 但 是 这 个 理 论 好 像 是 本 末 倒 置 过 来 了 。 现

    在 所 研 究 的 主 要 问 题 , 已 不 是 “ 自 然 法 律 ” , 而 是 “ 自 然 状态 ” ( S t a t e   o f   n a t u r e ) 。 罗 马 人 曾 认 为 , 如 果 对 于 现 存 的 各种 制 度 加 以 仔 细 观 察 , 则 在 这 些 制 度 中 必 然 可 以 挑 选 出 有 几

    个 部 分 或 者 立 即 可 以 显 示 出 来 , 或 者 必 须 经 过 法 律 上 的 纯 净

    作 用 才 可 以 显 示 出 那 种 自 然 统 治 的 痕 迹 , 这 种 自 然 统 治 在 罗

    马 人 看 起 来 , 有 可 能 是 真 实 的 。 至 于 卢 梭 的 信 念 是 : 一 个 完

    美 的 社 会 秩 序 可 以 求 之 于 单 纯 的 对 自 然 状 态 的 考 虑 , 这 一 种

    社 会 秩 序 完 全 同 世 界 的 实 际 情 况 没 有 关 系 , 并 且 完 全 同 世 界

    的 实 际 情 况 不 同 。 这 两 种 见 解 的 分 歧 是 巨 大 的 , 一 种 是 痛 责

    现 在 , 因 为 它 不 像 理 想 中 的 过 去 : 而 另 外 的 一 种 , 假 定 现 在

    同 过 去 一 样 的 必 要 的 , 因 此 也 就 不 轻 视 现 在 或 谴 责 现 在 。 我

    们 没 有 必 要 枉 费 时 间 , 以 详 细 分 析 这 建 筑 于 一 个 自 然 状 态 基础 上 的 政 治 、 艺 术 、 教 育 、 伦 理 学 和 社 会 关 系 的 哲 学 。 这 种

    哲 学 对 于 每 一 个 国 家 中 比 较 不 精 确 的 思 想 家 还 具 有 特 别 的 吸

    引 力 , 并 且 无 疑 地 是 妨 碍 着 应 用 “ 历 史 研 究 方 法 ” 的 几 乎 一

    切 先 入 之 见 的 、 多 少 是 不 直 接 的 根 源 , 但 它 已 为 我 们 今 日 有

    识 者 所 不 信 任 到 了 这 样 的 程 度 , 竟 使 那 些 熟 知 纯 理 论 的 错 误

    具 有 非 常 活 力 的 人 们 , 为 之 惶 惑 不 止 。 在 今 天 最 常 提 到 的 问

    题 , 也 许 并 不 是 这 些 意 见 究 竟 有 什 么 价 值 , 而 是 : 在 一 百 年

    以 前 使 它 们 有 这 样 的 盖 过 一 切 的 优 势 , 其 原 因 究 竟 是 什 么 。 我

    认 为 回 答 是 很 简 单 的 。 在 上 一 世 纪 中 , 有 一 种 研 究 最 可 能 用

    来 纠 正 凡 是 专 门 注 意 于 古 法 律 的 人 很 容 易 陷 入 的 误 解 , 这 种

    研 究 便 是 宗 教 的 研 究 。 但 希 腊 宗 教 如 当 时 所 理 解 的 那 样 , 都

    已 被 分 散 于 许 多 想 象 的 神 话 中 。 东 方 的 各 种 宗 教 纵 使 确 曾 受

    到 过 注 意 , 但 这 些 宗 教 似 乎 都 迷 失 于 空 虚 的 宇 宙 开 辟 论 中 。 只

    有 一 种 原 始 记 录 , 值 得 加 以 研 究 — — 就 是 早 期 的 犹 太 史 。 但

    当 时 的 种 种 偏 见 阻 止 着 我 们 利 用 它 。 卢 梭 学 派 同 伏 尔 泰 学 派

    所 共 有 的 少 数 特 征 之 一 ; 是 完 全 轻 视 一 切 宗 教 上 的 古 代 事 物 ,

    特 别 是 属 于 希 伯 来 民 族 的 。 众 所 周 知 , 当 时 的 理 论 家 都 不 仅

    认 为 以 摩 西为 名 的 制 度 并 非 真 的 出 自 神 授 , 认 为 它

    们 也 不 是 象 传 说 那 样 在 一 个 较 后 的 时 期 被 制 定 为 法 典 的 , 他

    们 认 为 这 些 制 度 以 及 全 部 的 “ 摩 西 五 经 ”都 只是 一 种 毫 无 根 据 的 伪 造 , 是 在 从 “ 幽 囚 ” ( C a p t i v i t y ) 中 回 来以 后 完 成 的 。 这 些 思 想 家 所 以 作 出 这 样 的 假 定 , 因 为 这 与 他们 的 荣 誉 有 关 。 因 此 法 国 的 哲 学 家 们 , 既 被 阻 止 取 得 这 个 反

    对 纯 理 论 谬 见 的 主 要 保 证 , 就 在 他 们 热 切 于 从 他 们 认 为 是 僧

    侣 的 迷 信 中 逃 避 出 来 的 时 候 , 又 轻 率 地 把 他 们 自 己 投 入 了 法学 家 的 迷 信 中 去 。

    但 是 这 个 以 自 然 状 态 的 假 设 为 基 础 的 哲 学 , 虽 然 因 为 它

    只 被 看 到 了 其 粗 糙 的 和 比 较 容 易 看 到 的 一 面 , 一 般 的 评 价 不

    高 , 但 这 并 不 是 说 , 当 它 在 比 较 精 巧 的 伪 装 中 , 就 失 掉 了 它

    可 以 赞 美 的 地 方 、 通 俗 的 地 方 和 它 的 力 量 。 我 相 信 , 象 我 前

    面 已 说 过 的 , 它 仍 旧 是 “ 历 史 方 法 ” 的 劲 敌 ; 并 且 ( 除 了 宗

    教 上 的 反 对 以 外 ) 凡 是 拒 绝 或 责 难 这 种 研 究 方 式 的 人 , 一 般

    都 是 由 于 有 意 或 无 意 地 受 到 了 信 赖 社 会 或 个 人 的 非 历 史 的 即

    自 然 的 状 态 的 一 种 偏 见 或 武 断 的 影 响 的 结 果 。 不 过 “ 自 然 ” 学

    说 及 其 法 律 观 点 之 所 以 能 保 持 其 能 力 , 主 要 是 由 于 它 们 能 和

    各 种 政 治 及 社 会 倾 向 联 结 在 一 起 , 在 这 些 倾 向 中 , 有 一 些 是

    由 它 们 促 成 的 , 有 一 些 的 确 是 它 们 所 创 造 的 , 而 绝 大 部 分 则

    是 由 它 们 提 供 了 说 明 和 形 式 。 它 们 明 显 地 大 量 渗 入 到 不 断 由

    法 国 传 播 到 文 明 世 界 各 地 的 各 种 观 念 中 , 这 样 就 成 为 改 变 世

    界 文 明 的 一 般 思 想 体 系 的 一 部 分 。 这 些 学 理 对 民 族 命 运 所 加

    的 影 响 , 其 价 值 如 何 , 当 然 是 我 们 时 代 中 最 热 烈 争 辩 的 论 点

    之 一 , 对 于 这 个 方 面 , 我 们 不 准 备 在 本 文 中 加 以 讨 论 。 但 是

    如 果 回 顾 一 下 自 然 状 态 理 论 在 政 治 上 达 到 非 常 高 度 的 重 要 性

    的 时 期 , 则 绝 少 人 会 否 认 : 在 第 一 次 “ 法 国 革 命 ” 时 期 , 曾

    经 多 次 发 生 的 重 大 失 望 都 是 由 它 有 力 地 促 成 的 。 它 产 生 了 或

    强 烈 地 刺 激 了 当 时 几 乎 普 遍 存 在 的 智 力 上 的 恶 习 , 如 对 现 实

    法 的 蔑 视 , 对 经 验 的 不 耐 烦 , 以 及 ·

    先 ·

    天 ·

    的 优 先 于 一 切 其 他 理

    性 等 。 这 种 哲 学 紧 紧 地 掌 握 住 了 那 些 比 较 思 想 得 少 、 同 时 又

    不 善 于 观 察 的 人 , 它 的 发 展 趋 势 也 就 比 例 地 成 为 明 显 的 无 政

    府 状 态 。 可 惊 异 的 是 , 杜 蒙 ( D u m o n t ) 为 边 沁 出 版 的 “ 无 政府 的 诡 辩 ” 一 书 中 具 体 地 表 现 了边 沁 所 暴 露 的 显 然 是 来 自 法 国 的 谬 见 , 有 很 多 是 来 自 经 过 法国 变 化 的 罗 马 假 设 , 并 且 除 非 是 参 照 了 罗 马 假 设 , 这 些 诡 辩是 不 容 易 理 解 的 。 在 这 一 点 上 可 以 参 考 在 革 命 的 各 个 主 要 年代 中 间 的 ·

    劝 ·

    戒 ·

    者 ( M o n t e u r ) 。 时 代 越 黑 暗 , 则 诉 诸 “ 自 然 法

    律 和 状 态 ” 便 越 加 频 繁 。 在 “ 国 民 议 会 ” 中 这 种 情 况 比 较 少

    见 ; 在 “ 立 法 议 会 ” 时 期 则 比 较 经 常 ; 在 “ 宪 法 会 议 ” 中 , 在

    辩 论 着 阴 谋 和 战 争 的 纷 争 声 中 , 这 种 情 况 便 永 久 存 在 着 。

    有 一 个 例 子 非 常 明 显 地 说 明 了 自 然 法 理 论 对 现 代 社 会 的

    影 响 , 并 且 表 明 这 些 影 响 是 如 何 的 深 而 且 远 。 我 以 为 人 类 根

    本 平 等 的 学 理 , 毫 无 疑 问 是 来 自 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 一 种 推 定 。 “ 人

    类 一 律 平 等 ” 是 大 量 法 律 命 题 之 一 , 它 随 着 时 代 的 进 步 已 成

    为 一 个 政 治 上 的 命 题 。 罗 马 安 托 宁 时 代 的 法 学 专 家 们 提 出 :

    “ 每 一 个 人 自 然 是 平 等 的 ”, 但 在 他 们 心 目 中 , 这 是 一 个 严 格 的 法 律 公 理 。 他 们 企 图 主 张 , 在 假 设 的 “ 自 然 法 ” 之 下 , 以 及 在 现 实法 接 近 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 程 度 内 , 罗 马 “ 市 民 法 ” 所 支 持 的 各 阶

    级 人 们 之 间 的 武 断 区 分 不 应 该 在 法 律 上 存 在 。 这 个 规 定 对 罗

    马 法 律 实 务 者 , 是 有 相 当 的 重 要 性 的 , 因 为 这 使 他 们 必 须 记

    着 , 凡 在 罗 马 法 律 学 被 推 定 为 完 全 符 合 于 “ 自 然 ” 法 典 的 规

    定 时 , 则 罗 马 法 院 在 考 虑 公 民 与 外 国 人 之 间 、 人 民 与 奴 隶 之

    间 、 “ 宗 亲 ” 与 “ 血 亲 ” 之 间 ” 的 一 切 问 题 时 , 却 不 应 该 有 所

    区 别 。 凡 是 作 这 样 主 张 的 法 学 专 家 , 当 然 决 不 会 指 摘 使 市 民

    法 不 能 达 到 其 理 论 形 式 的 社 会 安 排 , 他 们 显 然 也 不 会 相 信 世

    界 真 会 看 到 人 类 社 会 会 同 自 然 组 织 完 全 同 化 的 。 但 当 人 类 平等 学 说 披 上 了 现 代 服 装 而 出 现 时 , 它 显 然 已 包 藏 着 一 种 新 的

    意 义 。 罗 马 法 学 专 家 用 “ 是 平 等 ” ( Eq u a l e s   s u n t ) 的 这 些 字眼 , 其 所 含 意 义 真 和 他 所 说 的 完 全 一 样 , 而 现 代 民 法 学 家 在

    写 “ 人 类 一 律 平 等 ” 时 , 他 的 意 思 是 “ 人 类 应 该 平 等 ” 。 罗 马

    人 以 为 自 然 法 是 和 市 民 法 同 时 存 在 的 , 并 且 是 在 逐 渐 吞 并 着

    市 民 法 的 , 这 种 特 殊 看 法 显 然 已 经 被 遗 忘 了 , 或 已 经 成 为 不

    可 理 解 的 了 。 这 些 字 眼 在 过 去 充 其 量 只 是 表 达 了 有 关 人 类 各

    种 制 度 渊 源 、 组 织 和 其 发 展 的 一 种 理 论 , 后 来 开 始 被 用 来 表

    示 人 类 长 期 遭 受 的 大 不 公 正 之 意 。 早 在 十 四 世 纪 初 期 , 关 于

    人 类 出 生 状 态 的 流 行 说 法 虽 然 明 显 地 想 要 和 阿 尔 比 安 及 其 同

    时 代 人 的 说 法 相 一 致 , 但 其 形 式 和 意 义 却 已 全 然 不 同 。 路 易

    · 胡 廷 国 王 ( K i n g   L o u i s   H u t i n ) 解 放 王 家 领 地 内 农 奴 的 著名 命 令 中 的 前 言 , 在 罗 马 人 听 来 , 将 是 非 常 陌 生 的 , “ 既 然 按

    照 自 然 法 , 每 个 人 应 该 生 而 自 由 ; 由 于 自 上 古 以 来 就 已 采 用

    并 一 直 到 现 在 还 在 我 国 土 上 被 保 持 着 的 某 种 惯 例 和 习 惯 , 并

    且 可 能 由 于 人 们 前 辈 的 罪 行 , 在 我 们 普 通 人 民 中 就 有 许 多 人

    陷 入 了 被 奴 役 的 地 位 , 因 此 , 我 们 等 等 ” , 这 不 是 一 条 法 律 规

    定 而 是 一 个 政 治 教 条 的 宣 言 ; 从 这 个 时 候 起 , 法 国 法 学 家 们

    在 谈 到 人 类 平 等 时 , 正 好 象 这 是 偶 然 被 保 留 在 他 们 的 科 学 中

    的 一 个 政 治 真 理 似 的 。 象 来 自 “ 自 然 法 ” 假 设 中 的 一 切 其 他

    演 释 一 样 , 同 时 也 象 “ 自 然 法 ” 这 个 信 念 的 本 身 一 样 , 它 在

    直 到 被 从 法 学 家 之 手 转 入 到 十 八 世 纪 文 人 们 之 手 以 及 信 服 他

    们 的 公 众 之 手 以 前 , 只 是 毫 无 生 气 地 被 同 意 着 , 而 且 它 对 意

    见 和 实 践 , 也 都 很 少 有 影 响 。 在 这 些 文 人 之 手 中 , 它 成 为 他

    们 信 条 中 最 清 楚 的 教 理 , 并 被 认 为 是 一 切 其 他 教 理 的 一 个 总结 。 但 是 , 它 最 后 在 1 7 8 9 年 事 件 中 所 以 得 势 , 可 能 不 完 全 是

    由 于 它 在 法 国 的 声 望 。 因 为 在 这 世 纪 的 中 叶 , 它 已 被 传 播 到

    了 美 国 。 当 时 的 美 国 法 学 家 , 尤 其 是 弗 吉 尼 亚的 法 学 家 , 似 乎 已 具 有 和 英 国 同 时 代 人 不 同 的 大 量 知 识 , 其 主要 不 同 之 点 , 是 在 他 们 的 知 识 中 包 括 了 许 多 只 可 能 来 自 欧 洲大 陆 法 律 文 献 的 知 识 。 只 要 参 考 一 下 杰斐逊的 著 作 , 就 可 以 看 到 他 是 如 何 深 受 到 法 国 当 时 时 尚 的 半 法 律 、 半通 俗 的 见 解 的 影 响 ; 我 们 也 毫 不 怀 疑 , 正 是 由 于 他 们 对 法 国法 学 家 这 些 特 殊 观 念 深 表 同 情 , 在 “ 独 立 宣 言 ” 开 头 的 几 行 中 , 这 位 指 导 着 当 时 美 国 事务 的杰斐逊和 在 这 殖 民 地 中 的 其 他 法 学 家 , 就 把 这 独 特 的 法国 假 设 即 “ 人 类 生 而 平 等 ” 和 英 国 人 最 熟 悉 的 假 设 “ 人 类 生而 自 由 ” 相 结 合 在 一 起 。 这 是 放 在 我 们 当 前 的 这 个 学 理 的 历史 中 有 极 大 重 要 性 的 一 节 文 句 。 美 国 法 学 家 这 样 突 出 地 和 这样 着 重 地 主 张 人 类 的 根 本 平 等 , 这 在 他 们 自 己 国 家 中 , 并 且在 较 小 的 程 度 上 , 也 在 大 不 列 颠 , 推 动 了 一 个 政 治 运 动 , 到

    现 在 还 远 没 有 衰 竭 下 来 ; 但 除 此 以 外 , 他 们 正 把 他 们 所 一 度

    采 用 的 教 条 还 给 了 法 国 本 土 , 赋 予 了 更 巨 大 的 能 力 , 并 且 使

    它 受 到 了 一 般 人 更 大 的 欢 迎 和 尊 敬 。 甚 至 在 第 一 次 “ 国 民 议

    会 ” 中 比 较 小 心 谨 慎 的 政 治 家 , 也 重 复 着 阿 尔 比 安 的 命 题 , 好

    象 这 个 命 题 立 即 自 荐 于 人 类 的 本 能 和 直 觉 似 的 ; 并 且 在 所 有

    “ 1 7 8 9 年 的 各 种 原 则 ” 中 , 这 是 唯 一 的 曾 受 到 最 少 的 热 烈 的 攻击 , 曾 最澈底地 影 响 现 代 意 见 并 将 最 深 刻 地 改 变 社 会 构 成 和

    国 家 政 治 的 原 则 。

    “ 自 然 法 ” 所 尽 的 最 伟 大 的 职 能 是 产 生 了 现 代 “ 国 际 法 ”和 现 代 “ 战 争 法 ”, 虽 然 它 的 这 一 个 部 分 效果 是 非 常 重 要 的 , 但 在 这 里 , 由 于 它 和 本 文 关 系 不 大 , 因 此将 略 而 不 论 。

    在 形 成 “ 国 际 法 ” 基 础 的 各 种 假 定 中 间 , 或 在 形 成 “ 国

    际 法 ” 中 到 现 在 仍 旧 能 保 持 其 从 原 来 建 筑 师 那 里 所 接 受 的 形

    态 的 部 分 基 本 假 定 中 间 , 有 二 三 种 特 别 显 得 重 要 的 假 定 。 其

    中 第 一 个 表 现 在 这 样 的 一 个 立 论 中 , 即 认 为 有 一 种 可 以 确 定

    的 “ 自 然 法 ” 。 格 罗 修 斯 及 其 后 继 者 直 接 从 罗 马 人 那 里 得 到 这

    一 个 假 设 , 但 他 们 同 罗 马 法 学 专 家 之 间 以 及 在 他 们 相 互 之 间 ,

    对 于 确 定 的 方 式 , 在 看 法 上 有 着 巨 大 的 分 歧 。 在 文 艺 复 兴 以

    后 盛 极 一 时 的 公 法 学 家 中 , 几 乎 每 一 个 人 都 野 心 勃 勃 , 提 出

    了 新 的 和 更 容 易 处 理 的 有 关 “ 自 然 ” 及 其 法 律 的 定 义 , 并 且

    无 可 争 辩 , 当 这 个 概 念 经 过 一 系 列 的 “ 公 法 ” 学 著 者 之 手 , 在

    其 周 围 就 积 聚 了 一 大 堆 的 附 加 物 , 其 中 包 括 了 都 是 从 支 配 着

    各 学 派 的 每 一 种 伦 理 学 理 论 中 得 来 的 各 种 观 念 片 断 。 虽 然 是

    这 样 , 但 仍 有 明 显 的 证 据 证 明 这 个 概 念 主 要 是 有 历 史 性 质 的 ,

    因 为 从 自 然 状 态 的 各 种 必 要 特 点 中 探 求 自 然 法 典 ; 虽 然 经 过

    了 种 种 努 力 , 但 所 获 得 的 结 果 , 正 和 人 们 把 罗 马 法 学 家 的 意

    见 不 加 探 究 或 修 正 而 立 即 采 用 时 所 可 能 得 到 的 结 果 , 完 全 相

    同 。 如 果 把 国 际 法 中 的 协 约 和 条 约 部 分 撇 开 不 论 , 可 以 看 到 ,

    在 这 制 度 中 有 相 当 惊 人 的 一 部 分 是 由 纯 粹 罗 马 法 律 所 组 成

    的 。 法 学 专 家 的 每 一 种 学 理 , 只 要 经 过 他 们 确 认 为 同 “ 万 民

    法 ” 相 协 调 时 , 公 法 学 家 就 以 种 种 理 由 来 借 用 它 , 不 论 这 个

    学 理 是 如 何 明 显 地 标 志 着 其 罗 马 渊 源 。 我 们 也 可 以 看 到 , 这

    些 派 生 的 理 论 是 带 有 其 原 来 观 念 的 弱 点 的 。 大 多 数 公 法 学 家的 思 想 方 法 仍 旧 是 “ 混 合 的 ” 。 在 研 究 这 些 著 者 时 , 最 大 的 困

    难 始 终 是 在 弄 清 楚 他 们 所 讨 论 的 究 竟 是 法 律 还 是 道 德 — — 他

    们 所 描 写 的 国 际 关 系 状 态 究 竟 是 现 实 的 还 是 理 想 的 — — 他 们

    所 说 的 究 竟 是 事 实 , 还 是 他 们 的 意 见 认 为 应 该 是 这 样 的 。

    作 为 “ 国 际 法 ” 基 础 的 其 次 一 个 假 设 是 , “ 自 然 法 ” 与 国家相 ·

    互之间有约束力。一系 列 主 张 或 认 可 这 原 则的 言 论 , 得 追 溯 到 现 代 法 律 科 学 的 极 幼 稚 时 代 , 并 且 初 看 起

    来 , 它 好 像 是 直 接 来 自 罗 马 人 学 说 的 一 个 推 理 。 人 为 的 社 会

    状 态 和 自 然 状 态 不 同 , 在 前 者 之 中 有 一 个 明 显 的 制 法 者 , 在

    后 者 却 没 有 , 因 此 , 如 果 某 一 个单位 不 承 认 它 们 服 从 一 个 共

    同 主 权 或 政 治 领 袖 的 时 候 , 它 们 就 好 像 恢 复 到 了 受 命 于 “ 自

    然 法 ” 了 。 国 家 就 是 这 类 的 单 位 ; 它 们 各 自 独 立 的 这 个 假 设 ,

    排 斥 了 一 个 共 同 立 法 者 的 观 念 , 并 从 这 观 念 出 发 , 按 照 某 种

    思 想 方 法 进 而 得 到 了 从 属 于 自 然 原 始 秩 序 的 观 念 。 另 一 种 想

    法 认 为 各 独 立 的 社 会 相 互 之 间 没 有 任 何 法 律 把 它 们 联 系 着 ,

    但 这 种 无 法 律 状 态 正 就 是 法 学 专 家 们 的 “ 自 然 ” 所 厌 恶 的 真

    空 。 如 果 一 个 罗 马 法 学 家 遇 到 有 市 民 法 被 排 斥 不 能 适 用 的 情

    况 , 他 就 立 即 会 以 “ 自 然 ” 法 令 来 填 补 这 个 空 隙 , 这 样 一 种

    想 法 , 显 然 是 有 理 由 的 。 但 我 们 不 能 就 因 此 以 为 , 在 历 史 的

    任 何 时 期 中 , 都 确 实 可 以 得 出 这 样 的 结 论 , 虽 然 这 在 我 们 的

    眼 光 中 是 非 常 明 确 和 直 接 的 。 根 据 我 的 判 断 , 罗 马 法 的 遗 作

    中 没 有 任 何 一 节 可 以 用 来 证 明 法 学 专 家 确 曾 相 信 自 然 法 在 独

    立 国 家 之 间 有 任 何 拘 束 力 ; 并 且 我 们 不 得 不 看 到 , 对 于 把 君

    主 领 土 看 作 和 文 明 同 境 界 的 罗 马 帝 国 公 民 们 , 如 果 确 有 各 国

    平 等 隶 属 “ 自 然 法 ” 这 样 的 想 法 , 也 至 多 只 是 古 怪 理 论 的 一个 极 端 结 果 。 真 相 似 乎 是 : 现 代 的 “ 国 际 法 ” 虽 然 无 疑 是 罗

    马 法 的 后 裔 , 但 只 是 由 一 种 不 规 则 的 血 统 相 联 系 着 的 。 现 代

    早 期 的 罗 马 法 解 释 者 , 误 解 了 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 意 义 , 毫 不 犹 豫

    地 认 为 罗 马 人 传 给 了 他 们 一 套 调 整 国 际 事 务 的 法 律 制 度 。 在

    起 初 这 个 “ 国 际 法 ” 成 为 有 许 多 可 怕 的 竞 争 者 与 之 相 对 抗 的

    一 种 权 威 , 而 欧 洲 是 长 期 处 在 这 种 情 况 下 , 阻 碍 着 它 被 普 遍

    接 受 。 但 是 , 逐 渐 地 , 西 方 世 界 安 排 了 它 自 己 , 使 其 形 式 比

    较 适 合 于 民 法 学 家 的 理 论 ; 情 况 的 变 更 摧 毁 了 所 有 敌 对 学 理

    的 势 力 ; 最 后 , 在 一 个 罕 有 地 幸 运 的 机 会 , 阿 雅 拉 ( A y a l a ) 和

    格 罗 修 斯 终 于 为 它 取 得 了 欧 洲 的 热 诚 同 意 ; 这 种 同 意 曾 经 在

    每 一 个 不 同 的 庄 严 条 约 中 被 一 再 重 复 申 述 着 。 它 的 胜 利 主 要

    应 归 功 于 这 些 伟 大 人 物 , 他 们 并 且 企 图 把 它 放 在 一 个 完 全 新

    的 基 础 上 , 这 是 毋 庸 赘 述 的 ; 而 且 毫 无 疑 问 , 在 这 转 移 位 置

    的 过 程 中 , 他 们 改 变 了 很 多 它 的 结 构 , 虽 然 远 没 有 一 般 所 想

    象 的 那 么 多 。 格 罗 修 斯 既 然 从 安 托 宁 法 学 专 家 那 里 采 用 了 这

    个 论 点 , 认 为 “ 万 民 法 ” 和 “ 自 然 法 ” 是 同 一 的 , 他 和 他 的

    直 接 前 辈 及 直 接 后 继 者 便 使 “ 自 然 法 ” 具 有 一 种 权 威 , 这 种

    权 威 要 不 是 在 那 个 时 候 “ 国 际 法 ” 的 含 义 模 糊 不 清 , 是 也 许

    永 远 不 会 为 “ 自 然 法 ” 要 求 的 。 他 们 毫 无 保 留 地 主 张 “ 自 然

    法 ” 是 各 国 的 法 典 , 于 是 就 开 始 了 这 样 一 种 过 程 , 就 是 把 假

    定 是 从 单 纯 考 虑 “ 自 然 ” 概 念 而 求 得 的 各 种 规 定 灌 输 到 国 际

    制 度 中 去 , 这 个 过 程 几 乎 一 直 延 续 到 我 们 的 时 代 。 还 有 一 种

    对 于 人 类 有 着 巨 大 实 际 重 要 性 的 后 果 , 虽 然 在 欧 洲 早 期 现 代

    史 中 并 非 完 全 不 知 , 但 在 直 到 格 罗 修 斯 学 派 的 学 理 获 得 盛 行

    之 前 , 却 从 来 没 有 被 明 显 地 或 普 遍 地 承 认 过 。 如 果 各 个 国 家的 集 体 都 受 着 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 统 治 , 则 组 成 这 个 集 体 的 各 个 原

    子 必 须 绝 对 平 等 。 人 类 在 “ 自 然 ” 的 王 笏 之 下 , 是 一 律 平 等

    的 , 从 而 , 如 果 国 际 间 的 状 态 是 一 种 自 然 的 状 态 , 则 各 国 也

    一 定 是 平 等 的 。 独 立 的 国 家 不 论 , 大 小 强 弱 不 同 , 但 在 国 际

    法 的 眼 光 中 是 一 律 平 等 的 ; 这 个 命 题 对 人 类 的 幸 福 有 巨 大 的

    贡 献 , 虽 然 它 在 各 个 时 代 中 继 续 不 断 地 为 各 种 政 治 倾 向 所 威

    胁 着 。 如 果 “ 国 际 法 ” 不 是 由 文 艺 复 兴 后 的 公 法 学 家 们 完 全

    从 “ 自 然 ” 的 庄 严 主 张 中 求 得 , 那 末 这 个 学 理 可 能 永 远 不 能

    获 得 一 个 稳 固 的 立 足 点 。

    可 是 , 总 的 讲 起 来 , 象 我 在 前 面 已 经 说 过 的 , 自 从 格 罗

    修 斯 时 代 以 来 , 在 加 于 “ 国 际 法 ” 上 的 各 种 附 加 物 中 , 只 有

    很 小 一 部 分 是 从 罗 马 “ 万 民 法 ” 最 古 资 料 直 接 采 取 来 的 。 土

    地 的 取 得 始 终 是 引 起 国 家 野 心 的 巨 大 的 刺 激 物 ; 而 适 用 于 这

    种 取 得 的 法 律 规 定 , 以 及 消 除 因 土 地 取 得 而 造 成 的 战 争 的 法

    律 规 定 , 都 仅 仅 是 从 罗 马 法 中 有 关 取 得 “ 万 民 法 ” 财 产 的 各

    种 方 式 的 部 分 中 抄 袭 得 来 的 。 这 许 多 取 得 的 方 式 , 象 我 在 前

    面 已 经 企 图 说 明 的 , 都 是 由 前 辈 法 学 专 家 从 其 所 观 察 到 的 各

    种 惯 例 中 抽 象 出 来 的 一 些 共 同 要 素 , 这 些 惯 例 曾 经 流 行 于 罗

    马 周 围 各 部 落 间 ; 根 据 它 们 的 来 源 , 这 些 规 定 被 归 类 在 “ 各

    国 共 有 的 法 律 ” 中 , 再 由 于 他 们 的 单 纯 性 , 后 来 的 法 学 家 便

    认 为 它 们 恰 合 于 一 个 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 较 近 代 的 概 念 。 它 们 就 这

    样 编 进 了 现 代 的 “ 国 际 法 ” , 其 结 果 是 , 国 际 制 度 中 有 关 ·

    领土( d o m i n i o n ) 、 领 土 性 质 、 领 土 范 围 、 取 得 和 保 卫 领 土 方 式 的 那些 部 分 , 便 都 是 纯 粹 的 罗 马 “ 财 产 法 ” — — 这 就 是 说 , 罗 马

    “ 财 产 法 ” 中 的 那 些 部 分 , 曾 为 安 托 宁 法 学 专 家 想 象 为 和 自 然状 态 有 某 种 一 致 性 的 。 为 了 使 “ 国 际 法 ” 中 这 些 章 节 能 付 诸

    实 施 , 有 必 要 使 存 在 于 主 权 者 之 间 的 相 互 关 系 , 如 同 罗 马 所

    有 者 各 个 成 员 之 间 存 在 的 关 系 一 样 。 这 是 建 立 “ 国 际 法 典 ” 所

    依 据 的 各 种 假 定 中 的 另 一 个 假 定 , 而 这 也 是 在 现 代 欧 洲 史 开

    头 几 个 世 纪 中 不 可 能 被 同 意 的 一 个 假 定 。 这 个 假 定 可 以 被 分

    解 为 这 样 一 个 双 重 命 题 , 一 方 面 “ 主 权 是 领 土 的 ” , 即 它 是 始

    终 和 地 球 表 面 上 一 定 部 分 的 所 有 权 联 系 着 , 另 一 方 面 “ 主 权

    者 ·

    相 ·

    互 ·

    之 ·

    间 , 应 该 被 认 为 不 是 国 家 领 土 的最高 所 有 人 , 而 是

    ·

    绝 ·

    对 所 有 人 ” 。

    许 多 现 代 的 “ 国 际 法 ” 著 者 都 默 认 : 他 们 以 各 种 衡 平 和

    常 识 原 则 为 基 础 建 立 起 的 整 套 学 理 , 都 可 以 在 现 代 文 明 的 各

    个 阶 段 中 推 论 出 来 。 但 这 个 默 认 一 方 面 掩 盖 着 国 际 理 论 上 所

    存 在 的 某 些 真 正 缺 点 , 另 一 方 面 , 就 大 部 分 的 现 代 史 而 论 , 实

    在 是 完 全 不 足 取 的 。 在 匡 际 事 务 中 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 权 威 并 不 是

    始 终 不 受 到 反 抗 的 ; 相 反 的 , 它 不 得 不 长 时 期 地 和 几 种 相 竞

    争 的 制 度 不 断 斗 争 着 。 同 时 , 主 权 的 领 土 性 质 也 并 不 是 始 终

    被 承 认 着 的 , 因 为 在 罗 马 统 治 解 体 以 后 , 人 们 的 心 理 是 长 时

    期 地 处 在 和 这 类 概 念 不 相 协 调 的 观 念 的 支 配 之 下 。 在 “ 国 际

    法 ” 上 这 两 个 主 要 假 定 被 普 遍 承 认 之 前 , 一 个 旧 的 制 度 以 及

    建 筑 在 它 上 面 的 思 想 观 念 必 然 地 要 腐 败 , 一 个 新 的 欧 洲 , 以

    及 与 之 相 适 应 的 新 的 观 念 必 然 地 要 生 长 起 来 。

    有 一 桩 事 值 得 注 意 , 在 我 们 通 常 称 为 现 代 史 的 大 部 分 时期 中 , 没 有 接 受 过 所 谓领土主权 这 类 概 念 。 在 过 去 , 主 权 并不 是 和 对 地 球 上 一 部 分 或 再 小 部 分 的 土 地 的 控 制 联 系 在 一 起的 。 世 界 曾 有 这 样 许 多 世 纪 长 期 处 于 罗 马 帝 国 的 庇 护 之 下 , 以致 忘 记 了 包 括 在 帝 国 中 的 广 大 空 间 在 过 去 曾 一 度 被 划 分 成 许多 独 立 国 家 , 它 们 都 主 张 有 权 不 受 外 来 的 干 预 , 并 且 标 榜 着

    国 家 权 利 应 该 一 律 平 等 。 在 蛮 族 入 侵 平 靖 后 , 关 于 主 权 当 时

    流 行 着 的 观 念 , 似 乎 具 有 双 重 意 义 。 一 方 面 它 有 着 所 谓 “部落 主 权 ” 的 形 式 。 法 兰 克 人, 勃艮第人, 汪 达 尔 人,伦巴达人以 及 西 哥 特 人, 当 然 都 是 他 们 所 占领 着 的 土 地 的 主 人 , 其 中 有 几 种 人 并 以 他 们 自 己 的 名 字 作 为

    土 地 的 地 理 名 称 ; 但 是 他 们 并 不 根 据 土 地 占 有 的 事 实 而 主 张

    任 何 权 利 , 并 且 在 实 际 上 甚 至 对 于 占 有 的 事 实 也 并 不 认 为 有

    任 何 特 别 重 要 性 。 他 们 似 乎 还 保 留 着 他 们 由 森 林 中 和 草 原 上

    所 带 来 的 传 统 , 按 照 他 们 自 己 的 看 法 , 仍 旧 是 一 个 宗 法 社 会 ,

    一 个 游 牧 部 落 , 只 是 暂 时 驻 扎 在 能 供 给 他 们 粮 食 的 土 地 上 而

    已 。 阿 尔 卑 斯 北 高 卢 的 一 部 分 加 上 了 日 耳 曼 的 一 部 分 , 现 在

    已 成 为 法 兰 克 人 在事实上 占 领 的 国 家 — — 就 是 法 兰 西 ; 但 克洛维的 后 裔 即 墨 洛 温王 朝 的 首 领们 并 不 是 法 兰 西 的 国 王 而 是 法 兰 克 人 的 国 王 。 另 外 一 种 有 关主 权 的 特 殊 观 念 , 似 乎 是 — — 这 是 重 要 的 一 点 — — 普 遍 领 土

    的 观 念 。 当 一 个 君 主 失 去 了 领 袖 与 其 部 族 之 间 的 特 殊 关 系 , 并

    为 了 个 人 的 目 的 急 切 要 取 得 一 个 新 的 主 权 形 式 时 , 他 所 能 采

    用 的 唯 一 先 例 是 罗 马 皇 帝 们 的 霸 术 。 胡 乱 摹 仿 一 句 谚 语 , 他成 了 “不为凯撒,即为庸人”的人 。 或 则 他 享 有 拜 占 廷 皇 帝的 全 部 特

    权 , 或 则 他 完 全 没 有 任 何 政 治 地 位 。 在 我 们 这 个 时 代 , 当 一

    个 新 的 王 朝 希 望 废 去 被 黜 免 皇 朝 的 名 号 时 , 它 往 往 喜 欢 说 它的 称 号 来 自人民 而 不 是领土 。 这 样 , 我 们 便 有 了 一 些 法 兰 西

    皇 帝 和 国 王 , 还 有 一 个 比 利 时 人 的 国 王 。 在 我 们 所 谈 到 的 时

    期 中 , 在 类 似 的 情 况 下 , 还 出 现 了 另 外 一 种 不 同 的 观 念 。 一

    个 “ 首 领 ” 如 果 不 想 再 自 称 为 部 落 国 王 , 必 定 会 要 求 成 为 世

    界 的 皇 帝 。 这 样 , 当 世 袭 的 权 臣 们 和 实 际 上 久 已 废 立 的 君 主

    们 相 决 裂 时 , 他 们 立 即 不 愿 自 称 为 法 兰 克 人 的 国 王 , 这 个 称

    号 是 属 于 被 废 黜 的 墨 洛 温 的 ; 但 他 们 又 不 能 自 称 为 法 兰 西 的

    国 王 , 因 为 , 虽 然 这 类 称 号 显 然 并 不 是 不 见 经 传 的 , 却 也 不

    是 一 个 尊 严 的 称 号 。 因 此 , 他 们 就 进 而 矢 志 为 世 界 帝 国 的 统

    治 者 。 他 们 的 动 机 曾 被 大 大 地 误 解 。 近 代 法 国 作 家 们 曾 认 为 ,

    查 理 曼是 远 远 超 过 他 的 同 时 代 人 的 , 不 但 在

    其 意 图 的 性 质 上 如 此 , 即 在 他 执 行 这 些 意 图 所 用 的 能 力 上 也

    是 如 此 。 不 论 是 否 有 人 在 任 何 时 期 都 是 超 过 他 的 同 时 代 人 的 ,

    但 有 一 点 必 然 是 真 的 , 即 查 理 曼 在 企 求 一 个 无 限 制 的 领 土 时 ,

    确 是 有 力 地 采 取 了 他 当 时 的 时 代 思 想 所 准 许 他 遵 循 的 唯 一 的

    道 路 。 关 于 他 在 智 力 上 的 卓 越 , 当 然 是 毫 无 疑 问 的 , 但 这 种

    卓 越 不 是 由 他 的 理 论 而 是 由 他 的 行 为 证 明 的 。

    在 见 解 上 的 这 些 特 性 , 并 不 因 为 查 理 曼 的 遗 产 为 其 三 个

    孙 子 所 分 割 而 有 所 变 更 。 秃 头 查 理、 路易和 罗 退 耳仍 旧 在 理 论 上 — — 如 果 用 这个 词 是 适 当 的 — — 是 罗 马 的 皇 帝 。 正 犹 如 东 罗 马 帝 国 与 西 罗马 帝 国 的 “ 凯 撒 ” ·

    在 ·

    法 ·

    律 ·

    上 都 是 全 世 界 的 皇 帝 , 而 ·

    在 ·

    事 ·

    实 ·

    则 只 各 自 统 治 着 其 中 的 一 半 , 这 三 个 加 洛 温 朝 的 皇 帝 似 乎 都

    认 为 他 们 的 权 力 是 有 限 的 , 但 是 他 们 的 称 号 是 无 限 的 。 这 同

    一 的 纯 理 论 的 主 权 普 遍 性 在 肥 硕 查 理死 亡 , 发 生 第 二 次 分 裂 时 仍 继 续 和 王 位 联 系 着 , 并 且 , 真 的 ,

    在 日 耳 曼 帝 国 存 续 期 间 内 , 从 来 没 有 完 全 和 它 分 离 过 。 领 土

    主 权 — — 这 种 把 主 权 与 地 球 表 面 上 一 块 土 地 的 占 有 联 系 起 来

    的 见 解 — — 明 显 地 是 ·

    封 ·

    建 ·

    制 ·

    度 的 一 个 支 流 , 虽 然 是 一 个 迟 缓

    的 支 流 。 这 可 能 是 ·

    先 ·

    天 ·

    的 预 期 的 , 因 为 第 一 次 把 个 人 义 务 , 结

    果 也 就 是 把 个 人 权 利 和 土 地 所 有 权 联 系 起 来 的 是 封 建 制 度 。

    对 于 封 建 制 度 的 渊 源 和 其 法 律 性 质 , 不 论 正 当 见 解 应 当 是 怎

    样 , 要 鲜 明 地 想 象 封 建 组 织 的 最 好 方 式 , 应 从 它 的 基 础 开 始 ,

    先 考 虑 佃 农 同 设 定 和 限 制 其 劳 务 的 小 块 土 地 之 间 的 关 系 — —

    而 后 通 过 上 层 封 建 建 筑 的 狭 小 范 围 而 一 直 上 升 以 至 接 近 于 这

    制 度 的 顶 点 。 在 黑 暗 时 代 的 后 期 , 这 个 顶 点 究 竟 在 什 么 地 方 ,

    是 不 容 易 决 定 的 。 可 能 , 在 部 落 主 权 的 概 念 确 实 消 失 的 地 方 ,

    这 个 最 高 之 点 始 终 被 指 向 着 西 罗 马 帝 国 凯 撒 的 假 定 承 继 人 。

    但 是 过 了 不 久 , 当 帝 国 权 威 的 实 际 影 响 大 大 萎 缩 时 , 皇 帝 把

    他 仅 有 的 残 余 权 力 集 中 于 日 耳 曼 和 北 意 大 利 , 所 有 在 前 加 洛

    温 帝 国 四 周 的 最 高 封 建 主 发 觉 了 在 他 们 上 面 实 际 上 已 经 没 有

    一 个 最 高 首 领 。 逐 渐 地 他 们 就 习 惯 于 这 种 新 的 形 势 , 而 已 免

    除 外 来 干 涉 的 这 个 事 实 , 终 于 把 依 附 的 理 论 隐 灭 掉 ; 当 然 有

    许 多 征 象 表 明 , 这 个 变 化 的 完 成 并 不 是 十 分 容 易 的 ; 而 且 我

    们 得 毫 无 疑 问 地 认 为 , 由 于 这 样 一 种 印 象 , 就 是 说 , 根 据 事

    物 的 自 然 性 质 , 必 然 地 要 在 某 些 地 方 有 一 个 最 高 的 统 治 权 , 就

    产 生 了 不 断 地 把 世 俗 上 的 无 上 权 力 归 属 于 罗 马 教 皇 的 倾 向 。

    法 兰 西 加 佩 王 朝 的 接 位 , 标 志 着 思 想 革 命 中 第 一 阶 段 的 完 成 。

    这 个 环 绕 着 巴 黎 四 周 有 限 领 土 的 封 建 诸 侯 , 由 于 大 量 的 宗 主

    权 结 合 于 本 身 这 一 个 偶 然 事 件 而 开 始 自 称 为 ·

    法 ·

    兰 ·

    西 ·

    国 ·

    王 , 他成 为 了 一 种 全 然 新 的 意 义 的 国 王 , 一 个 主 权 者 , 他 对 法 兰 西

    土 地 的 关 系 和 男 爵 对 于 封 邑 、 佃 农 对 于 自 由 产 的 关 系 完 全 相

    同 。 这 个 先 例 不 但 是 新 奇 的 , 同 时 也 是 有 影 响 的 。 在 法 兰 西

    的 这 种 君 治 的 形 式 , 有 力 地 促 使 其 他 地 方 向 同 一 个 方 向 变 化 。

    我 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊王 室 的 王 位 这 时 处 于 一个 部 落 首 领 和 领 土 最 高 统 治 权 的 中 途 。 但 是 诺 曼王朝 诸 王 最 高 权 模 仿 着 法 兰 西 国 王 , 明 显 地 是 一 种 领 土 主 权 。 在

    以 后 建 立 的 或 巩 固 的 每 一 个 统 治 权 , 都 根 据 了 后 一 种 模 型 而

    组 成 。 西 班 牙 、 那 不 勒 斯以 及 在 意 大 利 自 由 市 废 墟

    上 建 立 起 来 的 各 个 诸 侯 国 家 , 都 由 领 土 主 权 的 统 治 者 统 治 着 。

    从 一 个 见 解 逐 渐 转 变 到 另 一 个 见 解 的 事 例 中 , 我 认 为 最 最 离

    奇 的 莫 如 ·

    威 ·

    尼 ·

    斯 ·

    人。 在 其 对 外 征 伐 开 始 时 , 这 个共 和 国 自 视 为 和 罗 马 共 和 政 治 同 一 类 型 的 国 家 , 统 治 着 许 多

    的 属 省 。 经 过 了 一 个 世 纪 以 后 , 你 就 可 以 发 现 它 却 希 望 成 为一 个 集 合 的 主 权 国 家 , 对 它 在 意 大 利 和 爱 琴 海所 有的 占 有 地 拥 有 一 个 封 建 宗 主 国 的 权 利 。

    关 于 主 权 这 个 主 题 的 各 种 通 俗 观 念 在 经 历 着 显 著 变 化 的时 期 内 , 作 为 我 们 今 日 称 为 “ 国 际 法 ” 的 制 度 , 在 形 式 上 是杂 乱 无 章 的 , 在 原 则 上 也 是 不 符 合 它 所 祈 求 的 目 的 的 。 在 罗马-日耳 曼 帝 国 内 的 一 部 分 欧 洲 土 地 上 , 联 邦 国 家 之 间 的 关系 是 由 复 杂 的 但 还 不 完 全 的 帝 国 宪 法 机 构 所 约 束 着 ; 并且这在 我 们 看 来 也 许 是 可 惊 异 的 , 日 耳 曼 法 学 家 所 爱 好 的 观 念 仍旧 是 : 联 邦 国 之 间 的 关 系 , 不 论 在 帝 国 之 内 或 在 帝 国 之 外 应该 根 据 以 凯 撒 为 中 心 的 纯 粹 罗 马 法 律 学 的 规 定 而 不 应 该 根 据“万 民 法 ” 的 规 定 。 这 个 学 理 在 边 远 的 各 国 中 没 有 像 我 们 早 先所 假 定 那 样 地 被 大 胆 抛 弃 ; 但 是 在 实 质 上 , 在 欧 洲 的 其 余 的地 方 , 封 建 的 部 属 已 成 为 公 法 的 一 种 代 替 品 ; 当 那 些 封建从属 犹 疑 不 定 暧 昧 不 明 时 , 至 少 在 理 论 上 , 从 “ 教 会 ” 领袖的权 威 上 面 找 到 一 种 最 高 的 支 配 力 。 虽 然 是 这 样 , 但 可 以 断 定,封 建 和 教 会 的 势 力 在 十 五 世 纪 甚 至 在 十 四 世 纪 年 代 中 就 已 开

    始 迅 速 衰 败 了 ; 如 果 我 们 密 切 审 视 一 下 当 时 各 次 战 事 的 借 口

    以 及 公 开 的 联 盟 动 机 , 就 可 以 看 到 , 以 后 为 阿 雅 拉 和 格 罗 修

    斯 所 调 和 和 巩 固 的 各 种 见 解 , 正 随 着 旧 原 则 一 步 步 地 被 代 替

    而 有 着 重 要 的 进 展 , 虽 然 这 种 进 展 是 默 默 无 声 的 , 并 且 是 很

    缓 慢 的 。 来 自 各 个 渊 源 的 权 威 有 没 有 经 熔 合 而 最 后 成 为 一 个

    国 际 关 系 的 制 度 , 以 及 这 个 制 度 究 竟 在 实 质 上 是 不 是 和 格 罗

    修 斯 的 结 构 有 什 么 不 同 , 现 在 已 无 法 加 以 断 定 , 因 为 在 事 实

    上 “ 宗 教 改 革 ” 已 经 把 它 所 有 的 有 力 要 素 , 除 了 一 点 之 外 , 全

    部 消 灭 。 “ 宗 教 改 革 ” 从 日 耳 曼 开 始 , 它 在 帝 国 的 各 个 诸 侯 之

    间 用 深 而 且 广 的 鸿 沟 分 裂 开 来 , 纵 使 帝 国 元 首 保 持 中 立 , 也

    已 无 法 用 帝 国 最 高 统 治 来 加 以 沟 通 。 帝 国 元 首 于 是 不 得 不 袒

    护 教 会 以 反 对 改 革 者 ; 教 皇 自 然 也 是 处 在 同 样 的 苦 境 中 ; 这

    样 , 这 原 来 在 敌 对 双 方 之 间 负 有 调 停 职 责 的 两 个 当 局 者 本 身

    就 成 为 了 各 国 分 裂 中 的 一 个 大 党 的 首 领 。 在 这 时 声 势 已 被 削

    弱 , 并 且 已 不 能 被 认 为 是 公 共 关 系 中 的 一 个 原 则 而 加 以 信 任

    的 封 建 主 义 , 已 不 复 是 足 够 稳 定 并 可 以 和 宗 教 联 盟 相 匹 敌 的

    一 种 约 束 力 。 因 此 , 在 公 法 处 于 几 乎 混 乱 状 态 的 情 况 下 , 那

    些 被 认 为 是 罗 马 法 学 专 家 唯 一 加 以 认 可 的 一 个 国 家 制 度 的 各种 观 念 , 仍 旧 继 续 存 在 。 这 些 观 念 从 格 罗 修 斯 手 中 获 得 的 形式 、 均 称 和 卓 越 性 , 为 每 一 个 学 者 所 熟 知 。 但 “ 战 事 与 和 平法 规 论 ” 这 部 巨著 的 惊 人 之 处 则 在 其 迅 速 、 完 全 和 普 遍 的 成 功 上 。 “ 三 十 年 战争 ” 的 惨 状 , 军 人 毫 无 拘 束 的 放 纵 行 为 所 激 起 的 无 边 恐 怖 和

    憾 事 , 无 疑 地 , 在 某 种 程 度 上 , 可 以 被 用 来 说 明 这 种 成 功 的

    原 因 , 但 是 这 还 不 能 作 为 全 部 的 说 明 。 因 为 只 要 对 当 时 的 各

    种 观 念 略 为 浏 览 一 下 , 就 可 以 使 我 们 深 信 在 格 罗 修 斯 的 伟 大

    著 作 中 描 绘 出 来 的 国 际 大 厦 的 基 本 图 样 , 如 果 不 是 在 理 论 上很 完善 的 话 , 那 它 就 很 可 能 会 被 法 学 家 所 抛 弃 , 被 政 治 家 及士 兵 们 所 藐 视 。

    显 然 , 格 罗 修 斯 制 度 在 纯 理 论 上 的 完 善 性 是 和 我 们 所 讨论 的 那 个 领 土 主 权 概 念 密 切 地 联 系 着 的 。 “ 国 际 法 ” 理 论 所 作出 的 假 定 是 : 各 个 共 和 政 治 在 其 相 互 关 系 上 处 在 一 种 自然 状态 中 ; 但 是 一 个 自 然 社 会 的 各 个 组 成 原 子 根 据 这 个 基 本 假 设必 须 是 互 相 分 离 和 各 自 独 立 的 。 如 果 有 一 个 较 高 的 权 力 由 于对 共同 最 高 统 治 权 的 要 求 而 把 它 们 联 结 起 来 , 纵 使 这 种 联 结是 很 薄 弱 的 并 且 也 是 偶 然 的 , 但 正 是 这 一 个 共 同 领 导 者 的 概念 引 进 了 现 实 法 的 观 念 , 排 斥 了 一 个 自 然 法 的 观 念 。 因此,如果 一 个 帝 国 元 首 的 普 遍 宗 主 权 , 即 使 仅 仅 是 在 理 论 上 被得到承 认 , 格 罗 修 斯 的 努 力 就 可 能 会 变 成 徒 劳 。 这 也 不 是现代公法 和 我 企 图 描 述 其 发 展 的 有 关 主 权 的 各 种 见 解 之 间 的 唯一结合之 点 。 我 曾 经 说 过 , 国 际 法 律 学 中 有 些 部 门 完 全 是 由 罗马“财 产 法 ” 组 成 的 。 那 末 我 们 可 以 得 到 什 么 推 论 呢 ? 推 论 是:在 对 主 权 所 作 的 评 价 中 如 果 没 有 象 我 所 描 述 的 那 种 变化——如 果 主 权 并 没 有 和 地 球 上 一 块 土 地 的 所 有 权 联 系 起 来 , 换言之 , 并 没 有 成 为 对 领 土 的 主 权 — — , 则 格 罗 修 斯 的 理 论 , 就将 有 四 分 之 三 无 法 加 以 适 用 。

    第 五 章   原 始 社 会 与 古 代 法

    在 近 代 , 法 律 学 这 个 主 题 作 为 科 学 研 究 的 必 要 性 , 是 一向 被 重 视 的 , 由 于 感 到 这 种 必 要 而 提 出 的 论 文 来 自 各 个 不 同方 面 , 但 是 , 如 果 说 , 到 现 在 为 止 , 被 认 为 是 科 学 的 东 西 实际 上 绝 大 部 分 仅 只 是 一 些 推 测 , 只 是 一 些 在 前 面 二 章 中 所 研究 的 罗 马 法 学 家 的 推 测 , 我 以 为 并 不 能 认 为 太 武 断 。 明 白 承认 和 采 用 一 个 自 然 状 态 ; 以 及 与 其 性 质 相 类 似 的 原 则 制 度 的各 种 推 测 理 论 , 其 有 关 的 一 系 列 论 文 , 从 这 些 理 论 发 明 者 的时 代 起 一 直 到 我 们 今 天 为 止 , 始 终 被 继 续 着 , 很 少 中 断 。它们 出 现 于 奠 定 现 代 法 律 学 基 础 的 注 释 学 派 的 注 解 中 , 出 现 于继 承 他 们 的 经 院 法 学 家 的 作 品 中 。 它 们 可 以 在 寺 院 法 学者的教 条 中 看 到 。 它 们 被 那 些 在 文 艺 复 兴 时 代 极 为 活 跃 的 博 学 多能 的 民 法 学 家 放 置 在 杰 出 的 地 位 。 格 罗 修 斯 及 其 继 承 人 不 但

    使 它 们 具 有 实 际 的 重 要 性 , 并 且 使 它 们 变 得 更 加 辉 煌 更 加 可

    以 赞 誉 。 在 我 国 布 拉 克 斯 顿 的 开 头 几 章 中 也 可 以 看 到 它 们 , 他

    把 它 们 原 封 不 动 地 从 柏 拉 玛 克 ( B u r l a m a q u i ) 中 照 抄 下 来 , 而凡 是 今 天 所 刊 印 的 用 以 为 学 者 或 实 务 者 作 指 导 的 各 种 教 科

    书 , 在 它 们 开 头 讨 论 法 律 的 基 本 原 理 时 往 往 就 会 被 发 觉 , 这

    些 基 本 原 理 就 是 罗 马 假 设 的 一 次 重 复 申 述 。 但 是 , 正 由 于 这

    些 推 测 有 时 用 以 掩 盖 其 自 己 的 伪 装 , 如 同 其 原 来 的 形 式 一 样 ,

    使 我 们 对 于 它 们 混 杂 于 人 类 思 想 中 的 技 巧 , 能 获 得 一 个 充 分的 观 念 。 洛 克 所 主 张 的 “ 法 律 ” 起 源 于 一 个 “ 社 会 契 约 ” 的理 论 , 很 难 隐 瞒 其 来 自 罗 马 的 特 点 , 事 实 上 , 这 个 理 论 只 是

    使 古 代 见 解 对 现 代 人 中 特 殊 的 一 代 具 有 更 大 吸 引 力 的 外 衣 而

    已 ; 可 是 , 在 另 一 方 面 , 霍 布 斯 就 同 一 主 题 所 提 出 的 理 论 , 却

    故 意 否 认 罗 马 人 及 其 门 徒 所 设 想 的 一 个 自 然 法 的 现 实 性 。 然

    而 在 这 个 把 英 国 有 代 表 性 的 政 治 家 长 期 分 成 为 两 个 敌 对 阵 营

    的 两 种 理 论 中 , 有 一 点 却 是 彼 此 之 间 极 为 相 似 的 , 就 是 它 们

    都 以 人 类 的 、 非 历 史 的 、 无 法 证 实 的 状 态 作 为 他 们 的 基 本 假

    设 , 这 两 个 理 论 的 作 者 , 对 于 社 会 产 生 前 状 态 的 各 种 特 征 , 以

    及 对 于 人 类 凭 以 脱 离 这 种 社 会 产 生 前 状 态 进 入 我 们 所 熟 悉 的

    仅 有 的 那 种 社 会 组 织 的 异 常 活 动 的 性 质 , 有 着 分 歧 的 看 法 。 但

    是 他 们 却 一 致 同 意 , 认 为 在 原 始 状 态 中 的 人 和 在 社 会 产 生 后

    的 人 两 者 之 间 , 存 在 着 一 个 巨 大 的 鸿 沟 把 他 们 分 离 开 来 , 我

    们 毫 不 怀 疑 , 这 个 观 点 正 是 他 们 有 意 识 地 或 者 无 意 识 地 从 罗

    马 人 那 里 借 用 来 的 。 如 果 法 律 现 象 的 确 象 这 些 理 论 家 所 认 为

    的 那 样 — — 即 认 为 是 一 个 庞 大 、 复 杂 的 整 体 — — , 那 么 , 也

    就 难 怪 人 心 往 往 要 规 避 它 所 担 任 的 工 作 , 否 则 它 有 时 候 就 会

    失 望 地 放 弃 系 统 化 的 工 作 ; 而 人 心 所 采 取 的 规 避 的 办 法 , 是

    退 而 求 助 于 某 种 似 乎 可 以 调 和 一 切 事 物 的 智 巧 的 推 测 。

    在 和 罗 马 学 理 有 着 同 样 的 思 想 基 础 的 各 种 法 律 学 理 论

    中 , 有 两 种 非 常 著 名 的 理 论 , 必 须 除 外 。 其 中 的 第 一 种 是 和

    孟 德 斯 鸠 的 大 名 有 联 系 的 。 虽 然 在 “ 论 法 的 精 神 ” 的 开 始 部

    分 中 , 有 一 些 模 糊 辞 句 似 乎 表 明 作 者 不 愿 与 当 时 流 行 着 的 各

    种 见 解 公 然 决 裂 , 但 从 全 书 的 大 意 来 看 , 它 对 其 主 题 所 表 示

    的 概 念 当 然 是 和 前 人 所 发 表 的 见 解 完 全 不 同 的 。 在 它 从 各 种假 定 的 法 律 学 制 度 中 通 过 广 泛 深 入 观 察 而 搜 集 起 来 的 大 量 种

    类 繁 杂 的 例 子 中 间 , 常 常 可 以 看 到 有 一 种 明 显 的 渴 望 , 想 把

    因 其 粗 鲁 、 奇 异 或 猥 亵 而 使 文 明 的 读 者 为 之 震 惊 的 那 些 风 尚

    和 制 度 ; 置 于 特 别 杰 出 的 地 位 。 书 中 不 断 地 提 出 的 推 测 是 : 法

    律 是 气 候 、 当 地 情 况 、 偶 然 事 件 或 诈 欺 的 产 物 — — 是 除 了 相

    当 经 常 发 生 作 用 的 原 因 以 外 任 何 原 因 的 产 物 。 在 事 实 上 , 孟

    德 斯 鸠 似 乎 把 人 类 的 本 性 看 做 是 完 全 可 塑 性 的 , 它 只 是 在 被

    动 地 重 复 着 它 从 外 界 所 接 受 的 印 象 , 在 绝 对 地 听 命 着 它 从 外

    界 所 接 受 的 刺 激 。 而 他 的 制 度 所 以 不 能 成 为 一 个 制 度 , 无 疑

    地 , 错 误 就 是 在 这 里 。 他 过 低 地 估 计 了 人 类 本 性 的 稳 定 性 。 他

    很 少 或 完 全 不 重 视 种 族 的 遗 传 性 质 , 即 每 一 代 从 前 辈 接 受 下

    来 再 一 代 代 传 下 去 很 少 加 以 改 变 的 性 质 。 的 确 , 除 非 对 “ 论

    法 的 精 神 ” 中 所 注 意 到 的 那 些 变 更 原 因 给 予 应 有 的 承 认 , 要

    对 社 会 现 象 、 因 而 也 对 于 法 律 提 供 一 个 完 全 的 说 明 是 不 可 能

    的 ; 但 这 些 原 因 的 数 量 和 其 力 量 , 似 乎 为 孟 德 斯 鸠 过 高 地 估

    计 了 。 在 他 所 罗 列 的 变 例 中 , 有 许 多 已 被 证 明 是 建 筑 在 虚 伪

    的 报 告 或 错 误 的 解 释 上 , 而 在 剩 余 下 来 的 一 些 变 例 中 , 有 不

    少 不 是 证 明 人 类 本 性 的 变 化 无 常 , 相 反 地 却 证 明 了 其 恒 久 不

    变 , 因 为 它 们 都 是 人 类 在 较 古 远 的 时 期 顽 固 地 抗 拒 了 在 别 种

    场 合 可 能 会 发 生 效 果 的 各 种 影 响 而 遗 留 下 来 的 遗 物 。 真 相 是 ,

    在 我 们 智 力 的 、 道 德 的 和 体 力 的 组 成 中 , 绝 大 部 分 都 是 属 于

    稳 定 部 分 , 它 对 于 变 化 具 有 巨 大 的 抵 抗 力 , 因 此 虽 然 世 界 上

    一 个 部 分 的 人 类 社 会 是 明 显 地 变 化 多 端 的 , 但 这 些 变 化 并 非

    如 此 迅 速 , 也 不 是 如 此 广 泛 , 以 致 其 数 量 、 性 质 及 一 般 趋 向

    会 达 到 不 可 能 确 定 的 地 步 。 以 我 们 今 日 有 限 知 识 所 可 能 达 到的 , 也 许 只 是 比 较 地 接 近 的 真 理 , 但 我 们 没 有 理 由 以 为 这 是非 常 遥 远 的 , 或 以 为 ( 实 在 是 同 样 的 东 西 ) 它 须 要 在 将 来作很 大 的 修正,因 此 是 完 全 无 用 的 和 不 足 为 训 的 。

    前 面 所 谈 的 另 外 一 种 理 论 是 边 沁 的 历 史 理 论 。 这 个 理 论

    在 边 沁 的 著 作 的 有 几 个 部 分 中 模 糊 地 ( 并 且 可 以 说 是 胆 小

    地 ) 提 出 来 , 和 他 在 “ 政 府 论 丛 ” 中 开 其 端 , 后 来 由 约 翰 ·

    奥 斯 丁 先 生 加 以 完 成 的 有 关 法 律 概 念 的 分 析 完 全 不 同 。 把 一

    条 法 律 还 原 为 在 特 殊 情 况 下 适 用 的 一 种 特 殊 性 的 命 令 , 目 的

    只 是 为 了 使 我 们 可 以 摆 脱 言 语 上 的 困 难 — — 这 当 然 是 一 种 最

    可 怕 的 困 难 。 至 于 社 会 所 以 把 这 些 命 令 加 诸 自 己 身 上 , 其 动

    机 何 在 , 这 些 命 令 相 互 之 间 的 联 系 如 何 , 以 及 它 们 对 在 它 们

    以 前 的 命 令 及 对 它 们 所 代 替 的 命 令 的 依 附 性 质 又 如 何 这 一 些

    问 题 , 仍 旧 是 悬 而 未 决 。 边 沁 所 提 出 的 答 案 是 , 社 会 因 其 对

    一 般 权 宜 措 施 的 见 解 有 所 变 更 而 变 更 着 、 并 且 是 不 断 地 变 更

    着 法 律 。 很 难 说 这 个 命 题 是 错 误 的 , 但 它 肯 定 是 没 有 效 果 的 。

    因 为 , 所 谓 对 一 个 社 会 或 毋 宁 说 是 对 社 会 的 统 治 阶 级 是 权 宜

    的 东 西 , 实 际 上 必 然 地 就 是 社 会 在 作 出 变 更 时 心 目 中 所 想 要

    达 到 的 目 的 , 不 论 这 个 目 的 是 什 么 。 所 谓 权 宜 和 最 大 幸 福 , 实

    在 就 是 推 动 变 更 的 冲 动 , 不 过 名 称 不 同 而 已 ; 当 我 们 把 权 宜

    作 为 是 变 更 法 律 或 意 见 的 准 则 时 , 我 们 从 这 个 命 题 中 所 能 得

    到 的 , 只 是 用 一 个 特 别 名 词 来 代 替 当 我 们 说 一 次 变 更 发 生 了时 必 然 地 要 想 到 的 另 一 个 名 词 而 已 。

    对 于 现 有 的 各 种 法 律 学 理 论 , 存 在 着 非 常 广 泛 的 不 满 , 并且 一 般 都 认 为 这 些 理 论 不 能 真 正 解 决 它 们 标 榜 着 要 解 决 的 问题 , 因 此 就 正 当 地 产 生 了 这 样 的 一 种 怀 疑 , 就 是 说 为 了 要 求得 一 个 完 美 的 结 果 所 必 须 的 某 些 方 面 的 研 究 ; 或 者 为 其 著 者进 行 得 不 够 彻 底 , 或 者 是 甚 至 完 全 被 忽 略 了 。 真 的 , 也 许 除了 孟 德 斯 鸠 外 , 在 所 有 这 些 纯 理 论 中 , 的 确 都 有 一 个 可 以 指责 的 显 著 遗 漏 。 在 这 些 纯 理 论 中 , 都 忽 视 了 在 它 们 出 现的特定 时 间 以 前 很 遥 远 的 时 代 中 , 法 律 在 实 际 上 究 竟 是 怎 样 的 。 这

    些 纯 理 论 的 创 造 者 详 细 地 观 察 了 他 们 自 己 时 代 的 各 种 制 度 和

    文 明 以 及 在 某 种 程 度 上 能 迎 合 他 们 心 理 的 其 他 时 代 的 各 种 制

    度 和 文 明 , 但 是 当 他 们 把 其 注 意 力 转 向 和 他 们 自 己 的 在 表 面

    上 有 极 大 差 别 的 古 代 社 会 状 态 时 , 他 们 便 一 致 地 停 止 观 察 而

    开 始 猜 想 了 。 因 此 , 他 们 所 犯 的 错 误 , 正 和 一 个 考 察 物 质 宇

    宙 规 律 的 人 , 把 他 的 考 虑 从 作 为 一 个 统 一 体 的 现 存 物 理 世 界

    开 始 而 不 从 作 为 其 最 简 单 构 成 要 素 的 各 个 分 子 着 手 时 所 犯 的

    错 误 , 很 相 类 似 。 这 种 在 科 学 上 违 背 常 理 的 方 法 , 在 任 何 其

    他 思 想 领 域 中 不 可 采 用 , 那 在 法 律 学 中 当 然 也 是 同 样 不 足 取

    的 。 似 乎 在 先 就 可 以 看 到 , 我 们 应 该 从 最 简 单 的 社 会 形 式 开

    始 , 并 且 越 接 近 其 原 始 条 件 的 一 个 状 态 越 好 。 换 言 之 , 如 果

    我 们 要 采 用 这 类 研 究 中 所 通 常 遵 循 的 道 路 , 我 们 就 应 该 尽 可

    能 地 深 入 到 原 始 社 会 的 历 史 中 。 早 期 社 会 所 提 供 给 我 们 的 各

    种 现 象 并 不 是 一 看 就 容 易 理 解 的 , 但 要 掌 握 住 这 些 现 象 时 所

    遇 到 的 困 难 , 和 在 考 究 现 代 社 会 组 织 错 综 复 杂 情 况 时 使 我 们

    遭 受 的 困 惑 , 是 不 能 相 比 的 。 这 种 困 难 的 产 生 ; 是 由 于 它 们

    的 奇 怪 和 异 样 , 而 不 是 由 于 它 们 的 数 量 和 复 杂 性 。 当 人 们 用

    一 种 现 代 的 观 点 来 观 察 这 些 现 象 时 必 然 会 引 起 不 易 很 快 克 服

    的 惊 奇 ; 但 当 惊 奇 被 克 服 时 , 它 们 就 将 很 少 也 很 简 单 的 了 。 不过 纵 使 它 们 造 成 了 很 大 的 困 难 , 我 们 不 辞 劳 苦 以 确 定 这 些 胚种 也 不 会 是 浪 费 精 力 的 。 因 为 现 在 控 制 着 我 们 行 动 以 及 塑 造着 我 们 行 为 的 道 德 规 范 的 每 一 种 形 式 , 必 然 可 以 从 这 些 胚 种当 中 展 示 出 来 。

    我 们 所 能 知 道 的 社 会 状 态 的 雏 形 , 来 自 三 种 记 录 — — 即

    观 察 者 对 于 同 时 代 比 较 落 后 的 各 种 文 明 的 记 事 , 某 一 个 特 殊

    民 族 所 保 存 下 来 的 关 于 他 们 的 原 始 历 史 的 记 录 , 以 及 古 代 的

    法 律 。 第 一 种 证 据 是 我 们 可 以 预 期 的 最 好 的 一 种 。 各 个 社 会

    既 不 是 同 时 并 进 而 是 按 着 不 同 速 度 前 进 的 , 因 此 确 有 这 样 一

    些 时 期 , 凡 是 受 到 有 系 统 的 观 察 习 惯 训 练 的 人 们 , 能 真 正 有

    机 会 可 以 看 到 人 类 的 幼 年 , 并 加 以 描 述 。 塔西佗曾尽 量 利 用 了 这 种 机 会 ; 但 是 他 所 著 的 “ 日 耳 曼 ” 一书 , 不 像 大 多 数 著 名 的 经 典 著 作 一 样 , 没 有 能 引 起 别 人 去 仿 效 他 的 优 秀 榜 样 ; 因 此 我 们 现 在 所 保 有 的 这 一 类 的 记 录 , 数

    量 非 常 之 少 。 文 明 人 对 于 其 野 蛮 的 邻 人 往 往 有 一 种 傲 慢 之 感 ;

    这 就 使 他 们 往 往 明 显 地 不 屑 于 观 察 他 们 , 而 这 种 不 关 心 有 时

    更 因 为 恐 惧 、 因 为 宗 教 偏 见 、 甚 至 就 因 为 这 些 名 词 — — 即 文

    明 和 野 蛮 — — 的 应 用 而 更 加 严 重 , 这 种 文 明 和 野 蛮 的 分 野 常

    对 大 多 数 人 造 成 了 不 但 在 程 度 上 而 且 在 种 类 上 都 有 所 差 别 的

    印 象 。 甚 至 对 于 “ 日 耳 曼 ” 也 有 些 批 评 家 曾 怀 疑 它 为 了 要 求

    对 比 尖 锐 , 叙 述 生 动 而 牺 牲 了 信 实 。 有 一 些 史 料 , 叙 述 着 民

    族 的 幼 年 , 保 存 在 档 案 中 流 传 给 我 们 的 , 也 被 认 为 由 于 种 族

    骄 傲 或 由 于 新 时 代 的 宗 教 情 绪 而 被 歪 曲 了 。 然 而 对 于 大 部 分

    的 古 代 法 律 却 并 未 发 生 过 这 些 毫 无 根 据 的 或 合 理 的 疑 虑 , 这

    是 非 常 值 得 重 视 的 事 实 。 所 有 流 传 下 来 的 许 多 古 代 法 律 所 以

    能 被 保 存 下 来 , 只 是 因 为 它 们 是 古 代 的 , 那 些 在 当 初 执 行 它和 服 从 它 的 人 们 , 并 不 标 榜 能 理 解 它 ; 在 有 些 情 况 下 , 他 们

    甚 至 嘲 笑 它 和 藐 视 它 。 除 了 它 是 由 他 们 祖 先 传 下 来 的 以 外 , 他

    们 对 它 并 不 特 别 重 视 。 因 此 , 如 果 我 们 能 集 中 注 意 力 于 那 些

    古 代 制 度 的 断 片 , 这 些 断 片 还 不 能 合 理 地 被 假 定 为 曾 经 受 到

    过 改 动 , 我 们 就 有 可 能 对 于 原 来 所 属 社 会 的 某 种 主 要 特 征 获

    得 一 个 明 确 的 概 念 。 在 这 个 基 础 上 再 向 前 跨 进 一 步 , 我 们 可

    以 把 我 们 已 有 的 知 识 适 用 于 象 “ 摩 奴 法 典 ” 那 种 大 体 上 其 真

    实 性 还 可 疑 的 一 些 法 律 制 度 ; 凭 了 这 个 已 经 获 得 的 关 键 , 我

    们 就 可 以 把 那 些 真 正 是 古 代 传 下 来 的 部 分 从 那 些 曾 经 受 到 过

    编 纂 者 的 偏 见 、 兴 趣 或 无 知 的 影 响 的 部 分 , 区 分 开 来 。 至 少

    应 该 承 认 , 如 果 有 足 够 的 材 料 来 从 事 于 这 样 的 研 究 过 程 , 如

    果 反 复 的 比 较 是 被 正 确 地 执 行 着 , 则 我 们 所 遵 循 的 方 法 , 必

    将 象 征 比 较 语 言 学 中 使 能 达 到 惊 人 结 果 的 那 些 方 法 一 样 很 少

    有 可 以 反 对 的 余 地 。

    从 比 较 法 律 学 中 所 获 得 的 证 据 , 使 我 们 对 人 类 原 始 状 态

    确 立 了 一 种 看 法 , 即 所 谓 “ 宗 法 理 论 ” 。 当 然 这 个 理 论 无 疑 地

    原 来 是 以 下 亚 细 亚(L o w e r   A s i a ) 希 伯 来族 长制 的 圣 经 史 为 根 据 的 ; 但 是 , 像 前 面 已 经 解 释 过 的 , 正 因 为 它 和 “ 圣 经 ” ( S c r i p t u r e ) 有 联 系 , 它 就 被 反 对 , 不 被 认 为 是一 个 可 以 接 受 的 完 全 的 理 论 , 因 为 直 到 最 近 还 热 诚 从 事 于 总

    括 各 种 社 会 现 象 的 多 数 研 究 者 , 不 是 一 些 对 希 伯 来 古 代 事 物

    具 有 最 顽 强 偏 见 的 人 , 就 是 一 些 想 不 借 助 于 宗 教 记 录 而 最 坚

    强 地 希 望 自 己 建 立 一 个 体 系 的 人 。 即 使 一 直 到 现 在 ; 也 许 还

    有 着 这 样 一 种 倾 向 , 低 估 这 些 记 事 的 价 值 , 或 者 应 该 说 是 不

    愿 把 它 们 作 为 闪 族 ( S e m i t i c   p e o p l e ) 传 统 的 组 成 部 分 , 而 从其 中 得 出 结 论 。 但 是 , 值 得 注 意 的 是 , 这 一 种 法 律 记 录 , 几乎 完 全 来 自 属 于 印 度 - 欧 罗 巴 种 族 的 社 会 制 度 , 其 中 较 大 部

    分 是 罗 马 人 、 印 度 人 和 斯 拉 夫 人 所 供 给 的 ; 而 当 前 研 究 阶 段

    所 面 临 的 困 难 是 : 要 知 道 究 竟 到 什 么 地 方 为 止 , 究 竟 有 哪 一

    些 人 种 , 是不 许 可 被 肯 定 为 他 们 的 社 会 原 来 是 按 照 父 权 的 模

    型 而 组 成 的 。 从 “ 创 世 纪 ” 开 头 的 几 章 中 所 能 收 集 到 的 这 一

    类 社 会 的 主 要 轮 廓 , 在 这 里 毋 庸 详 为 描 述 , 因 为 我 们 大 多 数

    人 已 经 从 小 都 非 常 熟 悉 , 同 时 也 因 为 由 于 洛 克 和 菲 尔 美

    ( F i l m e r ) 之 间 辩 论 的 结 果 , 在 英 国 文 献 中 已 有 专 书 论 述 了 这个 问 题 , 虽 然 这 本 书 并 不 是 很 有 益 的 。 从 历 史 表 面 上 所 能 看

    到 的 各 点 是 : — — 最 年 长 的 父 辈 — — 最 年 长 的 尊 属 亲 — — 是

    家 庭 的 绝 对 统 治 者 。 他 握 有 生 杀 之 权 , 他 对 待 他 的 子 女 、 他

    的 家 庭 象 对 待 奴 隶 一 样 , 不 受 任 何 限 制 ; 真 的 , 亲 子 具 有 这

    样 较 高 的 资 格 , 就 是 终 有 一 天 他 本 身 也 要 成 为 一 个 族 长 , 除

    此 以 外 , 父 子 关 系 和 主 奴 关 系 似 乎 很 少 差 别 。 子 女 的 羊 和 牛

    就 是 父 的 羊 和 牛 , 父 所 占 有 的 物 件 是 由 他 以 代 表 的 身 分 而 非

    所 有 人 的 身 分 占 有 的 , 这 些 占 有 物 , 在 他 死 亡 时 , 即 在 其 一

    等 卑 亲 属 中 平 均 分 配 , 长 子 有 时 以 生 得 权 的 名 义 接 受 双 倍 的

    份 额 , 但 更 普 通 的 是 除 了 一 种 荣 誉 的 优 先 权 以 外 , 不 再 赋 予

    任 何 继 承 利 益 。 在 圣 经 的 记 事 中 有 一 个 不 十 分 明 显 的 例 子 , 似

    乎 父 系 的 帝 国 第 一 次 发 生 了 破 坏 的 痕 迹 。 雅 各和以扫两 个 家 族 分 离 而 组 成 为 两 个 国 家 ; 但 是 雅 各 子 女的 各 个 家 族 却 仍 旧 结 合 在 一 起 , 而 成 为 一 个 民 族 。 这 就 好 象是 一 个 国 家 或 共 和 政 治 的 不 成 熟 的 胚 种 , 同 时 也 好 象 是 一 种权 利 顺 序 较 胜 于 家 族 关 系 所 提 出 的 要 求 。

    为 了 法 学 家 的 特 殊 目 的 , 简 要 地 说 明 人 类 在 其 历 史 黎 明时 期 所 做 状 态 的 各 个 特 征 , 我 以 为 只 要 摘 引 荷 马 “奥特赛 ”中 如 下 几 行 诗 句 就 够 了 :

    “ 他 们 既 没 有 评 议 会 , 又 没 有地美士第 , 但 每 一 个 人 对 妻 子 和儿 女 都 有 审 判 权 , 在 他 们 相 互 之 间 , 则 是 各 不 相 关 的 。 ” 这 些诗 句 是 适 用 于 “ 独 眼 巨 人 ”的 , 我 以 为 如 果 说 “ 独眼 巨 人 ” 就 是 荷 马 心 目 中 一 种 外 国 的 和 不 进 步 的 文 明 的 典 型 ,

    也 许 不 完 全 是 一 种 幻 想 ; 因 为 一 个 原 始 共 产 体 对 于 在 风 尚 上

    和 它 自 己 有 非 常 不 同 的 人 , 往 往 会 感 到 几 乎 是 自 然 的 憎 恶 , 这

    种 憎 恶 通 常 表 现 为 把 他 们 描 写 成 怪 物 , 例 如 巨 人 甚 至 是 魔 鬼

    ( 在 东 方 神 话 学 中 , 几 乎 在 所 有 情 况 中 都 是 如 此 ) 。 不 论 是 不

    是 这 样 , 在 这 几 行 诗 句 中 , 正 集 中 了 古 代 法 律 事 物 所 能 给 予

    我 们 的 各 种 暗 示 的 总 和 。 人 类 最 初 是 分 散 在 完 全 孤 立 的 集 团

    中 的 , 这 种 集 团 由 于 对 父 辈 的 服 从 而 结 合 在 一 起 。 法 律 是 父

    辈 的 语 言 , 但 它 们 没 有 达 到 我 们 在 本 文 第 一 章 中 所 分 析 的 地

    美 士 第 的 程 度 。 当 我 们 向 前 进 行 而 达 到 这 些 早 期 法 律 概 念 成

    形 的 社 会 状 态 时 , 我 们 发 现 , 这 些 法 律 概 念 仍 旧 多 少 带 有 足

    以 表 示 一 个 专 制 的 父 的 命 令 的 这 个 特 点 的 神 秘 性 和 自 发 性 ,

    但 在 同 一 时 候 , 由 于 他 们 来 自 一 个 主 权 者 , 这 些 法 律 概 念 就

    预 先 假 定 了 一 个 组 织 比 较 广 泛 、 由 许 多 家 族 集 团 组 成 的 联 合体 。 第 二 个 问 题 是 , 这 种 联 合 体 的 性 质 是 什 么 以 及 它 包 括 的

    亲 密 程 度 究 竟 是 怎 样 的 。 正 是 在 这 一 点 , 古 代 法 律 提 供 给 我

    们 最 大 的 贡 献 之 一 , 并 且 填 补 了 否 则 只 可 能 以 猜 度 来 渡 过 的

    一 个 鸿 沟 。 它 不 论 在 任 何 方 面 都 明 显 地 表 示 着 , 原 始 时 代 的

    社 会 并 不 象 现 在 所 设 想 的 , 是 一 个个人 的 集 合 , 在 事 实 上 ; 并

    且 根 据 组 成 它 的 人 们 的 看 法 , 它 是一个 ·

    许 ·

    多 ·

    家 ·

    族 ·

    的 ·

    集 ·

    合 ·

    体 。 如

    果 说 一 个 古 代 社 会 的 ·

    单 ·

    位 是 “ 家 族 ” , 而 一 个 现 代 社 会 的 单 位

    是 “ 个 人 ” , 则 这 个 对 比 , 也 许 可 以 更 强 有 力 地 表 示 出 来 。 在

    古 代 法 律 中 , 这 个 差 别 有 着 重 大 的 后 果 。 法 律 的 这 样 组 成 是

    为 了 要 适 应 一 个 小 的 独 立 团 体 的 制 度 。 因 此 , 它 的 数 量 不 多 ,

    因 为 它 可 以 由 家 长 的 专 断 命 令 来 增 补 的 。 它 的 仪 式 繁 多 , 因

    为 它 所 着 重 处 理 的 事 务 , 类 似 国 际 间 的 事 务 的 地 方 , 多 于 个

    人 间 交 往 的 迅 速 处 理 。 尤 其 重 要 的 , 它 具 有 一 种 特 性 , 其 重

    要 性 在 目 前 还 不 能 全 部 表 现 出 来 。 它 所 持 有 的 ·

    人 ·

    生 观 和 发 达

    的 法 律 学 中 所 体 现 的 完 全 不 同 。 团 体 ·

    永 ·

    生 ·

    不 ·

    灭 , 因 此 , 原 始法 律 把 它 所 关 连 的 实 体 即 宗 法 或 家 族 集 团 , 视 为 永 久 的 和 不能 消 灭 的 。 这 种 见 解 同 远 古 时 代 道 德 属 性 所 表 现 的 特 别 看 法 ,

    有 着 密 切 联 系 。 个 人 道 德 的 升 降 往 往 和 个 人 所 隶 属 集 团 的 优

    缺 点 混 淆 在 一 起 , 或 处 于 比 较 次 要 的 地 位 。 如 果 共 产 体 有 了

    罪 过 , 它 的 罪 恶 大 于 其 成 员 所 犯 罪 的 总 和 ; 这 个 罪 是 一 个 团

    体 行 为 , 其 后 果 所 及 , 要 比 实 际 参 与 犯 罪 行 为 的 人 多 的 多 。 如

    果 , 反 过 来 , 个 人 是 显 然 有 罪 的 , 那 他 的 子 女 、 他 的 亲 属 、 他

    的 族 人 或 他 的 同 胞 就 都 要 和 他 一 起 受 罚 , 有 时 甚 至 代 替 他 受

    罚 。 因 此 关 于 道 德 责 任 和 道 德 报 应 的 观 念 , 在 很 古 时 代 , 似

    乎 常 比 各 个 较 进 步 时 代 体 会 得 更 加 明 白 , 因 为 既 然 家 族 集 团是 永 生 不 灭 的 , 其 担 当 刑 罚 的 责 任 是 无 限 制 的 , 则 原 始 人 的

    头 脑 自 不 会 象 后 来 当 个 人 被 视 为 完 全 和 集 团 分 离 的 时 期 的 后

    代 人 的 头 脑 那 样 被 种 种 困 难 问 题 所 窘 困 了 。 早 期 希 腊 关 于 一

    个 遗 传 的 诅 咒 的 观 念 , 标 志 着 由 古 代 的 和 简 单 的 对 于 事 物 的

    看 法 走 向 后 来 神 学 或 形 而 上 学 解 释 的 过 渡 的 一 步 。 他 的 后 裔

    从 原 来 罪 犯 所 受 到 的 遗 物 , 不 是 一 种 受 刑 罚 的 义 务 , 而 是 一

    种 犯 新 罪 使 发 生 一 种 该 受 报 复 的 义 务 ; 这 样 , 家 族 的 责 任 就

    和 这 种 新 的 思 想 状 态 , 即 把 犯 罪 后 果 限 制 于 实 际 犯 罪 者 的 新

    思 想 状 态 , 取 得 了 一 致 。

    如 果 我 们 能 根 据 前 面 谈 到 的 圣 经 上 的 例 子 提 供 给 我 们 的

    暗 示 而 作 出 一 个 一 般 结 论 , 并 假 定 : 凡 族 长 死 亡 时 , 一 个 家

    族 仍 能 结 合 在 一 起 而 不 分 散 , 这 时 候 共 产 体 就 开 始 存 在 了 , 如

    果 是 这 样 , 则 社 会 起 源 的 解 释 将 是 很 简 单 的 。 在 大 多 数 的 希

    腊 国 家 中 , 以 及 在 罗 马 , 长 期 存 在 着 一 系 列 上 升 集 团 的 遗 迹 ,

    而 “ 国 家 ” 最 初 就 是 从 这 些 集 团 中 产 生 的 。 罗 马 人 的 “ 家

    族 ” 、 “ 大 氏 族 ” 和 “ 部 落 ” 都 是 它 们 的 类 型 , 根 据 它 们 被 描

    述 的 情 况 , 使 我 们 不 得 不 把 它 们 想 象 为 从 同 一 起 点 逐 渐 扩 大

    而 形 成 的 一 整 套 同 心 圆 , 其 基 本 的 集 团 是 因 共 同 从 属 于 最 高

    的 男 性 尊 属 亲 而 结 合 在 一 起 的 “ 家 族 ” 。 许 多 “ 家 族 ” 的 集 合

    形 成 “ 氏 族 ” 或 “ 大 氏 族 ” 。 许 多 “ 氏 族 ” 的 集 合 形 成 “ 部

    落 ” 。 而 许 多 “ 部 落 ” 的 集 合 则 构 成 了 “ 共 和 政 治 ” 。 根 据 这

    些 痕 迹 , 我 们 是 不 是 可 以 进 而 认 为 : 共 和 政 治 是 因 为 来 自 一

    个 原 始 家 族 祖 先 的 共 同 血 统 而 结 合 在 一 起 的 许 多 人 的 一 个 集

    合 体 。 关 于 这 一 点 , 我 们 至 少 可 以 断 定 , 一 切 古 代 社 会 都 自

    认 为 是 来 自 一 个 原 祖 , 并 且 除 此 以 外 , 他 们 虽 经 努 力 , 但 仍无 法 想 出 他 们 所 以 会 结 合 在 一 个 政 治 团 体 中 的 任 何 其 他 理

    由 。 事 实 上 , 政 治 思 想 的 历 史 是 从 这 样 一 个 假 设 开 始 的 ; 即

    血 缘 是 共 产 体 政 治 作 用 的 唯 一 可 能 的 根 据 ; 也 没 有 任 何 一 种

    我 们 强 调 地 称 之 为 革 命 的 感 情 破 灭 , 其 惊 人 和 完 全 的 程 度 及

    得 上 其 他 原 则 — — 例 如 所 谓 “ 地 方 毗 邻 ” — — 第 一 次 成 为 共

    同 政 治 行 动 的 基 础 时 所 完 成 的 变 化 的 。 因 此 , 我 们 可 以 肯 定

    认 为 在 早 期 共 和 政 治 中 , 所 有 公 民 都 认 为 , 凡 是 他 们 作 为 其

    成 员 之 一 的 集 团 , 都 是 建 筑 于 共 同 血 统 上 的 。 凡 对 于 “ 家

    族 ” 是 显 然 正 确 的 , 当 时 便 认 为 首 先 对 于 “ 氏 族 ” , 而 后 对 于

    “ 部 落 ” , 最 后 对 于 “ 国 家 ” 也 都 是 正 确 的 。 可 是 , 我 们 发 现 ,

    虽 然 有 着 这 样 一 个 信 念 , 或 者 假 如 我 们 可 以 这 样 称 呼 它 的 话 ,

    这 个 理 论 , 但 每 一 个 共 产 体 所 保 存 着 的 记 录 或 传 统 , 却 都 明

    显 地 表 示 这 个 基 本 假 设 是 虚 伪 的 。 不 论 我 们 观 察 希 腊 各 邦 , 或

    罗 马 , 或 提 供 尼 布 尔 以 许 多 有 价 值 例 证 的 在 笛 脱 麻 希 的 条 顿

    贵 族 政 治 , 或 凯 尔 特 部 族 组 织 , 或 斯 拉 夫 俄 罗 斯 人 和 波 兰 人

    的 那 些 只 在 后 来 才 引 人 注 意 的 奇 怪 的 社 会 组 织 , 在 每 个 地 方 ,

    我 们 都 能 在 他 们 的 历 史 中 发 现 有 把 外 国 出 生 的 人 接 纳 或 同 化

    于 原 来 的 同 族 人 中 的 事 。 如 果 单 独 以 罗 马 而 论 , 我 们 也 可 看

    到 , 这 个 原 始 集 团 即 “ 家 族 ” 是 不 断 地 由 于 收 养 的 习 俗 而 搀

    杂 进 来 其 他 血 统 的 人 的 , 而 有 关 把 原 来 的 “ 部 落 ” 之 一 驱 逐

    出 境 , 以 及 一 个 古 代 国 王 大 量 增 加 各 氏 族 成 员 的 种 种 故 事 , 似

    乎 是 始 终 不 断 地 流 传 着 的 。 国 家 的 组 成 被 普 遍 假 定 为 自 然 的 ,

    但 在 实 际 上 却 绝 大 部 分 是 人 为 的 。 这 种 存 在 于 信 念 或 理 论 同

    显 著 的 事 实 之 间 的 互 相 抵 触 , 初 看 起 来 是 非 常 令 人 困 惑 的 ; 但

    它 真 正 说 明 的 , 正 是 “ 法 律 拟 制 ” 在 社 会 幼 年 时 代 所 发 挥 的效 能 。 最 早 最 广 泛 应 用 的 法 律 拟 制 , 是 允 许 以 人 为 的 方 法 来

    发 生 家 庭 关 系 , 我 以 为 , 人 类 所 深 受 其 惠 的 , 实 没 有 比 这 个

    更 多 的 了 。 如 果 过 去 从 来 没 有 过 这 种 拟 制 , 任 何 一 个 原 始 集

    团 不 论 其 性 质 如 何 , 决 不 可 能 吸 收 另 一 个 集 团 , 除 了 一 方 面

    是 绝 对 的 优 势 , 另 方 面 是 绝 对 的 从 属 之 外 , 也 决 不 可 能 有 任

    何 二 个 集 团 在 任 何 条 件 下 能 结 合 起 来 。 毫 无 疑 问 , 如 果 我 们

    用 现 代 的 见 解 来 设 想 几 个 独 立 共 产 体 的 结 合 , 我 们 可 以 提 出

    成 百 种 达 到 这 个 目 的 的 方 式 来 , 其 中 最 简 单 的 方 式 就 是 由 包

    括 在 要 合 并 的 各 集 团 中 的 个 人 , 按 照 地 区 在 一 起 选 举 或 一 起

    活 动 ; 但 是 , 许 多 人 如 果 仅 仅 因 为 他 们 恰 巧 居 住 于 同 一 地 域

    以 内 就 应 该 行 使 共 同 政 治 权 利 , 这 个 观 念 对 于 原 始 的 古 代 社

    会 来 讲 , 是 完 全 陌 生 和 奇 怪 的 。 在 那 时 代 , 受 到 欢 迎 的 办 法

    是 , 外 国 人 应 该 ·

    把 ·

    他 ·

    们 ·

    自 ·

    己 ·

    冒 ·

    充 为 来 自 他 们 所 要 加 入 的 人 民

    的 同 一 祖 先 ; 我 们 今 天 所 不 易 理 解 的 , 正 就 是 这 个 拟 制 的 善

    意 , 以 及 它 能 被 做 得 接 近 真 实 。 但 是 , 有 一 个 情 况 是 必 须 加

    以 重 视 的 , 即 形 成 不 同 政 治 集 团 的 人 们 当 然 有 定 期 会 集 在 一

    起 的 习 惯 , 目 的 在 用 共 同 的 祭 祀 以 确 认 和 神 圣 其 联 系 。 被 同

    化 于 同 胞 中 的 异 乡 人 无 疑 地 也 会 被 允 许 参 加 这 些 祭 祀 ; 我 们

    可 以 相 信 当 这 些 异 乡 人 一 度 这 样 做 了 以 后 , 似 乎 就 很 容 易 或

    没 有 什 么 困 难 被 视 为 参 加 了 共 同 血 统 。 因 此 , 从 证 据 得 出 的

    结 论 , 所 有 早 期 社 会 并 不 都 是 由 同 一 祖 先 的 后 裔 组 成 , 但 所

    有 永 久 和 团 结 巩 固 的 早 期 社 会 或 者 来 自 同 一 祖 先 , 或 者 则 自

    己 假 定 为 来 自 同 一 祖 先 。 有 无 数 的 原 因 可 能 会 把 原 始 集 团 加

    以 粉 碎 , 但 无 论 如 何 , 当 它 们 的 成 分 重 新 结 合 时 , 都 是 以 一

    种 亲 族 联 合 的 型 式 或 原 则 为 根 据 的 。 不 论 在 事 实 上 是 怎 样 , 所有 的 思 想 、 言 语 和 法 律 都 被 调 整 , 以 适 合 于 这 个 假 定 。 但 是 ,

    虽 然 在 我 看 来 , 就 那 些 记 录 为 我 们 所 熟 悉 的 各 个 共 产 体 而 论 ,

    所 有 这 一 切 似 乎 都 是 可 以 成 立 的 , 但 它 们 历 史 的 其 余 部 分 论

    证 了 前 面 所 提 出 的 论 点 , 即 这 个 最 有 力 的 “ 法 律 拟 制 ” 主 要

    地 起 着 暂 时 的 和 有 限 的 影 响 。 到 了 某 一 个 时 间 — — 也 许 是

    — — 当 它 们 自 己 感 觉 到 自 己 力 量 足 以 抵 抗 外 来 压 力 时 — — ,

    所 有 这 些 国 家 就 立 即 终 止 用 人 为 扩 大 血 缘 的 方 法 来 滋 补 新 成

    员 。 因 此 , 凡 当 有 新 的 人 口 由 于 任 何 原 因 而 结 集 在 他 们 四 周 ,

    但 不 能 提 出 和 他 们 起 原 于 共 同 祖 先 的 主 张 时 , 在 这 种 情 况 下 ,

    他 们 就 必 然 地 成 为 “ 贵 族 ” 。 他 们 严 格 维 持 着 一 个 制 度 的 主 要

    原 则 , 根 据 这 个 原 则 人 们 除 了 真 正 的 或 人 为 的 血 统 关 系 以 外 ,

    没 有 任 何 条 件 可 以 使 他 们 获 得 政 治 权 利 , 因 此 教 导 了 弱 者 另

    一 个 原 则 , 这 个 原 则 已 证 明 是 具 有 高 度 的 生 命 力 的 。 这 就 是

    ·

    地 ·

    方 ·

    毗 ·

    邻 原 则 , 现 在 已 被 到 处 承 认 为 共 产 体 在 政 治 职 能 上 的

    一 种 条 件 。 于 是 一 套 新 的 政 治 观 念 立 刻 产 生 了 , 这 些 既 然 是

    我 们 自 己 的 观 念 , 是 我 们 同 时 代 人 的 观 念 ; 并 且 在 很 大 程 度

    上 也 是 我 们 祖 先 的 观 念 , 因 此 也 就 模 糊 了 我 们 对 于 那 些 被 它

    们 所 驳 倒 和 废 弃 的 旧 理 论 的 理 解 。

    一 个 古 代 社 会 、 据 我 们 所 能 设 想 到 的 , 虽 然 是 多 种 多 样

    的 , 但 “ 家 族 ” 是 它 的 典 型 ; 不 过 这 里 所 谓 的 家 族 , 同 现 代

    人 所 理 解 的 宗 族 并 不 完 全 相 同 。 为 了 要 得 到 古 代 的 概 念 , 我

    们 必 须 就 我 们 现 代 观 念 作 一 些 重 要 的 增 加 和 一 些 重 要 的 限

    制 。 我 们 必 须 把 家 族 看 作 是 因 吸 收 外 来 人 而 不 断 扩 大 的 团 体 ,

    我 们 并 且 必 须 把 收 养 的 拟 制 认 为 是 和 真 正 的 血 缘 关 系 非 常 密

    切 地 近 似 的 , 因 此 不 论 在 法 律 上 或 在 人 们 的 意 见 中 , 对 于 真正 的 血 缘 关 系 和 收 养 关 系 之 间 , 都 没 有 丝 毫 差 别 。 在 另 一 方

    面 , 由 于 共 同 血 统 而 在 理 论 上 混 合 于 一 个 家 族 中 的 人 们 , 他

    们 在 实 际 上 结 合 在 一 起 , 乃 是 由 于 他 们 共 同 服 从 其 最 高 在 世

    的 尊 亲 属 如 父 亲 、 祖 父 或 曾 祖 父 。 一 个 首 领 具 有 宗 法 权 , 是

    家 族 集 团 观 念 中 的 一 个 必 要 的 要 素 , 正 和 家 族 集 团 是 由 他 所

    产 生 的 事 实 ( 或 假 定 事 实 ) 同 样 的 必 要 ; 因 此 , 我 们 必 须 了

    解 , 不 论 任 何 人 , 虽 然 由 于 血 缘 关 系 真 正 包 括 在 同 族 之 内 ; 但

    如 果 他 们 ·

    在 ·

    事 ·

    实 ·

    上 退 出 了 其 统 治 者 的 支 配 , 则 早 在 法 律 创 始

    时 期 , 他 们 就 要 被 认 为 是 不 属 于 这 个 家 族 了 。 我 们 在 原 始 法

    律 学 的 发 轫 时 候 所 遇 到 的 , 正 是 这 种 宗 法 的 集 合 体 , — — 近

    代 家 族 就 是 这 样 在 一 方 面 加 以 缩 小 在 另 一 方 面 加 以 扩 大 而 组

    成 的 。 家 族 也 许 比 “ 国 家 ” 、 比 “ 部 落 ” 、 比 “ 氏 族 ” 更 加 古

    老 一 些 , 但 它 在 “ 氏 族 ” 和 “ 部 落 ” 被 长 久 遗 忘 , 在 血 缘 同

    国 家 的 组 成 已 长 久 失 掉 了 联 系 以 后 , 还 在 私 法 上 留 有 残 迹 。 它

    在 法 律 学 的 各 大 部 门 中 都 有 烙 印 可 以 发 现 ; 并 且 我 以 为 , 它

    可 以 被 认 为 是 这 些 部 门 中 许 多 最 重 要 和 最 持 久 特 征 的 真 正 渊

    源 。 最 古 法 律 的 各 种 特 性 从 开 始 时 就 使 我 们 得 到 这 样 一 个 结

    论 , 即 在 权 利 和 义 务 制 度 上 , 它 对 于 家 族 集 团 所 持 的 见 解 正

    和 我 们 今 日 流 行 在 全 欧 洲 的 对 于 个 人 所 持 的 见 解 完 全 相 同 。

    即 使 在 现 在 , 我 们 还 可 以 观 察 到 这 样 的 社 会 , 它 们 的 法 律 和

    惯 例 除 非 被 假 定 为 还 没 有 脱 离 这 种 原 始 状 态 就 很 难 加 以 说

    明 ; 但 是 在 环 境 比 较 幸 运 的 共 产 体 中 , 法 律 学 的 结 构 已 开 始

    逐 渐 瓦 解 了 , 如 果 我 们 仔 细 地 观 察 这 种 瓦 解 现 象 , 我 们 就 能

    看 到 这 种 瓦 解 主 要 是 发 生 在 受 到 家 族 的 原 始 概 念 影 响 最 深 的

    那 些 部 分 的 制 度 中 。 一 个 最 重 要 的 例 证 中 , 就 是 在 罗 马 法 中 , 变 化 发 生 得 非 常 迟 缓 , 从 一 个 时 代 到 另 一 个 时 代 , 我 们 可 以

    观 察 到 变 化 所 遵 循 的 路 线 和 方 向 , 并 且 甚 至 可 以 对 变 化 所 趋

    向 的 最 后 结 果 , 略 加 叙 述 。 并 且 在 进 行 这 个 最 后 的 研 究 时 , 我

    们 不 会 受 到 那 个 把 现 代 和 古 代 世 界 分 隔 开 来 的 想 象 障 碍 的 阻

    挠 。 因 为 经 过 提 炼 的 罗 马 法 同 原 始 野 蛮 的 惯 例 混 合 后 , 形 成

    了 以 封 建 制 度 这 个 虚 伪 的 名 字 为 我 们 所 知 的 混 合 物 , 其 结 果

    之 一 是 复 活 了 在 罗 马 世 界 早 已 废 弃 不 用 的 古 代 法 律 学 的 许 多

    特 色 , 因 此 那 似 乎 已 经 终 止 了 的 分 解 过 程 又 再 度 开 始 , 并 且

    在 某 种 程 度 上 直 到 现 在 仍 旧 在 继 续 进 行 中 。

    最 古 社 会 的 家 族 组 织 曾 在 少 数 法 律 制 度 学 上 留 有 明 白 而

    广 大 的 标 志 , 显 示 出 “ 父 ” 或 其 他 祖 先 对 于 卑 亲 属 的 人 身 和

    财 产 有 终 身 的 权 力 , 这 种 权 力 , 我 们 为 了 方 便 起 见 , 用 它 后

    来 在 罗 马 的 名 称 , 称 它 做 “ 家 父 权 ” 。 在人 类 原 始 联 合 的 所 有 特 色 中 , 没 有 比 这 种 权 力 更 多 地 被 大 量的 证 据 所 证 明 ; 但 也 没 比 这 种 权 力 更 为 普 遍 地 、 更 为 迅 速 地从 进 步 共 产 体 的 惯 例 中 消 失 掉 。 在 安 托 宁 时 代 写 作 的 该 雅 士 ,认 为 这 个 制 度 是 罗 马 人 特 有 的 制 度 , 诚 然 , 如 果 他 看 一 看 莱因 河 或 多 瑙 河 对 岸 那 些 曾 引 起 他 同 时 代 人 好 奇 心 的 野 蛮 部落 , 他 可 能 会 看 到 许 多 最 粗 陋 形 式 的 宗 法 权 的 例 子 。 在 远 东

    有 一 个 和 罗 马 人 来 自 同 一 人 种 的 支 系 也 正 在 按 照 其 最 专 门 的

    细 节 重 复 施 行 “ 家 父 权 ” 。 但 在 公 认 为 包 括 于 罗 马 帝 国 内 的 各

    民 族 中 , 除 了 只 在 亚 细 亚 加 拉 塔 ( A s i a t i c   G a l a t E) 之 外 , 该雅 士 不 可 能 找 到 有 类 似 罗 马 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 一 种 制 度 。 据 我 看来 , 祖 先 的 直 接 权 威 在 大 多 数 进 步 社 会 中 所 以 会 很 快 就 少 于

    其 在 最 早 状 态 中 所 有 的 程 度 , 是 有 多 种 理 由 的 。 未 开 化 人 们对 其 父 绝 对 遵 从 , 无 疑 地 是 一 个 主 要 事 实 , 这 个 事 实 不 是 轻

    易 地 能 解 释 清 楚 的 , 如 果 只 说 因 为 这 样 对 他 们 有 利 ; 但 是 , 在

    同 时 , 如 果 子 服 从 父 是 出 于 自 然 的 , 那 末 子 希 望 父 具 有 卓 越

    的 体 力 或 卓 越 的 智 慧 也 是 同 样 出 于 自 然 的 。 因 此 , 当 社 会 处

    在 体 力 和 智 力 都 具 有 特 殊 价 值 的 时 候 , 就 会 发 生 一 种 影 响 , 倾

    向 于 使 “ 家 父 权 ” 限 于 确 实 具 有 才 干 的 和 强 有 力 的 人 。 当 我

    们 初 看 到 有 组 织 的 希 腊 社 会 时 , 好 像 出 类 拔 萃 的 智 慧 会 使 体

    力 虽 已 衰 微 的 人 仍 能 保 持 其 家 父 权 ; 但 在 “ 奥 特 赛 ” 中 优 烈

    锡 士 ( U l y s s e s ) 和 莱 安 底 斯 ( L a e r t e s ) 的 关 系 似 乎 表 示 当 其子 兼 有 非 常 的 勇 武 和 智 慧 时 , 其 年 已 衰 老 的 父 是 可 以 从 家 族

    首 领 的 地 位 上 被 废 免 的 。 在 成 熟 的 希 腊 法 律 学 中 , 其 规 定 比

    荷 马 文 学 中 所 暗 示 的 实 践 , 更 前 进 了 几 步 ; 虽 然 仍 有 许 多 严

    格 的 家 族 义 务 被 保 留 着 , 但 父 亲 的 直 接 权 威 象 在 欧 洲 的 法 典

    中 一 样 被 限 制 于 未 成 年 的 子 女 , 或 是 , 换 言 之 , 被 限 制 于 这

    些 子 女 假 定 他 们 的 智 力 和 体 力 还 不 充 足 的 一 定 时 期 内 。 但 是 ,

    这 个 具 有 改 革 古 旧 惯 例 以 适 应 共 和 政 治 急 需 这 种 显 著 倾 向 的

    罗 马 法 , 它 一 方 面 保 持 了 原 始 制 度 , 另 一 方 面 却 保 持 了 我 认

    为 它 曾 从 属 的 自 然 限 制 。 在 每 一 种 生 命 有 关 的 场 合 , 如 当 集

    体 的 共 产 体 为 了 议 和 或 为 了 战 争 而 必 须 利 用 其 智 力 和 体 力

    时 , 家 子或 “ 在 父 权 下 之 子 ” 就 可 以 获 得 和 父 同 样 的 自 由 。 罗 马 法 学 中 有 这 样 一 个 格 言 , “ 家 父 权 ” 并 不 触 及 “ 公 法 ”。 父 和子 在 城 中 一 同 选 举 , 在 战 场 上 并 肩 作 战 ; 真 的 , 当 子 成 为 将

    军 时 , 可 能 会 指 挥 其 父 , 成 为 高 级 官 吏 时 ; 要 审 判 其 父 的 契

    约 案 件 和 惩 罚 其 父 的 失 职 行 为 。 但 在 “ 私 法 ” 所 创 造 的 一 切关 系 中 , 子 就 必 须 生 活 在 一 个 家 庭 专 制 之 下 , 这 种 家 庭 专 制

    直 到 最 后 还 保 持 着 严 酷 性 , 它 并 且 延 续 了 许 多 世 纪 , 为 就 成

    为 法 律 史 中 最 奇 怪 的 问 题 之 一 。

    罗 马 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 必 然 地 是 我 们 原 始 父 权 的 典 型 , 但 作

    为 一 个 文 明 生 活 的 制 度 , 不 论 我 们 从 其 对 人 的 影 响 或 对 物 的

    效 果 而 论 , 都 是 同 样 难 以 理 解 的 。 遗 憾 的 是 , 在 它 的 历 史 上

    存 在 着 的 一 个 鸿 沟 , 现 在 已 无 法 更 完 全 地 填 满 了 。 就 人 而 言 ,

    根 据 我 们 所 获 得 的 材 料 , 父 对 其 子 有生死之权,更 ·

    毋 ·

    待 ·

    论 的 , 具 有 无 限 制 的 肉 体 惩 罚 权 ; 他 可 以任 意 变 更 他 们 的 个 人 身 分 ; 他 可 以 为 子 娶 妻 , 他 可 以 将 女 许 嫁 ; 他 可 以 令 子 女 离 婚 ; 他 可 以 用 收 养 的 方 法 把 子 女 移 转 到

    其 他 家 族 中 去 ; 他 并 且 可 以 出 卖 他 们 。 后 来 在 帝 政 时 期 , 我

    们 还 可 以 发 现 所 有 这 些 权 利 的 遗 迹 , 但 已 经 缩 小 在 极 狭 小 的

    范 围 内 。 家 内 惩 罚 的 无 限 制 的 权 利 已 变 成 为 把 家 庭 犯 罪 移 归

    民 事 高 级 官 吏 审 判 的 权 利 ; 主 宰 婚 姻 的 特 权 已 下 降 为 一 种 有

    条 件 的 否 定 权 ; 出 卖 的 自 由 已 在 实 际 上 被 废 止 , 至 于 收 养 在

    查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 改 良 制 度 中 几 乎 全 部 失 去 了 它 在 古 代 的 重 要

    性 , 如 果 没 有 子 女 的 同 意 , 移 转 给 养 父 母 就 不 能 生 效 。 总 之 ,

    我 们 已 十 分 接 近 最 后 流 行 于 现 代 世 界 的 各 种 观 念 的 边 缘 , 但

    是 在 这 些 相 隔 很 远 的 时 代 之 间 , 存 在 着 一 个 暗 昧 的 期 间 , 据

    我 们 猜 想 , “ 家 父 权 ” 所 以 能 这 样 长 时 期 地 持 续 者 , 其 原 因 就

    在 它 比 表 面 上 较 为 可 以 容 忍 一 些 。 儿 子 积 极 完 成 其 对 国 家 所

    负 各 种 义 务 中 最 重 要 的 义 务 , 纵 使 不 取 消 他 父 亲 的 权 威 , 一

    定 也 会 削 弱 这 种 权 威 。 我 们 不 难 想 象 , 如 果 对 于 一 个 占 有 高

    级 民 事 官 吏 职 位 的 成 年 人 行 使 父 权 专 制 , 则 必 然 地 会 引 起 极大 的 诽 谤 。 不 过 在 较 早 期 的 历 史 中 , 这 种 在 实 际 上 解 放 的 事

    例 , 如 和 罗 马 共 和 时 代 因 不 断 发 生 战 事 而 造 成 的 事 例 相 比 , 是

    要 少 得 多 。 早 期 战 争 中 一 年 有 四 分 之 三 时 间 辗 转 于 战 场 上 的

    军 事 护 民 官 和 士 兵 , 以 及 在 后 一 时 期 统 治 一 省 的 地 方 总 督 和

    占 领 它 的 军 团 兵 , 他 们 实 在 不 应 该 有 任 何 实 际 理 由 使 他 们 自

    认 为 是 一 个 专 制 主 人 的 奴 隶 ; 而 在 当 时 , 所 有 这 些 逃 避 “ 家

    父 权 ” 的 道 路 有 不 断 增 加 的 倾 向 。 胜 利 引 导 到 征 服 , 征 服 引

    导 到 占 领 ; 用 殖 民 来 占 领 的 方 式 改 变 了 用 常 备 军 来 占 领 各 省

    的 制 度 。 每 次 向 前 进 展 一 步 , 就 要 召 唤 更 多 的 罗 马 公 民 出 国 ,

    就 要 对 正 在 不 断 减 少 的 拉 丁 民 族 的 血 液 进 行 一 次 新 的 汲 引 。

    我 以 为 , 我 们 得 推 定 , 到 帝 国 建 立 , 世 界 平 靖 开 始 的 时 候 , 主

    张 松 弛 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 强 有 力 的 情 绪 , 已 成 为 确 切 不 移 的 了 。 最

    早 加 于 这 古 代 制 度 的 大 打 击 来 自 较 早 期 的 几 个 凯 撒 , 而 图 拉

    真 ( T r a j a n ) 和 汉 德 林 所 作 的 几 次 单 独 干 涉 , 似 乎 又 为 后 来 一

    系 列 明 确 的 立 法 准 备 了 条 件 , 我 们 虽 无 法 断 定 这 些 立 法 的 时

    间 , 但 我 们 知 道 , 这 些 立 法 在 一 方 面 限 制 了 家 父 权 , 另 一 方

    面 增 加 了 其 自 动 放 弃 的 种 种 便 利 。 在 比 较 早 的 时 期 , 如 果 子

    经 过 三 次 出 卖 , 就 可 以 消 灭 “ 家 父 权 ” , 我 认 为 , 这 个 方 式 证

    明 在 很 早 时 候 就 感 觉 到 没 有 延 长 这 种 权 力 的 必 要 。 这 一 条 规

    定 宣 布 子 在 被 父 出 卖 三 次 以 后 应 该 获 得 自 由 , 其 原 意 似 乎 是

    为 了 要 惩 罚 这 种 甚 至 为 道 德 观 念 还 处 于 启 蒙 时 期 的 原 始 罗 马

    人 所 反 对 的 实 践 。 但 是 甚 至 在 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 公 布 以 前 , 由

    于 法 学 专 家 的 智 机 , 如 果 家 父 愿 意 中 止 家 父 权 的 时 候 , 就 可

    以 利 用 这 个 方 式 来 把 它 取 消 。

    无 疑 地 , 我 们 是 不 能 从 历 史 的 表 面 来 发 现 这 许 多 促 使 减轻 父 对 子 人 身 权 力 的 严 酷 性 的 原 因 的 。 我 们 无 法 断 定 究 竟 公

    共 舆 论 对 于 一 种 法 律 所 赋 予 的 权 威 能 使 它 瘫 痪 到 如 何 程 度 ,

    或 者 父 子 之 情 究 竟 能 使 它 被 忍 耐 到 如 何 程 度 。 但 是 , 虽 然 对

    于 人 身 的 权 力 在 后 来 可 能 变 成 了 有 名 无 实 , 不 过 到 现 在 还 残

    存 的 罗 马 法 律 学 的 全 部 要 旨 暗 示 着 ; 父 对 子财产 所 有 的 权 利 ,

    则 是 始 终 毫 无 犹 豫 地 被 行 使 到 法 律 所 准 许 的 限 度 的 。 这 些 对

    财 产 的 权 利 在 最 初 出 现 时 , 其 活 动 范 围 较 广 是 无 足 惊 异 的 。 古

    代 罗 马 法 禁 止 “ 在 父 权 下 之 子 ”和父 分 开 而 持 有 财 产 , 或 者 ( 我 们 宁 可 说 ) 绝 对 不 考 虑 子 有 主张 一 种 各 别 所 有 权 的 可 能 。 父 有 权 取 得 其 子 的 全 部 取 得 物 , 并享 有 其 契 约 的 利 益 而 不 牵 涉 到 任 何 赔 偿 责 任 。 我 们 从 最 古 罗

    马 社 会 的 构 成 中 所 能 得 到 的 就 是 这 些 , 因 为 除 非 我 们 假 定 原

    始 家 族 集 团 的 成 员 应 该 把 他 们 各 式 各 样 的 劳 动 所 得 都 放 在 其

    共 有 的 财 产 中 , 而 在 同 时 他 们 又 不 能 把 在 事 前 没 有 经 过 考 虑

    的 个 人 债 务 来 拘 束 它 , 则 我 们 就 很 难 就 原 始 家 族 集 团 作 出 一

    个 概 念 。 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 真 正 难 解 之 处 实 在 并 不 在 这 一 方 面 , 而

    是 在 于 父 的 这 些 财 产 特 权 被 剥 夺 得 如 此 之 慢 , 以 及 在 于 在 这

    些 特 权 被 大 大 地 缩 小 之 前 全 部 文 明 世 界 都 被 引 入 这 些 特 权 范

    围 之 内 的 情 况 。 对 于 这 种 情 况 , 没 有 试 作 过 任 何 改 革 , 直 到

    帝 国 的 初 期 , 现 役 军 人 的 取 得 物 可 以 不 受 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 影 响 ,

    这 无 疑 地 是 被 用 作 为 对 推 翻 自 由 共 和 政 治 的 军 队 的 酬 劳 的 一

    部 分 。 经 过 三 个 世 纪 以 后 , 这 同 样 的 免 除 扩 大 而 适 用 于 国 家

    文 官 的 劳 动 所 得 。 这 二 种 变 化 在 应 用 时 是 显 然 有 限 制 的 , 并

    且 它 们 在 技 术 上 是 采 用 这 样 的 形 式 , 以 求 尽 量 避 免 干 预 “ 家

    父 权 ” 的 原 则 。 罗 马 法 在 过 去 是 一 向 承 认 某 种 有 限 的 和 依 附的 所 有 权 的 , 奴 隶 及 “ 在 父 权 下 之 子 ” 的 赏 金 和 积 蓄 并 不 被强 迫 包 括 在 家 庭 账 目 之 内 , 这 种 特 许 财 产 的 特 别 名 称 为 “ 特有 产 ” ( P e c u l i u m ) , 适 用 于 新 从 “ 家 父 权 ” 中 解 放 出 来 的 取 得物 , 属 于 军 人 方 面 的 则 称 为 “ 军 役 特 有 产 ”, 属 于 文 官 方 面 的 则 称 为 “ 准 军 役 特 有 产 ”。 以 后 对 家 父 权 还 有 其 他 的 变 更 , 在 外 表

    上 对 于 古 代 原 则 已 不 复 像 过 去 那 样 的 尊 重 了 。 在 采 用 “ 准 军

    役 特 有 产 ” 以 后 不 久 , 君 士 坦 丁 大 帝 取 消 了 父 对 子 从 其 母 承

    继 财 产 上 所 有 的 绝 对 权 , 把 它 缩 小 为 一 种用益权或 终 身 收 益 。 在 西 罗 马 帝 国 还 有 少 数 比 较 不 很 重 要 的 变 化 , 但最 大 的 变 化 发 生 在 东 罗 马 帝 国 , 是 当 查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 时 代 , 他

    所 制 定 的 法 律 , 规 定 除 非 子 的 取 得 物 是 来 自 其 父 自 己 财 产 , 父

    对 这 些 取 得 物 的 权 力 不 得 超 出 在 他 生 存 期 内 享 有 出 产 物 的 范

    围 。 罗 马 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 虽 已 作 了 这 样 极 度 的 宽 放 , 但 是 罗 马

    的 制 度 仍 旧 远 比 现 代 世 界 中 任 何 类 似 制 度 为 广 泛 和 严 格 。 法

    律 学 最 早 的 现 代 作 者 认 为 , 只 有 比 较 残 暴 和 比 较 鄙 野 的 罗 马

    帝 国 征 服 者 , 特 别 是 斯 拉 夫 族 的 各 国 , 才 有 类 似 “ 法 学 彙

    纂 ” 和 “ 法 典 ” 中 所 叙 述 的 一 种 “ 家 父 权 ” 。 所 有 的 日 耳 曼 移民 似 乎 都 承 认 一 个 家 族 团 体 属 于门特 ( m u n d ) 或 族 长 权 之 下 ;

    但 族 长 的 权 力 显 然 只 是 一 种 腐 败 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 遗 骸 , 同 罗

    马 人 的 父 所 享 有 的 权 力 远 不 能 相 比 拟 。 法 兰 克 人 特 别 被 提 到

    没 有 受 到 这 种 罗 马 制 度 的 影 响 , 因 此 老 一 辈 的 法 国 法 学 家 甚

    至 在 非 常 忙 于 用 罗 马 法 规 定 来 填 补 野 蛮 习 惯 的 孔 隙 时 , 还 不

    得 不 用 这 明 白 的 格 言 ·

    在 ·

    法 ·

    兰 ·

    西 ·

    父 ·

    权 ·

    不 ·

    能 ·

    代 ·

    来 保 获 自 己 , 使 不 受 到“ 家 父 权 ” 的 侵 入 。 罗 马 人 固 执 地 保 持 着 他 们 这 个 最 古 状 态 的

    遗 迹 , 其 本 身 是 值 得 注 意 的 , 但 更 值 得 注 意 的 是 “ 家 父 权 ” 在

    它 一 度 绝 迹 以 后 又 复 在 全 部 文 明 世 界 广 泛 流 行 这 一 事 实 。 当

    “ 军 役 特 有 产 ” 还 只 是 父 对 子 财 产 权 力 的 唯 一 例 外 时 , 以 及 当

    父 对 于 子 人 身 所 有 的 权 力 还 是 极 为 广 泛 的 时 候 , 罗 马 公 民 权

    以 及 随 着 公 民 权 而 产 生 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 正 被 广 布 到 帝 国 的 每 一

    个 角 落 。 每 一 个 非 洲 人 或 西 班 牙 人 、 每 一 个 高 卢 人 、 不 列 颠

    人 或 犹 太 人 因 赠 与 、 买 受 或 继 承 而 获 得 这 种 公 民 权 的 光 荣 时 ,

    把 它 自 己 放 在 罗 马 “ 人 法 ” 之 下 , 又 虽 然 我 们 的 权 威 学 者 暗

    示 , 在 取 得 公 民 权 前 所 生 的 子 女 不 能 违 背 他 们 的 意 志 而 把 他

    们 放 在 “ 父 权 ” 之 下 , 但 在 这 以 后 所 生 的 子 女 以 及 所 有 在 他

    们 以 后 的 卑 亲 属 都 应 该 处 于 一 个 罗 马家子 的 通 常 地 位 上 。 对

    于 后 期 罗 马 社 会 的 构 成 , 本 不 在 本 文 研 究 范 围 之 内 , 但 我 不

    妨 在 这 里 说 明 , 有 人 认 为 安 托 宁 那 · 卡 刺 卡 拉 ( A n t o n i n u s C a r a c a l l a ) 规 定 把 罗 马 公 民 权 赋 予 其 全 部 臣 民 的 措 施 并 不 重要 , 这 种 意 见 是 缺 乏 根 据 的 。 不 论 我 们 对 这 件 事 作 如 何 解 释 ,

    但 它 必 然 无 疑 地 大 大 扩 大 了 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 范 围 , 并 且 据 我 看

    来 , 它 使 家 族 关 系 更 加 紧 密 , 而 这 正 是 我 们 必 须 比 以 前 更 加

    注 意 的 , 可 以 用 来 说 明 正 在 改 变 着 世 界 的 伟 大 道 德 革 命 的 一

    种 媒 介 。

    在 离 开 我 们 主 题 的 这 一 个 部 分 以 前 , 应 该 注 意 到 “ 家

    父 ” 对 于 “ 在 父 权 下 之 子 ” 的 不 法 行 为 ( 或侵 ·

    权 ·

    行 ·

    为 ) 应 负

    责 任 。 他 对 其 奴 隶 的 不 法 行 为 也 同 样 的 应 该 负 责 ; 但 在 这 两

    种 情 形 下 , 他 原 有 这 样 一 种 特 别 的 权 利 , 就 是 把 犯 罪 者 的 本

    人 交 出 以 赔 偿 损 害 。 “ 家 父 ” 这 样 因 为 子 的 缘 故 而 负 担 责 任 ,再 加 上 父 和 “ 在 父 权 下 之 子 ” 相 互 之 间 不 能 提 起 控 诉 , 有 些

    法 学 家 认 为 这 种 情 况 最 好 用 “ 家 父 ” 与 “ 家 子 ” 间 存 在 着 一

    种 “ 人 格 统 一 ” 的 假 设 来 加 以 说 明 。 在 “ 继 承 ” 的 一 章 中 , 我

    将 说 明 在 什 么 意 义 上 和 在 什 么 限 度 内 , 这 种 “ 统 一 ” 可 以 被

    认 为 是 一 种 现 实 。 在 目 前 我 只 须 说 明 : “ 家 父 ” 的 这 些 责 任 以

    及 此 后 要 讨 论 到 的 其 他 一 些 法 律 现 象 , 据 我 看 来 , 都 是 作 为

    原 始 族 长 所 有 ·

    权 ·

    利 的 一 种 对 称 的 某 种 ·

    义 ·

    务 。 我 的 看 法 是 , 如

    果 他 有 绝 对 的 处 分 其 同 部 族 之 人 的 人 身 和 财 产 的 权 利 , 则 和

    这 种 代 表 性 的 所 有 权 相 适 应 , 他 也 有 从 共 同 基 金 中 供 养 同 族

    内 所 有 成 员 的 责 任 。 困 难 是 在 于 , 当 我 们 在 想 象 “ 家 父 ” 的

    这 种 责 任 的 性 质 时 , 我 们 必 须 从 我 们 习 惯 的 联 想 中 充 分 地 解

    脱 出 来 。 它 不 是 一 种 法 律 义 务 , 因 为 法 律 还 没 有 渗 透 到 “ 家

    族 ” 的 境 界 之 内 。 要 称 它 为 ·

    道 ·

    德 ·

    的 也 许 还 言 之 过 早 , 因 为 道

    德 观 念 属 于 较 后 阶 段 的 智 力 发 展 ; 在 目 前 , 我 们 不 妨 称 之 为

    “ 道 德 义 务 ” , 但 是 这 所 谓 “ 道 德 义 务 ” , 应 该 被 理 解 为 一 种 自

    觉 地 服 从 的 , 并 且 是 依 靠 本 能 和 习 惯 而 不 是 依 靠 文 明 规 定 裁

    制 所 强 行 的 义 务 。

    “ 家 父 权 ” 就 其 正 常 状 态 而 论 , 并 不 是 , 并 且 据 我 看 来 ,

    也 不 可 能 是 一 种 在 大 体 上 永 久 的 制 度 。 因 此 , 如 果 我 们 单 从

    它 本 身 来 考 虑 , 它 以 前 具 有 普 遍 性 的 证 据 , 是 不 完 全 的 ; 但

    是 如 果 研 究 一 下 古 代 法 律 中 在 根 本 上 依 附 着 它 、 但 却 不 是 从

    它 所 有 方 面 或 为 每 一 个 人 所 能 看 到 的 一 条 线 索 所 联 系 着 的 其

    他 部 门 , 则 可 以 获 得 的 证 据 将 更 多 。 我 们 试 以 亲 属 关 系 为 例 ,

    或 者 换 言 之 , 以 古 代 法 律 学 中 亲 属 相 互 间 据 而 衡 量 远 近 亲 疏

    的 等 级 为 例 。 这 里 , 最 方 便 的 方 法 又 是 应 用 罗 马 的 用 语 , 即“ 宗 亲 ” 和 “ 血 亲 ” 关 系 。 血亲 关 系 就 是 现 代 观 念 所 熟 悉 的 亲属 关 系 概 念 ; 这 是 因 一 对 已 婚 的 人 所 出 生 的 共 同 后 裔 而 产 生 的 亲 属 关 系 , 不 论 其 后 裔 来 自 男 性 或 女 性 方 面 。宗亲 亲 属 关系 和 这 完 全 不 同 ; 它 不 包 括 有 许 多 我 们 在 今 天 认 为 当 然 是 我

    们 亲 属 的 人 , 而 同 时 却 包 括 了 更 多 我 们 决 不 会 计 算 在 我 们 亲

    属 中 的 人 。 其 实 , 这 是 根 据 了 最 古 时 代 的 看 法 而 存 在 于 家 族

    成 员 间 的 一 种 关 系 。 这 个 关 系 的 范 围 , 和 现 代 亲 属 关 系 的 范

    围 是 远 不 相 一 致 的 。

    因 此 , “ 血 亲 ” 指 的 是 一 切 人 , 从 血 统 上 能 追 溯 到 一 个 单

    一 的 男 性 和 女 性 祖 先 的 ; 或 者 , 如 果 我 们 用 罗 马 法 中 这 个 字

    的 严 格 的 专 门 意 义 , 他 们 是 一 切 从 血 统 上 能 追 溯 到 一 对 合 法

    结 婚 夫 妇 的 人 。 “ 血 亲 属 ” 因 此 是 一 个 相 对 的 名 称 , 它 所 表 示

    血 缘 关 系 的 程 度 要 以 被 选 定 作 为 计 算 的 起 点 的 特 殊 婚 姻 而 决

    定 。 如 果 我 们 从 父 和 母 的 婚 姻 开 始 , “ 血 亲 属 ” 只 表 示 兄 弟 和

    姊 妹 的 亲 属 关 系 ; 如 果 我 们 从 祖 父 和 祖 母 的 婚 姻 开 始 , 则 伯

    叔 姑 母 以 及 其 后 裔 也 都 要 包 括 在 “ 血 亲 属 ” 的 观 念 内 , 根 据

    这 同 一 步 骤 只 要 我 们 在 宗 谱 上 选 定 更 高 更 高 的 起 点 , 那 就 可

    继 续 得 到 更 大 量 的 “ 血 亲 ” 。 这 一 些 都 是 为 一 个 现 代 人 所 容 易

    理 解 的 , 但 谁 是 “ 宗 亲 ” 呢 ? 首 先 , 凡 专 从 男 性 追 溯 其 亲 属

    关 系 的 都 是 “ 血 亲 ” 。 为 了 要 组 成 一 张 “ 血 亲 ” 世 系 表 , 当 然

    只 须 要 依 次 取 每 一 个 直 系 祖 先 , 并 把 其 所 有 男 女 两 性 的 卑 属

    亲 都 包 括 在 一 张 表 式 内 ; 如 果 , 在 追 溯 这 样 一 张 家 系 表 或 家

    系 树 的 各 个 支 派 时 , 我 们 每 到 达 一 个 女 性 的 名 字 时 立 即 停 止 ,

    不 再 在 该 特 殊 的 支 派 或 枝 节 上 继 续 向 前 进 行 , 把 女 性 的 卑 属

    亲 完 全 除 外 后 所 有 遗 留 下 来 的 人 就 都 是 “ 宗 亲 ” , 而 他 们 相 互的 关 系 便 是 “ 宗 亲 ” 关 系 。 我 之 所 以 要 在 那 实 际 上 把 他 们 从

    “ 血 亲 ” 分 开 来 的 过 程 上 稍 谈 几 句 , 因 为 这 说 明 了 一 个 著 名 的

    法 律 格 言 “ 一 个 妇 女 是 家 族 的 终 点 ”。 在 一 个 女 性 名 字 出 现 的 地 方 封 闭 了 家 系 中 有 关 支 派 或 枝 条 。 女 性 的 后 裔 是 不 包 括 在 家 族 关 系 的 原 始 观 念 中 的 。

    如 果 我 们 所 研 究 的 古 法 律 制 度 是 一 个 允 许 收 养 的 制 度 ,

    则 在 “ 宗 亲 ” 之 中 还 必 须 加 进 由 于 人 为 的 扩 大 范 围 而 增 加 到

    “ 家 族 ” 中 来 的 人 口 , 包 括 男 性 或 女 性 。 但 是 这 类 人 的 卑 亲 属

    如 果 能 满 足 上 面 所 谈 的 各 种 条 件 ; 则 他 们 将 只 是 “ 宗 亲 ” 。

    然 则 , 究 竟 凭 着 什 么 理 由 , 决 定 这 种 专 断 的 包 括 和 除 外 ?

    为 什 么 一 个 “ 亲 属 关 系 ” 的 概 念 一 方 面 是 这 样 地 有 弹 性 , 可

    以 包 括 因 收 养 而 带 入 家 族 中 来 的 陌 生 人 , 但 另 一 方 面 又 是 这

    样 地 狭 隘 , 把 一 个 女 性 成 员 的 后 裔 排 除 在 家 族 之 外 ? 要 解 决

    这 个 问 题 , 我 们 又 必 须 回 到 “ 家 父 权 ” 。 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 的 基 础 并

    不 是 “ 父 ” “ 母 ” 的 婚 姻 , 而 是 “ 父 ” 的 权 威 。 在 同 一 “ 父

    权 ” 之 下 的 一 切 人 , 或 是 曾 经 在 它 下 面 的 一 切 人 , 或 是 可 能

    会 在 它 们 下 面 的 一 切 人 , 如 果 他 们 的 直 系 祖 先 寿 命 很 长 足 以

    造 成 他 个 人 的 王 国 , 所 有 这 一 切 人 就 都 是 因 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 而 结

    合 在 一 起 的 。 实 际 上 , 在 原 始 的 见 解 中 , 所 谓 “ 亲 属 关 系 ” 正

    是 以 “ 家 父 权 ” 为 其 范 围 的 。 “ 家 父 权 ” 开 始 时 , “ 亲 属 关

    系 ” 也 开 始 ; 因 此 , 收 养 关 系 也 包 括 在 亲 属 关 系 之 中 。 “ 家 父

    权 ” 终 了 时 , “ 亲 属 关 系 ” 也 终 了 ; 因 此 , 一 个 被 父 所 解 放 了

    的 子 就 丧 失 了 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 的 一 切 权 利 。 这 就 是 为 什 么 女 性 后

    裔 不 在 古 亲 属 关 系 范 围 之 内 的 理 由 。 如 果 一 个 妇 女 未 婚 而 死

    亡 , 她 不 能 有 合 法 的 卑 亲 属 。 在 她 结 婚 后 , 她 所 生 的 子 女 属于 她 夫 而 不 属 于 她 父 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 范 围 , 这 样 , 她 的 子 女 就不 属 于 她 自 己 的 家 族 。 很 显 然 , 如 果 有 人 自 称 是 母 亲 的 亲 属 ,

    则 原 始 的 社 会 组 织 可 能 要 为 之 惊 惶 失 措 。 因 为 这 样 一 个 人 就

    可 能 要 属 于 两 个 不 同 的 “ 家 父 权 ” ; 但 是 各 别 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 含

    有 各 别 的 管 辖 权 之 意 , 则 这 个 同 时 属 于 两 个 管 辖 权 的 人 就 必

    将 生 活 于 两 种 不 同 法 律 管 理 之 下 。 既 然 “ 家 族 ” 是 帝 国 内 的

    一 个 帝 国 ; 是 共 和 政 治 内 的 一 个 共 产 体 , 受 到 它 自 己 的 以 父

    为 其 泉 源 的 制 度 的 统 治 , 则 把 亲 属 关 系 限 于 “ 宗 亲 ” , 正 是 避

    免 在 家 庭 中 的 法 庭 上 发 生 法 律 冲 突 的 一 种 必 要 保 证 。

    “ 父 权 ” 本 身 因 父 的 死 而 消 灭 , 但 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 则 好 像 是 一

    个 模 型 , 在 “ 父 权 ” 消 灭 后 还 留 着 痕 迹 。 这 就 是 研 究 法 律 学

    史 的 人 对 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 感 到 有 兴 趣 的 所 在 。 只 有 在 比 较 少 数 的

    古 代 法 律 的 纪 念 碑 中 可 以 看 到 “ 父 权 ” , 但 是 意 味 着 父 权 存 在

    的 “ 宗 亲 ” 关 系 , 则 几 乎 到 处 都 可 以 发 现 。 属 于 印 度 - 欧 罗

    巴 祖 先 的 各 个 共 产 体 的 土 著 法 律 , 在 其 最 古 结 构 中 ; 绝 少 不

    显 示 出 明 明 可 以 归 因 于 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 的 特 性 的 。 例 如 : 在 含 有

    浓 厚 宗 族 依 附 这 个 原 始 观 念 的 印 度 法 中 , 亲 属 关 系 是 完 全

    “ 宗 亲 ” 的 , 据 我 所 知 , 在 印 度 的 家 谱 中 , 所 有 妇 女 的 名 字 一

    般 是 完 全 略 而 不 载 的 。 对 于 亲 属 关 系 的 这 种 同 样 见 解 , 在 许

    多 蹂 躏 罗 马 帝 国 的 各 民 族 的 法 律 中 都 普 遍 存 在 , 真 好 象 是 它

    们 原 始 惯 例 的 一 部 分 ; 我 们 并 且 不 妨 猜 想 ; 如 果 不 是 后 期 罗

    马 法 对 现 代 思 想 所 加 的 巨 大 影 响 , 它 在 现 代 欧 洲 法 律 学 中 可

    能 要 比 现 在 更 永 久 地 被 保 存 着 。 “ 裁 判 官 ” 很 早 就 把 “ 血 亲属 ” 作 为天然 形 式 的 亲 属 关 系 , 并 不 辞 艰 苦 地 想 把 旧 的 概 念

    从 他 们 的 制 度 中 清 除 出 去 。 他 们 的 观 念 传 给 了 我 们 , 但 “ 宗亲 属 ” 的 痕 迹 在 许 多 现 代 的 继 承 法 规 定 中 仍 旧 可 以 看 到 。 把

    女 性 及 其 子 女 排 斥 在 政 府 职 务 之 外 , 一 般 以 为 系 由 于 撒 利 族法 兰 克 人 ( S a l i a n   F r a n k s ) 的 惯 例 , 但 这 当 然 是 来 自 “ 宗亲 ” 关 系 , 起 源 于 古 日 耳 曼 对 于 自 主 财 产 的 继 承 规 定 。 在 英

    国 法 律 中 , 只 有 到 最 近 才 被 废 弃 的 那 种 特 别 规 定 , 即 禁 止 半

    血 统 兄 弟 相 互 继 承 土 地 的 规 定 , 也 可 以 在 “ 宗 亲 ” 中 找 到 解

    释 。 在 诺 曼 底的 习 惯 中 。 这 个 规 定 只 适 用 于同母 ·

    异 ·

    父 ( u t e r i n e ) 兄 弟 , 也 即 是 同 母 而 不 是 同 父 的 兄 弟 ; 这

    种 限 制 , 是 严 格 地 从 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 制 度 中 演 绎 出 来 的 , 因 为 在

    这 个 制 度 下 , 同 母 异 父 兄 弟 在 相 互 之 间 根 本 不 是 亲 属 。 当 它

    被 带 到 英 格 兰 时 , 英 国 法 官 不 了 解 原 则 的 来 源 , 把 它 解 释 为

    只 是 一 般 地 禁 止 半 血 统 的 继 承 , 并 把 它 推 用 到同血 ·

    统兄 弟 , 即 同 父 异 母 的 各 个 儿 子 。 在 一 切 虚 伪 法律 哲 学 的 文 籍 中 , 当 以 企 图 对 半 血 统 的 被 排 斥 进 行 解 释 并 证

    明 它 是 正 当 的 布 拉 克 斯 顿 的 诡 辩 文 章 , 最 为 突 出 。

    我 以 为 , 由 此 可 以 看 出 这 个 由 “ 家 父 权 ” 结 合 起 来 的

    “ 家 族 ” 是 全 部 “ 人 法 ” 从 其 中 孕 育 而 产 生 出 来 的 卵 巢 。 在

    “ 人 法 ” 的 各 章 中 , 最 重 要 的 是 有 关 妇 女 身 分 的 一 章 。 刚 才 说

    过 , “ 原 始 法 律 学 ” 虽 不 允 许 一 个 妇 女 把 任 何 “ 宗 亲 属 ” 的 权

    利 传 给 其 后 裔 , 但 却 把 它 本 人 包 括 在 “ 宗 亲 ” 范 围 之 内 。 其

    实 , 一 个 女 性 同 她 所 出 生 的 家 族 之 间 的 关 系 , 应 该 比 把 她 和

    男 性 亲 属 结 合 在 一 起 的 关 系 更 来 得 严 格 、 密 切 和 永 久 。 我 们

    曾 几 次 说 过 , 早 期 法 律 只 着 眼 于 “ 家 族 ” ; 这 也 就 是 说 , 它 只

    着 眼 于 行 使 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 人 : 因 此 , 它 在 父 死 之 时 解 放 其 子

    或 孙 所 依 据 的 唯 一 原 则 , 是 在 考 虑 这 个 子 或 孙 有 没 有 使 其 本身 成 为 一 个 新 家 族 的 首 领 和 一 套 新 “ 父 权 ” 的 根 子 的 能 力 。 一

    个 妇 女 当 然 不 具 有 这 种 能 力 , 因 此 也 就 不 能 有 获 得 法 律 所 赋

    与 的 自 由 的 权 利 。 所 以 古 法 律 学 用 一 种 特 殊 的 诡 计 把 她 终 生

    留 在 “ 家 族 ” 的 范 围 中 。 这 就 是 最 古 罗 马 法 中 所 谓 “ 妇 女 终身 监 护 ” ( P e r p e t u a l   T u t e l a g e   o f   W o m e n ) 的 制 度 , 在 这个 制 度 下 面 , 一 个 “ 女 性 ” 虽 因 其 父 的 死 亡 而 从 父 权 中 解 脱

    出 来 , 但 仍 应 继 续 终 身 从 属 于 最 近 的 男 性 亲 属 ; 并 以 他 作 为

    其 “ 监 护 人 ” 。 “ 终 身 监 护 制 ” ( P e r p e t u a l   G u a r d i a n s h i p ) 显

    然 是 不 折 不 扣 的 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 一 种 人 为 的 延 长 , 虽 然 当 时 在

    其 他 方 面 , “ 家 父 权 ” 已 经 被 完 全 取 消 了 。 在 印 度 , 这 个 制 度

    完 整 无 缺 地 保 存 下 来 , 并 执 行 得 非 常 严 格 , 以 致 一 个 印 度 的

    母 亲 常 常 受 着 自 己 儿 子 的 监 护 。 甚 至 在 欧 洲 所 有 斯 干 的 那 雄

    亚 各 国 有 关 妇 女 的 法 律 一 直 到 最 近 还 保 留 着 这 种 制 度 。 西 罗

    马 帝 国 的 侵 入 者 在 土 著 惯 例 中 都 普 遍 具 有 这 种 制 度 。 他 们 在

    “ 监 护 制 ” 这 个 主 题 上 所 有 的 各 式 各 样 观 念 , 实 在 是 他 们 介 绍

    到 西 方 世 界 的 各 种 观 念 中 最 退 化 的 一 种 。 但 在 成 熟 的 罗 马 法

    律 学 中 , 这 种 制 度 已 完 全 消 失 。 如 果 我 们 所 能 参 考 的 只 是 查

    斯 丁 尼 安 所 编 纂 的 法 律 , 则 我 们 将 几 乎 完 全 不 知 道 有 这 样 一

    个 制 度 ; 但 是 该 雅 士 手 稿 的 发 现 让 我 们 看 到 了 这 个 制 度 , 正

    当 它 陷 于 完 全 丧 失 信 用 和 濒 于 消 灭 的 这 样 一 个 最 有 趣 的 时

    代 。 这 个 伟 大 的 法 学 专 家 斥 责 了 一 般 用 来 替 这 个 制 度 辩 解 的

    所 谓 女 性 智 力 低 劣 的 说 法 , 在 他 的 著 作 中 , 并 且 有 相 当 大 的

    一 部 分 用 来 说 明 罗 马 法 学 家 所 提 出 以 便 “ 妇 女 们 ” 能 凭 以 打

    垮 这 古 代 规 定 的 许 多 方 法 , 其 中 有 些 是 非 常 聪 明 的 。 这 些 法

    学 专 家 在 “ 自 然 法 ” 理 论 的 指 导 下 , 在 这 个 时 期 明 显 地 以 两性 平 等 作 为 其 衡 平 法 典 的 一 个 原 则 。 我 们 可 以 看 到 他 所 攻 击

    的 各 种 限 制 是 对 于 财 产 处 分 上 的 限 制 , 因 为 在 那 个 时 候 , 妇

    女 处 分 财 产 仍 必 须 正 式 取 得 其 监 护 人 的 同 意 。 至 于 对 她 人 身

    的 支 配 权 则 显 然 早 已 废 弃 了 。

    “ 古 代 法 ” 把 妇 女 从 属 于 她 血 统 至 亲 , 而 现 代 法 律 学 中 的

    一 个 主 要 现 象 则 是 把 她 从 属 于 丈 夫 。 这 种 变 化 的 历 史 是 值 得

    注 意 的 。 这 种 历 史 的 开 始 , 远 在 罗 马 的 纪 年 史 中 。 在 古 代 , 按

    照 罗 马 的 惯 例 而 缔 结 婚 姻 的 方 式 有 三 种 , 一 种 是 男 宗 教 仪 式 ,

    另 外 两 种 是 按 照 世 俗 仪 式 进 行 。 宗 教 婚 姻 叫共食婚 ( C o n f a r A r e a t i o n ) ; 高 级 形 式 的 民 事 婚 姻 称 为买卖婚 ( C o e m p t i o n ) ; 低 级 形 式 称 为时效婚 ( U s u s ) , 通 过 这 些 婚 姻 , 夫 对 于 妻 的 人 身和 财 产 取 得 了 多 种 权 利 , 总 的 说 来 , 是 超 过 现 代 法 律 学 任 何制 度 所 赋 与 他 的 。 然 则 , 他 究 竟 是 凭 什 么 能 力 取 得 这 些 权 利的 呢 ? 他 不 是 以夫 而 是 以父 的 能 力 。 通 过 “ 共 食 婚 ” 、 “ 买 卖婚 ” 和 “ 时 效 婚 ” ,妇女处在夫 的 监 护 下也 就 是 说 , 在 法 律 上 , 她 成 了 她 丈 夫 的女儿 。 她 被 包 括 在 夫的 “ 家 父 权 ” 中 。 她 承 担 着 在 “ 家 父 权 ” 存 在 时 所 产 生 的 以及 在 “ 家 父 权 ” 消 灭 后 所 遗 下 的 一 切 义 务 。 她 所 有 的 全 部 财

    产 绝 对 地 属 于 夫 所 有 , 在 他 死 亡 后 , 她 便 受 监 护 人 的 保 护 , 监

    护 人 是 由 其 夫 用 遗 嘱 指 定 的 。 但 是 , 这 三 种 古 代 的 婚 姻 形 式

    逐 渐 废 弃 不 用 , 在 罗 马 最 光 辉 灿 烂 的 时 期 , 它 们 几 乎 完 全 为

    另 外 的 一 种 婚 礼 所 代 替 — — 显 然 是 旧 式 的 , 但 到 这 时 为 止 一

    向 是 被 认 为 不 体 面 的 — — , 这 是 低 级 形 式 民 间 婚 姻 的 一 种 变

    形 。 我 毋 庸 详 细 说 明 这 在 现 在 成 为 普 遍 流 行 的 制 度 的 专 门 结

    构 , 只 须 说 明 : 在 法 律 上 妇 女 只 是 作 为 家 族 的 一 种 暂 时 寄 托物 而 已 。 家 族 所 有 的 各 种 权 利 仍 旧 毫 无 损 失 , 妇 女 继 续 在 她

    父 所 指 定 的 监 护 人 的 保 护 之 下 , 而 监 护 人 的 支 配 权 在 许 多 实

    质 问 题 上 甚 且 超 过 其 夫 的 低 级 权 力 。 其 结 果 , 罗 马 女 性 不 论

    是 已 婚 的 或 未 婚 的 , 在 人 身 上 和 财 产 上 都 有 巨 大 的 独 立 地 位 ,

    因 为 象 我 已 经 暗 示 过 的 ; 后 期 法 律 的 趋 势 把 监 护 人 的 权 力 逐

    渐 缩 减 到 零 , 而 流 行 的 婚 姻 形 式 也 并 没 有 把 补 充 的 优 越 权 给

    予 其 夫 。 但 基 督 教 似 乎 从 开 始 时 就 有 要 缩 小 这 种 显 著 自 由 的

    倾 向 。 具 有 这 个 新 信 仰 的 专 家 们 最 初 由 于 对 腐 败 的 邪 教 世 界

    种 种 放 荡 行 为 的 正 当 嫌 恶 的 引 导 , 但 后 来 则 为 禁 欲 主 义 的 一

    种 热 情 所 催 促 , 对 于 这 事 实 上 为 西 方 世 界 所 仅 见 的 最 松 弛 的

    一 种 婚 姻 关 系 , 不 表 欢 迎 。 最 后 期 的 罗 马 法 律 由 于 它 曾 受 到

    基 督 皇 帝 宪 令 的 接 触 , 带 有 反 对 这 些 伟 大 安 托 宁 法 学 专 家 们

    自 由 学 理 的 某 种 痕 迹 。 当 时 流 行 的 宗 教 情 绪 可 以 说 明 , 经 过

    蛮 族 征 服 的 熔 炉 锻 炼 过 并 由 罗 马 法 律 学 同 宗 法 惯 例 混 合 而 形

    成 的 近 代 法 律 学 , 为 什 么 会 在 其 雏 形 中 过 分 地 吸 收 一 些 不 完

    全 的 文 明 社 会 中 有 关 妇 女 地 位 的 规 定 。 在 近 代 史 开 始 的 混 乱

    时 代 , 日 耳 曼 和 斯 拉 夫 移 民 的 法 律 对 于 地 方 臣 民 象 是 一 个 隔

    层 那 样 重 叠 在 罗 马 法 学 之 上 , 这 些 优 胜 民 族 的 妇 女 到 处 都 是

    处 在 各 式 各 样 的 古 代 监 护 制 之 下 , 丈 夫 要 从 他 本 族 以 外 任 何

    家 族 娶 妻 , 为 了 从 他 们 那 里 取 得 保 佐 权 , 就 必 须 以 一 种 聘 金

    付 给 她 的 亲 属 作 为 代 价 。 当 我 们 继 续 向 前 进 展 看 到 中 世 纪 时 ,

    法 典 已 通 过 两 种 制 度 的 合 并 而 形 成 , 其 有 关 妇 女 的 法 律 也 就

    带 有 双 重 渊 源 的 烙 印 。 对 于 未 婚 女 性 , 罗 马 法 律 学 的 原 则 占

    了 优 势 , 一 般 ( 虽 然 对 这 规 定 在 有 些 地 方 是 有 例 外 的 ) 都 已

    不 受 家 族 的 束 缚 ; 但 已 婚 妇 女 的 地 位 则 是 根 据 蛮 族 的 古 代 原则 规 定 的 , 夫 能 以 夫 的 身 分 把 过 去 一 度 属 于 妻 的 男 性 亲 属 所

    有 的 各 种 权 力 取 为 己 有 , 所 不 同 的 是 他 已 不 再 是 购 买 他 的 特

    权 了 。 因 此 , 到 这 时 候 , 西 欧 和 南 欧 的 近 代 法 律 开 始 因 这 样

    一 个 主 要 特 征 而 著 名 , 就 是 一 方 面 未 婚 妇 女 和 寡 妇 比 较 有 了

    自 由 , 另 一 方 面 它 又 使 妻 子 感 到 沉 重 无 力 。 由 于 婚 姻 而 使 女

    性 处 于 从 属 地 位 , 要 经 过 很 长 时 期 才 明 显 地 消 灭 , 欧 洲 这 种

    野 蛮 主 义 的 复 活 , 其 主 要 和 有 力 的 溶 剂 始 终 是 来 自 查 斯 丁 尼

    安 法 典 化 的 法 律 学 ; 因 为 凡 是 研 究 它 的 地 方 都 必 然 地 会 唤 起

    那 热 情 , 查 斯 丁 尼 安 法 典 化 的 法 律 学 隐 秘 地 、 但 是 最 有 效 地

    损 坏 着 它 在 表 面 上 仅 仅 是 要 加 以 解 释 的 各 种 习 惯 、 但 是 有 关

    已 婚 妇 女 的 一 章 法 律 , 绝 大 部 分 不 是 根 据 了 “ 罗 马 法 ” 而 是

    根 据 了 “ 寺 院 法 ” 的 见 解 来 解 释 的 , “ 寺 院 法 ” 对 于 因 婚 姻 而

    创 设 关 系 所 持 的 见 解 同 世 俗 法 律 学 的 精 神 两 者 之 间 有 着 宽 阔

    的 距 离 , 其 程 度 较 其 他 任 何 方 面 都 来 得 明 显 。 这 多 少 是 难 以

    避 免 的 , 因 为 凡 是 保 留 着 一 些 基 督 教 制 度 这 种 彩 色 的 社 会 , 很

    少 可 能 会 使 已 婚 妇 女 恢 复 中 期 罗 马 法 所 赋 与 她 们 的 个 人 自

    由 , 但 是 已 婚 女 性 在 财 产 上 没 有 权 力 和 其 在 人 格 上 的 没 有 地

    位 是 建 筑 在 完 全 不 同 的 基 础 上 的 , 而 寺 院 法 的 释 义 者 所 以 深

    深 阻 碍 了 文 明 , 就 是 因 为 他 们 把 前 者 保 存 下 来 , 并 加 以 巩 固 。

    有 许 多 迹 象 说 明 在 世 俗 原 则 和 教 会 原 则 之 间 , 是 曾 经 发 生 过

    斗 争 的 , 但 寺 院 法 几 乎 处 处 都 得 到 胜 利 。 在 有 些 法 国 省 分 中 ,

    等 级 低 于 贵 族 的 已 婚 妇 女 取 得 了 罗 马 法 律 学 所 准 许 的 处 分 财

    产 的 全 部 权 力 , 这 种 地 方 法 律 后 来 有 大 部 分 就 为 “ 拿 破 仑 法

    典 ” 所 采 纳 ; 但 是 苏 格 兰 法 律 的 情 况 表 明 , 切 实 顺 从 罗 马 法

    学 专 家 的 学 理 并 不 一 定 能 使 妻 的 地 位 有 所 提 高 。 不 过 对 于 已 婚 妇 女 最 严 厉 的 制 度 , 或 则 是 那 些 严 格 尊 重 “ 寺 院 法 ” 的 制

    度 , 或 则 是 由 于 同 欧 洲 文 明 接 触 较 迟 从 未 把 他 们 的 古 制 加 以

    去 除 的 制 度 。 斯 干 的 那 维 亚 法 律 直 到 后 来 对 于 所 有 女 性 还 是

    比 较 苛 刻 的 , 仍 旧 因 为 对 妻 的 严 峻 而 著 名 。 英 国 普 通 法 所 规

    定 的 财 产 上 的 无 能 力 , 其 严 厉 程 度 也 并 不 稍 逊 , 而 英 国 普 通

    法 中 绝 大 部 分 的 基 本 原 则 , 都 是 来 自 “ 寺 院 法 学 者 ” 的 法 律

    学 的 。 普 通 法 中 规 定 已 婚 妇 女 法 律 地 位 的 那 一 部 分 , 真 可 以

    使 一 英 国 人 对 作 为 本 章 主 题 的 伟 大 制 度 有 一 个 明 白 的 概 念 。

    我 们 只 要 回 想 一 下 纯 粹 英 国 普 通 法 所 赋 与 丈 夫 的 各 种 特 权 ,

    并 回 想 一 下 , 在 普 通 法 还 没 有 经 衡 平 法 或 制 定 法 修 正 的 部 分

    中 , 在 权 利 、 义 务 和 救 济 等 各 方 面 严 格 地 坚 持 妻 在 法 律 上 必

    须 完 全 从 属 的 见 解 , 我 们 将 对 古 代 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 运 用 和 性 质 ,

    获 得 一 个 鲜 明 的 印 象 。 最 早 的 罗 马 法 和 最 晚 的 罗 马 法 之 间 , 就

    在 “ 父 权 下 之 子 ” 这 个 主 题 上 所 存 在 着 的 距 离 , 同 普 通 法 和

    衡 平 法 院 法 律 学 就 其 分 别 对 妻 所 作 规 定 上 存 在 的 距 离 , 可 以

    视 为 完 全 相 等 。

    如 果 我 们 看 不 到 监 护 在 两 种 形 式 上 的 真 正 来 源 , 而 就 这

    些 论 题 采 用 了 普 通 用 语 , 则 我 们 必 然 会 以 为 , “ 妇 女 的 保 佐 ”

    果 然 是 古 代 法 律 制 度 把 停 止 权 利 的 拟 制 推 进 到 一 个 过 分 极 端

    的 例 子 , 而 古 代 法 律 制 度 为 “ 男 性 孤 儿 监 护 ”所 设 的 规 定 则 是 恰 恰 方 向 相 反 的 一 种 错 误 的 例 证 。 所 有 这 类 制 度 都 规 定 在 绝 早 的 时 期 就 终 止 男

    性 的 保 佐 。 根 据 可 以 作 为 其 典 型 的 古 代 罗 马 法 的 规 定 , 因

    “ 父 ” 或 “ 祖 父 ” 死 亡 而 免 除 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 家 子 , 应 仍 处 在 监

    护 之 下 , 一 般 讲 到 他 十 五 岁 的 时 候 为 止 ; 但 一 到 这 个 时 候 , 他 就 能 立 刻 完 全 享 有 人 格 和 财 产 独 立 之 权 。 因 此 , 未 成 年 的 期

    间 , 是 不 合 理 地 短 促 , 正 像 妇 女 无 权 力 的 持 续 期 间 是 荒 谬 地

    长 久 一 样 。 但 是 , 事 实 上 , 在 造 成 这 两 种 监 护 原 来 形 式 的 情

    况 中 , 既 没 有 过 分 , 也 没 有 不 足 的 成 分 。 在 这 两 者 之 中 , 不

    论 是 哪 一 种 都 丝 毫 没 有 考 虑 对 公 或 对 私 的 便 利 。 男 性 孤 儿 的

    监 护 原 只 是 为 了 庇 护 他 们 到 解 事 的 年 龄 , 正 像 妇 女 的 保 佐 , 目

    的 是 在 保 护 女 性 使 不 受 其 本 身 柔 弱 所 造 成 的 害 处 。 父 的 死 亡

    所 以 能 使 子 免 除 家 族 束 缚 , 其 理 由 是 为 了 子 已 有 能 力 成 为 一

    个 新 的 宗 族 首 领 和 一 个 新 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 始 创 者 ; 这 类 能 力 是

    妇 女 所 没 有 的 , 所 以 她 就 ·

    永 ·

    远 ·

    不 ·

    能 被 解 放 。 因 此 “ 男 性 孤 儿

    监 护 ” 是 一 种 手 段 , 用 以 保 持 从 属 于 “ 父 ” 家 族 的 假 象 , 到

    假 定 儿 童 能 自 成 为 父 的 时 候 为 止 。 这 就 是 把 “ 家 父 权 ” 延 长

    到 体 力 刚 刚 达 到 壮 年 时 为 止 。 因 为 严 格 的 理 论 要 求 它 应 该 作

    出 这 样 的 规 定 , 直 到 青 春 期 终 了 为 止 。 但 是 , 它 既 然 并 不 要

    求 把 受 监 护 的 孤 儿 一 直 监 护 到 智 力 成 熟 或 适 宜 于 处 理 事 务 的

    年 龄 , 那 就 不 能 达 到 一 般 便 利 的 目 的 ; 而 这 一 层 似 乎 是 罗 马

    人 在 其 社 会 进 步 的 很 早 阶 段 就 已 经 发 觉 的 了 。 罗 马 立 法 中 最

    早 的 纪 念 碑 之 一 是 ·

    雷 ·

    多 ·

    利 ·

    亚 或 ·

    柏 ·

    雷 ·

    多 ·

    利 ·

    亚 ·

    法 ( L e x   l Et o r i a

      o r   P l Et o r i a ) , 它 就 把 所 有 成 年 的 和 有 完 全 权 利 的 自 由 男性 放 在 一 种 新 型 监 护 人 称 为保佐人 ( C u r a t o r e s ) 的 暂 时 管 束之 下 , 取 得 保 佐 人 的 认 可 是 一 切 行 为 或 契 约 有 效 的 必 要 条 件 。

    青 年 人 年 龄 达 到 二 十 六 岁 , 是 这 个 制 定 法 所 规 定 的 监 督 的 限

    期 ; 罗 马 法 中 所 用 的 “ 成 年 ” 或 “ 未 成 年 ” 这 些 名 词 , 是 专

    对 二 十 五 岁 的 年 龄 而 言 的 。 在 现 代 法 律 学 中 , ·

    未 ·

    成 ·

    年 或 ·

    受 ·

    ·

    护 已 经 几 乎 一 致 地 被 用 为 专 门 保 护 在 体 力 上 和 智 力 上 未 成 熟的 少 年 人 。 在 达 到 解 事 年 龄 时 ,未成 · 年 或受 · 监护 便 自 然 终 止

    了 。 但 罗 马 人 对 于 体 力 幼 弱 的 保 护 和 对 于 智 力 幼 稚 的 保 护 , 分

    成 在 理 论 上 和 在 形 式 上 完 全 不 同 的 两 种 制 度 。 有 关 这 两 种 制

    度 的 观 念 , 在 近 代 的 对 监 护 的 观 念 中 已 合 而 为 一 。

    “ 人 法 ” 中 还 有 另 外 一 章 , 现 在 有 加 以 引 述 的 必 要 。 在 成

    熟 的 法 律 学 的 各 种 制 度 中 用 以 规 定 ·

    奴 ·

    隶 ·

    主 ·

    和 ·

    奴 ·

    隶 关 系 的 法 律

    规 定 , 并 没 有 很 明 显 的 迹 象 可 以 表 明 这 种 原 始 状 态 是 古 代 社

    会 所 共 有 的 。 但 是 这 种 例 外 是 有 理 由 的 。 在 “ 奴 隶 制 度 ” 中

    似 乎 始 终 有 一 些 使 人 类 为 之 震 惊 或 困 惑 的 东 西 , 不 论 人 类 是

    如 何 的 不 习 惯 于 回 忆 , 不 论 人 类 道 德 天 性 的 教 养 是 进 步 得 如

    何 微 少 。 古 代 共 产 体 几 乎 是 下 意 识 地 都 要 体 验 到 良 心 谴 责 , 其

    结 果 往 往 会 采 用 一 些 想 象 的 原 则 为 奴 隶 制 度 作 辩 护 , 或 至 少

    是 作 理 性 上 的 辩 护 的 可 能 根 据 。 在 他 们 历 史 的 初 期 , 希 腊 人

    解 释 这 个 制 度 的 根 据 是 因 为 某 种 民 族 智 力 低 劣 , 从 而 天 然 地

    适 合 于 这 种 奴 役 状 态 。 罗 马 人 用 了 同 样 独 特 的 精 神 , 认 为 它

    是 战 胜 者 和 战 败 者 之 间 一 种 假 定 的 合 意 , 前 者 要 求 敌 人 永 久

    为 其 服 役 ; 而 后 者 以 获 得 他 在 法 律 上 已 经 丧 失 的 生 命 来 作 为

    交 换 。 这 些 理 论 不 但 不 充 分 , 并 且 也 显 然 同 它 所 想 说 明 的 实

    际 情 况 不 符 。 但 这 些 理 论 在 某 些 方 面 还 有 着 巨 大 的 影 响 。 它

    们 使 “ 奴 隶 主 ” 心 安 理 得 。 它 们 永 久 保 存 了 并 且 也 许 加 深 了

    “ 奴 隶 ” 的 低 下 地 位 。 它 们 自 然 有 助 于 隐 蔽 奴 隶 同 家 族 制 度 其

    他 方 面 原 来 所 有 的 关 系 。 这 种 关 系 虽 不 明 显 , 但 在 原 始 法 律

    的 许 多 部 分 中 , 特 别 是 在 典 型 的 制 度 — — 即 古 罗 马 的 制 度 中 ,

    还 是 不 经 意 地 被 表 现 出 来 的 。

    在 美 国 , 曾 花 了 很 多 力 量 从 事 于 研 究 早 期 社 会 中 “ 奴隶 ” 是 否 被 认 为 “ 家 族 ” 中 一 个 成 员 的 问 题 。 有 这 样 一 种 看法 , 认 为 答 案 必 然 是 正 面 的 。 从 古 代 法 和 许 多 原 始 历 史 所 提供 的 证 据 中 , 很 明 显 , “ 奴 隶 ” 在 某 种 条 件 下 , 是 可 以 成 为“ 奴 隶 主 ” 的 “ 继 承 人 ” 或 “ 概 括 继 承 人 ” ( U n i v e r s a l S u c c e s s o r ) 的 , 这 样 重 要 的 权 力 , 像 我 将 在 “ 继 承 ” 这 一 章中 加 以 说 明 的 , 意 味 着 “ 家 族 ” 的 管 理 和 代 理 在 某 种 特 殊 情

    况 下 是 可 能 遗 传 给 奴 仆 的 。 但 在 美 国 的 论 点 中 似 乎 有 着 这 样

    的 一 个 假 定 , 即 如 果 我 们 承 认 “ 奴 隶 制 ” 曾 经 是 一 个 原 始 的

    “ 家 族 ” 制 度 , 这 个 确 认 实 在 就 是 意 味 着 承 认 现 在 “ 黑 奴 制

    度 ” 在 道 德 上 是 有 可 以 辩 护 的 根 据 的 。 然 则 所 谓 “ 奴 隶 ” 原

    来 就 包 括 在 “ 家 族 ” 之 内 , 究 竟 是 什 么 意 思 呢 ? 这 并 不 是 说

    奴 隶 的 地 位 不 可 能 是 激 动 人 们 行 动 的 最 卑 鄙 动 机 的 产 物 。 “ 奴

    隶 制 ” 的 基 础 无 疑 是 出 于 这 种 简 单 的 愿 望 , 就 是 利 用 他 人 的

    体 力 以 为 图 谋 自 己 舒 适 或 安 乐 的 一 种 手 段 , 而 这 是 象 人 类 天

    性 一 样 地 古 老 的 。 当 我 们 说 “ 奴 隶 ” 在 古 时 候 就 包 括 在 “ 家

    族 ” 之 内 , 我 们 并 不 是 企 图 说 明 那 些 把 他 带 到 “ 家 族 ” 里 并

    把 他 留 在 那 里 的 人 们 的 动 机 ; 我 们 仅 仅 是 在 暗 示 , 把 他 同 奴

    隶 主 连 结 起 来 的 约 束 , 和 把 集 团 中 每 一 个 成 员 同 族 长 结 合 在

    一 起 的 约 束 , 是 属 于 同 样 的 一 般 性 质 的 。 我 们 在 前 面 已 提 到

    过 , 在 人 类 原 始 观 念 中 , 除 了 家 族 关 系 之 外 , 不 可 能 理 解 在

    各 个 个 人 相 互 之 间 可 以 有 任 何 关 系 , 事 实 上 , 上 述 的 后 果 就

    是 来 自 这 个 一 般 的 确 言 。 “ 家 族 ” 首 先 包 括 因 血 缘 关 系 而 属 于

    它 的 人 们 , 其 次 包 括 因 收 养 而 接 纳 的 人 们 ; 但 是 当 有 一 种 第

    三 类 的 人 , 他 们 只 是 因 为 共 同 从 属 于 族 长 而 参 加 “ 家 族 ” 的 ,

    这 些 人 就 是 “ 奴 隶 ” 。 族 长 所 出 生 的 和 收 养 的 臣 民 被 放 在 “ 奴隶 ” 之 上 ; 因 为 按 照 事 物 正 常 的 发 展 , 他 们 迟 早 一 定 会 从 约

    束 中 被 解 放 出 来 , 行 使 他 自 己 的 权 力 ; 至 于 “ 奴 隶 ” , 他 并 不

    因 为 地 位 低 微 而 被 放 在 家 族 范 围 之 外 , 也 不 因 为 他 地 位 低 微

    而 使 他 降 低 到 无 生 命 的 财 产 那 样 的 地 位 , 我 以 为 , 这 是 可 以

    从 遗 留 下 来 的 许 多 迹 象 中 明 显 地 证 明 的 , 象 在 没 有 其 他 办 法

    时 古 代 奴 隶 可 以 有 继 承 的 能 力 , 就 是 证 明 之 一 。 但 如 果 妄 自

    推 测 , 以 为 在 社 会 的 启 蒙 时 期 , 因 为 在 “ 父 ” 的 王 国 中 曾 经

    为 他 保 留 过 一 定 的 地 位 , 所 以 “ 奴 隶 ” 的 命 运 就 可 以 大 大 改

    善 , 这 当 然 是 极 端 不 妥 当 的 。 比 较 可 能 的 情 况 是 , 家 子 在 实

    际 上 已 经 被 同 化 为 “ 奴 隶 ” , 而 不 是 “ 奴 隶 ” 分 享 着 较 晚 的 时

    代 父 对 其 子 所 表 示 的 那 种 温 情 。 但 是 对 于 那 些 比 较 进 步 的 和

    成 熟 的 法 典 , 我 们 可 以 有 信 心 地 说 , 凡 是 准 许 有 奴 隶 制 度 的

    场 合 , 在 那 些 保 留 着 奴 隶 早 期 状 态 某 种 残 余 的 制 度 下 面 的

    “ 奴 隶 ” , 一 般 要 比 采 用 使 他 社 会 地 位 降 低 的 其 他 理 论 的 制 度

    下 面 的 “ 奴 隶 ” 好 一 些 。 法 律 学 对 于 奴 隶 所 持 的 观 念 , 对 于

    奴 隶 始 终 有 着 巨 大 的 关 系 。 罗 马 法 由 于 受 到 了 “ 自 然 法 ” 理

    论 的 影 响 , 把 他 日 益 看 作 为 一 件 财 产 的 趋 势 得 以 停 止 发 展 , 从

    而 凡 是 深 受 罗 马 法 律 学 影 响 并 准 许 有 奴 隶 的 地 方 , 其 奴 隶 的

    状 态 从 来 不 是 悲 惨 得 难 堪 的 。 我 们 有 大 量 的 证 据 , 证 明 在 美

    国 凡 是 以 高 度 罗 马 化 的 路 易 斯 安 那 州 法 典为 其 法 律 基 础 的 那 些 州 中 , 黑 种 人 的 命 运 及 其 前途 , 在 许 多 重 大 方 面 都 比 以 英 国 普 通 法 为 其 基 础 的 制 度 之 下

    的 要 好 得 多 , 因 为 根 据 最 近 的 解 释 , 在 英 国 普 通 法 上 “ 奴

    隶 ” 是 没 有 真 正 的 地 位 的 , 因 此 也 就 只 能 被 认 为 是 一 种 物 件 。

    到 现 在 为 止 , 我 们 已 经 研 究 过 属 于 本 文 范 围 之 内 的 有 关古 代 “ 人 法 ” 的 各 个 部 分 , 而 研 究 的 结 果 , 我 相 信 , 能 使 我

    们 对 于 法 律 学 初 生 时 期 所 有 的 看 法 , 有 进 一 步 的 明 确 。 各 国

    的 民 法 , 在 其 最 初 出 现 时 , 是 一 个 宗 法 主 权 的 “ 地 美 士 第 ” ,

    我 们 现 在 并 且 可 以 看 到 这 些 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 也 许 只 是 更 早 期 人

    类 状 态 中 每 一 个 独 立 族 长 可 能 向 他 妻 、 子 以 及 奴 隶 任 意 提 出

    的 不 负 责 任 的 命 令 的 一 种 发 展 形 式 。 但 是 甚 至 在 国 家 组 织 形

    成 之 后 , 法 律 的 使 用 仍 旧 是 极 其 有 限 的 。 这 些 法 律 不 论 是 保

    持 着 像 “ 地 美 士 第 ” 的 这 种 原 始 形 态 , 也 不 论 是 已 经 进 步 到

    “ 习 惯 或 法 典 化 条 文 ” 的 状 态 , 它 的 拘 束 力 只 及 到 各 “ 家 族 ”

    而 不 是 个 人 。 用 一 个 不 完 全 贴 切 的 对 比 , 古 代 法 律 学 可 以 譬

    作 “ 国 际 法 ” , 目 的 只 是 在 填 补 作 为 社 会 原 子 的 各 个 大 集 团 之

    间 的 罅 隙 而 已 。 在 处 于 这 种 情 况 下 的 一 个 共 产 体 中 , 议 会 的

    立 法 和 法 院 的 审 判 只 能 及 到 家 族 首 长 , 至 于 家 族 中 的 每 一 个

    个 人 , 其 行 为 的 准 则 是 他 的 家 庭 的 法 律 , 以 “ 家 父 ” 为 立 法

    者 。 但 民 法 的 范 围 在 开 始 时 虽 然 很 小 , 不 久 即 不 断 地 逐 渐 扩

    大 。 改 变 法 律 的 媒 介 即 拟 制 、 衡 平 和 立 法 , 依 次 在 原 始 制 度

    中 发 生 作 用 , 而 在 每 一 个 发 展 过 程 中 必 有 大 量 的 个 人 权 利 和

    大 量 的 财 产 从 家 庭 审 判 庭 中 移 转 到 公 共 法 庭 的 管 辖 权 之 内 。

    政 府 法 规 逐 渐 在 私 人 事 件 中 取 得 了 同 在 国 家 事 务 中 所 有 的 同

    样 的 效 力 , 已 不 再 被 每 一 个 家 庭 中 奉 为 神 圣 的 暴 君 的 严 命 所

    废 弃 了 。 通 过 罗 马 法 的 纪 年 史 , 我 们 可 以 看 到 有 关 一 个 古 代

    制 度 逐 渐 被 摧 毁 以 及 把 各 种 材 料 再 度 结 合 起 来 而 形 成 各 种 新

    制 度 的 几 乎 全 部 的 历 史 , 这 些 新 的 制 度 , 有 的 被 保 持 原 状 一

    直 传 到 了 现 代 世 界 , 也 有 的 由 于 在 黑 暗 时 期 和 蛮 族 相 接 触 而

    被 消 灭 或 腐 蚀 , 最 后 才 又 为 人 类 所 恢 复 。 当 这 个 法 律 学 在 查斯 丁 尼 安 时 代 经 过 了 最 后 一 次 改 编 后 , 除 了 为 活 着 的 “ 家

    父 ” 仍 旧 保 有 广 泛 权 力 的 唯 一 条 款 以 外 , 其 中 已 很 难 找 到 古

    代 制 度 的 迹 象 。 到 处 都 以 便 利 的 、 匀 称 的 或 单 纯 的 原 则 — —

    总 之 , 是 新 的 原 则 — — 来 代 替 能 满 足 古 代 良 心 的 空 洞 考 虑 的

    权 威 。 到 处 都 以 一 种 新 的 道 德 来 代 替 同 古 代 惯 例 相 一 致 的 行

    为 准 则 和 顺 从 理 由 , 因 为 在 事 实 上 , 这 些 准 则 和 理 由 都 是 从古 代 惯 例 中 产 生 的 。

    所 有 进 步 社 会 的 运 动 在 有 一 点 上 是 一 致 的 。 在 运 动 发 展的 过 程 中 , 其 特 点 是 家 族 依 附 的 逐 步 消 灭 以 及 代 之 而 起 的 个人 义 务 的 增 长 。 “ 个 人 ” 不 断 地 代 替 了 “ 家 族 ” , 成 为 民 事法律 所 考 虑 的 单 位 。 前 进 是 以 不 同 的 速 度 完 成 的 , 有 些 社会在表 面 上 是 停 止 不 前 , 但 实 际 上 并 不 是 绝 对 停 止 不 前 , 只要经过 缜 密 研 究 这 些 社 会 所 提 供 的 各 种 现 象 , 就 可 以 看 到 其 中 的古 代 组 织 是 在 崩 溃 。 但 是 不 论 前 进 的 速 度 如 何 , 变 化 是绝少受 到 反 击 或 者 倒 退 的 , 只 有 在 吸 收 了 完 全 从 外 国 来 的 古 代 观

    念 和 习 惯 时 , 才 偶 尔 发 生 显 然 停 滞 不 前 的 现 象 。 我 们 也 不 难

    看 到 : 用 以 逐 步 代 替 源 自 “ 家 族 ” 各 种 权 利 义 务 上 那 种 相 互

    关 系 形 式 的 , 究 竟 是 个 人 与 个 人 之 间 的 什 么 关 系 。 用 以 代 替

    的 关 系 就 是 “ 契 约 ” 。 在 以 前 , “ 人 ” 的 一 切 关 系 都 是 被 概 括

    在 “ 家 族 ” 关 系 中 的 , 把 这 种 社 会 状 态 作 为 历 史 上 的 一 个 起

    点 , 从 这 一 个 起 点 开 始 , 我 们 似 乎 是 在 不 断 地 向 着 一 种 新 的

    社 会 秩 序 状 态 移 动 , 在 这 种 新 的 社 会 秩 序 中 , 所 有 这 些 关 系

    都 是 因 “ 个 人 ” 的 自 由 合 意 而 产 生 的 。 在 西 欧 , 向 这 种 方 向

    发 展 而 获 得 的 进 步 是 显 著 的 。 奴 隶 的 身 分 被 消 灭 了 — — 它 已

    为 主 仆 的 契 约 关 系 所 代 替 了 。 在 “ 保 佐 下 妇 女 ” 的 身 分 , 如果 她 的 保 佐 人 不 是 夫 而 是 其 他 的 人 , 也 不 再 存 在 了 ; 从 她 成

    年 以 至 结 婚 , 凡 是 她 所 能 形 成 的 一 切 关 系 都 是 契 约 关 系 。 “ 父

    权 下 之 子 ” 的 身 分 也 是 如 此 , 在 所 有 现 代 欧 洲 社 会 的 法 律 中

    它 已 经 没 有 真 正 的 地 位 。 如 果 有 任 何 民 事 责 任 加 于 “ 家 父 ” 和

    成 年 之 子 , 使 他 们 共 同 受 到 它 的 约 束 , 则 这 样 的 责 任 只 可 能

    通 过 契 约 而 后 才 能 具 有 法 律 效 力 。 有 一 些 显 然 的 例 外 , 而 这

    种 例 外 的 性 质 适 足 以 证 明 这 个 规 定 。 在 解 事 年 龄 以 前 的 子 裔 ,在 监 护 下 的 孤 儿 , 经 宣 告 的 疯 癫 病 人 , 都 在 “ 人 法 ” 上 规 定了 他 们 在 某 些 方 面 是 有 能 力 的 , 在 某 些 方 面 是 无 能 力 的 。 究竟 为 什 么 要 有 这 些 规 定 呢 ? 在 各 种 不 同 制 度 的 传 统 用 语 中 , 所提 出 的 理 由 虽 然 是 各 不 相 同 的 , 但 是 在 实 质 上 , 各 种 说 法 所具 有 的 效 果 却 是 完 全 一 致 的 。 绝 大 部 分 法 学 家 都 一 致 承 认 这样 一 个 原 则 , 他 们 都 认 为 上 述 各 类 人 所 以 应 受 外 来 的 支 配 , 其唯 一 理 由 是 在 于 他 们 本 身 不 具 有 为 其 自 己 利 益 而 作 出 决 定 的能 力 ; 换 言 之 , 他 们 缺 乏 用 “ 契 约 ” 而 达 到 定 约 的 必 要 条 件 。

    “ 身 分 ” 这 个 字 可 以 有 效 地 用 来 制 造 一 个 公 式 以 表 示 进 步的 规 律 , 不 论 其 价 值 如 何 , 但 是 据 我 看 来 , 这 个 规 律 是 可 以足 够 地 确 定 的 。 在 “ 人 法 ” 中 所 提 到 的 一 切 形 式 的 “ 身 分 ” 都起 源 于 古 代 属 于 “ 家 族 ” 所 有 的 权 力 和 特 权 , 并 且 在 某 种 程度 上 , 到 现 在 仍 旧 带 有 这 种 色 彩 。 因 此 , 如 果 我 们 依 照 最 优秀 著 者 的 用 法 , 把 “ 身 分 ” 这 个 名 词 用 来 仅 仅 表 示 这 一 些 人格 状 态 , 并 避 免 把 这 个 名 词 适 用 于 作 为 合 意 的 直 接 或 间 接 结果 的 那 种 状 态 , 则 我 们 可 以 说 , 所 有 进 步 社 会 的 运 动 , 到 此 处 为 止 , 是 一 个 “ 从 身 分 到 契 约 ” 的 运 动 。

    第 六 章   遗 嘱 继 承 的 早 期 史

    我 们 在 英 国 研 究 “ 法 律 学 ” , 如 果 想 要 表 示 出 历 史 的 研 究

    方 法 的 优 越 性 , 超 过 其 他 流 行 在 我 们 中 间 的 任 何 方 法 , 则

    “ 遗 命 ” ( T e s t a m e n t s ) 或 “ 遗 嘱 ” ( W i l l s ) 在 “ 法 律 ” 的 一 切部 门 中 , 是 一 个 最 好 的 例 子 。 它 所 以 具 有 这 种 性 能 是 由 于 它 的 内 容 多 、 时 间 长 。 它 的 历 史 , 在 社 会 状 态 很 幼 稚 的 时 期 就开 始 了 , 当 时 所 有 的 各 种 概 念 , 由 于 其 形 式 古 老 , 须 要 费 些 心 力 才 能 加 以 理 解 ; 而 在 其 发 展 过 程 的 另 一 个 极 端 , 即 现 在 ,

    我 们 又 有 这 样 许 多 法 律 观 念 , 这 些 法 律 观 念 成 为 现 代 语 法 和

    思 想 习 惯 所 隐 蔽 的 一 些 同 样 的 概 念 , 因 此 也 就 遇 到 另 外 一 种

    困 难 , 就 是 难 以 相 信 那 些 作 为 我 们 日 常 知 识 的 各 种 观 念 , 究

    竟 是 否 真 的 需 要 加 以 分 析 研 究 。 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 的 发 展 正 在 这 两 个

    极 端 之 间 , 是 可 以 追 溯 得 很 清 楚 的 。 和 多 数 其 他 部 门 的 法 律

    史 不 同 , 它 在 封 建 制 度 产 生 的 时 代 很 少 受 到 阻 碍 。 真 的 , 就

    法 律 的 所 有 部 门 而 论 , 所 谓 它 们 曾 由 于 古 代 史 和 近 代 史 间 的

    划 分 而 引 起 了 中 断 , 或 者 换 言 之 , 曾 由 于 罗 马 帝 国 的 解 体 而

    引 起 了 中 断 , 这 个 说 法 实 际 上 是 大 大 地 夸 张 了 的 。 许 多 著 者 ,

    只 是 由 于 懒 惰 , 不 愿 费 一 些 力 量 在 六 百 多 年 的 混 乱 中 从 迷 惑

    和 模 糊 的 里 面 寻 求 联 系 的 线 索 , 至 于 其 余 的 研 究 者 , 虽 然 不

    是 天 然 地 缺 乏 耐 性 和 勤 奋 , 但 由 于 他 们 对 自 己 国 内 法 律 制 度

    怀 有 无 谓 的 自 尊 心 , 不 愿 承 认 它 曾 受 惠 于 罗 马 法 律 学 , 他 们就 被 引 入 了 歧 途 。 但 这 些 不 利 的 势 力 , 对 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 领 域 中

    发 生 的 影 响 比 较 少 。 蛮 族 对 于 所 谓 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 概 念 , 显 然 是

    生 疏 的 。 权 威 学 者 一 致 同 意 , 他 们 在 本 土 和 以 后 在 罗 马 帝 国

    边 境 居 留 地 上 所 实 行 的 各 种 包 括 他 们 习 惯 的 成 文 法 典 的 有 关

    部 分 中 , 完 全 没 有 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 痕 迹 。 只 有 在 他 们 和 罗 马 各 省

    人 民 混 合 在 一 起 以 后 , 他 们 才 从 帝 国 法 律 学 中 吸 取 了 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 的 概 念 , 在 开 始 时 只 是 一 部 分 , 到 后 来 才 被 全 部 采 纳 。 教

    会 的 影 响 对 于 这 次 迅 速 同 化 有 很 大 关 系 。 教 会 势 力 很 早 就 继

    承 了 有 些 邪 教 神 庙 所 享 有 的 那 些 保 管 和 登 记 “ 遗 命 ” 的 特 权 ;

    甚 至 在 这 样 早 的 时 候 , 宗 教 基 金 中 的 现 世 所 有 物 几 乎 完 全 来

    自 私 人 遗 赠 。 因 此 , 最 早 的 “ 省 议 会 ”的 命 令 对 于 否 认 “ 遗 嘱 ” 神 圣 性 的 人 都 有 革 出 教 门

    的 规 定 。 在 我 们 这 里 , 在 英 国 , 一 般 都 认 为 阻 止 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 史

    中 断 的 主 要 原 因 之 一 当 然 是 由 于 教 会 的 影 响 , 这 种 中 断 有 时

    被 确 信 曾 在 其 他 部 门 的 “ 法 律 学 ” 史 中 发 生 过 。 有 一 类 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 的 管 辖 权 过 去 曾 被 委 托 给 “ 宗 教 法 院 ” , 这 些 法 院 虽 然 并

    不 始 终 是 明 白 地 、 但 却 的 确 适 用 着 罗 马 法 律 学 的 原 则 ; 并 且 ,

    虽 然 “ 普 通 法 院 ” 或 “ 衡 平 法 院 ” 都 并 没 有 必 须 遵 照 “ 宗 教

    法 院 ” 的 任 何 义 务 , 但 它 们 对 这 在 它 们 旁 边 适 用 的 一 套 明 确

    规 定 的 制 度 , 终 不 能 规 避 其 有 力 影 响 。 英 国 的 人 格 遗 嘱 继 承

    法 就 成 了 过 去 罗 马 公 民 遗 产 处 分 所 遵 循 的 宗 规 的 一 种 变 形 。

    用 历 史 方 法 来 研 究 这 个 问 题 时 我 们 所 能 得 到 的 结 论 , 和

    不 依 靠 历 史 而 单 凭表 ·

    面印 象 进 行 分 析 时 所 得 到

    的 结 论 , 两 者 之 间 的 极 端 不 同 是 不 难 指 出 的 。 我 认 为 , 不 论

    从 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 通 俗 概 念 出 发 , 或 是 从 它 的 法 律 概 念 出 发 ,没 有 人 会 不 想 象 到 : 凡 是 “ 遗 嘱 ” 必 附 有 某 种 特 性 。 例 如 , 他

    可 能 会 说 , 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 必 须 ·

    只 ·

    有 ·

    在 ·

    死 ·

    亡 ·

    时 才 能 发 生 效 力 — —

    它 是 ·

    秘 ·

    密 ·

    的 , 它 里 面 所 规 定 的 有 利 害 关 系 的 人 们 是 必 然 地 不

    应 该 知 道 的 — — 它 是 ·

    可 ·

    以 ·

    取 ·

    消 ·

    的 , 即 始 终 可 以 为 一 个 新 的 遗

    嘱 行 为 所 代 替 的 。 但 是 , 我 可 以 证 明 , 在 某 一 个 时 期 , 一 个

    “ 遗 嘱 ” 完 全 没 有 这 些 特 征 。 我 们 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 直 接 来 自 “ 遗

    命 ” , 而 “ 遗 命 ” 在 最 初 是 一 经 执 行 立 即 有 效 的 : 是 不 秘 密 的 ;

    是 不 可 取 消 的 。 事 实 上 , 在 所 有 法 律 媒 介 中 , 没 有 一 种 历 史

    媒 介 的 产 物 要 比 人 们 用 书 面 意 志 来 控 制 其 死 后 的 财 产 处 分 更

    为 复 杂 的 了 。 “ 遗 命 ” 很 迟 缓 地 但 是 逐 渐 地 把 我 在 前 面 所 说 的

    各 种 特 性 聚 集 在 其 周 围 ; 造 成 这 种 情 况 的 原 因 是 完 全 偶 然 的 ,

    并 且 也 是 在 偶 然 的 事 物 压 力 之 下 完 成 的 , 这 些 原 因 和 事 物 压

    力 除 了 曾 影 响 过 法 律 的 历 史 以 外 , 对 于 我 们 目 前 已 经 是 没 有

    什 么 利 害 关 系 的 了 。

    在 法 律 理 论 远 比 现 在 为 多 的 一 个 时 期 中 — — 诚 然 , 这 些

    理 论 的 绝 大 部 分 是 毫 无 价 值 的 和 十 分 不 成 熟 的 , 但 是 这 些 理

    论 却 仍 旧 把 法 律 学 从 我 们 并 非 是 不 知 道 的 、 比 较 恶 劣 的 和 比

    较 拙 劣 的 情 况 下 挽 救 了 出 来 , 在 当 时 的 情 况 中 , 我 们 不 能 希

    望 有 象 概 括 这 一 类 的 东 西 , 而 法 律 也 被 仅 仅 认 为 是 一 种 经 验

    的 产 物 — — 对 于 我 们 在 直 觉 上 能 立 即 和 显 然 地 感 到 的 一 个

    “ 遗 嘱 ” 所 具 有 的 某 些 特 性 , 当 时 在 进 行 解 释 时 所 采 取 的 流 行

    说 法 是 : 这 些 特 性 是 它 天 然 就 有 的 , 或 者 , 说 得 具 体 一 些 , 是

    由 “ 自 然 法 ” 附 着 于 它 上 面 的 。 我 以 为 , 在 一 度 认 定 所 有 这

    些 特 征 的 渊 源 都 在 历 史 的 记 忆 中 , 可 能 就 不 会 有 人 主 张 这 样

    一 个 学 理 了 ; 同 时 , 这 个 学 理 所 自 来 的 理 论 , 其 遗 迹 尚 残 存于 我 们 所 习 用 并 且 也 许 还 不 知 如 何 加 以 舍 弃 的 表 现 形 式 中 。

    我 可 以 用 十 七 世 纪 法 律 文 籍 中 一 个 共 有 的 论 点 来 说 明 这 种 情

    况 。 当 时 的 法 学 家 很 普 遍 地 认 为 “ 立 遗 嘱 ” 权 力 的 本 身 是 来

    自 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 权 力 , 是 由 “ 自 然 法 ” 所 赋 与 的 一 种 权 利 。 他

    们 的 学 说 虽 然 并 不 是 所 有 的 人 都 能 立 即 看 到 其 联 系 的 , 但 实

    质 上 , 这 些 学 说 确 在 后 来 为 这 些 人 所 取 法 , 他 们 主 张 : 指 定

    或 控 制 死 亡 后 财 产 处 分 的 权 利 是 财 产 所 有 权 本 身 的 一 种 必 然

    的 或 自 然 的 结 果 。 每 一 个 法 律 学 者 也 一 定 还 遇 到 过 表 现 在 一

    个 相 当 不 同 的 学 派 的 语 句 中 的 这 个 同 一 的 见 解 , 这 个 见 解 在

    说 明 这 一 部 门 法 律 的 原 理 时 , 认 为遗命 继 承是 死 亡 者 财 产 应 该 首 先 遵 照 的 移 转 方 式 , 然 后再 进 而 说 明 法 定 继 承是 立 法 者

    的 偶 然 规 定 , 以 履 行 由 于 死 亡 的 财 产 所 有 者 因 疏 忽 或 不 幸 而

    未 执 行 的 一 种 职 能 。 这 些 意 见 , 实 际 上 就 是 所 谓 遗 嘱 处 分 是

    “ 自 然 法 ” 的 一 个 制 度 这 种 比 较 扼 要 的 学 理 , 表 现 于 详 尽 的 方

    式 中 而 已 。 当 近 代 思 想 非 难 “ 自 然 ” 和 “ 自 然 法 ” 时 , 究 竟

    它 所 联 想 的 范 围 如 何 , 如 果 要 武 断 地 加 以 认 定 , 当 然 是 决 不

    妥 当 的 ; 但 我 以 为 , 大 多 数 主 张 “ 遗 嘱 权 ” 是 来 自 “ 自 然

    法 ” 的 人 们 , 他 们 的 意 思 , 可 能 或 者 是 认 为 这 种 权 力 在 事 实

    上 普 遍 存 在 的 , 或 者 认 为 这 种 权 力 由 于 一 种 原 始 的 本 能 和 冲

    动 的 推 动 而 为 各 国 所 一 致 承 认 。 对 于 上 述 论 点 中 的 第 一 点 , 我

    认 为 , 当 它 经 过 这 样 明 显 的 说 明 后 , 是 决 不 能 认 为 满 意 的 , 特

    别 是 在 这 样 一 个 时 期 中 , 当 我 们 可 以 看 到拿破仑法典对 于 “ 遗 嘱 权 ” 有 着 许 多 严 格 的 限 制 , 同 时 也可 以 看 到 以 这 个 法 兰 西 法 典 为 范 本 的 各 种 制 度 正 在 一 天 天 地增 加 。 对 于 第 二 种 说 法 , 我 们 也 必 须 加 以 反 对 , 因 为 这 是 违 背 了 早 期 法 律 史 中 最 最 可 靠 的 事 实 的 , 并 且 我 敢 于 一 般 地 断 定 , 在 所 有 自 然 生 长 的 社 会 中 , 在 早 期 的 法 律 学 中 是不 准 许

    或 是 根 本 没 有 考 虑 到 过 “ 遗 嘱 权 ” 的 , 只 有 在 法 律 发 展 的 后

    来 阶 段 , 才 准 许 在 多 少 限 制 之 下 使 财 产 所 有 者 的 意 志 能 胜 过

    他 血 亲 的 请 求 。

    所 谓 “ 遗 嘱 ” 或 “ 遗 命 ” 这 个 概 念 是 不 能 单 从 它 本 身 来

    考 虑 的 。 它 是 一 系 列 概 念 中 的 一 个 概 念 , 并 且 还 不 是 第 一 个

    概 念 。 就 其 本 身 而 论 , 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 仅 仅 是 遗 嘱 人 用 以 宣 告

    其 意 思 的 工 具 。 我 以 为 , 在 讨 论 这 一 个 工 具 前 , 有 几 个 问 题

    必 须 首 先 加 以 研 究 — — 例 如 , 从 一 个 死 亡 者 在 死 亡 时 所 转 移

    的 究 竟 是 什 么 , 究 竟 是 哪 一 类 的 权 利 或 利 益 ? 转 移 给 谁 , 用

    什 么 形 式 ? 以 及 为 什 么 死 亡 者 被 允 许 在 死 后 来 支 配 其 财 产 的

    处 分 ? 如 果 用 术 语 来 表 示 , 则 和 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 观 念 有 关 联 的

    各 种 概 念 , 它 们 的 依 附 关 系 是 应 该 这 样 表 示 的 。 一 个 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 或 “ 遗 命 ” 是 一 种 工 具 , 继 承 权 的 移 转 即 通 过 这 个 工 具

    而 加 以 规 定 。 继 承 权 是 概 括 继 承 的 一 种 形 式 。 概 括 继 承 是 继

    承 一 种 ·

    概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 ( u n i v e r s i t a s   j u r i s ) , 或 权 利 和 义 务 的 全

    体 。 把 这 个 次 序 颠 倒 过 来 , 我 们 就 必 须 研 究 什 么 是 ·

    概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    ·

    利 ; 什 么 是 概 括 继 承 ; 被 称 为 一 个 继 承 权 的 概 括 继 承 , 它 的

    形 式 究 竟 是 怎 样 的 。 此 外 还 有 两 个 问 题 , 虽 然 在 某 种 程 度 上

    和 我 所 要 讨 论 的 各 点 是 并 不 相 关 的 , 但 为 了 澈 底 了 解 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 这 个 主 题 , 却 是 必 须 加 以 解 决 的 。 这 两 个 问 题 就 是 , 为

    什 么 一 个 继 承 权 在 任 何 情 况 下 都 要 由 遗 嘱 人 的 意 志 来 支 配 ,

    以 及 用 以 控 制 继 承 权 的 工 具 , 它 的 性 质 究 竟 是 什 么 ?

    第 一 个 问 题 和概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 有 关 ; 即 和 一 个 全 体 的 ( 或 一

    群 的 ) 权 利 和 义 务 有 关 。 所 谓 ·

    概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 是 各 种 权 利 和 义 务

    的 集 合 , 由 于 在 同 一 时 候 属 于 同 一 个 人 这 种 唯 一 情 况 而 结 合

    起 来 的 。 它 好 比 是 某 一 个 特 定 的 个 人 的 法 律 外 衣 。 它 并 不 是

    把 “ 任 何 ” 权 利 和 “ 任 何 ” 义 务 凑 合 在 一 起 而 形 成 的 。 它 只

    能 是 属 于 一 个 特 定 人 的 一 切 权 利 和 一 切 义 务 所 组 成 的 。 把 这

    样 许 多 财 产 权 、 通 行 权 、 遗 赠 权 、 特 种 清 偿 义 务 、 债 务 、 损

    害 赔 偿 责 任 — — 把 这 样 一 些 法 律 权 利 和 义 务 结 合 在 一 起 而 成

    为 一 个 ·

    概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 的 纽 带 , 是 由 于 它 们 附 着 于 某 一 个 能 够 行

    使 这 些 权 利 和 义 务 的 个 人 的 这 一 种 ·

    事 ·

    实 。 没 有 这 一 个 ·

    事 ·

    实 , 就

    没 有 权 利 和 义 务 的 全 体 。 ·

    概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 这 个 用 语 不 是 古 典 的 , 但

    法 律 学 有 这 个 观 念 , 应 该 完 全 归 功 于 罗 马 法 ; 同 时 这 个 用 语

    也 不 是 完 全 难 于 捉 摸 的 。 我 们 应 该 设 法 把 我 们 每 一 个 人 对 世

    界 上 其 余 人 的 全 部 法 律 关 系 , 聚 集 在 一 个 概 念 之 下 。 不 论 这

    些 法 律 关 系 的 性 质 和 构 成 是 怎 样 , 这 些 法 律 关 系 在 集 合 起 来

    后 , 就 成 为 了 一 个 ·

    概 ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 ; 只 要 我 们 仔 细 记 着 , 在 这 个

    用 语 中 不 但 应 该 包 括 权 利 并 且 也 应 该 包 括 义 务 , 则 我 们 对 于

    这 个 观 念 就 很 少 有 误 解 的 危 险 。 我 们 的 义 务 可 能 超 过 我 们 的

    权 利 。 一 个 人 可 能 欠 得 多 而 值 得 少 , 因 此 , 如 果 他 的 总 的 法

    律 关 系 用 金 钱 价 值 来 衡 量 , 他 可 能 是 一 个 所 谓 破 产 者 。 但 就

    以 他 为 中 心 所 包 含 的 全 部 权 利 和 义 务 而 论 , 这 依 然 是 一 个

    “ 概 括 的 权 利 ” 。

    其 次 我 们 要 研 究 “ 概 括 继 承 ” 。 概 括 继 承 就 是 继 承 一 种 ·

    ·

    括 ·

    的 ·

    权 ·

    利 。 当 一 个 人 接 受 了 另 外 一 个 人 的 法 律 外 衣 , 在 同 一

    个 时 候 一 方 面 承 担 其 全 部 义 务 , 另 一 方 面 享 有 其 全 部 权 利 时 ,就 发 生 概 括 继 承 。 为 了 使 这 个 概 括 继 承 真 实 和 完 全 , 转 移 必

    须 象 法 学 家 所 说 的 那 样一次。 当 然 , 可 以想 象 , 一 个 人 可 以 在 不 同 时 期 取 得 另 外 一 个 人 的 全 部 权 利 和

    义 务 , 例 如 通 过 连 继 购 买 ; 他 也 可 以 用 不 同 身 份 来 取 得 这 些

    权 利 和 义 务 , 部 分 由 于 是 继 承 人 , 部 分 由 于 是 买 受 人 , 部 分

    由 于 是 受 遗 赠 人 。 但 是 , 虽 然 这 样 组 合 起 来 的 一 群 权 利 和 义

    务 在 事 实 上 确 等 于 一 个 特 定 人 的 全 部 法 律 人 格 , 但 这 种 取 得

    不 能 作 为 一 个 概 括 继 承 。 要 有 一 个 真 正 的 概 括 继 承 , 转 让 必

    须 是 对 全 部 权 利 和 义 务 在同一 时 候 一 次 进 行 , 同 时 受 领 人 也

    必 须 以同一 法 律 身 分 来 接 受 。 一 个 概 括 继 承 的 观 念 正 如 一 个

    概 括 的 权 利 的 观 念 , 在 法 律 学 中 是 永 久 的 , 虽 然 在 英 国 法 律

    制 度 中 , 由 于 取 得 权 利 的 身 分 是 多 种 多 样 的 , 尤 其 是 由 于 英

    国 财 产 上 “ 不 动 产 ” 和 “ 动 产 ” 两 大 部 分 之 间 的 区 分 , 这 个

    观 念 给 模 糊 了 。 在 破 产 的 情 况 下 , 一 个 受 让 人 继 承 破 产 者 全

    部 财 产 , 是 一 种 概 括 继 承 , 虽 然 受 让 人 只 就 遗 产 的 限 度 清 偿

    债 务 , 但 这 只 是 对 原 来 观 念 的 一 个 修 正 形 式 。 如 果 在 我 们 中

    间 有 人 承 受 一 个 人 的 ·

    全 ·

    部 财 产 以 偿 付 其 ·

    全 ·

    部 债 务 作 为 条 件 ,

    则 这 类 移 转 就 和 最 古 罗 马 法 中 所 谓 概 括 继 承 完 全 类 似 。 当 一

    个 罗 马 公 民收养 一 个 养 子 , 就 是 说 把 原 来 不 在 “ 家 父 权 ” 下

    的 人 收 纳 为 其 养 子 , 他 就概括地 继 承 其 养 子 的 财 产 , 也 就 是

    说 他 取 得 了 养 子 全 部 财 产 和 承 担 了 其 养 子 全 部 义 务 。 在 原 始

    “ 罗 马 法 ” 中 还 发 现 有 几 种 其 他 形 式 的 概 括 继 承 , 但 其 中 最 重

    要 和 最 持 久 的 一 种 , 是 我 们 所 最 直 接 关 心 的 “ 汉 来 狄 塔 斯 ”

    ( H Er e d i t a s ) 或 “ 继 承 权 ” 。 “ 继 承 权 ” 是 在 死 亡 时 发 生 的 一 种概 括 继 承 。 概 括 继 承 人 是 “ 汉 来 斯 ” ( H Er e s ) 或 “ 继 承 人 ” 。 他 立 即 取 得 死 亡 者 的 全 部 权 利 和 全 部 义 务 。 他 立 刻 取 得 了 他

    的 全 部 法 律 人 格 , 并 且 不 论 他 由 于 “ 遗 嘱 ” 提 名 , 或 是 根 据

    “ 无 遗 嘱 ” ( I n t e s t a c y ) 而 继 承 , “ 汉 来 斯 ” 的 特 殊 性 质 保 持 不

    变 , 这 是 无 须 赘 述 的 。 “ 汉 来 斯 ” 这 个 名 词 可 以 用 于 “ 无 遗 嘱

    继 承 人 ” , 也 可 以 用 于 “ 遗 嘱 继 承 人 ” , 因 为 一 个 人 成 为 “ 汉

    来 斯 ” 的 方 式 和 他 所 具 有 的 法 律 性 质 本 来 是 毫 无 关 系 的 。 死

    亡 者 的 概 括 继 承 人 , 不 论 是 由 于 “ 遗 嘱 ” 或 由 于 “ 无 遗 嘱 ” ,统 是 他 的 “ 继 承 人 ” 。 但 是 “ 继 承 人 ” 不 一 定 是 一 个 人 。 在 法律 上 被 视 为 一 个 单 位 的 许 多 人 , 也 可 以 作 为 “ 继 承 权 的共同继承人 ” ( C o h e i r s ) 。

    我 现 在 引 述 罗 马 人 通 常 对 于 一 个 “ 继 承 权 ” 所 下 的 定 义 ,读 者 就 能 够 理 解 这 些 各 别 名 词 的 全 部 含 意 。 “ 继承权是对于一个死亡者全部法律地位的一种继承”。意思 就 是 说 , 死 亡 者 的 肉 体 人 格 虽 已 死 亡 , 但 他 的 法 律 人 格 仍

    旧 存 在 , 毫 无 减 损 地 传 给 其 “ 继 承 人 ” 或 “ 共 同 继 承 人 ” ,

    ( 以 法 律 而 论 ) 他 的 同 一 性 在 其 “ 继 承 人 ” 或 “ 共 同 继 承 人 ”

    身 上 是 延 续 下 去 的 。 在 我 国 法 律 中 , 把 “ 遗 嘱 执 行 人 ” 作 为

    死 亡 者 个 人 遗 产 范 围 内 的 代 表 一 条 可 以 用 来 例 证 它 所 自 来 的

    理 论 , 不 过 它 虽 然 能 例 证 , 但 却 仍 不 能 对 这 个 理 论 加 以 说 明 。

    甚 至 后 期 罗 马 法 , 尚 认 为 在 死 亡 者 和 其 继 承 人 之 间 , 必 须 有

    密 切 相 当 的 地 位 , 但 英 国 的 一 个 代 表 人 就 不 具 有 这 一 种 特 点 ;

    同 时 在 原 始 法 律 学 中 , 一 切 东 西 都 依 赖 着 继 承 的 延 续 。 除 非

    在 遗 嘱 中 规 定 着 遗 嘱 人 的 权 利 和 义 务 应 该 立 即 移 转 给 “ 继 承

    人 ” 或 “ 共 同 继 承 人 ” , 遗 命 就 丧 失 其 效 力 。

    在 近 代 遗 嘱 法 律 学 中 , 象 在 后 期 罗 马 法 中 一 样 , 最 重 要

    的 目 的 是 在 执 行 遗 嘱 人 的 意 志 。 象 古 罗 马 法 律 中 , 相 应 关 心

    的 主 题 是 “ 概 括 继 承 ” 的 授 与 。 在 这 些 规 定 中 , 有 一 些 在 我

    们 看 来 是 一 种 来 自 常 识 的 原 则 , 但 另 外 一 些 则 看 上 去 很 象 是

    一 个 无 谓 的 幻 想 。 不 过 如 果 没 有 其 中 第 二 类 的 规 定 , 则 第 一类 的 规 定 便 将 无 从 产 生 , 这 是 任 何 这 一 类 的 命 题 所 必 然如此的 。

    为 了 要 解 决 这 显 然 的 矛 盾 , 并 使 我 想 说 明 的 一 系 列 观 念

    更 为 清 楚 起 见 , 我 必 须 借 用 前 一 章 开 始 部 分 中 所 作 研 究 的 结

    果 。 我 们 在 社 会 的 幼 年 时 代 中 , 发 现 有 这 样 一 个 永 远 显 著 的

    特 点 。 人 们 不 是 被 视 为 一 个 个 人 而 是 始 终 被 视 为 一 个 特 定 团

    体 的 成 员 。 每 一 个 人 首 先 是 一 个 公 民 , 然 后 , 既 是 一 个 公 民 ,

    他 必 是 阶 级 中 的 一 个 成 员 — — 属 于 一 个 贵 族 阶 级 的 成 员 或 是

    属 于 一 个 平 民 阶 级 的 成 员 ; 或 是 , 在 有 一 些 社 会 中 , 由 于 时

    运 不 佳 而 在 其 发 展 的 过 程 中 遭 受 到 了 特 殊 的 逆 转 , 他 就 成 了

    一 个 族 籍 的 成 员 。 其 次 , 他 是 一 个 氏 族 、 大 氏 族 或 部 族 的 成员 ; 最 后 , 他 是 一 个家族 的 成 员 。 这 最 后 的 一 类 是 他 所 处 身的 最 狭 小 的 最 个 人 的 关 系 ; 这 看 上 去 好 象 是 矛 盾 的 , 但 他 绝不把他自己 看 成 为 一 个 各 别 的 个 人 。 他 的 个 性 为 其 家 族 所 吞没 了 。 我 重 复 一 遍 前 面 已 经 说 过 的 对 于 一 个 原 始 社 会 的 定 义 。作 为 社 会 的 单 位 的 , 不 是 个 人 , 而 是 由 真 实 的 或 拟 制 的 血 族关 系 结 合 起 来 的 许 多 人 的 集 团 。

    我 们 第 一 次 发 现 有 关 概 括 继 承 的 迹 象 , 正 是 一 个 未 开 化

    社 会 的 特 点 之 一 。 原 始 时 代 的 共 和 国 和 一 个 近 代 国 家 的 组 织

    不 同 , 在 原 始 时 代 的 共 和 国 中 , 包 括 了 许 多 小 的 专 制 政 府 , 每一 个 政 府 相 互 之 间 各 不 相 关 , 每 一 个 政 府 都 处 于 一 个 唯 一 的

    君 主 特 权 的 绝 对 统 治 之 下 。 但 是 , 虽 然 “ 族 长 ” 〔 我 们 在 这 时

    候 还 不 应 称 他 为 “ 家 父 ” ( P a t e r f a m i l i a s ) 〕 有 这 样 广 泛 的 权 利 ,

    但 我 们 决 不 能 就 认 为 他 负 担 着 同 样 广 大 的 义 务 。 如 果 他 管 理

    一 家 , 这 是 为 了 家 族 的 利 益 。 如 果 他 是 所 有 物 的 主 人 , 他 是

    作 为 儿 女 和 亲 族 的 受 讬 人 而 持 有 的 。 除 去 由 于 他 统 治 着 小 国

    家 的 关 系 而 赋 与 他 的 权 力 和 地 位 以 外 , 他 没 有 任 何 其 他 特 权

    或 特 殊 地 位 。 一 个 “ 家 族 ” 在 事 实 上 是 一 个 “ 法 人 ” , 而 他 就

    是 它 的 代 表 , 或 者 我 们 甚 至 几 乎 可 以 称 他 为 是 它 的 “ 公 务

    员 ” 。 他 享 有 权 利 , 负 担 义 务 , 但 这 些 权 利 和 义 务 在 同 胞 的 期

    待 中 和 在 法 律 的 眼 光 中 , 既 作 为 他 自 己 的 权 利 和 义 务 , 也 作

    为 集 体 组 织 的 权 利 和 义 务 。 我 们 不 妨 在 这 里 研 究 一 下 , 当 这

    样 一 个 代 表 在 死 亡 时 所 可 能 产 生 的 结 果 。 在 法 律 的 眼 光 中 , 根

    据 民 事 高 级 官 吏 的 看 法 , 族 长 的 死 亡 是 一 个 全 然 无 关 紧 要 的

    事 件 。 因 为 结 果 只 是 代 表 家 族 集 体 组 织 和 对 于 市 政 审 判 权 负

    有 主 要 责 任 的 人 , 换 一 个 名 字 而 已 。 所 有 原 来 依 附 于 死 亡 的

    族 长 的 种 种 权 利 和 义 务 , 将 毫 无 间 断 地 依 附 于 其 继 承 人 ; 因

    为 , 在 事 实 上 , 这 些 权 利 和 义 务 是 家 族 的 权 利 和 义 务 , 而 家

    族 则 分 明 具 有 一 个 法 人 的 特 性 — — 它 是 永 生 不 灭 的 。 债 权 人

    对 新 的 族 长 象 对 旧 的 族 长 一 样 , 可 以 要 求 同 样 的 补 偿 , 因 为

    这 种 责 任 既 然 是 仍 旧 存 在 的 家 族 的 责 任 , 自 将 绝 对 不 变 。 在

    族 长 死 亡 后 , 家 族 所 有 的 一 切 权 利 将 和 他 死 亡 前 所 有 的 完 全

    相 同 , 除 了 这 法 人 — — 如 果 对 这 样 早 的 时 代 真 能 够 恰 当 地 运

    用 这 样 精 确 而 专 门 的 用 语 — — 必 须 用 一 个 略 微 有 变 动 的 名 字

    来 ·

    依 ·

    法 ·

    要 ·

    求 以 外 。

    如 果 我 们 要 了 解 社 会 是 怎 样 逐 渐 地 和 缓 慢 地 分 解 而 成 为

    它 现 在 所 由 构 成 的 合 成 原 子 的 — — 是 经 过 了 怎 样 的 不 知 不 觉

    的 程 序 才 以 人 和 人 的 关 系 来 代 替 个 人 和 家 族 以 及 家 族 和 家 族

    相 互 之 间 的 关 系 的 , 那 我 们 就 得 探 究 法 律 学 历 史 的 全 部 过 程 。

    现 在 所 应 注 意 之 点 是 , 纵 使 革 命 已 经 显 然 完 成 , 纵 使 高 级 官

    吏 已 经 在 很 大 程 度 上 代 替 了 “ 家 父 ” 的 地 位 , 民 事 法 庭 已 代

    替 了 家 族 法 庭 , 但 是 , 司 法 当 局 所 管 理 的 全 部 权 利 和 义 务 仍

    旧 受 到 已 经 废 弃 的 特 权 的 影 响 , 并 在 每 一 个 部 分 中 都 带 有 这

    些 特 权 的 色 彩 。 因 此 , 毫 无 疑 问 , 被 罗 马 法 律 用 全 力 坚 持 作

    为 遗 嘱 或 无 遗 嘱 继 承 首 要 条 件 的 “ 概 括 的 权 利 ” 的 移 转 , 是

    一 个 比 较 古 老 的 社 会 的 一 个 特 点 , 这 特 点 是 人 们 的 思 想 无 法

    把 它 和 新 社 会 分 离 开 来 的 , 虽 然 它 和 较 新 的 局 面 之 间 是 并 没

    有 真 正 的 或 适 当 的 联 系 的 。 一 个 人 在 法 律 上 的 生 存 得 在 其 继

    承 人 或 许 多 共 同 继 承 人 身 上 延 长 , 这 在 实 质 上 似 乎 就 等 于 把

    ·

    家 ·

    族 的 一 个 特 征 通 过 拟 制 而 移 转 给 ·

    个 ·

    人 。 法 人 中 的 继 承 必 然

    是 概 括 的 , 而 家 族 是 一 个 法 人 。 法 人 永 生 不 灭 。 个 别 成 员 的

    死 亡 对 于 集 体 的 总 的 生 存 毫 无 关 系 , 并 且 也 决 不 会 影 响 到 集

    体 的 法 律 附 带 、 其 能 力 或 其 责 任 。 这 样 , 在 罗 马 人 所 谓 概 括

    继 承 的 这 个 观 念 中 一 个 法 人 所 有 的 这 一 切 性 质 , 似 乎 都 被 移

    转 给 个 人 公 民 了 。 他 肉 体 的 死 亡 可 以 丝 毫 不 影 响 他 所 占 有 的

    法 律 地 位 , 其 所 根 据 的 原 则 显 然 是 : 他 的 地 位 应 该 尽 可 能 和

    一 个 家 族 的 地 位 相 类 似 , 而 一 个 家 族 既 有 着 法 人 的 性 质 , 是

    不 会 发 生 肉 体 死 亡 的 。

    我 注 意 到 在 大 陆 法 学 家 中 , 对 于 混 杂 于 概 括 继 承 中 的 各

    种 概 念 之 间 的 联 系 , 在 理 解 其 性 质 时 , 绝 少 不 感 到 很 大 的 困难 的 , 同 时 在 法 律 学 中 , 一 般 讲 起 来 恐 怕 也 没 有 一 个 主 题 像

    他 们 就 这 个 主 题 上 所 作 的 纯 理 论 那 样 缺 少 价 值 。 但 英 国 法 学

    者 就 我 们 现 在 正 在 研 究 的 观 念 所 作 的 分 析 , 应 该 不 会 有 错 误

    的 危 险 。 在 我 们 自 己 的 制 度 中 有 一 种 为 所 有 法 律 家 都 熟 悉 的

    拟 制 , 能 用 来 很 好 地 说 明 它 。 英 国 法 学 家 把 法 人 分 为 “ 集 合

    法 人 ” ( C o r p o r a t i o n   a g g r e g a t e ) 和 “ 单 一 法 人 ” ( C o r p o r a t i o n s o l e ) 。 一 个 “ 集 合 法 人 ” 是 一 个 真 正 的 法 人 , 但 一 个 “ 单 一 法 人 ” 则 是 一 个 个 人 , 是 一 系 列 的 个 人 中 的 一 个 成 员 , 通 过 拟 制 而 赋 与 一 个 “ 法 人 ” 的 性 质 的 。 例 如 , 国 王 或 一 个 教 区 中 的 教 区 长 就 是 “ 单 一 法 人 ” 的 例 子 。 在 这 里 , 当 考 虑 到

    他 的 权 能 或 职 位 时 , 是 和 随 时 可 以 据 有 这 种 权 能 或 这 个 职 位

    的 各 别 的 人 不 相 牵 涉 的 , 同 时 , 由 于 这 种 权 能 是 永 久 的 , 因

    此 据 有 这 种 权 能 的 一 系 列 的 个 人 便 也 带 着 “ 法 人 ” 所 有 的 主

    要 属 性 — — 即 “ 永 久 性 ” 。 在 罗 马 法 的 较 古 理 论 中 , 个 人 之 与

    家 族 , 正 和 英 国 法 律 学 的 原 理 中 一 个 “ 单 一 法 人 ” 之 与 “ 集

    合 法 人 ” 的 关 系 , 完 全 相 同 。 这 两 种 观 念 的 由 来 和 联 系 是 完

    全 相 同 的 。 事 实 上 , 如 果 我 们 认 为 就 罗 马 遗 嘱 法 律 学 而 论 , 每

    一 个 个 人 公 民 就 是 一 个 “ 单 一 法 人 ” , 则 我 们 将 不 但 能 充 分 理

    解 一 个 继 承 权 的 全 部 概 念 , 并 且 将 能 完 全 掌 握 这 概 念 所 自 来

    的 假 定 的 线 索 。 我 们 有 这 样 一 个 格 言 , 国 王 是 一 个 “ 单 一 法

    人 ” , 他 永 生 不 灭 。 他 的 权 能 应 立 即 为 其 继 承 人 所 填 补 , 而 统

    治 权 的 延 续 也 就 视 为 未 经 中 断 。 对 于 罗 马 人 , 把 死 亡 的 事 实

    从 权 利 和 义 务 的 移 转 中 排 除 掉 , 似 乎 也 是 同 样 简 单 和 自 然 的

    过 程 。 遗 嘱 人 在 其 继 承 人 或 在 许 多 共 同 继 承 人 中 继 续 生 存 下

    去 。 在 法 律 上 , 他 和 他 们 是 同 一 个 人 , 如 果 有 任 何 人 在 其 遗

    嘱 处 分 中 违 背 了 把 他 的 实 际 生 存 和 他 的 死 后 生 存 结 合 起 来 的

    原 则 , 纵 使 这 种 违 背 仅 仅 是 出 于 推 定 的 , 法 律 也 就 将 认 为 这

    个 遗 嘱 有 瑕 疵 而 予 以 排 斥 , 并 把 继 承 权 给 与 其 血 亲 族 , 至 血

    亲 族 所 以 能 具 有 符 合 继 承 人 条 件 的 权 能 , 是 由 法 律 本 身 的 规

    定 , 而 不 是 由 可 能 会 有 错 误 的 任 何 证 件 所 赋 与 的 。

    当 一 个 罗 马 人 在 死 亡 时 没 有 遗 嘱 或 没 有 有 效 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” ,

    他 的 卑 亲 属 或 亲 族 就 将 根 据 下 述 亲 等 而 成 为 其 继 承 人 。 继 承

    的 人 或 许 多 人 不 仅 仅代表 ·

    着 死 亡 者 , 根 据 刚 才 所 谈 到 的 理 论 ,

    他 们 并 且 ·

    继 ·

    续 着 他 的 民 事 生 活 、 他 的 法 律 生 存 。 当 继 承 的 顺

    序 是 由 “ 遗 嘱 ” 决 定 时 , 也 可 以 得 到 同 样 的 结 果 , 但 是 死 亡

    者 和 其 继 承 人 之 间 有 同 一 性 的 原 理 , 当 然 比 任 何 形 式 的 “ 遗

    命 ” 或 任 何 种 遗 嘱 法 律 学 要 古 老 得 多 。 这 里 , 应 该 恰 当 地 提

    出 一 个 问 题 , 这 个 问 题 将 因 我 们 对 这 主 题 探 究 得 愈 深 入 而 对

    我 们 发 生 愈 大 压 迫 力 — — 如 果 不 是 由 于 和 概 括 继 承 有 关 联 的

    这 些 显 著 观 念 , 那 末遗 ·

    嘱 是 否 就 根 本 不 会 出 现 了 呢 ? 遗 嘱 法

    所 适 用 的 原 则 是 可 以 用 多 种 多 样 的 似 是 而 非 的 哲 学 假 设 来 说

    明 的 ; 这 个 原 则 和 现 代 社 会 的 每 一 个 部 分 交 织 着 , 并 且 可 以

    用 广 泛 的 一 般 便 宜 来 作 为 辩 护 它 的 根 据 的 。 但 是 在 这 里 , 必

    须 再 一 次 地 重 复 我 们 的 警 告 , 即 如 果 以 为 , 目 前 我 们 为 维 护

    一 个 现 存 制 度 而 持 有 的 那 些 理 由 , 必 然 地 和 这 个 制 度 产 生 时

    所 有 的 情 绪 有 其 共 同 之 处 , 这 是 不 对 的 , 这 种 印 象 是 法 律 学

    上 各 种 问 题 发 生 错 误 的 最 大 根 源 。 可 以 断 言 , 在 古 罗 马 “ 继

    承 法 ” 中 , 遗 嘱 或 遗 命 这 个 观 念 是 和 一 个 人 死 后 生 存 于 其 继

    承 人 人 格 中 的 理 论 , 不 能 分 解 地 纠 缠 在 一 起 的 , 我 甚 至 可 以

    说 , 是 混 和 在 一 起 的 。

    概 括 继 承 这 个 概 念 虽 然 在 法 律 学 中 已 经 根 深 蒂 固 , 却 并

    不 是 为 每 一 种 法 律 的 编 制 者 自 发 地 想 到 的 。 在 可 以 发 现 有 这

    种 概 念 的 地 方 , 都 显 示 出 它 是 来 自 罗 马 法 ; 跟 着 它 一 直 传 下

    来 的 有 许 多 以 “ 遗 命 ” 和 “ 遗 赠 ” 为 主 题 的 法 律 规 定 , 这 些

    规 定 为 现 代 实 务 者 所 应 用 , 竟 完 全 没 有 觉 察 到 它 们 和 其 原 来

    理 论 的 关 系 。 但 是 , 在 纯 粹 罗 马 法 律 学 中 , 一 个 人 在 其 继 承

    人 身 上 继 续 生 存 的 原 则 — — 如 果 我 们 可 以 这 样 说 , 根 本 消 灭

    死 亡 的 事 实 — — 是 遗 嘱 继 承 和 无 遗 嘱 继 承 全 部 法 律 所 环 绕 的

    中 心 , 这 是 非 常 明 显 而 不 致 发 生 误 解 的 。 罗 马 法 强 迫 服 从 这

    个 有 势 力 的 理 论 , 其 坚 决 严 厉 的 程 度 就 足 以 说 明 , 这 个 理 论

    是 由 罗 马 原 始 社 会 组 织 中 生 长 出 来 的 ; 在 这 个 推 定 之 外 , 我

    们 并 且 还 有 更 好 的 证 据 。 在 罗 马 最 古 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 制 度 中 恰 巧

    有 某 些 术 语 偶 然 地 被 保 存 到 现 在 。 在 该 雅 士 的 著 作 中 , 我 们

    看 到 概 括 继 承 所 借 以 创 设 的 授 受 公 式 。 我 们 看 到 古 代 的 名 称 ,

    通 过 了 这 个 名 称 , 一 个 后 来 被 称 为 “ 继 承 人 ” 的 人 被 预 先 给

    指 定 了 。 在 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 中 我 们 并 且 还 有 明 白 承 认 “ 遗

    命 ” 权 的 著 名 条 款 , 而 规 定 “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 的 条 款 也 被 保 存

    着 。 所 有 这 一 切 古 代 的 名 言 中 , 都 有 一 个 显 著 的 特 点 。 它 们

    一 致 表 示 , 从 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 转 移 给 “ 继 承 人 ” 的 是 ·

    家族 , 也 就

    是 包 括 在 “ 家 父 权 ” 中 和 由 “ 家 父 权 ” 而 产 生 的 各 种 权 利 和

    义 务 的 集 合 体 。 在 所 有 的 三 个 例 子 中 都 完 全 没 有 提 到 物 质 财

    产 ; 在 其 余 两 个 例 子 中 , 物 质 财 产 被 明 白 地 称 为 “ 家 族 ” 的

    附 属 物 或 附 属 品 。 因 此 , 原 始 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 或 “ 遗 命 ” 是 一 个

    手 段 , 或 者 ( 因 为 在 开 始 时 可 能 不 是 成 文 的 ) 是 一 种 程 序 , 而

    ·

    家 ·

    族 的 移 转 就 是 根 据 了 这 个 规 定 而 进 行 的 。 这 是 宣 告 谁 有 权来 继 承 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 为 族 长 的 一 种 方 式 。 当 我 们 对 于 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 原 来 目 的 作 出 这 样 的 理 解 , 我 们 也 就 立 即 可 以 看 到 为 什 么

    “ 遗 嘱 ” 会 同 古 代 宗 教 和 法 律 最 古 怪 遗 物 之 一 的家祭 ( s a c r a)联 系 在 一 起 。 这 些 ·

    家 ·

    祭 是 一 种 罗 马 形 式 的 制 度 , 凡 是 没 有 完

    全 解 脱 原 始 形 态 的 社 会 都 有 这 种 制 度 。 ·

    家 ·

    祭 是 用 以 纪 念 家 族

    同 胞 之 谊 的 祭 祀 和 礼 仪 , 是 家 族 永 存 的 誓 约 和 见 证 。 不 论 ·

    家祭 的 性 质 如 何 — — 所 谓 在 一 切 情 形 中 ·

    家 ·

    祭 都 是 对 某 些 荒 诞 无

    稽 的 祖 先 的 崇 拜 , 不 论 这 话 是 否 真 实 — — 它 们 在 各 处 都 被 用

    来 誓 证 家 族 关 系 的 神 圣 性 ; 因 此 每 当 家 族 族 长 本 人 发 生 变 化

    危 及 “ 家 族 ” 的 延 续 生 存 时 , ·

    家 ·

    祭 就 显 得 特 别 重 要 。 因 此 , 在

    这 族 统 治 者 死 亡 时 , 人 们 更 常 提 到 ·

    家 ·

    祭 。 在 印 度 人 中 , 继 承一 个 死 亡 者 财 产 的 权 利 , 是 和 履 行 其 葬 仪 的 责 任 相 辅 而 行 的 。

    如 果 葬 仪 没 有 被 按 礼 履 行 或 者 不 是 由 适 当 的 人 来 履 行 , 则 在

    死 亡 者 和 在 生 存 者 之 间 不 能 认 为 已 经 建 立 了 任 何 关 系 ; “ 继 承

    法 ” 就 不 能 适 用 , 没 有 人 能 继 承 遗 产 。 在 一 个 印 度 人 的 一 生

    中 , 似 乎 每 一 椿 大 事 都 和 这 些 祭 仪 有 关 。 如 果 印 度 人 结 婚 了 ,

    是 为 了 要 有 子 女 , 在 他 死 亡 后 祭 祀 他 ; 如 果 他 没 有 子 女 , 他

    就 有 最 大 的 责 任 从 其 他 家 族 中 收 养 一 个 子 女 , “ 其 目 的 是 在 ” ,

    根 据 印 度 博 士 的 说 法 , “ 获 得 葬 饼 、 水 和 庄 严 的 祭 礼 ” 。 西 塞

    罗 时 代 罗 马 ·

    家 ·

    祭 所 保 存 的 范 围 , 也 并 不 小 于 印 度 。 它 包 括 了

    “ 继 承 权 ” 和 “ 收 养 ” 。 如 果 对 养 子 原 来 的 家 族 不 举 行 适 当 的

    ·

    家 ·

    祭 , 则 不 能 进 行 “ 收 养 ” : 如 果 祭 仪 的 费 用 不 在 各 个 共 同 继

    承 人 中 严 格 地 平 均 分 摊 , 则 不 准 根 据 “ 遗 命 ” 来 分 配 一 个

    “ 继 承 权 ” 。 我 们 最 后 一 次 看 到 这 ·

    家 ·

    祭 的 时 代 的 罗 马 法 , 和 现

    存 印 度 制 度 之 间 所 存 在 的 差 别 , 是 非 常 有 益 的 。 在 印 度 人 中间 , 法 律 中 的 宗 教 成 分 获 得 了 完 全 的 优 势 。 “ 家 族 ” 祭 祀 成 了

    一 切 “ 人 法 ” 和 大 部 分 “ 物 法 ” 的 基 石 。 祭 祀 甚 至 经 过 异 常

    的 扩 大 , 因 为 , 在 一 种 常 常 伴 随 着 祭 祀 的 观 念 的 印 象 影 响 之

    下 , 认 为 人 类 血 液 是 一 切 祭 品 中 最 可 珍 贵 的 祭 品 , 印 度 人 就

    在 原 始 的 家 祭 上 作 了 一 些 补 充 , 认 为 寡 妇 在 丈 夫 的 葬 仪 中 应

    该 以 身 殉 葬 , 这 个 实 践 为 印 度 人 继 续 实 行 到 有 史 时 期 , 并 且

    在 几 个 印 度 - 欧 罗 巴 人 种 中 亦 都 见 诸 于 传 说 。 在 罗 马 人 方 面

    则 恰 恰 与 此 相 反 , 法 律 责 任 和 宗 教 义 务 已 不 再 挽 杂 在 一 起 。 举

    行 庄 严 ·

    家 ·

    祭 的 必 要 性 已 不 再 成 为 民 事 法 律 理 论 的 一 部 分 , 它

    们 改 属 “ 教 长 会 ” ( C o l l e g e   o f   P o n t i f f s ) 的 各 别 管 辖 之 下 。

    在 西 塞 罗 给 阿 提 格 斯 ( A t t i c u s ) 的 许 多 信 中 充 满 了 有 关 ·

    家 ·

    的 提 示 , 使 我 们 深 信 不 疑 ·

    家 ·

    祭 已 在 “ 继 承 权 ” 上 构 成 了 一 种

    难 以 容 忍 的 重 担 ; 但 到 这 个 时 候 , 在 发 展 上 已 经 超 过 了 法 律

    从 宗 教 分 离 出 来 的 时 期 , 而 我 们 所 期 待 着 的 是 ·

    家 ·

    祭 从 后 期 法

    律 学 中 全 部 消 失 不 见 。

    在 印 度 法 律 中 , 没 有 一 个 所 谓 真 正 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 东 西 。

    “ 遗 嘱 ” 所 处 的 地 位 为 “ 收 养 ” 所 占 据 着 。 在 这 里 我 们 可 以 看

    到 “ 遗 嘱 权 力 ” 和 “ 收 养 能 力 ” 的 关 系 , 以 及 为 什 么 这 两 者

    之 一 的 行 使 都 可 能 引 起 要 履 行 ·

    家 ·

    祭 的 一 种 特 殊 渴 望 。 “ 遗 嘱 ”

    和 “ 收 养 ” 都 威 胁 着 要 歪 曲 “ 家 族 ” 承 袭 的 正 常 进 程 , 但 当

    亲 族 之 中 没 有 人 能 继 承 的 时 候 , 它 们 显 然 都 是 避 免 承 袭 的 完

    全 中 断 的 手 段 。 在 这 两 者 之 中 , 用 人 为 的 方 法 来 创 设 血 亲 关

    系 的 “ 收 养 ” 是 在 大 部 分 古 代 社 会 中 自 发 地 产 生 的 一 种 手 段 。

    印 度 人 无 疑 地 在 古 代 的 实 践 上 前 进 了 一 步 , 即 准 许 寡 妇 收 纳

    养 子 , 如 果 丈 夫 忽 略 了 这 样 做 ; 只 在 孟 加 拉 的 地 方 习 惯 中 , 隐约 有 一 些 “ 遗 嘱 权 力 ” 的 痕 迹 。 但 是 首 创 这 个 对 人 类 社 会 的

    转 化 具 有 巨 大 影 响 ( 仅 次 于 “ 契 约 ” ) 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 制 度 这 一 项

    功 劳 , 主 要 应 该 归 属 于 罗 马 人 。 我 们 必 须 注 意 , 切 不 可 以 把

    在 晚 近 时 代 它 所 具 有 的 职 能 , 认 为 在 其 最 早 形 态 中 就 已 经 具

    备 的 了 。 在 开 始 时 , 它 并 不 是 分 配 死 亡 者 财 产 的 一 种 方 式 , 而

    是 把 家 族 代 表 权 移 转 给 一 个 新 族 长 的 许 多 方 法 中 的 一 种 。 无

    疑 地 财 产 已 传 给 其 “ 继 承 人 ” , 但 这 些 是 因 为 公 有 财 产 处 分 权

    是 随 着 家 族 统 治 权 的 移 转 而 移 转 的 。 我 们 还 没 有 到 达 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 史 上 的 这 一 个 阶 段 , 即 “ 遗 嘱 ” 已 成 为 变 更 社 会 的 有 力

    工 具 , 即 一 方 面 它 们 刺 激 着 财 产 的 流 转 , 另 一 方 面 它 们 在 财

    产 所 有 权 中 产 生 了 可 塑 性 。 甚 至 最 后 期 的 罗 马 法 学 家 , 似 乎

    也 没 有 在 实 际 上 把 这 些 后 果 和 “ 遗 嘱 权 力 ” 联 系 起 来 。 在 罗

    马 社 会 中 , 从 没 有 把 “ 遗 嘱 ” 视 为 分 离 “ 财 产 ” 和 “ 家 族 ” 的

    一 种 手 段 , 或 作 为 创 设 许 多 各 式 各 样 利 益 的 一 种 手 段 , 而 是

    作 为 使 一 个 家 族 的 成 员 都 能 得 到 比 在 “ 无 遗 嘱 ” 继 承 规 定 下

    所 能 获 得 的 更 好 的 供 应 的 一 种 方 法 。 我 们 可 能 要 发 生 这 样 一

    个 疑 问 , 即 当 时 一 个 罗 马 人 对 于 立 遗 嘱 的 实 践 所 有 的 想 法 和

    我 们 今 天 所 熟 悉 的 想 法 究 竟 是 不 是 极 端 地 不 同 的 。 把 “ 收

    养 ” 和 “ 立 遗 嘱 ” 作 为 延 续 “ 家 族 ” 的 方 式 的 习 惯 , 是 必 然

    地 和 罗 马 人 对 于 主 权 继 承 的 看 法 特 别 含 糊 有 关 联 。 我 们 不 能

    不 看 到 , 早 期 罗 马 各 个 皇 帝 的 依 次 继 承 在 当 时 是 被 认 为 合 理

    地 正 常 的 , 并 且 尽 管 当 时 发 生 了 这 一 切 事 情 , 但 象 狄 奥 多 西

    ( T h e o d o s i u s ) 或 查 斯 丁 尼 安 这 类 诸 侯 的 自 封 为 凯 撒 和 奥 古 斯多 , 也 并 没 有 被 认 为 是 妄 诞 无 稽 的 。

    当 原 始 社 会 的 各 种 现 象 揭 露 以 后 , 十 七 世 纪 法 学 家 认 为可 疑 的 一 个 命 题 , 即 “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 比 “ 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 是 更 为

    古 老 的 一 个 制 度 , 已 成 为 无 可 争 辩 的 了 。 在 这 个 问 题 解 决 以

    后 , 又 发 生 了 另 外 一 个 更 有 趣 的 问 题 , 即 一 个 遗 嘱 的 指 示 究

    竟 是 怎 样 和 在 什 么 条 件 下 最 初 被 准 许 用 来 规 定 家 族 权 的 移

    转 , 以 及 后 来 又 规 定 财 产 的 死 后 分 配 。 这 个 问 题 的 所 以 难 于

    决 定 , 是 因 为 在 古 代 共 产 体 中 “ 遗 嘱 权 力 ” 是 罕 见 的 。 除 了

    罗 马 人 之 外 , 其 他 原 始 社 会 究 竟 是 否 知 道 有 真 正 立 遗 嘱 权 力

    的 , 还 是 有 疑 问 的 。 它 的 萌 芽 形 式 虽 然 到 处 可 见 , 但 其 中 绝

    大 部 分 都 不 能 逃 避 渊 源 来 自 罗 马 的 嫌 疑 。 雅 典 的 遗 嘱 无 疑 是

    土 著 的 , 但 我 们 不 久 就 可 以 看 到 , 它 只 是 未 成 熟 的 遗 命 。 至

    于 那 些 征 服 罗 马 帝 国 的 各 个 蛮 族 所 传 给 我 们 的 一 些 法 典 中 用

    法 律 规 定 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” , 这 些 “ 遗 嘱 ” 几 乎 都 肯 定 是 罗 马 的 。 近

    来 最 有 鉴 别 力 的 德 国 批 评 都 注 意 到 这 些 ·

    蛮 ·

    族 ·

    法 ·

    律上 来 , 调 查 的 主 要 目 的 , 是 要 在 这 些 制 度 中 把

    原 来 本 族 习 惯 所 组 成 的 部 分 从 借 用 罗 马 法 律 的 外 来 要 素 中 分

    离 出 来 。 在 进 行 这 项 工 作 的 过 程 中 , 经 常 发 现 一 个 结 果 , 即

    在 古 代 法 典 的 核 心 中 并 没 有 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 痕 迹 。 凡 含 有 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 的 法 律 , 都 是 来 自 罗 马 法 律 学 的 。 同 样 地 , ( 据 我 被 告

    知 ) 希 伯 来 语 的 犹 太 法 所 规 定 的 萌 芽 “ 遗 命 ” , 也 应 该 归 因 于

    和 罗 马 人 接 触 。 唯 一 不 属 于 罗 马 或 希 腊 社 会 的 遗 命 形 式 可 以

    被 合 理 地 假 定 为 土 著 的 , 是 为 孟 加 拉 省 的 惯 例 所 承 认 的 一 种 ;

    而 孟 加 拉 的 遗 命 只 是 一 种 萌 芽 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 。

    从 上 述 证 据 似 乎 应 该 得 出 这 样 一 个 结 论 , 即 “ 遗 命 ” 在

    最 初 只 是 在 没 有 人 能 根 据 真 正 的 或 人 为 的 血 族 权 利 而 享 有 继

    承 时 方 才 有 效 。 因 此 , 当 梭 伦 法 第 一 次 以 “ 遗 命 ” 权 赋 与 雅典 公 民 时 , 他 们 曾 禁 止 剥 夺 直 系 男 性 卑 亲 属 的 继 承 权 。 同 样地 , 孟 加 拉 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 只 有 在 和 家 族 某 种 优 先 权 相 一 致 时 才 被 准 许 适 用 于 某 种 继 承 。 又 , 犹 太 人 的 原 来 制 度 虽 没 有 规 定

    “ 立 遗 嘱 ” 的 特 权 , 但 后 来 自 称 为 以遗漏之 ·

    件 ( c a s u s  o m i s s i ) 补 充 “ 摩 西 法 ” ( M o s a i c   L a w ) 的 希 伯 来 语 法 律 学 ,

    准 许 在 根 据 摩 西 制 度 规 定 有 继 承 权 的 亲 族 全 部 不 能 继 承 或 全

    部 不 能 发 现 时 , 才 能 行 使 “ 立 遗 嘱 ” 权 。 古 日 耳 曼 法 典 借 以

    保 卫 与 之 相 结 合 的 遗 嘱 法 律 学 的 一 些 限 制 也 是 很 有 意 义 的 ,

    并 且 也 指 向 了 同 一 的 方 向 。 根 据 我 们 所 知 道 的 这 些 日 耳 曼 法

    律 , 其 绝 大 部 分 都 有 这 样 一 个 特 点 , 即 在 每 家 所 有 的 ·

    自 ·

    主 ·

    地(a l l o d ) 或 领 地 外 , 法 律 还 承 认 几 种 附 属 的 财 产 , 每 一 种 附 属

    财 产 就 都 表 示 着 罗 马 的 原 则 曾 各 别 地 被 注 入 到 原 始 条 顿 惯 例

    中 。 原 始 的 日 耳 曼 的 自 主 的 财 产 是 被 严 格 地 保 留 给 其 亲 族 的 。

    它 不 但 不 能 用 遗 命 来 处 分 , 并 且 也 不 能 ·

    在 ·

    生 ·

    前 ( i n t e r  

    v i v o s ) 用 让 与 的 方 式 来 移 转 。 古 日 耳 曼 法 和 印 度 法 律 学 相 同 ,

    规 定 男 性 的 子 嗣 与 其 父 亲 是 财 产 共 有 人 , 家 族 赠 与 非 得 全 部

    成 员 同 意 , 不 能 执 行 。 但 其 他 各 种 财 产 , 比 自 主 物 发 生 得 较

    迟 并 且 也 比 较 不 甚 贵 重 的 , 就 比 较 容 易 移 转 , 并 且 移 转 时 也

    按 照 远 为 宽 弛 的 规 定 办 理 。 妇 女 和 女 性 的 后 嗣 也 可 以 继 承 这

    种 财 产 , 显 然 是 根 据 这 样 一 个 原 则 , 即 它 们 是 不 包 括 在 宗 亲

    的 神 圣 界 限 之 内 的 。 从 罗 马 借 用 的 “ 遗 命 ” , 最 初 被 准 许 适 用

    于 、 实 在 也 仅 适 用 于 这 些 最 后 提 到 的 财 产 。

    以 上 的 说 明 , 可 用 以 使 我 们 对 古 代 罗 马 “ 遗 嘱 史 ” 中 一

    种 确 定 的 事 实 所 作 的 最 可 能 的 解 释 更 为 可 信 。 我 们 根 据 丰 富

    的 证 据 , 认 为 在 罗 马 国 家 的 原 始 时 代 , “ 遗 命 ” 是 在 “ 特 别 民会 ” ( C o m i t i a   C a l a t a ) 也 即 是 在 “ 贵 族 民 会 ” ( C o m i t i a   C u r i a At a ) 或 “ 罗 马 贵 族 市 民 议 会 ” ( P a r l i a m e n t   o f   t h e   P a t r i c i a n B u r g h e r s   o f   R o m e ) 为 “ 私 事 ” 而 集 会 时 加 以 执 行 的 。 这

    种 执 行 的 方 式 , 成 为 民 法 学 家 世 代 相 传 的 一 种 说 法 的 来 源 , 他

    们 认 为 在 罗 马 史 的 有 一 个 时 代 中 每 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 都 是 一 个 庄

    严 的 立 法 行 为 。 但 我 们 实 在 没 有 必 要 去 仰 仗 一 个 曾 对 古 代 议

    会 的 程 序 作 了 非 常 不 精 确 的 说 明 的 解 释 。 有 关 在 “ 特 别 民会 ” 中 执 行 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 故 事 , 其 适 当 的 解 答 无 疑 地 应 求 诸最古 的 罗 马无遗嘱 继 承 法 。 原 始 罗 马 法 律 学 中 规 定 亲 属 相 互 之间 继 承 权 的 准 则 , 在 它 们 还 没 有 受 到 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 “ 告 令 法律 ” 所 变 更 前 , 是 这 样 的 : — — 第 一 , 由正统 ( s u i ) 或 没 有被 解 放 的 直 系 卑 亲 属 继 承 。 在 没 有正统 时 , 由 “ 最 近 的亲 ” 来 代 替 他 , 即 由 过 去 在 或 曾 经 在 死 亡 者 同 一 “ 家 父 权 ”下的 最 亲 近 的 人 或 最 亲 近 的 亲 等 来 代 替 。 再 次 是 三 等 和 最 后 等亲 , 其 中 继 承 权 传 给同族人 , 即 死 亡 者氏族或大氏族中的集体 成 员 。 我 在 前 面 已 经 解 释 过 , “ 大 氏 族 ” 是 家 族 的 一 种 拟 制

    的 扩 大 , 凡 是 具 有 同 一 姓 氏 以 及 因 为 有 同 一 姓 氏 而 被 假 定 为

    来 自 共 同 始 祖 的 一 切 罗 马 “ 贵 族 ” 公 民 都 包 括 在 内 。 称 为

    “ 贵 族 民 会 ” 的 “ 贵 族 议 会 ” 是 完 全 由 “ 氏 族 ” 或 “ 大 氏 族 ”

    的 代 表 组 成 的 一 个 “ 立 法 机 关 ” 。 这 是 罗 马 人 民 的 一 个 代 表 会

    议 , 根 据 了 国 家 的 组 成 单 位 是 “ 氏 族 ” 的 假 定 而 组 织 的 。 正

    由 于 这 样 不 可 避 免 的 推 理 , “ 民 会 ” 的 受 理 “ 遗 嘱 ” 是 与 “ 同

    族 人 ” 的 权 利 有 关 的 , 并 且 其 目 的 是 在 保 证 “ 同 族 人 ” 能 行

    使 他 们 的 最 后 继 承 权 。 如 果 我 们 假 定 , 只 有 在 遗 嘱 人 没 有 可以 发 现 的同族人 或在同族人 放 弃 权 利 时 才 可 以 立 “ 遗 命 ” , 并假 定 每 一 个 “ 遗 命 ” 应 提 交 给 “ 罗 马 氏 族 大 会 ” ( G e n e r a l   A s As e m b l y   o f   t h e   R o m a n   G e n t e s ) 以 便 使 那 些 因 遗 嘱 处 分 而 受 到 损 害 的 人 得 在 必 要 时 可 以 提 出 否 决 , 在 大 会 中 通 过 后即 可 推 定 他 们 已 放 弃 其 继 承 权 , 如 果 我 们 这 样 假 定 , 则 全 部

    显 然 的 变 例 就 可 以 为 之 扫 除 了 。 在 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 公 布 的 前

    夕 , 这 种 否 决 权 可 能 已 经 大 大 地 缩 小 了 , 或 是 仅 仅 偶 然 地 和

    不 经 常 地 行 使 着 。 虽 然 , 要 说 明 把 这 管 辖 权 托 付 给 “ 特 别 民

    会 ” 的 意 义 和 渊 源 是 容 易 的 , 但 要 追 溯 其 逐 渐 发 展 或 逐 渐 衰

    亡 的 过 程 却 没 有 这 样 容 易 。

    但 是 , 所 有 现 代 “ 遗 命 ” 所 自 来 的 “ 遗 命 ” , 并 不 是 在

    “ 特 别 民 会 ” 中 执 行 的 “ 遗 命 ” , 而 是 另 外 一 种 与 之 相 竞 争 并

    且 终 于 用 来 代 替 它 的 “ 遗 命 ” 。 这 种 早 期 罗 马 “ 遗 命 ” 在 历 史

    上 有 其 重 要 性 , 并 且 通 过 了 它 可 以 解 释 清 楚 许 多 古 代 的 思 想 ,因 此 我 认 为 必 须 比 较 详 细 地 加 以 阐 明 。

    当 “ 遗 嘱 权 ” 在 法 律 史 上 第 一 次 出 现 时 , 像 几 乎 所 有 伟大 的 各 种 罗 马 制 度 一 样 , 有 迹 象 证 明 它 成 了 “ 贵 族 ” 和 “ 平民 ” 间 争 论 的 题 目 。 当 时 有 一 条 政 治 格 言 , 即 “一个平民不能成为一个大氏族的成员 ” ( P l e b s   G e m t e m   n o n   h a b et),其 结 果 是 把 “ 平 民 ” 完 全 排 斥 在 “ 贵 族 民 会 ” 之 外 。 因 此 ,有些 评 论 家 就 认 为 一 个 “ 平 民 ” 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 是 不 可 能 在 “ 贵 族议 会 ” 中 宣 读 的 , 因 此 一 个 “ 平 民 ” 就 也 完 全 没 有 “ 遗 嘱 ” 之

    权 。 其 他 评 论 家 仅 仅 指 出 , 在 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 没 有 代 表 的 一 个 不

    友 好 的 议 会 中 , 要 把 一 个 拟 议 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 提 交 它 受 理 是 有 困

    难 的 。 不 论 真 正 的 看 法 应 该 如 何 , 一 种 “ 遗 命 ” 被 应 用 了 , 它

    具 有 意 图 避 免 某 种 可 厌 恶 义 务 的 一 切 特 点 。 这 种 “ 遗 嘱 ” 是一 种在生 ·

    前 的 让 与 , 把 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 家 族 和 财 产 完 全 地 和 不

    可 挽 回 地 移 转 给 他 心 意 中 的 继 承 人 。 这 种 移 转 一 定 是 始 终 为

    严 格 的 罗 马 法 规 定 所 准 许 的 , 但 是 , 当 这 种 行 为 的 目 的 是 要

    在 死 后 发 生 效 力 时 , 就 可 能 发 生 纠 纷 , 因 为 在 没 有 取 得 “ 贵族 议 会 ” 的 正 式 认 可 前 , 它 是 否 能 成 为 有 效 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” , 是 一

    个 问 题 。 当 时 在 罗 马 人 民 的 两 个 阶 级 之 间 如 果 在 这 一 点 上 存

    在 着 分 歧 意 见 , 那 末 后 来 通 过 伟 大 的 大 宪 官 和 解 时 代 它 就 连同 许 多 其 他 不 平 的 泉 源 给 一 并 消 灭 了 。 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 原 文 还保 存 着 , 它 说法律规定,家父得使用他资产的监护权 ( P a t e r  f a m i l i a s   u t i   d e   p e c u n i a J  t u t e l a Jv e   r e i   s u E l e g a Js s i t , i t a   j u s   e s t o ) — — 这 一 条 法 律 除 了 使 “ 平 民 遗嘱 ” 合 法 化 外 , 不 可 能 有 任 何 其 他 的 目 的 。

    学 者 们 都 知 道 , 在 “ 贵 族 议 会 ” 停 止 作 为 罗 马 国 家 的 立法 机 关 又 经 过 了 几 世 纪 后 , 它 仍 旧 为 了 私 事 而 继 续 召 开 正 式集 会 。 因 此 , 在 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 公 布 后 的 一 个 长 时 期 内 ,我们 有 理 由 相 信 “ 特 别 民 会 ” 仍 旧 为 了 使 “ 遗 命 ” 生 效 而 集 会。把 它 称 为 一 个 “ 登 记 法 院 ” ( C o u r t   o f   R e g i s t r a t i o n ) , 可 以最 恰 当 地 表 示 出 它 可 能 的 职 能 , 但 是 提 出 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 应 被 理解 为 并 不 真 正 地登入簿据 , 只 是 向 其 成 员 宣 读 , 他 们 应 能 注意 其 要 旨 并 牢 记 于 心 中 。 很 可 能 这 一 种 “ 遗 命 ” 从 来 没 有写成 书 面 , 但 无 论 如 何 , 纵 使 “ 遗 嘱 ” 原 来 是 书 面 的 , “ 民 会 ”

    的 职 责 也 只 限 于 听 取 高 声 朗 诵 , 在 这 以 后 文 件 由 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 加以 保 管 , 或 寄 存 于 某 些 宗 教 团 体 妥 为 保 管 。 这 种 公 告 也 许 是在 “ 特 别 民 会 ” 中 执 行 的 “ 遗 命 ” 的 附 带 条 件 之 一 , 这 就 使它 不 为 一 般 人 所 欢 迎 。 在 帝 国 的 初 期 , “ 民 会 ” 仍 旧 召 集 会 议 ,但 这 些 会 议 似 已 徒 具 形 式 , 很 少 或 甚 至 没 有 “ 遗 嘱 ” 会 在 定期 会 议 中 被 提 出 来 。

    对 现 代 世 界 文 明 有 深 远 影 响 的 , 是 古 代 的 “ 平 民 遗嘱 ” — — 这 是 上 述 “ 遗 命 ” 的 代 替 物 。 它 在 罗 马 获 得 了 由于要 把 “ 遗 命 ” 提 交 “ 特 别 民 会 ” 而 丧 失 的 一 切 声 望 。 它 所 以有 其 一 切 优 点 , 关 键 在 于 它 是 来 自曼企帕因 ( m a n c i p i u m ) 或 即 古 罗 马 的 让 与 , 我 们 毫 不 踌 躇 地 认 为 这 种 手 续 程 序 是 现 代社 会 如 果 没 有 了 它 们 就 很 难 团 结 在 一 起 的 两 个 伟 大 制 度即“ 契 约 ” 和 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 母 体 。 曼 企 帕 因 或 后 来 在 拉 丁 文 中 所谓“ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” , 把 我 们 带 回 到 民 事 社 会 的 萌 芽 时 代 去 。由于它 的 产 生 远 在 书 写 艺 术 发 明 之 前 、 至 少 是 在 书 写 艺 术 广 为 流

    行 之 前 , 所 以 手 势 、 象 征 的 行 为 和 庄 严 的 成 语 便 被 用 来 代 替

    了 文 件 的 形 式 , 冗 长 的 和 繁 复 的 仪 式 是 为 了 要 使 有 关 各 造 都

    能 注 意 到 交 易 的 重 要 性 , 并 使 证 人 们 可 以 因 此 而 获 得 深 刻 的印 象 。 口 头 证 言 不 及 书 面 证 言 完 备 , 因 此 必 须 增 加 的 证 人 和助 手 的 人 数 , 远 超 过 后 来 被 认 为 合 理 或 可 以 理 解 的 范 围 。

    罗 马 的 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 首 先 要 求 当 事 人 、 也 就 是 出 卖 人和 买 受 人 到 场 , 如 果 我 们 用 现 代 法 律 术 语 , 应 该 是 让 与 人 和受 让 人 到 场 。 此 外 , 还 应 该 至 少 有五个 证 人 ; 以 及 一 个 例 外人 物 , 即 “ 司 秤 ” ( L i b r i p e n s ) , 他 带 着 一 对 天 平 秤 用 以 权 衡古 罗 马 未 铸 成 钱 币 的 铜 钱 。 我 们 现 在 所 研 究 的 “ 遗 命 ” — —即铜衡式 ( p e r Ee t   l i b r a m ) “ 遗 嘱 ” , 这 是 在 术 语 上 这 样 被 长

    期 继 续 称 呼 的 — — 就 是 一 个 普 通 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” , 在 形 式 上 甚至 在 用 语 上 都 是 毫 未 变 动 过 的 。 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 是 让 与 人 ; 五 个 证人 和 司 秤 都 到 场 了 ; 受 让 人 的 地 位 由 一 个 在 术 语 上 被 称 为家产买主 ( f a m i l i E  e m p t o r ) 的 所 占 有 。 于 是 就 按 照 一 个 普 通“ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 的 仪 式 进 行 。 经 过 某 种 正 式 的 手 势 和 言 语 的 宣述 。

    家产买主 用 一 块 钱 敲 击 天 平 以 表 示 价 金 的 支 付 , 最 后 ,“ 遗 嘱 人 ” 即 用 所 谓 “ 交 易 宣 告 ” ( N u n c u p a t i o ) 的 一 套 话 语 来批 准 刚 才 所 做 的 , 这 一 套 成 语 在 遗 嘱 法 律 学 中 已 有 了 长 久 的历 史 , 已 为 法 学 家 所 熟 知 。 对 于 称 为 家 产 买 主 的 人 的 性 质 , 必须 特 别 加 以 注 意 。 毫 无 疑 问 , 在 起 初 他 是 “ 继 承 人 ” 本 身 。“ 遗 嘱 人 ” 当 场 把 他 全 部 “ 家 产 ” ( f a m i l i a ) , 也 就 是 他 在 家 族

    上 以 及 通 过 家 族 所 享 有 的 一 切 权 利 移 转 给 他 , 包 括 他 的 财 产 、

    他 的 奴 隶 以 及 他 的 一 切 祖 传 特 权 , 连 同 他 的 一 切 义 务 和 责 任 。

    根 据 上 面 所 说 的 资 料 , 我 们 可 以 发 现 原 始 形 式 的 所 谓

    “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 式 “ 遗 命 ” 和 现 代 的 遗 嘱 之 间 是 有 几 个 显 著 的不 同 之 点 的 。 因 为 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 式 “ 遗 命 ” 既 然 相 当 于“ 遗 嘱 人 ” 财 产 的完全的 让 与 , 它 是 不 能撤销的 。 因 为 一 个 权力 在 既 已 消 灭 之 后 , 是 不 能 重 新 行 使 的 了 。

    再 则 , 它 不 是 秘 密 的 。 既 然 “ 家 产 买 主 ” 本 身 就 是 “ 继承 人 ” , 他 就 完 全 知 道 他 的 权 利 是 什 么 , 并 且 也 知 道 他 是 不 可

    改 变 地 享 有 继 承 权 的 , 即 使 在 秩 序 最 好 的 古 代 社 会 中 也 常 难

    免 会 发 生 暴 乱 , 因 此 这 样 的 知 识 便 成 为 极 端 危 险 的 了 。 但 这

    种 “ 遗 命 ” 和 “ 让 与 ” 关 系 所 发 生 的 最 可 惊 的 后 果 , 也 许 是

    在 把 继 承 权 立 刻 归 属 于 “ 继 承 人 ” 。 多 数 民 法 学 家 都 不 相 信 这

    一 点 , 他 们 认 为 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 财 产 的 归 属 是 以 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 死 亡

    为 条 件 的 , 或 要 在 一 个 不 可 确 定 的 时 候 , 即 让 与 人 死 亡 的 时

    候 才 能 让 与 给 他 。 但 是 一 直 到 罗 马 法 律 学 的 最 后 时 期 , 有 一

    类 的 交 易 是 绝 对 不 允 许 用 一 个 条 件 来 直 接 变 更 它 , 或 用 一 定时 限 来 限 制 它 , 或 用 一 定 时 限 来 起 算 的 。 用 术 语 来 讲 , 就 是不 准 许 附 有条件 ( c o n d i t i o ) 或日期 ( d i e s ) 的 。 “ 曼 企 帕 地荷 ” 是 其 中 的 一 种 , 因 此 , 虽 然 看 起 来 很 奇 怪 , 但 我 们 还 是

    不 得 不 得 出 这 样 一 个 结 论 , 即 原 始 罗 马 “ 遗 嘱 ” 是 立 即 生 效

    的 , 即 使 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 在 其 “ 立 遗 嘱 ” 行 为 后 仍 旧 生 存 , 也 是

    如 此 。 很 可 能 , 罗 马 公 民 原 来 只 在 临 死 的 时 候 订 立 “ 遗 嘱 ” ,

    而 一 个 少 壮 的 人 为 了 “ 家 族 ” 延 续 而 预 作 准 备 时 就 往 往 宁 可

    采 取 “ 收 养 ” 而 不 采 取 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 形 式 。 我 们 仍 旧 应 该 相 信 ,

    如 果 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 竟 然 恢 复 健 康 , 他 只 能 在 其 “ 继 承 人 ” 的 容

    许 之 下 继 续 管 理 其 家 族 。

    这 些 不 方 便 处 如 何 补 救 , 以 及 为 什 么 “ 遗 命 ” 会 具 有 现

    在 普 遍 地 认 为 和 它 有 关 联 的 各 种 特 点 , 我 在 进 行 解 释 之 前 , 首

    先 应 该 说 明 二 三 个 问 题 。 “ 遗 命 ” 并 非 必 须 是 书 面 的 : 在 起 初 ,

    “ 遗 命 ” 似 乎 一 成 不 变 地 是 口 头 的 , 并 且 , 即 使 在 较 后 时 期 ,

    宣 布 遗 赠 的 证 书 也 只 是 偶 然 地 和 “ 遗 嘱 ” 联 系 在 一 起 而 并 不

    是 它 的 主 要 组 成 部 分 。 它 对 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 关 系 , 事 实 上 正 和 旧

    英 国 法 律 中 允 许 使 用 的 证 书 对 罚 金 和 回 复 的 关 系 , 或 “ 封 土

    授 与 状 ” 对 封 土 授 与 的 关 系 相 同 。 在 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 之 前 , 书

    面 绝 少 用 处 , 因 为 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 无 权 以 其 遗 产 遗 赠 给 任 何 人 , 能

    从 一 个 遗 嘱 中 获 得 利 益 的 唯 一 的 人 们 是 “ 继 承 人 ” 或 “ 共 同

    继 承 人 ” 。 但 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 中 条 文 的 极 端 一 般 性 不 久 产 生 了

    这 样 一 条 教 义 , 即 不 论 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 对 他 加 上 任 何 指 示 , “ 继 承

    人 ” 必 须 接 受 继 承 权 , 换 言 之 , 必 须 接 受 作 出 遗 赠 限 制 的 继

    承 权 。 书 面 的 遗 嘱 证 件 于 是 取 得 了 一 种 新 的 价 值 , 即 可 以 用

    来 作 为 防 止 继 承 人 诈 欺 地 拒 绝 满 足 受 遗 赠 人 的 一 种 保 证 ; 但到 最 后 , “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 还 是 可 以 任 意 决 定 专 靠 证 人 的 证 言 , 并 用口 头 宣 告家产买主 必 须 支 付 的 各 个 遗 赠 。

    所 谓家产买主 这 个 名 词 , 须 要 注 意 。 “ 买 主 ” 表 示 “ 遗嘱 ” 可 以 说 是 一 种 买 卖 , 而 “ 家 产 ” 这 个 词 , 和 “ 十 二 铜 表法 ” 遗 嘱 条 款 中 的 用 语 相 比 较 时 , 可 以 使 我 们 获 得 有 启 发 性的 结 论 。 “ 家 产 ” 在 古 典 拉 丁 文 中 , 意 思 始 终 是 指 一 个 人 的 奴隶 。 但 在 这 里 , 以 及 一 般 地 在 古 罗 马 法 的 用 语 中 , 它 包 括 了在 他 “ 家 父 权 ” 之 下 的 一 切 人 , 至 于 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 物 质 财 产或 资 产 , 则 视 为 家 族 的 附 属 物 而 移 转 。 试 再 回 顾 一 下 “ 十 二铜 表 法 ” , 可 以 看 到 它 谈 到 了 “他资产的监护权 ” ( t u t e l a   r e isu E) , 这 一 种 说 法 正 和 刚 才 所 研 究 的 成 语 意 义 相 反 。 因 此我 们 就 无 法 避 免 这 样 一 个 结 论 , 即 甚 至 在 比 较 近 的 大 宪 官 和解 时 代 , 表 示 “ 家 庭 ” 和 “ 财 产 ” 的 两 个 名 词 在 日 常 用 语 中是 混 淆 不 清 的 。 如 果 把 一 个 人 的 “ 家 庭 ” 认 为 是 他 的 财 产 , 我们 就 不 妨 把 这 个 用 语 解 释 为 指 “ 家 父 权 ” 的 范 围 , 但 是 , 由于 这 两 个 名 词 是 可 以 相 互 交 换 的 , 我 们 必 须 承 认 , 这 样 的 说法 把 我 们 带 回 到 了 原 始 时 代 , 当 时 财 产 是 由 家 族 所 有 , 而 家族 则 为 公 民 所 管 理 , 因 此 社 会 的 成 员 并 不 有 其 财 产和 其 家 族 ,而是通过 其 家 族 而 有 其 财 产 的 。

    在 一 个 不 容 易 明 确 决 定 的 时 期 , 罗 马 “ 裁 判 官 ” 在 处 理“ 遗 命 ” 时 , 习 惯 于 按 照 法 律 的 精 神 而 不 是 法 律 的 文 字 来 举 行仪 式 。 不 定 期 处 分 在 不 知 不 觉 中 成 为 成 规 定 例 , 直 到 最 后 , 一

    种 完 全 新 形 式 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 成 熟 了 , 并 且 和 “ 告 令 法 律 学 ” 正

    规 地 啣 接 在 一 起 。 新 的 或 是裁判官 的 “ 遗 命 ” 从 ·

    大 ·

    官 ·

    法 ( J u s  H o n o r a r i u m ) 或 罗 马 的 衡 平 法 取 得 其 全 部 的 稳 固 性 。 某 年的 “ 裁 判 官 ” 一 定 曾 在 其 就 任 的 “ 布 告 ” 中 列 入 了 一 个 条 款 ,

    说 明 他 决 意 支 持 通 过 某 种 仪 式 而 执 行 的 一 切 “ 遗 命 ” ; 这 种 改

    革 在 被 发 现 为 有 利 的 以 后 , 其 有 关 条 款 便 被 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 继

    承 者 重 新 引 用 , 并 再 为 其 后 任 重 复 采 用 , 直 到 最 后 由 于 这 样

    地 被 继 续 编 入 而 被 称 为 “ 常 续 ” 或 “ 永 续 告 令 ” ( C o n t i n u o u s E d i c t ) 这 一 部 分 法 律 学 的 一 个 公 认 部 分 。 研 究 一 下 一 个有效 “ 裁 判 官 遗 嘱 ” 的 条 件 , 显 然 可 以 看 到 这 些 条 件 决 定 于“ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 遗 命 ” 的 要 求 , 革 新 的 “ 裁 判 官 ” 显 然 只 在 旧 有的 手 续 能 保 证 真 实 或 防 止 诈 欺 时 才 加 以 保 留 。 当 “ 曼 企 帕地荷 遗 命 ” 执 行 时 , 在 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 旁 边 有 七 个 人 到 场 。 因 此“ 裁 判 官 遗 嘱 ” 必 须 有 七 个 证 人 : 其 中 两 个 相 当 于司秤和家产买主 , 他 们 不 是 作 为 象 征 的 性 质 , 他 们 到 场 的 唯 一 目 的 是为了 提 供 证 言 。 这 时 不 再 举 行 象 征 的 仪 式 ; 只 是 把 “ 遗 嘱 ”诵读 一 遍 ; 但 是 为 了 要 永 保 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 处 分 的 证 据 起 见 , 很 可能 ( 虽 然 不 能 绝 对 地 肯 定 ) 必 须 有 一 书 面 的 证 件 。 无 论 如 何 ,每 当 一 个 书 面 提 出 诵 读 或 被 提 供 为 一 个 人 的 最 后 “ 遗 嘱 ” 时,我 们 确 切 地 知 道 , 除 非 七 个 证 人 中 的 每 一 个 人 分 别 在 外 面 加盖 其 印 章 , “ 裁 判 官 法 院 ” 是 不 会 用 特 别 干 涉 来 支 持 它 的。这是 在 法 律 学 史 上 第 一 次 看 到盖印 , 作 为 立 证 的 方 式 。 必 须 注意 , 罗 马 “ 遗 嘱 ” 以 及 其 他 重 要 文 件 上 的 印 章 并 非 仅 仅 作 为签 证 者 到 场 或 同 意 的 标 志 , 而 是 的 的 确 确 的 一 种 封 签 , 在 可以 阅 读 文 件 前 必 须 加 以 启 开 的 。

    因 此 “ 告 令 法 律 ” 所 强 行 的 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 处 分 , 只要 经 过 七 个 证 人 的 封 签 证 明 , 不 一 定 要 经 过 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 的形 式 。 但 我 们 可 以 作 出 这 样 一 个 一 般 性 的 命 题 , 即 罗 马 财 产的 主 要 性 质 , 除 非 通 过 假 定 为 和 “ 市 民 法 ” 同 源 的 各 种 程 序以 外 , 是 不 能 传 授 的 。 因 此 , “ 裁 判 官 ” 不 能 把 一 个继承权授与 任 何 人 。 他 不 能 把 “ 继 承 人 ” 或 “ 共 同 继 承 人 ” 放 在 “ 遗嘱 人 ” 本 身 和 他 自 己 的 权 利 义 务 所 有 的 同 样 关 系 中 。 他 所 能做 到 的 , 是 使 被 称 为 “ 继 承 人 ” 的 人 对 遗 赠 财 产 有 实 际 的 享有 权 , 并 对 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 债 务 有 清 偿 的 力 量 。 当 “ 裁 判 官 ” 为这 些 目 的 而 行 使 其 权 力 时 , 在 术 语 上 他 被 称 为 传 授遗产占有( B o n o r u m   P o s s e s s i o ) 。 这 种 情 况 下 的 “ 继 承 人 ” 或遗产占有者 , 能 享 有 “ 市 民 法 ” 上 “ 继 承 人 ” 所 能 享 有 的 一 切 财 产 所有 权 。 他 取 得 财 产 利 益 并 能 以 之 移 转 , 然 而 , 在 申 请 损 害 赔偿 时 , 他 不 应 如 我 们 所 说 的 , 求 诸 “ 普 通 法 ” 而 应 求 诸 “ 裁判 官 法 院 ” 的 “ 衡 平 法 ” 。 如 果 我 们 说 他 拥 有 在 继 承 权 中 的 一种衡平 的 财 产 , 可 能 不 致 发 生 大 错 ; 但 是 , 为 了 使 我 们 不 致为 这 样 的 类 比 所 迷 惑 , 我 们 必 须 始 终 记 着 , 在 有 一 年 中,遗产占有 是 根 据 所 谓 “ 时 效 取 得 ” ( U s u c a p i o n ) 的 一 条 罗 马 法 原则 而 产 生 效 果 的 , “ 占 有 者 ” 就 成 为 包 括 在 继 承 权 中 的 一切 财产 的 一 个 “ 公 民 ” 所 有 人 。我 们 对 古 代 的 “ 民 事 诉 讼 ” ( C i v i l   P r o c e s s ) 法 所 知 道 的太 少 了 , 不 能 对 “ 裁 判 官 法 院 ” 所 提 供 的 各 式 救 济 方 法 之间的 利 弊 一 一 加 以 比 较 。 但 可 以 断 言 , 虽 然 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷遗命 ” 有 许 多 缺 点 , 但 通 过 它 而 立 即 全 部 把概括的权利 加 以 移转 的 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 遗 命 ” , 却 从 没 有 完 全 为 这 新 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 所

    代 替 ; 在 一 个 不 拘 泥 于 古 代 形 式 或 者 这 些 古 代 形 式 并 不 十 分

    被 重 视 的 时 期 , 法 学 专 家 的 所 有 机 智 便 都 被 耗 费 于 改 进 这 种

    比 较 神 圣 庄 严 的 工 具 。 在 该 雅 士 时 代 , 也 就 是 安 托 宁 · 凯 撒时 代 ; “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 遗 命 ” 的 大 缺 点 都 已 消 除 。 原 来 , 正 如 我

    们 已 经 看 到 过 的 那 样 , 对 手 续 程 序 的 主 要 性 质 的 要 求 , 是

    “ 继 承 人 ” 本 身 必 须 是 “ 家 产 买 主 ” , 其 结 果 是 : 他 不 但 立 即

    在 “ 遗 嘱 人 的 财 产 ” 中 取 得 一 种 既 得 利 益 , 并 且 被 正 式 告 知他 的 权 利 。 但 是 到 了 该 雅 士 时 期 , 就 准 许 可 由 一 些 不 相 关 的人 来 担 任 “ 家 产 买 主 ” 。 因 此 继 承 人 就 不 一 定 会 被 告 知 他 的 预定 继 承 ; 从 此 以 后 , “ 遗 嘱 ” 就 取 得 了秘密 的 特 性 。 用 一 个 陌生 人 作 为 “ 家 产 买 主 ” 以 代 替 真 正 的 “ 继 承 人 ” , 还 有 其 他 的种 种 后 果 。 在 它 一 经 合 法 化 后 , 一 个 罗 马 “ 遗 命 ” 就 包 括 了两 个 部 分 或 阶 段 — — 一 个 是 让 与 , 这 是 一 种 纯 粹 的 形 式 , 还有 一 个 是 “ 宣 告 ” 。 在 这 程 序 的 后 半 过 程 中 , “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 或 者口 头 向 其 助 手 宣 布 在 他 死 亡 后 应 该 执 行 的 愿 望 , 或 者 提 出 一个 书 面 文 件 , 其 中 包 含 有 他 的 愿 望 。 可 能 要 直 到 注 意 力 已 不再 集 中 于 这 想 象 的 ” 让 与 ” 而 集 中 于 “ 宣 告 ” , 并 把 它 作 为 交易 的 重 要 部 分 时 , “ 遗 嘱 ” 才 被 准 许 成 为可以撤销的 。

    这 样 , 我 已 从 法 律 史 上 把 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 系 统 作 了 一 番 考 察 。它 的 根 源 , 就 是 建 筑 在 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 或 “ 让 与 ” 上 的 古“ 铜 衡 式 ” 遗 命 。 但 这 个 古 “ 遗 嘱 ” 有 多 种 缺 点 , 这 些 缺 点 已经 , 虽 然 只 是 间 接 的 , 为 裁 判 官 法 所 补 救 了 。 同 时 , 法 学 专家 们 的 机 智 , 在 “ 普 通 法 遗 嘱 ” 或 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 遗 命 ” 中 , 实现 了 那 些 裁 判 官 可 能 会 同 时 在 “ 衡 平 法 ” 中 达 到 的 各 种 改 进 。但 这 些 最 后 的 改 良 , 完 全 依 靠 了 法 律 上 的 机 巧 , 因 此 我 们 看到 该 雅 士 或 是 阿 尔 比 安 时 代 的 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 只 是 过 渡 性 质 的 。 以后 接 着 发 生 些 什 么 变 化 , 我 们 不 知 道 ; 但 最 后 , 刚 在 查 斯 丁尼 安 法 律 学 复 兴 之 前 , 我 们 发 现 东 罗 马 帝 国 的 人 民 应 用 着 一种 “ 遗 嘱 ” , 它 一 方 面 可 以 追 溯 到 “ 裁 判 官 遗 嘱 ” , 而 另 一 方面 可 以 追 溯 到 “ 铜 衡 式 ” 遗 命 。 像 “ 裁 判 官 遗 命 ” 一 样 , 它不 需 要 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” , 并 且 除 非 有 七 个 证 人 的 封 签 不 生 效 力 。

    但 又 象 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 遗 嘱 ” 一 样 , 它 所 移 转 的 是 继 承 权 , 不仅 仅 是 一 个遗产占有 。 但 它 最 重 要 特 点 中 有 几 点 是 由 现 实 法规 所 规 定 的 , 并 且 正 是 由 于 它 有 三 重 来 源 , 即 “ 裁 判 官 告令 ” 、 “ 市 民 法 ” 以 及 “ 帝 国 宪 令 ” , 因 此 查 斯 丁 尼 安 就 称 他 自己 时 代 的 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 为三重法 。 这 种 新 的“遗命 ” 就 是 一 般 人 所 说 的 “ 罗 马 遗 嘱 ” 。 但 这 只 是 东 罗 马 帝国 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” ; 根 据 萨 维 尼 的 研 究 , 显 示 出 在 西 罗 马 帝 国,直到 中 世 纪 , 旧 的 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 遗 命 ” 连 同 让 与 、 铜 和 天平 等工 具 , 仍 旧 被 继 续 使 用 着 。

    第七章 古今有关遗嘱与继 承的各种思想

    虽 然 现 代 欧 洲 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 中 有 许 多 地 方 和 过 去 人 类 所 实 行 的

    最 古 的 遗 嘱 处 分 有 着 密 切 的 联 系 , 但 在 “ 遗 嘱 ” 和 “ 继 承 ” 这

    个 主 题 上 , 古 代 和 现 代 思 想 观 念 确 实 存 在 着 重 要 的 分 歧 。 这

    一 些 分 歧 点 , 我 将 在 本 章 中 详 细 加 以 说 明 。

    在 距 离 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 时 代 几 世 纪 以 后 的 一 个 时 期 中 , 我

    们 发 现 在 “ 罗 马 市 民 法 ” 上 增 加 了 许 多 规 定 , 其 目 的 是 在 限

    制 剥 夺 子 女 的 继 承 权 ; 我 们 看 到 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 审 判 权 亦 积 极

    地 执 行 这 一 项 利 益 ; 我 们 在 那 时 候 发 现 有 一 种 新 的 救 济 方 法 ,

    在 性 质 上 是 非 常 例 外 的 , 而 其 来 源 也 是 不 确 定 的 , 这 种 救 济

    方 法 称 为 “ 遗 嘱 违 反 伦 道 之 诉 ” ( Q u e r e l a   I n o f f i c i o s i   T e s t a Am e n t i ) , 目 的 是 使 亲 子 恢 复 为 其 父 的 “ 遗 命 ” 所 不 公 正 地 拒 绝

    的 继 承 利 益 。 有 的 著 者 在 把 这 个 法 律 规 定 和 承 认 订 立 “ 遗

    嘱 ” 的 绝 对 自 由 的 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 原 文 相 比 较 时 , 他 们 想 把

    大 量 戏 剧 性 的 偶 然 事 件 混 入 他 们 的 “ 遗 嘱 法 律 ” 史 中 。 他 们

    谈 到 族 长 立 刻 毫 无 限 制 地 任 意 剥 夺 子 女 的 继 承 权 , 谈 到 这 种

    新 的 实 践 对 公 共 道 德 所 造 成 的 侮 辱 和 损 害 , 更 谈 到 一 切 善 良

    人 们 对 “ 裁 判 官 ” 阻 止 父 权 堕 落 进 一 步 发 展 而 作 的 勇 敢 行 为

    加 以 赞 美 。 这 些 故 事 就 其 所 叙 述 的 主 要 事 实 而 论 , 并 不 是 完

    全 毫 无 根 据 的 , 但 反 映 出 对 于 法 律 史 上 的 各 项 原 则 是 有 严 重的 误 解 的 。 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 的 法 律 应 该 根 据 它 制 定 时 代 的 特 性

    来 加 以 解 释 。 它 不 可 能 有 一 种 在 较 后 时 代 认 为 它 必 须 加 以 反

    对 的 倾 向 , 它 只 根 据 这 样 一 个 假 定 继 续 前 进 , 即 不 认 为 这 种

    倾 向 是 存 在 的 , 或 者 我 们 可 以 说 , 根 本 不 考 虑 到 有 这 种 倾 向

    存 在 的 可 能 。 罗 马 公 民 很 少 可 能 会 立 刻 开 始 自 由 地 运 用 这 剥

    夺 继 承 权 的 权 力 。 我 们 知 道 , 在 当 时 , 家 族 奴 役 的 羁 绊 是 在

    最 残 酷 地 压 迫 着 , 但 人 们 仍 旧 忍 受 着 , 在 这 种 情 况 下 , 如 果

    以 为 在 我 们 自 己 时 代 不 受 欢 迎 的 某 些 负 担 , 在 那 时 竟 然 能 够

    解 脱 , 这 是 违 背 了 一 切 理 性 和 违 背 了 对 于 历 史 的 合 理 理 解 的 。

    “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 准 许 执 行 “ 遗 命 ” , 只 限 于 它 认 为 遗 嘱 可 能 被

    执 行 的 情 况 下 , 也 就 是 说 , 只 限 于 没 有 子 嗣 和 近 亲 的 时 候 。 它

    并 不 禁 止 剥 夺 直 系 卑 亲 属 的 继 承 权 , 因 为 这 种 偶 然 事 件 是 当

    时 罗 马 立 法 者 所 不 可 能 预 见 到 的 , 因 此 也 就 无 从 在 立 法 中 用

    明 文 加 以 规 定 。 毫 无 疑 义 , 当 家 族 情 谊 逐 渐 丧 失 了 它 原 来 所

    具 有 的 个 人 义 务 的 面 貌 时 , 就 偶 然 发 生 了 剥 夺 子 女 继 承 权 的

    事 件 , 但 “ 裁 判 官 ” 的 干 预 却 并 不 是 由 于 这 种 恶 习 的 普 遍 发

    生 , 而 在 最 初 时 无 疑 地 是 由 于 下 述 原 因 的 推 动 , 即 因 为 这 类

    不 自 然 的 任 意 行 动 事 例 在 当 时 是 很 少 而 且 是 例 外 的 , 并 且 也

    是 和 当 时 的 道 德 观 念 相 抵 触 的 。

    由 这 一 部 分 罗 马 “ 遗 嘱 法 ” 所 提 供 的 迹 象 在 性 质 上 是 完

    全 不 同 的 。 可 注 意 的 是 , 罗 马 人 从 没 有 把 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 用 作

    ·

    剥 ·

    夺 一 个 “ 家 族 ” 的 继 承 权 的 一 种 手 段 , 或 用 作 造 成 一 项 遗

    产 的 不 公 平 分 配 的 一 种 手 段 。 阻 止 它 转 向 这 一 方 面 的 法 律 规

    定 , 随 着 这 部 分 法 律 学 的 逐 渐 发 展 而 不 断 增 加 其 数 量 和 严 密

    程 度 ; 这 些 规 定 无 疑 地 是 和 罗 马 社 会 一 贯 的 情 绪 相 符 合 的 , 并不 完 全 是 由 于 个 人 感 情 的 偶 然 变 动 。 遗 嘱 权 的 主 要 价 值 似 乎

    是 在 它 的 能 够 帮 助 一 个 “ 家 族 ” ·

    作 ·

    好 ·

    豫 ·

    备 , 并 在 分 配 继 承 财

    产 中 能 比 较 按 照 “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 法 ” 分 配 得 更 加 公 平 不 偏 。 如

    果 一 般 的 情 绪 确 是 这 样 , 它 在 某 种 程 度 上 说 明 了 始 终 成 为 罗

    马 人 的 特 点 : 即 对 于 “ 无 遗 嘱 ” 而 死 亡 感 到 特 殊 的 恐 怖 。 丧

    失 遗 嘱 特 权 似 乎 被 认 为 是 比 任 何 灾 害 更 沉 重 的 一 种 天 罚 ; 咒

    诅 一 个 敌 人 , 说 他 要 死 而 无 “ 遗 嘱 ” 要 比 任 何 咒 诅 都 更 苛 酷 。

    在 我 们 今 日 所 存 在 的 各 种 意 见 中 , 没 有 这 种 类 似 的 感 情 , 或

    是 很 不 容 易 发 现 有 这 种 感 情 。 所 有 各 个 时 代 的 一 切 人 无 疑 地

    都 宁 愿 能 筹 划 其 所 有 物 的 归 宿 , 并 由 法 律 来 为 他 们 执 行 这 个

    任 务 ; 但 是 罗 马 人 对 于 “ 有 遗 嘱 而 死 亡 ” 的 感 情 , 从 其 强 度

    来 讲 , 并 不 仅 仅 是 出 于 放 任 随 便 的 愿 望 ; 当 然 , 它 和 家 族 骄

    傲 更 无 共 同 之 处 , 因 为 家 族 骄 傲 全 然 是 封 建 制 度 的 产 物 , 它

    把 一 种 财 产 积 累 在 一 个 独 一 的 代 表 人 手 中 。 也 许 是 ·

    先 ·

    天 ·

    的 由

    于 “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 中 的 某 些 规 定 , 造 成 这 种 强 烈 地 宁 愿 用

    “ 遗 嘱 ” 分 配 财 产 而 不 愿 根 据 法 律 规 定 而 分 配 。 但 是 , 困 难 是

    在 于 , 当 我 们 看 到 罗 马 的 “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 法 律 , 还 是 处 在 查

    斯 丁 尼 安 把 它 制 成 为 现 代 立 法 者 几 乎 普 遍 采 用 的 继 承 顺 序 以

    前 几 个 世 纪 中 一 直 具 有 的 那 种 形 式 中 时 , 它 完 全 没 有 给 人 以

    显 著 不 合 理 或 不 平 衡 的 印 象 。 相 反 的 , 它 所 规 定 的 分 配 方 法

    非 常 公 平 合 理 , 并 且 和 现 代 社 会 一 般 认 为 满 意 的 分 配 方 法 很

    少 不 同 之 处 , 因 此 , 我 们 实 没 有 理 由 说 明 为 什 么 会 这 样 地 非

    常 不 受 欢 迎 , 特 别 是 在 这 样 一 种 法 律 学 中 , 它 把 有 子 女 要 扶

    养 的 人 的 遗 嘱 权 削 减 到 一 个 狭 小 的 范 围 内 。 我 们 可 以 预 期 的 ,

    象 在 现 在 的 法 兰 西 那 样 , 族 长 都 一 般 地 不 愿 意 自 找 麻 烦 执 行一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” , 他 宁 愿 让 其 财 产 听 任 “ 法 律 ” 处 理 。 但 是 , 我

    以 为 如 果 我 们 比 较 仔 细 地 研 究 一 下 查 斯 丁 尼 安 以 前 的 “ 无 遗

    嘱 继 承 ” 标 准 , 我 们 就 能 发 现 打 开 秘 密 的 关 键 。 这 个 法 律 的

    结 构 包 括 两 个 不 同 的 部 分 。 一 部 分 的 规 定 来 自 “ 市 民 法 ” , 这

    是 罗 马 的 “ 普 通 法 ” ; 另 一 部 分 则 来 自 “ 裁 判 官 告 令 ” 。 我 在

    其 他 场 合 已 经 提 到 过 了 , “ 市 民 法 ” 规 定 有 权 继 承 的 继 承 人 按

    顺 序 有 这 样 三 种 ; 未 解 放 之 子 , 宗 亲 中 的 最 近 亲 等 , 以 及

    “ 同 族 人 ” 。 在 这 三 种 顺 序 中 间 , “ 裁 判 官 ” 添 加 了 各 类 的 亲 族 ,

    这 些 亲 族 是 “ 市 民 法 ” 所 完 全 不 管 的 。 直 到 最 后 “ 告 令 ” 和

    “ 市 民 法 ” 结 合 而 组 成 了 一 张 继 承 顺 序 表 , 它 在 实 质 上 和 传 到

    现 代 的 多 数 法 典 中 的 并 没 有 很 大 区 别 。

    有 一 点 必 须 注 意 , 在 古 代 一 定 有 这 样 一 个 时 期 , 当 时

    “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 的 顺 序 完 全 由 “ 市 民 法 ” 决 定 “ 告 令 ” 的 安 排

    是 完 全 不 存 在 的 , 或 是 不 一 贯 地 执 行 的 。 我 们 毫 不 疑 惑 , “ 裁

    判 官 ” 的 法 律 学 在 其 早 年 时 代 , 不 得 不 和 可 怕 的 阻 力 相 竞 争 ,

    并 且 更 可 能 的 是 , 在 一 般 情 绪 和 法 律 意 见 默 认 了 它 很 久 以 后 ,

    它 定 期 地 介 绍 进 来 的 各 种 变 更 并 不 根 据 于 某 种 确 定 的 原 则 ,

    而 是 根 据 了 连 续 任 命 的 各 个 高 级 官 吏 的 不 同 偏 见 而 随 时 变 动

    的 。 我 认 为 , 罗 马 人 在 这 个 时 期 中 所 实 行 的 “ 无 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 规

    定 , 足 以 说 明 罗 马 社 会 长 时 期 以 来 对 于 一 个 “ 无 遗 嘱 死 亡 ” 所

    以 始 终 存 在 着 强 烈 嫌 恶 的 理 由 。 当 时 继 承 的 顺 序 是 这 样 的 : 在

    一 个 公 民 死 亡 时 , 如 果 没 有 遗 嘱 或 是 没 有 有 效 的 遗 嘱 , 他 的

    “ 未 解 放 ” 之 子 成 为 其 继 承 人 。 他 的 ·

    解 ·

    放 之 子 不 能 分 享 继 承 权 。

    如 果 在 他 死 亡 时 , 没 有 直 系 卑 亲 属 , 就 由 宗 亲 中 最 近 的 亲 等

    继 承 , 但 是 通 过 女 性 后 裔 而 和 死 者 结 合 起 来 的 亲 族 ( 不 论 如何 接 近 ) , 都 不 能 享 有 继 承 权 。 家 族 中 所 有 其 他 支 系 都 被 排 斥

    在 继 承 权 之 外 , 而 继 承 权 就 应 归 属 于 ·

    同 ·

    族 ·

    人 也 就 是 和 死 者 具

    有 同 一 姓 氏 的 全 体 罗 马 公 民 。 因 此 , 如 果 没 有 一 个 有 效 的

    “ 遗 命 ” , 在 我 们 所 考 察 的 这 一 个 时 期 中 的 一 个 罗 马 人 就 将 使

    其 解 放 之 子 绝 对 得 不 到 什 么 权 利 , 另 一 方 面 , 既 然 假 定 他 在

    死 亡 时 没 有 子 嗣 , 则 他 的 宗 族 就 有 完 全 失 去 其 财 产 而 使 财 产

    传 诸 于 另 外 一 些 人 的 迫 切 危 险 , 这 些 人 和 他 的 关 系 仅 仅 是 由

    于 祭 司 的 拟 制 , 假 定 凡 是 同 族 的 全 部 成 员 都 是 来 自 一 个 共 同

    祖 先 。 这 样 一 种 状 态 的 本 身 就 几 乎 足 以 说 明 上 述 一 般 情 绪 的

    所 以 发 生 ; 但 在 事 实 上 , 如 果 我 们 忘 记 了 , 我 所 描 述 的 情 况

    很 可 能 是 发 生 在 正 当 罗 马 社 会 处 于 从 其 分 散 家 族 的 原 始 组 织

    转 变 的 第 一 个 阶 段 时 , 则 我 们 所 理 解 的 仅 及 一 半 而 已 。 把

    “ 解 放 ” 承 认 为 一 个 合 法 的 惯 例 , 真 是 针 对 父 权 王 国 的 最 早 的

    一 个 打 击 , 但 是 法 律 虽 然 仍 旧 认 为 “ 家 父 权 ” 是 家 族 关 系 的

    根 本 , 却 坚 持 把 解 放 之 子 视 作 “ 亲 属 ” 权 外 的 陌 生 人 和 血 缘

    外 的 外 人 。 然 而 , 我 们 不 能 就 因 而 认 为 法 律 上 的 炫 学 所 加 于

    家 族 上 的 种 种 限 制 会 在 其 父 的 自 然 情 感 上 有 同 样 效 果 。 家 族

    忠 诚 一 定 仍 旧 保 留 着 “ 宗 法 ” 制 度 下 的 那 种 近 乎 不 可 思 议 的

    神 圣 性 和 强 烈 性 ; 并 且 家 族 忠 诚 很 少 可 能 会 因 为 解 放 行 为 而

    消 灭 , 它 的 可 能 性 恰 恰 完 全 相 反 。 可 以 毫 不 踌 躇 地 认 为 当 然

    的 , 从 父 权 下 得 到 解 放 不 但 不 是 情 感 的 割 断 , 相 反 的 正 是 情

    感 的 表 现 — — 这 是 对 最 最 溺 爱 和 最 最 尊 重 的 子 嗣 给 予 一 种 仁

    德 和 宠 爱 的 标 志 。 如 果 在 所 有 子 嗣 中 受 到 这 样 特 别 宠 遇 之 子

    会 因 为 “ 无 遗 嘱 死 亡 ” 而 绝 对 地 被 剥 夺 了 继 承 权 , 则 他 的 不

    愿 蒙 受 这 种 情 况 是 母 庸 多 加 解 释 而 自 明 的 。 我 们 也 许 可 以 ·

    先天地 假 定 , 人 们 的 喜 爱 “ 立 遗 嘱 ” 是 由 于 “ 无 遗 嘱 ” 继 承 规

    定 所 造 成 的 某 种 道 德 上 的 不 公 正 而 产 生 的 ; 在 这 里 , 我 们 发

    现 这 些 “ 无 遗 嘱 ” 继 承 规 定 是 和 古 代 社 会 借 以 结 合 在 一 起 的

    那 种 天 性 不 相 一 致 的 。 我 们 可 以 把 上 面 所 主 张 的 一 切 , 表 现

    于 一 简 明 的 形 式 中 。 原 始 罗 马 人 的 每 一 种 占 优 势 的 情 绪 , 都

    是 和 家 族 的 各 种 关 系 交 织 在 一 起 的 。 但 什 么 是 “ 家 族 ” ? 法 律

    上 有 它 的 定 义 — — 自 然 情 感 上 有 它 另 外 的 一 个 定 义 。 在 这 两

    者 之 间 的 冲 突 中 产 生 了 我 们 所 要 加 以 分 析 的 感 情 , 它 热 烈 欢

    迎 这 样 一 种 制 度 , 根 据 这 种 制 度 人 们 可 以 根 据 情 感 的 指 示 而

    决 定 其 对 象 的 命 运 。

    因 此 , 我 认 为 罗 马 人 对 于 “ 无 遗 嘱 死 亡 ” 的 恐 惧 , 说 明

    了 在 古 代 有 关 “ 家 族 ” 这 个 主 题 的 法 律 与 古 代 人 对 于 家 族 的

    情 感 慢 慢 地 发 生 改 变 这 两 者 之 间 很 早 就 发 生 了 冲 突 。 在 罗 马

    “ 制 定 法 ” 中 有 一 些 规 定 ; 特 别 是 有 关 限 制 妇 女 继 承 能 力 的 那

    一 个 条 例 , 是 使 这 种 感 情 长 期 存 在 的 主 要 原 因 ; 一 般 人 都 相

    信 , 创 设 “ 信 托 遗 赠 ” ( F i d e i - C o m - m i s s a ) 制 度 , 其 目 的 就

    是 想 用 以 避 免 这 些 条 例 所 规 定 的 无 能 力 。 但 是 这 种 感 情 本 身

    的 惊 人 的 强 烈 程 度 , 似 乎 说 明 了 在 法 律 和 舆 论 之 间 早 就 存 在

    着 某 种 很 深 的 对 抗 ; 而 “ 裁 判 官 ” 对 于 法 律 学 的 改 进 无 法 把

    这 种 感 情 加 以 消 灭 , 也 是 完 全 不 足 为 奇 的 。 凡 是 熟 悉 舆 论 哲

    学 的 人 都 知 道 : 一 种 情 绪 决 不 会 因 为 产 生 它 的 情 况 消 逝 了 而

    必 然 地 随 着 消 灭 。 它 可 能 会 比 情 况 留 存 得 更 长 久 ; 不 , 它 也

    可 能 会 在 后 来 达 到 一 个 强 烈 的 顶 点 和 高 潮 , 而 这 种 顶 点 和 高

    潮 是 在 情 况 继 续 存 在 期 间 从 来 没 有 达 到 过 的 。

    把 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 看 作 是 授 予 一 种 权 力 , 把 财 产 从 家 族 中转 出 来 , 或 是 把 财 产 根 据 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 想 象 或 见 解 而 分 成 许

    多 不 公 平 的 部 分 , 这 种 看 法 发 生 在 封 建 制 度 已 完 全 巩 固 了 的

    中 世 纪 的 后 半 期 。 当 现 代 法 律 学 初 步 以 粗 糙 的 形 式 出 现 时 , 用

    遗 嘱 来 绝 对 自 由 处 分 一 个 死 者 的 财 产 , 还 是 很 少 见 的 。 在 这

    个 时 期 内 , 当 财 产 的 遗 传 由 “ 遗 嘱 ” 规 定 时 — — 在 大 部 分 的

    欧 洲 , 动 产 是 遗 嘱 处 分 的 主 体 — — 遗 嘱 权 的 行 使 不 能 干 预 寡

    妇 从 遗 产 中 取 得 一 定 分 额 的 权 利 , 同 样 不 能 干 预 子 嗣 取 得 固

    定 比 例 的 权 利 。 子 所 取 得 的 分 额 由 罗 马 法 的 规 定 用 数 量 表 示

    出 来 。 关 于 寡 妇 的 规 定 , 应 该 归 功 于 教 会 的 努 力 , 它 始 终 不

    懈 地 关 怀 着 丈 夫 死 后 妻 子 的 利 益 , — — 经 过 二 三 世 纪 的 坚 决

    要 求 之 后 , 才 获 得 了 所 有 的 胜 利 中 也 许 是 最 难 得 的 一 个 胜 利 ,

    就 是 丈 夫 在 结 婚 时 就 明 白 保 证 赡 养 其 妻 , 最 后 并 把 “ 扶 养 寡

    妇 财 产 ” ( D o w e r ) 的 原 则 列 入 了 全 西 欧 的 “ 习 惯 法 ” 中 。 可

    怪 的 是 , 以 土 地 作 为 扶 养 寡 妇 的 财 产 的 制 度 经 证 明 要 比 类 似

    的 和 更 古 的 为 寡 妇 和 子 嗣 保 留 的 一 定 分 额 动 产 的 制 度 , 更 加

    巩 固 。 在 法 兰 西 有 些 地 方 习 惯 中 , 把 这 种 权 利 一 直 保 持 到

    “ 革 命 ” 时 代 , 在 英 国 , 也 有 类 似 的 惯 例 的 痕 迹 ; 但 在 大 体 上 ,

    流 行 着 的 学 理 是 动 产 可 以 由 “ 遗 嘱 ” 自 由 处 分 , 并 且 , 虽 然

    寡 妇 的 要 求 得 到 继 续 尊 重 , 但 子 的 特 权 则 被 从 法 律 学 上 加 以

    取 消 。 当 然 这 种 变 化 完 全 是 由 于 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 影 响 。 “ 封

    建 的 ” 土 地 法 为 了 一 个 子 嗣 而 剥 夺 所 有 其 余 诸 子 的 继 承 权 , 甚

    至 对 那 些 可 以 平 均 分 配 的 财 产 也 不 复 视 为 有 加 以 平 均 分 配 的

    义 务 。 “ 遗 命 ” 是 用 以 产 生 不 平 等 的 主 要 工 具 , 而 在 这 种 情 况

    下 产 生 了 古 代 人 和 现 代 人 对 于 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 不 同 的 概 念 。 但

    是 , 虽 然 通 过 “ 遗 命 ” 而 享 有 处 理 遗 产 的 自 由 是 封 建 主 义 的一 个 偶 然 产 物 , 但 是 在 自 由 “ 遗 嘱 ” 处 分 制 度 和 另 外 一 个 制

    度 , 像 封 建 土 地 法 制 度 之 间 , 是 存 在 着 极 端 巨 大 的 区 别 的 , 因

    为 在 封 建 土 地 法 制 度 之 下 , 财 产 的 移 转 是 强 迫 按 照 规 定 的 遗

    传 系 统 而 进 行 的 。 这 个 真 理 似 乎 是 “ 法 兰 西 法 典 ” 的 著 者 所

    没 有 注 意 到 的 。 在 他 们 决 定 要 加 以 摧 毁 的 社 会 组 织 中 , 他 们

    看 到 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 主 要 建 筑 在 “ 家 族 ” 授 产 的 基 础 上 , 但

    他 们 同 时 也 注 意 到 “ 遗 命 ” 在 严 格 限 嗣 继 承 下 常 常 被 用 来 以

    为 他 保 留 的 完 全 相 同 的 优 先 权 给 予 长 子 。 因 此 , 为 了 使 他 们

    的 工 作 非 常 可 靠 , 他 们 不 但 使 长 子 不 得 在 婚 姻 协 议 中 优 先 于

    其 余 诸 子 , 他 们 并 把 “ 遗 嘱 继 承 ” 排 斥 于 法 律 之 外 , 否 则 就

    要 使 他 们 的 基 本 原 则 , 即 在 父 死 亡 时 其 财 产 应 在 诸 子 中 平 均

    分 配 的 原 则 不 能 成 立 。 其 结 果 是 他 们 建 立 了 一 种 小 范 围 的 永

    续 限 嗣 继 承 制 度 ( a   s y s t e m   o f   s m a l   p e r p e t u a l e n t a i l s ) , 这 种 制 度 非 常 接 近 欧 洲 的 封 建 制 度 , 而 不 是 完 全 的遗 产 自 由 。 英 国 的 土 地 法 , “ 封 建 制 度 的 赫 鸠 妻 尼 恩 城 ” ( t h e   H e r c u l a n e u m   o f   F e u d a l i s m ) , 当 然 是 更 和 中 世 纪 的 土 地

    法 相 似 而 不 同 于 任 何 大 陆 国 家 的 土 地 法 , 我 们 的 “ 遗 嘱 ” 也

    就 常 常 被 用 来 助 长 或 效 法 长 子 和 其 亲 系 的 优 先 权 , 这 成 为 不

    动 产 婚 姻 授 产 中 几 乎 普 遍 的 特 色 。 但 是 , 这 个 国 家 中 的 感 情

    和 舆 论 都 曾 受 到 自 由 遗 嘱 处 分 实 践 的 重 大 影 响 ; 据 我 看 来 , 在

    大 部 分 法 兰 西 社 会 中 就 家 族 中 保 存 财 产 这 个 问 题 所 具 有 的 情

    绪 , 比 诸 英 国 人 更 接 近 于 二 三 世 纪 以 前 流 行 于 全 欧 洲 的 情 绪

    状 态 。

    “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 问 题 引 起 了 历 史 法 律 学 中 一 个 最 困 难 的 问

    题 。 虽 然 我 还 没 有 说 明 我 的 见 解 , 但 我 常 常 谈 到 在 罗 马 继 承法 上 , 许 多 “ 共 同 继 承 人 ” 总 是 和 一 个 单 一 “ 继 承 人 ” 有 同

    一 的 立 足 点 的 。 事 实 上 , 我 们 从 没 有 看 到 罗 马 法 律 学 上 有 这

    样 一 个 时 期 , 一 个 “ 继 承 人 ” 或 “ 概 括 继 承 人 ” 的 地 位 不 可

    以 为 一 个 集 体 的 共 同 继 承 人 所 取 得 。 这 个 集 体 作 为 一 个 单 一

    的 单 位 而 继 承 , 继 承 的 财 产 通 过 以 后 另 外 的 法 律 程 序 在 他 们

    中 间 进 行 分 配 。 当 “ 继 承 ” 是 ·

    法 ·

    定 ·

    继 ·

    承 , 这 个 集 体 中 所 包 括

    的 都 是 死 者 的 子 嗣 时 , 他 们 每 一 个 人 都 从 财 产 中 取 得 一 个 相

    等 的 份 额 ; 虽 然 在 有 一 个 时 期 男 性 比 女 性 占 一 些 便 宜 , 但 在

    这 里 完 全 没 有 一 些 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 痕 迹 。 分 配 的 方 式 在 全

    部 古 代 法 律 学 中 是 完 全 一 样 的 。 当 然 , 当 民 事 社 会 开 始 , 各

    家 族 在 经 过 许 多 世 代 以 后 已 不 再 结 合 在 一 起 时 , 自 发 地 就 产

    生 了 这 种 观 念 , 要 把 领 地 在 每 一 世 代 的 所 有 成 员 中 平 均 分 配 ,

    并 且 不 专 为 长 子 或 其 支 系 保 留 任 何 特 权 。 关 于 这 种 现 象 和 原

    始 思 想 的 密 切 关 系 , 可 以 从 比 罗 马 制 度 更 古 的 一 些 制 度 中 , 看

    到 一 些 特 别 有 意 义 的 暗 示 。 在 印 度 人 中 , 当 子 刚 出 生 时 , 他

    对 其 父 的 财 产 立 刻 取 得 一 种 既 得 权 , 这 种 财 产 未 得 共 有 人 的

    承 认 是 不 能 出 卖 的 。 在 子 达 到 成 年 时 , 他 有 时 甚 至 可 以 不 愿

    其 父 是 否 同 意 而 强 迫 分 割 财 产 , 并 且 , 如 果 得 到 父 的 同 意 , 则

    纵 使 不 为 所 有 其 余 诸 子 所 愿 意 , 一 子 也 能 取 得 分 割 。 在 这 类

    分 割 发 生 时 , 父 除 了 取 得 的 份 额 不 是 一 份 而 是 两 份 以 外 , 并

    不 能 较 其 子 更 为 优 待 。 日 耳 曼 部 落 的 古 代 法 是 非 常 类 似 的 。

    “ 自 由 地 ” 或 家 族 领 地 是 父 和 子 的 共 有 财 产 。 不 过 , 习 惯 上 这

    种 共 有 财 产 在 父 死 亡 时 也 是 不 分 割 的 , 而 一 个 印 度 人 的 所 有

    物 虽 然 在 理 论 上 是 可 以 分 割 的 , 但 在 事 实 上 却 同 样 地 很 少 分

    割 , 因 此 往 往 许 多 世 代 转 辗 相 传 从 不 分 割 , 这 样 , 印 度 的 家族 就 有 不 断 扩 大 为 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 的 倾 向 , 其 情 况 我 将 在 以

    后 加 以 阐 述 。 所 有 这 一 切 , 明 显 地 指 出 , 在 死 亡 时 把 财 产 在

    男 性 子 嗣 中 绝 对 平 均 分 配 , 是 家 族 依 附 发 生 瓦 解 的 第 一 个 阶

    段 中 社 会 上 最 为 普 遍 的 实 践 。 这 时 候 , “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 就 成 为

    历 史 上 的 难 题 了 。 当 封 建 制 度 在 形 成 的 过 程 中 , 这 些 制 度 除

    了 一 方 面 从 罗 马 各 省 的 法 律 以 及 另 一 方 面 从 蛮 族 的 古 代 习 惯

    中 得 到 其 原 素 外 , 在 世 界 上 已 没 有 其 他 渊 源 , 但 我 们 知 道 罗

    马 人 或 蛮 族 在 财 产 继 承 中 都 不 习 惯 于 把 任 何 优 先 权 给 予 长 子

    或 其 亲 系 , 因 此 , 初 看 起 来 , 我 们 感 到 迷 惑 不 解 。

    在 蛮 族 最 初 定 居 于 罗 马 帝 国 境 内 时 所 实 行 的 各 种 “ 习

    惯 ” 中 , 并 没 有 “ 长 子 继 承 制 ” 。 我 们 知 道 它 的 渊 源 是 来 自 入

    侵 酋 长 的采地 ( b e n e f i c e ) 或 贻 赠 。 这 些 初 时 只 是 由 移 居 来 的

    国 王 偶 然 封 赐 、 但 后 来 为 查 理 曼 大 量 分 配 的 “ 采 地 ” , 乃 是 授

    与 有 军 功 的 受 益 人 管 业 的 罗 马 各 省 土 地 。 ·

    自 ·

    主 ·

    地 所 有 人 似 乎

    并 不 跟 随 其 统 治 者 从 事 远 征 或 艰 难 的 冒 险 事 业 , 所 有 法 兰 克

    酋 长 和 查 理 曼 所 进 行 的 历 次 远 征 , 其 随 军 出 征 的 或 是 人 身 依

    附 王 家 的 士 兵 , 或 是 由 于 土 地 的 租 佃 而 被 迫 服 役 的 士 兵 。 但

    是 采 地 在 开 始 时 完 全 没 有 世 袭 的 意 味 , “ 采 地 ” 的 持 有 要 听 从

    赐 与 人 的 好 恶 , 至 多 以 受 赐 人 的 终 身 为 限 ; 但 从 最 初 的 时 候

    起 , 受 益 人 似 乎 并 未 致 力 于 扩 大 出 租 地 , 并 在 其 死 后 把 土 地

    继 续 保 留 给 家 族 中 人 。 由 于 查 理 曼 继 承 人 柔 弱 无 能 , 这 些 企

    图 普 遍 获 得 成 功 , “ 采 地 ” 就 逐 渐 转 变 为 世 袭 的 “ 封 地 ”

    ( F i e f ) 了 。 但 是 封 地 虽 然 是 世 袭 的 , 却 并 不 一 定 遗 传 给 长 子 。

    它 们 所 遵 从 的 继 承 规 则 , 完 全 由 赐 与 人 和 受 益 人 之 间 同 意 的

    条 件 决 定 , 或 者 由 其 中 之 一 方 强 加 于 另 一 方 的 条 件 决 定 。 因此 , 原 来 的 租 地 条 件 是 非 常 多 种 多 样 的 ; 因 为 到 现 在 为 止 所

    提 到 的 各 种 租 地 条 件 都 是 为 罗 马 人 和 蛮 族 所 熟 悉 的 继 承 方 式

    的 某 种 联 合 , 所 以 并 不 象 有 时 所 说 的 那 样 任 意 地 变 化 的 , 但

    它 们 无 疑 是 非 常 琐 细 的 。 在 有 些 租 地 条 件 中 , 毫 无 疑 问 地 准

    许 长 子 和 其 支 系 先 于 其 他 子 嗣 而 继 承 封 地 , 但 这 类 继 承 非 特

    并 不 普 通 , 甚 至 也 没 有 为 一 般 所 采 用 。 在 欧 洲 社 会 较 近 的 一

    次 变 化 中 , 当 领 地 的 ( 或 罗 马 的 ) 和 自 主 地 的 ( 或 日 耳 曼

    的 ) 财 产 形 式 完 全 为 封 建 的 财 产 形 式 所 代 替 时 , 这 种 完 全 同

    样 的 现 象 又 重 复 发 生 了 。 自 主 地 完 全 为 封 地 所 吸 收 。 较 大 的

    自 主 地 所 有 者 把 部 分 的 土 地 有 条 件 地 移 转 给 其 属 下 而 自 成 为

    封 建 主 ; 较 小 的 自 主 地 所 有 者 为 了 逃 避 那 个 恐 怖 时 代 的 压 迫 ,

    就 把 他 们 的 财 产 奉 献 给 某 些 强 大 的 酋 长 , 并 以 战 争 时 为 他 服

    役 为 条 件 再 从 他 的 手 中 领 回 其 土 地 。 当 这 个 时 期 , 西 欧 的 广

    大 人 民 都 处 于 奴 隶 或 半 奴 隶 的 状 态 — — 罗 马 和 日 耳 曼 的 个 人

    奴 隶 , 即 罗 马 的 土 著 农 奴 ( c o l o n i ) 和 日 耳 曼 的 农 奴 ( l i d i ) — — 他 们 同 时 为 封 建 组 织 所 并 吞 , 他 们 中 的 一 小 部 分 对 封 建 主 处

    于 奴 仆 关 系 , 但 大 部 分 则 以 当 时 视 为 降 格 的 条 件 接 受 土 地 。 在

    这 普 遍 分 封 土 地 的 时 代 中 创 设 的 各 种 租 地 条 件 、 因 佃 农 和 新

    地 主 拟 定 的 条 件 或 因 佃 农 被 迫 接 受 地 主 条 件 的 不 同 而 各 异 。

    在 采 地 的 情 况 下 , 有 些 财 产 的 继 承 按 照 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 规

    定 , 但 并 不 是 全 部 如 此 。 但 是 , 一 当 封 建 制 度 普 遍 推 行 于 西

    欧 ; 就 明 显 地 感 到 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 比 其 他 任 何 种 继 承 方 式 有

    更 大 的 长 处 。 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 于 是 就 以 惊 人 迅 速 的 程 度 遍 传 到

    全 欧 各 地 , 它 传 播 的 主 要 工 具 是 “ 家 族 授 产 ” ( F a m i l y   S e t t l e Am e n t , 在 法 兰 西 称 为 P a c t e s   d e   F a m i l l e , 在 日 耳 曼 称 为 H a u s G e s e t z e ) , 它 普 遍 规 定 凡 是 由 于 武 功 而 占 有 的 土 地 一 概

    应 传 给 长 子 。 最 后 , 法 律 竟 让 位 给 这 多 年 应 用 的 实 践 , 在 逐

    渐 建 立 起 来 的 一 切 “ 习 惯 法 ” 中 , 对 于 自 由 租 地 和 军 役 租 地

    的 财 产 , 长 子 和 其 亲 系 有 优 先 继 承 之 权 。 至 于 因 佃 役 租 地 而

    持 有 的 土 地 ( 原 来 , 所 有 租 地 都 是 佃 役 的 , 佃 农 必 须 偿 付 金

    钱 或 提 供 劳 役 ) , 习 惯 所 规 定 的 继 承 制 度 在 各 国 和 各 省 中 差 别

    很 大 。 比 较 一 般 的 通 例 是 , 这 些 土 地 在 所 有 人 死 亡 时 应 由 所

    有 子 嗣 平 均 分 配 , 但 在 有 些 事 例 中 , 长 子 仍 有 优 先 权 , 在 有

    些 事 例 中 则 由 幼 子 取 得 优 先 权 。 但 象 英 国 的 “ 定 役 租 地 ”

    ( S o c a g e ) 一 样 , 它 发 生 的 时 期 较 其 余 各 类 的 租 地 为 迟 , 并 且

    既 不 是 完 全 自 由 的 , 也 不 是 完 全 佃 役 的 , 这 些 通 过 租 地 而 持

    有 的 财 产 、 这 些 在 某 些 方 面 看 来 是 属 于 最 重 要 的 一 类 财 产 的

    继 承 , 通 常 就 适 用 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 。

    “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 所 以 能 被 广 为 传 播 , 一 般 都 认 为 是 由 于 所

    谓 封 建 的 理 由 。 据 说 , 如 果 在 封 地 最 后 持 有 人 死 亡 时 把 它 传

    给 一 个 单 一 的 人 而 不 在 多 数 人 中 间 进 行 分 配 , 封 建 主 就 可 以

    对 他 所 需 要 的 军 役 有 更 好 的 保 证 。 我 不 否 认 这 种 意 见 可 以 部

    分 地 说 明 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 所 以 逐 渐 为 人 们 所 爱 好 , 但 我 们 须

    指 出 , “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 所 以 能 成 为 欧 洲 的 一 种 习 惯 , 倒 并 不 是

    由 于 它 对 封 建 主 有 利 , 而 是 由 于 它 为 佃 农 所 欢 迎 。 再 则 , 上

    述 理 由 完 全 不 能 说 明 它 的 来 源 。 法 律 中 决 不 可 能 有 任 何 规 定

    完 全 是 为 了 要 求 得 便 利 。 在 便 利 的 意 识 发 生 作 用 之 前 , 必 先

    有 某 些 观 念 存 在 着 , 它 所 能 做 的 也 只 是 把 这 些 观 念 组 成 新 的

    结 合 而 已 ; 在 当 前 的 情 形 中 , 问 题 正 就 是 在 找 寻 这 些 观 念 。

    从 一 个 富 有 这 类 征 兆 的 地 方 , 我 们 获 得 了 一 个 很 有 价 值的 暗 示 。 在 印 度 , 虽 然 父 的 所 有 物 可 在 其 死 亡 时 加 以 分 割 , 并

    且 甚 至 在 生 前 就 可 以 在 所 有 男 性 子 嗣 中 平 均 分 割 , 虽 然 这 个

    平 均 分 配 财 产 的 原 则 推 广 到 印 度 制 度 的 每 一 个 部 分 , 但 当 最

    后 一 个 在 职 者 死 亡 时 , 他 所 传 下 的 ·

    官 ·

    职 ·

    或 ·

    政 ·

    治 ·

    权 ·

    利 , 几 乎 普

    遍 地 根 据 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 规 定 而 进 行 继 承 。 因 此 , 主 权 是

    传 给 长 子 的 , 作 为 印 度 社 会 集 合 单 位 的 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 的 事

    务 原 归 一 人 管 理 时 , 则 父 死 之 后 一 般 就 由 长 子 继 续 管 理 。 在

    印 度 , 所 有 职 位 都 有 世 袭 的 趋 向 , 并 且 在 性 质 许 可 时 , 这 些

    职 位 即 归 属 于 最 老 支 系 的 最 长 成 员 。 把 这 些 印 度 继 承 和 在 欧

    洲 几 乎 一 直 到 现 在 还 存 在 的 较 未 开 化 社 会 组 织 的 有 些 继 承 ,

    加 以 比 较 , 我 们 可 以 得 到 这 样 的 结 论 , 即 宗 法 权 不 仅 是 ·

    家 ·

    ·

    的 并 且 是 ·

    政 ·

    治 ·

    的 , 它 在 父 死 亡 时 不 在 所 有 子 嗣 中 分 配 , 它 是

    长 子 的 天 生 权 利 。 例 如 , 苏 格 兰 高 原 部 落 的 酋 长 职 位 是 按 照

    “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 顺 序 继 承 的 。 的 确 , 这 里 似 乎 有 一 种 家 族 依

    附 , 比 我 们 从 有 组 织 民 事 社 会 原 始 记 录 中 所 知 道 的 任 何 一 种

    家 族 依 附 还 要 来 得 古 老 。 古 罗 马 法 中 亲 属 的 宗 法 联 合 体 以 及

    大 量 类 似 的 征 兆 , 说 明 在 有 一 个 时 期 中 家 族 所 有 的 各 支 系 都

    团 结 在 一 个 有 机 的 整 体 中 ; 当 亲 属 这 样 形 成 的 集 团 本 身 就 成

    为 一 个 独 立 社 会 时 , 这 个 集 团 是 由 最 老 亲 系 的 最 长 男 性 管 理

    的 ; 这 自 非 狂 妄 的 臆 测 。 的 确 , 我 们 并 不 具 有 这 类 社 会 的 真

    实 知 识 。 即 在 最 原 始 的 共 产 体 中 , 就 我 们 所 知 , 家 族 组 织 至

    多 只 是 “ 政 府 中 的 政 府 ” ( i m p e r i a   i n   i m p e r i o ) 。 但 是 有 一

    些 部 族 、 特 别 是 凯 尔 特 部 族 的 地 位 从 有 史 以 来 都 近 似 独 立 , 这

    使 我 们 不 得 不 深 信 它 们 过 去 曾 一 度 是 各 别 的 政 府 , 它 的 酋 长

    职 位 是 根 据 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 而 继 承 的 。 但 是 , 我 们 必 须 注 意 ,不 要 把 它 和 法 律 上 的 名 词 作 现 代 的 联 想 。 我 们 现 在 所 谈 到 的

    一 种 家 族 关 系 比 我 们 所 熟 知 的 印 度 社 会 或 古 罗 马 法 中 任 何 家

    族 关 系 更 为 紧 密 。 如 果 罗 马 的 “ 家 父 ” 明 显 地 是 家 族 所 有 物

    的 管 家 , 如 果 印 度 人 之 父 只 是 其 诸 子 的 共 同 分 配 者 , 则 真 正

    的 宗 法 族 长 将 更 显 著 地 仅 仅 是 一 个 公 共 基 金 的 管 理 人 。

    因 此 , 在 “ 采 地 ” 中 所 发 现 的 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 继 承 事

    例 可 能 是 从 入 侵 种 族 的 一 种 宗 族 政 府 制 度 模 仿 来 的 , 这 种 家

    族 政 府 制 度 曾 为 入 侵 种 族 所 知 道 , 但 并 不 是 普 遍 适 用 的 。 有

    些 未 开 化 的 部 落 也 许 还 在 实 行 着 这 种 制 度 , 或 者 更 加 可 能 , 社

    会 还 刚 刚 离 开 较 古 的 状 态 , 因 此 人 们 在 为 一 种 新 形 式 的 财 产

    决 定 继 承 规 则 时 , 就 自 发 地 联 想 到 了 这 种 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 。 但

    这 里 还 有 一 个 问 题 , 为 什 么 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 会 逐 渐 代 替 了 其

    他 一 切 继 承 原 则 ? 我 以 为 答 案 应 该 是 在 加 洛 林 帝 国 瓦 解 期 间 ,

    欧 洲 社 会 肯 定 是 在 退 化 着 。 它 比 早 期 蛮 族 王 朝 时 期 的 悲 惨 低

    微 状 况 甚 至 还 要 落 后 一 些 。 这 个 时 期 的 最 大 特 点 是 国 王 权 力

    的 软 弱 甚 至 中 断 , 因 此 也 就 是 内 政 的 软 弱 中 断 ; 因 此 社 会 内

    部 是 不 团 结 的 , 人 们 也 普 遍 地 倒 退 到 比 共 产 体 开 始 时 更 古 的

    一 种 社 会 组 织 中 去 。 在 第 九 第 十 世 纪 时 期 , 封 建 主 连 同 其 属

    臣 大 概 都 属 于 一 个 宗 法 家 庭 , 这 种 家 庭 不 是 象 原 始 时 代 那 样

    用 “ 收 养 ” 而 是 用 “ 分 封 土 地 ” ( I n f e u d a t i o n ) 的 方 法 补 充 成

    员 的 ; 对 这 样 一 种 结 合 , “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 继 承 方 式 是 强 力 和 持

    久 的 一 种 渊 源 。 只 要 全 部 组 织 建 筑 在 它 上 面 的 土 地 能 保 留 在

    一 起 , 它 就 能 有 力 地 进 行 攻 击 和 防 卫 ; 分 割 土 地 也 就 是 分 割

    这 小 小 的 社 会 , 也 就 是 在 普 遍 暴 乱 的 世 纪 中 给 侵 略 造 成 机 会 。

    我 们 可 以 完 全 断 定 , “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 制 的 被 优 先 采 用 , 并 不 是为 了 一 个 子 而 剥 夺 其 余 诸 子 的 继 承 权 。 分 裂 封 地 要 使 每 一 个

    人 受 到 损 害 。 封 地 的 巩 固 会 使 每 一 个 人 获 得 好 处 。 “ 家 族 ” 可

    以 因 权 力 集 中 于 一 个 人 手 中 而 更 强 大 有 力 量 ; 赋 与 继 承 权 的

    封 建 主 并 不 能 较 其 同 胞 和 亲 属 在 占 有 、 利 益 或 享 受 上 有 任 何

    优 越 之 处 , 如 果 我 们 以 英 国 长 子 在 一 个 严 格 的 授 产 下 所 处 的

    地 位 , 来 估 计 一 个 封 地 的 继 承 人 所 继 承 的 特 权 , 这 将 是 一 个

    独 特 的 时 代 错 误 。

    我 曾 说 过 , 早 期 的 封 建 结 合 来 自 一 种 古 代 的 “ 家 族 ” 形

    式 , 并 且 和 它 极 端 类 似 。 但 是 在 古 代 世 界 中 , 在 还 没 有 通 过

    封 建 制 度 坩 埚 的 一 些 社 会 中 , 当 时 似 乎 曾 经 流 行 的 “ 长 子 继

    承 权 ” 还 没 有 变 成 后 期 封 建 欧 洲 的 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 。 当 亲 属 集

    团 经 过 许 多 世 代 不 再 为 一 个 世 袭 的 酋 是 统 治 时 , 过 去 曾 为 大

    家 而 管 理 的 领 地 也 就 被 大 家 平 均 分 配 了 。 为 什 么 这 种 情 况 不

    在 封 建 世 界 中 发 生 呢 ? 如 果 在 最 初 的 封 建 时 代 的 混 乱 期 间 , 长

    子 为 了 全 家 的 利 益 而 持 有 土 地 , 那 末 为 什 么 当 封 建 欧 洲 已 经

    巩 固 , 正 规 的 社 会 生 活 又 再 度 确 立 了 时 , 全 个 家 族 会 不 重 新

    恢 复 过 去 一 度 属 于 罗 马 人 和 日 耳 曼 人 的 平 等 继 承 权 的 能 力 ?

    那 些 专 心 致 力 于 探 讨 封 建 制 度 的 家 系 的 著 者 , 很 少 能 掌 握 开

    启 这 个 困 难 的 关 键 。 他 们 看 到 了 封 建 制 度 的 原 料 , 但 是 他 们

    没 有 注 意 到 成 品 。 助 威 这 个 制 度 形 成 的 观 念 和 社 会 形 式 无 疑

    地 是 蛮 族 的 和 古 代 的 , 但 是 , 当 法 院 和 法 律 家 被 要 求 来 解 释

    它 时 , 他 们 用 来 解 释 它 的 原 则 却 是 最 后 期 罗 马 法 律 学 的 , 因

    此 也 就 是 非 常 精 炼 和 非 常 成 熟 的 原 则 。 在 一 个 宗 法 统 治 的 社

    会 中 , 长 子 继 承 了 宗 亲 集 团 的 政 府 , 并 有 绝 对 权 力 处 分 其 财

    产 。 但 他 并 不 因 此 而 成 为 一 个 真 正 的 所 有 人 。 他 还 有 不 包 含在 所 有 权 这 概 念 中 的 相 关 连 的 各 种 义 务 , 这 些 义 务 是 十 分 不

    明 确 的 并 且 也 不 可 能 下 定 义 的 。 但 后 期 的 罗 马 法 律 学 象 我 们

    自 己 的 法 律 一 样 , 把 对 于 财 产 上 所 有 的 无 限 制 权 力 看 做 财 产

    所 有 权 , 并 没 有 、 并 且 在 事 实 上 也 不 可 能 注 意 到 这 一 类 的 义

    务 , 而 关 于 这 类 义 务 的 概 念 是 在 正 规 法 律 产 生 之 前 就 已 经 有

    的 。 这 种 精 练 的 观 念 和 野 蛮 的 观 念 相 接 触 后 , 不 可 避 免 地 召

    致 了 这 样 一 个 后 果 , 就 是 把 长 子 改 变 成 继 承 财 产 的 法 定 所 有

    人 。 教 会 的 和 世 俗 的 法 律 学 家 从 一 开 始 就 这 样 确 定 了 长 子 的

    地 位 ; 而 原 来 本 可 与 其 亲 属 在 平 等 的 地 位 上 共 祸 福 的 年 轻 兄

    弟 , 则 在 不 知 不 觉 间 下 降 为 僧 侣 、 军 事 冒 险 家 或 是 官 邸 的 食

    客 。 这 种 法 律 上 的 革 命 , 正 和 苏 格 兰 高 原 大 部 分 地 方 在 最 近

    小 规 模 地 发 生 的 革 命 , 完 全 相 同 。 当 苏 格 兰 法 律 学 必 须 决 定

    酋 长 在 扶 养 部 族 的 领 地 上 所 具 有 的 法 律 权 力 时 , 它 已 远 超 过

    了 同 部 族 人 对 完 全 所 有 权 可 以 加 一 些 模 糊 限 制 的 时 期 , 因 此 ,

    它 也 就 不 可 避 免 地 把 许 多 人 的 遗 产 转 变 成 一 个 人 的 财 产 了 。

    为 了 简 明 起 见 , 我 把 一 个 单 独 子 嗣 对 一 个 家 或 一 个 社 会

    所 有 权 力 的 继 承 , 称 为 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 的 继 承 方 式 。 但 是 , 可

    注 意 的 是 , 在 遗 留 给 我 们 的 这 类 继 承 的 少 数 很 古 的 事 例 中 , 取

    得 代 理 地 位 的 不 一 定 是 我 们 所 熟 知 的 意 义 中 的 长 子 。 曾 在 西

    欧 流 行 的 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 形 式 也 曾 在 印 度 人 中 继 续 保 存 过 , 我

    们 并 有 一 切 理 由 相 信 它 是 正 常 的 形 式 。 在 这 种 制 度 下 , 不 但

    是 长 子 , 并 且 是 长 子 的 亲 系 也 常 常 获 得 优 先 权 。 如 果 长 子 不

    能 继 承 , 则 他 的 长 子 不 但 对 其 兄 弟 并 且 对 其 叔 父 辈 有 优 先 权 。

    如 果 他 也 不 能 继 承 , 这 同 一 规 定 可 以 适 用 于 再 下 一 代 。 但 如

    果 继 承 不 仅 仅 是 ·

    民 ·

    事 ·

    的 、 而 且 是 ·

    政 ·

    治 ·

    的 权 力 时 , 就 可 能 要 发生 一 种 困 难 , 这 种 困 难 的 大 小 随 社 会 团 结 力 的 强 弱 而 增 减 。 一

    个 行 使 权 力 的 酋 长 可 能 寿 命 长 过 其 长 子 , 而 原 来 有 继 承 资 格

    的 孙 子 又 可 能 年 龄 太 小 未 及 成 年 , 不 能 担 负 实 际 指 导 社 会 以

    及 管 理 事 务 的 责 任 。 在 这 种 情 况 下 , 比 较 固 定 的 社 会 往 往 采

    取 这 种 便 宜 方 法 ; 就 是 把 这 幼 小 的 继 承 人 放 在 监 护 之 下 , 一

    直 到 他 适 宜 于 执 政 的 年 龄 。 监 护 权 一 般 属 于 男 性 宗 亲 ; 但 有

    可 注 意 的 是 , 在 极 少 的 偶 然 事 例 中 , 古 代 社 会 也 有 同 意 由 妇

    女 行 使 这 种 权 力 者 , 这 无 疑 是 出 于 尊 重 母 亲 的 庇 护 的 要 求 。 在

    印 度 , 一 个 印 度 主 权 者 的 寡 妇 曾 用 她 稚 子 的 名 义 而 统 治 着 国

    家 , 并 且 我 们 也 不 禁 要 想 到 法 兰 西 皇 位 继 承 规 定 的 习 惯 — —这种 习 惯 , 不 论 其 渊 源 为 何 , 无 疑 是 非 常 古 远 的 — — 规 定母后 对 “ 摄 政 职 位 ” ( R e g e n c y ) 较 所 有 其 他 申 请 人 有 优 先 之 权 ,但 同 时 它 却 又 严 格 地 排 斥 一 切 女 性 据 有 皇 位 。 把 主 权 遗 传 给

    一 个 幼 小 的 继 承 人 所 发 生 的 不 方 便 , 还 有 另 外 一 种 方 法 加 以

    消 除 , 这 种 方 法 无 疑 会 自 发 地 发 生 在 组 织 简 略 的 共 产 体 中 。 就

    是 把 幼 小 的 继 承 人 完 全 放 在 一 边 , 而 把 酋 长 的 职 位 授 与 第 一

    代 中 年 事 最 高 的 现 存 男 性 。 凯 尔 特 部 族 组 织 在 他 们 已 保 留 了

    一 个 世 纪 且 其 中 民 事 的 和 政 治 的 社 会 还 没 有 初 步 划 分 的 许 多

    现 象 中 间 , 就 有 着 这 样 一 个 继 承 的 规 定 , 并 把 它 一 直 带 到 了

    有 史 时 期 。 在 这 些 部 族 组 织 中 , 似 乎 还 有 这 样 一 种 现 实 准 则 ,

    认 为 在 长 子 不 能 继 承 时 , 他 的 长 弟 可 以 优 先 于 所 有 的 孙 辈 而

    获 得 继 承 , 不 问 在 主 权 遗 传 的 当 时 孙 辈 的 年 龄 是 怎 样 。 有 些

    著 者 用 这 样 的 假 说 来 解 释 这 个 原 则 , 认 为 凯 尔 特 的 习 惯 是 把

    最 后 的 酋 长 看 做 好 象 是 一 个 树 根 或 是 主 干 , 而 后 把 继 承 权 给

    与 和 他 距 离 最 近 的 卑 亲 属 ; 叔 父 既 较 接 近 于 共 同 的 根 干 , 便应 优 先 于 孙 辈 。 如 果 这 个 解 释 只 是 用 以 说 明 继 承 制 度 , 那 是

    无 可 非 议 的 ; 但 如 果 以 为 第 一 个 采 用 这 样 的 规 定 的 人 , 是 在

    应 用 显 然 从 封 建 继 承 制 度 开 始 在 法 律 家 中 进 行 论 辩 的 时 候 起

    就 有 的 推 理 过 程 , 则 将 是 一 个 严 重 的 错 误 。 叔 父 所 以 能 优 先

    于 孙 辈 , 其 真 正 的 来 源 无 疑 地 是 出 于 一 个 原 始 社 会 中 原 始 人

    们 的 一 种 简 单 打 算 , 即 认 为 由 一 个 成 年 的 酋 长 来 统 治 总 比 由

    一 个 孩 子 统 治 来 得 好 , 一 个 年 纪 较 轻 的 儿 子 将 比 长 子 的 任 何

    子 嗣 更 早 达 到 成 年 。 同 时 , 我 们 有 证 据 证 明 我 们 所 最 熟 悉 的

    那 种 形 式 的 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 是 一 种 原 始 的 形 式 , 其 传 统 是 当

    越 过 一 个 幼 小 的 继 承 人 而 作 出 有 利 于 其 叔 父 的 决 定 时 , 须 先取 得 部 族 的 同 意 。 在 麦 克 唐 纳 氏 ( M a c d o n a l d s ) 纪 年 史 中 有着 有 关 这 种 仪 式 的 相 当 真 实 的 例 子。

    根 据 可 能 保 存 着 一 种 古 代 阿 剌 伯 习 惯 的 穆 罕 默 德 法 律( M o h a m e t a n   I a w ) , 财 产 继 承 权 是 在 诸 子 中 平 均 分 配 的 , 女儿 则 可 取 得 半 份 , 但 是 如 果 有 任 何 一 人 在 继 承 权 分 割 前 死 亡而 遗 下 子 女 时 , 这 些 孙 儿 女 会 全 部 为 其 叔 姑 所 排 斥 。 与这原则 相 一 致 , 当 遗 下 的 是 政 治 权 时 , 继 承 就 按 照 凯 尔 特社会中的 “ 长 子 继 承 权 ” 形 式 进 行 。 在 西 方 两 个 穆 罕 默 德 的 大 家 族中 , 所 根 据 的 规 定 是 : 在 继 承 王 位 时 叔 父 优 先 于 诸 姪 , 虽 此姪 为 长 兄 之 子 , 亦 在 所 不 论 ; 这 一 规 定 虽 然 直 到 最 近 还 在 埃及 适 用 , 但 依 我 所 知 , 是 否 适 用 于 土 耳 其 君 主 的 移 转 , 是 还有 疑 问 的 。 苏 丹 们 的 政 策 事 实 上 一 直 是 在 防 止 适 用 这 个规定的 情 况 的 发 生 , 很 可 能 , 他 们 整 批 屠 杀 其 幼 年 兄 弟 一 方 面 固然 是 为 了 其 子 孙 的 利 益 , 另一 方 面 也 是 为 了 消 除 对 王 位 的 危险 竞 争 者 。 不 过 很 明 显 , 在 一 夫 多 妻 的 社 会 中 , “ 长 子 继 承权 ” 的 形 式 是 经 常 在 变 化 的 。 有 许 多 理 由 都 可 以 构 成 对 继 承的 要 求 , 例 如 , 母 亲 的 位 次 或 她 受 父 亲 宠 爱 的 程 度 。 因 此 , 有些 信 奉 伊 斯 兰 教 的 印 度 君 主 不 敢 主 张 有 任 何 明 显 的 遗 嘱 权 ,但 主 张 有 权 指 定 继 承 之 子 。 圣 经 上 以 撒 与 其 子 的 历 史 中 所 提到 的祝福 , 有 时 被 指 为 一 种 遗 嘱 , 但 这 似 乎 应 该 被 认 为 是 一种 指 定 一 个 长 子 的 方 式 。

    第 八 章   财 产 的 早 期 史

    罗 马 “ 法 学 阶 梯 ” 在 对 各 种 各 样 的 所 有 权 下 了 定 义 之 后 ,

    进 而 讨 论 “ 取 得 财 产 的 自 然 方 式 ” 。 凡 是 不 熟 悉 法 律 学 史 的 人 ,

    对 于 这 些 取 得 的 “ 自 然 方 式 ” , 似 乎 不 致 在 一 看 之 下 就 有 理 论

    上 的 或 者 是 实 践 上 的 兴 趣 的 。 猎 人 捕 获 或 杀 死 的 野 兽 , 由 于

    河 流 在 不 知 不 觉 中 的 淤 积 而 在 我 们 田 野 上 增 加 的 土 地 , 和 生

    根 于 我 们 土 地 上 的 树 木 , 这 些 都 是 罗 马 法 律 家 称 之 为 我 们 可

    以自然地 取 得 的 东 西 。 较 老 的 法 学 专 家 一 定 曾 注 意 到 , 这 类

    取 得 是 普 遍 地 为 他 们 所 处 的 小 社 会 的 惯 例 所 认 可 的 , 后 一 时

    期 的 法 律 家 既 然 发 现 这 些 取 得 被 归 类 于 古 “ 万 民 法 ” 中 , 并

    把 它 们 看 作 为 最 简 单 的 一 种 取 得 , 就 在 “ 自 然 ” 律 令 中 给 它

    们 分 配 了 一 个 地 位 。 这 些 财 产 所 受 到 的 尊 严 性 在 现 代 时 期 正

    在 继 续 不 断 增 长 , 直 至 完 全 超 过 了 它 原 来 的 重 要 性 。 理 论 已

    把 它 们 作 为 它 的 美 好 食 料 , 并 使 它 们 在 实 践 上 起 着 最 最 严 重

    的 影 响 。

    在 这 些 “ 自 然 取 得 方 式 ” 中 , 我 们 有 必 要 只 研 究 其 中 的一 种 , 即 “ 先 占 ” ( O c c u p a t i o ) 。 “ 先 占 ” 是 蓄 意 占 有 在 当 时 为

    无 主 的 财 产 , 目 的 ( 这 是 在 专 门 定 义 中 加 上 去 的 ) 在 取 得 财

    产 作 为 己 有 。 罗 马 法 律 学 称 为无主物 ( r e s   n u l l i u s ) 的 物 件— — 即 现 在 没 有 或 过 去 从 来 没 有 过 一 个 所 有 人 的 物 件 — — 只能 用 列 举 的 方 法 来 加 以 确 定 。 在从来没有过 一 个 所 有 人 的 物件 中 , 如 野 兽 、 鱼 、 野 雞 、 第 一 次 被 发 掘 出 来 的 宝 石 , 以 及新 发 现 或 以 前 从 未 经 过 耕 种 的 土 地 。 在现在没有 一 个 所 有 人的 物 件 中 , 包 括 抛 弃 的 动 产 、 荒 废 的 土 地 以 及 ( 一 个 变 例 的但 最 为 惊 人 的 项 目 ) 一 个 敌 人 的 财 产 。 在 所 有 这 些 物 件 中 , 完全 的 所 有 权 为 第 一 个 占 有 它 们 、 意 图 保 留 它 们 作 为 已 有 的占有人 所 取 得 — — 这 种 意 图 在 某 种 情 况 下 是 必 须 以 特 殊 行 为 来表 示 的 。 我 以 为 我 们 不 难 理 解 “ 先 占 ” 有 其 普 遍 性 , 它 促 使有 一 代 的 罗 马 法 律 家 把 “ 先 占 ” 的 实 践 列 入 “ 所 有 国 家 共 有 的 法 律 ” 中 , 它 有 其 单 纯 性 , 这 使 另 外 一 些 法 律 家 认 为 它 应 归 因 于 “ 自 然 法 ” 。 但 对 于 它 在 现 代 法 律 史 中 的 命 运 , 我 们 是没有先天的 考 虑 的 。 罗 马 人 的 “ 先 占 ” 原 则 , 以 及 法 学 专 家把 这 原 则 发 展 而 成 的 规 则 , 是 所 有 现 代 “ 国 际 法 ” 有 关 “ 战利 品 ” 和 在 新 发 现 国 家 中 取 得 主 权 等 主 题 的 来 源 。 它 们 又 提供 了 “ 财 产 起 源 ” 的 理 论 , 这 种 理 论 立 刻 受 到 欢 迎 , 并 通 过这 一 种 或 另 一 种 形 式 而 成 为 绝 大 部 分 纯 理 论 法 律 家 所 默 认 的理 论 。

    我 曾 说 过 , 罗 马 的 “ 先 占 ” 原 则 曾 决 定 “ 国 际 法 ” 中 有

    关 “ 战 利 品 ” 这 一 章 的 要 旨 。 “ 战 争 虏 获 法 ” 中 的 种 种 规 定 ,

    来 自 这 样 一 种 假 定 , 就 是 敌 对 行 动 的 开 始 使 社 会 回 复 到 了 一

    种 自 然 状 态 , 并 且 , 在 这 样 造 成 的 人 为 的 自 然 状 态 中 , 就 两

    个 交 战 国 而 论 , 私 有 财 产 制 度 就 处 于 停 止 的 状 态 。 后 期 论 述

    “ 自 然 法 ” 的 著 者 竭 力 主 张 私 有 财 产 在 某 种 意 义 上 是 他 们 所 解

    释 的 制 度 所 认 可 的 , 因 此 , 所 谓 一 个 敌 人 的 财 产 是 ·

    无 ·

    主 ·

    物 的

    假 说 , 在 他 们 看 起 来 , 是 不 法 和 惊 人 的 , 他 们 谨 慎 地 把 它 污

    蔑 为 仅 仅 是 法 律 学 上 的 一 种 拟 制 。 但 是 , 当 我 们 把 “ 自 然法 ” 的 渊 源 追 溯 到 “ 万 民 法 ” , 我 们 立 刻 看 到 为 什 么 一 个 敌 人的 财 物 会 被 看 作 无 主 财 产 , 并 因 此 而 能 力 第 一 个 占 有 人 所 取

    得 。 在 古 代 , 当 胜 利 使 征 服 者 的 军 队 的 组 织 解 体 , 并 任 令 士

    兵 进 行 不 分 皂 白 的 抢 掠 时 , 从 事 战 争 的 人 们 会 自 然 地 产 生 这

    种 观 念 。 可 是 , 在 最 初 , 允 许 为 虏 获 者 所 取 得 的 , 只 是 一 些

    动 产 。 我 们 根 据 一 个 可 靠 的 证 据 , 知 道 在 古 意 大 利 , 对 于 在

    一 个 被 征 服 国 家 的 土 地 上 取 得 所 有 权 , 流 行 着 一 种 很 不 同 的

    规 则 , 因 此 , 我 们 可 以 猜 想 把 先 占 原 则 适 用 于 土 地 ( 这 始 终

    是 一 椿 困 难 事 ) 开 始 于 “ 万 民 法 ” 成 为 “ 自 然 法 典 ” 的 时 期 ,

    并 且 这 是 黄 金 时 代 法 学 专 家 所 作 的 一 种 概 括 的 结 果 。 他 们 有

    关 这 一 点 的 教 条 被 保 存 在 查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 “ 法 学 汇 纂 ” 中 , 这

    些 教 条 无 条 件 地 主 张 , 敌 人 的 各 种 财 产 就 交 战 的 对 方 而 论 是

    ·

    无 ·

    主 ·

    物 , 而 虏 获 者 使 敌 产 成 为 自 己 所 有 的 “ 先 占 ” 则 是 “ 自

    然 法 ” 的 一 种 制 度 。 国 际 法 律 学 从 这 些 立 论 中 得 出 的 规 则 , 有

    时 被 人 诋 毁 为 一 种 不 必 要 的 对 于 战 斗 者 的 残 酷 和 贪 婪 的 宽

    纵 , 但 我 认 为 提 出 这 种 责 难 的 人 , 只 是 那 些 不 熟 悉 战 争 历 史

    的 人 , 因 此 也 就 是 那 些 不 了 解 要 强 使 人 们 服 从 任 何 一 种 法 则

    是 怎 样 一 种 伟 大 功 绩 的 人 。 当 罗 马 的 “ 先 占 ” 原 则 被 现 代 的

    “ 战 利 品 ” 法 所 采 用 时 , 带 来 了 一 些 附 属 的 法 规 , 使 其 执 行 得

    更 加 精 确 。 如 果 把 在 格 罗 修 斯 论 文 成 为 权 威 著 作 后 发 生 的 战

    事 来 和 较 早 时 期 的 战 争 相 比 较 , 可 以 看 到 , 一 待 罗 马 的 格 言

    被 接 受 后 , “ 战 争 ” 立 刻 具 有 一 种 比 较 可 以 容 忍 的 性 质 。 如 果

    把 罗 马 “ 先 占 ” 法 律 非 难 为 对 现 代 “ 国 际 法 ” 的 任 何 部 分 发

    生 着 有 害 的 影 响 , 则 我 们 可 以 有 相 当 理 由 认 为 曾 受 到 有 害 影

    响 的 是 国 际 法 的 另 外 一 章 。 “ 公 法 学 家 ” 把 罗 马 人 曾 引 用 于 宝石 的 发 现 的 原 则 同 样 地 引 用 于 新 国 家 的 发 现 , 这 样 就 生 搬 硬

    套 地 采 用 了 与 期 待 它 担 当 的 任 务 完 全 不 相 称 的 一 条 学 理 。 由

    于 十 五 世 纪 和 十 六 世 纪 伟 大 航 海 家 的 发 现 , 这 学 理 被 提 高 到

    了 极 端 重 要 的 地 位 , 但 它 所 引 起 的 争 端 比 它 所 解 决 的 争 端 更

    来 得 多 。 不 久 , 在 最 需 要 明 确 的 两 个 问 题 上 , 发 生 了 最 大 的

    不 明 确 , 即 关 于 发 现 人 为 其 主 权 者 取 得 的 领 土 的 范 围 , 以 及

    完 成 ·

    主 ·

    权 ·

    者 ·

    占 ·

    有 ·

    假 ·

    定 ( a d p r e h e n s i o ) 所 必 需 的 行 为 的 性 质 。 更

    有 进 者 , 这 个 原 则 对 于 一 件 幸 运 的 结 果 竟 赋 与 了 这 样 巨 大 的

    利 益 , 它 就 本 能 地 为 欧 洲 有 些 最 冒 险 的 民 族 如 荷 兰 人 、 英 吉

    利 人 以 及 葡 萄 牙 人 所 反 对 。 我 们 英 国 人 虽 不 明 白 否 认 “ 国 际

    法 ” 的 规 定 , 但 在 实 践 上 从 不 承 认 西 班 牙 人 独 占 墨 西 哥 湾 以

    南 全 部 美 洲 的 要 求 , 也 没 有 承 认 法 兰 西 国 王 独 霸俄亥俄和密西西比河流 域 的 要 求 。 从 伊 利 萨 伯( E l i z a b e t h ) 接 位 到 查 理 二 世 接 位 时 为 止 , 在 美 洲 领 海 内 可 以说 从 来 没 有 过 完 全 的 和 平 , 而 新 英 格 兰 殖 民 者 侵 犯 法 兰 西 国

    王 的 领 土 一 直 延 续 了 一 世 纪 之 久 。 边 沁 看 到 这 条 法 律 在 运 用

    中 所 遇 到 的 混 乱 情 况 , 受 到 很 深 刻 的 印 象 , 竟 然 失 其 常 态 而

    去 赞 美 那 著 名 的 教 皇 亚 历 山 大 六 世 ( P o p e   A l e x a n d e r   t h e S i x t h ) 的 “ 训 谕 ” , 在 亚 速 尔 群 岛 ( A z o r e s ) 之 西 一 百 海 哩

    处 划 一 分 界 线 把 世 界 上 未 发 现 的 国 家 分 给 西 班 牙 人 和 葡 萄 牙

    人 ; 边 沁 的 赞 扬 , 初 看 起 来 , 好 像 很 是 奇 怪 的 , 但 教 皇 亚 历

    山 大 的 安 排 , 究 竟 是 否 在 原 则 上 真 比 “ 公 法 ” 的 规 定 更 为 妄

    谬 , 还 是 可 疑 的 。 因 为 “ 公 法 ” 把 半 个 大 陆 给 与 一 个 国 王 , 主

    要 由 于 他 的 臣 仆 们 所 做 的 , 恰 恰 符 合 罗 马 法 律 学 的 规 定 , 符

    合 取 得 一 件 可 以 用 手 复 盖 的 贵 重 物 件 时 所 需 要 的 各 种 条 件 。

    从 事 研 究 本 书 主 题 的 人 们 , 所 以 认 为 “ 先 占 ” 饶 有 兴 味

    者 , 主 要 由 于 它 对 纯 理 论 法 律 学 所 作 出 的 贡 献 , 即 它 提 供 了

    一 个 关 于 私 有 财 产 起 源 的 假 说 。 过 去 曾 一 度 普 遍 地 认 为 “ 先

    占 ” 中 包 含 的 手 续 程 序 和 在 最 初 时 属 于 共 有 的 土 地 及 其 果 实

    转 变 成 为 个 人 财 产 的 手 续 程 序 , 是 同 样 的 。 导 致 这 个 假 定 的

    思 想 过 程 是 不 难 理 解 的 , 如 果 我 们 掌 握 了 “ 自 然 法 ” 概 念 上

    古 代 的 和 现 代 的 区 别 。 罗 马 法 律 家 认 为 , “ 先 占 ” 是 取 得 财 产

    的 “ 自 然 方 式 ” 之 一 , 他 们 毫 不 怀 疑 地 深 信 , 如 果 人 类 真 能

    生 活 在 “ 自 然 ” 的 制 度 下 , “ 先 占 ” 必 将 为 他 们 的 实 践 之 一 。

    至 于 他 们 是 否 真 正 自 信 这 样 的 民 族 状 态 确 实 存 在 , 则 象 我 在

    前 面 已 经 说 过 的 , 是 他 们 论 文 中 留 而 未 决 的 一 点 ; 但 他 们 有

    一 个 推 测 则 确 是 所 有 时 代 的 人 一 致 认 为 可 信 的 , 即 财 产 制 度

    并 不 是 自 有 人 类 以 来 就 有 的 制 度 。 现 代 法 律 学 一 无 保 留 地 接

    受 他 们 的 全 部 教 条 , 而 对 于 这 种 假 定 的 “ 自 然 ” 状 态 所 怀 抱

    的 热 诚 好 奇 , 甚 且 超 过 了 他 们 。 此 后 , 由 于 现 代 法 律 学 接 受

    了 这 个 论 点 , 认 为 土 地 及 其 果 实 在 过 去 一 度 是 ·

    无 ·

    主 ·

    物 , 同 时

    也 由 于 它 对 于 “ 自 然 ” 的 特 殊 见 解 使 得 它 毫 无 犹 豫 地 假 定 人

    类 在 组 织 民 事 社 会 前 很 久 就 确 实 实 行 过 ·

    无 ·

    主 ·

    物 的 “ 先 占 ” , 我

    们 可 以 立 刻 得 到 这 样 一 个 推 理 : 即 “ 先 占 ” 是 一 个 手 续 程 序 ,

    通 过 了 这 个 手 续 程 序 , 原 始 世 界 的 “ 无 人 物 件 ” 在 世 界 历 史

    中 即 成 为 个 人 的 私 有 财 产 。 要 列 举 那 些 赞 成 这 个 理 论 的 某 一

    形 式 的 法 学 家 , 将 是 无 聊 的 , 并 且 也 没 有 这 样 做 的 必 要 , 因

    为 始 终 作 为 其 时 代 一 般 意 见 的 忠 实 索 引 的 布 拉 克 斯 顿 , 曾 在

    他 的 第 二 部 书 的 第 一 章 中 有 如 下 一 段 概 括 。

    他 写 道 : “ 土 地 及 土 地 里 的 一 切 物 件 是 人 类 直 接 得 自 ‘ 造物 主 ’ 的 赐 赠 的 一 般 财 产 。 财 物 共 有 即 使 在 最 早 时 代 , 似 乎也 从 来 没 有 适 用 于 物 件 实 体 以 外 的 部 分 ; 也 不 能 扩 大 及 于 物

    件 的 使 用 。 因 为 , 根 据 自 然 法 律 和 理 性 , 凡 是 第 一 个 开 始 使

    用 它 的 人 即 在 其 中 取 得 一 种 暂 时 所 有 权 , 只 要 他 使 用 着 它 , 这

    种 所 有 权 就 继 续 存 在 , 但 是 不 能 比 使 用 期 更 长 ; 或 者 , 更 确

    切 一 些 讲 , 占 有 的 权 利 只 是 与 占 有 行 为 同 时 继 续 存 在 。 这 样 ,

    土 地 是 共 有 的 , 没 有 一 部 分 可 以 成 为 任 何 特 定 个 人 的 永 久 财

    产 ; 但 如 有 人 占 有 了 它 的 任 何 一 定 的 地 点 作 为 休 息 、 居 住 以

    及 类 似 目 的 之 用 , 即 暂 时 取 得 一 种 所 有 权 , 如 果 有 人 用 武 力

    把 他 赶 走 , 这 是 不 公 正 的 并 且 是 违 反 自 然 法 的 , 但 是 一 当 他

    离 开 而 不 复 占 有 它 时 , 别 的 人 就 可 以 夺 取 它 而 并 无 不 公 正 之

    处 。 ” 他 于 是 再 进 而 辩 称 : “ 当 人 类 日 益 增 加 , 就 有 必 要 接 受

    较 永 久 的 所 有 权 的 概 念 , 不 是 仅 仅 把 眼 前 的 使 用 权 而 是 要 把

    将 被 使 用 的 物 件 的 实 体 拨 归 个 人 所 有 。 ”

    这 一 节 中 有 一 些 模 糊 的 说 法 , 令 人 怀 疑 布 拉 克 斯 顿 对 于

    他 在 他 的 权 威 著 作 中 所 找 到 的 命 题 即 所 谓 地 面 的 所 有 权 在

    “ 自 然 ” 法 下 是 由 ·

    占 ·

    有 ·

    人 第 一 个 取 得 的 意 义 , 似 乎 并 不 完 全 了

    解 ; 但 他 有 意 地 或 是 由 于 误 解 而 加 于 这 个 理 论 上 的 限 制 , 使

    它 变 成 了 它 所 不 时 采 取 的 形 式 。 许 多 比 布 拉 克 斯 顿 更 著 名 的

    作 者 在 用 语 上 是 确 切 的 , 认 为 在 事 物 开 始 时 , “ 先 占 ” 最 初 给

    与 一 种 针 对 世 人 来 说 是 排 外 性 的 但 又 只 是 暂 时 享 有 的 权 利 ,

    到 后 来 , 这 种 权 利 一 方 面 保 持 其 排 外 性 , 同 时 又 成 为 永 久 的 。

    他 们 这 样 来 说 明 其 理 论 , 目 的 是 为 了 使 “ 自 然 ” 状 态 中 的 ·

    ·

    主 ·

    物 通 过 “ 先 占 ” 而 成 为 财 产 的 学 理 , 和 他 们 从 圣 经 史 中 所

    获 得 的 推 理 取 得 一 致 , 即 族 长 们 在 最 初 对 牧 养 其 牛 羊 的 土 地并 不 是 永 久 占 有 的 。

    直 接 适 用 于 布 拉 克 斯 顿 理 论 的 唯 一 批 评 , 是 在 研 究 那 个

    造 成 他 的 原 始 社 会 图 景 的 情 况 , 是 否 要 比 其 他 能 同 样 容 易 地

    想 象 出 来 的 情 况 更 接 近 可 能 一 些 。 用 这 种 方 法 来 研 究 , 我 们

    可 以 恰 当 地 询 问 , 是 不 是 ·

    占 ·

    有 ( 布 拉 克 斯 顿 显 然 是 按 照 其 普

    通 英 语 意 义 而 使 用 这 个 名 词 的 ) 土 地 上 一 定 地 点 作 为 休 息 或

    居 住 的 人 就 应 该 准 许 保 留 它 而 不 受 干 扰 。 在 这 样 情 况 下 , 他

    的 占 有 权 必 须 有 同 样 广 大 的 力 量 , 才 能 保 留 它 , 并 且 他 也 很

    可 能 时 常 受 到 新 来 者 的 干 扰 , 如 果 这 个 新 来 者 看 中 了 这 块 土

    地 并 自 以 为 有 强 力 足 以 把 占 有 人 驱 逐 掉 。 但 事 实 是 : 所 有 对

    这 些 论 点 的 一 切 强 辩 由 于 这 些 论 点 本 身 的 毫 无 根 据 而 完 全 没

    有 价 值 。 人 类 在 原 始 状 态 中 所 做 的 也 许 并 不 是 一 个 毫 无 办 法

    加 以 研 究 的 主 题 , 但 对 于 他 们 为 什 么 要 这 样 做 的 动 机 , 则 可

    能 就 无 法 知 道 了 。 这 些 有 关 世 界 最 古 年 代 人 类 情 况 的 描 写 , 受

    到 这 两 种 假 定 的 影 响 , 首 先 是 假 定 人 类 并 不 具 有 他 们 现 在 被

    围 绕 着 的 大 部 分 的 情 况 , 其 次 是 假 定 在 这 样 想 象 的 条 件 下 他

    们 会 保 存 着 刺 激 他 们 现 在 活 动 的 同 样 情 绪 和 偏 见 , — — 虽 然

    在 事 实 上 , 这 些 情 绪 很 可 能 正 是 由 这 个 假 定 认 为 他 们 应 该 被

    剥 夺 的 情 况 所 创 设 和 产 生 的 。

    萨 维 尼 有 一 个 格 言 , 有 时 被 认 为 是 在 赞 助 着 和 布 拉 克 斯

    顿 所 概 括 的 一 些 理 论 颇 相 近 似 的 一 种 有 关 财 产 起 源 的 见 解 。

    这 个 伟 大 的 日 耳 曼 法 律 家 宣 称 : 一 切 “ 所 有 权 ” 都 是 因 “ 时

    效 ” ( P r e s c r i p t i o n ) 而 成 熟 的 “ 他 主 占 有 ” ( A d v e r s e   P o s s e s As i o n ) 。 萨 维 尼 作 出 这 样 说 明 , 只 是 就 罗 马 法 而 言 , 在 全 部 理

    解 其 含 义 以 前 , 必 须 对 用 语 的 解 释 和 定 义 耗 费 很 多 劳 力 。 可

    是 , 他 的 意 思 可 以 充 分 正 确 地 表 现 出 来 , 如 果 我 们 认 为 他 所

    断 言 的 是 : 不 论 我 们 对 罗 马 人 所 接 受 的 有 关 所 有 权 的 观 念 钻

    研 得 如 何 深 入 , 不 论 我 们 在 追 溯 这 些 观 念 时 如 何 密 切 接 近 法

    律 的 初 生 时 代 , 我 们 所 能 得 到 的 有 关 所 有 权 的 概 念 不 外 乎 包

    括 这 三 个 要 素 — — “ 占 有 ” , “ 他 主 占 有 ” , 即 不 是 一 种 任 意 的

    或 从 属 的 而 是 一 种 针 对 世 人 来 说 的 绝 对 占 有 , 以 及 “ 时 效 ” ,

    也 就 是 “ 他 主 占 有 ” 不 间 断 地 延 续 着 的 一 定 期 间 。 非 常 可 能 ,

    这 个 格 言 可 以 用 其 著 者 所 允 许 的 更 大 的 概 括 性 来 表 达 , 但 如

    果 我 们 所 考 察 的 任 何 法 律 制 度 的 发 生 远 在 这 些 联 合 观 念 构 成

    所 有 权 观 念 的 时 期 以 前 , 则 就 很 难 预 期 一 个 合 理 可 靠 的 结 论 。

    同 时 萨 维 尼 的 准 则 不 但 确 立 了 关 于 财 产 起 源 的 通 俗 理 论 , 它

    的 特 殊 价 值 还 在 于 使 我 们 注 意 到 它 的 弱 点 。 在 布 拉 克 斯 顿 和

    他 的 追 随 者 的 见 解 中 , 神 秘 地 影 响 我 们 人 类 祖 先 的 心 理 的 是

    取 得 专 门 享 有 的 方 式 。 但 神 秘 之 处 , 并 不 在 此 。 所 有 权 以 他

    主 占 有 开 始 , 并 不 足 以 奇 怪 。 第 一 个 所 有 人 应 该 是 武 装 的 强

    有 力 的 人 , 才 能 保 证 其 物 件 的 安 全 , 这 也 并 非 出 于 意 外 。 但

    是 为 什 么 一 定 要 经 过 一 定 的 时 间 , 才 能 产 生 一 种 尊 重 他 占 有

    的 情 绪 — — 这 正 就 是 为 什 么 人 类 对 于 一 切 在 ·

    事 ·

    实 ·

    上 长 时 期 存

    在 的 东 西 普 遍 加 以 尊 敬 的 根 源 — — , 这 才 真 正 有 深 入 研 究 的

    必 要 但 却 远 不 属 于 本 文 范 围 之 内 的 问 题 。

    在 指 出 我 们 可 能 多 少 搜 集 一 些 有 关 所 有 权 早 期 历 史 知 识

    的 处 所 之 前 , 我 敢 提 出 我 的 意 见 。 我 认 为 一 般 对 于 “ 先 占 ” 在

    文 明 第 一 阶 段 中 起 的 作 用 所 产 生 的 印 象 , 恰 正 和 真 相 直 接 相

    反 。 “ 先 占 ” 是 实 物 占 有 的 有 意 承 担 ; 至 于 这 样 一 种 行 为 赋 予

    人 们 对 “ 无 主 物 ” 享 有 权 利 的 看 法 , 不 但 不 是 很 早 期 社 会 的特 征 , 而 且 很 可 能 , 这 是 一 种 进 步 法 律 学 和 一 种 在 安 定 的 情

    况 下 法 律 产 生 的 结 果 。 只 有 在 财 产 权 利 的 不 可 侵 犯 性 在 实 际

    上 长 期 得 到 了 认 可 时 , 以 及 绝 大 多 数 的 享 有 物 件 已 属 于 私 人

    所 有 时 , 单 纯 的 占 有 可 以 准 许 第 一 个 占 有 人 就 以 前 没 有 被 主

    张 所 有 权 的 物 品 取 得 完 全 所 有 权 。 产 生 这 个 学 理 的 情 绪 , 和

    作 为 文 明 开 始 时 期 的 特 征 的 所 有 权 的 少 见 和 不 固 定 , 是 绝 对

    不 能 调 和 的 。 它 的 真 正 的 基 础 , 并 不 在 于 对 这 “ 财 产 权 ” 制

    度 出 于 天 性 的 偏 爱 , 而 是 在 于 这 个 制 度 长 期 继 续 存 在 而 发 生

    的 一 种 推 定 , 即 ·

    每 ·

    一 ·

    种 ·

    物 ·

    件 ·

    都 ·

    应 ·

    该 ·

    有 ·

    一 ·

    个 ·

    所 ·

    有 ·

    人 。 当 一 个

    “ 无 主 物 ” 、 也 就 是 当 一 个 还 没 有 或 者 ·

    从 ·

    来 没 有 成 为 完 全 所 有

    权 的 物 件 被 占 有 时 , 占 有 人 所 以 被 允 许 成 为 所 有 人 , 是 出 于

    这 样 一 种 感 觉 , 即 所 有 的 贵 重 物 件 天 然 地 是 一 种 绝 对 占 有 的

    主 体 , 而 在 上 述 的 情 况 中 , 除 了 “ 占 有 人 ” 以 外 还 没 有 一 个

    人 被 授 与 过 财 产 权 。 简 言 之 , “ 占 有 人 ” 成 为 所 有 人 , 因 为 所

    有 的 物 件 都 被 假 定 为 应 该 是 属 于 某 个 人 的 财 产 , 同 时 也 因 为

    没 有 一 个 人 比 他 对 这 特 定 物 件 有 更 好 的 所 有 权 。

    即 使 对 于 我 们 所 讨 论 的 、 在 其 自 然 状 态 中 的 人 类 的 描 写

    没 有 其 他 反 对 意 见 , 但 在 有 一 点 上 , 这 种 描 述 是 和 我 们 所 掌

    握 的 真 凭 实 据 严 重 地 不 一 致 的 。 可 以 看 到 , 这 些 理 论 所 假 定

    的 各 种 行 为 和 动 机 是 “ 个 人 ” 的 行 为 和 动 机 。 为 自 己 签 署

    “ 社 会 契 约 ” 的 , 是 每 一 个 “ 个 人 ” 。 这 好 象 是 一 个 移 动 的 沙

    洲 , 而 作 为 沙 洲 中 的 沙 粒 的 是 “ 个 人 ” , 按 照 霍 布 斯 的 理 论 ,

    这 些 沙 粒 由 于 强 力 的 锻 炼 凝 固 为 社 会 岩 石 。 在 布 拉 克 斯 顿 所

    描 绘 的 图 画 中 , “ 占 有 了 它 的 任 何 一 定 的 地 点 作 为 休 息 、 居 住

    以 及 类 似 目 的 之 用 ” 的 , 也 是 一 个 “ 个 人 ” 。 它 的 缺 点 是 : 它必 然 要 动 摇 从 罗 马 “ 自 然 法 ” 所 传 下 来 的 一 切 理 论 。 罗 马

    “ 自 然 法 ” 和 “ 市 民 法 ” 主 要 不 同 之 处 , 是 在 于 它 对 “ 个 人 ”

    的 重 视 , 它 对 人 类 文 明 所 作 最 大 的 贡 献 , 就 在 于 它 把 个 人 从

    古 代 社 会 的 权 威 中 解 放 出 来 。 但 是 有 必 要 再 一 次 加 以 重 复 的

    就 是 “ 古 代 法 律 ” 几 乎 全 然 不 知 “ 个 人 ” 。 它 所 关 心 的 不 是

    “ 个 人 ” 而 是 “ 家 族 ” , 不 是 单 独 的 人 而 是 集 团 。 即 使 到 了

    “ 国 家 ” 的 法 律 成 功 地 透 过 了 它 原 来 无 法 穿 过 的 亲 族 的 小 圈 子

    时 , 它 对 于 “ 个 人 ” 的 看 法 还 是 和 法 律 学 成 熟 阶 段 的 看 法 显

    著 地 不 同 的 。 每 一 个 公 民 的 生 命 并 不 认 为 以 出 生 到 死 亡 为 限 ;

    个 人 生 命 只 是 其 祖 先 生 存 的 一 种 延 续 , 并 在 其 后 裔 的 生 存 中

    又 延 续 下 去 。

    罗 马 人 就 “ 人 法 ” 和 “ 物 法 ” 之 间 的 区 分 , 虽 然 是 极 端

    方 便 的 , 但 却 是 完 全 人 为 的 , 这 个 区 分 显 然 促 使 我 们 在 研 究

    当 前 的 主 题 时 , 离 开 了 真 正 的 方 向 。 当 讨 论 到 “ 物 法 ” ( J u s  

    R e r u m ) 时 , 就 把 讨 论 “ 人 法 ” ( J u s   P e r s o n a r u m ) 中 所 得 的

    教 训 忘 记 了 , 当 考 虑 到 “ 财 产 ” 、 “ 契 约 ” 以 及 “ 侵 权 行 为 ”

    ( D e l i c t ) 等 等 时 , 好 像 从 关 于 “ 人 ” 的 原 始 状 态 所 确 定 的 事

    实 中 , 不 能 获 得 有 关 它 们 原 始 性 质 的 暗 示 。 如 果 一 个 纯 粹 古

    法 律 制 度 可 以 放 在 我 们 的 面 前 , 并 适 用 罗 马 的 分 类 来 作 为 试

    验 , 这 种 方 法 的 无 用 是 显 而 易 见 的 。 不 久 就 可 以 看 到 , 把

    “ 人 法 ” 从 “ 物 法 ” 中 分 离 出 来 , 在 法 律 的 初 生 时 代 是 毫 无 意

    义 的 , 因 为 属 于 这 两 个 部 门 的 规 定 是 难 解 地 错 杂 在 一 起 的 , 而

    后 期 法 律 家 的 区 分 只 可 能 适 用 于 后 期 法 律 学 。 本 文 开 始 时 已

    经 说 过 , 可 以 推 断 , 如 果 把 我 们 的 注 意 力 限 于 个 人 的 所 有 权 ,

    则 就 先 天 地 极 少 可 能 对 早 期 的 财 产 史 获 得 任 何 线 索 。 真 正 古代 的 制 度 很 可 能 是 共 同 所 有 权 而 不 是 各 别 的 所 有 权 , 我 们 能

    得 到 指 示 的 财 产 形 式 , 则 是 些 和 家 族 权 利 及 亲 族 团 体 权 利 有

    联 系 的 形 式 。 在 这 里 , 罗 马 法 律 学 不 能 对 我 们 有 所 启 发 , 因

    为 正 是 被 自 然 法 理 论 所 改 变 后 的 罗 马 法 律 学 把 下 述 的 印 象 遗

    留 给 我 们 现 代 人 , 即 个 人 所 有 权 是 正 常 状 态 的 所 有 权 , 而 人

    的 集 团 所 共 有 的 所 有 权 只 是 通 则 的 一 个 例 外 。 可 是 , 凡 是 要

    探 究 原 始 社 会 任 何 已 经 消 灭 的 制 度 的 人 , 有 一 个 共 产 体 始 终

    应 该 仔 细 地 加 以 研 究 。 对 长 期 居 留 在 印 度 的 一 支 印 度 - 欧 罗

    巴 系 , 这 类 原 始 制 度 即 使 曾 经 发 生 过 重 大 变 化 , 但 我 们 发 现

    它 绝 少 完 全 抛 弃 它 原 来 在 其 中 长 大 的 外 面 轮 廓 。 在 印 度 人 中

    间 , 我 们 确 实 发 现 有 一 种 所 有 权 形 式 应 立 刻 引 起 我 们 的 注 意 ,

    因 为 它 完 全 符 合 我 们 研 究 “ 人 法 ” 中 有 关 财 产 原 始 状 态 时 要

    使 我 们 接 受 的 各 种 观 念 。 印 度 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 一 方 面 是 一 个

    有 组 织 的 宗 法 社 会 , 另 一 方 面 又 是 共 同 所 有 人 的 一 个 集 合 。 组

    成 它 的 人 们 相 互 之 间 的 个 人 关 系 是 和 他 们 的 财 产 所 有 权 不 能

    辨 别 地 混 淆 在 一 起 的 , 英 国 官 吏 曾 企 图 要 把 两 者 加 以 分 开 , 这

    种 企 图 被 认 为 是 英 印 统 治 中 最 惊 人 的 失 策 。 印 度 的 “ 村 落 共

    产 体 ” 是 被 公 认 为 非 常 古 老 的 。 不 论 从 哪 一 个 方 面 来 深 入 研

    究 印 度 历 史 , 印 度 的 一 般 历 史 或 者 地 方 史 , 在 其 历 史 发 展 的

    最 早 时 期 常 常 可 以 发 现 有 这 种 “ 共 产 体 ” 的 存 在 。 许 多 有 才

    智 的 和 善 于 观 察 的 著 者 , 其 中 大 部 分 的 人 对 于 这 种 “ 共 产

    体 ” 的 性 质 和 来 源 , 都 没 有 任 何 理 论 的 支 持 , 但 他 们 却 一 致

    同 意 认 为 它 是 一 种 最 不 容 易 摧 毁 的 社 会 制 度 , 它 从 来 不 愿 意

    把 任 何 一 个 惯 例 加 以 革 新 。 征 服 和 革 命 不 断 地 横 扫 而 过 , 但

    是 并 没 有 扰 乱 它 或 除 掉 它 , 在 印 度 , 凡 是 最 好 的 政 府 制 度 似乎 始 终 是 把 它 承 认 为 行 政 基 础 的 那 些 政 府 制 度 。

    成 熟 的 罗 马 法 律 以 及 紧 接 着 它 的 足 迹 的 现 代 法 律 学 把 共

    有 制 度 看 作 财 产 权 中 一 种 例 外 的 、 暂 时 的 状 态 。 在 西 欧 普 遍

    流 行 着 的 格 言 : ·

    没 ·

    有 ·

    人 ·

    能 ·

    违 ·

    背 ·

    其 ·

    意 ·

    志 ·

    而 ·

    被 ·

    保 ·

    留 ·

    在 ·

    共 ·

    同 ·

    所 ·

    有 ·

    ·

    中 ( N e m o   i n   c o m m u n i o n e   p o t e s t   i n v i t u s   d e t i n e r i ) , 就

    明 显 地 表 示 出 这 种 见 解 。 但 是 在 印 度 , 他 们 的 想 法 恰 恰 相 反 ,

    个 别 的 所 有 制 始 终 是 朝 着 共 同 所 有 制 的 方 向 在 发 展 。 其 过 程

    已 经 在 前 面 谈 到 了 。 儿 子 一 出 世 就 已 在 父 的 财 产 中 立 即 取 得

    一 种 既 得 利 益 ; 当 到 达 成 年 时 , 在 某 种 偶 然 情 况 下 , 法 律 的

    条 文 甚 至 许 可 他 要 求 分 割 家 族 财 产 。 可 是 , 在 事 实 上 , 甚 至

    在 父 死 亡 时 , 也 绝 少 发 生 分 家 的 , 财 产 继 续 被 保 留 不 分 割 有

    几 代 之 久 , 虽 然 每 一 代 的 每 一 个 成 员 对 于 财 产 中 没 有 经 过 分

    割 的 一 个 份 额 都 各 有 一 种 合 法 权 利 。 这 样 共 有 的 领 地 有 时 由

    一 个 选 任 的 管 理 人 加 以 管 理 , 但 在 一 般 情 况 下 , 在 某 些 省 份

    中 , 始 终 是 由 年 事 较 高 的 宗 亲 、 也 就 是 由 血 族 中 最 长 一 支 系

    的 最 年 长 的 代 表 来 管 理 。 这 样 一 种 共 同 财 产 所 有 人 的 集 合 , 一

    个 持 有 一 个 共 有 领 地 的 亲 族 的 集 团 , 是 最 简 单 形 式 的 印 度

    “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 。 但 是 这 个 “ 共 产 体 ” 不 仅 仅 是 一 个 因 亲 族 的

    同 胞 之 谊 而 结 合 起 来 的 , 也 不 仅 仅 是 一 种 合 伙 的 联 合 。 它 是

    一 个 有 组 织 的 社 会 , 它 不 但 管 理 着 共 有 基 金 , 并 且 通 过 一 整

    套 的 官 吏 来 管 理 着 内 政 、 警 务 、 司 法 以 及 赋 和 公 共 义 务 的 分

    配 。

    我 在 上 面 叙 述 的 一 个 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 的 形 成 过 程 , 可 以

    视 为 典 型 的 。 但 我 们 不 能 就 因 此 而 假 定 , 在 印 度 每 一 个 “ 村

    落 共 产 体 ” 都 是 在 这 样 一 种 简 单 方 式 里 面 结 合 起 来 的 。 虽 然据 我 所 知 , 在 印 度 北 部 , 在 保 存 下 来 的 记 录 中 , 几 乎 一 成 不

    变 地 表 明 “ 共 产 体 ” 是 由 一 种 简 单 的 血 亲 集 合 而 成 的 , 但 记

    录 中 也 提 供 我 们 这 种 情 况 , 即 血 亲 外 的 人 也 始 终 随 时 可 以 参

    加 进 来 , 并 且 在 某 种 条 件 下 , 只 要 是 一 个 份 额 财 产 的 买 受 人 ,

    一 般 地 就 可 以 被 准 许 加 入 族 内 。 在 印 度 半 岛 的 南 部 , 常 常 有

    一 些 “ 共 产 体 ” 似 乎 不 是 由 一 个 而 是 由 二 个 或 更 多 的 家 族 发

    展 而 成 的 ; 也 有 些 “ 共 产 体 ” 的 构 成 部 分 经 公 认 是 完 全 出 于

    人 为 的 ; 真 的 , 有 时 在 同 一 社 会 中 聚 合 着 属 于 不 同 族 籍 的 人

    们 , 这 种 情 况 对 于 一 个 共 同 祖 先 的 假 设 是 一 个 致 命 的 打 击 。 但

    是 在 所 有 这 些 同 族 中 , 或 者 保 留 着 一 个 共 同 祖 先 的 传 统 , 或

    者 有 着 这 样 一 个 共 同 祖 先 的 假 定 。 蒙 特 斯 图 亚 特 · 爱 芬 斯 吞

    ( M o u n t s t u a r t   E l p h i n - s t o n e ) 曾 经 特 别 详 细 描 述 过 “ 南 方村 落 共 产 体 ” ( 在 其 “ 印 度 史 ” 第 7 1 页 中 ) 。 他 这 样 说 : “ 一

    般 人 的 看 法 是 : 村 落 的 土 地 所 有 人 都 是 开 拓 这 个 村 落 的 一 个

    或 几 个 个 人 的 后 裔 ; 向 原 有 族 员 购 买 或 通 过 其 他 方 法 从 原 有

    家 族 成 员 取 得 权 利 的 人 , 则 是 仅 有 的 例 外 。 这 一 个 推 定 由 下

    述 事 实 加 以 证 实 , 即 直 到 现 在 , 在 小 村 落 中 , 往 往 只 有 一 个

    唯 一 的 家 族 的 土 地 所 有 人 , 大 村 落 中 的 土 地 所 有 人 往 往 也 只

    有 少 数 几 个 家 族 ; 但 每 一 个 家 族 都 有 许 多 成 员 , 以 致 全 部 农

    业 劳 动 普 通 都 是 由 土 地 所 有 人 自 己 担 任 的 , 不 需 要 佃 农 或 工

    人 的 帮 助 。 土 地 所 有 人 的 权 利 是 他 们 集 体 所 有 的 , 虽 然 他 们

    几 乎 始 终 可 以 取 得 其 中 或 多 或 少 一 个 完 整 的 部 分 , 但 他 们 从

    来 没 有 发 生 过 一 次 全 部 的 分 割 。 例 如 , 一 个 土 地 所 有 人 可 以

    出 卖 或 抵 押 其 权 利 ; 但 他 必 须 首 先 取 得 ‘ 村 落 ’ 的 同 意 , 而

    买 受 人 就 恰 恰 抵 充 他 的 位 置 并 负 担 他 的 所 有 义 务 。 如 果 一 家没 有 后 裔 , 它 的 份 额 便 应 归 入 共 有 财 产 中 。 ”

    本 书 第 五 章 中 提 到 的 一 些 意 见 , 我 相 信 可 以 帮 助 读 者 理

    解 爱 芬 斯 吞 所 谈 的 重 要 性 。 没 有 一 种 原 始 社 会 的 制 度 可 能 会

    保 存 到 今 天 , 除 非 是 通 过 某 种 生 动 的 法 律 拟 制 使 它 取 得 了 原

    来 性 质 所 没 有 的 一 种 弹 性 。 因 此 , “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 不 一 定 是 一

    种 血 亲 的 集 合 , 它 或 者 是 这 类 的 一 种 集 合 , 或 者 是 根 据 一 个

    亲 属 联 合 的 模 型 而 组 成 的 一 个 共 同 财 产 所 有 人 的 集 体 。 和 它

    可 以 相 比 拟 的 类 型 显 然 不 是 罗 马 的 “ 家 族 ” , 而 是 罗 马 的 “ 氏

    族 ” 或 “ 大 氏 族 ” 。 “ 氏 族 ” 也 是 根 据 家 族 的 模 型 而 组 成 的 一

    个 集 团 ; 这 是 通 过 多 种 多 样 的 拟 制 而 扩 大 的 家 族 , 这 些 拟 制

    的 确 切 性 质 已 经 湮 没 不 可 考 了 。 在 历 史 时 期 内 , 其 主 要 的 特

    点 正 就 是 爱 芬 斯 吞 在 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 中 所 谈 到 的 两 点 。 过 去

    始 终 有 一 个 共 同 祖 先 的 假 定 , 这 个 假 定 有 时 和 事 实 显 然 是 有

    出 入 的 ; 我 们 再 重 复 一 次 历 史 学 家 的 话 , “ 如 果 一 家 没 有 后 裔 ,

    它 的 份 额 便 应 归 入 共 有 财 产 中 ” 。 在 旧 罗 马 法 中 , 无 人 主 张 的

    继 承 权 归 属 于 “ 同 族 人 ” 。 凡 是 研 究 它 们 历 史 的 人 们 都 这 样 怀

    疑 , 认 为 “ 共 产 体 ” 和 “ 氏 族 ” 一 样 , 一 般 都 由 于 准 许 族 外

    人 的 加 入 而 混 杂 , 但 “ 共 产 体 ” 吸 收 族 外 人 的 确 实 方 式 , 现

    在 已 无 法 确 定 。 在 现 在 , 据 爱 芬 斯 吞 告 诉 我 们 , “ 共 产 体 ” 在

    取 得 族 人 同 意 后 用 接 纳 买 受 人 的 方 法 而 补 充 成 员 。 然 而 , 这

    个 被 收 养 成 员 的 取 得 是 属 于 一 种 概 括 继 承 的 性 质 ; 随 着 他 所

    买 受 的 份 额 , 他 同 时 继 承 了 卖 主 对 集 合 体 所 负 的 全 部 责 任 。 他

    是 一 个 “ 家 产 买 主 ” , 他 开 始 抵 充 某 人 的 地 位 , 也 就 继 承 了 他

    的 法 律 身 分 。 要 接 纳 他 必 须 取 得 全 族 人 的 同 意 , 这 使 我 们 回

    忆 到 “ 贵 族 民 会 ” 那 些 自 命 为 亲 属 的 较 多 族 人 所 组 成 的 “ 议会 ” , 也 就 是 古 代 罗 马 共 和 政 体 所 竭 力 坚 持 的 同 意 , 他 们 坚 执

    地 认 为 这 种 同 意 是 使 一 个 “ 收 养 ” 合 法 化 和 使 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 获

    特 确 认 所 必 要 的 条 件 。

    在 印 度 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 的 每 一 个 方 面 几 乎 都 可 以 发 现 一

    种 极 端 古 老 的 象 征 。 我 们 有 极 多 的 充 足 的 理 由 来 猜 疑 : 法 律

    初 生 时 代 的 特 点 是 , 由 于 人 格 权 和 财 产 权 的 混 杂 不 清 以 及 公

    法 义 务 和 私 法 义 务 的 混 淆 在 一 起 而 流 行 着 共 同 所 有 制 , 因 此 ,

    即 使 在 世 界 的 任 何 其 他 部 分 都 不 能 发 现 类 似 地 混 合 的 社 会 ,

    我 们 应 有 正 当 理 由 从 我 们 对 于 这 些 财 产 所 有 同 族 团 体 的 考 察

    中 推 论 出 许 多 重 要 的 结 论 来 。 在 欧 洲 有 一 些 部 分 其 财 产 权 很

    少 受 到 封 建 变 化 的 影 响 , 在 许 多 其 他 重 要 方 面 它 和 东 方 世 界

    的 关 系 也 象 和 西 方 世 界 一 样 密 切 , 在 这 些 部 分 中 , 恰 巧 有 一

    套 类 似 的 现 象 在 最 近 引 起 了 许 多 热 切 的 兴 趣 。 哈 克 索 孙 ( M .

    d e   H a x t h a u s e n ) 、 顿 戈 波 斯 基 ( M . T e n g o b o r s k i ) 以 及 其 他人 的 科 学 研 究 告 诉 我 们 , 俄 罗 斯 的 村 落 并 不 是 人 们 的 偶 然 集合 , 也 不 是 根 据 契 约 而 组 成 的 联 合 体 ; 它 们 是 和 印 度 那 些 村

    落 一 样 天 然 组 织 起 来 的 共 产 体 。 诚 然 , 这 些 村 落 在 理 论 上 始

    终 是 某 些 贵 族 所 有 人 的 世 袭 财 产 , 农 民 从 历 史 时 期 起 就 已 变

    成 领 主 的 附 属 于 土 地 的 农 奴 , 在 很 多 情 况 下 , 并 成 为 领 主 个

    人 的 农 奴 。 但 这 高 贵 的 所 有 制 的 压 力 从 来 没 有 把 古 代 的 村 落

    组 织 加 以 破 坏 , 而 且 很 可 能 , 这 个 假 定 为 把 农 奴 制 介 绍 来 的

    俄 罗 斯 沙 皇 , 他 在 制 定 法 律 时 的 真 正 意 图 是 在 防 止 农 民 舍 弃

    那 种 合 作 , 因 为 没 有 这 种 合 作 , 旧 的 社 会 秩 序 是 不 可 能 长 期

    维 持 的 。 在 俄 罗 斯 “ 村 落 ” 中 , 村 民 之 间 是 假 定 有 一 种 宗 亲

    的 关 系 的 , 人 格 权 和 所 有 权 是 混 杂 在 一 起 的 , 在 内 政 方 面 亦有 多 种 多 样 的 自 发 规 定 , 这 一 切 就 使 它 几 乎 完 全 和 印 度 “ 共

    产 体 ” 重 复 ; 但 是 有 一 个 重 要 的 不 同 之 点 , 是 我 们 极 感 兴 趣

    的 。 一 个 印 度 村 落 的 共 同 所 有 人 , 虽 然 其 财 产 是 混 在 一 起 的 ,

    但 他 们 有 其 各 别 的 权 利 , 而 且 这 种 权 利 的 分 割 是 完 全 和 无 限

    制 地 继 续 着 的 。 在 一 个 俄 罗 斯 村 落 中 , 权 利 的 分 割 在 理 论 上

    也 是 完 全 的 , 但 只 是 暂 时 的 。 在 一 定 的 、 但 并 不 是 在 所 有 情

    况 中 都 是 同 样 的 时 期 终 了 后 , 各 别 的 所 有 权 即 告 消 灭 , 村 落

    的 土 地 就 集 中 在 一 起 , 然 后 在 组 成 共 产 体 的 家 族 中 按 照 人 数

    重 行 分 配 。 这 种 再 分 配 实 行 后 , 家 族 的 和 个 人 的 权 利 又 被 分

    成 为 各 个 支 系 , 作 为 再 一 次 分 配 时 期 到 来 之 前 继 续 遵 循 的 根

    据 。 还 有 一 种 所 有 权 更 奇 特 的 变 形 发 生 在 某 些 国 家 中 , 这 些

    国 家 长 期 成 为 土 耳 其 帝 国 和 奥 地 利 皇 室 领 土 之 间 的 一 块 争 执

    的 土 地 。 在 塞 尔 维 亚 ( S e r v i a ) 、 在 克 罗 西 亚 ( C r o a t i a ) 以 及

    在 奥 地 利 的 斯 拉 窝 尼 亚 , 各 种 村 落 也 都 是 由 既 是 共 同 所 有 人

    又 是 亲 属 的 人 们 集 合 而 成 的 ; 但 在 那 里 , 共 产 体 的 内 部 安 排

    和 以 上 两 个 例 子 中 所 提 到 的 有 所 不 同 。 在 这 一 例 子 中 , 共 有

    财 产 的 内 容 不 但 在 事 实 上 不 分 割 , 并 且 在 理 论 上 也 认 为 是 不

    能 分 割 的 , 全 部 土 地 由 所 有 村 民 的 联 合 劳 动 耕 种 着 , 农 产 物

    每 年 在 各 家 村 民 中 分 配 一 次 , 有 时 按 照 各 家 假 定 的 需 要 , 有

    时 按 照 规 定 而 以 一 定 份 额 的 用 益 权 给 与 各 别 的 人 。 东 欧 的 法

    学 家 都 认 为 所 有 这 些 实 践 都 可 追 溯 到 一 个 据 说 在 最 古 的 斯 拉

    夫 法 律 中 可 以 找 到 的 原 则 , 就 是 家 族 财 产 不 能 永 久 分 割 的 原

    则 。

    在 以 上 研 究 中 发 现 的 这 些 现 象 所 以 会 引 起 人 们 的 极 大 兴

    趣 , 主 要 是 它 使 我 们 得 以 了 解 原 来 持 有 财 产 的 团 体 ·

    内 ·

    部 的 各别 所 有 权 的 发 展 情 况 。 我 们 有 强 有 力 的 理 由 , 认 定 在 某 一 个

    时 期 中 , 财 产 不 属 于 个 人 、 甚 至 也 不 属 于 各 别 的 家 族 , 而 是

    属 于 按 照 宗 法 模 型 组 成 的 较 大 的 社 会 所 有 ; 从 古 代 所 有 权 转

    变 到 现 代 所 有 权 的 方 式 , 虽 然 还 是 十 分 模 糊 的 , 但 是 如 果 有

    几 种 显 著 的 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 形 式 没 有 被 发 现 并 加 以 研 究 的 话 ,

    则 可 能 还 要 更 加 模 糊 。 在 印 度 - 欧 罗 巴 血 统 的 民 族 中 间 , 过

    去 可 以 看 到 , 或 者 至 今 还 可 以 看 到 一 些 宗 法 团 体 , 其 中 各 式

    各 样 的 内 部 安 排 是 有 加 以 注 意 的 价 值 的 。 据 说 , 未 开 化 的 苏

    格 兰 高 原 部 族 领 袖 经 常 每 隔 一 个 短 时 期 、 有 时 甚 至 是 逐 日 把

    食 物 分 配 给 其 管 辖 下 各 家 庭 的 家 长 。 奥 地 利 和 土 耳 其 省 的 斯

    拉 夫 村 人 也 由 他 们 团 体 的 长 辈 作 定 期 分 配 , 但 在 这 里 , 是 把

    全 年 全 部 农 产 物 一 次 分 配 的 。 可 是 在 俄 罗 斯 村 落 中 , 财 产 的

    实 体 已 不 再 被 视 为 不 可 分 割 的 , 各 别 的 对 于 财 产 的 要 求 准 许

    自 由 提 出 , 但 在 这 里 , 分 割 的 进 程 在 继 续 一 定 的 时 期 以 后 即

    断 然 停 止 。 在 印 度 , 不 但 没 有 共 有 财 产 的 不 可 分 性 , 并 且 共

    有 财 产 的 各 个 部 分 所 具 有 的 各 别 的 财 产 所 有 权 得 无 限 制 地 延

    长 , 并 分 为 任 何 数 量 的 派 生 所 有 权 , 但 是 公 有 财 产 的 “ 事 实

    上 ” 的 分 割 则 为 根 深 蒂 固 的 习 惯 所 阻 止 , 也 为 反 对 在 未 经 族

    人 同 意 时 接 纳 族 外 人 的 规 定 所 阻 止 。 当 然 , 我 们 并 不 想 坚 持

    这 些 不 同 形 式 的 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 可 以 代 表 到 处 都 以 同 样 方 式

    完 成 的 一 种 变 化 过 程 中 的 各 个 阶 段 。 虽 然 证 据 并 不 允 许 我 们

    前 进 过 远 , 但 是 我 们 如 果 认 为 , 就 我 们 所 看 到 的 那 种 形 式 的

    私 有 财 产 权 , 主 要 是 由 一 个 共 产 体 的 混 合 权 利 中 逐 步 分 离 出

    来 的 各 别 的 个 人 权 利 所 组 成 的 , 这 种 猜 度 , 并 不 能 说 是 完 全

    毫 无 根 据 的 臆 测 。 我 们 在 研 究 “ 人 法 ” 时 , 似 乎 可 以 看 到“ 家 族 ” 扩 张 而 成 为 亲 属 的 “ 宗 亲 ” 集 团 , 然 后 , “ 宗 亲 ” 团

    体 分 解 而 成 为 各 个 的 家 ; 最 后 , 家 又 为 个 人 所 代 替 ; 现 在 可

    以 提 出 这 样 的 意 见 , 即 在 这 个 变 化 中 每 一 个 步 骤 相 当 于 “ 所

    有 权 ” 性 质 中 一 次 类 似 的 改 变 。 如 果 在 这 个 意 见 中 有 任 何 真

    理 的 话 , 可 以 看 到 , 它 在 实 质 上 影 响 了 有 关 “ 财 产 ” 起 源 的

    理 论 家 一 般 都 向 他 们 自 己 提 出 的 问 题 。 他 们 最 急 切 需 要 解 决

    的 问 题 — — 也 许 是 一 个 无 法 解 决 的 问 题 — — 是 : 最 初 引 起 人

    们 相 互 尊 重 他 人 的 所 有 物 , 其 动 机 究 竟 是 什 么 ? 这 个 问 题 也

    可 以 用 这 种 形 式 来 表 现 , 虽 然 也 很 少 希 望 能 为 它 找 到 一 个 答

    案 , 即 研 究 一 下 使 得 一 个 混 合 团 体 和 其 他 混 合 团 体 的 领 地 离

    开 的 原 因 。 但 是 , 私 有 “ 财 产 ” 史 中 最 最 重 要 的 一 章 如 果 真

    是 它 的 逐 渐 从 亲 属 共 同 所 有 权 中 解 除 出 来 , 那 末 , 需 要 研 究

    的 主 要 之 点 , 就 和 在 所 有 历 史 法 律 学 门 口 所 要 遇 到 的 问 题 完

    全 相 同 — — 即 原 来 促 使 人 们 团 结 在 家 族 联 合 体 中 的 动 机 究 竟

    是 什 么 ? 对 于 这 样 一 个 问 题 , 如 果 没 有 其 他 科 学 的 帮 助 , 单

    靠 法 律 学 是 不 能 提 出 一 个 答 案 的 。 这 个 事 实 不 得 不 加 以 注 意 。

    古 代 社 会 的 财 产 是 不 分 割 的 , 但 这 种 状 态 是 和 当 任 何 单

    独 的 一 部 分 完 全 从 集 团 遗 产 中 分 离 出 来 时 就 立 刻 表 现 的 一 种

    特 殊 鲜 明 的 分 割 , 是 不 相 矛 盾 的 。 这 种 现 象 的 产 生 , 无 疑 地

    是 由 于 财 产 经 分 割 后 , 就 成 为 一 个 新 的 团 体 的 所 有 物 , 因 此 ,

    在 已 经 分 离 的 状 态 下 , 如 果 要 和 它 发 生 往 来 , 就 成 为 两 个 高

    度 复 杂 团 体 之 间 的 一 种 交 易 了 。 我 已 经 就 各 集 合 体 的 大 小 和

    复 杂 程 度 等 方 面 , 把 古 代 法 和 现 代 国 际 法 加 以 比 较 , 这 些 集

    合 体 的 权 利 和 义 务 古 代 法 里 都 有 规 定 。 古 代 法 中 的 契 约 和 让

    与 既 然 不 是 以 单 独 的 个 人 而 是 以 有 组 织 的 人 的 团 体 为 当 事人 , 这 此 契 约 和 让 与 就 有 高 等 的 仪 式 ; 它 们 需 要 多 种 多 样 象

    征 性 的 行 为 或 言 辞 , 其 目 的 是 使 整 个 交 易 能 深 深 地 印 在 参 与

    仪 式 的 每 一 个 人 的 记 忆 中 ; 它 们 并 且 要 求 一 个 很 大 数 目 的 证

    人 到 场 。 从 这 些 特 点 以 及 类 似 的 其 他 特 点 产 生 了 古 代 财 产 形

    式 上 普 遍 存 在 着 的 顽 强 性 。 有 时 , 家 族 的 遗 产 是 绝 对 不 可 让

    与 的 , 像 斯 拉 夫 人 的 情 形 , 更 通 常 的 是 , 虽 然 让 与 不 一 定 完

    全 非 法 , 但 象 在 大 部 分 的 日 耳 曼 部 落 中 那 样 , 让 与 在 实 际 上

    几 乎 是 不 能 实 行 的 , 因 为 要 移 转 就 必 须 取 得 多 数 人 的 同 意 。 在

    这 些 障 碍 并 不 存 在 或 是 能 够 克 服 的 地 方 , 让 与 行 为 的 本 身 一

    般 都 为 一 大 套 不 能 有 丝 毫 疏 忽 的 仪 式 所 重 累 着 。 古 代 法 一 致

    拒 绝 废 除 一 个 单 独 动 作 , 不 论 它 是 如 何 地 荒 诞 ; 一 个 单 独 的

    音 节 , 不 论 其 意 义 可 能 是 早 已 被 忘 却 了 ; 一 个 单 独 的 证 人 , 不

    论 他 的 证 词 是 如 何 地 多 余 。 全 部 的 仪 式 应 该 由 法 律 上 所 规 定

    的 必 须 参 加 的 人 们 毫 不 苟 且 地 加 以 完 成 , 否 则 让 与 便 归 无 效 ,

    而 出 卖 人 亦 恢 复 其 权 利 , 因 为 他 移 转 的 企 图 并 未 生 效 。

    对 使 用 物 件 和 享 有 物 件 的 自 由 流 通 所 加 的 种 种 障 碍 , 只

    要 社 会 获 得 极 为 细 微 的 活 动 时 , 就 会 立 刻 被 感 觉 到 , 前 进 中

    的 社 会 就 竭 力 用 种 种 权 宜 手 段 来 克 服 这 些 障 碍 , 这 就 形 成 了

    “ 财 产 ” 史 中 的 材 料 。 在 这 些 手 段 中 , 有 一 个 更 重 要 , 因 为 它

    更 古 老 和 普 遍 。 把 财 产 分 为 许 多 类 别 的 想 法 , 似 乎 是 大 多 数

    早 期 社 会 中 自 发 地 产 生 的 。 有 一 种 或 一 类 的 财 产 放 在 比 较 不

    贵 重 的 地 位 上 , 但 在 同 时 却 免 除 了 古 代 加 在 它 们 上 面 的 种 种

    拘 束 。 后 来 , 适 用 于 低 级 财 产 移 转 与 继 承 的 规 定 , 其 高 度 的

    便 利 逐 渐 被 一 般 人 所 承 认 , 在 经 过 了 一 个 渐 进 的 改 革 过 程 后 ,

    比 较 不 贵 重 一 类 的 有 价 物 的 可 塑 性 就 传 染 给 传 统 上 地 位 较 高一 级 的 各 类 物 件 。 罗 马 “ 财 产 法 ” 的 历 史 就 是 “ 要 式 交 易物 ” 和 “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” 同 化 的 历 史 。 在 欧 洲 大 陆 上 的 “ 财产 ” 史 是 罗 马 化 的 动 产 法 消 灭 封 建 化 的 土 地 法 的 历 史 , 虽 然在 英 国 所 有 权 的 历 史 还 没 有 接 近 完 成 , 但 已 可 以 看 出 , 动 产

    法 是 在 威 胁 着 要 并 吞 和 毁 灭 不 动 产 法 。

    享 有 物 件 的 唯 一自然 分 类 , 即 能 符 合 物 体 中 实 质 区 别 的唯 一 分 类 , 是 把 它 们 分 成 为 “ 动 产 ” 和 “ 不 动 产 ” 。 这 种 分 类

    虽 是 法 律 学 中 所 熟 悉 的 , 但 它 是 罗 马 法 慢 慢 地 发 展 而 得 来 的 ,

    并 且 直 到 罗 马 法 的 最 后 阶 段 才 被 采 用 。 我 们 现 在 的 分 类 就 是

    从 罗 马 法 得 来 的 。 “ 古 代 法 ” 的 分 类 有 时 在 表 面 上 和 这 个 分 类

    很 相 类 似 。 古 代 法 分 类 偶 然 地 把 财 产 分 为 各 个 范 畴 , 并 把 不

    动 产 作 为 其 中 的 一 项 ; 但 是 后 来 发 现 它 们 或 者 把 许 多 和 不 动

    产 毫 无 关 系 的 物 件 归 在 不 动 产 之 内 , 或 者 把 它 们 从 和 它 们 有

    极 密 切 关 系 的 各 种 权 利 中 强 行 分 出 来 。 这 样 , 在 罗 马 法 中 ,

    “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 不 但 包 括 土 地 , 并 且 也 包 括 奴 隶 和 牛 马 。 苏 格

    兰 法 律 把 某 种 抵 押 物 和 土 地 列 在 一 起 , 印 度 法 则 把 土 地 和 奴

    隶 联 系 起 来 。 在 另 一 方 面 , 英 国 法 律 把 多 年 的 土 地 租 赁 和 土

    地 上 的 其 他 利 益 分 列 , 并 把 前 者 用 动 产 物 ( c h a t t e l s   r e a l ) 的名 义 并 入 动 产 之 内 。 更 有 进 者 , “ 古 代 法 ” 的 分 类 是 含 有 贵 重和 低 贱 之 意 的 分 类 ; 动 产 和 不 动 产 之 间 的 区 分 , 至 少 以 罗 马法 律 学 而 论 , 实 在 并 不 具 有 尊 鄙 的 意 思 。 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ”最初的 确 要 比 “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” 优 越 些 , 正 象 苏 格 兰 的 可 继 承财产 和 英 格 兰 的 不 动 产 优 越 于 和 它 们 相 对 的 动 产 一 样 。 研究一切 制 度 的 法 律 家 都 不 辞 劳 苦 , 力 求 以 某 种 易 解 的 原 则 来 说 明这 些 分 类 ; 但 在 法 律 哲 学 中 去 寻 求 划 分 的 理 由 , 结 果 必 然 是徒 劳 无 功 ; 它 们 不 属 于 法 律 哲 学 而 属 法 律 历 史 。 可 以 用 来 概括 绝 大 多 数 事 例 的 解 释 是 , 比 其 余 享 用 物 贵 重 的 享 用 物, 一般 都 是 每 一 个 特 定 社 会 最 初 和 最 早 知 道 的 , 因 此 也 就 着 重 地用 “ 财 产 ” 的 名 称 来 尊 重 它 们 的 那 些 形 式 的 财 产 。 在 另 一 方面 , 所 有 不 列 入 爱 好 的 物 件 中 的 物 品 都 被 列 在 较 次 的 地 位 , 因为 关 于 它 们 价 值 的 知 识 是 肯 定 在 贵 重 财 产 目 录 已 经 确 定 之

    后 。 它 们 在 最 初 是 不 为 人 们 所 知 道 的 , 稀 少 , 用 途 有 限 , 再

    不 然 就 被 认 为 是 特 权 物 件 的 附 属 物 。 这 样 , 罗 马 “ 要 式 交 易

    物 ” 虽 然 包 括 了 许 多 极 有 价 值 的 动 产 , 但 价 值 最 高 的 宝 石 仍

    旧 是 从 来 没 有 被 列 入 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 项 内 , 因 为 它 们 是 古 罗

    马 人 所 不 知 道 的 。 同 样 地 , 在 英 国 , 动 产 物 据 说 已 下 降 到 动

    产 的 地 位 , 因 为 在 封 建 土 地 法 下 , 这 类 地 产 是 不 常 见 的 , 并

    且 是 毫 无 价 值 的 。 但 最 饶 有 兴 趣 的 是 , 这 些 商 品 继 续 降 格 , 正

    当 其 重 要 性 已 有 增 加 、 其 数 量 已 有 增 多 时 。 为 什 么 它 们 没 有

    继 续 被 包 括 在 爱 好 的 享 有 物 件 中 呢 ? 理 由 之 一 , 是 由 于 “ 古

    代 法 ” 固 执 地 墨 守 着 它 的 分 类 。 凡 是 没 有 受 过 教 育 的 人 和 早

    期 社 会 都 有 这 样 一 个 特 点 , 他 们 除 了 在 实 际 上 所 熟 悉 的 特 定

    应 用 之 外 , 一 般 都 不 能 想 出 一 条 通 用 的 规 则 。 他 们 不 能 从 日

    常 经 验 中 遇 到 的 特 殊 事 件 中 分 析 出 一 个 通 用 的 名 词 或 通 用 的

    格 言 ; 这 样 , 包 括 为 我 们 所 熟 知 的 各 种 形 式 财 产 的 名 称 , 就

    被 拒 绝 适 用 于 和 它 们 完 全 类 似 的 其 他 享 有 物 件 和 权 利 主 体

    上 。 对 象 法 律 那 样 稳 定 的 一 个 主 题 发 生 了 特 别 的 力 量 , 后 来

    又 添 加 了 其 他 更 适 合 于 文 明 进 步 以 及 一 般 适 宜 概 念 的 影 响 。

    法 院 和 法 律 家 终 于 对 爱 好 商 品 的 移 转 、 回 复 或 遗 传 中 所 需 要

    的 各 种 令 人 困 惑 的 手 续 程 序 , 感 到 不 便 , 于 是 便 也 不 愿 把 作为 法 律 幼 年 时 代 特 点 的 专 门 束 缚 加 于 新 的 各 类 财 产 之 上 。 因

    此 就 产 生 了 一 种 倾 向 , 把 这 些 最 后 发 现 的 物 件 在 法 律 学 安 排

    中 列 在 最 低 的 地 位 , 只 通 过 较 简 单 的 程 序 就 可 以 移 转 , 比 较

    古 代 的 让 与 简 便 了 许 多 , 不 再 用 来 作 为 善 意 的 绊 脚 石 和 诈 欺

    的 进 身 阶 了 。 我 们 也 许 有 低 估 古 代 移 转 方 式 的 不 便 的 危 险 。 我

    们 的 让 与 证 书 是 书 面 的 , 其 中 的 文 字 既 经 职 业 起 草 者 审 慎 推

    敲 过 , 在 正 确 性 上 就 绝 少 存 在 着 缺 点 。 但 是 一 个 古 代 让 与 不

    是 用 书 面 的 , 而 是 用 行 动 的 。 动 作 和 口 语 代 替 了 书 面 专 门 语

    法 , 任 何 公 式 被 误 读 了 或 是 象 征 的 行 为 被 遗 漏 了 , 就 可 能 使

    程 序 归 于 无 效 , 正 如 二 百 年 前 在 叙 述 使 用 权 或 发 表 残 余 财 产

    权 中 发 生 一 个 重 大 错 误 时 , 就 使 一 个 英 国 契 据 归 于 无 效 一 样 。

    真 的 , 古 代 仪 式 的 害 处 , 上 面 所 说 的 仅 及 其 半 。 假 使 只 在土地 的 移 转 中 需 要 有 书 面 的 或 行 为 的 精 密 让 与 , 由 于 这 类 财 产绝 少 在 极 忽 忙 之 中 予 以 处 分 , 在 移 转 时 发 生 错 误 的 机 会 是 不

    会 多 的 。 但 是 古 代 世 界 中 所 谓 高 级 财 产 不 但 包 括 土 地 , 并 且

    也 包 括 几 种 最 最 普 通 和 几 种 最 最 有 价 值 的 动 产 。 当 社 会 一 经

    开 始 很 快 地 运 动 时 , 如 果 对 于 一 匹 马 或 一 头 牛 , 或 对 于 古 代

    世 界 最 有 价 值 的 可 移 动 之 物 — — “ 奴 隶 ” — — 都 需 要 高 度 地错 综 复 杂 形 式 的 移 转 , 必 将 感 到 很 大 的 不 便 。 这 类 商 品 一 定常 常 是 、 并 且 甚 至 于 原 来 是 用 不 完 全 的 形 式 来 让 与 的 , 因 此也 就 在 不 完 全 的 名 义 下 持 有 它 们 。

    古 罗 马 法 中 的 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 是 土 地 — — 在 有 史 时 期 , 指意 大 利 疆 土 内 的 土 地 , — — 奴 隶 以 及 负 重 的 牲 畜 , 如 牛 和 马 。毫 无 疑 问 , 构 成 这 一 类 别 的 物 件 都 是 农 业 劳 动 的 工 具 , 对 于一 个 原 始 民 族 很 重 要 的 商 品 。 我 猜 想 , 这 类 商 品 最 初 称 为“ 物 件 ” 或 “ 财 产 ” , 而 它 们 移 转 的 让 与 方 式 称 作 “ 曼 企帕因 ” 或 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” ; 但 可 能 要 直 到 很 后 的 时 期 , 它 们才接受 了 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 的 特 别 名 称 , 所 谓 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” , 就 是“ 需 要 一 次 ‘ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ’ 的 物 件 ” 。 可 能 除 此 以 外 , 存 在 着或 产 生 了 有 一 类 的 物 件 , 这 些 物 件 是 不 值 得 坚 持 采 用 全 部 的

    “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 仪 式 的 。 当 这 些 物 件 由 所 有 人 移 转 给 所 有 人 时 ,

    只 须 进 行 通 常 手 续 程 序 的 一 部 分 , 这 一 部 分 就 是 实 际 送 达 、 实

    物 移 转 或 交 付 , 这 是 一 种 财 产 所 有 权 变 更 的 最 明 显 的 标 志 。 这

    类 商 品 是 古 代 法 律 学 中 的 “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” , 即 “ 不 需 要 一 次

    ‘ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ’ 的 物 件 ” , 这 些 物 件 在 起 初 可 能 很 少 被 重 视 , 并

    且 也 不 常 从 一 个 团 体 的 所 有 人 移 转 给 另 一 团 体 的 所 有 人 的 。

    可 是 , “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 的 目 录 虽 是 不 可 改 变 地 定 下 来 了 , 但

    “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” 的 目 录 却 在 无 限 制 地 扩 大 ; 从 此 , 人 类 对 物

    质 自 然 每 一 次 新 的 征 服 就 在 “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” 上 添 加 了 一 个

    新 的 项 目 , 或 在 那 些 已 经 公 认 的 项 目 中 实 行 一 次 修 改 。 因 此 ,

    它 们 就 不 知 不 觉 地 提 高 到 和 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 处 于 平 等 的 地 位 ,

    一 种 固 有 的 低 级 的 印 象 就 这 样 逐 渐 消 失 , 人 们 也 就 看 到 了 在

    他 们 移 转 时 , 如 果 用 简 单 的 手 续 , 比 较 采 用 复 杂 和 严 肃 的 仪

    式 有 更 多 的 利 益 。 法 律 改 良 中 的 两 个 媒 介 即 “ 拟 制 ” 和 “ 衡

    平 ” 就 被 罗 马 法 律 学 专 心 一 致 地 运 用 着 , 使 得 “ 交 付 ” 能 具

    有 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 的 实 际 效 果 。 同 时 , 虽 然 罗 马 立 法 者 是 期

    不 敢 制 订 法 律 , 规 定 “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 中 的 财 产 权 可 通 过 简 单

    的 物 件 送 达 而 立 即 移 转 , 但 甚 至 这 样 一 个 步 骤 , 最 后 也 为 查

    斯 丁 尼 安 大 胆 地 做 了 , 在 他 的 法 律 学 中 , “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 和

    “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” 之 间 的 区 别 已 完 全 消 失 , “ 交 付 ” 或 “ 送达 ” 成 为 法 律 所 承 认 的 最 大 让 与 。 罗 马 法 律 家 很 早 就 对 “ 交

    付 ” 有 显 著 的 偏 爱 , 这 种 偏 爱 使 他 们 在 理 论 中 分 配 给 “ 交

    付 ” 一 个 特 殊 地 位 , 使 现 代 学 生 们 无 法 看 到 其 真 正 的 历 史 。

    “ 交 付 ” 被 归 类 在 “ 自 然 的 ” 取 得 方 式 中 , 一 方 面 因 为 它 在 意

    大 利 各 部 落 中 普 遍 地 应 用 着 , 另 一 方 面 因 为 它 是 能 通 过 最 简

    单 机 构 来 达 到 其 目 的 的 一 种 过 程 。 如 果 把 法 学 专 家 的 言 语 简

    要 地 加 以 重 述 , 无 疑 地 包 含 着 : 属 于 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 “ 交 付 ” 比

    “ 是 企 帕 地 荷 ” 还 要 古 老 , 因 为 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 是 一 个 “ 市 民

    社 会 ” 的 制 度 ; 我 认 为 不 消 说 得 , 这 一 点 是 恰 恰 和 事 实 相 反

    的 。

    “ 要 式 交 易 物 ” 和 “ 非 要 式 交 易 物 ” 之 间 的 区 分 是 一 种 有

    功 于 人 类 文 明 的 区 分 , 这 种 区 分 涉 及 全 部 商 品 , 它 把 商 品 中

    的 一 小 部 分 归 入 一 类 , 而 把 其 余 的 列 入 较 低 级 的 一 类 。 各 种

    低 级 的 财 产 , 由 于 蔑 视 和 忽 视 , 首 先 从 原 始 法 律 所 喜 爱 的 复

    杂 仪 式 中 释 放 出 来 , 此 后 , 在 另 一 种 智 力 进 步 的 状 态 下 , 简

    单 的 移 转 和 恢 复 方 法 便 被 采 用 , 作 为 一 个 模 型 , 以 它 的 便 利

    和 简 单 来 非 难 从 古 代 传 下 来 的 繁 重 仪 式 。 但 是 , 在 有 些 社 会

    中 , 财 产 所 受 到 的 束 缚 是 过 分 地 复 杂 和 严 密 , 不 能 轻 易 地 得

    到 放 松 。 当 印 度 人 生 出 男 性 的 子 嗣 时 , 象 我 已 经 说 过 的 印 度

    的 法 律 便 使 他 们 都 在 父 的 财 产 中 取 得 一 种 利 益 , 并 使 他 们 的

    同 意 成 为 财 产 让 与 的 一 个 必 要 条 件 。 古 日 耳 曼 民 族 的 一 种 通

    例 具 有 同 样 的 精 神 — — 值 得 注 意 的 是 , 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊 的 习

    惯 似 乎 是 一 个 例 外 — — , 它 规 定 在 未 经 取 得 男 性 子 嗣 同 意 前

    禁 止 让 与 财 产 ; 斯 拉 夫 人 的 原 始 法 律 甚 至 完 全 禁 止 让 与 。 很

    明 显 , 这 一 类 的 障 碍 是 不 能 用 在 各 种 财 产 之 间 加 以 区 分 的 方法 来 克 服 的 , 因 为 困 难 涉 及 所 有 各 类 商 品 ; 因 此 , 当 “ 古 代

    法 ” 一 度 开 始 向 改 进 的 道 路 发 展 时 , 就 用 另 外 一 种 性 质 的 区

    分 来 克 服 这 种 障 碍 , 这 种 区 分 不 是 按 照 财 产 的 性 质 而 是 按 照

    其 渊 源 来 分 类 。 在 印 度 , 就 有 两 种 分 类 制 度 的 遗 迹 , 我 们 现

    在 考 虑 的 一 种 可 以 用 印 度 法 在 “ 继 承 财 产 ” 和 “ 取 得 物 ” 之

    间 建 立 的 区 分 来 例 证 。 父 的 继 承 财 产 在 其 子 出 生 时 即 为 他 们

    所 分 有 ; 但 按 照 大 多 数 省 分 的 习 惯 , 他 本 人 在 世 时 取 得 的 则

    完 全 为 他 个 人 所 有 , 并 可 以 由 他 任 意 移 转 。 罗 马 法 中 有 一 种

    类 似 的 区 分 , 这 是 对 “ 父 权 ” 最 早 的 一 种 改 革 , 它 允 许 子 把

    他 在 军 役 中 所 获 得 的 物 件 归 他 自 己 所 有 。 但 这 种 分 类 方 法 , 在

    日 耳 曼 人 中 得 到 最 广 泛 的 应 用 。 我 曾 反 复 地 说 过 ,自主 ·

    地 虽然 并 非 不 可 让 与 , 但 一 般 必 须 经 过 很 大 的 困 难 才 可 以 移 转 ; 而且 ,自主地 只 可 以 遗 传 给 宗 亲 属 。 于 是 , 非 常 多 种 多 样 的 区分 便 被 承 认 了 , 都 企 图 消 灭 和 自 主 土 地 分 不 开 的 各 种 不 便 。 例如,杀害亲属和解费 ( w e h r g e l d ) 在 日 耳 曼 法 律 学 中 占 有 很 大的 地 位 , 却 并 不 成 为 家 族 领 地 的 一 部 分 , 并 且 根 据 完 全不同的 继 承 规 则 而 遗 传 。 同 样 的 ,寡妇再醮时所课的罚金( r e i p u s ) 也 不 并 入 它 所 给 付 的 人 的自主地 之 内 , 在 移 转 时 , 并且 也 可 以 不 理 会 宗 亲 的 特 权 。 日 耳 曼 的 法 律 也 象 印 度 人 的 法

    律 一 样 , 把 家 长 的 “ 取 得 物 ” 和 “ 继 承 ” 财 产 区 分 开 来 , 准

    许 他 在 十 分 自 由 的 条 件 下 处 理 其 “ 取 得 物 ” 。 其 他 种 类 的 分 类

    也 是 被 承 认 的 , 常 见 的 是 土 地 与 动 产 的 区 分 ; 但 是 在 动 产 项

    下 还 被 分 成 几 个 附 属 的 类 别 , 每 一 类 都 适 用 一 种 不 同 的 规 则 。

    象 征 服 罗 马 帝 国 的 日 耳 曼 人 那 样 未 开 化 的 民 族 竟 会 有 这 样 丰

    富 的 分 类 , 我 们 在 初 看 起 来 似 乎 是 很 奇 怪 的 , 但 这 无 疑 地 是由 于 他 们 的 制 度 中 有 相 当 数 量 的 罗 马 法 成 分 , 这 些 都 是 他 们长 期 寄 居 于 罗 马 领 土 边 境 的 时 期 内 吸 收 的 。 对 于 自 主 地 以 外各 种 商 品 的 移 转 和 遗 传 的 规 定 , 我 们 可 以 毫 无 困 难 地 发 现 其

    中 许 多 来 自 罗 马 法 律 学 , 这 些 都 可 能 是 他 们 在 非 常 是 的 时 间

    内 零 零 星 星 地 从 罗 马 法 律 学 中 借 用 来 的 。 究 竟 阻 碍 财 产 自 由

    流 通 的 障 碍 通 过 了 这 类 手 段 能 克 服 到 何 种 程 度 , 我 们 无 法 加

    以 猜 度 , 因 为 这 些 区 分 已 在 现 代 历 史 上 消 失 了 。 我 在 前 面 已

    解 释 过 , 自 主 地 形 式 的 财 产 在 封 建 时 期 已 完 全 消 灭 了 , 并 且

    当 封 建 制 度 一 经 巩 固 后 , 西 方 世 界 所 有 各 种 区 分 在 实 际 上 只

    有 一 种 还 留 存 着 — — 就 是 土 地 和 物 件 、 不 动 产 和 动 产 之 间 的

    区 分 。 在 外 表 上 , 这 个 区 分 和 罗 马 法 在 最 后 采 用 的 那 种 区 分

    相 同 , 但 中 世 纪 的 法 律 和 罗 马 法 律 在 有 一 点 上 是 显 然 不 同 的 ,

    这 就 是 中 世 纪 的 法 律 认 为 不 动 产 比 动 产 更 加 高 贵 。 这 一 个 例

    子 , 就 足 以 证 明 它 所 属 的 一 类 方 法 的 重 要 性 。 在 以 法 兰 西 法

    典 为 其 制 度 的 基 础 的 一 切 国 家 中 , 也 就 是 在 欧 洲 大 陆 的 绝 大

    部 分 国 家 中 , 始 终 是 来 自 罗 马 法 律 的 动 产 法 代 替 了 和 废 弃 了

    封 建 的 土 地 法 。 英 国 是 唯 一 的 重 要 国 家 , 在 那 里 这 种 变 化 虽

    然 已 有 进 展 , 但 并 没 有 接 近 完 成 。 应 该 进 一 步 说 明 , 我 国 也

    是 唯 一 重 要 的 欧 洲 国 家 , 在 其 中 , 动 产 和 不 动 产 的 分 开 受 到

    了 在 过 去 曾 促 使 古 代 分 类 乖 离 了 唯 一 合 乎 自 然 分 类 的 同 一 种

    影 响 的 扰 乱 。 英 国 的 分 类 在 大 体 上 是 分 为 土 地 和 物 件 ; 但 某

    种 物 件 被 作 为 继 承 动 产 ( h e i r l o o m ) 和 土 地 列 在 一 起 , 某 种 土地 上 的 利 益 则 由 于 历 史 上 的 原 因 又 和 动 产 平 列 。 英 国 法 律 学站 在 法 律 变 化 的 主 流 之 外 , 重 复 着 古 代 法 律 的 现 象 , 这 里 所说 的 并 不 是 唯 一 的 事 例 。

    因为 本 文 的 范 围 只 许 可 提 到 那 些 极 古 的 方 法 , 我 要 再 谈

    一二 个 方 法 , 通 过 了 这 些 方 法 , 古 代 人 对 于 财 产 所 有 权 所 加

    的 种 种 束 缚 多 少 放 松 了 一 些 。 特 别 是 其 中 的 一 种 必 须 加 以 详

    细 讨 论 , 因 为 凡 是 不 熟 悉 早 期 法 律 史 的 人 都 不 会 很 容 易 地 相

    信 : 现 代 法 律 学 非 常 迟 缓 并 且 经 过 了 绝 大 困 难 才 获 得 承 认 的

    一 条 原 则 , 却 在 法 律 科 学 很 幼 年 时 代 就 非 常 熟 悉 了 。 在 一 切

    法 律 中 , 现 代 人 最 不 愿 采 用 并 不 愿 使 它 产 生 合 法 后 果 的 原 则 ,

    就 是 罗 马 人 所 知 的 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 和 在 “ 时 效 ” 的 名 义 下 一 直

    传 到 现 代 法 律 学 的 原 则 , 虽 然 这 个 原 则 是 有 它 有 利 的 性 质 的 。

    最 古 罗 马 法 上 有 一 条 明 定 的 规 则 , 比 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 更 古 老 ,

    它 规 定 : 凡 是 曾 被 不 间 断 地 持 有 一 定 时 期 的 商 品 即 成 为 占 有

    人 的 财 产 。 占 有 的 期 间 是 极 短 促 的 — — 一 年 或 二 年 , 根 据 商

    品 的 性 质 而 定 — — , 在 有 史 时 期 内 , “ 时 效 取 得 ” 只 在 用 一 种

    特 殊 方 式 开 始 占 有 时 才 能 准 许 有 效 ; 但 我 以 为 在 一 个 较 不 进

    步 的 时 代 , 比 我 们 在 权 威 著 作 中 所 读 到 的 更 不 严 格 的 条 件 下 ,

    占 有 也 很 可 能 变 成 所 有 权 。 我 在 前 面 已 经 说 过 , 我 决 不 主 张

    人 类 对 于事实上 占 有 的 尊 重 是 法 律 学 本 身 所 能 说 明 的 一 种 现

    象 , 但 有 必 要 说 明 的 是 , 原 始 社 会 在 采 用 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 原 则

    时 , 并 没 有 被 曾 经 阻 碍 现 代 人 接 受 这 原 则 的 那 些 纯 理 论 的 疑

    虑 和 踌 躇 所 困 惑 。 现 代 法 律 家 对 于 “ 时 效 ” 的 看 法 , 起 先 是

    嫌 恶 , 后 来 则 是 勉 强 赞 成 。 在 有 几 个 国 家 中 , 包 括 我 们 自 己

    的 国 家 在 内 , 立 法 是 期 不 愿 越 过 这 样 一 个 旧 的 方 法 而 前 进 一

    步 , 根 据 这 个 旧 的 方 法 , 凡 是 在 过 去 一 个 指 定 的 时 期 以 前 、 一

    般 是 前 一 个 朝 代 的 第 一 年 以 前 遭 受 损 害 而 提 出 的 诉 讼 , 一 概

    不 予 受 理 ; 直 到 中 世 纪 最 后 结 束 、 詹 姆 士 一 世继 承 英 格 兰 王 位 , 我 们 才 获 得 了 一 种 很 不 完 全 的 真 正

    的 时 限 条 例 。 现 代 世 界 对 罗 马 法 中 这 最 著 名 的 一 章 、 而 且 无

    疑 是 欧 洲 大 多 数 法 律 家 经 常 谈 到 的 一 章 竟 会 这 样 慢 才 加 以 采

    用 , 主 要 是 由 于 受 到 “ 寺 院 法 ” 的 影 响 。 “ 寺 院 法 ” 是 从 宗 教

    习 惯 产 生 出 来 的 , 这 些 宗 教 习 惯 既 然 关 心 着 神 圣 或 准 神 圣 的

    利 益 , 就 很 自 然 地 认 为 它 们 所 赋 与 的 特 权 不 能 因 长 期 不 用 而

    丧 失 ; 按 照 这 个 见 解 , 宗 教 法 律 学 在 后 来 巩 固 时 , 就 以 明 显

    地 反 对 “ 时 效 ” 著 称 。 “ 寺 院 法 ” 被 教 会 法 律 家 用 作 世 俗 立 法

    的 范 本 , 对 基 本 原 理 就 发 生 了 特 殊 影 响 。 “ 寺 院 法 ” 给 予 全 欧

    洲 形 成 的 各 式 各 样 习 惯 的 明 确 规 定 , 其 数 量 远 不 及 罗 马 法 所

    给 予 的 多 , 但 它 在 许 多 基 本 问 题 上 似 乎 已 经 给 了 职 业 意 见 以

    一 种 偏 向 , 而 这 样 产 生 的 倾 向 又 随 着 每 个 制 度 的 发 展 而 不 断

    地 增 加 力 量 。 它 所 产 生 的 倾 向 之 一 就 是 对 于 “ 时 效 ” 的 嫌 恶 ;

    但 是 , 如 果 不 是 和 实 在 派 经 院 法 学 家 的 学 理 相 同 , 我 以 为 这

    种 偏 见 是 决 不 会 象 它 现 在 那 样 有 力 的 。 这 些 经 院 法 学 家 认 为 :

    不 论 实 际 立 法 如 何 变 动 , 凡 是 一 种 ·

    权 ·

    利 , 纵 使 经 过 长 期 的 忽

    视 , 在 实 际 上 是 不 可 毁 灭 的 。 这 种 想 法 的 残 余 , 到 现 在 依 旧

    存 在 。 凡 是 热 诚 讨 论 法 律 哲 学 的 任 何 地 方 , 对 于 “ 时 效 ” 的

    理 论 基 础 问 题 , 总 是 热 烈 地 进 行 争 辩 的 。 在 法 国 和 德 国 , 如

    果 一 个 人 已 经 有 许 多 年 丧 失 了 占 有 , 究 竟 应 作 为 其 怠 忽 的 处

    罚 而 剥 夺 其 所 有 权 呢 , 还 是 由 于 法 律 希 望结束诉讼 ( f i n i s  l i t i u m ) 而 通 过 简 单 仲 裁 使 其 丧 失 所 有 权 , 仍 旧 是 一 个 极 有 兴

    趣 的 问 题 。 但 是 在 古 代 罗 马 社 会 中 , 人 们 就 没 有 受 到 这 种 犹

    豫 不 决 的 困 扰 。 罗 马 的 古 代 惯 例 对 于 在 某 种 情 况 下 丧 失 占 有

    达 一 二 年 的 任 何 人 , 就 直 接 剥 夺 其 所 有 权 。 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 的 这个 规 定 , 在 它 最 古 代 形 式 下 , 其 确 切 性 质 究 竟 是 怎 样 的 , 很

    不 容 易 说 明 ; 但 是 , 就 我 们 从 书 本 中 所 看 到 和 它 附 着 在 一 起

    的 种 种 限 制 , 可 知 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 实 在 是 一 种 最 有 用 的 保 障 , 用

    以 防 止 过 于 繁 杂 的 一 种 让 与 制 度 所 有 的 各 种 害 处 。 为 了 得 到

    “ 时 效 取 得 ” 的 好 处 , 他 主 占 有 在 开 始 时 必 须 是 善 意 的 , 换 言

    之 , 即 占 有 人 必 须 认 为 他 是 合 法 地 取 得 财 产 ; 其 次 , 商 品 移

    转 给 他 时 所 采 用 的 形 式 虽 然 在 这 特 定 情 况 中 不 一 定 要 等 于 是

    一 个 完 全 的 权 利 的 赋 与 , 但 至 少 是 应 该 为 法 律 所 承 认 的 。 因

    此 , 在 一 个 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 的 情 形 中 , 不 问 履 行 是 如 何 的 草

    率 , 但 只 要 在 履 行 中 已 经 包 括 了 一 种 “ 交 付 ” 或 “ 送 达 ” , 则

    权 利 上 的 缺 点 就 可 以 因 至 多 两 年 的 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 而 矫 正 。 在

    罗 马 人 的 实 践 中 , 我 认 为 他 们 对 于 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 的 利 用 , 最

    有 力 地 证 明 他 们 的 法 律 天 才 。 他 们 所 感 到 苦 恼 的 困 难 , 几 乎

    正 是 英 国 法 律 家 过 去 曾 经 和 现 在 仍 旧 感 到 窘 迫 的 困 难 。 由 于

    他 们 的 制 度 的 复 杂 性 , 这 是 他 们 一 直 没 有 勇 气 也 没 有 力 量 加

    以 改 造 的 , 实 际 上 的 权 利 常 常 和 理 论 上 的 权 利 相 脱 离 , 衡 平

    上 的 所 有 权 则 和 法 律 上 的 所 有 权 相 脱 离 。 但 是 法 学 专 家 制 订

    的 这 个 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 提 供 了 一 个 自 动 的 机 械 , 通 过 了 这 个 自

    动 机 械 , 权 利 的 缺 陷 就 不 断 得 到 矫 正 , 而 暂 时 脱 离 的 所 有 权

    又 可 以 在 可 能 极 短 的 阻 碍 之 后 重 新 迅 速 地 结 合 起 来 。 直 到 查

    斯 丁 尼 安 改 革 之 前 , “ 时 效 取 得 ” 一 直 没 有 失 掉 其 好 处 。 但 法

    律 和 衡 平 一 经 完 全 混 合 、 罗 马 人 不 再 用 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 作 为

    让 与 时 , 这 古 代 的 方 法 已 失 去 必 要 , 而 “ 时 效 取 得 ” 在 相 当

    地 延 长 的 时 期 后 , 就 成 为 “ 时 效 ” , 它 最 后 几 乎 为 所 有 现 代 法

    律 制 度 所 普 遍 采 用 。

    我 将 简 单 地 提 一 提 另 外 一 种 方 法 , 它 和 上 面 所 提 到 的 一

    种 方 法 具 有 同 一 的 目 的 , 它 虽 然 没 有 立 即 在 英 国 法 律 史 中 出

    现 , 但 在 罗 马 法 中 却 是 历 史 非 常 悠 久 的 。 有 些 日 耳 曼 民 法 学

    家 对 英 国 法 律 中 类 比 这 个 问 题 所 提 供 的 线 索 没 有 足 够 地 注

    意 , 竟 认 为 它 甚 至 早 于 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” , 这 足 证 它 的 明 显 年 代 。

    我 要 谈 到 的 是 “ 拟 诉 弃 权 ” ( C e s s i o   i n   J u r e ) , 即 在 一 个 法院 中 , 对 于 要 求 让 与 财 产 的 一 种 串 通 回 复 。 原 告 用 一 种 普 通

    形 式 的 诉 讼 请 求 诉 讼 标 的 ; 被 告 缺 席 ; 商 品 就 当 然 地 被 判 给

    原 告 。 我 母 庸 提 醒 英 国 法 律 家 , 这 个 方 法 也 曾 为 我 们 的 祖 先

    所 想 到 , 并 产 生 了 著 名 的 “ 罚 金 ” 和 “ 回 复 ” , 大 大 地 解 除 了

    封 建 土 地 法 最 严 酷 的 束 缚 。 这 种 罗 马 人 的 和 英 国 人 的 方 法 有

    很 多 相 同 之 点 , 并 且 最 有 启 发 地 相 互 例 证 。 但 在 这 两 者 之 间

    还 是 有 区 别 的 , 英 国 法 律 家 的 目 的 是 解 除 存 在 权 利 中 的 各 种

    纠 葛 , 而 罗 马 法 学 专 家 则 是 在 用 一 种 必 然 地 无 可 非 议 的 移 转

    方 式 来 代 替 常 常 失 误 的 移 转 方 式 , 用 它 来 防 止 纠 葛 。 实 际 上 ,

    这 种 办 法 是 “ 法 院 ” 正 常 地 进 行 工 作 时 自 行 发 现 的 办 法 , 但

    无 论 如 何 仍 旧 逃 不 出 原 始 观 念 的 支 配 。 当 法 律 观 点 在 前 进 状

    态 中 时 , 法 院 认 为 串 通 的 诉 讼 是 诉 讼 程 序 的 一 种 滥 用 ; 但 始

    终 存 在 这 样 一 个 时 期 , 当 法 院 的 形 式 被 谨 慎 地 遵 守 着 时 , 法

    院 就 决 不 会 梦 想 再 有 所 求 了 。

    法 院 及 其 诉 讼 手 续 对 “ 财 产 ” 的 影 响 是 很 广 泛 的 , 但 这

    个 问 题 已 超 过 了 本 文 的 范 围 , 并 将 使 我 们 深 入 到 后 期 的 法 律

    史 , 这 也 和 本 文 的 计 划 是 不 相 一 致 的 。 但 有 必 要 提 一 下 , “ 财

    产 ” 和 “ 占 有 ” 间 区 分 之 所 以 重 要 , 就 是 由 于 这 种 影 响 — —

    并 不 是 区 分 的 本 身 , 这 ( 用 一 个 著 名 英 国 民 法 学 家 的 话 ) 和对 物 所 有 的 法 律 权 利 和 对 物 所 有 的 实 际 权 力 间 的 区 分 ) 是 完

    全 相 同 的 — — 而 是 它 在 法 律 哲 学 中 所 获 得 的 非 常 重 要 性 。 凡

    是 受 过 教 育 的 人 决 不 全 没 有 从 法 律 著 作 中 听 到 过 罗 马 法 学 专

    家 在 “ 占 有 ” 这 个 问 题 上 长 时 期 来 发 生 的 一 些 极 端 混 乱 的 意

    见 , 而 萨 维 尼 天 才 的 得 到 证 明 , 主 要 就 在 于 他 发 现 了 这 个 谜

    语 的 解 答 。 事 实 上 , 罗 马 法 律 家 所 用 的 “ 占 有 ” 似 乎 含 有 一

    种 不 容 易 说 明 的 意 义 。 这 个 名 词 从 其 字 源 上 看 , 原 来 一 定 含

    有 实 体 接 触 或 可 以 任 意 恢 复 的 实 体 接 触 之 意 ; 但 在 实 际 应 用

    上 如 不 加 任 何 形 容 词 , 它 的 含 义 不 仅 仅 包 括 实 体 强 留 , 而 是

    实 体 强 留 加 上 了 要 把 物 件 保 留 为 自 己 所 有 的 意 向 。 萨 维 尼 跟

    随 着 尼 布 尔 , 认 为 这 个 变 例 只 可 能 有 一 个 历 史 渊 源 。 他 指 出 ,

    罗 马 的 “ 贵 族 ” 市 民 在 付 出 名 义 租 金 而 成 为 绝 大 部 分 公 共 领

    地 的 佃 农 时 , 在 古 罗 马 法 的 见 解 中 , 他 们 只 是 占 有 人 , 但 他

    们 当 时 是 一 些 意 图 保 持 他 们 的 土 地 而 抗 拒 一 切 外 来 者 的 占 有

    人 。 其 实 , 他 们 所 提 出 的 请 求 , 几 乎 和 最 近 在 英 国 由 “ 教

    会 ” 土 地 的 承 租 人 所 提 出 的 请 求 , 完 全 相 同 。 他 们 承 认 在 理

    论 上 他 们 是 国 家 的 任 意 佃 农 ( t e n a n t s - a t - w i l l ) , 但 又 认 为

    时 间 和 安 全 的 享 有 使 他 们 的 持 有 成 熟 而 成 为 一 种 所 有 权 , 如

    果 为 了 要 重 行 分 配 领 地 而 排 斥 他 们 , 那 是 不 公 正 的 。 这 种 请

    求 和 “ 贵 族 ” 租 地 的 联 想 永 远 影 响 着 “ 占 有 ” 的 意 义 。 同 时 ,

    佃 农 如 果 被 排 斥 了 或 受 到 了 扰 乱 的 威 胁 时 , 他 们 所 能 利 用 的

    唯 一 法 律 救 济 , 是 “ 占 有 禁 令 ” ( P o s s e s s o r y   I n t e r d i c t s ) , 这是 罗 马 法 中 的 简 易 诉 讼 程 序 , 是 “ 裁 判 官 ” 为 了 要 保 护 他 们而 明 白 制 定 的 , 或 者 , 根 据 另 外 一 种 理 论 , 是 在 较 早 时 代 用以 临 时 保 持 占 有 以 待 法 律 权 利 问 题 的 最 后 解 决 。 因 此 , 不 难了 解 , 凡 是 · 作 ·

    为 · 自 ·

    己 · 所 ·

    有 而 占 有 财 产 的 人 , 就 有 权 要 求 “ 禁

    令 ” , 并 且 通 过 一 种 高 度 人 为 的 辩 诉 制 度 , 使 “ 禁 令 ” 程 序 能

    用 以 处 理 一 个 争 执 占 有 的 冲 突 请 求 。 接 着 就 开 始 了 一 种 运 动 ,

    而 这 种 运 动 正 象 约 翰 · 奥 斯 丁 先 生 所 指 出 的 , 在 英 国 法 律 中

    恰 恰 重 复 地 发 生 。 ·

    财产所有人 ( d o m i n i ) 宁 愿 采 用 形 式 比 较 简

    单 方 法 比 较 迅 速 的 “ 禁 令 ” , 以 代 替 手 续 程 序 迟 滞 而 复 杂 的

    “ 物 权 诉 讼 ” ( R e a l   A c t i o n ) , 并 且 为 了 能 利 用 这 种 占 有 救 济 ,

    财 产 所 有 人 竟 借 助 于 假 定 是 包 括 在 其 所 有 权 之 中 的 占 有 。 容

    许 不 是 真 正 的 “ 占 有 人 ” 而 是 “ 所 有 人 ” 的 人 们 能 自 由 利 用

    占 有 救 济 以 证 实 其 权 利 , 在 起 初 虽 可 能 是 一 种 恩 赐 , 但 最 后

    使 英 国 和 罗 马 法 律 学 发 生 了 严 重 退 化 的 效 果 。 罗 马 法 , 在

    “ 占 有 ” 问 题 上 发 生 了 各 种 复 杂 难 解 之 处 , 使 它 为 人 们 所 不 信

    任 , 而 英 国 法 , 在 适 用 于 回 复 不 动 产 的 诉 讼 陷 入 了 最 无 希 望

    的 混 乱 状 态 后 , 终 于 不 得 不 用 一 种 果 断 的 救 济 办 法 来 把 全 部

    混 乱 一 扫 而 光 。 近 三 十 年 来 英 国 在 实 质 上 已 把 物 权 诉 讼 加 以

    发 除 , 没 有 人 怀 疑 , 这 是 一 件 公 认 的 好 事 , 但 是 对 于 法 律 学

    的 调 和 有 敏 感 的 人 们 仍 将 慨 歎 地 认 为 , 这 样 我 们 不 但 没 有 澄

    清 、 改 进 和 简 化 真 正 的 所 有 权 诉 讼 , 反 而 牺 牲 了 这 些 所 有 权

    诉 讼 而 让 位 于 占 有 的 勒 迁 之 诉 ( p o s s e s s o r y   a c t i o n   o f   e Aj e c t m e n t ) , 这 样 使 我 们 的 全 部 土 地 回 复 制 度 完 全 建 筑 在 一 个

    法 律 拟 制 上 。

    法 院 也 用 区 分 “ 法 律 ” 和 “ 衡 平 ” 的 方 法 来 有 力 地 帮 助

    形 成 和 改 变 有 关 财 产 所 有 权 的 各 种 概 念 , 法 律 和 衡 平 间 的 区

    分 在 最 初 出 现 时 通 常 表 现 为 管 辖 权 上 的 区 分 。 在 英 国 , 可 以

    衡 平 的 财 产 只 是 受 “ 衡 平 法 院 ” 管 辖 的 财 产 。 在 罗 马 , “ 裁 判官 告 令 ” 采 用 新 的 原 则 时 在 外 表 上 往 往 是 用 允 许 在 某 种 情 况

    下 可 以 提 出 一 种 特 殊 诉 讼 或 一 种 特 殊 抗 辩 的 形 式 ; 因 此 , 罗

    马 法 上 的 ·

    可 ·

    衡 ·

    平 财 产 ( p r o p e r t y   i n   b o n i s ) 是 以 “ 告 令 ” 为

    根 据 的 完 全 由 救 济 方 法 保 护 的 财 产 。 保 全 衡 平 权 利 、 使 不 因

    法 律 所 有 人 的 请 求 而 发 止 的 机 构 , 在 两 种 制 度 中 似 乎 略 有 不

    同 。 在 我 们 的 制 度 中 , 它 们 的 独 立 性 靠 “ 衡 平 法 院 ” 的 “ 禁

    状 ” 而 保 全 。 在 罗 马 制 度 中 , 既 然 “ 法 律 ” 和 “ 衡 平 ” 还 没

    有 巩 固 , 并 且 由 同 一 法 院 执 行 , 就 不 需 要 “ 禁 状 ” , 只 须 “ 高

    级 官 吏 ” 简 单 地 拒 绝 把 “ 市 民 法 所 有 人 ” 能 凭 而 获 得 在 衡 平

    法 上 属 于 别 人 的 财 产 的 那 些 诉 讼 和 抗 辩 给 与 他 们 即 可 。 但 两

    个 制 度 在 实 际 的 执 行 上 , 是 几 乎 相 同 的 。 它 们 都 用 了 不 同 的

    手 续 程 序 , 以 一 种 暂 时 成 立 来 保 存 新 的 财 产 形 式 , 直 到 这 种

    新 的 财 产 形 式 为 全 部 法 律 所 承 认 。 用 了 这 种 方 法 , 罗 马 “ 裁

    判 官 ” 以 一 种 即 时 的 财 产 权 给 与 因 仅 仅 送 达 而 取 得 “ 要 式 交

    易 物 ” 的 人 , 不 必 等 待 “ 取 得 时 效 ” 的 成 熟 。 同 样 , 他 及 时

    承 认 最 初 仅 作 为 一 个 “ 受 托 人 ” 或 受 寄 人 的 抵 押 权 人 , 以 及

    “ 永 佃 人 ” ( E m p h y t e u t a ) 或 偿 付 一 定 永 久 佃 租 的 佃 农 , 有 所

    有 权 。 和 这 个 发 展 过 程 相 平 行 ; 英 国 衡 平 法 院 为 “ 抵 押 人 ” 、

    为 “ 信 托 受 益 人 ” ( C e s t u i   q u e   T r u s t ) 为 享 有 特 种 授 产 的

    已 婚 妇 女 , 以 及 为 还 没 有 获 得 一 种 完 全 法 律 所 有 权 的 “ 买 受

    人 ” , 创 设 一 种 特 殊 的 所 有 权 。 在 这 一 切 事 例 中 , 显 然 是 新 的

    所 有 权 形 式 被 承 认 了 并 保 存 了 。 但 是 , 在 英 国 和 罗 马 , “ 财

    产 ” 间 接 地 受 到 衡 平 影 响 的 , 真 不 下 千 百 种 之 多 。 衡 平 的 著

    者 利 用 他 们 手 中 掌 握 的 有 力 工 具 , 向 法 律 学 的 各 个 角 落 里 推

    进 , 他 们 必 然 地 要 遇 到 、 触 及 并 且 多 少 在 实 质 上 改 变 财 产 法律 。 在 前 面 我 谈 到 某 些 古 代 法 律 特 点 和 方 法 曾 有 力 地 影 响 着

    所 有 权 的 历 史 时 , 我 的 意 见 应 被 理 解 为 , 它 们 的 最 大 影 响 是

    在 把 改 进 的 暗 示 和 提 示 注 入 到 衡 平 制 度 制 造 者 所 呼 吸 的 精 神

    空 气 中 。

    但 是 要 描 述 “ 衡 平 法 ” 对 “ 所 有 权 ” 发 生 的 全 部 影 响 , 就

    必 须 把 它 的 历 史 一 直 写 到 我 们 现 在 为 止 。 我 所 以 提 到 它 , 主

    要 因 为 有 几 位 可 尊 敬 的 当 代 著 者 曾 以 为 : 从 罗 马 人 把 “ 衡

    平 ” 财 产 从 “ 法 律 ” 财 产 中 分 离 开 来 这 件 事 情 中 , 我 们 获 得

    了 使 中 世 纪 法 律 对 于 “ 所 有 权 ” 持 有 的 概 念 显 然 有 别 于 罗 马

    帝 国 法 律 所 持 有 概 念 的 线 索 。 封 建 时 代 概 念 的 主 要 特 点 , 是

    它 承 认 一 个 双 重 所 有 权 , 即 封 建 地 主 所 有 的 高 级 所 有 权 以 及

    同 时 存 在 的 佃 农 的 低 级 财 产 权 或 地 权 。 有 人 认 为 这 种 双 重 所

    有 权 非 常 象 罗 马 人 把 财 产 权 概 括 地 区 分 ·

    为 ·

    公 ·

    民 的 或 法 律 的 ,

    以 及 ( 用 一 个 后 来 的 名 词 ) ·

    有 ·

    使 ·

    用 ·

    权 ·

    的 ( B o n i t a r i a n ) 或 可 衡

    平 的 。 该 雅 士 也 把 ·

    完 ·

    全 ·

    所 ·

    有 ·

    权 分 裂 为 两 个 部 分 作 为 罗 马 法 律

    的 一 个 特 点 , 与 其 他 民 族 所 熟 悉 的 完 全 或 自 主 财 产 所 有 权 成

    为 明 白 的 对 比 。 诚 然 , 查 斯 丁 尼 安 把 完 全 所 有 权 重 新 合 而 为

    一 , 但 蛮 族 在 这 样 许 多 世 纪 中 所 接 触 到 的 是 西 罗 马 帝 国 经 过

    部 分 改 革 的 制 度 而 不 是 查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 法 律 学 。 当 蛮 族 居 留 在

    帝 国 的 边 缘 上 时 , 很 可 能 他 们 学 到 了 这 种 分 划 , 后 来 便 产 生

    了 显 著 的 后 果 。 我 们 虽 然 同 意 这 种 理 论 , 但 无 论 如 何 必 须 承

    认 , 在 各 种 蛮 族 习 惯 中 所 含 有 的 罗 马 法 因 素 到 现 在 为 止 , 还

    研 究 得 很 不 完 全 。 所 有 解 释 封 建 制 度 的 各 种 错 误 的 或 不 充 分

    的 理 论 , 在 它 们 相 互 之 间 有 一 点 类 似 的 倾 向 , 就 是 忽 略 了 包

    含 在 封 建 制 度 结 构 中 的 这 种 特 殊 要 素 。 在 这 个 国 家 中 为 一 般人 所 追 随 的 前 辈 研 究 者 , 都 特 别 着 重 封 建 制 度 逐 渐 从 长 成 到

    成 熟 这 个 混 乱 期 间 内 的 各 种 情 况 ; 后 来 , 在 已 经 存 在 的 那 些

    错 误 中 又 加 添 了 一 个 新 的 错 误 的 来 源 , 这 就 是 民 族 骄 傲 , 它

    使 日 耳 曼 的 著 者 过 分 夸 大 其 祖 先 早 在 他 们 来 到 罗 马 世 界 之 前

    就 已 建 立 起 了 的 社 会 组 织 的 完 整 性 。 有 一 二 位 英 国 研 究 者 虽

    能 从 正 确 的 方 向 来 寻 求 封 建 制 度 的 基 础 , 但 他 们 的 考 察 仍 旧

    没 有 得 到 任 何 可 以 令 人 满 意 的 结 果 , 这 或 者 是 由 于 他 们 过 于

    专 心 地 从 查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 编 纂 中 寻 求 类 比 , 或 者 由 于 他 们 把 注

    意 力 局 限 于 现 在 被 发 现 附 在 现 存 的 蛮 族 法 典 上 的 罗 马 法 纲 要

    上 。 但 是 , 如 果 罗 马 法 律 学 的 确 对 蛮 族 社 会 有 任 何 影 响 , 则

    绝 大 部 分 影 响 的 产 生 应 该 在 查 斯 丁 尼 安 立 法 以 前 , 也 就 是 这

    些 纲 要 着 手 编 辑 之 前 。 我 认 为 , 在 蛮 族 惯 例 这 个 瘦 削 的 骨 骼

    上 被 以 肌 肉 的 , 不 是 经 过 改 革 的 和 经 过 提 炼 的 查 斯 丁 尼 安 法

    律 学 , 而 是 流 行 在 西 罗 马 帝 国 的 以 及 东 罗 马 帝 国 ·

    民 ·

    法 ·

    大 ·

    全 所

    没 有 能 代 替 的 未 经 整 理 的 体 系 。 变 更 的 发 生 , 应 该 假 限 定 在

    日 耳 曼 部 落 作 为 征 服 者 而 占 有 罗 马 领 土 的 任 何 部 分 之 前 , 因

    此 , 也 就 是 远 在 日 耳 曼 君 主 为 供 罗 马 臣 民 之 用 下 令 起 卓 罗 马

    法 辑 要 之 前 。 凡 是 能 体 会 到 古 代 法 律 和 发 达 的 法 律 之 间 的 差

    别 的 每 一 个 人 都 会 感 觉 到 有 这 类 假 定 的 必 要 。 遗 存 的 ·

    蛮 ·

    族 ·

    ·

    律 虽 然 是 粗 糙 的 , 但 从 它 们 纯 粹 源 自 蛮 族 的 理 论 来 看 , 还 不

    是 太 粗 糙 的 ; 我 们 也 没 有 理 由 认 为 我 们 在 文 字 记 录 中 所 看 到

    的 已 超 过 了 当 时 在 胜 利 部 落 的 成 员 自 己 中 间 所 实 行 的 各 种 规

    定 。 如 果 我 们 能 有 办 法 使 我 们 相 信 在 蛮 族 制 度 中 已 经 存 在 着

    已 贬 低 了 价 值 的 罗 马 法 的 大 量 成 分 , 则 我 们 就 有 可 能 解 除 一

    个 严 重 的 困 难 。 征 服 者 的 日 耳 曼 法 律 和 其 臣 民 的 罗 马 法 律 恐不 可 能 合 并 起 来 , 如 果 在 这 两 种 法 律 相 互 之 间 不 具 有 比 精 炼法 律 学 和 蛮 族 习 惯 中 间 通 常 有 的 更 多 的 亲 和 力 的 话 。 很 可 能 ,蛮 族 的 法 典 在 表 面 上 虽 然 很 古 , 却 只 是 真 正 原 始 的 惯 例 和 半

    省 略 的 罗 马 规 定 的 一 种 混 合 物 , 正 是 这 种 外 国 原 素 使 它 们 和

    罗 马 法 律 学 能 合 并 起 来 , 而 当 时 的 罗 马 法 律 学 其 精 致 程 度 也已 稍 逊 于 西 罗 马 帝 国 诸 皇 帝 治 下 所 获 得 的 了 。

    虽 然 这 一 切 都 应 该 承 认 , 但 是 却 有 几 种 理 由 使 封 建 形 式的 所 有 权 不 象 是 罗 马 的 双 重 所 有 权 所 直 接 提 示 的 。 法 律 上 的财 产 权 和 衡 平 的 财 产 权 之 间 的 区 别 , 看 起 来 很 微 妙 , 极少 可能 为 蛮 族 所 理 解 ; 更 有 进 者 , 除 非 “ 法 院 ” 已 经 正 常 进 行 工作 , 这 是 很 难 被 人 懂 得 的 。 但 反 对 这 理 论 的 最 强 有 力 的 理 由是 , 在 罗 马 法 中 存 在 一 种 形 式 的 财 产 权 — — 这 的 确 是 “ 衡平 ” 的 一 种 产 物 — — 可 以 用 来 非 常 简 单 地 说 明 从 一 套 思 想 转变 到 另 一 套 思 想 的 过 渡 。 这 种 财 产 权 就 是 “ 永 佃 权 ” ( E m p h y At e u s i s ) , 虽 然 关 于 它 把 封 建 所 有 权 介 绍 到 世 界 上 来 时 所 作 出的 确 切 助 力 , 我 们 知 道 得 很 少 , 但 中 世 纪 的 “ 封 地 ” 就 常 常是 建 筑 在 这 上 面 的 。 “ 永 佃 权 ” 虽 在 当 时 也 许 还 没 有 以 它 的 这个 希 腊 名 称 为 人 所 知 道 , 仅 却 的 确 标 志 着 最 后 引 导 到 封 建 主义 的 一 种 思 潮 中 的 一 个 阶 段 。 在 罗 马 史 中 , 第 一 次 提 到 大 地产 , 是 在 我 们 研 究 到 罗 马 的 贵 族 财 产 时 , 其 规 模 之 大 绝 非 一个 “ 家 父 ” 连 同 其 子 嗣 和 奴 隶 全 家 所 能 耕 种 的 。 这 些 大 财 产所 有 人 似 乎 完 全 不 知 道 有 自 由 佃 农 耕 种 的 制 度 。 他 们 的大地产 ( l a t i f u n d i a ) 一 般 都 是 由 奴 隶 队 在 监 工 之 下 进 行 工 作 , 监工 本 身 可 能 是 奴 隶 或 自 由 人 ; 当 时 试 行 的 唯 一 组 织 , 就 是 把低 级 奴 隶 分 成 为 许 多 小 团 体 , 使 他 们 成 为 较 好 的 和 较 可 信 任的 那 些 奴 隶 的特有产 , 因 而 也 就 使 那 些 较 好 的 和 较 可 信 任 的奴 隶 关 心 他 们 的 工 作 效 率 。 可 是 , 这 类 制 度 对 于 有 一 种 土 地所 有 人 即 “ 市 政 当 局 ” 特 别 不 利 。 意 大 利 的 官 吏 从 事 于 罗 马行 政 的 往 往 调 动 迅 速 频 繁 ; 因 此 由 一 个 意 大 利 法 人 来 管理 广大 土 地 必 定 是 非 常 不 够 好 的 。 因 此 , 市 政 当 局 开 始 把纳税地( a g r i v e c t i g u l e s ) 出 租 , 换 言 之 , 即 把 土 地 以 一 定 的 租 金 、 在某 种 条 件 下 、 永 久 租 与 一 个 自 由 佃 农 。 这 个 办 法 后 来 为个人所 有 者 广 泛 模 仿 , 而 佃 农 和 所 有 人 的 关 系 原 来 是 由 契约决定的 , 后 来 为 “ 裁 判 官 ” 所 承 认 , 认 为 佃 农 也 具 有 一 种 有 限 的所 有 权 , 这 在 后 来 就 成 为 “ 永 佃 权 ” 。 从 这 时 起 , 租 地的历史分 为 两 大 支 流 。 在 我 们 对 于 罗 马 帝 国 记 录 最 不 完 全 的一段长时 期 内 , 那 时 罗 马 大 家 族 的 奴 隶 队 逐 渐 转 化 成 为土著农夫 , 他们 的 来 源 和 地 位 构 成 了 全 部 历 史 中 最 暧 昧 问 题 之 一 。 我 们 不妨 这 样 来 猜 测 , 即 他 们 中 一 部 分 来 自 奴 隶 的 上 升 , 一 部 分 来自 自 由 农 民 的 降 格 ; 同 时 他 们 也 证 明 了 罗 马 帝 国 的 富 人阶级逐 渐 注 意 到 耕 种 者 对 于 土 地 的 出 产 物 有 一 种 利 益 时 就 可 以 使土 地 财 产 的 价 值 增 多 。 我 们 知 道 , 他 们 的 服 役 是 属 于 土 地 的 ;这 种 服 役 性 质 并 不 完 全 具 有 绝 对 奴 隶 状 态 的 许 多 特 征 ; 并 且他 们 只 要 在 每 年 收 获 量 中 以 一 定 的 部 分 付 给 地 主 就 可 以 免 除服 役 。 我 们 也 知 道 , 他 们 经 历 了 古 代 世 界 和 现 代 世 界 中 一 切社 会 的 变 化 而 被 保 存 下 来 , 他 们 虽 然 包 括 在 封 建 结 构 的 较 低级 的 地 位 , 但 他 们 在 许 多 国 家 中 继 续 以 他 们 曾 付 给 罗 马土地所有人 ( d o m i n u s ) 的 完 全 同 样 数 量 的 贡 税 交 与 地 主 , 而 从 土著 农 夫 之 中 的 一 个 特 殊 阶 层 、 即 为 其 所 有 人 保 留 一 半 农 产物的分益土著农夫 ( c o l o n i   m e d i e t a r i ) , 传 下 来 了分益 佃 农( m e t a y e r   t e n a n t r y ) , 几 乎 所 有 欧 洲 南 部 的 土 地 到 现 在 为 止仍 旧 由 这 些 人 耕 种 着 。 在 另 一 方 面 , 如 果 我 们 可 以 这 样 来 理解 “ 民 法 大 全 中 ” 关 于 它 的 暗 示 的 话 , 那 末 “ 永 佃 权 ” 可 以成 为 财 产 权 的 一 种 人 人 欢 迎 和 有 益 的 变 更 ; 并 且 可 以 设 想 , 凡有 自 由 农 民 存 在 的 地 方 , 支 配 着 他 们 在 土 地 上 的 利 益 的 , 就是 这 种 租 地 制 。 前 面 已 经 说 过 , “ 裁 判 官 ” 把 永 佃 人 认 为 一 个真 正 的 所 有 人 。 在 被 驱 逐 时 , 他 可 以 用 “ 物 权 诉 讼 ” 来 争取恢 复 , 这 是 所 有 权 的 明 显 的 标 志 , 并 且 只 要 他 准 期 清 偿 租 金( c a n o n ) 就 可 以 受 到 保 护 , 不 受 租 借 人 的 干 扰 。 但 在 同 时 , 我 们 不 能 以 为 租 借 人 的 所 有 权 已 经 消 灭 或 是 停 止 了 。 他 的 所 有权 仍 旧 存 在 , 因 为 他 在 不 付 租 金 时 就 有 权 收 回 租 地 , 在 出 卖时 有 先 买 权 , 并 且 对 于 耕 种 的 方 式 有 一 定 的 控 制 权 。 因 此 , 我们 可 以 把 “ 永 佃 权 ” 作 为 一 个 显 著 的 双 重 所 有 权 的 例 子 ,这种 双 重 所 有 权 是 封 建 财 产 权 的 特 点 , 同 时 , 这 种 例 子 也比法律 的 和 衡 平 的 权 利 并 列 要 简 单 得 多 , 并 且 容 易 摹 仿 得 多 。 可是 。 罗 马 租 地 史 并 不 到 此 为 止 。 我 们 有 明 显 的 证 据 , 证明在沿 莱 因 河 和 多 瑙 河 一 带 是 期 保 卫 着 帝 国 边 疆 以 反 抗 蛮族的各大 堡 垒 之 间 , 有 连 绵 不 断 的 狭 长 的 田 地 , 称 为边界地 ( a g r i l i m i t r o p h i ) 的 , 向 由 罗 马 军 队 中 的 久 戍 的 兵 士 根 据 “ 永 佃权 ” 的 条 件 占 有 着 。 这 里 也 有 一 种 双 重 所 有 权 。 罗 马 国 家 是土 地 的 地 主 , 士 兵 们 只 要 随 时 准 备 着 在 边 境 危 急 时 应 征 入 伍服 役 , 即 能 耕 种 土 地 而 不 受 侵 扰 。 事 实 上 , 一 种 非 常 类 似 奥地 利 - 土 耳 其 边 境 军 队 屯 垦 制 度 的 卫 戍 职 守 代 替 了 普 通“永佃 权 ” 人 应 尽 的 清 偿 租 金 的 义 务 。 我 们 不 可 能 怀 疑 : 这 就 是建 立 封 建 主 义 的 蛮 族 君 主 所 抄 袭 的 先 例 。 他 们 目 睹 这 种 制 度有 百 余 年 , 并 且 我 们 必 须 记 着 , 有 许 多 守 卫 着 边 境 的 老 兵 本身 就 是 蛮 族 的 后 裔 , 他 们 说 的 也 许 是 日 耳 曼 语 言 。 他 们 接 近着 这 样 容 易 模 仿 的 一 个 模 型 , 这 不 但 使 佛 兰 克 和 论 巴 德 的 君主 们 从 此 获 得 了 把 公 有 领 地 划 出 一 部 分 赐 与 其 从 者 以 换 取 军役 的 想 法 ; 同 时 或 许 也 说 明 了 这 种 趋 势 , 即 这 种 “ 采 地 ” 很快 就 成 为 世 袭 的 , 因 为 一 个 “ 永 佃 权 ” 虽 然 可 能 是 根 据 原 来契 约 的 条 件 创 造 出 来 的 , 但 按 诸 常 理 它 却 是 传 给 受 让 人 的 继承 人 的 。 诚 然 , 采 地 的 持 有 人 , 以 及 较 近 时 期 由 采 地 变 成 的那 种 封 地 的 封 建 主 , 似 乎 都 负 有 某 种 为 屯 军 所 不 致 有 的 和“ 永 佃 权 人 ” 所 必 然 不 会 有 的 劳 役 。 例 如 对 于 高 一 级 的 封 建 主有 尊 敬 和 感 恩 的 义 务 , 有 帮 助 他 置 备 女 儿 嫁 奁 和 为 他 儿 子 准备 武 装 的 责 任 , 在 未 成 年 时 受 他 监 护 的 义 务 , 以 及 许 多 其 他类 似 的 租 地 条 件 , 一 定 都 是 从 罗 马 法 中 “ 庇 护 人 ” 和 “ 自 由民 ” 亦 即 是 “ 前 主 人 ” ( q u o n d a m m a s t e r ) 和 “ 前 奴 隶 ” ( q u o n d a m- s l a v e ) 的 相 互 关 系 依 照 字 面 直 接 借 用 来 的 。 然 而 , 我 们 知道 , 最 早 的 采 地 受 益 人 都 是 君 主 的 个 人 随 从 , 这 个 地 位 在 表面 上 是 很 光 荣 的 , 但 在 初 时 一 定 夹 杂 着 某 种 身 分 低 贱 的 意 味 ,这 是 无 可 争 辩 的 。 在 宫 庭 中 侍 奉 君 主 的 人 放 弃 了 某 种 属 于 绝对 个 人 自 由 的 东 西 , 即 自 主 财 产 所 有 人 最 足 以 骄 傲 的 特 权 。

    第 九 章   契 约 的 早 期 史

    关 于 我 们 所 处 的 时 代 , 能 一 见 而 立 即 同 意 接 受 的 一 般 命

    题 是 这 样 一 个 说 法 , 即 我 们 今 日 的 社 会 和 以 前 历 代 社 会 之 间

    所 存 在 的 主 要 不 同 之 点 ; 乃 在 于 契 约 在 社 会 中 所 占 范 围 的 大

    小 。 这 个 说 法 所 根 据 的 现 象 , 有 些 都 是 常 常 被 提 出 来 受 到 注

    意 、 批 评 和 颂 扬 的 。 我 们 决 不 会 毫 不 经 心 地 不 理 会 到 : 在 无

    数 的 事 例 中 , 旧 的 法 律 是 在 人 出 生 时 就 不 可 改 变 地 确 定 了 一

    个 人 的 社 会 地 位 , 现 代 法 律 则 允 许 他 用 协 议 的 方 法 来 为 其 自

    己 创 设 社 会 地 位 ; 真 的 , 对 于 这 个 规 定 有 几 个 例 外 , 不 断 地

    在 热 烈 愤 慨 下 遭 到 废 弃 。 例 如 , 黑 奴 问 题 , 到 现 在 仍 被 剧 烈

    争 论 着 , 其 真 正 争 执 之 点 是 : 奴 隶 的 身 分 究 竟 是 不 是 属 于 过

    去 的 制 度 , 又 如 雇 主 和 工 人 之 间 能 合 乎 现 代 道 德 的 唯 一 关 系 ,

    究 竟 是 不 是 完 全 由 契 约 决 定 的 一 种 关 系 。 承 认 过 去 和 现 在 之

    间 存 在 这 种 差 别 , 是 最 著 名 的 现 代 思 想 的 实 质 。 可 以 断 言 ,

    “ 政 治 经 济 学 ” 是 今 日 有 相 当 进 步 的 唯 一 伦 理 研 究 部 门 , 它 将

    会 和 生 活 的 事 实 不 相 符 合 , 如 果 “ 强 行 法 ” 对 它 一 度 占 据 的

    领 域 的 绝 大 部 分 不 肯 加 以 放 弃 , 并 且 人 们 不 能 具 有 直 到 最 近

    才 允 许 他 们 有 的 决 定 其 自 己 行 为 规 律 的 一 种 自 由 。 受 到 政 治

    经 济 学 训 练 的 大 多 数 人 都 有 这 样 一 种 偏 见 , 认 为 他 们 的 科 学

    所 根 据 的 一 般 真 理 是 有 可 能 变 为 普 遍 性 的 真 理 的 , 并 且 , 当

    他 们 把 它 作 为 一 种 艺 术 而 运 用 时 , 他 们 一 般 都 着 重 于 扩 大“ 契 约 ” 的 领 域 , 缩 小 “ 强 行 法 ” 的 领 域 , 只 有 在 必 须 依 靠 法

    律 以 强 制 “ 契 约 ” 的 履 行 时 , 才 是 例 外 。 一 些 思 想 家 在 这 种

    思 潮 影 响 下 作 出 的 鼓 动 , 开 始 在 西 方 世 界 中 很 强 烈 地 感 觉 到 。

    立 法 几 乎 已 经 自 己 承 认 它 和 人 类 在 发 现 、 发 明 以 及 大 量 积 累

    财 富 各 方 面 的 活 动 无 法 并 驾 齐 驱 ; 即 使 在 最 不 进 步 的 社 会 中 ,

    法 律 亦 逐 渐 倾 向 于 成 为 一 种 仅 仅 的 表 层 , 在 它 下 面 , 有 一 种

    不 断 在 变 更 着 的 契 约 规 定 的 集 合 , 除 非 为 了 要 强 迫 遵 从 少 数

    基 本 原 理 或 者 为 了 处 罚 违 背 信 用 必 须 诉 求 法 律 外 , 法 律 绝 少

    干 预 这 些 契 约 的 规 定 。

    社 会 研 究 , 因 为 它 们 必 须 依 靠 对 法 律 现 象 的 考 究 , 是 在

    一 种 非 常 落 后 的 状 态 中 , 因 此 , 我 们 发 现 这 些 真 理 不 为 今 天

    流 行 着 的 有 关 社 会 进 步 的 日 常 用 语 所 承 认 , 是 不 足 为 奇 的 。 这

    些 日 常 用 语 比 较 符 合 我 们 的 偏 见 , 而 不 符 合 我 们 的 信 念 。 当

    “ 契 约 ” 所 根 据 的 道 德 成 为 问 题 的 时 候 , 绝 大 多 数 的 人 都 更 强

    有 力 地 不 顾 把 道 德 认 为 是 进 步 的 , 我 们 中 有 许 多 人 几 乎 本 能

    地 不 愿 承 认 我 们 同 胞 所 有 的 善 意 和 信 任 , 会 比 古 时 代 更 为 广

    泛 传 布 , 也 不 愿 承 认 我 们 当 代 的 礼 仪 中 有 能 和 古 代 世 界 中 的

    忠 诚 相 比 拟 的 东 西 。 有 的 时 候 , 这 些 先 人 之 见 的 声 势 为 诈 欺

    行 为 所 大 大 加 强 , 这 种 诈 欺 行 为 是 在 它 们 被 目 睹 之 前 所 未 曾

    听 到 过 的 , 并 且 以 其 犯 罪 行 为 而 使 人 震 骇 , 更 以 其 复 杂 而 令

    人 惊 异 。 但 这 些 欺 诈 行 为 的 性 质 明 白 地 显 示 出 : 在 它 们 成 为

    可 能 之 前 , 它 们 所 破 坏 的 道 德 义 务 必 定 已 超 过 了 一 定 比 例 的

    发 展 。 由 于 多 数 人 笃 守 信 义 , 就 给 了 少 数 人 不 顾 信 义 的 方 便 ,

    因 此 , 当 巨 大 的 不 诚 实 的 事 件 发 生 时 , 必 然 的 结 论 是 , 在 一

    般 的 交 易 中 都 显 现 出 审 慎 的 正 直 , 只 在 特 殊 情 形 中 才 予 犯 法者 以 可 乘 之 机 。 如 果 我 们 坚 持 要 从 法 律 学 上 的 反 映 来 看 道 德

    史 , 并 且 把 我 们 的 眼 光 向 着 “ 犯 罪 ” 法 而 不 是 向 着 “ 契 约 ” 法 ,

    则 我 们 必 须 细 心 谨 慎 , 才 不 致 错 误 。 最 古 罗 马 法 所 处 理 的 唯

    一 形 式 的 不 诚 实 , 是 “ 窃 盗 罪 ” 。 在 我 写 本 书 的 时 候 , 英 国 刑

    法 中 最 新 的 一 章 , 是 企 图 为 “ 受 托 人 ” 的 欺 诈 行 为 作 出 处 罚

    的 规 定 。 从 这 对 比 中 所 可 能 得 到 的 正 当 推 论 , 并 不 是 原 始 罗

    马 人 比 我 们 有 更 高 的 道 德 观 念 。 我 们 应 该 说 , 在 他 们 和 我 们

    相 隔 开 的 时 代 中 间 , 道 德 已 经 从 一 个 很 粗 浅 的 概 念 进 步 到 一

    种 高 度 精 炼 的 概 念 — — 从 把 财 产 权 视 为 绝 对 神 圣 , 发 展 到 把

    仅 仅 由 于 片 面 信 用 而 产 生 的 权 利 视 为 有 权 受 到 刑 事 法 律 的 保

    护 。

    法 学 家 的 各 种 明 确 理 论 , 在 这 一 点 上 , 并 不 比 普 通 人 的

    意 见 更 接 近 真 理 。 试 从 罗 马 法 律 家 的 见 解 开 始 , 我 们 发 现 他

    们 的 见 解 和 道 德 及 法 律 进 步 的 真 正 历 史 并 不 符 合 。 在 有 一 类

    的 契 约 中 , 以 缔 约 两 造 的 善 意 担 保 为 唯 一 要 件 , 这 种 契 约 他

    们 特 别 称 之 为 “ 万 民 法 契 约 ” ( C o n t r a c t s   j u r i s   g e n t i u m ) 。

    并 且 , 虽 然 这 些 契 约 无 疑 地 是 罗 马 制 度 中 最 迟 产 生 的 , 但 其

    所 用 的 用 语 , 如 果 我 们 可 以 从 中 吸 取 其 含 义 的 话 , 实 包 含 着 :

    这 些 契 约 比 在 罗 马 法 中 处 理 的 某 种 其 他 形 式 的 约 定 还 要 古

    远 , 在 罗 马 法 中 忽 视 一 个 专 门 手 续 程 序 , 就 要 像 误 会 或 欺 骗

    一 样 损 害 到 责 任 。 然 而 所 谓 它 们 是 古 远 的 说 法 , 是 模 糊 的 、 暧

    昧 的 , 是 只 能 通 过 “ 现 在 ” 方 能 理 解 的 ; 所 谓 “ 国 际 法 契

    约 ” 被 明 白 地 看 作 人 类 在 “ 自 然 状 态 ” 下 所 知 道 的 一 种 “ 契

    约 ” , 也 要 到 罗 马 法 律 家 的 用 语 变 成 了 对 罗 马 法 律 家 的 思 想 方

    式 已 不 再 能 理 解 的 一 个 时 代 的 用 语 之 后 才 能 理 解 。 卢 梭 兼 有了 法 律 上 的 和 通 俗 的 错 误 。 在 “ 论 艺 术 和 科 学 对 道 德 的 影响 ”— — 这 是 他 作 品 中 引 人 注 意 的 第 一 部 ,并 且 是 他 最 无 保 留 地 申 述 他 的 意 见 使 他 成 为 一 个 学 派 首 创 人的 一 篇 作 品 — — 中 , 他 一 再 指 出 古 波 斯 人 的 诚 实 和 善 意 , 认为 这 些 是 原 始 人 天 真 的 特 征 , 已 经 逐 渐 为 文 明 所 消 灭 了 的 ; 到

    一 个 较 后 的 时 期 , 他 把 他 所 有 理 论 完 全 放 在 一 个 原 始 “ 社 会

    契 约 ” 学 理 的 基 础 上 。 所 谓 “ 社 会 契 约 ” , 是 我 们 正 在 讨 论 的

    错 误 所 形 成 的 最 有 系 统 的 一 种 形 式 。 这 个 理 论 虽 然 为 政 治 热

    情 所 抚 育 而 趋 于 重 要 , 但 所 有 它 的 营 养 则 完 全 来 自 法 律 学 的

    纯 理 论 。 首 先 受 它 吸 引 的 著 名 英 国 人 士 所 以 重 视 它 , 主 要 是

    由 于 可 以 在 政 治 上 利 用 它 , 但 是 , 正 象 我 现 在 解 释 的 , 如 果

    政 治 家 不 是 长 期 地 用 法 律 用 语 来 进 行 争 辩 , 则 他 们 将 决 不 可

    能 达 到 它 。 同 时 这 个 理 论 的 英 国 著 者 也 不 是 对 于 这 理 论 的 深

    远 影 响 茫 然 不 见 的 , 因 为 法 国 人 就 是 经 过 这 种 推 荐 而 承 继 到

    它 的 。 法 国 人 的 著 作 显 示 出 : 他 们 认 为 这 个 理 论 可 以 用 来 说

    明 一 切 政 治 现 象 , 同 时 也 可 以 说 明 一 切 社 会 现 象 。 他 们 看 到

    在 他 们 时 代 中 已 经 非 常 触 目 的 事 实 , 即 人 类 所 遵 守 的 现 实 法

    规 中 , 比 较 大 的 部 分 都 是 由 “ 契 约 ” 设 定 的 , 只 有 少 数 是 由

    “ 强 行 法 ” 设 定 的 。 但 是 , 他 们 对 于 法 律 学 中 这 两 个 要 素 的 历

    史 关 系 , 或 者 是 一 无 所 知 , 或 者 是 漠 不 关 心 。 因 此 , 他 们 提

    出 一 切 “ 法 律 ” 源 自 “ 契 约 ” 的 理 论 , 其 目 的 是 在 满 足 他 们

    的 尝 试 , 要 把 所 有 法 律 学 归 因 于 一 个 一 致 渊 源 的 纯 理 论 , 同

    时 也 在 规 避 主 张 “ 强 行 法 ” 来 自 神 授 的 各 种 学 理 。 在 另 一 个

    思 想 阶 段 中 , 他 们 可 能 满 足 于 把 他 们 的 理 论 停 留 在 一 个 巧 妙假 设 或 一 个 便 利 的 口 头 公 式 的 情 况 中 。 但 这 个 时 代 , 是 在 法

    律 迷 信 的 统 治 之 下 。 “ 自 然 状 态 ” 已 不 再 是 似 是 而 非 的 东 西 了 ,

    因 此 , 在 坚 持 “ 社 会 契 约 ” 是 一 种 历 史 事 实 时 , 就 很 容 易 使

    “ 法 律 ” 起 源 于 契 约 的 理 论 获 得 一 种 虚 伪 的 真 实 性 和 明 确 性 。

    我 们 自 己 的 一 代 已 经 摈 弃 了 这 些 错 误 的 法 律 理 论 , 部 分

    由 于 我 们 已 经 超 过 了 他 们 所 处 的 智 力 状 态 , 部 分 由 于 我 们 已

    经 几 乎 完 全 停 止 再 在 这 类 主 题 上 进 行 推 理 。 喜 爱 研 究 的 人 们

    在 目 前 所 乐 于 从 事 的 工 作 , 以 及 答 复 我 们 祖 先 对 社 会 状 态 起

    源 所 持 纯 理 论 的 工 作 , 是 对 现 在 存 在 和 在 我 们 眼 前 活 动 的 社

    会 进 行 分 析 ; 但 是 , 由 于 缺 少 历 史 的 帮 助 , 这 种 分 析 就 时 常

    退 化 而 成 为 一 种 徒 然 是 好 奇 心 的 活 动 , 并 且 特 别 容 易 使 研 究

    者 不 能 理 解 和 他 所 习 见 的 有 很 大 不 同 的 社 会 状 态 。 用 我 们 自

    己 时 代 的 道 德 观 念 来 评 价 其 他 时 代 的 人 们 , 其 错 误 正 如 假 定

    现 代 社 会 机 器 中 的 每 一 个 轮 子 、 每 一 只 螺 钉 在 较 原 始 的 社 会

    中 都 有 其 相 对 物 的 那 样 错 误 。 在 用 现 代 风 格 写 成 的 历 史 著 作

    中 , 这 类 印 象 繁 衍 很 广 , 并 且 都 很 巧 妙 地 掩 盖 着 它 们 自 己 ; 但

    是 我 在 法 律 学 的 领 域 中 也 发 现 了 它 们 的 痕 迹 , 如 一 般 对 孟 德

    斯 鸠 穿 插 在 其 “ 波 斯 人 信 札 ”中 有 关

    “ 穴 居 人 ” ( T r o g l o d y t e s ) 的 小 寓 言 所 作 的 颂 扬 中 。 据 说 “ 穴居 人 ” 是 一 种 人 , 由 于 他 们 系 统 地 破 坏 其 “ 契 约 ” , 因 而 全 部

    遭 受 灭 亡 。 如 果 这 个 故 事 表 示 着 著 者 意 中 的 道 德 观 念 , 并 且

    是 用 以 暴 露 这 一 世 纪 和 上 一 个 世 纪 曾 受 到 其 威 胁 的 一 种 反 社

    会 异 端 , 这 诚 然 是 无 可 指 摘 的 ; 但 如 果 由 它 而 得 到 的 推 论 是 :

    一 个 社 会 在 允 约 和 合 意 上 如 果 没 有 给 予 一 种 神 圣 性 , 而 这 种

    神 圣 性 与 一 个 成 熟 文 明 所 给 予 的 尊 敬 相 类 似 , 这 个 社 会 就 不可 能 结 合 在 一 起 , 则 它 所 含 有 的 错 误 将 是 非 常 严 重 的 , 它 将使 我 们 对 于 法 律 史 不 能 作 出 正 确 的 理 解 。 事 实 是 , “ 穴 居 人 ”

    完 全 没 有 注 意 到 “ 契 约 ” 责 任 , 却 曾 兴 旺 起 来 , 建 立 过 强 有

    力 的 国 家 。 在 原 始 社 会 组 织 中 , 必 须 首 先 了 解 的 一 点 是 , 个

    人 并 不 为 其 自 己 设 定 任 何 权 利 , 也 不 为 其 自 己 设 定 任 何 义 务 。

    他 所 应 遵 守 的 规 则 , 首 先 来 自 他 所 出 生 的 场 所 , 其 次 来 自 他

    作 为 其 中 成 员 的 户 主 所 给 他 的 强 行 命 令 。 在 这 样 制 度 下 , 就

    很 少 有 “ 契 约 ” 活 动 的 余 地 。 同 一 家 族 的 成 员 之 间 ( 我 们 得

    这 样 来 解 释 证 据 ) 是 完 全 不 能 相 互 缔 结 契 约 的 , 对 于 其 从 属

    成 员 中 任 何 一 人 企 图 拘 束 家 族 而 作 出 的 合 意 , 家 族 有 权 置 之

    不 理 。 诚 然 , 家 族 得 与 其 他 家 族 缔 结 契 约 , 族 长 得 与 族 长 缔

    结 契 约 , 但 这 种 交 易 在 性 质 上 和 财 产 的 让 与 相 同 , 并 同 样 地

    有 许 多 繁 文 缛 节 , 只 要 在 履 行 时 忽 略 其 中 一 个 细 节 就 足 以 使

    义 务 归 于 无 效 。 由 于 一 个 人 对 另 外 一 个 人 的 话 加 以 信 赖 而 产

    生 积 极 义 务 , 是 进 步 文 明 最 迟 缓 的 胜 利 品 之 一 。

    无 论 是 “ 古 代 法 ” 或 是 任 何 其 他 证 据 , 都 没 有 告 诉 我 们

    有 一 种 毫 无 “ 契 约 ” 概 念 的 社 会 。 这 种 概 念 在 最 初 出 现 时 , 显

    然 是 极 原 始 的 。 在 可 靠 的 原 始 记 录 中 , 我 们 都 可 以 注 意 到 , 使

    我 们 实 践 一 个 允 约 的 习 性 还 没 有 完 全 发 展 , 种 种 罪 恶 昭 彰 不

    信 不 义 的 行 为 常 被 提 到 , 竟 毫 无 非 难 , 有 时 反 加 以 赞 许 。 例

    如 , 在 荷 马 文 学 中 , 优 烈 锡 士 的 欺 诈 狡 猾 , 好 象 是 和 纳 斯 佗

    ( N e s t o r ) 的 智 虑 明 达 、 海 克 佗 ( H e - c t o r ) 的 坚 毅 不 拔 以 及亚 济 里 斯 ( A c h i l l e s ) 的 英 雄 豪 侠 处 于 同 等 的 一 种 美 德 。 古 代

    法 特 别 使 我 看 到 粗 糙 形 式 的 和 成 熟 时 期 的 “ 契 约 ” 间 存 在 着

    一 个 很 远 的 距 离 。 在 开 始 时 , 法 律 对 于 强 迫 履 行 一 个 允 约 , 并不 加 以 干 预 。 使 法 律 执 有 制 裁 武 器 的 , 不 是 一 个 允 约 , 而 是

    附 着 一 种 庄 严 仪 式 的 允 约 。 仪 式 不 但 和 允 约 本 身 有 同 样 的 重

    要 性 , 仪 式 并 且 还 比 允 约 更 为 重 要 ; 因 为 成 熟 的 法 律 学 着 重

    于 仔 细 分 析 据 供 一 个 特 定 的 口 头 同 意 的 心 理 条 件 , 而 在 古 代

    法 中 则 着 重 于 附 着 在 仪 式 上 的 言 语 和 动 作 。 如 果 有 一 个 形 式

    被 遗 漏 了 或 用 错 了 , 则 誓 约 就 不 能 强 行 , 但 是 , 在 另 一 方 面 ,

    如 果 所 有 形 式 经 表 明 已 完 全 正 确 进 行 , 则 纵 使 以 允 约 是 在 威

    胁 或 欺 骗 之 下 作 出 为 辩 解 , 也 属 徒 然 。 从 这 样 一 种 古 代 的 看

    法 , 转 变 而 成 为 一 个 “ 契 约 ” 的 熟 习 观 念 , 其 转 化 过 程 在 法

    律 学 史 中 是 显 然 可 见 的 。 在 起 初 , 仪 式 中 有 一 个 或 二 个 步 骤

    省 略 了 ; 后 来 其 他 的 也 简 化 了 或 者 在 某 种 条 件 下 忽 略 了 ; 最

    后 , 少 数 特 殊 的 契 约 从 其 他 契 约 中 分 离 出 来 , 准 许 不 经 任 何

    仪 式 而 缔 结 定 约 , 这 种 选 定 的 契 约 都 是 些 社 会 交 往 活 动 和 力

    量 所 依 靠 的 。 心 头 的 约 定 从 繁 文 缛 节 中 迟 缓 地 但 是 非 常 显 著

    地 分 离 出 来 , 并 且 逐 渐 地 成 为 法 学 专 家 兴 趣 集 中 的 唯 一 要 素 。

    这 种 心 头 约 定 通 过 外 界 行 为 而 表 示 , 罗 马 人 称 之 为 一 个 “ 合

    约 ” ( P a c t ) 或 “ 协 议 ” ( C o n v e n t i o n ) ; 当 “ 协 议 ” 一 度 视 为

    一 个 “ 契 约 ” 的 核 心 时 , 在 前 进 中 的 法 律 学 不 久 就 产 生 了 一

    种 倾 向 , 使 契 约 逐 渐 和 其 形 式 和 仪 式 的 外 壳 脱 离 。 在 这 以 后 ,

    形 式 只 在 为 了 要 保 证 真 实 性 和 为 了 要 保 证 谨 慎 和 细 心 时 才 加

    保 留 。 一 个 “ 契 约 ” 的 观 念 是 完 全 地 发 展 了 , 或 者 , 用 罗 马

    人 的 用 语 来 说 , “ 契 约 ” 是 吸 收 在 “ 合 约 ” 中 了 。

    罗 马 法 律 中 这 个 变 更 过 程 的 历 史 , 是 非 常 有 启 发 性 的 。 在

    法 律 学 的 最 初 曙 光 期 , 用 以 表 示 一 个 “ 契 约 ” 的 名 词 是 历 史

    “ 拉 丁 语 法 ” 学 者 很 熟 悉 的 一 个 名 词 。 这 就 是 “ 耐 克 逊 ” , 契约 的 两 造 称 为 “ 耐 克 先 ” ( n e x i , ) , 这 两 个 用 语 必 须 特 别 注 意 ,

    由 于 它 们 所 依 据 的 隐 喻 特 别 持 久 。 在 一 个 契 约 合 意 下 的 人 们

    由 一 个 强 有 力 的 ·

    约 ·

    束 或 ·

    连 ·

    锁 联 结 在 一 起 , 这 个 观 念 一 直 继 续

    着 , 直 到 最 后 影 响 着 罗 马 的 “ 契 约 ” 法 律 学 ; 并 且 由 这 里 顺

    流 而 下 , 它 和 各 种 现 代 观 念 混 合 起 来 。 然 则 在 这 耐 克 逊 或 约

    束 中 , 究 竟 包 括 些 什 么 ? 从 一 个 拉 丁 考 古 学 家 传 下 来 的 一 个

    定 义 , 认 为 ·

    耐 ·

    克 ·

    逊 是 ·

    每 ·

    一 ·

    种 ·

    用 ·

    铜 ·

    片 ·

    和 ·

    衡 ·

    具 ·

    的 ·

    交 ·

    易   ( o m n e q u o d   g e r i t u r   p e r   Es   e t   l i b r a m ) , 这 些 文 字 曾 引 起 了许 多 疑 惑 。 铜 片 和 衡 具 是 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 的 著 名 附 属 物 , 即在 前 章 中 描 述 过 的 古 代 仪 式 , 通 过 这 种 仪 式 “ 罗 马 财 产 ” 最高 形 式 中 的 所 有 权 就 由 一 个 人 移 转 到 另 外 一 个 人 。 “ 曼 企 帕 地荷 ” 是 一 种让与 , 因 此 就 发 生 了 一 个 困 难 , 因 为 这 样 的 定 义似 乎 把 “ 契 约 ” 和 “ 让 与 ” 混 淆 起 来 了 , 而 在 法 律 哲 学 上 , 它们 不 仅 仅 是 各 别 的 , 而 且 在 实 际 上 是 相 互 对 立 的 。物权 ( j u s   i n   r e ) 、对世权 ( r i g h t   i n   r e m ) , 即 “ 对 全 世 界 有 效的 ” 权 利 或 “ 财 产 所 有 权 ” , 在 成 熟 法 律 学 的 分 析 中 是 和 人 权  ( j u s   a d   r e m ) 、 对 人 权 ( r i g h t   i n   p e r s o n a m ) , 即 “ 对一 单 独 个 人 或 团 体 有 效 的 ” 权 利 或 债 权 , 有 明 显 的 区 别 的 。

    “ 让 与 ” 转 移 “ 财 产 所 有 权 ” , “ 契 约 ” 创 设 “ 债 权 ” — — 然 则,这 两 者 怎 样 会 包 括 在 同 一 的 名 称 或 同 一 的 一 般 概 念 之 下 ? 这

    和 许 多 相 似 的 困 难 一 样 , 是 由 于 把 显 然 属 于 智 力 发 展 进 步 阶

    段 的 一 种 能 力 , 把 在 实 践 上 混 合 在 一 起 的 各 种 纯 理 论 观 点 加

    以 区 别 的 能 力 , 错 误 地 认 为 属 于 一 个 未 成 形 社 会 的 心 理 状 态

    而 产 生 的 。 我 们 有 不 可 误 解 的 有 关 社 会 事 务 状 态 的 各 种 迹 象 ,

    证 明 “ 让 与 ” 和 “ 契 约 ” 在 实 际 上 是 混 淆 不 分 的 ; 同 时 , 直到 人 们 在 缔 约 和 让 与 中 采 用 一 种 各 别 的 实 践 前 , 这 两 个 概 念的 差 异 从 来 没 有 为 人 们 所 领 会 到 。

    这 里 可 以 看 到 , 我 们 对 古 罗 马 法 已 具 有 足 够 的 知 识 , 使我 们 可 以 提 供 一 些 在 法 律 学 萌 芽 时 代 各 种 法 律 概 念 和 法 律 用语 所 遵 循 的 转 化 方 式 的 大 概 。 它 们 所 经 历 的 变 更 似 乎 是 从 一

    般 到 特 殊 的 一 种 变 更 ; 或 者 , 换 言 之 , 古 代 的 概 念 和 古 代 的

    名 词 是 处 于 逐 渐 专 门 化 的 过 程 中 。 一 个 古 代 的 法 律 概 念 相 当

    于 不 仅 一 个 而 是 几 个 现 代 概 念 。 一 个 古 代 的 专 门 术 语 可 以 用

    来 表 示 许 多 东 西 , 这 些 东 西 在 现 代 法 律 中 分 别 具 有 各 种 不 同

    的 名 称 。 如 果 我 们 研 究 下 一 阶 段 的 法 律 学 史 , 我 们 就 可 以 看

    到 次 要 的 概 念 逐 渐 地 被 解 脱 出 来 , 旧 的 一 般 的 名 称 正 为 特 别

    的 名 称 所 代 替 。 旧 的 一 般 概 念 并 没 有 被 遗 忘 , 但 它 已 不 再 包

    括 它 起 初 包 括 的 一 种 或 几 种 观 点 。 因 此 同 样 的 , 古 代 的 专 门

    术 语 依 旧 存 在 , 但 它 只 执 行 着 它 以 前 一 度 具 有 的 许 多 职 能 中

    的 一 种 。 我 们 可 以 从 许 多 方 面 来 证 明 这 种 现 象 。 例 如 , 各 式

    各 样 的 “ 父 权 ” 在 过 去 曾 一 度 被 认 为 是 属 于 同 一 性 质 的 , 它

    也 无 疑 地 被 归 属 于 一 个 名 称 之 下 。 祖 先 所 行 使 的 权 力 , 不 论

    它 是 对 家 族 或 是 对 物 质 财 产 — — 对 牛 、 羊 、 奴 隶 、 子 女 或 妻— — 行 使 的 统 是 一 样 的 。 我 们 不 能 绝 对 地 确 定 权 力 的 旧 的 罗马 名 称 , 但 我 们 有 强 有 力 的 理 由 相 信 :曼奴斯 ( m a n u s ) 能 表示 各 种 不 同 程 度 的权力 , 就 可 知 道 古 代 对 于权力 的 一 般 名 词

    是曼奴斯 。 但 是 , 当 罗 马 法 稍 稍 进 步 了 后 , 名 称 和 观 念 都 专

    门 化 了 。 “ 权 力 ” 按 照 着 它 所 行 使 的 对 象 而 在 文 字 上 或 在 概 念上 明 确 地 区 分 了 。 对 物 质 商 品 或 奴 隶 行 使 的 权 力 , 成 为完全所有权 — — 对 儿 女 , 称 为家父权 — — , 对 那 些 已 被 他 们 的 祖先 把 他 们 的 劳 役 卖 给 了 别 人 的 自 由 人 , 称 为曼企帕因 — — , 对妻 子 , 则 仍 然 是 曼 奴 斯 。 可 以 看 到 , 旧 的 文 字 并 没 有 完 全 废止 , 只 是 限 制 于 它 以 前 表 示 的 权 限 的 一 种 特 定 的 行 使 上 而 已 。

    这 个 例 子 可 以 使 我 们 理 解 “ 契 约 ” 和 “ 让 与 ” 在 历 史 上 所 发生 的 关 联 的 性 质 。 一 切 要 式 行 为 在 开 始 时 可 能 只 有 一 种 庄 严的 仪 式 , 在 罗 马 , 它 的 名 称 在 过 去 似 乎 就 是耐克逊 。 过 去 在让 与 财 产 时 所 用 的 同 样 形 式 , 后 来 似 乎 就 恰 恰 被 用 于 缔 结 一个 契 约 。 但 经 过 不 多 时 候 , 我 们 到 达 了 这 样 一 个 时 期 , 当 时一 个 “ 契 约 ” 的 观 念 又 被 从 一 个 “ 让 与 ” 的 观 念 中 分 离 了 出来 。 这 样 , 就 发 生 了 一 个 双 重 的 变 化 。 “ 用 铜 片 和 衡 具 ” 的 交易 , 当 它 的 目 的 是 在 移 转 财 产 时 , 采 用 了 一 个 新 的 、 特 殊 的名 称 , “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 。 而 古 代 的 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 则 仍 旧 用 以 表 示原 来 的 仪 式 , 但 这 样 仪 式 只 被 用 于 使 契 约 庄 严 化 的 特 殊 目 的 。

    当 我 们 说 : 在 古 代 二 种 或 三 种 法 律 概 念 往 往 混 合 为 一 , 我们 的 意 思 并 不 是 在 暗 示 : 在 这 些 包 括 在 一 起 的 几 个 观 念 之 中

    不 可 能 有 一 种 观 念 会 比 其 他 各 种 观 念 古 老 一 些 , 或 者 , 在 几

    个 观 念 形 成 时 , 也 不 可 能 有 一 种 观 念 会 较 其 他 观 念 显 著 地 占

    优 势 , 并 居 于 它 们 之 上 。 为 什 么 一 个 法 律 概 念 会 继 续 长 期 包

    括 几 个 概 念 , 一 个 术 语 会 代 替 几 个 术 语 , 其 理 由 无 疑 地 是 因

    为 在 原 始 社 会 中 , 往 往 在 人 们 有 机 会 注 意 或 给 与 适 当 名 称 之

    前 , 法 律 在 实 践 上 很 早 已 发 生 了 变 化 。 虽 然 我 们 已 说 过 , “ 父

    权 ” 在 最 初 时 并 不 是 因 它 所 行 使 的 对 象 的 不 同 而 有 所 区 分 , 然

    我 确 切 地 感 到 , “ 对 子 女 的 权 力 ” ( P o w e r   o v e r   C h i l d - r e n ) 实 即 是 古 代 “ 权 力 ” 概 念 的 基 础 ; 我 也 深 信 在 最 早 应 用“ 耐 克 逊 ” 时 , 也 即 是 在 原 来 应 用 它 的 人 们 的 心 目 中 , “ 耐 克逊 ” 的 作 用 是 在 使 财 产 的 移 转 有 适 当 的 庄 严 仪 式 。 大 概 “ 耐克 逊 ” 的 略 微 歪 曲 其 原 来 的 职 能 , 最 初 是 为 了 使 它 适 用 于

    “ 契 约 ” , 而 由 于 它 改 变 的 程 度 十 分 轻 微 , 所 以 人 们 长 期 没 有

    觉 察 或 注 意 到 。 旧 的 名 称 仍 旧 保 留 着 , 因 为 人 们 没 有 感 觉 到

    他 们 需 要 一 个 新 的 名 称 。 旧 的 观 念 盘 踞 在 人 们 脑 中 , 因 为 没

    有 人 发 现 有 理 由 要 费 心 来 研 究 它 。 这 种 情 况 , 在 “ 遗 嘱 ” 史

    中 已 有 了 明 白 的 例 证 。 一 个 “ 遗 嘱 ” 在 最 初 只 是 简 单 的 财 产

    移 转 。 只 在 这 种 特 殊 让 与 和 一 切 其 他 让 与 之 间 逐 渐 发 生 了 巨

    大 的 实 践 上 的 差 别 , 才 使 这 种 让 与 被 分 别 对 待 , 即 使 是 这 样 ,

    也 还 需 要 经 过 几 个 世 纪 以 后 , 法 律 改 良 者 才 把 这 名 义 上 的 曼

    企 帕 地 荷 , 作 为 无 用 的 累 赘 而 加 以 清 除 , 并 同 意 在 “ 遗 嘱 ” 中

    除 了 “ 遗 嘱 人 ” 的 明 白 意 思 外 , 其 他 一 切 都 非 必 要 。 不 幸 的

    是 , 我 们 无 法 以 对 “ 遗 嘱 ” 的 早 期 史 的 绝 对 信 心 来 追 溯 “ 契约 ” 的 早 期 史 , 但 我 们 并 非 完 全 没 有 暗 示 , 说 明 契 约 在 最 初出 现 时 是 把耐克逊 放 在 一 种 新 的 应 用 中 , 后 来 通 过 实 际 试 验获 得 了 重 要 效 果 , 被 承 认 为 一 种 各 别 的 交 易 。 下 述 过 程 的 描写 虽 然 是 出 于 臆 测 , 但 并 非 全 无 根 据 。 我 们 试 以 一 次 现 款 买

    卖 作 为 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 的 通 常 形 式 。 出 卖 人 携 带 他 意 欲 处 分 的 财

    产 — — 例 如 一 个 奴 隶 — — 买 受 人 带 来 了 他 用 作 金 钱 的 粗 铜 块— — 还 有 一 个 不 可 缺 少 的 助 手 , 即司秤 , 他 带 来 了 一 个 天 平秤 。 通 过 规 定 手 续 , 奴 隶 被 移 交 给 买 受 人 — — 铜 块 经司秤秤过 , 然 后 移 交 给 出 卖 人 。 在 这 交 易 继 续 进 行 的 过 程 中 , 我 们称 之 为耐克逊 , 买 卖 的 双 方 是 耐 克 先 ; 但 一 当 交 易 完 成 后 ,耐克逊 就 告 中 止 , 出 卖 人 和 买 受 人 即 不 再 具 有 他 们 因 这 暂 时 关

    系 而 产 生 的 名 称 。 在 这 里 , 我 们 试 再 根 据 商 业 史 的 发 展 向 前跨 进 一 步 。 假 定 奴 隶 是 移 转 了 , 但 没 有 付 钱 。 在这 ·

    种 情 况 下 ,

    就 出 卖 人 说 , ·

    耐 ·

    克 ·

    逊 是 完 成 了 , 并 且 当 他 已 移 交 其 财 产 后 , 他

    已 不 再 是 ·

    耐 ·

    克 ·

    苏 ·

    斯 ( n e x u s ) ; 但 就 买 受 人 说 , 耐 克 逊 仍 在 继

    续 着 。 就 他 的 部 分 而 论 , 交 易 还 未 完 成 , 他 仍 被 认 为 是 耐 克

    苏 斯 。 因 此 , 可 以 看 到 , 这 同 一 名 词 在 一 方 面 是 指 财 产 凭 以

    移 转 的 “ 让 与 ” , 在 另 一 方 面 又 是 指 债 务 人 对 于 还 没 有 偿 付 的

    买 价 的 个 人 债 务 。 我 们 还 可 以 更 进 一 步 , 假 设 一 种 程 序 是 完

    全 属 于 形 式 , 在 这 程 序 中 并 ·

    没 ·

    有 ·

    东 ·

    西 移 转 , 也 ·

    没 ·

    有 ·

    东 ·

    西 偿 付 ;

    这 就 表 明 了 一 种 更 高 级 商 业 活 动 的 交 易 , 一 种 ·

    将 ·

    来 ·

    生 ·

    效 ·

    的 ·

    ·

    卖 ·

    契 ·

    约 ( e x e c u t o r y   C o n t r a c t   o f   S a l e ) 。

    如 果 在 一 般 见 解 和 职 业 见 解 中 , 真 的 都 把 一 个 契 约 长 期

    地 认 为 是 一 种 不 ·

    完 ·

    全 ·

    的 ·

    让 ·

    与 , 这 个 真 理 的 重 要 性 是 有 多 种 理

    由 的 。 在 上 一 世 纪 中 , 有 关 人 类 在 自 然 状 态 中 的 各 种 纯 理 论

    被 概 括 为 这 样 一 个 学 理 , 即 “ 在 原 始 社 会 中 财 产 是 不 当 什 么

    的 , 被 重 视 的 只 有 债 务 ” , 这 并 非 是 完 全 不 适 当 的 ; 但 现 在 可

    以 看 到 , 如 果 把 这 个 命 题 颠 倒 过 来 , 可 能 会 更 接 近 于 实 际 。 另

    一 方 面 , 从 历 史 上 考 虑 , “ 让 与 ” 和 “ 契 约 ” 在 原 始 时 代 的 联

    系 , 说 明 了 某 些 常 被 学 者 和 法 学 家 认 为 特 别 难 以 解 释 的 东 西 ,

    我 的 意 思 是 指 : 极 古 法 律 制 度 中 一 般 都 对 于 ·

    债 ·

    务 ·

    人 非 常 苛 酷 ,

    并 给 与 ·

    债 ·

    权 ·

    人 以 过 分 的 权 力 。 当 我 们 一 度 懂 得 了 ·

    耐 ·

    克 ·

    逊 是 被

    人 为 地 延 长 了 以 使 债 务 人 有 一 定 的 时 间 , 我 们 就 可 以 更 好 地

    理 解 他 在 公 众 和 法 律 之 前 的 地 位 。 他 的 负 债 无 疑 地 被 认 为 是

    一 种 变 例 , 而 中 止 付 款 一 般 被 认 为 是 一 种 诡 计 和 对 于 严 格 的

    规 定 的 一 种 歪 曲 。 相 反 的 , 凡 是 在 交 易 中 正 当 地 完 成 其 任 务

    的 人 , 必 为 人 所 尊 重 ; 那 就 很 自 然 的 要 使 他 掌 握 紧 急 的 武 器以 便 强 使 程 序 完 成 , 这 个 程 序 严 格 地 讲 , 是 决 不 应 该 准 许 展

    期 或 迟 延 的 。

    因 此 , “ 耐 克 逊 ” 的 原 意 是 一 种 财 产 让 与 , 在 不 知 不 觉 中

    也 用 来 表 示 一 个 “ 契 约 ” , 并 且 , 在 最 后 , 这 个 字 和 一 个 “ 契

    约 ” 观 念 经 常 发 生 联 系 , 不 得 不 用 一 个 特 定 名 词 即 “ 曼 企 帕

    因 ” 或 “ 曼 企 帕 地 荷 ” 来 表 明 真 正 的 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 或 交 易 , 这

    样 财 产 是 真 正 的 移 转 了 。 现 在 , “ 契 约 ” 便 从 “ 让 与 ” 中 分 离

    出 来 , 它 们 的 历 史 的 第 一 阶 段 于 是 完 成 了 。 但 它 们 发 展 到 这

    样 一 个 时 期 , 即 缔 约 者 的 允 约 要 比 附 带 进 行 的 手 续 程 序 有 更

    高 神 圣 性 的 时 期 , 则 还 有 很 大 一 段 距 离 。 为 了 说 明 这 一 时 期

    中 所 发 生 的 变 化 的 性 质 , 必 须 略 为 越 出 本 文 范 围 之 外 , 研 究

    一 下 罗 马 法 学 专 家 关 于 “ 合 意 ” 的 分 析 。 这 种 分 析 , 是 他 们

    智 慧 最 美 丽 的 纪 念 碑 , 在 这 分 析 中 , 我 只 须 约 略 提 一 下 , 它

    把 “ 债 ” 和 “ 协 议 ” 或 “ 合 约 ” 在 理 论 上 加 以 分 开 。 边 沁 和

    奥 斯 丁 先 生 宣 称 , “ 一 个 契 约 有 两 个 要 素 : 首 先 , 要 约 者 一 造

    表 示 ·

    意 ·

    向 , 要 做 他 约 定 要 做 的 行 为 或 遵 守 他 约 定 要 遵 守 的 不

    行 为 。 其 次 , 是 受 约 者 表 示 他 ·

    预 ·

    期 要 约 者 一 造 履 行 其 提 出 的

    允 约 ” 。 这 在 实 际 上 是 和 罗 马 法 律 家 的 学 理 完 全 相 同 的 , 但 在

    他 们 的 见 解 中 , 这 些 “ 表 示 ” 的 结 果 不 是 一 个 “ 契 约 ” 而 是

    一 个 “ 协 议 ” 或 “ 合 约 ” 。 一 个 “ 合 约 ” 是 个 人 相 互 间 同 意 的

    极 端 产 物 , 它 显 然 还 不 够 成 为 一 个 “ 契 约 ” 。 它 最 后 是 否 会 成

    为 一 个 “ 契 约 ” , 要 看 法 律 是 否 把 一 个 “ 债 ” 附 加 上 去 。 一 个

    “ 契 约 ” 是 一 个 “ 合 约 ” ( 或 “ 协 议 ” ) ·

    加 ·

    上 一 个 “ 债 ” 。 在 这

    个 “ 合 约 ” 还 没 有 附 带 着 “ 债 ” 的 时 候 , 它 称 为 ·

    空 ·

    虚 ( n u d e 或 n a k e d ) 合 约。

    什 么 是 一 个 “ 债 ” ? 罗 马 法 律 家 的 定 义 是 : “ 应 负 担 履 行

    义 务 的 法 锁 ” ( J u r i s   v i n c u l u m , q u o   m e c e s s i t a t e   a d As t r i n g i m u r   a l i c u j u s   s o l v e n d E  r e i ) 。 这 个 定 义 通 过 它 们 所

    根 据 的 共 同 隐 喻 而 把 “ 债 ” 和 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 联 系 起 来 , 并 明 白

    告 诉 我 们 一 个 特 殊 概 念 的 体 系 。 “ 债 ” 是 法 律 用 以 把 人 或 集 体

    的 人 结 合 在 一 起 的 “ 束 缚 ” 或 “ 锁 链 ” , 作 为 某 种 自 愿 行 为 的

    后 果 。 凡 引 起 “ 债 ” 的 效 果 的 行 为 , 主 要 是 那 些 归 类 在 “ 契

    约 ” 和 “ 侵 权 ” 、 “ 合 意 ” 和 ” 损 害 ” 等 题 目 之 下 的 行 为 ; 但

    是 有 许 多 其 他 行 为 能 造 成 类 似 后 果 的 , 却 不 能 包 括 在 一 种 确

    切 分 类 中 。 应 予 注 意 的 是 , 行 为 并 不 是 由 于 任 何 道 德 上 的 必

    要 而 使 它 自 己 负 上 “ 债 ” 的 ; 这 是 由 法 律 根 据 其 充 沛 的 权 力

    而 附 加 上 去 的 , 这 是 非 常 有 必 要 加 以 注 意 的 一 点 , 因 为 “ 市

    民 法 ” 的 现 代 解 释 者 有 时 提 出 了 一 个 不 同 的 学 理 , 并 以 他 们

    自 己 道 德 的 或 形 而 上 学 的 理 论 来 作 为 支 持 。 ·

    法 ·

    锁 的 意 象 沾 染

    了 和 渗 透 了 罗 马 “ 契 约 ” 和 “ 侵 权 ” 法 律 的 每 一 个 部 分 。 法

    律 把 各 当 事 人 拘 束 在 一 起 , ·

    锁 ·

    链 只 有 通 过 称 为 ·

    清 ·

    偿 ( s o l u t i o )

    的 程 序 才 能 解 除 , 清 偿 也 是 一 个 借 喻 的 用 语 , 英 语 中 的 “ 支

    付 ” 只 偶 尔 地 和 它 的 意 义 相 同 。 这 借 喻 的 意 象 借 以 表 现 其 自

    己 的 一 致 性 , 说 明 了 罗 马 法 律 用 语 上 另 一 个 在 其 他 情 况 下 很

    难 解 释 的 特 性 , 即 “ 债 ” 既 表 示 权 利 , 也 表 示 义 务 , 例 如 使

    债 务 清 偿 之 权 以 及 清 偿 债 务 的 义 务 。 事 实 上 罗 马 人 把 “ 法 律

    上 的 锁 链 ” 的 全 貌 放 在 他 们 的 眼 前 , 对 其 一 端 的 重 视 不 多 也

    不 少 于 其 他 一 端 。

    在 进 步 的 罗 马 法 中 , “ 协 议 ” 在 完 成 以 后 , 几 乎 在 所 有 情

    况 下 , 都 立 即 把 “ 债 ” 加 上 去 , 于 是 就 成 为 一 个 “ 契 约 ” ; 这是 契 约 法 必 然 要 趋 向 的 结 果 。 但 为 了 进 一 步 研 究 , 我 们 必 须

    特 别 注 意 其 中 间 阶 段 — — 即 除 了 一 个 完 全 的 合 意 之 外 , 还 需

    要 某 种 东 西 来 吸 引 “ 债 ” 的 阶 段 。 这 个 时 期 正 是 把 契 约 分 成

    四 类 — — 即 “ 口 头 契 约 ” 、 “ 文 书 契 约 ” 、 “ 要 物 契 约 ” 和 “ 诺

    成 契 约 ” ( t h e   V e r b a l , t h e   L i t e r a l , t h e   R e a l , a n d   t h e

      C o n s e n s u a l ) — — 的 著 名 的 罗 马 分 类 法 开 始 应 用 的 时 期 , 在

    这 个 时 期 内 , 这 四 类 “ 契 约 ” 也 是 法 律 所 要 强 制 执 行 的 仅 有

    的 四 类 契 约 。 这 个 分 类 的 意 义 , 在 我 们 理 解 了 把 “ 债 ” 从

    “ 协 议 ” 中 分 离 出 来 的 理 论 后 , 立 即 可 以 理 会 。 每 一 类 的 契 约

    实 际 上 都 是 根 据 某 种 手 续 而 命 名 的 , 这 些 手 续 是 除 了 缔 约 两

    造 仅 仅 的 合 意 以 外 所 必 需 的 。 在 “ 口 头 契 约 ” 中 , 一 待 “ 协

    议 ” 完 成 以 后 , 必 须 要 经 过 一 种 言 辞 的 形 式 才 能 使 法 锁 附 着

    在 它 上 面 。 在 “ 文 书 契 约 ” 中 , 登 入 总 帐 簿 或 记 事 簿 能 使

    “ 协 议 ” 具 有 “ 债 ” 的 效 力 , 在 “ 要 物 契 约 ” 的 情 况 下 , 送 达

    作 为 预 约 主 体 的 “ 物 ” 时 , 才 产 生 同 样 的 结 果 。 总 之 , 在 每

    一 种 情 况 下 , 缔 约 的 两 造 必 须 达 到 一 种 谅 解 ; 但 是 , 如 果 他

    们 不 再 前 进 , 他 们 在 相 互 之 间 即 不 ·

    负 ·

    义 ·

    务 , 不 能 强 迫 履 行 或

    在 违 背 信 约 时 要 求 救 济 。 但 如 果 他 们 遵 守 了 某 种 规 定 的 手 续 ,

    “ 契 约 ” 就 立 即 完 成 , 并 以 所 采 取 的 特 殊 方 式 作 为 它 的 名 称 。

    至 于 这 种 实 践 的 例 外 , 将 在 下 文 中 加 以 详 述 。

    在 前 面 , 我 是 根 据 历 史 顺 序 而 列 举 四 类 “ 契 约 ” 的 , 但

    罗 马 教 科 书 的 著 者 并 不 都 是 一 成 不 变 地 按 照 这 个 顺 序 的 。 “ 口

    头 契 约 ” 是 四 类 契 约 中 最 古 的 一 类 , 并 且 是 原 始 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 最

    早 的 已 知 的 后 裔 , 这 是 毫 无 可 疑 的 。 古 代 采 用 的 “ 口 头 契

    约 ” 有 好 几 种 , 但 其 中 最 重 要 的 、 并 为 我 们 的 权 威 学 者 讨 论到 的 唯 一 的 一 种 是 用约 ·

    定 的 方 法 来 达 成 的 , 所 谓 约 定 , 就 是

    一 “ 问 ” 一 “ 答 ” ; 即 由 要 求 允 约 的 人 提 出 问 题 , 并 由 作 出 允

    约 的 人 给 予 回 答 。 这 个 问 题 和 回 答 , 像 我 刚 才 解 释 过 的 , 构

    成 了 原 始 观 念 中 除 了 有 关 系 的 人 们 的 单 纯 的 合 意 之 外 所 必 需

    的 额 外 要 素 。 它 们 成 为 “ 债 ” 借 以 附 加 上 去 的 媒 介 。 古 代 的

    “ 耐 克 逊 ” 现 在 已 经 传 给 较 成 熟 的 法 律 学 的 , 第 一 件 就 是 锁 链

    的 概 念 , 它 把 缔 约 两 造 结 合 起 来 , 而 这 就 成 为 “ 债 ” 。 其 次 传

    下 来 的 是 仪 式 的 观 念 , 它 伴 随 着 同 时 尊 崇 着 定 约 , 这 个 仪 式

    已 变 化 而 成 为 “ 约 定 ” 。 原 来 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 的 主 要 特 点 是 庄 严 让

    与 , 这 种 庄 严 让 与 转 变 为 单 纯 的 问 题 和 回 答 , 如 果 我 们 没 有

    罗 马 “ 遗 嘱 ” 史 来 启 发 我 们 , 将 始 终 是 一 个 秘 密 。 读 了 那 些

    历 史 , 我 们 可 以 懂 得 正 式 的 “ 让 与 ” 怎 样 先 从 和 手 中 交 易 有

    直 接 关 系 的 手 续 程 序 中 分 离 开 来 , 后 来 又 完 全 都 省 略 了 。 在

    当 时 , “ 约 定 ” 的 问 和 答 既 然 无 疑 地 是 一 种 最 简 单 形 式 的 “ 耐

    克 逊 ” , 我 们 可 以 认 为 这 种 问 和 答 实 早 已 带 有 一 种 专 门 形 式 的

    性 质 。 如 果 认 为 它 们 所 以 为 早 期 的 罗 马 法 律 家 所 欢 迎 , 完 全

    是 由 于 它 们 能 使 协 议 合 意 的 人 们 有 机 会 来 考 虑 和 回 想 , 这 是

    错 误 的 。 无 可 否 认 , 它 们 有 这 样 一 种 的 价 值 , 这 是 逐 渐 被 承

    认 的 ; 但 根 据 我 们 权 威 著 作 的 陈 述 , 有 证 据 证 明 它 们 有 关

    “ 契 约 ” 的 职 能 在 起 先 是 形 式 的 和 仪 式 的 , 并 不 是 每 一 个 问 题

    和 回 答 都 是 自 古 以 来 就 足 以 构 成 一 个 “ 约 定 ” 的 , 只 有 用 特

    别 适 宜 于 特 定 情 况 的 专 门 术 语 表 白 的 一 个 问 题 和 回 答 , 才 能

    构 成 一 个 “ 约 定 ” 。

    为 了 正 确 理 解 契 约 法 史 , 虽 然 必 须 把 “ 约 定 ” 理 解 为 : 在

    它 被 承 认 为 一 种 有 用 的 担 保 之 前 , 它 只 是 一 种 庄 严 的 形 式 , 但是 , 在 另 一 方 面 , 如 果 对 它 的 真 正 用 度 视 若 无 睹 , 也 将 是 错

    误 的 。 “ 口 头 契 约 ” 虽 然 已 不 象 古 代 那 样 重 要 , 但 它 一 直 被 保

    存 到 罗 马 法 律 学 的 最 后 时 期 ; 我 们 可 以 视 作 当 然 的 , 在 罗 马

    法 上 没 有 一 种 制 度 如 此 长 期 的 保 存 着 , 除 非 它 在 实 践 上 确 有

    些 用 处 。 我 在 一 个 英 国 著 者 的 文 章 中 看 到 他 对 罗 马 人 甚 至 在

    最 早 时 期 也 满 足 于 这 种 对 忽 忙 和 缺 乏 深 思 熟 虑 之 处 , 如 此 疏

    于 防 范 的 情 况 , 表 示 十 分 惊 奇 。 但 是 如 果 把 约 定 详 细 研 究 一

    下 , 并 且 记 着 在 我 们 所 涉 及 的 社 会 状 态 里 面 , 书 面 证 据 是 很

    不 容 易 得 到 的 , 那 末 我 以 为 , 我 们 必 须 承 认 这 种 专 门 用 以 满

    足 它 所 要 求 达 到 的 目 的 的 这 种 问 题 和 回 答 , 可 以 公 允 地 认 为

    是 一 种 高 度 巧 妙 的 办 法 。 ·

    允 ·

    约 ·

    人 以 约 定 人 的 资 格 把 契 约 中 所

    有 的 条 款 用 一 个 问 题 的 形 式 提 出 , ·

    要 ·

    约 ·

    人 给 予 回 答 。 “ 你 是 否同 意 在 某 某 地 点 某 某 日 期 送 达 给 我 某 某 一 个 奴 隶 ? ” “ 我 同意 。 ” 现 在 , 我 们 试 想 一 想 , 我 们 可 以 看 到 , 这 个 “ 债 ” 把 允约 用 问 句 的 形 式 提 出 来 , 就 把 两 造 的 自 然 地 位 给 颠 倒 过 来 了 ,并 且 由 于 有 效 地 破 坏 了 会 话 的 行 程 , 使 人 注 意 不 到 滑 过 一 个危 险 的 质 权 。 对 于 我 们 , 一 般 说 来 , 一 个 口 头 允 约 是 完 全 从要 约 人 的 话 中 得 来 的 。 在 古 罗 马 法 中 , 另 一 个 步 骤 是 绝 对 需

    要 的 , 即 允 约 人 在 达 到 合 意 后 必 须 把 所 有 条 件 综 合 在 一 个 庄

    严 的 问 句 中 ; 并 且 , 在 审 判 时 , 必 须 提 出 的 证 据 , 就 是 这 个

    问 句 以 及 对 这 问 句 的 同 意 — — 而 ·

    不 ·

    是 允 约 , 允 约 本 身 是 没 有

    拘 束 力 的 。 这 个 看 上 去 无 足 轻 重 的 特 点 , 在 契 约 法 的 用 语 中

    竟 有 这 样 大 的 关 系 , 这 是 罗 马 法 律 学 的 初 学 者 迅 速 感 觉 到 的 ,

    他 们 最 初 碰 到 的 绊 脚 石 之 一 几 乎 普 遍 地 是 由 它 产 生 的 。 当 我

    们 在 英 文 中 提 到 一 个 契 约 时 , 为 便 利 起 见 , 偶 然 把 它 和 契 约两 造 的 一 方 联 系 起 来 时 — — 例 如 , 如 果 我 们 想 一 般 地 提 到 一

    个 缔 约 人 — — , 我 们 的 话 所 指 的 总 是 要 约 人 。 但 罗 马 人 的 一

    般 用 语 则 转 向 不 同 的 一 面 ; 它 总 是 从 允 约 人 的 地 位 来 看 契 约

    的 , 如 果 我 们 可 以 这 样 说 的 话 。 在 谈 到 一 个 契 约 的 一 造 时 , 主

    要 谈 到 的 总 是 “ 约 定 人 ” , 即 提 出 问 题 的 人 。 至 于 约 定 的 用 处 ,

    其 最 生 动 的 实 例 可 参 见 拉 丁 喜 剧 家 的 集 子 。 如 果 有 这 些 段 落

    的 全 部 场 面 经 通 读 一 过 〔 例 如 , 普 罗 塔 斯 ( P l a u t u s ) 的 “ 说谎 者 ” ( P s e u d o l u s ) 幕 一 景 一 ; 幕 四 景 六 ; “ 三 个 铜 钱 ” ( T r i n u m Am u s ) 幕 五 景 二 〕 , 就 可 以 看 到 思 考 允 约 的 人 的 注 意 力 是 如 何

    有 效 地 为 问 题 所 吸 引 , 以 及 从 一 个 没 有 预 先 考 虑 好 的 应 承 中

    撤 退 的 机 会 是 如 何 的 充 足 。

    在 “ 文 书 ” 或 “ 书 面 契 约 ” 中 , 一 个 “ 债 ” 通 过 了 它 而

    加 于 “ 协 议 ” 上 的 正 式 行 为 是 把 可 以 明 白 确 定 的 欠 款 数 目 登

    入 一 本 总 帐 的 借 方 。 为 了 要 说 明 这 种 “ 契 约 ” , 必 须 了 解 罗 马

    的 家 庭 状 态 , 古 代 簿 记 的 有 条 不 紊 性 质 和 非 常 的 有 规 律 性 。 古

    罗 马 法 中 有 几 个 小 困 难 , 例 如 , 象 “ 奴 隶 特 有 产 ” 的 性 质 , 只

    有 在 我 们 回 想 起 : 在 一 个 罗 马 家 庭 中 , 所 有 成 员 都 严 格 地 对

    其 户 主 负 责 , 以 及 家 庭 中 每 笔 收 支 在 登 入 草 帐 后 , 在 一 定 期

    间 内 必 须 转 入 家 庭 总 帐 , 只 有 明 了 了 这 些 , 才 能 解 释 清 楚 。 可

    是 , 就 我 们 所 看 到 的 “ 文 书 契 约 ” 的 描 写 中 , 是 有 些 不 易 明

    了 之 处 的 , 原 因 是 登 帐 的 习 惯 在 后 来 已 不 普 遍 了 , 而 “ 文 书

    契 约 ” 的 用 语 成 了 表 示 和 原 来 所 理 解 的 完 全 不 同 的 一 种 定 约

    的 形 式 。 因 此 , 我 们 无 法 说 明 , 关 于 原 始 “ 文 书 契 约 ” ,

    “ 债 ” 的 设 定 究 竟 是 由 债 权 人 一 方 简 单 的 登 入 簿 据 , 还 是 必 须

    获 得 债 务 人 的 同 意 或 在 其 自 己 的 簿 据 中 同 样 登 记 , 才 能 发 生法 律 效 力 。 但 是 有 一 个 主 要 之 点 是 可 以 确 定 的 , 即 在 这 种“ 契 约 ” 中 , 只 要 条 件 遵 守 了 , 所 有 的 手 续 都 可 以 省 却 。 这 是

    契 约 法 历 史 中 向 前 推 进 的 另 一 步 。

    根 据 历 史 顺 序 , 其 次 一 种 “ 契 约 ” 是 “ 要 物 契 约 ” , 表 示

    在 伦 理 概 念 上 向 前 跨 进 一 大 步 。 凡 是 在 任 何 合 意 中 , 以 送 达

    一 种 特 殊 物 件 为 其 目 的 的 — — 绝 大 部 分 的 简 单 合 意 都 属 此 类

    — — , 一 待 送 达 确 实 发 生 后 , “ 债 ” 即 产 生 。 其 结 果 必 定 是 对

    最 古 的 有 关 “ 契 约 ” 观 念 的 一 个 重 大 革 新 ; 因 为 在 原 始 时 代 ,

    毫 无 疑 义 , 当 缔 约 的 一 造 由 于 疏 忽 而 没 有 把 他 的 合 意 通 过 约

    定 的 手 续 , 则 按 照 合 意 而 做 的 一 切 , 将 不 为 法 律 所 承 认 。 借

    钱 的 人 除 非 经 过 正 式 的 ·

    约 ·

    定 , 是 不 能 诉 请 偿 还 的 。 但 在 “ 要

    物 契 约 ” 中 , 一 方 的 履 行 就 允 许 使 他 方 负 担 法 律 责 任 — — 则

    显 然 是 基 于 伦 理 的 根 据 。 第 一 次 把 道 德 上 的 考 虑 认 为 “ 契

    约 ” 法 中 的 一 个 要 素 , 这 就 是 “ 要 物 契 约 ” 和 前 两 种 不 同 之

    处 , 并 不 是 由 于 专 门 形 式 或 由 于 遵 从 罗 马 家 庭 习 惯 而 有 所 不

    同 。

    我 们 现 在 要 讨 论 第 四 类 或 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” , 这 是 各 种 契 约 中

    最 有 趣 和 最 重 要 的 一 种 。 在 这 名 称 下 有 四 种 特 殊 “ 契 约 ” : 委

    任 ( M a n d a t u m )   即 “ 受 托 ” ( C o m m i s s i o n ) 或 “ 代 理 ”

    ( A g e n c y ) ; “ 合 伙 ( S o c i e t a s ) ; “ 买 卖 ” ( E m t i o   V e n d i t i o ) ; 以

    及 “ 租 赁 ” ( L o c a t i o   C o n d u c t i o ) 。 在 前 面 几 页 说 明 了 一 个“ 契 约 ” 是 附 加 着 一 个 “ 债 ” 的 一 个 “ 合 约 ” 或 “ 协 议 ” 后 ,

    我 曾 提 起 通 过 一 些 行 为 或 手 续 法 律 允 许 “ 债 ” 吸 收 入 “ 合

    约 ” 内 。 我 这 样 说 , 只 是 为 了 作 一 般 的 说 明 , 但 除 非 我 们 把

    这 理 解 为 不 但 包 括 正 面 的 , 而 且 也 包 括 反 面 的 , 则 这 个 说 明不 是 严 格 地 正 确 的 。 因 为 , 实 质 上 , 这 些 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 的 特

    点 是 : 从 “ 合 约 ” 中 产 生 这 些 契 约 , 是 ·

    无 ·

    需 任 何 手 续 的 。 关

    于 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” , 很 多 是 难 以 辨 解 的 , 更 多 是 含 糊 不 清 的 , 甚

    至 曾 有 这 样 的 说 法 , 即 在 这 些 契 约 中 , 缔 约 两 造 的 ·

    同 ·

    意 比 在

    其 他 任 何 种 类 的 合 意 中 更 为 着 重 。 但 “ 诺 成 ” 的 这 个 名 词 不

    过 表 示 : 在 这 里 , “ 债 ” 是 立 即 附 着 于 ·

    诺 ·

    成 ( C o n s e n s u s ) 的 。

    “ 诺 成 ” 或 两 造 的 相 互 同 意 是 “ 协 议 ” 中 最 后 的 和 最 主 要 的 要

    素 , 而 属 于 “ 买 卖 ” 、 “ 合 伙 ” 、 “ 委 任 ” 和 “ 租 赁 ” 四 类 之 一

    的 合 意 , 它 的 特 点 是 : 一 经 两 造 同 意 提 供 了 这 个 要 素 时 , 一

    个 “ 契 约 ” 立 即 成 立 。 “ 诺 成 ” 带 来 了 “ 债 ” , 在 特 种 交 易 中 ,

    执 行 着 在 其 他 契 约 中 由 ·

    要 ·

    物 ( R e s ) 或口头 约 定 ( V e r b a   s t i p Au l a t i o n s ) 以 及 由文书 ( L i t e r E) 或 书 面 登 入 总 帐 而 履 行 的 同

    样 职 能 。 “ 诺 成 ” 因 此 是 一 个 名 词 , 并 无 细 微 的 变 例 , 而 正 是

    和 “ 要 物 ” 、 “ 口 头 ” 及 “ 文 书 ” 完 全 相 类 似 的 。

    在 生 活 的 接 触 中 , 最 普 通 和 最 重 要 的 一 种 契 约 无 疑 是 那

    称 为 “ 诺 成 ” 的 第 四 种 。 每 一 个 社 会 的 集 体 生 存 , 其 较 大 部

    分 是 消 耗 在 买 卖 、 租 赁 、 为 了 商 业 目 的 而 进 行 的 人 与 人 之 间

    的 联 合 、 一 个 人 对 另 一 个 人 的 商 业 委 托 等 等 交 易 中 ; 这 无 疑

    是 使 罗 马 人 象 大 多 数 社 会 一 样 , 考 虑 到 把 这 些 交 易 从 专 门 手

    续 的 累 赘 中 解 脱 出 来 , 并 尽 可 能 使 社 会 运 动 最 有 效 的 泉 源 不

    至 阻 塞 。 这 类 动 机 当 然 不 以 罗 马 人 为 限 , 而 罗 马 人 和 其 邻 国

    人 通 商 贸 易 , 必 然 使 他 们 有 丰 富 的 机 会 看 到 在 我 们 面 前 的 各

    种 契 约 到 处 都 有 变 成 ·

    诺 ·

    成 ·

    的 倾 向 , 即 一 经 表 示 相 互 同 意 立 即

    具 有 拘 束 力 。 于 是 , 依 靠 他 们 通 常 的 实 践 , 他 们 就 把 这 些 契

    约 称 为 ·

    万 ·

    民 ·

    法 契 约 。 但 我 们 并 不 以 为 它 们 在 很 早 时 期 就 有 这个 名 称 。 一 个 “ 万 民 法 ” 的 最 早 观 念 也 许 在 委 任 一 个 “ 外 事

    裁 判 官 ” 之 前 早 就 存 在 罗 马 法 律 家 的 心 中 , 但 只 有 通 过 广 泛

    的 和 正 常 的 贸 易 , 罗 马 法 律 家 才 能 熟 悉 其 他 意 大 利 社 会 的 契

    约 制 度 , 而 这 类 贸 易 在 意 大 利 获 得 彻 底 平 靖 和 罗 马 的 最 高 权

    力 断 然 确 立 之 前 , 是 很 难 达 到 相 当 的 规 模 的 。 虽 然 , 极 端 可

    能 , “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 是 罗 马 制 度 中 最 后 出 生 的 , 并 且 虽 然 很 可 能

    ·

    万 ·

    民 ·

    法 这 个 称 呼 证 明 它 渊 源 并 不 太 古 , 但 把 这 些 契 约 归 属 于

    “ 国 际 法 ” 的 这 个 用 语 , 却 在 现 代 产 生 了 它 们 来 自 非 常 古 远 的

    年 代 的 看 法 。 因 为 , 当 “ 国 际 法 ” 变 为 “ 自 然 法 ” 时 , 似 乎

    就 含 有 了 这 样 的 意 思 , 即 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 是 最 适 合 于 自 然 状 态

    的 一 种 合 意 ; 于 是 , 产 生 了 这 独 特 的 信 念 , 即 文 明 愈 年 轻 , 它

    的 契 约 形 式 一 定 愈 简 单 。

    “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 在 数 量 上 是 极 端 有 限 的 。 但 是 , 毫 无 疑 义 它

    在 “ 契 约 ” 法 史 上 开 创 一 个 新 的 阶 段 , 所 有 现 代 契 约 概 念 都

    是 从 这 个 阶 段 发 轫 的 。 意 志 的 运 动 构 成 合 意 , 它 现 在 完 全 孤

    立 了 , 成 为 另 外 一 种 考 虑 的 主 题 ; 在 契 约 的 观 点 上 , 形 式 全

    部 被 消 除 了 , 外 部 行 为 只 是 看 做 内 部 意 志 行 为 的 象 征 。 “ 诺 成

    契 约 ” 被 归 类 在 “ 万 民 法 ” 中 , 并 且 这 种 分 类 在 不 久 以 后 即

    得 出 了 这 样 一 个 推 理 , 认 为 它 们 是 代 表 定 约 的 一 种 合 意 , 为

    “ 自 然 ” 所 认 可 并 包 括 在 自 然 法 典 中 的 。 当 到 达 这 一 点 时 , 我

    们 就 可 以 看 到 在 罗 马 法 律 家 中 有 几 个 著 名 的 学 理 和 区 分 。 其

    中 之 一 是 “ 自 然 债 ” 和 “ 民 事 债 ” ( N a t u r a l   a n d   C i v i l   O b l i A

    g a t i o n s ) 之 间 的 区 分 。 当 一 个 智 力 完 全 成 熟 的 人 有 意 使 其 自

    己 受 到 一 个 合 意 的 约 束 , 即 使 他 并 没 有 履 行 某 种 必 要 的 手 续

    以 及 由 于 某 种 技 术 上 的 障 碍 , 他 缺 少 了 制 订 一 个 有 效 契 约 的正 式 能 力 , 他 仍 被 称 为 在 一 个 ·

    自 ·

    然 ·

    债 ·

    之 ·

    下 。 法 律 ( 而 这 就 是

    区 分 所 暗 示 的 ) 不 强 制 执 行 债 , 但 它 也 不 绝 对 拒 绝 承 认 它 ; ·

    ·

    然 ·

    债 在 许 多 方 面 和 纯 粹 是 无 效 的 债 又 有 不 同 , 尤 其 是 在 这 样

    的 情 况 下 , 即 如 果 缔 结 契 约 的 能 力 在 后 来 取 得 时 , 自 然 债 就

    可 以 在 民 事 上 得 到 批 准 。 法 学 专 家 另 外 一 种 很 奇 怪 的 学 理 , 其

    渊 源 不 可 能 早 于 “ 协 议 ” 从 “ 契 约 ” 的 专 门 要 素 中 分 离 出 来

    的 时 期 。 根 据 这 些 法 学 专 家 的 意 见 , 虽 然 只 有 “ 契 约 ” 能 作

    为 一 个 ·

    诉 ·

    讼 的 基 础 , 但 一 个 单 纯 的 “ 合 约 ” 或 “ 协 议 ” 可 以

    作 为 一 个 ·

    抗 ·

    辩 的 根 据 。 由 此 推 论 , 虽 然 一 个 人 由 于 在 事 前 没

    有 注 意 遵 照 正 当 形 式 使 一 个 合 意 成 熟 为 一 个 “ 契 约 ” 的 话 , 不

    能 就 根 据 这 个 合 意 而 提 起 诉 讼 , 但 根 据 一 个 有 效 契 约 而 提 出

    的 请 求 , 只 要 经 证 明 有 一 个 还 没 有 超 过 一 个 简 单 协 议 状 态 的

    反 合 意 , 就 可 以 癖 驳 了 。 例 如 回 复 债 务 之 诉 可 以 提 供 一 个 仅

    仅 放 弃 或 延 期 付 款 的 非 正 式 合 意 作 为 抗 辩 。

    上 面 所 说 的 学 理 , 表 示 出 “ 裁 判 官 ” 在 向 其 最 伟 大 的 革

    新 前 进 时 所 发 生 的 迟 疑 。 他 们 关 于 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 理 论 必 定 曾

    经 引 导 他 们 特 别 偏 爱 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 以 及 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 仅 仅 是

    其 中 的 特 殊 例 子 之 一 的 那 些 “ 合 约 ” 或 “ 协 议 ” ; 但 是 他 们 不

    敢 立 即 把 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 的 自 由 推 及 一 切 “ 协 议 ” 。 他 们 利 用 了

    从 罗 马 法 开 始 时 就 托 付 给 他 们 的 对 于 诉 讼 程 序 的 那 时 特 殊 监

    督 权 , 并 且 , 虽 然 他 们 不 准 提 出 不 是 根 据 正 式 契 约 的 一 个 诉

    讼 , 但 在 导 演 诉 讼 程 序 的 秘 密 舞 台 中 , 他 们 使 其 新 的 合 意 理

    论 有 充 分 活 动 的 余 地 。 但 当 他 们 进 展 到 这 样 的 程 度 后 , 不 可

    避 免 地 他 们 一 定 要 向 前 再 进 一 步 。 当 有 一 年 的 “ 裁 判 官 ” 在

    “ 告 令 ” 中 宣 称 : 他 将 对 还 没 有 成 熟 为 “ 契 约 ” 的 “ 合 约 ” 赋与 可 衡 平 的 诉 讼 , 只 要 争 执 中 的 “ 合 约 ” 是 根 据 一 个 要 因

    ( C a u s a ) 的 话 , 在 这 时 候 , 古 代 “ 契 约 ” 法 的 革 命 就 完 成 了 。

    这 类 的 “ 合 约 ” 在 进 步 的 罗 马 法 律 学 中 始 终 是 被 强 行 的 。 其

    原 则 是 把 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 达 到 其 适 当 后 果 的 原 则 ; 事 实 上 , 如

    果 罗 马 人 的 专 门 用 语 具 有 象 他 们 的 法 律 理 论 所 具 有 的 那 样 的

    可 塑 性 , 这 些 由 “ 裁 判 官 ” 强 行 的 “ 合 约 ” 就 可 能 称 为 新 的

    “ 契 约 ” , 新 的 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” 。 但 , 法 律 语 法 是 最 后 变 更 的 法 律

    的 一 部 分 , 而 可 衡 平 地 强 行 的 ” 合 约 ” 继 续 被 简 单 地 称 为

    “ 裁 判 官 合 约 ” 。 必 须 注 意 , 除 非 在 “ 合 约 ” 中 有 要 因 , 这

    “ 合 约 ” 就 新 的 法 律 学 而 论 , 将 继 续 是 ·

    空 ·

    虑 的 ; 要 使 它 能 具 有

    效 力 , 就 必 须 用 一 个 约 定 来 使 它 变 为 一 个 “ 口 头 契 约 ” 。

    我 所 以 这 样 详 细 的 讨 论 它 , 主 要 由 于 我 认 为 这 “ 契 约 ” 史

    有 非 常 的 重 要 性 , 它 可 以 用 来 防 止 无 可 数 计 的 误 会 。 在 这 讨

    论 中 , 详 细 说 明 了 从 一 个 伟 大 的 法 律 学 里 程 碑 到 另 一 个 里 程

    碑 中 各 种 观 念 的 进 程 。 我 们 由 “ 耐 克 逊 ” 开 始 , 其 中 “ 契

    约 ” 和 “ 让 与 ” 是 混 杂 在 一 起 的 , 其 中 伴 随 着 合 意 的 手 续 形

    式 甚 至 比 合 意 本 身 还 要 重 要 。 从 “ 耐 克 逊 ” , 我 们 转 到 “ 约

    定 ” , 这 是 较 古 仪 式 的 一 个 简 单 形 式 。 其 次 发 现 的 是 “ 文 书 契

    约 ” , 在 这 里 , 一 切 的 手 续 都 被 放 弃 了 , 如 果 合 意 的 证 据 能 从

    一 个 罗 马 家 庭 的 严 格 遵 守 的 习 惯 中 提 出 来 。 在 “ 要 物 契 约 ” 中 ,

    第 一 次 承 认 了 一 个 道 德 责 任 , 凡 是 参 加 或 同 意 一 个 定 约 的 部

    分 履 行 的 人 们 , 就 不 许 由 于 形 式 上 的 缺 陷 而 否 认 它 。 最 后 , 出

    现 了 “ 诺 成 契 约 ” , 其 中 唯 一 被 重 视 的 是 缔 约 人 的 心 理 状 态 ,

    至 于 外 界 情 况 除 非 作 为 内 在 企 图 的 证 据 外 是 不 予 注 意 的 。 罗

    马 人 的 思 想 从 一 个 粗 糙 的 观 念 到 一 个 精 练 的 观 念 的 这 种 进步 , 究 竟 是 否 能 例 证 人 类 思 想 在 “ 契 约 ” 这 主 题 上 有 了 必 要的 进 步 , 这 当 然 是 无 法 断 定 的 。 除 了 罗 马 人 之 外 , 所 有 其 他古 代 社 会 的 “ 契 约 ” 法 或 者 太 少 了 , 没 有 充 足 的 资 料 , 或 者是 已 经 完 全 失 传 了 ; 至 于 现 代 法 律 学 则 是 如 此 透 澈 地 为 罗 马观 点 所 影 响 , 以 致 我 们 无 法 获 得 对 比 和 类 似 , 并 从 中 吸 取 教训 。 但 是 , 从 我 所 描 写 的 演 变 中 既 缺 乏 任 何 剧 烈 的 、 惊 奇 的以 及 不 易 理 解 的 东 西 , 我 们 就 可 以 合 理 地 相 信 , 在 某 种 程 度

    上 , 古 罗 马 “ 契 约 ” 史 是 其 他 古 代 社 会 中 这 类 法 律 概 念 的 历

    史 的 典 型 。 但 也 只 是 在 某 种 程 度 上 , 罗 马 法 的 进 步 可 以 被 用

    来 代 表 其 他 法 律 学 制 度 的 进 步 。 “ 自 然 ” 法 的 理 论 是 专 属 于 罗

    马 人 的 。 ·

    法 ·

    锁 的 观 念 , 就 我 所 知 , 也 是 专 属 于 罗 马 人 的 。 成

    熟 的 罗 马 的 “ 契 约 和 侵 权 ” 法 中 有 许 多 特 点 , 都 来 自 上 述 的

    两 种 观 念 , 或 则 来 自 其 一 , 或 则 两 者 兼 而 有 之 , 因 此 , 这 许

    多 特 点 也 是 属 于 一 特 定 社 会 的 专 门 产 物 。 这 些 后 期 法 律 概 念

    是 重 要 的 , 不 是 因 为 这 些 概 念 代 表 了 在 一 切 条 件 下 思 想 发 展

    的 必 然 结 果 , 而 是 因 为 它 们 对 现 代 世 界 的 智 力 素 质 起 了 十 分

    巨 大 的 影 响 。

    罗 马 法 尤 其 是 罗 马 “ 契 约 法 ” 以 各 种 思 想 方 式 、 推 理 方

    法 和 一 种 专 门 用 语 贡 献 给 各 种 各 样 的 科 学 , 这 确 是 最 令 人 惊

    奇 的 事 。 在 曾 经 促 进 现 代 人 的 智 力 欲 的 各 种 主 题 中 , 除 了

    “ 物 理 学 ” 外 , 没 有 一 门 科 学 没 有 经 过 罗 马 法 律 学 滤 过 的 。 纯

    粹 的 “ 形 而 上 学 ” 诚 然 是 来 自 希 腊 而 不 是 来 自 罗 马 的 , 但 是

    “ 政 治 学 ” 、 “ 道 德 哲 学 ” 甚 至 “ 神 学 ” 不 但 在 罗 马 法 中 找 到 了

    表 意 的 工 具 , 并 且 以 罗 马 法 为 其 最 深 奥 的 研 究 养 育 成 是 的 一

    个 卵 巢 。 为 了 要 说 明 这 种 现 象 , 并 没 有 绝 对 必 要 讨 论 文 字 和观 念 之 间 的 神 秘 关 系 , 或 是 说 明 人 类 的 心 神 如 何 从 来 没 有 能

    抓 住 任 何 思 想 主 题 , 除 非 它 在 事 前 就 具 有 适 当 丰 富 的 用 语 或

    能 掌 握 一 种 适 当 的 逻 辑 方 法 的 工 具 。 只 须 说 明 , 当 东 方 和 西

    方 世 界 的 哲 学 兴 趣 分 离 时 , 西 方 思 想 的 始 创 者 都 属 于 讲 拉 丁

    语 和 用 拉 丁 语 著 作 的 一 个 社 会 。 但 是 在 西 方 各 省 中 , 能 够 很

    精 确 地 用 来 研 究 哲 学 的 唯 一 语 言 是 罗 马 法 的 语 言 , 它 由 于 独

    特 的 机 会 , 几 乎 保 留 了 奥 古 斯 多 时 代 所 有 的 纯 洁 性 , 而 地 方

    拉 丁 则 正 在 退 化 为 怪 异 的 不 纯 正 的 一 种 方 言 。 如 果 罗 马 法 律

    学 提 供 了 语 言 上 唯 一 的 正 确 的 媒 介 , 更 重 要 的 , 是 它 同 时 提

    供 了 思 想 上 唯 一 的 正 确 、 精 密 深 邃 的 媒 介 。 因 为 哲 学 和 科 学

    在 西 方 不 能 立 足 , 至 少 有 三 个 世 纪 之 久 ; 并 且 虽 然 大 多 数 罗

    马 人 的 精 力 都 集 中 在 形 而 上 学 和 形 而 上 学 的 神 学 上 面 , 但 这

    些 热 情 的 研 究 中 所 用 的 语 法 完 全 是 希 腊 的 , 而 它 们 的 活 动 场

    所 是 帝 国 的 东 半 部 。 有 时 , 东 方 争 论 者 所 获 得 的 结 论 非 常 重

    要 , 以 致 不 论 是 同 意 或 是 不 同 意 这 些 结 论 的 人 都 必 须 把 它 们

    记 录 下 来 , 后 来 东 方 争 论 的 结 果 就 被 介 绍 到 西 方 来 , 对 于 这

    些 结 果 , 西 方 一 般 都 予 以 默 认 , 不 赞 许 亦 不 拒 绝 。 在 这 时 候 ,

    有 一 个 研 究 部 门 , 虽 是 最 勤 劳 的 人 也 感 到 困 难 , 最 精 细 的 人

    也 感 到 深 奥 , 最 精 巧 的 人 也 感 到 细 致 的 , 但 对 于 西 方 各 省 受

    过 教 育 的 阶 级 却 从 来 没 有 失 掉 过 它 的 吸 引 力 。 对 阿 非 利 加 、 西

    班 牙 、 高 卢 和 北 意 大 利 的 有 教 养 的 公 民 , 正 是 法 律 学 , 并 且

    也 只 有 法 律 学 , 代 替 了 诗 歌 和 历 史 、 哲 学 和 科 学 。 西 方 思 想

    在 其 最 早 的 对 于 明 显 的 法 律 面 貌 的 努 力 中 不 但 毫 无 一 些 神 秘

    之 处 , 并 且 , 如 果 我 们 以 为 它 会 有 其 他 任 何 色 彩 , 也 将 是 令

    人 惊 奇 的 。 我 所 认 为 可 怪 的 是 , 由 于 一 种 新 要 素 的 出 现 而 在西 方 和 东 方 观 念 之 间 、 西 方 和 东 方 神 学 之 间 引 起 的 区 别 , 竟

    然 很 少 人 注 意 。 正 是 由 于 法 律 学 的 影 响 开 始 变 得 非 常 有 力 , 才

    使 君 士 坦 丁 堡 的 建 立 和 后 来 的 西 罗 马 帝 国 从 东 罗 马 帝 国 分

    离 , 成 为 哲 学 史 中 的 两 个 新 纪 元 。 但 是 , 由 于 来 自 “ 罗 马 法

    律 ” 的 各 种 观 念 已 和 日 常 的 观 念 非 常 密 切 地 混 杂 在 一 起 , 大

    陆 思 想 家 无 疑 地 不 容 易 体 会 到 这 个 重 要 关 头 的 重 要 姓 。 另 一

    方 面 , 英 国 人 对 这 一 点 也 是 视 若 无 睹 的 , 这 是 由 于 他 们 对 于

    他 们 自 己 承 认 的 现 代 知 识 潮 流 的 最 丰 富 渊 源 和 罗 马 文 明 的 一

    个 智 慧 的 成 果 , 极 端 无 知 。 在 同 时 , 一 个 费 尽 心 力 熟 悉 古 典

    罗 马 法 的 英 国 人 , 由 于 其 本 国 人 对 这 主 题 向 来 极 少 兴 趣 , 对

    于 我 胆 敢 提 出 的 主 张 , 他 比 起 法 国 人 或 德 国 人 来 也 许 是 一 个

    更 好 的 鉴 定 家 。 任 何 一 个 知 道 罗 马 法 律 学 是 怎 样 一 回 事 的 人 ,

    知 道 确 实 由 罗 马 人 实 践 的 罗 马 法 律 学 的 人 , 并 且 要 观 察 最 古

    的 西 方 神 学 及 哲 学 在 那 些 特 点 上 不 同 于 它 们 之 前 的 思 想 状 态

    的 人 , 对 于 这 已 经 开 始 透 入 和 支 配 着 纯 理 论 的 新 要 素 究 竟 是

    什 么 , 都 可 以 有 资 格 加 以 说 明 。

    罗 马 法 中 对 其 他 研 究 主 题 有 最 广 泛 影 响 的 部 分 是 “ 债 ”

    法 , 或 是 接 近 于 “ 债 ” 法 的 部 分 , 即 “ 契 约 和 侵 权 ” 法 。 罗

    马 制 度 中 这 一 部 分 丰 富 的 术 语 , 它 所 能 用 以 履 行 的 职 能 , 罗

    马 人 本 身 并 不 是 不 知 道 的 , 这 从 他 们 把 这 个 特 别 形 容 词 准 字

    用 在 “ 准 契 约 ” 和 “ 准 侵 权 ” 等 名 词 中 , 就 可 以 得 到 证 明 。

    “ 准 ” 在 这 样 的 用 法 中 , 完 全 是 一 个 分 类 的 名 词 。 英 国 评 论 家

    常 认 为 “ 准 契 约 ” 就 是 默 约 , 但 这 是 错 误 的 , 因 为 默 约 是 真

    的 契 约 而 准 契 约 则 不 是 契 约 。 在 默 约 中 , 行 为 和 情 况 是 用 作

    为 某 些 要 素 的 象 征 , 这 些 要 素 在 明 约 中 是 用 文 字 来 象 征 的 ; 就合 意 的 理 论 而 论 , 一 个 人 所 用 的 究 竟 是 这 一 套 象 征 还 是 另 一

    套 象 征 , 是 毫 无 关 系 的 。 但 是 一 个 “ 准 契 约 ” 完 全 不 是 一 个

    契 约 。 这 类 准 契 约 中 最 普 通 的 例 子 , 象 一 个 人 误 以 金 钱 给 付

    另 一 个 人 因 而 在 这 两 人 之 间 存 在 的 关 系 。 法 律 为 了 顾 全 道 德

    上 的 利 益 , 使 受 领 人 负 有 偿 还 的 责 任 , 但 根 据 这 交 易 的 性 质 ,

    表 示 出 这 并 不 是 一 个 契 约 , 因 为 , 在 这 中 间 , 缺 乏 作 为 “ 契

    约 ” 最 重 要 要 素 的 “ 协 议 。 ” “ 准 ” 这 个 字 放 在 罗 马 法 的 一 个

    名 词 之 前 , 含 有 这 样 一 种 意 思 , 即 用 它 作 为 标 志 的 概 念 和 其

    原 来 的 概 念 之 间 , 在 比 较 上 有 着 一 种 强 有 力 的 表 面 类 比 或 相

    似 。 它 的 意 思 并 不 是 说 , 这 两 种 概 念 是 同 样 的 , 或 是 属 于 同

    一 种 类 的 。 相 反 地 , 它 否 定 了 在 它 们 之 间 存 在 着 同 一 性 的 观

    念 ; 但 是 它 指 出 它 们 有 充 分 的 相 似 之 处 , 可 以 把 其 中 之 一 归

    类 为 另 一 个 的 连 续 , 以 及 从 法 律 的 一 个 部 门 中 取 来 的 用 语 可

    以 移 用 到 法 律 的 另 外 一 个 部 门 , 并 加 以 应 用 , 而 不 致 对 规 定

    的 说 明 有 强 烈 的 歪 曲 , 而 这 些 规 定 在 另 一 种 情 况 下 是 很 难 完

    善 地 加 以 说 明 的 。

    有 人 这 样 乖 巧 地 提 出 , “ 默 约 ” 是 真 正 的 契 约 , “ 准 契

    约 ” 完 全 不 是 契 约 , 在 这 两 者 之 间 所 存 在 的 混 淆 不 清 , 和 把

    政 治 上 的 权 利 和 义 务 归 因 于 被 统 治 者 和 统 治 者 之 间 的 一 个

    “ 原 始 契 约 ” ( O r i g i n a l   C o m p a c t )   的 这 个 著 名 错 误 , 有 很

    多 共 同 之 点 。 早 在 这 理 论 获 得 定 形 之 前 , 罗 马 契 约 法 的 用 语

    大 部 分 用 来 描 写 人 类 所 常 常 设 想 的 存 在 于 君 主 和 臣 民 之 间 的

    权 利 和 义 务 上 的 相 互 关 系 。 当 世 界 上 充 满 了 各 式 各 样 的 格 言 ,

    极 端 断 然 地 提 出 国 王 的 主 张 应 该 绝 对 服 从 , — — 这 些 格 言 佯

    称 来 自 “ 新 约 全 书 ” , 而 实 际 上 却 是 来 自 凯 撒 暴 政 的 难 忘 回 忆— — 如 果 罗 马 “ 债 ” 法 没 有 提 供 一 种 言 语 , 能 隐 约 表 示 当 时

    还 没 有 完 全 发 展 的 一 种 观 念 , 则 被 统 治 者 应 该 享 有 相 关 权 利

    的 思 想 , 将 完 全 没 有 表 达 的 可 能 。 我 认 为 国 王 的 特 权 和 国 王

    对 其 臣 民 的 义 务 两 者 之 间 的 互 不 相 容 , 自 从 西 方 历 史 开 始 以

    来 是 从 来 没 有 忘 却 过 的 , 但 在 封 建 制 度 继 续 盛 行 之 际 , 除 了

    纯 理 论 著 作 家 外 , 这 是 绝 少 为 人 所 注 意 的 , 因 为 封 建 制 度 通

    过 明 白 的 习 惯 有 效 地 控 制 着 欧 洲 多 数 君 主 , 使 不 能 有 过 分 的

    理 论 上 的 权 利 。 但 是 当 封 建 制 度 衰 亡 、 中 世 纪 的 组 织 脱 出 工

    作 常 规 、 以 及 宗 教 改 革 使 教 皇 的 权 威 不 复 为 人 所 信 任 时 , 国

    王 有 神 权 的 学 理 就 显 著 地 立 即 提 高 到 它 以 前 从 来 没 有 达 到 过

    的 重 要 地 位 。 它 所 获 得 的 声 价 必 须 常 常 求 助 于 罗 马 法 的 用 语 ,

    而 原 来 带 有 神 学 面 貌 的 一 科 争 论 逐 渐 一 天 天 地 取 得 了 一 种 法

    律 争 辩 的 色 彩 。 于 是 出 现 了 一 种 曾 在 意 见 史 中 不 断 重 复 出 现

    的 现 象 。 正 当 君 主 权 主 张 逐 渐 发 展 而 成 为 菲 尔 美 的 学 理 时 , 从

    “ 契 约 法 ” 中 借 用 来 的 原 来 作 为 保 护 臣 民 权 利 的 用 语 竟 成 为 国

    王 和 人 民 间 一 个 现 实 的 原 始 契 约 的 学 说 , 这 一 个 学 说 首 先 在

    英 国 人 手 中 , 后 来 、 特 别 是 在 法 国 人 手 中 发 展 成 为 社 会 和 法

    律 一 切 现 象 的 一 种 广 博 的 解 释 。 但 是 政 治 学 和 法 律 学 之 间 仅

    有 的 真 正 的 联 系 , 是 在 后 者 把 其 独 特 地 有 可 塑 性 的 术 语 的 好

    处 给 与 了 前 者 。 罗 马 “ 契 约 ” 法 律 学 对 君 主 和 臣 民 关 系 上 所

    作 出 的 贡 献 , 正 和 在 一 个 比 较 狭 小 范 围 内 、 它 对 于 为 一 个

    “ 准 契 约 ” 责 任 拘 束 在 一 起 的 人 们 的 关 系 上 所 作 出 的 贡 献 完 全

    相 同 。 罗 马 “ 契 约 ” 法 律 学 提 供 了 一 套 文 字 和 成 语 , 充 分 正

    确 地 接 近 当 时 对 于 政 治 责 任 问 题 所 具 有 的 各 种 观 念 。 一 个

    “ 原 始 契 约 ” 学 理 所 处 的 地 位 , 从 未 能 高 过 怀 威 尔 博 士 (W h e w e l l ) 所 提 出 的 , 他 的 意 见 是 : 这 个 学 理 虽 然 是 不 够 健 全

    的 , 但 “ 它 可 能 是 表 示 道 德 真 理 的 一 种 ·

    方 ·

    便 ·

    的 形 式 ” 。

    在 “ 原 始 契 约 ” 发 明 之 前 把 法 律 用 语 广 泛 应 用 于 政 治 主

    题 上 以 及 “ 原 始 契 约 ” 这 个 假 定 在 后 来 所 发 生 的 有 力 影 响 , 充

    分 说 明 了 在 政 治 学 中 有 着 大 量 的 为 罗 马 法 律 学 所 独 特 创 造 的

    文 字 和 概 念 。 它 们 也 大 量 地 存 在 “ 道 德 哲 学 ” 中 , 这 可 能 有

    不 同 的 解 释 , 这 是 由 于 罗 马 法 比 政 治 理 论 受 到 伦 理 著 作 更 直

    接 的 贡 献 , 而 这 些 伦 理 著 作 的 著 者 也 更 加 自 觉 到 他 们 责 任 的

    范 围 。 在 谈 到 道 德 哲 学 特 别 应 该 归 功 于 罗 马 法 律 家 时 , 我 所

    指 的 应 该 是 未 经 康 德 ( K a n t ) 中 断 其 历 史 以 前 的 道 德 哲 学 , 即

    研 究 人 类 行 为 规 则 的 一 种 科 学 , 适 当 地 解 释 这 些 规 则 的 科 学 ,

    以 及 这 些 规 则 应 受 的 限 制 的 科 学 。 在 “ 批 判 哲 学 ” ( C r i t i c a l  P h i l o s o p h y ) 兴 起 后 , 道 德 学 的 旧 有 意 义 几 乎 完 全 丧 失 , 除 了由 罗 马 天 主 教 神 学 者 仍 旧 研 究 的 诡 辩 学 中 用 一 种 降 格 的 形 式

    保 留 着 之 外 , 道 德 学 似 乎 已 普 遍 被 认 为 只 是 本 体 论 研 究 ( o n At o l o g i c a l   i n q u i r y ) 的 一 个 部 门 了 。 除 怀 威 尔 博 士 一 人 外 , 我

    在 当 时 的 英 国 著 者 中 找 不 到 一 个 人 , 他 把 道 德 哲 学 理 解 为 在

    它 被 形 而 上 学 所 吸 收 之 前 以 及 在 它 的 规 定 的 基 础 变 成 为 比 其

    规 定 本 身 更 为 重 要 的 问 题 之 前 , 为 人 们 所 理 解 的 那 样 。 可 是 ,

    只 要 伦 理 科 学 涉 及 行 为 的 实 际 统 治 时 , 它 就 多 少 受 到 罗 马 法

    的 浸 润 。 象 现 代 思 想 中 一 切 巨 大 主 题 一 样 , 它 是 原 来 合 并 在

    神 学 中 的 。 最 初 曾 经 被 称 为 、 以 及 现 在 仍 为 罗 马 天 主 教 神 学

    者 称 为 “ 道 德 神 学 ” 的 科 学 , 无 疑 地 是 在 著 者 明 知 之 下 采 用

    了 教 会 制 度 中 的 行 为 原 则 而 构 成 的 , 并 且 是 用 了 法 律 学 中 的

    用 语 和 方 法 为 其 表 现 和 扩 张 的 。 在 这 个 过 程 继 续 进 行 的 中 间 ,法 律 学 虽 然 只 是 准 备 成 为 发 表 思 想 的 工 具 , 但 它 不 可 避 免 地

    会 把 它 的 特 色 传 给 思 想 本 身 。 由 于 和 法 律 概 念 相 接 触 而 感 染

    到 的 特 点 , 在 现 代 世 界 最 早 的 伦 理 文 献 中 完 全 可 以 看 到 , 我

    以 为 这 是 很 明 显 的 , 以 权 利 和 义 务 完 全 的 相 互 关 系 和 不 可 分

    解 的 关 系 为 基 础 的 “ 契 约 法 ” 曾 被 用 为 矫 正 著 者 们 某 种 倾 向

    的 东 西 , 因 为 这 些 著 者 如 果 听 其 自 然 , 就 有 可 能 把 一 个 道 德

    责 任 完 全 看 做 “ 神 国 ” ( C i v i t a s   D e i ) 中 一 个 公 民 的 公 共 义 务 。

    但 是 当 伟 大 的 西 班 牙 道 德 学 家 们 研 究 道 德 神 学 时 , 罗 马 法 在

    道 德 神 学 中 的 分 量 已 显 著 减 少 。 用 博 士 评 论 博 士 的 法 学 方 法

    发 展 起 来 的 道 德 神 学 有 它 自 己 的 一 套 用 语 , 而 亚 里 士 多 德 的

    推 理 和 表 现 的 特 征 , 由 于 大 部 分 无 疑 地 是 吸 收 自 学 院 派 的

    “ 道 德 论 ” ( D i s p u t a t i o n s   o n   M o r a l s ) 的 , 便 代 替 了 凡 是 精通 罗 马 法 的 人 决 不 会 误 会 的 那 种 特 殊 的 思 想 方 式 和 言 语 形

    式 。 如 果 道 德 神 学 家 的 西 班 牙 学 派 的 势 力 继 续 着 , 则 伦 理 学

    中 的 法 律 要 素 就 有 可 能 成 为 完 全 不 重 要 , 但 是 下 一 代 研 究 这些 主 题 的 罗 马 天 主 教 著 者 在 应 用 他 们 的 结 论 时 , 几 乎 把 他 们的 影 响 完 全 加 以 毁 灭 。 道 德 神 学 降 格 成 为 诡 辩 学 , 不 再 为 欧洲 纯 理 论 的 领 袖 们 感 到 兴 趣 ; 完 全 操 在 基 督 新 教 徒 手 中的新的 道 德 哲 学 , 大 大 超 出 了 过 去 道 德 神 学 家 的 成 就 。 其 结 果 是使 罗 马 法 对 伦 理 研 究 的 影 响 为 之 大 大 增 加 。

    在 “ 宗 教 改 革 ” 之 后 不 久 , 我 们 发 现 有 两 大 思 想 学 派 在这 一 个 主 题 上 划 分 开 来 。 这 两 大 学 派 中 最 有 势 力 的 一 派 最 初我 们 称 之 为 诡 辩 学 派 , 他 们 都 是 些 和 罗 马 天 主 教 会 有 神 交 的人 , 并 且 他 们 几 乎 都 是 分 属 于 这 一 个 或 另 一 个 宗 教 教 团 的 。 在另 一 方 面 , 则 有 另 外 一 批 著 者 , 他 们 是 以 在 学 识 上 共 同 来 自“ 战 争 与 和 平 法 规 论 ” 的 伟 大 著 者 嚣 俄 · 格 罗 修 斯 而 相 互 结 合在 一 起 的 。 几 乎 所 有 的 后 一 派 人 都 是 “ 宗 教 改 革 ” 的 信 徒 , 虽然 不 能 说 他 们 是 正 式 地 、 公 开 地 和 诡 辩 学 派 发 生 冲 突 , 但 他们 体 系 的 起 源 和 目 的 显 然 是 和 诡 辩 学 派 有 着 本 质 上 的 不 同的 。 这 个 区 别 有 必 要 加 以 重 视 , 因 为 它 涉 及 到 罗 马 法 和 对 这两 个 体 系 都 有 关 系 的 那 个 思 想 部 门 的 影 响 问 题 。 格 罗 修 斯 的著 作 虽 然 在 每 一 页 中 都 接 触 到 纯 粹 “ 伦 理 学 ” 的 各 个 问 题 , 并且 虽 然 它 是 无 数 有 关 形 式 道 德 学 的 书 籍 的 近 的 或 远 的 根 源 ,但 众 所 周 知 , 它 不 是 “ 道 德 哲 学 ” 的 一 本 专 著 : 它 是 决 定

    “ 自 然 法 ” 的 一 个 尝 试 。 现 在 , 无 须 研 究 这 个 问 题 , 即 一 个

    “ 自 然 法 ” 的 概 念 是 否 罗 马 法 学 专 家 的 一 种 独 有 创 造 , 我 们 可

    以 断 言 , 甚 至 格 罗 修 斯 本 人 也 承 认 罗 马 法 律 学 的 格 言 说 , 有

    些 已 知 的 现 实 法 应 该 认 为 是 “ 自 然 法 ” 的 一 部 分 , 这 个 格 言

    纵 使 不 是 毫 无 错 误 , 仍 应 该 受 到 极 端 的 尊 敬 而 加 以 接 受 的 。 因

    此 , 格 罗 修 斯 体 系 在 其 基 础 上 就 是 和 罗 马 法 牵 涉 在 一 起 的 , 而

    这 种 关 系 就 不 可 避 免 地 使 他 — — 这 是 著 者 所 受 法 律 训 练 的 必

    然 结 果 — — 在 每 一 章 节 中 自 由 地 应 用 着 罗 马 法 中 专 门 术 语 ,

    以 及 各 种 推 理 、 定 义 和 例 证 的 方 式 , 而 这 些 辩 论 的 意 义 , 特

    别 是 辩 论 的 说 服 力 , 有 时 是 被 隐 藏 着 的 , 是 不 熟 悉 于 它 们 来

    源 的 读 者 所 不 知 道 的 。 在 另 一 方 面 , 诡 辩 学 很 少 借 用 罗 马 法 ,

    而 其 所 主 张 的 道 德 观 念 和 格 罗 修 斯 所 断 言 的 全 不 相 同 。 在 诡

    辩 学 的 名 称 下 成 为 著 名 的 或 是 不 名 誉 的 有 关 是 和 非 的 哲 学 ,

    它 的 渊 源 来 自 “ 不 可 赦 之 罪 ” 和 “ 可 赦 之 罪 ” ( M o r t a l   a n d V e n i a l sin) 间 的 区 分 。 迫 使 诡 辩 哲 学 的 著 者 发 明 一 套 精 密的 规 范 体 系 , 以 便 在 尽 量 把 不 道 德 行 为 从 不 可 赦 犯 罪 的 范 畴中 移 出 来 , 并 把 它 们 定 为 可 赦 之 罪 , 其 动 机 之 一 是 出 于 一 种自 然 的 渴 望 , 想 要 避 免 把 一 种 特 定 行 为 定 为 不 可 赦 罪 的 可 怕后 果 , 另 一 种 动 机 是 出 于 一 种 同 样 地 可 以 体 会 的 愿 望 , 就 是

    为 天 主 教 会 解 除 一 种 不 便 的 理 论 , 来 帮 助 罗 马 天 主 教 会 在 和

    基 督 新 教 进 行 的 冲 突 中 取 得 胜 利 。 这 种 试 验 的 命 运 , 应 属 于

    普 通 史 的 范 围 。 我 们 知 道 , 诡 辩 学 派 使 僧 侣 辈 有 权 对 各 色 人

    等 的 性 格 加 以 精 神 上 的 约 束 , 这 样 也 就 使 它 对 诸 侯 、 政 治 家

    和 将 军 们 有 着 “ 宗 教 改 革 ” 时 代 以 前 所 从 未 听 到 过 的 一 种 影

    响 , 并 且 也 真 的 对 基 督 新 教 初 步 成 就 发 生 遏 制 和 缩 小 作 用 的

    那 个 巨 大 反 动 作 出 了 重 大 贡 献 。 但 在 其 开 始 的 企 图 中 , 它 不

    是 在 建 立 而 是 在 规 避 , — — 不 是 在 发 现 一 条 原 则 而 是 在 逃 避

    一 个 假 定 — — 不 是 在 确 定 是 和 非 的 性 质 而 是 在 行 为 的 决 定 在

    一 个 特 殊 性 质 中 哪 些 是 不 错 的 , — — 诡 辩 学 就 是 这 样 用 了 它

    的 巧 妙 的 高 论 继 续 发 展 下 去 , 直 到 它 最 后 过 分 地 削 弱 行 为 的

    道 德 特 征 , 过 分 地 诽 谤 了 我 们 人 类 的 道 德 本 能 , 以 致 最 后 人

    类 的 良 心 突 然 起 来 反 抗 它 , 并 把 这 体 系 和 其 博 士 们 埋 葬 在 一

    个 共 同 的 废 墟 中 。 在 长 期 不 断 的 打 击 中 , 最 后 的 一 击 来 自 巴斯 噶 ( P a s c a l ) 的 “ 书 翰 集 ” ( P r o v i n c i a l   L e t t e r s ) , 在 这 些可 纪 念 的 “ 文 件 ” 出 现 后 , 就 没 有 一 个 即 使 影 响 最 小 、 声 望最 微 的 道 德 学 家 敢 于 公 开 踏 着 诡 辩 学 家 的 足 迹 前 进 。 这 样 一来 , 全 部 伦 理 学 的 领 域 便 完 全 留 归 追 随 格 罗 修 斯 的 著 者 们 控

    制 了 ; 它 在 很 大 程 度 上 仍 表 现 出 和 罗 马 法 纠 缠 在 一 起 的 迹 象 ,这 有 时 被 认 为 是 对 格 罗 修 斯 理 论 的 一 种 过 失 , 但 有 时 则 被 认

    为 是 对 它 的 最 高 贡 献 。 自 从 格 罗 修 斯 时 代 以 来 , 许 多 研 究 者

    已 变 更 了 他 的 原 则 , 并 且 在 “ 批 判 哲 学 ” 兴 起 以 后 , 当 然 有许 多 人 已 完 全 抛 弃 了 他 的 原 则 ; 但 即 使 是 那 些 远 离 其 基 本 假

    设 的 人 们 , 也 继 承 了 很 多 他 的 陈 述 方 法 、 他 的 思 思 路 线 以 及

    他 的 例 证 方 式 ; 而 对 于 不 懂 罗 马 法 律 学 的 人 , 这 些 是 绝 少 意

    义 并 且 也 是 绝 无 妙 处 的 。(以上部分是 作 者 在 1 8 5 6 年 投 寄 “ 剑 桥 论丛 ” 的 一 篇 论 文 , 转 录 时 曾 略 加 修 改 )

    我 已 经 说 过 , 在 自 然 科 学 之 外 , 没 有 一 门 知 识 会 象 形 而

    上 学 那 样 受 罗 马 法 的 影 响 如 此 之 少 的 。 因 为 , 有 关 形 而 上 学

    主 题 的 讨 论 始 终 是 用 希 腊 文 进 行 的 , 最 初 是 用 纯 粹 希 腊 文 , 后

    来 是 用 特 意 用 来 表 现 希 腊 概 念 的 拉 丁 方 言 。 现 代 语 言 只 有 在

    采 用 拉 丁 方 言 或 在 模 仿 了 原 来 在 其 结 构 上 所 用 的 程 序 之 后 ,

    才 能 适 合 于 形 而 上 学 的 研 究 。 现 代 形 而 上 学 论 文 中 所 常 用 的

    用 语 , 其 来 源 是 亚 里 士 多 德 的 拉 丁 译 文 , 其 中 , 不 论 是 否 来

    自 阿 拉 伯 译 文 , 翻 译 者 的 计 划 并 不 是 要 从 任 何 部 分 的 拉 丁 文

    献 中 找 寻 类 似 的 言 语 , 而 是 要 从 拉 丁 字 根 上 重 新 创 造 一 套 相

    当 于 希 腊 哲 学 观 念 辞 句 的 成 语 。 在 这 样 一 个 过 程 中 , 罗 马 法

    的 用 语 可 能 仅 仅 发 生 绝 少 的 影 响 ; 至 多 , 也 只 有 少 数 变 形 的

    拉 丁 法 律 名 词 进 入 形 而 上 学 的 言 语 中 。 同 时 , 必 须 注 意 , 当

    有 些 形 而 上 学 的 问 题 成 为 西 欧 最 激 烈 的 问 题 时 , 在 其 思 想 中 ,

    如 果 不 是 在 言 语 中 , 一 定 泄 露 出 来 一 种 法 律 的 本 源 。 在 纯 理

    论 史 中 , 很 少 事 物 有 比 下 列 事 实 给 人 以 更 深 的 印 象 , 即 凡 是

    用 希 腊 语 言 的 人 民 从 来 没 有 严 重 地 感 觉 到 为 “ 自 由 意 志 ” 和

    “ 必 然 性 ” 的 大 问 题 所 困 扰 过 。 我 不 想 对 这 一 点 作 出 任 何 概 括

    的 解 释 , 但 这 样 说 明 似 乎 并 不 是 离 题 太 远 的 , 即 不 论 是 希 腊

    人 或 是 用 希 腊 语 讲 话 和 思 想 的 任 何 一 个 社 会 , 都 没 有 显 示 出

    来 有 产 生 一 种 法 律 哲 学 的 最 小 的 能 力 。 法 律 科 学 是 罗 马 人 的

    一 种 创 造 , “ 自 由 意 志 ” 的 问 题 是 当 我 们 在 一 个 法 律 观 点 下 研

    究 一 个 形 而 上 学 的 概 念 时 发 生 的 。 为 什 么 会 发 生 这 样 的 问 题 :

    不 变 的 顺 序 是 否 和 必 要 的 联 系 相 一 致 ? 我 只 能 说 , 罗 马 法 的

    随 着 它 的 发 展 而 日 益 增 强 的 趋 势 , 是 认 为 法 律 后 果 是 通 过 一

    种 坚 决 的 必 然 性 而 和 法 律 原 因 相 结 合 着 的 , 这 一 种 趋 势 在 我

    反 复 引 用 过 的 如 下 的 “ 债 ” 的 定 义 中 得 到 最 明 显 的 证 明 : “ 应

    负 担 履 行 的 义 务 的 法 锁 ” 。

    但 是 “ 自 由 意 志 ” 问 题 在 它 成 为 哲 学 问 题 之 前 , 是 一 个

    神 学 上 的 问 题 , 如 果 它 的 名 词 曾 受 到 法 律 学 的 影 响 , 这 是 由

    于 法 律 学 早 已 渗 入 了 神 学 的 缘 故 。 这 里 所 要 提 出 并 加 以 研 究

    的 大 问 题 过 去 从 来 没 有 被 满 意 地 阐 述 过 。 我 们 必 须 决 定 的 是 :

    法 律 学 究 竟 有 没 有 被 用 来 作 为 通 过 它 而 观 察 神 学 上 各 项 原 则

    的 媒 介 ; 它 究 竟 有 没 有 提 供 一 种 特 殊 的 言 语 , 一 种 特 殊 的 推

    理 方 式 , 以 及 解 决 许 多 生 活 问 题 的 特 殊 方 法 从 而 开 辟 新 的 通

    道 , 使 神 学 上 的 纯 理 论 通 过 它 顺 流 而 下 并 得 到 扩 展 。 为 了 要

    得 到 一 个 答 案 , 有 必 要 回 忆 一 下 关 于 神 学 最 初 吸 收 的 理 智 粮

    食 最 著 名 的 著 者 们 已 经 一 致 同 意 的 究 竟 是 什 么 。 各 方 面 都 一

    致 同 意 , 基 督 教 会 最 古 的 语 言 是 希 腊 语 , 而 它 最 初 所 从 事 的

    各 种 问 题 是 那 些 希 腊 哲 学 在 其 后 期 形 式 中 为 它 们 开 辟 了 道 路

    的 问 题 。 人 类 从 中 获 得 从 事 于 深 奥 争 论 , 如 有 关 “ 神 人 ” 、

    “ 神 质 ” 和 “ 神 性 ” ( t h e   D i v i n e   P e r s o n s , t h e   D i v i n e   S u b As t a n c e , a n d   t h e   D i v i n e   N a t u r e s ) 等 等 问 题 的 手 段 的 唯 一的 文 字 和 观 念 的 宝 库 , 是 希 腊 形 而 上 学 文 献 。 拉 丁 语 以 及 贫乏 的 拉 丁 哲 学 是 不 足 以 胜 任 的 , 因 此 , 帝 国 中 西 方 或 操 拉 丁

    语 的 各 省 对 于 东 方 的 结 论 , 就 毫 无 争 议 或 不 加 审 查 而 采 用 了 。

    弥 尔 曼 教 长 ( D e a n   M i l m a n ) 说 : “ 拉 丁 基 督 教 接 受 了 拉 丁 的

    狭 隘 肤 浅 的 语 彙 所 无 法 用 适 当 名 词 加 以 表 示 的 信 条 。 但 是 , 自

    始 至 终 , 罗 马 和 西 方 之 间 的 紧 密 粘 固 , 是 对 于 东 方 神 学 者 较

    深 奥 的 神 学 所 精 制 出 来 的 教 条 制 度 的 一 种 被 动 的 默 从 , 并 不

    是 它 自 己 对 那 些 神 秘 事 物 加 以 有 力 的 和 有 创 造 性 的 研 究 的 结

    果 。 拉 丁 教 会 是 阿 塔 纳 细 阿 ( A t h a n a s i u s ) 的 弟 子 , 同 时 也 是

    他 的 忠 实 信 徒 ” 。 但 是 , 当 东 方 和 西 方 的 分 离 一 天 天 地 扩 大 ,

    操 拉 丁 语 的 西 罗 马 帝 国 开 始 生 活 在 其 自 己 的 精 神 生 活 中 时 ,

    它 对 东 方 的 谦 逊 突 然 为 东 方 理 论 所 完 全 不 熟 悉 的 许 多 问 题 的

    议 论 所 代 替 。 “ 当 希 腊 神 学 〔 弥 尔 曼 : ‘ 拉 丁 基 督 教 ’ ( L a t i n C h r i s t i a n i t y ) 序 , 第 5 页 ] 用 更 精 致 的 技 巧 来 为 ‘ 神 格 ’ ( G o d Ah e a d ) 和 基 督 的 性 质 下 定 义 时 ” — — “ 当 无 休 止 的 争 辩 仍 旧 不

    断 地 延 续 , 并 从 这 陷 于 衰 弱 的 社 会 中 一 个 宗 派 跟 着 一 个 宗 派

    传 布 出 来 时 ” — — 西 方 教 会 以 非 常 的 热 诚 投 身 于 一 类 新 的 辩

    论 中 , 这 种 辩 论 , 从 那 时 候 起 一 直 到 现 在 , 是 包 括 在 拉 丁 教

    会 中 的 任 何 时 候 的 任 何 人 类 所 从 来 没 有 失 去 过 兴 趣 的 。 “ 罪

    过 ” ( S i n ) 的 性 质 和 它 的 可 以 由 继 承 而 转 让 — — 人 所 欠 的 债 务以 及 其 代 替 的 偿 还 — — “ 赎 罪 ” ( A t o n e m e n t ) 的 必 要 和 能 力— — 最 重 要 的 是 “ 自 由 意 志 ” 和 “ 神 意 ” ( D i v i n e P r o v i d e n c e ) 之 间 的 显 然 互 不 相 容 — — , 这 些 是 西 方 开 始 进 行

    辩 论 的 问 题 , 并 且 辩 论 时 象 东 方 在 讨 论 其 比 较 特 殊 的 信 条 的

    条 款 时 同 样 的 热 烈 。 然 则 , 在 这 个 把 希 腊 语 各 省 从 拉 丁 语 各

    省 分 离 开 来 的 分 界 线 的 两 边 , 为 什 么 竟 会 存 在 这 样 显 著 不 同的 两 类 神 学 上 问 题 ? 教 会 历 史 家 说 过 , 新 的 问 题 比 曾 把 东 方

    基 督 教 扯 得 粉 碎 的 那 些 问 题 更 多 “ 实 际 ” , 更 少 绝 对 理 论 , 他

    们 的 这 种 解 释 , 虽 已 接 近 答 案 , 但 就 我 所 注 意 到 的 , 他 们 中

    实 在 没 有 一 个 人 完 全 达 到 了 全 部 答 案 。 我 敢 毫 不 踌 躇 地 断 言 ,

    这 两 个 神 学 体 系 间 的 不 同 , 主 要 是 由 于 这 样 一 个 事 实 , 就 是

    神 学 理 论 由 东 方 传 到 西 方 时 , 它 是 由 希 腊 的 形 而 上 学 的 气 氛

    移 转 到 罗 马 法 的 气 氛 中 。 在 这 些 争 辩 成 为 有 压 倒 重 要 性 以 前

    的 几 个 世 纪 中 , 西 方 罗 马 人 的 一 切 智 力 活 动 都 完 全 花 费 在 法

    律 学 上 。 他 们 都 忙 于 把 一 套 特 殊 的 原 则 适 用 于 生 活 情 况 可 被

    安 排 的 一 切 结 合 中 。 没 有 任 何 外 来 的 工 作 或 风 尚 曾 把 他 们 的

    注 意 力 从 这 全 神 贯 注 的 事 情 上 转 移 开 来 , 并 且 为 了 继 续 这 样

    做 , 他 们 有 一 个 丰 富 而 精 确 的 词 汇 , 一 个 严 格 的 推 理 方 法 , 一

    批 多 少 已 为 经 验 所 证 实 的 有 关 行 动 的 通 则 , 和 一 个 严 正 的 道

    德 哲 学 。 因 此 他 们 也 就 不 可 能 不 从 基 督 教 记 录 的 各 项 问 题 中

    选 择 那 些 接 近 于 他 们 习 惯 的 纯 理 论 制 度 的 问 题 , 他 们 处 理 这

    些 问 题 的 态 度 也 就 不 可 能 不 来 自 他 们 的 法 庭 的 习 惯 。 几 乎 每

    一 个 对 罗 马 法 有 足 够 知 识 的 人 , 能 够 理 解 罗 马 刑 法 制 度 , 罗

    马 人 由 “ 契 约 或 侵 权 ” 创 设 的 债 的 理 论 , 罗 马 人 对 于 “ 债

    务 ” 以 及 对 于 “ 债 务 ” 产 生 、 消 灭 和 移 转 的 方 式 的 见 解 , 罗

    马 人 对 于 通 过 “ 概 括 继 承 ” 而 个 人 继 续 生 存 的 观 念 的 人 , 都

    可 以 说 明 : 西 方 科 学 问 题 经 证 明 对 它 非 常 意 气 相 投 的 心 境 是

    来 自 什 么 地 方 的 , 用 以 说 明 这 些 问 题 的 用 语 是 来 自 什 么 地 方

    的 , 以 及 应 用 于 其 解 决 中 的 推 理 方 法 又 是 来 自 什 么 地 方 的 。 必

    须 回 忆 一 下 , 这 逐 渐 渗 入 西 方 思 想 中 的 罗 马 法 既 不 是 古 城 市

    的 古 制 度 , 也 不 是 “ 拜 占 廷 皇 帝 ” 的 经 过 删 改 的 法 律 学 ; 当然 , 更 不 是 几 乎 埋 没 于 以 “ 现 代 民 法 ” 名 义 通 行 于 世 的 现 代

    纯 理 论 学 理 的 象 寄 生 物 那 样 的 过 度 发 展 中 的 大 量 规 则 。 我 所

    谈 的 , 只 是 指 由 安 托 宁 时 代 伟 大 法 律 思 想 家 所 研 究 出 来 的 、 部

    分 地 由 查 斯 丁 尼 安 的 “ 法 学 汇 纂 ” 加 以 转 载 的 法 律 哲 学 , 这

    个 体 系 很 少 缺 点 , 除 了 它 所 要 达 到 的 高 度 的 优 雅 、 明 确 和 精

    审 , 已 超 过 了 人 类 事 务 所 许 可 以 及 人 类 法 律 所 能 限 制 的 范 围 。

    许 多 英 国 著 名 的 和 有 信 誉 的 著 者 , 由 于 对 罗 马 法 的 无 知

    ( 这 是 英 国 人 不 得 不 立 即 承 认 , 但 有 时 不 以 为 耻 , 反 以 自 夸

    的 ) , 对 罗 马 帝 国 时 期 内 人 类 智 力 状 态 提 出 了 最 不 足 取 的 奇

    论 。 他 们 常 常 这 样 主 张 , 并 且 是 毫 不 踌 躇 地 、 好 象 在 提 出 这

    命 题 时 毫 不 卤 莽 似 的 , 认 为 从 奥 古 斯 多 时 代 终 了 的 时 候 起 一

    直 到 一 般 对 于 基 督 信 仰 开 始 发 生 兴 味 时 , 文 明 世 界 的 心 力 遭

    受 到 瘫 痪 症 的 猛 烈 侵 染 。 这 时 有 两 个 思 想 主 题 , — — 也 许 是

    除 了 自 然 科 学 之 外 仅 有 的 两 个 — — 可 以 供 人 们 所 具 有 的 一 切

    能 力 作 专 心 致 志 的 研 究 。 其 中 之 一 是 形 而 上 学 的 研 究 , 这 只

    要 人 愿 意 继 续 钻 研 是 没 有 限 制 的 ; 另 一 个 是 法 律 , 这 是 和 人

    类 的 事 务 同 样 地 广 大 的 。 恰 巧 在 上 述 的 时 期 中 , 操 希 腊 语 的

    名 省 专 心 从 事 于 其 一 , 而 操 拉 丁 语 的 各 省 又 专 心 于 另 一 种 问

    题 。 我 不 想 谈 亚 历 山 大 城 和 东 方 在 纯 理 论 研 究 方 面 的 成 果 ) 但

    我 大 胆 地 断 言 , 在 罗 马 和 西 方 的 手 中 有 一 件 工 作 , 足 以 补 偿

    在 其 他 智 力 上 的 欠 缺 , 并 且 我 要 附 带 说 明 一 句 , 他 们 所 获 得

    的 结 果 , 就 我 们 所 知 而 论 , 对 于 他 们 所 花 费 的 坚 毅 的 专 门 的

    劳 力 , 并 不 是 不 值 得 的 。 除 了 一 个 职 业 法 律 家 外 , 也 许 没 有

    人 能 完 全 了 解 “ 法 律 ” 能 吸 收 个 人 的 多 少 精 力 , 但 是 一 个 普

    通 人 也 不 难 理 解 为 什 么 罗 马 集 体 智 力 的 一 个 不 平 常 部 分 会 被法 律 学 所 独 占 。 “ 一 个 特 定 社 会 的 精 通 法 律 学 , 它 所 依 靠 的 条

    件 , 和 它 在 任 何 其 他 种 类 研 究 中 所 依 靠 的 条 件 终 久 是 完 全 相

    同 的 ; 而 条 件 中 最 主 要 的 是 全 国 智 力 花 费 的 比 例 , 以 及 时 间

    的 长 短 。 当 促 使 一 种 科 学 前 进 和 完 善 的 一 切 直 接 的 和 间 接 的

    原 因 结 合 在 一 起 时 , 这 种 结 合 在 从 ‘ 十 二 铜 表 法 ’ 到 两 个 帝

    国 分 裂 时 候 为 止 的 这 个 长 时 期 内 继 续 对 罗 马 的 法 律 学 发 生 作

    角 , — — 并 不 是 不 规 则 的 和 间 断 的 , 而 是 力 量 继 续 不 断 地 增

    长 , 数 量 继 续 不 断 地 增 加 的 。 我 们 可 以 看 到 , 一 个 年 轻 国 家

    最 早 的 智 力 活 动 是 研 究 它 的 法 律 。 一 当 人 们 的 智 力 第 一 次 有

    意 识 地 努 力 要 作 出 概 括 时 , 首 先 包 括 在 一 般 通 则 和 包 含 丰 富

    的 公 式 中 的 是 日 常 生 活 中 的 事 务 。 年 轻 共 和 国 集 中 一 切 精 力

    专 心 从 事 法 学 研 究 的 声 势 , 在 开 始 时 是 毫 无 限 制 的 ; 但 不 久

    就 终 止 了 。 智 力 不 再 为 法 律 所 垄 断 。 早 晨 集 合 在 伟 大 罗 马 法

    学 专 家 那 里 的 听 众 减 少 了 。 英 国 ‘ 法 学 院 ’ 的 学 生 数 从 几 千

    人 减 少 到 了 几 百 人 。 艺 术 、 文 学 、 科 学 和 政 治 在 全 国 的 知 识

    界 取 得 了 它 们 的 分 额 ; 而 法 律 学 的 实 践 则 限 制 于 一 个 职 业 界

    的 范 围 之 内 , 虽 然 并 不 是 有 限 的 或 是 无 关 重 要 的 , 但 它 所 以

    能 有 吸 引 力 , 一 方 面 是 由 于 这 一 门 科 学 的 固 有 的 引 人 之 处 , 另

    一 方 面 亦 是 由 于 因 此 而 可 能 获 得 的 酬 报 。 这 一 系 列 的 变 化 在

    罗 马 甚 至 比 在 英 国 表 现 得 更 为 显 著 。 到 共 和 国 时 代 的 末 期 , 法

    律 是 除 了 有 将 军 的 特 殊 天 才 的 人 以 外 一 切 有 才 干 的 人 的 唯 一

    天 地 。 但 是 到 了 奥 古 斯 多 时 代 , 一 个 新 的 智 力 发 展 的 阶 段 开

    始 了 , 正 象 我 们 的 伊 利 萨 伯 时 代 开 始 一 样 。 我 们 都 知 道 它 在

    诗 歌 和 散 文 上 的 成 就 ; 但 必 须 说 明 , 有 些 迹 象 表 明 在 其 装 饰

    文 学 的 光 辉 灿 烂 以 外 , 它 已 到 了 在 自 然 科 学 中 作 出 新 征 服 的前 夕 。 但 是 到 这 个 时 候 , 罗 马 国 家 中 智 力 的 历 史 已 不 再 和 智

    力 进 步 到 这 时 为 止 所 追 求 的 道 路 平 行 前 进 。 罗 马 文 学 严 格 讲

    起 来 只 能 说 是 昙 花 一 现 , 它 在 各 式 各 样 的 影 响 下 突 然 终 止 , 这

    些 影 响 虽 然 有 一 部 分 是 可 以 探 索 的 , 但 在 这 里 加 以 分 析 是 不

    适 当 的 。 古 代 的 知 识 界 有 力 地 被 推 囘 到 其 老 路 上 去 , 而 法 律

    又 成 为 专 属 于 天 才 的 正 常 范 围 , 正 和 罗 马 人 把 哲 学 和 诗 歌 蔑

    视 为 一 种 幼 稚 民 族 的 玩 具 的 时 代 一 样 。 在 帝 政 时 代 , 使 一 个

    有 天 才 的 人 从 事 于 法 学 专 家 的 事 业 的 外 因 , 其 性 质 究 竟 是 怎

    样 的 , 要 理 解 这 一 点 , 最 好 的 方 法 是 考 虑 他 在 选 择 职 业 时 所

    面 对 的 抉 择 。 他 可 能 成 为 一 个 修 辞 学 教 师 , 一 个 边 境 哨 地 的

    司 令 官 , 或 是 一 个 颂 词 的 职 业 著 者 。 此 外 , 能 容 纳 他 的 仅 有

    的 现 实 生 活 中 的 其 他 职 业 是 法 律 职 业 。 通 过 了 这 , 可 以 到 达

    财 富 、 名 誉 、 官 职 、 君 主 的 会 议 室 — — 甚 至 可 以 达 到 王 位 的

    本 身 。 ” (“ 剑 桥 论丛 ” , 1 8 5 6 年)

    学 习 法 律 学 的 报 酬 是 巨 大 的 , 所 以 在 帝 国 境 内 到 处 都 有

    法 律 学 校 , 甚 至 在 形 而 上 学 的 领 域 内 也 是 如 此 。 虽 然 帝 国 首

    都 迁 到 拜 占 廷 显 而 易 见 地 推 动 了 它 在 东 方 的 研 究 工 作 , 但 法

    律 学 从 没 有 能 推 翻 和 它 相 竞 争 的 各 种 学 问 。 它 所 用 的 语 言 是

    拉 丁 , 这 是 帝 国 东 半 部 的 一 种 外 来 方 言 。 只 是 对 西 方 我 们 可

    以 说 , 法 律 不 但 是 有 野 心 的 和 有 抱 负 的 人 的 精 神 食 粮 , 并 且

    是 一 切 智 力 活 动 的 唯 一 滋 养 。 对 于 罗 马 的 知 识 界 , 希 腊 哲 学

    仅 不 过 是 一 个 短 促 的 风 尚 , 并 且 当 新 的 东 方 首 都 建 立 , 帝 国

    分 裂 为 二 , 西 方 各 省 就 比 以 前 更 明 白 地 和 希 腊 纯 理 论 相 分 离 , 更 明 白 地 专 心 于 法 律 学 。 当 他 们 这 样 不 再 听 命 于 希 腊 人 , 并

    开 始 自 行 建 立 其 神 学 时 , 这 个 神 学 经 证 明 渗 透 了 法 律 的 观 念

    并 在 其 措 辞 中 用 了 法 律 的 用 语 。 当 然 , 在 西 方 神 学 中 , 这 个

    法 律 的 基 体 是 十 分 深 厚 的 。 一 套 新 的 希 腊 理 论 , 即 亚 里 士 多

    德 哲 学 , 后 来 流 入 西 方 , 并 且 几 乎 完 全 掩 没 了 土 著 的 学 理 。 但

    到 “ 宗 教 改 革 ” 、 它 部 分 地 摆 脱 了 它 们 的 影 响 时 , 它 立 即 用“ 法 律 ” 来 补 足 它 们 的 地 位 。 在 喀 尔 文 ( C a l v i n ) 和 阿 明 尼 阿斯 ( A r m i n i u s ) 两 种 宗 教 体 系 中 究 竟 哪 一 个 有 更 显 著 的 法 律性 质 , 这 是 很 难 说 的 。

    罗 马 人 的 特 殊 的 “ 契 约 ” 法 律 学 对 现 代 “ 法 律 ” 中 相 当部 门 所 发 生 的 巨 大 影 响 , 似 不 属 于 本 文 范 围 , 应 属 于 成 熟 的法 律 学 史 。 这 种 影 响 要 直 到 波 罗 诺 学 派 创 立 了 现 代 欧 洲 法 律学 后 才 感 觉 到 。 但 罗 马 人 在 帝 国 衰 亡 前 曾 把 “ 契 约 ” 概 念 发展 得 非 常 完 全 的 事 实 , 在 比 上 述 时 期 更 早 的 一 个 时 期 就 具 有重 要 性 。 我 曾 不 止 一 次 地 说 过 , “ 封 建 制 度 ” 是 古 代 蛮 族 习 惯和 罗 马 法 的 一 种 混 合 物 ; 其 他 任 何 解 释 都 是 不 足 信 的 , 甚 至是 不 可 领 会 的 。 封 建 时 代 最 早 的 社 会 形 式 和 原 始 人 类 到 处 结合 在 其 中 的 一 般 社 团 很 少 区 别 。 一 个 “ 封 地 ” 是 一 些 财 产 权利 和 人 身 权 利 不 可 分 解 地 混 合 在 一 起 的 一 种 有 机 的 、 完 全 的结 合 。 它 和 一 个 印 度 “ 村 落 共 产 体 ” 以 及 一 个 苏 格 兰 高原部族 社 团 有 许 多 共 同 之 处 。 但 封 建 社 会 仍 具 有 某 种 现 象 ,是我们 从 文 明 初 创 者 自 发 形 成 的 社 团 中 找 不 到 的 。 真 正 的古代共产 体 不 是 由 明 白 的 规 定 而 是 依 靠 情 绪 , 或 者 , 我 们 应 该 说 , 依靠 本 能 , 结 合 在 一 起 的 ; 凡 是 新 来 者 都 虚 假 地 装 做 有 血 统 关系 而 就 在 这 个 本 能 的 范 围 之 内 被 纳 入 社 团 的 。 但 是 最 早 的 封建 社 会 既 不 是 仅 仅 由 情 绪 结 合 起 来 的 , 也 不 是 靠 一 种 拟 制 来补 充 其 成 员 的 。 把 他 们 结 合 在 一 起 的 纽 带 是 “ 契 约 ” , 他 们 用和 新 伙 伴 缔 结 一 个 契 约 的 方 法 来 获 得 新 伙 伴 。 封 建 主 和 属 臣的 关 系 原 来 是 用 明 白 的 定 约 来 确 定 的 , 一 个 愿 意 把 自 己 用推荐或分封土地 的 方 法 接 纳 在 同 族 之 内 的 人 , 对 于 他 被 接 纳 的各 项 条 件 是 明 白 了 解 的 。 因 此 , 把 封 建 制 度 和 原 始 民 族 纯 粹惯 例 加 以 区 分 的 主 要 东 西 是 “ 契 约 ” 在 它 们 中 间 所 占 的 范 围 。封 建 主 具 有 一 个 宗 法 家 长 的 许 多 特 点 , 但 他 的 特 权 为 多 种 多样 确 立 的 习 惯 所 限 制 , 这 种 习 惯 来 自 分 封 土 地 时 经 过 同 意 的

    明 确 的 条 件 。 使 我 们 不 能 把 封 建 社 会 和 真 正 的 古 代 社 会 归 属

    一 类 , 其 主 要 的 不 同 之 点 就 是 由 此 而 来 的 。 封 建 社 会 比 较 持

    久 , 比 较 多 种 多 样 ; 它 们 所 以 持 久 , 是 因 为 明 确 的 规 定 比 本

    能 的 习 惯 不 容 易 毁 灭 , 其 所 以 多 种 多 样 , 是 因 为 它 们 所 根 据

    的 契 约 是 依 照 交 出 或 授 与 土 地 的 人 的 具 体 情 况 和 具 体 要 求 而

    调 节 的 。 这 最 后 的 理 由 可 以 用 来 说 明 那 在 我 们 中 间 流 行 的 关

    于 现 代 社 会 渊 源 的 通 俗 意 见 是 如 何 大 大 地 需 要 修 正 。 人 们 常

    说 , 现 代 文 明 的 外 貌 所 以 如 此 地 不 规 则 和 多 样 化 , 主 要 是 由

    于 日 耳 曼 民 族 的 丰 富 而 易 变 的 天 才 , 这 和 罗 马 帝 国 那 种 迟 钝的 常 规 是 完 全 不 同 的 。 真 相 是 , 罗 马 帝 国 把 法 律 概 念 遗传给了 现 代 社 会 , 而 这 种 不 规 则 正 是 来 自 那 些 法 律 概 念 ; 如 果 说蛮 族 的 习 惯 和 制 度 有 一 个 特 点 比 另 一 个 特 点 更 为 显 著 , 那 末这 个 特 点 就 是 它 们 的 极 端 一 致 。

    第 十 章   侵 权 和 犯 罪 的 早 期 史

    “ 条 顿 法 典 ” ( T e u t o n i c   C o d e s ) 包 括 我 们 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克逊 的 法 典 在 内 , 是 流 传 到 我 们 手 里 的 唯 一 的 古 代 世 俗 法 律 , 关于 它 原 来 的 规 模 我 们 可 以 形 成 一 个 明 确 的 概 念 。 虽 然 罗 马 和希 腊 法 典 的 现 存 片 断 足 以 证 明 它 们 的 一 般 性 质 , 但 残 存 的 数

    量 不 多 , 还 不 够 使 我 们 十 分 确 切 地 知 道 它 们 到 底 有 多 大 的 篇

    幅 以 及 各 个 部 分 相 互 的 比 重 。 但 大 体 而 论 , 所 有 已 知 的 古 代

    法 的 蒐 集 都 有 一 个 共 同 的 特 点 使 它 们 和 成 熟 的 法 律 学 制 度 显

    然 不 同 。 最 显 著 的 差 别 在 于 刑 法 和 民 法 所 占 的 比 重 。 在 日 耳

    曼 法 典 中 , 民 事 部 分 的 法 律 比 刑 事 部 分 范 围 要 狭 小 得 多 。 德

    累 科 法 典 科 处 血 刑 的 传 统 , 似 乎 表 明 它 也 有 同 样 的 特 点 。 只

    有 在 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” ( 这 是 一 个 具 有 伟 大 法 律 天 才 和 一 个 温 良

    风 俗 的 社 会 的 产 物 ) 中 , 它 的 民 事 法 律 才 有 些 象 其 现 代 的 先

    例 ; 但 是 损 害 救 济 方 式 所 占 的 地 位 , 虽 然 不 是 异 常 巨 大 , 但

    却 是 相 当 大 的 。 我 以 为 可 以 这 样 说 , 法 典 愈 古 老 , 它 的 刑 事

    立 法 就 愈 详 细 、 愈 完 备 。 这 种 现 象 常 常 可 以 看 到 , 并 且 这 样

    解 释 无 疑 地 在 很 大 程 度 上 是 正 确 的 : 由 于 法 律 初 次 用 文 字 写

    成 时 , 社 会 中 经 常 发 生 强 暴 行 为 。 据 说 , 立 法 者 按 照 野 蛮 生

    活 中 某 一 类 事 件 发 生 次 数 的 多 少 以 分 配 其 工 作 的 比 重 。 但 我

    认 为 这 个 说 法 并 不 十 分 完 全 。 应 该 囘 想 一 下 , 在 古 代 的 蒐 集

    中 民 事 法 律 比 较 缺 少 是 和 本 文 中 所 讨 论 的 古 代 法 律 学 的 其 他特 征 相 一 致 的 。 文 明 社 会 所 施 行 的 法 律 的 民 事 部 分 , 有 十 分

    之 九 是 由 “ 人 法 ” 、 “ 财 产 和 继 承 法 ” 以 及 “ 契 约 法 ” 组 成 的 。

    但 是 很 显 然 , 当 我 们 越 接 近 社 会 的 萌 芽 时 代 , 这 一 切 法 律 学

    领 域 就 愈 缩 小 到 更 狭 小 的 范 围 之 内 。 既 然 一 切 身 分 形 式 都 共

    同 从 属 于 “ 父 权 ” 之 下 , 既 然 “ 妻 ” 对 其 “ 夫 ” 没 有 任 何 权

    利 , 子 对 其 父 也 没 有 任 何 权 利 , 以 及 婴 儿 “ 受 监 护 人 ” 对 作

    为 其 “ 监 护 人 ” 的 “ 宗 亲 ” , 也 没 有 任 何 权 利 , 这 个 等 于 是

    “ 身 分 法 ” 的 “ 人 法 ” 即 被 限 制 在 最 狭 小 的 限 度 内 。 同 样 地 ,

    有 关 “ 财 产 ” 和 “ 继 承 ” 的 规 定 决 不 会 很 多 的 , 既 然 土 地 和

    财 物 是 在 家 族 内 授 受 , 并 且 , 如 果 真 要 分 配 的 话 , 也 是 在 家

    族 的 范 围 内 进 行 的 。 但 是 , 古 代 民 法 中 最 大 的 缺 口 始 终 是 由

    于 缺 少 “ 契 约 ” 而 造 成 的 , 在 有 些 古 代 法 典 中 完 全 不 提 到

    “ 契 约 ” , 而 在 另 一 些 古 代 法 典 中 则 用 一 种 精 细 的 “ 宣 誓 ” 法

    律 来 代 替 “ 契 约 ” , 这 足 以 证 明 “ 契 约 ” 所 依 据 的 道 德 观 念 还

    没 有 成 熟 。 至 于 刑 法 , 则 并 没 有 同 样 的 使 它 贫 乏 的 理 由 , 因

    此 , 纵 使 我 们 不 应 冒 昧 地 宣 称 在 国 家 的 幼 年 时 代 总 是 一 个 无

    法 抑 制 的 强 暴 时 期 , 我 们 仍 旧 应 该 懂 得 为 什 么 刑 法 和 民 法 的

    现 代 关 系 竟 在 古 代 法 典 中 颠 倒 过 来 。

    我 曾 认 为 : 原 始 法 律 学 曾 以 近 代 所 不 知 道 的 优 先 给 与 ·

    ·

    罪 法 。 这 种 说 法 完 全 是 为 了 方 便 起 见 , 但 事 实 上 , 对 古 代 法

    典 的 仔 细 考 察 使 我 们 知 道 , 它 们 以 非 常 的 数 量 揭 示 的 法 律 并

    非 真 正 的 犯 罪 法 。 所 有 文 明 制 度 都 一 致 同 意 在 对 国 家 、 对 社

    会 所 犯 的 罪 行 和 对 个 人 所 犯 的 罪 行 之 间 , 应 该 有 所 区 别 , 这

    样 区 别 的 两 类 损 害 , 我 称 之 为 ·

    犯 ·

    罪 ( c l i m i n a ) 和 ·

    不 ·

    法 ·

    行 ·

    为( d e l i c t a ) , 虽 然 我 并 不 认 为 这 两 个 名 词 在 法 律 学 上 是 始 终 这样 一 致 应 用 的 。 古 代 社 会 的 刑 法 不 是 “ 犯 罪 ” 法 ; 这 是 “ 不

    法 行 为 ” 法 , 或 用 英 国 的 术 语 , 就 是 “ 侵 权 行 为 ” 法 。 被 害

    人 用 一 个 普 通 民 事 诉 讼 对 不 法 行 为 人 提 起 诉 讼 , 如 果 他 胜 诉 ,

    就 可 以 取 得 金 钱 形 式 的 损 害 补 偿 。 我 们 试 参 考 该 雅 士 在 “ 评

    释 ” 中 根 据 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 对 刑 事 法 律 学 所 作 的 讨 论 , 可 以

    看 到 , 在 罗 马 法 所 承 认 的 民 事 不 法 行 为 的 开 头 有 ·

    窃 ·

    盗 ·

    罪 ( F u r At u m ) 。 我 们 在 习 惯 上 认 为 专 属 于犯 ·

    罪 的 罪 行 被 完 全 认 为 是不

    · 法 ·

    行为 , 并 且 不 仅 是 窃 盗 , 甚 至 凌 辱 和 强 盗 , 也 被 法 学 专 家

    把 它 们 和 扰 害 、 文 字 诽 谤 及 口 头 诽 谤 联 系 在 一 起 。 所 有 这 一

    切 都 产 生 了 “ 债 ” 或 是 ·

    法 ·

    锁 , 并 都 可 以 用 金 钱 支 付 以 为 补 偿 。

    但 这 个 特 点 , 最 有 力 地 表 现 在 日 耳 曼 部 落 的 统 一 法 律 ( t h e  

    c o n s o l i d a t e d   L a w s   o f   G e r m a n i c   t r i b e s ) 中 。 它 们 对 杀 人罪 也 不 例 外 有 一 个 庞 大 的 用 金 钱 赔 偿 的 制 度 , 至 于 轻 微 损 害 ,

    除 少 数 例 外 , 亦 有 一 个 同 样 庞 大 的 金 钱 赔 偿 制 度 。 垦 布 尔 先

    生 ( M r . K e m b l e s ) 〔 在 “ 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊 ” ( A n g l o -

    S a x o n s ) 卷 一 , 第 1 7 7 页 中 〕 写 道 : “ 根 据 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊 法

    律 , 对 于 每 一 个 自 由 人 的 生 命 , 都 可 以 按 照 他 的 身 分 而 以 一

    定 金 钱 为 赔 偿 , 对 于 其 身 受 的 每 一 个 创 伤 , 对 于 他 的 民 权 、 荣

    誉 或 安 宁 所 造 成 的 几 乎 每 一 种 损 害 , 都 可 以 用 相 当 的 金 钱 为

    赔 偿 ; 金 额 按 照 偶 然 情 势 而 增 加 ” 。 这 些 和 解 费 明 显 地 被 认 为

    是 收 入 的 一 种 有 价 值 的 来 源 ; 一 套 高 度 复 杂 的 规 则 规 定 着 申

    请 它 们 的 权 利 和 负 担 它 们 的 责 任 ; 并 且 象 我 在 前 面 已 经 说 过

    的 那 样 , 如 果 它 们 在 所 属 的 人 死 亡 时 还 没 有 清 偿 , 它 们 常 根

    据 一 些 特 殊 的 规 定 而 遗 传 下 去 。 因 此 , 如 果 一 种 ·

    侵 ·

    权 ·

    行 ·

    为 或

    ·

    不 ·

    法 ·

    行 ·

    为 的 标 准 是 : 被 认 为 受 到 损 害 的 是 被 损 害 的 个 人 而 不是 “ 国 家 ” , 则 可 断 言 , 在 法 律 学 幼 年 时 代 , 公 民 赖 以 保 护 使

    不 受 强 暴 或 诈 欺 的 , 不 是 “ 犯 罪 法 ” 而 是 “ 侵 权 行 为 法 ” 。

    于 是 , 在 原 始 法 律 学 中 “ 侵 权 行 为 ” 被 大 量 地 扩 大 了 。 必

    须 说 明 , 原 始 法 律 学 也 涉 及 “ 罪 过 ” 。 对 于 条 顿 法 典 , 我 们 几

    乎 是 毋 庸 作 这 样 的 说 明 的 , 因 为 我 们 所 接 受 到 的 这 些 法 典 的

    形 式 , 是 经 基 督 教 立 法 者 编 纂 或 改 写 过 的 。 但 是 , 在 非 基 督

    教 的 古 代 法 律 中 , 对 于 某 类 行 为 和 不 行 为 也 往 往 因 为 违 背 了

    神 的 指 示 和 命 令 而 加 以 刑 罚 。 雅 典 “ 阿 勒 乌 柏 果 斯 元 老 院 ”

    ( S e n a t e   o f   A r e o p a g u s ) 所 适 用 的 法 律 也 许 是 一 个 特 殊 的宗 教 法 典 , 而 在 罗 马 , 显 然 从 很 早 的 时 期 起 , 教 长 法 律 学 就

    对 通 奸 罪 、 渎 神 罪 以 及 谋 杀 罪 加 以 刑 罚 。 因 此 , 在 雅 典 和 在

    罗 马 各 省 中 , 法 律 处 罚 ·

    罪 ·

    过 。 他 们 也 有 处 罚 ·

    侵 ·

    权 ·

    行 ·

    为 的 法 律 。

    触 犯 “ 上 帝 ” 的 罪 行 的 概 念 产 生 了 第 一 类 的 律 令 ; 触 犯 邻 居

    的 概 念 产 生 了 第 二 类 的 律 令 ; 但 触 犯 国 家 或 集 成 社 会 的 观 念 ,

    并 没 有 一 开 始 就 产 生 一 个 真 正 的 犯 罪 法 律 学 。

    但 是 我 们 不 能 就 因 而 假 定 , 对 国 家 做 出 不 法 行 为 这 样 一

    种 简 单 而 基 本 的 概 念 , 是 在 任 何 原 始 社 会 中 都 缺 乏 的 。 很 可

    能 在 最 初 阻 止 犯 罪 法 律 发 展 的 真 正 原 因 , 正 是 由 于 这 个 概 念

    被 理 解 得 很 清 楚 明 白 。 无 论 如 何 , 当 罗 马 社 会 认 为 它 本 身 受

    到 了 损 害 时 , 它 即 绝 对 按 照 字 面 地 类 推 适 用 当 一 个 个 人 受 到

    不 法 行 为 时 所 发 生 的 后 果 , 国 家 对 不 法 行 为 的 个 人 就 用 一 个

    单 一 行 为 来 报 复 。 其 结 果 是 , 在 共 和 国 的 幼 年 时 代 , 对 于 严

    重 妨 害 国 家 安 全 或 国 家 利 益 的 每 一 种 罪 行 , 都 由 立 法 机 关 制

    定 一 个 单 独 法 令 来 加 以 处 罚 。 这 就 是 对 于 一 个 ·

    犯 ·

    罪 ( c r i m e n )的 最 古 概 念 — —犯 ·

    罪 是 一 种 涉 及 重 要 结 果 的 行 为 , 对 于 这 种行 为 , 国 家 不 交 给 民 事 法 院 或 宗 教 法 院 审 判 , 而 专 对 犯 罪 者

    制 定 一 个特 ·

    别法 ·

    律 ( p r i v i l e g i u m ) 加 以 处 理 。 因 此 , 每 一 个 起

    诉 都 用 一 种 痛 苦 和 刑 罚 状 ( a   b i l l   o f   p a i n s   a n d   p e n a l At i e s ) 的 形 式 , 而 审 判 一 个 犯 人 ( c r i m i n a l ) 所 用 的 一 种 诉 讼 程序 是 完 全 非 常 的 、 完 全 非 正 规 的 、 完 全 离 既 定 的 规 则 和 固 定

    条 件 而 独 立 的 。 一 方 面 由 于 执 行 正 义 的 法 院 就 是 主 权 国 家 本

    身 , 另 一 方 面 由 于 不 可 能 把 规 定 的 或 禁 止 的 行 为 加 以 分 类 , 因

    此 , 在 这 个 时 代 中 , 就 没 有 任 何 的 犯 罪 ·

    法 ·

    律 、 任 何 的 犯 罪 法

    律 学 。 所 用 的 程 序 和 通 过 一 条 普 通 法 令 的 形 式 完 全 相 同 ; 它

    是 由 同 样 的 人 物 提 议 , 并 且 用 完 全 同 样 的 仪 式 来 进 行 的 。 可

    以 注 意 的 是 , 当 一 种 犯 罪 法 律 连 同 执 行 它 的 一 套 “ 法 院 ” 和

    官 员 们 在 后 来 出 现 时 , 旧 的 程 序 可 能 是 由 于 它 符 合 于 理 论 , 仍

    旧 严 格 地 适 用 着 ; 由 于 这 一 种 方 法 不 复 为 人 所 信 任 , 罗 马 人

    民 常 对 触 犯 国 家 尊 严 的 人 保 留 着 用 一 种 特 别 法 律 加 以 处 罚 的

    权 力 。 凡 是 古 典 派 的 学 者 都 能 知 道 , 雅 典 的 ·

    痛 ·

    苦 ·

    和 ·

    刑 ·

    罚 ·

    ( Cι σ α γ γ CKι α ) 正 是 完 全 同 样 地 , 在 正 式 法 院 成 立 后 还 继 续 存

    在 。 我 们 也 知 道 , 当 条 顿 民 族 的 自 由 人 集 会 立 法 时 , 他 们 也

    主 张 有 权 刑 罚 特 别 凶 残 的 罪 行 , 或 刑 罚 占 有 崇 高 地 位 的 犯 人

    所 犯 的 罪 行 。 具 有 这 种 性 质 的 , 是 “ 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊 国 会 ”

    ( A n g l o - S a x o n   W i t e n a g e m o t ) 的 刑 事 管 辖 权 。

    也 许 有 人 以 为 , 我 所 说 的 古 代 和 现 代 关 于 刑 法 观 念 上 所

    存 在 的 不 同 , 只 是 在 口 头 上 存 在 。 可 以 这 样 说 , 社 会 除 了 用

    立 法 的 方 法 来 处 罚 犯 罪 外 , 从 最 早 的 时 代 起 , 它 就 用 它 的 法

    院 来 进 行 干 预 , 强 迫 不 法 行 为 人 补 偿 其 不 法 行 为 。 如 果 它 是

    这 样 做 了 , 那 就 始 终 可 以 假 定 社 会 在 某 些 方 面 由 于 他 造 成 的罪 行 而 受 到 了 损 害 。 但 是 , 不 论 这 个 推 论 在 今 天 的 我 们 看 来是 如 何 严 格 , 它 是 否 真 正 由 原 始 古 代 的 人 们 所 作 出 , 依 旧 是

    一 个 疑 问 。 国 家 在 最 早 时 代 ·

    通 ·

    过 ·

    其 ·

    法 ·

    院 而 进 行 干 涉 , 很 少 是

    由 于 国 家 受 到 了 损 害 这 个 观 念 , 这 从 下 述 的 情 况 中 可 以 看 出 ,

    即 在 原 来 的 司 法 行 政 中 , 它 所 采 用 的 程 序 , 主 要 是 摹 仿 私 人

    生 活 中 可 能 要 做 的 一 系 列 的 行 为 , 即 人 们 在 生 活 中 发 生 了 争

    执 , 但 在 后 来 不 得 不 把 他 们 的 争 执 提 交 和 解 。 高 级 官 吏 谨 慎

    地 仿 效 着 临 时 被 召 唤 来 的 一 个 私 人 公 断 者 的 态 度 。

    为 了 要 表 明 这 个 说 法 不 仅 仅 是 一 种 幻 想 , 我 将 提 出 它 所

    依 据 的 证 据 。 我 们 所 知 道 的 最 古 的 司 法 程 序 是 罗 马 人 的 “ 誓

    金 法 律 诉 讼 ” ( L e g i s   A c t i o   S a c r a m e n t i ) , 所 有 后 期 的 罗 马“ 诉 讼 法 ” ( L a w   o f   A c t i o n s ) 都 是 从 它 发 展 来 的 。 该 雅 士曾 详 尽 地 描 述 它 的 仪 式 。 初 看 起 来 , 这 好 象 是 毫 无 意 义 甚 至荒 谬 的 , 但 稍 加 注 意 , 就 可 使 我 们 了 解 它 的 意 义 。

    涉 讼 的 标 的 一 般 认 为 是 应 该 存 缴 到 法 院 中 的 。 如 果 是 动

    产 , 就 用 原 物 。 如 果 是 不 动 产 , 就 以 碎 片 或 样 品 为 代 替 ; 例

    如 土 地 用 一 块 泥 , 房 屋 用 一 块 砖 作 代 表 。 在 该 雅 士 所 选 的 例

    子 中 , 诉 讼 是 为 了 一 个 奴 隶 。 当 诉 讼 开 始 时 , 原 告 手 持 一 竿

    前 进 , 这 一 根 竿 子 据 该 雅 士 的 说 明 是 象 征 着 一 支 枪 。 他 抓 住

    了 奴 隶 , 并 用 下 述 语 句 主 张 他 的 权 利 , “我根据公民法的规定主张这个人是我所有的 ” ( H u n c   e g o   h o m i n e m   e x   J u r e   Q u i r i t i u m   m e u m   e s s e   d i c o   s e c u n d u m   s u a m   c a u s a m   s i c u t   d i x i ) ; 接 着 他 用 竿 触 他 , 说 , “现在把枪放在他身上 ” ( E c c e   t i b i   V i n d i c t a m   i m p o s u i ) 。 被 告 进 行 着 同样 的 一 系 列 的 行 为 和 动 作 。 这 时 裁 判 官 进 而 干 涉 , 他 吩 咐 诉讼 两 造 放 手 , “ 放开枪 ” ( M i t t i t e   a m b o   h o m i n e m ) 。 他 们 服从 了 , 原 告 就 要 求 被 告 提 出 其 干 涉 的 理 由 , “ 我请求这物件,你有什么理由主张权利 ” ( P o s t u l o   a n n e   d i c a s   g u a J  e x c a u s a J  v i n d i c a v e r i s ) , 对 这 个 问 题 所 给 与 的 回 答 是 一 个 新 的权 利 的 主 张 , “我已主张这物件是我所有,所以把枪放在他身上 ” ( J u s   p e r e g i   s i c u t   v i n d i c t a m   i m p o s u i ) 。 到 这 时 , 第一 个 请 求 人 提 出 一 笔 称 为 “ 誓 金 ” 的 金 钱 , 作 为 他 提 出 案 件正 当 的 赌 注 , 并 说 , “你的权利主张没有根据,我愿以誓金决胜负 ” ( Q u a n d o   t u   i n j u r i a J  p r o v o c a s t i , D Er i s   S a c r a m e n A

    t o   t e   p r o v o c o ) , 被 告 于 是 说 “ 我也给 ” ( S i m i l i t e r   e g o t e ) , 接 受 赌 注 。 这 以 后 的 程 序 已 不 再 是 一 种 正 式 需 要 的 了 , 但 须 注 意 , 裁 判 官 从 誓 金 中 提 取 保 证 金 , 这 些 保 证 金 常 被 解 入国 库 。

    这 是 每 一 个 古 罗 马 诉 讼 的 必 要 的 开 端 。 有 人 认 为 这 就 是

    一 个 戏 剧 化 的 “ 公 道 的 起 源 ” , 我 以 为 , 这 个 意 见 是 很 难 不 予

    同 意 的 。 两 个 带 武 器 的 人 为 了 某 种 引 起 纠 纷 的 财 产 而 争 吵 着 。

    裁 判 官 ,一个因恭敬谨慎和功绩而受尊敬的人 ( v i r   p i e t a t e

      g r a v i s ) , 恰 巧 经 过 , 居 间 要 求 停 止 争 执 。 争 吵 的 人 就 把 情况 告 诉 他 , 同 意 由 他 公 断 , 他 们 一 致 同 意 失 败 的 一 方 除 了 放 弃 争 执 的 标 的 物 外 , 并 应 以 一 定 数 量 的 金 钱 给 付 公 断 八 , 作 为 麻 烦 和 时 间 上 损 失 的 酬 报 。 如 果 不 是 由 于 一 个 意 外 的 巧 合,该 雅 士 所 描 写 的 一 个 “ 法 律 诉 讼 ” 中 必 要 的 诉 讼 程 序 , 实 质

    上 是 和 荷 马 所 描 写 的 给 “ 火 及 金 属 工 作 之 神 ” ( G o d H e p h Es t u s ) 铸 造 为 亚 济 里 斯 盾 牌 的 第 一 格 ( F i r s t C o m Ap a r t m e n t   o f   t h e   S h i l e d   o f   A c h i l l e s ) 的 两 个 主 题 之 一完 全 相 同 , 则 这 个 解 释 将 不 象 它 表 面 上 那 样 地 可 信 。 在 荷 马所 描 写 的 审 判 剧 内 , 似 乎 为 了 特 意 要 表 明 原 始 社 会 的 特 证 , 争

    议 不 是 为 了 财 产 , 而 是 为 了 一 个 杀 人 罪 的 和 解 费 。 一 个 人 说

    他 已 经 付 了 , 另 一 个 人 说 他 从 来 没 有 收 到 过 。 但 是 使 这 幅 图

    画 成 为 古 罗 马 实 践 的 复 本 的 细 节 就 是 指 定 要 交 给 法 官 的 酬

    金 。 两 个 塔 仑 ( t a l e n t ) 的 黄 金 放 在 中 间 , 这 些 黄 金 要 付 给 那个 能 把 判 决 的 理 由 解 释 得 使 听 众 感 到 极 为 满 意 的 人 。 这 个 数

    额 , 和 “ 誓 金 ” 的 细 小 相 比 , 显 得 十 分 巨 大 , 这 在 我 看 来 , 表

    示 着 变 动 中 的 惯 例 和 已 经 巩 固 为 法 律 的 惯 例 之 间 的 差 别 。 这

    被 诗 人 认 作 是 英 雄 时 代 城 市 生 活 中 一 个 显 著 的 、 特 有 的 、 但

    仍 旧 只 是 偶 然 的 特 点 而 加 以 介 绍 的 一 幕 , 在 民 事 诉 讼 的 历 史

    开 始 时 , 就 被 固 定 而 成 为 一 种 正 式 的 、 通 常 的 诉 讼 手 续 。 因

    此 , 很 自 然 , 在 一 个 “ 法 律 诉 讼 ” 中 , “ 法 官 ” 的 酬 劳 会 减 低

    到 一 个 合 理 的 数 额 , 并 且 不 再 用 公 决 的 方 法 把 它 公 断 给 许 多

    公 断 人 中 的 一 个 人 , 而 视 为 当 然 地 把 它 付 给 裁 判 官 所 代 表 的

    国 家 。 但 我 毫 不 怀 疑 , 荷 马 如 此 生 动 地 加 以 描 写 并 由 该 雅 士

    用 了 比 平 常 粗 劣 的 术 语 精 美 得 多 的 术 语 来 描 写 的 这 些 事 件 ,

    在 实 质 上 它 们 的 意 义 是 完 全 一 致 的 ; 为 了 肯 定 这 个 见 解 , 应

    该 附 加 说 明 , 许 多 观 察 现 代 欧 洲 最 早 司 法 惯 例 的 观 察 者 都 认

    为 “ 法 院 ” 加 于 罪 人 的 罚 金 原 来 就 是 誓 金 , “ 国 家 ” 并 不 因 为

    被 告 对 它 做 了 任 何 不 法 行 为 而 取 得 和 解 费 , 但 从 给 与 原 告 的

    赔 偿 中 取 得 一 分 作 为 时 间 和 麻 烦 的 公 平 代 价 。 垦 布 尔 先 生 明

    白 地 认 为 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊 的 b a n n u m 或 f r e d u m 具 有 这 种 性质 。

    古 代 法 律 还 提 供 了 其 他 证 据 , 证 明 最 古 的 司 法 官 吏 模 仿着 私 人 争 执 中 人 们 的 可 能 行 为 。 在 决 定 陪 偿 损 害 时 , 他 们 以

    在 该 案 件 的 情 况 下 一 个 被 害 人 可 能 要 采 取 报 复 的 程 度 作 为 他

    们 的 指 南 。 这 就 说 明 了 为 什 么 古 代 法 律 对 于 现 行 犯 或 犯 罪 后

    不 久 被 捕 的 犯 人 以 及 经 过 相 当 时 间 后 被 捕 的 犯 人 处 以 很 不 同

    的 刑 罚 的 原 故 。 在 古 罗 马 的 “ 盗 窃 法 ” 中 有 几 个 有 关 这 个 特

    点 的 奇 怪 例 证 。 “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 似 将 “ 盗 窃 罪 ” 分 为 “ 显 然

    的 ” 和 “ 非 显 然 的 ” 两 种 , 并 根 据 罪 行 归 类 的 不 同 而 处 以 显

    著 不 同 的 刑 罚 。 “ 显 然 的 窃 盗 ” 是 指 在 行 窃 的 屋 子 里 被 捕 的 人

    或 是 携 带 赃 物 向 安 全 处 所 逃 避 中 被 捕 的 人 ; 如 果 他 原 来 是 一

    个 奴 隶 , “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 判 处 他 死 刑 , 如 果 他 是 一 个 自 由 人 ,

    “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 判 处 他 为 财 产 所 有 人 的 奴 隶 。 “ 非 显 然 的 窃

    盗 ” 是 指 在 上 述 以 外 其 他 任 何 情 况 下 被 发 现 的 人 ; 对 这 一 类

    的 罪 人 , 旧 法 典 只 是 简 单 地 要 求 他 双 倍 偿 囘 他 所 偷 窃 的 价 值 。

    在 该 雅 士 时 代 , “ 十 二 铜 表 法 ” 对 “ 显 然 的 窃 盗 ” 的 过 度 严 酷 ,

    大 大 减 轻 了 , 但 是 法 律 仍 维 持 旧 的 原 则 , 处 以 四 倍 于 偷 窃 价

    值 的 罚 金 。 至 于 “ 非 显 然 的 窃 盗 ” 则 仍 旧 继 续 给 付 双 倍 。 古

    代 立 法 者 无 疑 地 认 为 , 如 果 让 被 害 的 财 产 所 有 人 自 己 处 理 , 则

    在 他 盛 怒 之 下 所 拟 加 的 刑 罚 必 将 和 窃 盗 在 一 个 相 当 时 期 后 发

    觉 时 , 他 所 能 满 意 的 刑 罚 , 完 全 不 同 ; 法 律 刑 罚 的 等 级 就 是

    根 据 这 个 考 虑 而 调 整 的 。 这 里 边 的 原 则 和 盎 格 鲁 - 撒 克 逊 及

    其 他 日 耳 曼 法 典 所 遵 循 的 原 则 完 全 相 同 , 这 些 法 典 规 定 人 赃

    并 获 的 窃 盗 应 当 场 绞 杀 或 斩 首 , 但 对 于 追 捕 已 经 中 断 而 仍 把

    他 杀 死 的 人 , 则 规 定 要 处 以 杀 人 罪 的 刑 罚 。 古 代 法 律 中 的 这

    些 区 别 有 力 地 证 明 一 个 改 进 的 和 一 个 粗 糙 的 法 律 学 之 间 的 距

    离 。 现 代 司 法 行 政 者 公 认 为 最 感 困 难 的 , 是 对 属 于 同 一 专 门类 型 的 各 种 罪 行 , 把 它 们 的 犯 罪 程 度 加 以 区 别 。 我 们 很 容 易

    说 一 个 人 犯 了 过 失 杀 人 罪 、 窃 盗 罪 或 重 婚 罪 , 但 如 果 要 确 定

    他 所 犯 道 德 罪 过 的 程 度 , 从 而 确 定 他 所 应 受 刑 罚 的 轻 重 , 则

    常 常 是 最 感 困 难 的 。 如 果 我 们 企 图 正 确 地 解 决 这 个 问 题 , 我

    们 在 决 疑 上 , 或 在 动 机 的 分 析 上 , 必 将 遇 到 困 难 ; 因 此 , 我

    们 今 日 的 法 律 就 开 始 了 一 种 日 益 增 长 的 倾 向 , 尽 可 能 对 这 问

    题 不 在 现 实 法 上 加 以 规 定 。 在 法 兰 西 , 当 陪 审 团 认 为 有 罪 时 ,

    究 竟 这 个 罪 是 否 有 可 以 减 轻 的 情 况 , 听 由 陪 审 团 加 以 决 定 ; 在

    英 格 兰 , 准 许 法 官 对 于 刑 罚 的 选 择 有 几 乎 无 限 的 伸 缩 范 围 ; 所

    有 的 国 家 都 对 误 用 法 律 保 留 着 叫 做 “ 赦 免 特 权 ” 的 一 种 最 后

    补 救 办 法 , 这 种 权 力 一 般 都 归 “ 元 首 ” ( C h i e f   M a g i s t r a t e ) 掌握 。 很 奇 怪 , 原 始 时 代 的 人 们 很 少 受 到 这 些 踌 躇 的 若 恼 , 他

    们 完 全 确 信 被 害 人 的 冲 动 是 他 有 权 要 求 报 复 的 正 当 标 准 , 并

    且 他 们 正 确 地 摹 仿 他 情 感 的 升 降 以 确 定 他 们 的 量 刑 标 准 。 我

    希 望 能 够 这 样 说 , 他 们 的 立 法 方 法 是 已 过 时 效 的 。 但 有 些 现

    代 法 律 制 度 , 在 遇 到 严 重 不 法 行 为 时 , 承 认 不 法 行 为 者 在 当

    场 被 捕 时 其 所 受 被 害 人 过 度 的 惩 罚 是 有 正 当 理 由 的 — — 这 一

    种 宽 纵 , 虽 然 在 表 面 上 看 来 似 乎 是 可 以 理 解 的 , 但 据 我 看 来 ,

    在 实 际 上 是 根 据 于 一 种 很 低 微 的 道 德 观 念 。

    我 曾 说 过 , 最 后 引 导 古 代 社 会 形 成 一 个 真 正 犯 罪 法 律 学

    的 理 由 , 是 非 常 简 单 的 。 国 家 自 以 为 是 受 到 损 害 了 , “ 人 民 议

    会 ” 就 用 伴 随 着 立 法 行 为 的 同 一 行 动 直 接 打 击 犯 人 。 最 古 犯

    罪 法 院 只 是 立 法 机 关 的 一 部 分 或 委 员 会 — — 虽 然 在 现 代 并 不

    完 全 是 如 此 , 我 将 有 机 会 指 出 — — 在 古 代 世 界 , 确 实 是 如 此

    的 。 无 论 如 何 , 这 是 最 大 的 两 个 古 国 的 法 律 史 所 指 出 的 结 论 ,在 一 个 情 况 中 是 相 当 清 楚 的 , 而 在 另 一 个 情 况 中 是 绝 对 明 白

    的 。 雅 典 的 原 始 刑 法 把 犯 罪 的 惩 罚 一 部 分 委 托 给 “ 执 政 官 ”

    ( A r c h o n s ) 作 为侵权行为 而 加 以 处 罚 , 一 部 分 委 托 给 “ 阿 勒乌 柏 果 斯 元 老 院 ” , 作 为 罪 过 而 加 以 处 罚 。 这 两 个 管 辖 权 在 最

    后 都 移 转 给 “ 希 黎 亚 ” ( H e l i Ea ) 即 平 民 高 等 法 院 ( t h e   H i g h   C o u r t   o f   P o p u l a r   J u s t i c e ) , 而 “ 执 政 官 ” 和 “ 阿 勒 乌柏 果 斯 ” 的 职 能 便 成 为 只 是 行 政 的 或 竟 完 全 无 意 义 的 了 。 但

    “ 希 黎 亚 ” 只 是 “ 议 会 ” 的 一 个 古 字 ; 古 典 时 代 的 “ 希 黎 亚 ”

    只 是 为 了 司 法 目 的 而 召 集 的 “ 人 民 议 会 ” , 著 名 的 雅 典 “ 迪 卡

    斯 德 黎 ” ( D i k a s t e r i e s ) 只 是 它 的 一 部 分 或 是 陪 审 官 。 在 罗 马 ,也 发 生 过 相 应 的 变 更 , 这 更 容 易 加 以 解 释 , 因 为 罗 马 人 把 他

    们 的 试 验 限 于 刑 法 , 他 们 和 雅 典 人 不 同 , 并 不 使 普 通 法 院 既

    有 民 事 的 又 有 刑 事 的 管 辖 权 。 罗 马 犯 罪 法 律 学 的 历 史 开 始 于

    古 “ 平 民 法 院 ” ( J u d i c i a   P o p u l i ) , 据 说 是 由 国 王 主 持 的 。 这

    些 全 然 是 在 立 法 形 式 下 对 大 罪 人 的 庄 严 审 判 。 但 似 乎 从 一 个

    很 早 的 时 期 起 , “ 民 会 ” 有 时 把 它 的 犯 罪 管 辖 权 委 托 一 个 “ 审

    问 处 ” ( Q u Es t i o ) 或 “ 委 员 会 ” , 它 和 “ 议 会 ” 的 关 系 , 正 和

    “ 众 议 院 ” 的 一 个 “ 委 员 会 ” 与 “ 议 院 ” 本 身 的 关 系 一 样 , 只

    是 罗 马 的 “ 委 员 ” 或 “ 审 问 官 ” ( Q u Es t o r e s ) 不 仅 对 “ 民

    全 ” 提 送 ·

    报 ·

    告 , 并 且 也 行 使 该 团 体 本 身 习 惯 上 行 使 的 一 切 权

    力 , 甚 至 包 括 对 “ 被 告 人 ” 判 刑 。 这 样 的 一 个 “ 审 问 处 ” 只

    被 指 定 审 判 一 种 特 殊 犯 人 , 但 并 没 有 规 定 不 许 可 二 个 或 三 个

    “ 审 问 处 ” 在 同 时 进 行 审 判 ; 很 可 能 , 当 有 几 件 对 社 会 的 严 重

    不 法 案 件 同 时 发 生 时 , 有 几 个 “ 审 问 处 ” 在 同 时 受 到 委 派 。 也

    有 迹 象 表 明 , 有 时 这 些 “ 审 问 处 ” 非 常 近 似 我 们 “ ·

    常 ·

    设 委 员会 ” ( S t a n d i n g   C o m m i t t e e s ) 的 性 质 , 因 为 它 们 是 定 期 委 任

    的 , 不 必 等 待 某 种 严 重 犯 罪 行 为 的 发 生 。 在 很 古 的 时 代 的 议

    事 录 中 被 提 到 过 的 , 旧 的 “ 弑 亲 审 问 官 ” ( Q u Es t o r e s   P a r r i Ac i d i ) 有 权 审 判 ( 或 如 有 的 人 认 为 的 那 样 , 有 权 搜 索 和 审 判 )一 切 弑 亲 和 谋 杀 案 件 , 他 们 似 乎 是 正 规 地 每 年 选 派 的 ; 而 审判 对 共 和 国 有 严 重 危 害 的 二 人 委 员 会 或 “ 叛 逆 二 人 委 员 会 ” ( D u u m v i r i   P e r d u e l l i o n i s ) , 大 多 数 著 者 也 相 信 是 定 期 指 派

    的 。 把 这 些 权 力 委 派 给 这 些 官 吏 , 使 我 们 又 前 进 了 一 步 。 不

    再 是 在 对 国 家 犯 罪 发 生 时 , 才 被 委 派 , 而 是 在 有 ·

    可 ·

    能 发 生 时 ,

    就 已 具 有 一 般 的 、 虽 然 是 暂 时 的 审 判 权 。 这 时 已 很 接 近 一 种

    正 规 的 犯 罪 法 律 学 , 这 也 可 以 从 “ 弑 亲 ” 和 “ 判 逆 ” 这 些 一

    般 用 语 上 显 示 出 来 , 这 些 用 语 标 志 着 已 临 近 彷 彿 是 犯 罪 分 类

    的 那 种 东 西 。

    但 真 正 的 犯 罪 法 要 到 纪 元 前 1 4 9 年 才 开 始 产 生 , 当 时 古

    尔 潘 尼 斯 · 披 梭 ( L . C a l p u r n i u s   P i s o ) 实 行 了 所 谓 “ 古 尔潘 尼 亚 贪 污 律 ” ( L e x   C a l p u r n i a   d e   R e p e t u n d i s ) 的 制 定

    法 。 这 个 法 律 适 用 于 有 关 盗 用 金 钱 ( R e p e t u n d a r u m   P e c u A

    n i a r u m ) 的 案 件 , 这 就 是 , 各 “ 省 民 ” ( P r o v i n c i a l s ) 对 总 督

    ( G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l ) 不 正 当 征 收 的 金 钱 有 偿 还 的 请 求 权 , 但

    这 个 制 定 法 的 最 大 和 永 久 重 要 性 在 于 它 建 立 了 第 一 个 “ 永 久

    审 问 处 ” ( Q u Es t i o   P e r p e t u a ) 。 一 个 “ 永 久 审 问 处 ” 是 一 个

    ·

    永 ·

    久 的 委 员 会 , 和 那 些 临 时 的 以 及 那 些 暂 时 的 是 有 区 别 的 。 它

    是 一 个 正 规 的 刑 事 法 院 , 它 的 存 在 从 创 设 它 的 制 定 法 通 过 时

    候 起 , 一 直 继 续 到 废 弃 它 的 另 一 个 制 定 法 通 过 时 候 为 止 。 它

    的 成 员 不 是 象 较 早 的 “ 审 问 处 ” 的 成 员 那 样 特 别 任 命 的 , 而是 在 组 成 它 的 法 律 中 规 定 由 特 种 法 官 中 选 任 并 按 照 明 确 的 规

    定 进 行 更 换 。 它 有 权 审 理 的 罪 行 也 是 在 条 例 中 明 白 规 定 和 明

    白 下 定 义 的 , 新 的 “ 审 问 处 ” 有 权 在 将 来 审 判 一 切 人 , 如 果

    他 的 行 为 符 合 于 法 律 所 规 定 的 犯 罪 的 定 义 。 因 此 , 它 是 一 个

    正 规 的 犯 罪 司 法 机 关 , 行 使 一 种 真 正 的 刑 事 法 律 学 。

    因 此 , 原 始 犯 罪 法 史 可 分 为 四 个 阶 段 。 我 们 可 以 了 解 犯罪 的 概 念 和不法行为或侵权行为以及罪过 的 概 念 是 有 区 别的 , 在 犯 罪 的 概 念 中 包 括 着 对 国 家 或 社 会 集 体 所 加 损 害 的 概 念 , 我 们 首 先 发 现 的 是 , 共 和 国 按 照 这 概 念 的 字 面 意 义 由 它 自 己 直 接 干 预 或 由 它 用 单 独 行 为 对 那 些 损 害 国 家 的 人 给 予 报

    复 。 这 是 我 们 的 出 发 点 ; 每 一 个 公 诉 状 就 是 一 个 痛 苦 和 刑 罚

    状 , 这 是 一 个 特 别 法 律 , 指 明 犯 人 的 姓 名 , 并 规 定 他 的 刑 罚 。

    当 犯 罪 种 类 增 加 , 使 立 法 机 关 不 得 不 把 权 力 委 托 给 特 别 “ 审

    问 处 ” 或 “ 委 员 会 ” , 它 们 都 有 权 对 一 个 特 定 的 控 告 进 行 调 查 ,

    并 在 控 告 经 证 明 属 实 后 有 权 对 特 定 犯 人 加 以 处 罚 。 这 时 , ·

    ·

    二 ·

    步 方 告 完 成 。 当 立 法 机 关 不 再 等 待 一 个 犯 罪 发 生 以 后 方 才

    委 托 “ 审 问 处 ” , 而 在 某 种 犯 罪 有 发 生 的 可 能 以 及 预 防 这 些 犯

    罪 将 要 发 生 时 , 定 期 的 任 命 象 “ 弑 亲 审 问 处 ” 和 “ 叛 逆 二 人

    委 员 会 ” 那 样 的 “ 委 员 ” 时 , 它 又 作 了 ·

    另 ·

    一 ·

    次 运 动 。 至 ·

    最 ·

    阶 段 , “ 审 问 处 ” 从 定 期 的 或 临 时 的 变 为 永 久 的 法 院 — — 法 官

    们 不 再 由 指 派 委 员 会 的 特 定 法 律 加 以 指 定 , 而 是 规 定 在 将 来

    用 一 种 特 定 方 法 和 从 一 个 特 定 阶 级 中 选 任 — — , 并 把 某 种 行

    为 用 普 通 文 字 加 以 说 明 和 宣 布 为 有 罪 , 如 果 触 犯 了 , 就 将 处

    以 适 合 于 每 一 种 犯 罪 的 刑 罚 。

    如 果 “ 永 久 审 问 处 ” 有 一 个 较 长 的 历 史 , 它 们 将 无疑 的会 被 认 为 是 一 个 各 别 的 制 度 , 它 们 和 “ 民 会 ” 的 关 系 将 不 会比 我 们 自 己 的 法 院 和 君 主 之 间 的 关 系 更 为 密 切 , 君 主 在 理 论上 是 公 道 的 泉 源 。 但 帝 国 暴 政 在 它 们 的 渊 源 被 完 全 忘 却 前 就把 它 们 全 部 摧 毁 , 并 且 , 在 它 们 存 续 的 时 期 内 , 这 些 “ 永 久

    委 员 会 ” 被 罗 马 人 视 为 仅 仅 是 一 种 委 托 权 的 受 托 人 。 犯 罪 的

    审 判 权 被 认 为 是 立 法 机 关 的 一 种 自 然 属 性 , 而 公 民 的 心 理 总

    是 要 从 “ 审 问 处 ” 回 复 到 “ 民 会 ” , 是 民 会 把 它 不 可 分 割 的 职

    能 的 一 部 分 委 托 给 “ 审 问 处 ” 执 行 的 。 甚 至 在 “ 审 问 处 ” 成

    为 永 久 机 关 时 也 认 为 它 只 是 “ 平 民 议 会 ” 的 “ 委 员 会 ” — —

    只 是 为 一 个 较 高 的 权 威 服 役 的 机 关 — — , 这 个 看 法 有 重 要 的

    法 律 后 果 , 其 痕 迹 留 在 犯 罪 法 中 一 直 到 最 近 的 时 期 。 它 的 直

    接 结 果 之 一 是 在 “ 审 问 处 ” 成 立 了 很 久 之 后 , “ 民 会 ” 仍 继 续

    通 过 痛 苦 和 刑 罚 状 而 行 使 刑 事 管 辖 权 。 虽 然 立 法 机 关 为 了 便

    利 起 见 , 同 意 把 其 权 力 委 托 于 其 自 身 以 外 的 机 关 , 我 们 并 不

    能 就 认 为 它 已 经 完 全 放 弃 了 这 些 权 力 。 “ 民 会 ” 和 “ 审 问 处 ”

    继 续 平 行 地 审 判 犯 人 ; 在 平 民 发 生 任 何 不 平 常 的 大 公 愤 时 , 直

    到 共 和 国 消 灭 时 为 止 , 必 然 地 要 在 “ 部 落 民 会 ” ( A s s e m b l y  of t h e   T r i b e ) 前 对 其 对 象 提 起 控 诉 。

    共 和 国 各 种 制 度 中 最 显 著 的 特 征 之 一 也 来 自 始 “ 审 问

    处 ” 的 依 附 于 “ 民 会 ” 。 罗 马 共 和 国 刑 法 制 度 中 “ 死 ” 刑 的 消

    灭 一 向 是 上 一 世 纪 中 著 者 们 最 喜 爱 的 题 目 , 他 们 经 常 利 用 它

    指 出 罗 马 人 的 性 格 和 现 代 社 会 组 织 的 学 说 。 这 种 断 然 地 提 出

    的 理 由 , 认 为 它 纯 粹 是 出 于 偶 然 的 。 在 罗 马 立 法 机 关 陆 续 采

    取 的 三 种 形 式 中 , 为 众 所 习 知 的 一 种 , 即 “ 兵 员 民 会 ” ( C o m i t i a C e n t u r i a t a ) , 是 专 门 在 行 军 中 代 表 国 家 的 。 因 此 “ 兵 员 民众 ” 就 具 有 一 个 军 队 指 挥 官 所 应 有 的 一 切 权 力 , 它 有 权 使 所

    有 的 犯 过 失 的 人 , 遭 受 一 个 士 兵 在 违 犯 纪 律 时 所 应 得 的 同 样

    惩 戒 。 因 此 , “ 兵 员 民 会 ” 可 以 科 处 死 刑 。 但 “ 贵 族 民 会 ” 或

    “ 部 落 民 会 ” ( C o m i t i a   T r i b u t a ) 则 不 然 。 罗 马 城 中 的 罗 马 公

    民 是 由 宗 教 和 法 律 赋 与 神 圣 性 的 , 由 于 这 一 点 , 这 两 种 民 会

    就 都 受 到 了 束 缚 , 并 且 , 就 这 后 一 种 “ 部 落 民 会 ” 而 论 , 我

    们 确 知 : 根 据 确 定 的 原 则 , “ 部 落 民 会 ” 最 多 只 能 科 处 罚 金 ,

    既 然 刑 事 审 判 权 专 属 于 立 法 机 关 , 而 “ 兵 员 民 会 ” 和 “ 部 落

    民 众 ” 却 继 续 行 使 着 平 列 的 权 力 , 于 是 很 容 易 就 会 把 比 较 严

    重 的 犯 罪 向 科 处 较 重 刑 罚 的 立 法 机 关 起 诉 ; 但 在 这 时 , 比 较

    民 主 的 民 会 即 “ 部 落 民 会 ” 几 乎 已 完 全 代 替 了 别 的 民 会 , 成

    为 后 期 共 和 国 的 普 通 立 法 机 关 。 共 和 国 的 衰 落 , 正 当 “ 永 久

    审 问 处 ” 设 立 的 时 候 , 因 此 设 立 它 们 的 制 定 法 都 是 由 一 个 立

    法 机 关 通 过 , 而 过 个 立 法 机 关 本 身 在 通 常 开 会 时 也 不 能 对 一

    个 犯 人 判 处 死 刑 。 所 以 , 具 有 受 委 托 权 威 的 “ 永 久 司 法 委 员

    全 ” ( P e r m a n e n t   J u d i c i a l   C o m m i s s i o n s ) , 在 其 权 力 和 能 力

    上 , 受 到 委 派 权 力 给 它 的 团 体 所 具 有 的 权 力 限 度 的 限 制 。 它

    们 不 能 做 “ 部 落 民 会 ” 所 不 能 做 的 事 ; 既 然 “ 民 会 ” 不 能 判

    处 死 刑 , “ 审 问 处 ” 也 就 同 样 的 无 权 判 处 死 刑 。 这 样 达 到 的 变

    例 在 古 代 并 不 象 现 代 一 样 用 赞 成 的 眼 光 来 看 它 , 并 且 , 真 的 ,

    罗 马 人 的 性 格 是 否 会 因 此 而 变 好 , 是 个 疑 问 , 但 可 以 肯 定 的

    是 , “ 罗 马 宪 法 ” 竟 变 得 更 坏 。 正 如 每 一 个 跟 随 着 人 类 历 史 一

    直 流 传 到 今 日 的 制 度 一 样 , 死 刑 在 文 明 过 程 的 某 一 些 阶 段 中

    对 社 会 是 必 需 的 。 有 一 个 时 期 , 废 弃 死 刑 的 企 图 挫 败 了 作 为

    一 切 刑 法 根 源 的 两 大 本 能 。 如 果 没 有 了 死 刑 , 社 会 将 感 觉 到它 对 罪 人 没 有 获 得 充 分 的 报 复 , 同 时 也 将 以 为 刑 罚 的 赦 免 将

    不 足 以 阻 止 别 人 的 仿 效 。 罗 马 法 院 不 能 判 处 死 刑 , 显 然 地 、 直

    接 地 引 入 一 个 恐 怖 的 革 命 时 期 , 即 称 为 “ 公 敌 宣 言 ” ( P r o s c r i p At i o n s ) 的 , 在 这 期 间 内 , 一 切 法 律 都 正 式 停 止 执 行 , 只 因 为

    党 派 暴 行 不 能 为 它 所 渴 望 的 报 复 找 到 其 他 的 出 路 。 这 种 法 律

    的 间 歇 的 中 止 , 是 使 罗 马 人 民 政 治 能 力 衰 败 的 最 有 力 的 原 因 ;

    并 且 , 一 旦 到 达 这 样 境 地 , 我 们 可 以 毫 不 迟 疑 地 说 , 罗 马 自

    由 的 毁 灭 仅 仅 是 一 个 时 间 问 题 , 如 果 “ 法 院 ” 的 工 作 能 使 人

    民 的 热 情 有 一 个 适 当 的 出 口 , 司 法 诉 讼 的 形 式 将 无 疑 地 被 罪

    恶 昭 彰 地 滥 用 , 象 在 我 国 后 期 斯 图 亚 特 ( S t u a r t s ) 的 各 个 朝代 一 样 , 但 国 民 性 格 将 不 致 于 象 它 在 实 际 上 那 样 深 受 其 害 , 罗马 制 度 的 稳 定 也 不 致 于 象 它 在 实 际 上 那 样 严 重 受 到 削 弱 。

    我 还 要 提 一 提 罗 马 刑 事 制 度 中 由 这 同 一 的 司 法 权 的 理 论

    产 生 的 另 外 两 个 特 点 。 这 两 个 特 点 是 : 罗 马 刑 事 法 院 的 非 常

    众 多 以 及 犯 罪 分 类 的 变 化 繁 多 和 极 不 规 则 , 这 是 罗 马 刑 事 法

    律 学 全 部 历 史 中 一 贯 的 特 色 。 据 说 , 每 一 个审问处 , 不 论 是否 永 久 的 , 都 以 一 个 各 别 的 制 定 法 为 其 创 始 的 来 源 。 它 从 创

    设 它 的 法 律 得 到 权 力 ; 它 严 格 遵 守 其 特 许 状 所 规 定 的 范 围 , 对

    于 特 许 状 所 没 有 明 白 规 定 的 各 种 犯 罪 是 不 能 过 问 的 。 由 于 组

    成 各 种 “ 审 问 处 ” 的 制 定 法 都 是 为 了 适 应 特 种 紧 急 需 要 , 事

    实 上 每 一 种 制 定 法 都 是 为 了 惩 罚 当 时 的 情 况 特 别 令 人 憎 恶 和

    特 别 危 险 的 一 类 行 为 , 这 些 立 法 在 相 互 之 间 丝 毫 没 有 关 系 , 并

    且 也 没 有 共 同 原 则 把 它 们 联 系 起 来 。 同 时 存 在 的 不 同 犯 罪 法

    共 有 二 三 十 种 , 由 数 目 完 全 相 等 的 “ 审 问 处 ” 来 执 行 它 们 ; 在

    共 和 国 时 期 内 , 并 没 有 作 过 任 何 企 图 要 把 这 些 各 别 的 司 法 机关 合 而 为 一 , 或 是 要 把 委 任 它 们 和 规 定 它 们 责 任 的 各 种 制 定

    法 中 的 规 定 加 以 匀 称 。 这 个 时 期 罗 马 犯 罪 管 辖 权 的 情 况 在 某

    些 方 面 有 些 象 英 国 的 民 事 救 济 行 政 , 当 时 英 国 普 通 法 院 还 没

    有 把 那 种 拟 制 的 证 言 引 用 到 它 们 的 令 状 , 使 它 们 得 相 互 侵 入

    彼 此 的 特 殊 的 领 域 中 。 正 和 “ 审 问 处 ” 一 样 , 后 座 法 院 ( C o u r t of Q u e e n ’ s   B e n c h ) 、 民 事 高 等 法 院 ( C o m m o n  P l e a s ) 和 理 财 法 院 ( E x c h e q u e r ) 在 理 论 上 都 是 从 一 个 较 高 的权 威 分 出 来 的 机 关 , 并 且 每 一 个 机 关 都 分 别 主 管 一 类 特 种 案件 , 这 类 案 件 被 假 定 是 由 其 管 辖 权 的 泉 源 委 托 给 它 的 ; 不 过当 时 罗 马 “ 审 问 处 ” 在 数 量 上 远 不 止 三 个 , 如 要 把 分 属 于 每

    一 个 “ 审 问 处 ” 审 判 权 的 各 种 行 为 加 以 区 别 , 远 不 及 把 韦 斯

    敏 斯 德 三 种 法 院 的 范 围 加 以 划 分 那 样 便 当 。 在 各 个 不 同 的

    “ 审 问 处 ” 的 范 围 之 间 划 一 条 正 确 分 界 线 是 有 困 难 的 , 因 此 这

    样 多 的 罗 马 法 院 有 时 造 成 了 许 多 不 便 ; 我 们 很 惊 异 地 读 到 , 当

    一 个 人 所 犯 的 罪 行 不 能 立 即 明 了 究 竟 应 属 哪 一 个 类 别 时 , 他

    可 同 时 或 连 续 地 在 几 个 不 同 的 “ 委 员 会 ” 中 被 提 出 控 诉 , 以

    至 有 一 个 “ 委 员 会 ” 宣 布 它 有 权 来 认 定 他 有 罪 ; 并 且 , 虽 然

    某 一 个 “ 审 问 处 ” 的 定 罪 可 以 排 斥 其 他 “ 审 问 处 ” 的 审 判 权 ,

    但 某 一 个 “ 审 问 处 ” 所 作 的 无 罪 开 释 不 能 作 为 另 一 个 “ 审 问

    处 ” 提 出 控 告 时 的 辩 护 。 这 和 罗 马 民 事 法 律 的 规 定 直 接 相 反 ;

    我 们 并 且 可 以 确 定 , 象 罗 马 人 那 样 对 法 律 学 中 的 变 例 ( 或 者用 他 们 的 意 义 深 长 的 成 语粗野 ) 十 分 敏 感 的 人 民 , 是 不 会 长期 容 忍 这 种 情 况 的 , 如 果 不 是 “ 审 问 处 ” 的 忧 郁 的 历 史 使 它们 被 认 为 是 党 派 手 中 的 暂 时 武 器 , 而 不 是 惩 治 犯 罪 的 常 设 机构 。 皇 帝 不 久 就 消 除 了 这 种 审 判 权 的 重 复 和 冲 突 的 现 象 ; 但可 以 注 意 的 是 他 们 并 没 有 消 除 犯 罪 法 中 的 另 一 个 特 点 , 这 是和 “ 法 院 ” 的 数 量 有 密 切 关 系 的 。 甚 至 包 括 在 查 斯 丁 尼 安“ 民 法 大 全 ” 中 的 犯 罪 分 类 也 是 非 常 反 复 多 变 的 。 事 实 上 每 一

    个 “ 审 问 处 ” 都 把 自 己 局 限 于 由 其 特 许 状 委 托 给 它 审 判 的 各

    种 罪 行 。 但 这 些 罪 行 在 原 来 制 定 法 中 所 以 归 类 在 一 起 , 只 是

    因 为 在 这 一 项 制 定 法 通 过 时 这 些 罪 行 恰 巧 同 时 需 要 法 律 加 以

    惩 罚 。 因 此 , 在 这 些 罪 之 间 未 必 一 定 有 任 何 共 同 之 点 ; 但 是

    它 们 在 一 个 特 定 “ 审 问 处 ” 中 构 成 一 特 定 的 审 判 题 目 , 这 一

    个 事 实 很 自 然 地 会 给 群 众 以 深 刻 的 印 象 , 同 时 在 同 一 制 定 法

    中 所 提 到 的 各 种 罪 行 之 间 的 联 系 又 是 如 此 的 根 深 蒂 固 , 甚 至

    在 西 拉 和 奥 古 斯 多 皇 帝 正 式 企 图 整 理 罗 马 犯 罪 法 时 , 立 法 者

    还 是 保 留 着 旧 的 分 类 方 法 。 西 拉 和 奥 古 斯 多 的 制 定 法 是 帝 国

    刑 事 法 律 学 的 基 础 , 这 些 制 定 法 所 传 给 法 律 学 的 有 些 分 类 是

    非 常 特 别 的 。 我 试 举 一 个 简 单 的 例 子 ,伪证 是 始 终 和割伤 以及毒杀 归 类 在 一 起 , 这 无 疑 是 由 于 一 条 西 拉 法 律 即 “ 哥 尼 流暗 杀 和 毒 杀 律 ” ( L e x   C o r n e l i a   d e   S i c a r i s   e t   V e n e f i Ac i s ) 曾 把 这 三 种 形 式 的 罪 行 的 审 判 权 给 与 同 一 个 “ 永 久 委 员会 ” 。 同 时 可 以 看 到 , 这 种 罪 行 的 任 意 归 类 也 影 响 到 罗 马 人 的方 言 。 人 民 自 然 地 养 成 这 样 一 种 习 惯 , 即 把 列 举 在 一 条 法 律中 的 各 种 罪 行 用 单 子 上 的 第 一 个 名 称 来 称 呼 它 , 而 这 个 名 称也 就 用 来 称 呼 授 权 审 判 这 些 罪 行 的 法 院 。 凡 是 由 “ 通 奸 审 问处 ” ( Q u Es t i o   D e   A d u l t e r i s ) 审 判 的 罪 行 便 都 称 为 “ 通 奸罪 ” ( A d u l t e r y )。

    我 对 罗 马 “ 审 问 处 ” 的 历 史 和 特 征 所 以 不 厌 其 详 地 加 以说 明 , 是 因 为 一 个 刑 事 法 律 学 的 形 成 从 没 有 在 任 何 其 他 地 方这 样 有 启 发 地 例 证 过 。 最 后 的 一 批 “ 审 问 处 ” 是 由 奥 古 斯 多皇 帝 加 设 的 , 从 这 时 候 起 , 罗 马 人 可 以 说 已 具 有 一 个 相 当 完

    全 的 犯 罪 法 了 。 和 它 发 展 的 同 时 , 类 推 的 过 程 继 续 进 行 着 , 我

    把 这 个 过 程 称 为 把 “ 不 法 行 为 ” 改 变 为 “ 犯 罪 ” , 因 为 , 虽 然

    罗 马 法 立 机 关 对 于 比 较 凶 暴 的 罪 行 并 没 有 废 止 民 事 救 济 , 它

    给 被 害 人 提 供 了 他 一 定 愿 意 选 择 的 一 种 赔 偿 。 但 是 , 即 在 奥

    古 斯 多 完 成 其 立 法 以 后 , 有 几 种 罪 行 仍 继 续 被 视 为 “ 不 法 行

    为 ” , 而 这 些 罪 行 在 现 代 社 会 看 起 来 , 是 应 该 作 为 犯 罪 的 ; 直

    到 后 来 , 在 一 个 不 能 确 定 的 时 期 , 当 法 律 开 始 注 意 到 一 种 在

    “ 法 学 汇 纂 ” 中 称 为非常犯罪 ( c r i m i n a   e x t r a o r d i n a r i a ) 的 新的 罪 行 时 , 它 们 才 成 为 刑 事 上 可 以 处 罚 的 罪 行 。 无 疑 的 , 有 一 类 行 为 , 罗 马 法 律 学 理 论 是 单 纯 地 把 它 们 看 做 不 法 行 为 的 ;但 是 社 会 的 尊 严 心 日 益 提 高 , 反 对 对 这 些 行 为 的 犯 罪 者 在 给 付 金 钱 赔 偿 损 失 以 外 不 加 其 他 较 重 的 处 罚 , 因 此 , 如 果 被 害 人 愿 意 时 , 准 许 把 它 们 作 为 非 常 ( e x t r a   o r d i n e m ) 犯 罪 而 起诉 , 即 通 过 一 种 在 某 些 方 面 和 普 通 程 序 不 同 的 救 济 方 式 而 起诉 。 从 这 些非常犯罪 第 一 次 被 承 认 的 时 期 起 , 罗 马 国 家 的 犯 罪 表 一 定 和 现 代 世 界 任 何 社 会 中 所 有 的 同 样 地 长 。

    我 们 没 有 必 要 详 细 描 写 罗 马 帝 国 执 行 犯 罪 司 法 的 方 式 ,但 须 注 意 , 它 的 理 论 和 实 践 都 对 现 代 社 会 发 生 有 力 的 影 响 。 皇帝 们 并 不 直 接 废 弃 “ 审 问 处 ” , 在 开 始 时 , 他 们 把 一 种 广 泛 的 刑 事 审 判 权 交 给 “ 元 老 院 ” ( S e n a t e ) , 虽 然 事 实 上 它 其 中 可 能显 得 很 卑 贱 , 但 在 这 个 “ 元 老 院 ” 中 皇 帝 在 名 义 上 也 和 其 余的 人 一 样 只 是 一 个 “ 议 员 ” ( S e n a t o r ) 。 皇 帝 在 开 始 时 就 主 张 要 有 某 几 种 并 行 的 犯 罪 审 判 权 ; 这 种 审 判 权 跟 着 对 自 由 共 和国 的 记 忆 日 益 衰 退 而 坚 定 地 扩 大 着 , 它 占 取 了 古 法 院 的 权 力 。 逐 渐 地 , 对 犯 罪 的 惩 罚 权 移 转 给 直 接 由 皇 帝 委 派 的 高 级 官 吏 , “ 元 老 院 ” 的 特 权 移 转 到 “ 帝 国 枢 密 院 ” ( l m p e r i a l   P r i v y C o u n c i l ) , “ 帝 国 枢 密 院 ” 也 就 成 了 一 个 最 后 刑 事 上 诉 法 院 。 在 这 些 影 响 下 , 现 代 人 所 熟 悉 的 学 理 在 不 知 不 觉 中 形 成 了 , 即 君 主 是 一 切 “ 公 道 ” 的 泉 源 , 是 一 切 “ 美 德 ” 的 受 托 人 。 帝国 在 这 时 候 已 达 到 完 善 的 地 步 , 这 不 是 不 断 增 长 阿 谀 和 卑 贱的 结 果 , 而 是 帝 国 集 权 的 结 果 。 事 实 上 , 刑 事 公 道 的 理 论 已几 乎 回 到 了 它 开 始 的 出 发 点 。 它 开 始 时 相 信 应 该 由 集 合 体 用其 自 己 的 手 来 报 复 其 自 己 的 不 法 行 为 ; 它 最 后 所 采 的 学 理 则以 为 犯 罪 的 惩 罚 在 一 种 特 殊 方 式 中 属 于 君 主 , 他 是 人 民 的 代表 和 受 托 人 。 这 种 新 的 见 解 和 旧 的 见 解 不 同 , 主 要 在 于 公 道 监 护 所 给 予 君 主 个 人 的 敬 畏 和 庄 严 气 概 。

    罗 马 人 对 于 君 主 和 公 道 关 系 的 一 个 较 近 的 见 解 , 当 然 有助 于 使 现 代 社 会 可 以 无 须 经 过 这 一 系 列 的 变 化 , 象 我 在 “ 审问 处 ” 的 历 史 中 已 经 例 证 过 了 的 。 在 居 住 于 西 欧 的 几 乎所有民 族 的 原 始 法 律 中 , 都 有 这 样 一 个 古 代 概 念 的 迹 象 ,即犯罪的 处 罚 属 于 自 由 人 的 议 会 , 在 有 些 国 家 中 — — 据 说 苏 格兰是其 中 之 — — 现 存 司 法 机 关 的 渊 源 可 以 追 溯 到 立 法 机 关的一个“ 委 员 会 ” 。 但 犯 罪 法 普 遍 由 于 两 种 原 因 而 得 到 更 快 的 发 展 , 这两 种 原 因 , 即 罗 马 帝 国 的 回 忆 和 教 会 的 影 响 。 一 方 面 , 凯 撒的 威 严 传 统 由 于 查 理 曼 王 朝 的 暂 时 得 势 而 被 保 全 , 使 君 主 具有 一 个 蛮 族 酋 长 所 决 不 能 获 得 的 一 种 威 望 , 并 使 最 小 的 封 建主 也 有 了 社 会 保 护 人 和 国 家 代 表 人 的 资 格 。 另 一 方 面 , 教 会急 于 控 制 凶 暴 残 忍 行 为 , 对 比 较 严 重 的 恶 行 树 立 惩 罚 的 权 威 ,在 “ 圣 经 ” 的 有 些 章 节 中 , 有 些 语 句 同 意 以 刑 罚 之 权 授 与 民事 高 级 官 吏 。 “ 新 约 全 书 ” 认 为 世 俗 统 治 者 的 存 在 是 为 了 使 作恶 之 人 有 所 恐 惧 ; “ 旧 约 全 书 “ 认 为 “ 流 人 血 者 , 人 亦 流 其血 ” 。 我 以 为 , 毫 无 疑 问 , 对 于 犯 罪 问 题 的 各 种 现 代 观 念 都 根据 “ 黑 暗 时 代 ” 教 会 所 主 张 的 两 种 假 定 — — 第 一 , 每 一 个 封建 统 治 者 在 他 的 地 位 上 得 比 拟 于 圣 · 保 罗所谈 到 的 罗 马 高 级 官 吏 ; 其 次 , 他 所 要 惩 罚 的 罪 行 是 “ 摩 西 十诫 ” ( M o s a i c   C o m m a n d m e n t s ) 中 规 定 要 禁 止 的 , 或 是 教 会并 不 保 留 在 其 自 己 审 判 权 之 内 的 。 “ 异 端 ” ( H e r e s y ) ( 被 假 定为 包 括 在 “ 第 一 诫 ” 和 “ 第 二 诫 ” 中 的 ) 、 “ 通 奸 ” 和 “ 伪证 ” 是 宗 教 罪 行 , 教 会 只 允 许 世 俗 权 力 在 发 生 非 常 严 重 案 件时 才 予 以 合 作 以 便 课 以 较 重 的 刑 罚 。 同 时 , 它 教 导 我 们 , 各式 各 样 的 谋 杀 和 强 盗 案 件 之 所 以 都 属 于 民 事 统 治 者 的 管 辖 ,这 不 是 由 于 他 们 地 位 的 偶 然 结 果 , 而 是 由 于 上 帝 的 明 白 命 令 。在 关 于 阿 尔 弗 烈 德 国 王 ( K i n g   A l f r e d ) ( 垦 布 尔 , 卷 二 ,第 2 0 9 页 ) 的 著 作 中 , 有 这 样 一 段 , 特 别 明 显 地 说 明 在 他 的时 代 关 于 刑 事 审 判 权 的 起 源 流 行 着 的 各 种 观 念 的 争 论。可 以看 到 , 阿 尔 弗 烈 德 认 为 它 半 属 于 教 会 权 威 , 半 属 于 “ 国 会 议员 ” ( W i t a n ) , 他 明 白 主 张 反 叛 地 主 罪 可 以 不 受 普 通 规 定 的 管辖 , 正 和 罗 马 “ 大 法 ” ( L a w   o f   M a j e s t a s ) 规 定 反 叛 凯 撒罪 应 不 受 普 通 规 定 管 辖 相 同 。 “ 在 这 以 后 ” , 他 说 , “ 有 许 多 国家 接 受 了 对 基 督 的 信 仰 ( 有 许 多 宗 教 会 议 遍 及 地 球 各 处 , 在英 国 人 中 当 他 们 接 受 了 基 督 信 仰 , 不 论 对 神 圣 主 教 的 , 或 是对 崇 高 的 ‘ 国 会 议 员 ’ 的 ) 之 后 , 也 是 如 此 。 他 们 于 是 规 定 ,由 于 基 督 的 慈 悲 之 心 , 世 俗 的 君 主 们 在 取 得 他 们 的 许 可 后 , 得不 犯 罪 过 而 对 每 一 恶 行 取 得 他 们 所 规 定 的 以 金 钱 表 现 的 · 博脱( b o t ) ; 除 了 反 叛 君 主 外 , 对 于 这 种 情 形 , 他 们 是 不 敢 给 与 任何 慈 悲 的 , 因 为 ‘ 全 能 的 上 帝 ’ 对 于 藐 视 ‘ 他 ’ 的 , 不 为 定罪 , 基 督 对 于 把 ‘ 他 ’ 出 卖 致 死 的 , 也 不 为 定 罪 , ‘ 他 ’ 命 令一 个 君 主 应 该 受 人 爱 戴 , 象 ‘ 他 自 己 ’ 受 人 爱 戴 一 样 。 ”

  • GREYE:胡安焉《我在北京送快递》

    首都北京,约有28.8万名快递员。
    他们是物流业的末梢神经,承担着物品抵达顾客前的最后环节。网购时代,每个人都与快递员产生连接,却从未注意过他们的世界。
    43岁的胡安焉曾是28.8万人中的一员。2019年前后,他在北京送了两年快递。在效率的催逼下,他的世界被缩小到5公里范围内,像日复一日推石头上山的西西弗斯,还要推得又快又好。
    2023年年初,快递员胡安焉成了作家。他出版书籍《我在北京送快递》,引发热议。边缘人第一次被公众关注,人们惊叹于他敏锐的洞察,也被他的故事吸引。
    胡安焉不善言辞,这个特质让他在生活中被频频绊倒。社会对他来说,是一套不适应的价值系统,他从未融入其中,却不得不接受它的评判与筛选,结果则是一连串的失败与失望。
    这是一个普通人幸与不幸的故事。在黯淡无光的漫长岁月里,他不服输、不沉沦,写作是他唯一的光,他靠此杀出一条血路。

    01 我在北京送快递

    2019年11月25日,这是胡安焉当快递员的最后一天。
    手上要送的快递只有寥寥几件,早上装好车后,他甚至跟同事聊了会儿天再出发。时间一下子变得宽裕,“就像穷光蛋一夜暴富”。
    过去两年间,他每天要派送一百多个快件,旺季时数量还要翻个两三倍。“双11”后的几天里,他在站点卸完货后,“快件漫到我的腰部,并向门外淌出。”为了完成额度,他每日心急火燎,疲于奔命。
    他负责的地盘位于北京通州,方圆约5公里,包括八个住宅小区、两个商场、两栋写字楼和两个创业园区。

    胡安焉的送快递路线

    以往,他早上8点开着三轮车从站点出发,按一个固定的路线派件,这是他摸索出来的最高效的路线,如果不按这个路线走,就完不成当天的工作。
    时间的紧迫感总是如影随形。到了早上9点,如果只送出20个快件,他就会焦虑,因为昨天同样时间他已经送出25个;如果已经送出30个,他心里就会宽慰。对效率的苛刻成了本能反应。
    与工作量相匹配,他的平均工资是7000元,最多的一个月拿到了一万出头。
    得到公司遣散的消息,他不意外,苗头早就出现。
    从年初开始,公司就将派件费下调,派一个件的收入从2元降到1.8元,后来又降到1.6元。由于业务被转移到其他快递公司,快件量也日渐减少。
    既然时间充裕,他试着把路线反过来走。
    他才发现,自己从未见过早上八九点钟的某小区,这个小区他过去总在傍晚抵达,而他已经为这里的居民送了一年多快递。
    结束工作后,他坐在自己负责派件的一个商场内,打量店铺里的售货员,看送餐员跑来跑去,他猜测,他们大多数人都是麻木的,脑子里什么也没想——和他一样。
    下了班之后,他重新拿起书来读,穆齐尔的《没有个性的人》、乔伊斯的《尤利西斯》,都是大部头。
    工作变清闲之后,他变得更温和、更平实,对人更有耐心。而此前在工作量的重压下,他很容易烦躁、满腹牢骚,对人莫名生出怨恨。
    胡安焉不擅长与客户沟通。主管要求他们送出快件后,要请客户帮忙打个五星好评,站点还做了统计表贴在墙上,好评数靠后的人在开会时要被揪出来检讨。
    对着客户,他开不了这个口。
    于是每天下了班,他就在手机里编辑短信,请当天服务过的客户给他打个好评,每天要发二三十条短信。对他来说,文字表达要比面对面口头表达容易得多。
    矛盾也时有发生。

    有一位客户公司搬迁了,却忘记修改收货地址,不知情的胡安焉把快件送到了他的旧地址。第二天,客户气冲冲地打来电话,不提自己留错地址的事,只理直气壮地要求胡安焉取回快件,重新派送到他的新地址。

    胡安焉气炸了,但还是忍气吞声,自掏腰包付了8元转寄费。

    还有一位客户,态度亲切,语调温柔。她有一件退货需要快递员上门取件,但她晚上7点才下班,而快递平台不接受夜间取件的预约。

    在电话里,她向胡安焉提出建议:何不你晚上吃过饭,到我的小区里散散步,顺便把我的退货取了。

    但实际上,胡安焉的住处距离她的小区往返需要一小时,谁会这样散步?他想回敬她:不如你吃过晚饭后,出门散步,顺便找个快递站把退货寄了。但这句话终究没有说出口。
    同事在快递车里休息

    胡安焉手机里有个“报复备忘录”,里面记了两个名字,都是让他气得牙痒痒的、蛮不讲理的客户。离职后,他把备忘录删了,一个都没报复。
    曾有一位客户批评他说:“顾客就是上帝,难道你不懂吗?”
    胡安焉听了一愣,随即为自己辩解道:“可是上帝应该只有一个,我每天却要伺候很多个啊。”

    02 格格不入

    1979年,胡安焉出生在广州,但父母都不是广州人。
    爸爸是粤东汕尾人,妈妈出生在上海,他们下乡时在海南省认识,结婚后搬到广州海珠区新港西路。当时新港西路还是一片泥地,后来才铺上沥青。
    胡安焉记得,小时候过年都是孤零零的,家里没有亲戚可以串门,他也没有同龄人可以一起玩耍。
    爸爸的性格内向孤僻,沉默寡言,跟单位的同事不太往来,“从头到尾,他跟社会都是脱节的。”
    (胡安焉的家就在中山大学南校区对面,小时候校园是他的游乐园)
    在他看来,父母非常压抑自己的情感,凡事都是退让,对他的要求也很严格。
    在那个道德主义流行的年代,父母总是怕他做错事,告诉他这不好那不好,炒股是不好的,投机倒把做生意也是不好的,好像所有私人的价值追求都是负面的。
    在这样的家庭教育下,他成了不太会表达自己的人。
    中专毕业后,他到夜校读广告设计,进了一家漫画杂志社做美编,工资1500元。
    试用期过后转正,当时的劳动合同内容他已记不清,只记得有一种强烈的被冒犯的感觉——合同违反了一堆劳动法,他没有签,但也没有离职。
    这些事情触发了他的思考。
    以前他觉得,社会肯定是对的,他无非就是怎么打磨自己,让自己能嵌入社会。但这份工作让他发现,原来社会不像他以为的那么正确。
    对他产生更大冲击的,是漫画社里的同事们。
    同事们都有点艺术家气质,他们听摇滚乐、听金属朋克,身上有文身和耳钉,发型也非常叛逆、有个性。胡安焉崇拜这群朋友。
    进漫画社时,胡安焉已经24岁,做过六七份工作了。

    由于性格内向、温驯,他的工作经历都不太愉快,并且渐渐发现自己与社会格格不入,心里有点惶恐。

    但是在漫画社里,他的惶恐得到了安慰、缓和。他看到这样一群充满理想主义的同龄人,他们拒绝把自己塞进社会模板里,主动逃离主流价值,但他们照样过得很积极、很开心。

    没多久,这群朋友就辞去工作,到北京追求“流浪与创作”的生活。胡安焉也跟着去了。

    为了节省房租,他们租住在燕郊,房租平摊到每个人头上才一百多元。最窘迫的时候,他们买不起菜,于是用面粉和水做成煎饼吃。他们花在画画和创作上的时间很少,多数时候在到处闲逛、聊天。

    一天下午,他们在外面游荡,路过一个批发市场时,朋友冷不丁地对胡安焉说了一句:我觉得你更适合写作。

    朋友为什么会说那句话,胡安焉没有追问。但他一直记得这句话,后来成了他决定写作的动机之一。
    在北京的那段时间,胡安焉还读了很多书,波德莱尔的诗、美国“垮掉的一代”艾伦·金斯堡的诗、凯鲁亚克的小说……
    虽然内容都忘得差不多了,但这种多元化的,甚至是有点边缘的价值观,给他造成了一种很深的刺激。

    慢慢地,他不再觉得,人一定要遵循社会的主流价值去生活。

    “前面的工作经历,无论取掉其中哪一段,都不会对今天的我产生影响。但是假如没有在北京的这段经历,今天的我肯定会是一个和现在很不同的人——它塑造了最初的我,给了我一个起点。”

    03 不断地逃离

    都说性格决定命运。胡安焉觉得,性格确实多次左右了他的人生选择。

    从青少年时代开始,他就意识到自己比同龄人更单纯、更迟钝。踏入社会后,这种不适应感越来越强烈。

    看着身边的同学蜕变为成人,他不明白他们是怎么做到的,“我怀疑他们早在还是个学生时,身体里就已经藏了一个成人。”而胡安焉的身体里,还是一个学生。
    读中专的时候,学校安排整个班级到酒店实习,实际上是做廉价劳工。

    在宴会厅撤场的时候,他一次多码了几张椅子,身边的同学就围拢过来调侃他,说活是干不完的,如果他干活太卖力,领班就会以同样的标准要求他们。他害怕得罪人,就不再在同学面前卖力干活。

    酒店的班次分两种,普通班和两头班。所谓两头班,就是早上上四小时,晚上再上四小时,意味着要花费双倍的通勤时间和费用,大家都不想上。

    有位同事因家里有事,用两头班换了胡安焉的普通班。下次应该要用普通班换回他的两头班,这样才公平。

    但胡安焉怕显得自己斤斤计较,就跟同事说,不用换回来了。

    没想到同事得寸进尺,下次又来找他换班。另一位同事看不过去,帮胡安焉出了头。

    他渐渐地意识到,自己是一个不懂得拒绝,经常逆来顺受的人,而大多数人都不会站在他人的角度考虑问题。如果他不想继续吃亏,要不变得和别人一样自私,要不就选择和所有人保持距离——后一种通常容易得多。

    后来,他做过十几份零工,人际相处难免出现问题。每次他克服不了,第一反应就是逃离。

    他幻想着,换一个环境,如果运气好的话,就会遇到不同的人,他们会公平地、友善地对待他,自觉地把他应得的给他。然而这是一种妄想。

    28岁那年,他不想打工了,向父母借了两万元,和朋友合伙开女装店。
    店铺开在广西南宁一家商场里的六楼。
    楼层大约只有三个篮球场大小,却挤了170个店面。朋友负责在广州的服装市场拿货、发货,他则负责在南宁看店。

    每天十几个小时地待在暗无天日的商场里,他的社恐变得更严重了。有客人进店,他的反应不是振奋,而是厌烦和恐惧,更不会主动拉客和销售。偶尔与人起争执,他会止不住地发抖、打寒战。

    生意场上残酷的竞争,让这座拥挤狭隘的商场暗流涌动。店主们连跟顾客谈价格,都是把数字敲在计算器上,唯恐被隔壁听见。

    大家抬头不见低头见,表面客客气气,背地里却互相中伤、搬弄是非。有个店主看不惯胡安焉的店铺生意好,于是到处散播流言,说他卖的衣服都是假货。有一次,胡安焉的合伙人来南宁,还跟另一个店主大打出手。
    经营女装店两年后,胡安焉退出了。

    离开那个充满是非的环境后,他才意识到自己的精神受到了创伤。他变得畏光、怕人、疑神疑鬼。走在路上,他觉得街上的人都在看他、议论他,他朝路人回瞪过去,才发现对方根本没有在看他。

    积累了太多负面情绪无法释放,他只想惩罚自己。

    2009年8月,没做太多准备,他就骑着爸爸平时买菜的自行车,从广州骑到北京,骑了26天。

    这辆车给他带来了很多麻烦,它平均两天要坏三次,后来三分之二的零件都换掉了。自行车的坐垫也不能调,只能在最低的高度,他骑的时候腿是屈着的,导致半月板撕裂,留下了后遗症。

    吃饭在路边的小吃店解决,晚上睡在几十块一晚的旅馆里。一路上,他摔过车,掉进山路边挺深的排水沟里;也骑上过高速,时速100多公里的汽车贴在身边呼啸而过。

    他没去任何名胜景点,沿途经过的都是小县城和乡镇。他在陌生的城市里东张西望,听不同的方言,看不同的风俗,这给了他很大的精神满足。

    骑行结束后,他回到广州,把自己困在家里大量地阅读。

    这一年他30岁。也就是这时,他开始写作。

    04 生活的惯性

    写作与打工,在胡安焉的生活里,是两种无法相容的状态。

    “当我去工作的时候,我就无法写作。工作极大地占用我的时间,同时还透支我的情绪,令我在下班后只想放松和减压,而无力思考其他……当我要写作的时候,我就辞去工作,专心地在家写。”

    他也尝试过靠写作养活自己。但把小说投到各家杂志社,总是石沉大海,偶尔发表一篇,也只有千字几十的稿费。逐渐见底的存款,让他放弃了这个想法。

    33岁那年,他搬到大理找工作。

    大理优美的自然环境以及好天气治愈了他,那段日子他过得自由自在。他到一家商场做保安,新同事不知道他的底细、他的过去,他因此可以卸下心理负担,随性地生活,“就像把生活格式化了一遍。”
    (胡安焉在大理还摆过一阵子地摊,卖文具)
    许多人都追求安稳的生活,但安稳对胡安焉来说没有太大吸引力。

    同样的工作、同样的生活环境,会让他变得越来越迟钝,感知会退化,甚至会有窒息的感觉。他渴望新鲜感,渴望对生活一直保持敏锐的感知力。

    这种流浪的底气也源于他的无欲无求。

    父母在广州有房,有退休金,不需要他养老。他自己物欲也很低,平时不抽烟不买名牌,剪头发去路边5元的摊子,出行可以骑车就不坐车,日常开支很低。

    出门在外,他租的都是小单间,一张床一张桌子,带个厕所就够了。

    他认为,很多人在一个地方扎根,是因为他们工作上的积累、人际关系的积累都在这里,离开了就要从零开始。而他本身没有任何积累,没车没房,自然也就没有牵挂。
    打工和写作交替的生活模式,成了一种惯性。

    多年里,他每次打工存到一点钱,就辞职写作;写作写不下去了,就又出门打工。

    2017年,他到广东顺德一家物流园,从事夜间分拣工作。做这份工作,首先是因为不用面试,谁来了都能做。其次,每个月的工资有接近五千,比他之前的工作都要高一点。

    所谓夜间分拣,就是把各地收来的货物从货车上卸下,按照目的地分拣、打包,再重新装车。

    他们晚上7点上班,早上7点下班,连续工作12个小时。被送到这里分拣的,很多是大件的货物,重的高达五六十斤。很多人吃不了这个苦,做不长久。胡安焉做了10个月,掉了快20斤体重。

    这些工作的细节,后来被胡安焉写进文章里。
    到了2020年4月,他从快递公司离职后没多久,新冠疫情就爆发了。

    疫情形势严峻,快递员不让进小区,物流业也受到很大影响,他就没有去找工作。当时他有一定的存款,就想待在家里重启写作,写小说。

    写小说前,他想写点随笔作为热身。他回忆起那份夜间分拣的工作,就花了一个下午写下来。

    在这篇随笔里,他细致地描写了日夜颠倒的作息,对身体和精神造成的折磨:

    “每次到了凌晨四五点,我都困得不行,只要让我躺下,五秒内就可以睡着;即使不躺下,我也已经摇摇欲坠,经常眼前一黑就要失去知觉,可是随即又惊醒过来。”

    他随文附上一张照片——那是他的手,拇指的骨头由于长期从事重体力劳动,已有些变形,其他手指缠有胶布,手上布满了汗水和灰尘凝结而成的灰色斑点。
    文章一发出来,立刻被大量转发、阅读。很多人在留言里表达自己的惊讶,他们感到匪夷所思,原来社会上还有这样的工作。

    胡安焉这才发现,“这部分人的生活内容,大多数人是一无所知的。”

    做体力劳动不要求学历。他的同行里极少有文字表达能力的,很多人小学都没读完,除了自己的名字外写不了几个字。在大众层面,他们是不被留意到的群体,也没有能力去表达、去发声。

    一下子涌来的关注,让胡安焉感觉像中奖了一样。

    随后,稿约、文章发表的机会、出版的机会都纷至沓来,他的生活有了翻天覆地的变化。他觉得自己是幸运的。虽然还没因此赚到很多钱,但反正他生活也很俭朴,他已经感到满足。

    现在,他和妻子搬到成都生活,日子过得安静、平和。
    他们在成都三环租了一个60平米的房子,租金才1800,家里有快1000本书,都堆在纸箱子里。

    成都物价很低,中午他买菜做饭,吃完就步行10分钟到附近的图书馆,一整个下午都花在里面,读书、写东西。晚上则看看书,看看电影。

    但成都不是终点,他和妻子计划以后搬到大理。生活总是在变换。

    05 用写作超越自己

    刚开始写作时,胡安焉对写作的看法仍是功利的。
    他心里想,我30岁了,如果能在写作中获得一些成绩,确立我不是一事无成的人,我就不会惶恐于这辈子是白过的。

    如今想来,他觉得当年的自己太稚嫩了。
    “今天我认为这完全就是放屁,根本就不成立。一个人,最重要的是他本质是什么,而不是他创造了什么,或者得到了什么。当然创造什么也很重要,但这还是建立在你本质是什么的基础上,它只是你本质的一种投射。”

    过了不惑之年,胡安焉有了更稳固的价值观,不会再被外界的评价影响。

    但有些东西始终没有变,比如他的诚实与自省。
    《我在北京送快递》出版后,收到很多好评,有读者夸赞是“真诚而克制的写作”。胡安焉自己重看,觉得文字仍未达到自己的标准,不少部分有自我维护的成分在里面。

    这段时间,不少记者找过来要采访,他没有经验。有记者问他存款多少,他也和盘托出。后来才意识到,这是他的隐私,不回答也可以。
    他认为,一个人的生活与写作是离得很近的。你如何感知世界,如何处理生活,都会体现在你的语言里。

    “对待生活不能做到真诚,他的生命感受必然是虚饰和雷同的。但写作必须刺穿这层虚饰,把真实的自己袒露出来。这只是第一步,但也是必不可少的一步。”

    通过写作,他也不断地回溯自己过去的经历,试图去理解,他人生中的各种际遇,到底以何种方式影响了他,让他成为了今天的自己。

    2008年,他在南宁经营女装店的时候,曾经遇到一个“疯女人”。

    女人穿着奇怪的衣服,搭配一只大得过分的包包。“她表情紧张,甚至有些害怕,脚步迟迟疑疑,但又竭力保持镇静。”胡安焉不认识她,只知道她精神有点问题。

    那天,女人走进他的店内,挑选了一条短裤,她没有走进试衣间,而是撩起短裙,直接套在自己的腿上。照了照镜子后,她没有脱下短裤,而是又套了第二条短裤在身上,接着是第三条。

    胡安焉看着眼前的女人,以及她身上挂着的三条短裤,突然有点难过,“从她的脸上,我清清楚楚地看到了自己,她就是另一个我——惊慌,恐惧,孤独,委屈。”

    多年后,他把这个“疯女人”写进自己的小说。

    这个萍水相逢的人,为何会给他留下如此深刻的印记,他没有答案,这毕竟不是一道数学题。这种模模糊糊的感觉,他只能通过小说去表达。

    年轻时,他初读塞林格的《麦田上的守望者》,从中获得了很多感动。他希望读者读了他的小说,也能体会到这种隐晦的、用言语说不出的滋味及感受。
    在小说的创作上,胡安焉野心不小。
    能有一本拿出来不脸红的,复杂性和丰富性都达到一定水平的代表作,是他当下的创作目标。但他明白,如果没有时间上的积淀,以及不断的自我进步,这是不可能实现的。
    “就像卡夫卡说的,唯一的美德是耐心。在写作上唯一需要的就是耐心。”
    现在,胡安焉没有固定的经济来源,靠偶尔到账的稿费度日。以后是否会拮据到需要去打工,甚至是做回快递员,重新过上那种西西弗斯推石头上山的日子,他自己也不确定。
    这个问题他也问过自己,如果西西弗斯没有石头,会怎样?
    如果说推石头上山,是一种机械的、徒劳的盲目;但没有石头,似乎又会失去目标感,陷入虚无之中。他以前的生活,好像只在这两种状态中摇摆。
    如今,他不再认为人生只有这两种可能。
    生活应该有更高的意义。“你可以把一生都投入到对这两种状态的克服之中,最后超越它。”

  • 王  鑫,张慧琴,孙昌璞:用科学精神抵御学术滑向灰色地带

    科技创新是推动人类社会进步的关键动力,在我国社会经济发展中扮演着日益重要的作用。而科学精神则是激励科技创新产生价值的行动规范,是一切科学活动的思想源泉,其求真、诚信、创新、怀疑、宽容等精神内核是科技创新健康发展的基本保证。

    改革开放以来,我国科技创新能力持续加强,科技创新水平显著提高,实质的科技创新成果也日渐增长。但在取得这些科技进步的同时,也出现了一些有违科学精神的现象。一些人受各种利益驱使,迅速滑向科研诚信的灰色地带,甚至走向学术不端,挑战科技界的学术底限(见图1)。学术不端行为是显而易见、容易判断的违规行为,而游走于学术不端和诚信科研之间的灰色地带的行为却贻害更深,比如说盲目追逐研究热点、挑选研究数据、过度解读研究结果等行为,长此以往它们对科技创新会产生严重危害。这些屡禁不止的行为主要源于不断滋生的趋利之风,同时也有科学创新自身属性带来的问题。科技创新本质上是创造前所未有的新东西,短期内很难评判其真正的价值。对于其价值的评价和评估难以完全客观,这或许是科技创新中学术灰色地带存在的内在因素。

    图 1  处于诚信科研和学术不端之间的灰色地带

    为了杜绝学术不端行为,我国相关部门和机构相继出台了一系列文件和规定,科技管理部门也三令五申,但实际上这些举措起不到令行则止的作用。与此同时,科学家群体也不断发出呼吁,希望科学研究要回归学术本源,用科学精神对科研不端和游走于灰色地带的行为进行约束并坚决说“不”。

    一、什么是科学研究的灰色地带?

    “科学研究的灰色地带”是介于诚信科研(responsible conduct of research)和学术不端(Research Misconduct)①[1]之间灰色地带的科研行为,也被称为“有问题的科研行为”(Questionable Research Practices)。这类行为虽然看上去可能并不严重,但它们违背了学术界传统价值观,对科学研究可能造成损害[2]

    科学研究的灰色地带涉及研究数据的规范性、完整性、可靠性,研究方法的科学性和逻辑性,以及对待科研人员的公正性和恰当性等方面[2]。有研究者具体列举了34种处于科研诚信灰色地带的行为[1],我们在此基础上将其归纳为四大类问题(见表1),即:在选题方面可能存在追逐流行或有利可图的题目、“过份地钻薄木板”等情况;在确定研究目的时可能存在违背伦理原则、利益相关关系不透明等情况;在研究方法上可能存在研究材料重复使用、无目的收集数据和挑选数据等情况;在论证过程中缺乏批判思维、过度解读结果或其影响力以及原创性不足等问题也值得关注。

    表 1  34种有问题的科研行为[1]

    资料来源:作者根据Ravn和Sørensen(2021)论文归纳整理。

    需要注意的是,一些理论和实验密切联系的研究存在着操纵数据以迎合理论的不良现象。这种粗暴地解释实验结果的行为,大大降低了理论内在的严谨性和实验求真的严肃性。最近,马约朗纳粒子研究领域的大量撤稿事件(见表2)正是这方面典型的例证,后文将详细阐述。

    表 2  马约朗纳粒子研究领域的撤稿情况

    学术界应该关注科学研究灰色地带问题。通常,对于学术不端行为(如伪造、篡改和剽窃),学术界已有广泛的共识和明确的定义,然而,在诚信科研和学术不端之间存在的一些灰色地带行为,它们既不像诚信科研那样“光明磊落”,也不像学术不端行为那样明确定义。由于对这些行为存在认知上的模糊,其种类和数量均要高于明确定义的学术不端行为。法内里.D(Fanelli D)的一项荟萃分析(meta-analysis)[3]表明,承认自己或同事有灰色地带科研行为的人员比例(分别为34%和72%),要高于承认自己或同事有学术不端行为的人员比例(分别为2%和14%)。

    国内外科学界事实上很早就注意到了这类科研灰色地带的研究。1958年,美国公共舆论研究学会的学术论文集中首次提到了有问题的科研行为,即不要为了证明一些预先确定的结果而进行有问题的科学研究[4]。我国也有很多科学家注意到了类似科研行为的危害。庆存瑞分析了病态科学(主观期望、一厢情愿的科学)产生的根源[5],认为科学研究上存在过于急于求成和存在投机心理,以及科学共同体没有充分发挥同行评议的作用。郝柏林[6]提醒学术界在揭露伪科学的同时还要警惕赝科学(即基于一定的事实,辅以各种联想和推论,却没有用现代科学方法证实或证伪的科学研究)的危害。他提出了赝科学的一些特点:一是某些在自己领域内有建树的科学家在其他领域搞赝科学具有迷惑性;二是从事赝科学的人士往往热衷于借助媒体宣传扩大影响而不真正下功夫在理论和实验上证明自己的主张;三是从事赝科学的人士热衷于提出新名词和新学科,却不花精力将新学科发展为真正的科学;四是从事赝科学的人士更容易获得支持。显而易见,病态科学和赝科学都处于科研灰色地带,这些研究往往会损害公众和政府对于科学的信任。

    二、历史上灰色地带“科学研究”的案例

    在众多处于灰色地带的科学研究中,有一些经典案例。

    1919年5月29日,英国科学家爱丁顿率领的日食观测队,通过对日全食时太阳周围恒星位置的观测,验证了爱因斯坦广义相对论。需要注意的是,爱丁顿当时测得的三组数据中,有两组数据支持爱因斯坦理论,而另一组数据则符合牛顿理论[7]。但爱丁顿认为那一组数据出现了系统误差,并未采用,也没有令人信服地解释产生误差的原因。几年后美国天文学家坎贝尔评论到“这项研究的逻辑似乎并不完全清晰”。

    另一个经典案例是密立根油滴实验。罗伯特·安德鲁·密立根(Robert Andrews Millikan)进行了175次测量基本电荷值的油滴实验,只公布了58次观测数据。有人认为他故意选取数据,但大卫·古斯丁(David Goodstein)并不这么认为[8]。古斯丁通过考证原始数据材料发现,密立根舍弃的那些是他认为不符合研究标准、且没有经历完整实验流程的油滴数据(例如油滴体积过大或者过小等),保留了经历完整实验过程的油滴数据,并全部公布了这些数据。在后人重复密立根的一系列实验中,却存在一个有趣的现象:在密立根之后的所有测量数据随着时间慢慢增长,最终稳定到一个数值。费曼在1974年的演讲中解释道:“当获得比密立根的数值更高的结果时,科学家们会拼命寻找错误原因;相反地,当获得与密立根相仿的结果时,便不会那么用心去检讨”。费曼称之为“草包族科学”(Cargo cult science)。这类类似科学的研究,遗漏了“科学的品德,也就是进行科学思考时必须遵守的诚实原则”。这种实验研究是在理论预设结果的“导向”下开展的,很显然是处于灰色地带的研究。当然,我们尚不能判断出密立根是否有意造假,因为我们不知道他是否知晓此前人们对电荷电量理论的推断。

    在我国科学发展历史上,有些科学家因为各种原因忽视了理论计算的适用条件和与实际误差之间的关系,在某些科学问题上提出了有问题的结论[9]。这类研究逐渐损害了科学共同体内部以及公众和政府中对科学研究声誉的认可。

    三、警惕灰色地带的科研行为

    1. 科学研究不是建造“空中楼阁”,警惕科学研究中的明星与“爆炸性成果”

    科学史告诉我们,科学研究不是一下子爆发出明星式的成果,而是通过长期奋斗逐步取得的。例如,开普勒三定律的提出是基于第谷终身积累的天文观测数据,屠呦呦发现青蒿素则源自阅读、整理数百本古代药物书籍和数百次实验。这些默默无闻、看似枯燥乏味却至关重要的基础工作需要极大耐心、大量时间和精力以及对科学研究的高度热情。虽然最终成果会被广泛认知,但其背后科研人员长期坚持不懈地工作却常常不为学术界外的人士所知。

    与之形成鲜明对比的是,处于灰色地带的科学研究往往被媒体大力宣传,有明星式的人物和所谓爆发出来的“成果”。例如,1989年有关冷聚变的研究掀起了轩然大波[5],当时美国犹他大学的科学家斯坦利·庞斯(Stanley Pons)和英国南安普顿大学的马丁·弗莱西曼(Martin Fleischmann)声称“发现”了室温下的氘-氘聚变反应,并且在论文投稿之前,美国犹他大学便召开新闻发布会进行宣传。该论文在未通过同行评议的情况下,犹他州州长就公开表示要提供500万美元资助。随后,全球众多科学家重复了这项实验,但冷聚变现象却始终没有得到确切的证据证实。值得注意的是,两位科学家拒绝公布实验细节和分享数据,并将客观可重复性问题变成一个主观的信仰问题。冷聚变事件游走于学术不端渐现的灰色地带,导致许多科学家花费时间、精力及资源去验证其真伪而造成浪费。

    类似事件在我国也曾发生。2016年,一位科学工作者的基因编辑论文被撤回,尽管最终没有证实其有主观造假行为。然而,从该论文发表时媒体大肆宣传到后来科学界对其结果提出质疑所引起的争议,再到全球科学家验证实验未能证明该论文结论,这个事件以论文撤搞而暂时平息。在论文成果还没有最终定论之前(尽管论文通过同行评议发表在高水平期刊上),媒体的大肆宣传、地方政府随之而来的资金和资源的投入,使得这一事件像冷聚变事件一样轰动但充满争议。相比之下,在实际应用中取得巨大成功的CRISPR(Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats)基因编辑工具,始于1987年日本科学家的偶然发现,此后经过一批科学家二三十年默默无闻的深入研究,科学家们才真正明确了CRISPR的生物学机理并揭示了其巨大应用价值。CRISPR持久受欢迎源自其被广泛认可的科学价值,而非媒体的推波助澜。

    在抵制学术灰色地带的事件中,同行评议通常发挥着维护科学客观性和严谨性的作用。然而,并非所有事件中同行评议都能及时发挥作用。此外,需要注意的是,由于各种因素的影响,同行评议可能存在滞后性。正如庆存瑞教授在对病态科学进行评价时所强调的那样,病态科学与同行评议未能充分发挥作用有一定关系。这也引起了人们对于当前科研中同行评议制度是否已经失效的争论[10]

    2. 自由探索不是“百科全书”式的研究,警惕原创水平不高的“伪自由探索”研究

    蒂尼·拉文(Tine Ravn)和麦兹·索伦森(Mads Søensen)认为,“无原创性”(unoriginality)的科学研究也处于灰色地带。在他们的文章中,一位物理学家表示“大家只是简单地制造过多且相似的论文,这些研究只是现有研究的装饰品,几乎没有原创性贡献。”这种基于前人研究而进行无实际价值或者盲目探索的“研究”结果,可能会在同行评议后发表在某些期刊上,并且作者可以将其研究冠以“自由探索”的名号。然而,这种做法异化了自由探索的概念,成为了“伪自由探索”,既不是研究自由,也不是科学探索。“伪自由探索”的另一种表现形式是开展“百科全书”式的科研,即在没有资源约束条件下,研究团队从事没有明确科学目标、肆意扩张的大型“研究”,研究方向就是整个热点领域,覆盖广却没有特色。

    1945年,范内瓦·布什(Vannevar Bush)在《科学——无尽的前沿》报告中传达了一种理念:好奇心驱动的科学研究必须能够在未来某个时候以某种方式对科学发展和技术应用产生影响。然而,在当前全球竞争环境下,麻省理工学院前校长雷欧·拉斐尔·莱夫(Leo Rafael Reif)认为,美国不能仅仅依赖这种理念下的基础研究发挥作用,还需要依靠面向需求的基础研究,有针对性地取得科学突破[11]。莱夫认为,布什所说的基础研究就像是一个小而美丽的自然花园(wild garden),但国家需要的科学更像是农场(farm),需要一群人共同凝练研究方向以满足国家乃至人类的需求。实际上,真正的好奇心驱动、自由探索式的科学研究只占基础研究很小的一部分,其目的是为未来培育和创造更多的可能性。对于自由探索研究的投入应该是有限的,对其较大的投入是需要深思熟虑的,其关键是严格选择最合适的人选。冠以“自由探索”的“伪自由探索”虽然侵占的资源可能不大,但其坏处不止于产出的价值微薄,它还会带坏风气,败坏科学作风,其潜在的破坏性不可估量。

    3. 灰色地带的科学研究浪费了时间和资源,造成科技创新体系无意义空转

    科学研究应是严谨和富有逻辑的。科学研究成果不仅能真实地展示客观世界、揭示其运行规律,更重要的是能真正地应用于现实,推动人类文明和生产力进步。然而,处于灰色地带的科学研究可信度低,这类研究越多就越损害科学研究的公信力。可能产生的后果便是,科学共同体互相间信任度降低,造成理论和实验脱节。进一步地,会使科学共同体外部(政府、企业等资助机构)对科学共同体的信任度降低,造成研究端与应用端的脱节。

    坚持科学研究的严谨性和逻辑性是“有代价”的,需要花费很多的时间、资源和精力来保证。因而,取得有价值的科研成果,需要科学工作者的长期奋斗。游走于科学研究灰色地带的行为当然是一种投机取巧,当有人靠着这种行为获得了事业上所谓的“进步”,受损害的是那些扎扎实实、实事求是的科研工作者对于科研体系乃至对我们社会的信心。科学共同体整体乃至这个社会信任度的降低及科研工作者个体信心的丧失,毫无疑问造成整个科技创新体系的低效。

    4. 灰色地带的科学研究行为的实质是缺少科学严谨性和实事求是的精神

    缺乏逻辑严谨性和实事求是的精神,是科学研究滑入灰色地带的根本原因。历史经验告诉我们,只有坚持科学的严谨性和发扬实事求是的科学精神,科学才能真正的进步。原子弹研发过程中的“九次计算”是体现科学严谨性的典型案例。1960年,在验证苏联专家提供的原子弹教学模型一个关键参数时,第一次计算耗时20天,但计算结果与苏联专家给出的结果不符。为了获得准确的结果,邓稼先带领九院的科学家们开展了艰苦的计算。三个月内,科学家们三班倒工作,进行了3次计算,结果仍然与苏联专家的不一致。于是科学家们又进行了5次计算。直到1961年,周光召用“最大功原理”证明了苏联专家的参数有误,验证了我国科学家“九次计算”结果的准确性。如果当时科学家们不坚持科学的严谨性,简单地认为苏联专家的参数是正确的,将极大影响原子弹的研发。

    四、从灰色地带到学术不端的典型案例:天使粒子如何妖魔化四

    如果实验科学家不能充分理解科学理论和实验之间的相互关系,他们可能会盲目地相信“理论”,并可能导致科学研究滑向学术灰色地带甚至堕入学术不端。

    在物理学中,当实验物理学家知道了“理论”的预言结果,在某些情况下,他们处理实验数据时会产生主观倾向,导致实验以一种不那么令人信服的方式“验证”了理论。1956年,李政道、杨振宁发现宇称不守恒并建立中微子二分量理论,预言μ子到正负电子衰变的实验分支比是3/4。此前相关实验发现的分支比在一定范围内几乎是随机的。此后10年,不同研究组的多次实验测量结果显示分支比稳定到3/4,而每一次实验的误差都落在前一个实验的误差范围内。这个事例告诉大家,单次实验观察不一定能完全独立于理论去无偏地验证理论预言,仅凭一次和少数几次实验检验理论的正确性是不可靠的,只有多次重复实验才能逼近理论描述的“客观实在”。

    此外,实验物理学家有时相信的“理论”预言,有可能只是某种简化模型和低阶近似的结果,而事实上模型和近似成立的条件可能十分苛刻,最近关于Majorana零模实验的激烈争论和批量撤稿(见表2)正是这一现象的典型案例。Majorana零模系统被认为可以应用于超导拓扑量子计算机中,因此成为研究热点。具体来说,理论上超导-纳米线(拓扑绝缘体-超导)紧邻复合系统一定会约化到Kitaev模型,从而具有Majorana零模,使其拥有拓扑保护的潜力。然而,在实验采用的强场(或强表面能隙)条件下,这些系统并不能约化到理想Kitaev模型。这时即使观察到的强度为2e2/h的零偏压信号,也不能代表Majorana零模的出现。最近,我们通过更加精确的分析和严格的计算表明[12],在过强或者过弱的磁场条件下,系统不会出现零偏压峰;事实上出现强度为2e2/h的零偏压峰只是Majorana零模的必要但非充分条件,不能用于判断体系是否是Majorana零模。然而,实验家为了迎合有效模型理论预言,甚至在误差范围外有取向地处理数据,“得到”了与理论相符合的错误结论。这也就是最近Majorana实验大量文章被撤稿的原因。

    上述问题出现的深层次原因在于一些人不能正确地理解和处理理论与实验之间的关系,他们有意无意地忽略理论预言成立的条件,将理想模型当实际系统来处理。同时,他们不能客观地分析和使用实验数据,而是为了迎合严格的或不严格的“理论”,人为地处理实验数据。为了拟合已有的理论,置反证的实验数据于不顾。这些做法很有可能导致科学研究滑向灰色地带甚至堕入学术不端。正如本文作者之一孙昌璞在《物理学报》上发表文章[13]所说:“一个好的理论-实验的结合工作,必须是双盲的、背靠背的,否则的话就会出现互相人为拟合趋同的科学诚信问题”。

    五、形成科学精神价值体系,拒绝学术灰色化

    由于科学本身的内在规律,科技创新的灰色地带问题的发现和判断有根本性的困难,有时外人很难区分科技成果是初创时的不完美,还是学术研究或价值取向的灰色地带。一旦不加区分,“错杀一千也不放过一个”就会扼杀正在成长的创新。创新的东西不仅和传统的有外在的不一样,而且其内在价值的评价体系也有异于传统。此时,科学精神就变得至关重要。正如社会学所述,在良序社会中,除了法律法规约束外,还需要道德价值观来约束那些法力不逮的地方。同样地,对于科学创新中出现的问题而言,仅靠有形的、刚性的科学规则规范是不够的,还需要无形的、内化于心的科学精神。我们充分相信一个拥有科学精神的学者,是绝不会在人所不知的地方放松自己对科学严谨性的追求。

    当前,全球科技发展和科技竞争进入了新的阶段。与其他科技强国一样,我国面临着一些人类发展的共同难题;同时随着科技创新水平逐渐接近世界前沿,我国又面临着越来越多的“无人区”探索;在越来越大的外部竞争压力下,我国必须在很多领域主动、自主地探索,开展自主可控的研究[14]。在这三重因素的影响下,我国正在不断拓展和深入“无人区”的探索,并遇到了很多在过去追赶状态中没有遇到过的新问题。

    在以追赶为主的科学发展态势下,多数科学研究的方向及其价值判断标准是确定的,我们可以跟踪国外的科学研究进展,在他人已有的工作基础上做一些创新,完全开放的同行评议也能很好地发挥作用。而在当前深入“无人区”探索的新阶段,科学研究的方向及其价值判断标准不像以往那么明确。传统的同行评议可能难以发挥应有作用(同行评议倾向于支持已有的研究方向),甚至会扼杀创新。同时,新的研究价值判断方法尚未建立起来。旧有价值判断准则的部分失效和新的价值判断准则的暂时缺位,容易导致学术不端或者学术灰色地带的行为发生。同时我们也要看到,科研竞争的不断加剧在客观上会导致学术不端及游走于学术灰色地带的行为发生[15]。因此,当我国科技创新进入新阶段,“无人区”探索逐渐拓展和深入时,特别需要注重对基础研究价值判断的革新。基础研究的有用性和基础性在短期内很难有一个明确的判断标准,所以需要依靠具有科学家精神(即科学精神和爱国主义)的价值判断。

    科学研究需要实事求是的精神。参与“两弹一星”的老一辈科学家以自己的实际行动阐释了严谨、实事求是的科学态度,这种科学态度应该始终坚持,并成为我国新时期科技创新文化的重要组成部分。于敏先生在巨大的政治压力下坚持科学真理,实事求是,充分体现了科学家精神。“文革”期间,实验工作队设计的一个小型化型号在一个关键动作上出了毛病,军事管制委员会的领导蓄意要把这次技术问题变为政治问题,于敏坚决拒绝按他们的意图说话:“如果我说假话,我现在可以轻松过关,但我经受不了历史和真理的考验。我宁愿现在挨整,决不说对不起历史的话,不说违背真理的话。”胡思得院士回忆到“于敏同志这种大义凛然的态度,在当时的政治环境下,确实是难能可贵,对我们是极大的教育和鼓舞,也免使科研工作走入歧途,我从此把于敏当作自己处世立业的学习榜样。”

    科学研究的实事求是精神还体现在以科研诚信规范正确处理研究中的错误。著名理论物理学家、“两弹一星”元勋彭桓武先生生前在正式科学刊物上发表的最后一份文字[16]便是他自己论文的一封更正信。刘寄星研究员曾在一次访问[17]中提到:“这封信足以反映彭先生一生严谨求实的科学态度”。2019年,中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅印发《关于进一步弘扬科学家精神 加强作风和学风建设的意见》,对弘扬科学家精神、加强作风和学风建设做出了全面系统部署。孙昌璞等10位科学家共同向广大科技工作者发出了“弘扬科学家精神,树立良好作风学风”倡议书[18],呼吁:自觉践行新时代科学家精神;坚守科研诚信底线和科研伦理规范;反对浮夸浮躁、急功近利;加强科研数据及成果管理;反对科研领域“圈子”文化;积极履行社会责任。他们呼吁:更要持续加强科研诚信建设、深入践行良好作风学风,呼吁要遵照科研诚信要求,负责任地开展科研活动,抵制学术不端和处于灰色地带的有问题的科研行为。

    基础科学研究应该面向国家重大需求与挑战,围绕社会、经济和产业发展中的共性问题,凝练关键科学问题并组织开展研究。绝不能在“自由探索”口号的庇护下,开展覆盖面广却不深刻的“百科全书”式的科学研究。不能不顾资源约束条件,做一些“豪华”的科学研究。不能一味追逐热点,为了一些利益(例如获得资助等)做一些所谓的“高显示度”的工作。我们需要科学家们能够在一个方向上深耕,“坐稳冷板凳”(或者说有战略定力),对基础理论形成深刻的理解,并将其运用到实际领域中去。

    ① 学术不端行为主要指伪造(falsification)、篡改 (fabrication)、剽窃(plagiarism)。

    参考文献

    [1]Ravn T, Sørensen M. Exploring the Gray Area: Similarities and Differences in Questionable Research Practices (QRPs) Across Main Areas of Research. Science and Engineering Ethics 27, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-021-00310-z
    [2]Institute of Medicine. Responsible Science: Ensuring the Integrity of the Research Process: Volume I. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.1992. https://doi.org/10.17226/1864.
    [3]Fanelli D. How many scientists fabricate and falsify research? A systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data. PloS one, 2009, 4(5): e5738. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005738.
    [4]Riley J. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Conference on Public Opinion Research. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 1958, 22(2): 169-216.
    [5]庆承瑞. 病态科学, 冷聚变及其它. 自然辩证法研究, 1991(1): 47-53. DOI: 10.19484/j.cnki.1000-8934.1991.01.009.
    [6]郝柏林. 伪科学与赝科学. 科学, 2002, 54(2): 40+2.
    [7]迈克尔·斯特雷文斯. 知识机器. 北京: 中信出版社, 2022: 31-33.
    [8]Goodstein D. In Defense of Robert Andrews Millikan. American Scientist, 2001, 89(1): 54-60. DOI: 10.1511/2001.14.724.
    [9]吴明喻. 科技政策研究二十年——吴明瑜口述自传. 湖南: 湖南教育出版社, 2015: 73.
    [10]Mastroianni A. The rise and fall of peer review. https://experimentalhistory.substack.com/p/the-rise-and-fall-of-peer-review [2023-2-27].
    [11]Reif R. How to Turn Vannevar Bush’s “Wild Garden” Into a Farm that Cultivates Solutions to Human Needs. Issues in Science and Technology. https://issues.org/vannevar-bush-wild-garden-science-policy-reif/ [2023-2-27].
    [12]Qiao, Li, Sun. Do Majorana zero modes emerge in the hybrid nanowire under a strong magnetic field?arXiv: 2112.13568 PRB.
    [13]孙昌璞. 当代理论物理发展趋势之我见 —杨振宁学术思想启发的若干思考. 物理学报, 2022, 71(1): 7-16. DOI: 10.7498/aps.71.20212307.
    [14]刘仓理. 如何确保国防科技领域科技链人才链安全. https://www.workercn.cn/c/2022-06-08/6972725.shtml
    [2023-2-27].
    [15]丹尼尔·格林伯格. 纯科学的政治. 上海: 上海科学技术出版社, 2020: V
    [16]彭桓武. 来信. 科学, 2007, 59(1): 52.
    [17]刘寄星. 严谨求实的物理学大师. https://www.cas.cn/zt/jzt/yszt/ldyxphw/mtbd/200703/t20070306_2671515.shtml [2023-2-27].
    [18]中国科学报. 10院士专家发起“弘扬科学家精神、树立良好作风学风”倡议 https://www.nsfc.gov.cn/csc/20340/20289/44932/index.html [2023-2-27]
  • 金庸:中国最大的历史教训是闭关锁国和思想控制[节]

    本文为金庸1994年10月3日至29日北京大学访问期间的演讲。

    中国文明不断消长   

    大家希望听我讲小说,其实写小说并没有什么学问,大家喜欢看也就过去了。我对历史倒是有点兴趣。今天我想简单地讲一个问题,就是中华民族如此长期地、不断地发展壮大,到底有何道理,有哪些规律?这几年我常在英国牛津大学,对英国文学、英国历史和中国历史很有兴趣。大家都知道,英国对二十世纪影响最大的一位历史学家名叫汤因比,他写了一部很长很长的《历史研究》。他在这部书中分析了很多世界上的文明,说明世界上的很多文明都在历史进程中衰退或消亡了,直到现在仍真正兴旺发达的文明只有两个,一个是西方的欧美文明,一个是东方的中国文明。

    而中国文明历史悠久且连续不断,则又是世界唯一的。虽然古代有的文明历史比中国早,有的文明范围比中国大,如巴比伦的文明、埃及的文明、希腊罗马的文明,但这些文明却因遇到外力的打击,或者自己腐化而逐渐衰退、消亡了。

    他说:一种文明总会遇到外来的挑战,如果该文明能很好地应付这个挑战,就能继续发展;如果不能很好地应付挑战,就会衰退,甚至消亡。这里也有多种情况:一种是遇到强大外族的打击,整个民族被杀光杀尽,消灭了;一种是民族内部长期僵化,没有改革,没有进化,象活的木乃伊,结果衰落了;有的则因自己的腐化而垮台;还有一种就是分裂,国家内战不休。   

    我们的国歌中有一句:“中华民族到了最危险的时候”,这句话是在抗战前后写的,它表示了一种忧患意识。那时候我国遭受外族敌人的侵略,处境确实非常危险。在座的各位同学年纪轻,不知道,你们的爸爸妈妈就知道了。我同在座的雷洁琼大姐、周南社长等都经历过这段艰难而危险的时刻。就我看来,我国历史上遭受外族侵略的危险时期有七个:第一是西周末年到春秋战国时期东西南北受到的外族进攻;第二是秦汉时期匈奴的进攻,时间长达四百年之久;第三是魏晋时鲜卑等五胡的进犯,时间也有四百年;第四是隋唐时期突厥和吐蕃的侵犯,时间约三百年;第五是五代、南北宋时期契丹、女真及西夏的侵犯,时间大概也是四百年;第六是元、明、清时期蒙古、满族的侵犯;第七是近代西方帝国主义和日本帝国主义的侵略。

    中国历史发展规律

    纵观中国历史,大概可以看到这样一个规律,我们的民族先是统一强盛,后来慢慢腐化,组织力量衰退。此时如果出现一些改革,那么就会中兴。如果改革失败了,或者自己腐化了,那么外族敌人就会入侵。在外族入侵的时候,我们民族有个很特殊的现象,就是外族的入侵常常是我们民族的转机。以上所讲的我们民族七次大的危机,又都是七次大的转机。历史上常常是外族人来了之后,我们华夏民族就跟它同化、融合,一旦同化、融合了,我们华夏民族就壮大起来,统一起来。   

    之后可能又腐化了,衰退了,或者分裂了,外族人来了,我们民族再融合,又壮大,如此循环往复。其他国家民族遇到外族入侵,要么打赢,要是打不赢,这个国家或民族就会垮台。我们中华民族遇到外族入侵时,常常能把外族打退,打不退的情况也很多,但却很难被征服。这是因为一方面我们有一股韧力,一股很顽强的抵抗力量;一方面我们又很开放,在文化上同它们融合在一起,经过一段时间,大家变成一个民族,我们的民族从此又壮大起来。   

    我在温哥华英属哥伦比亚大学获颁名誉教授时也曾讲到这个问题,以及其他一些中国的历史问题。加拿大的一些教授觉得我的这些观念比较新,并讨论为什么中国可以融合外族,而西方就融合不了。我想其中第一个原因是我国一开始就是农业社会,生产力比较高、技术比较先进,有强大的经济力量可以发展文化;第二个原因是从西周开始,我们已有了一个严密的宗法社会制度,后世讲到中国封建社会,总认为封建的宗法制度很束缚人的思想,很束缚人的行为,其实这种宗法制度也有它的历史作用,我们民族由于有了严密的继承制度,从而避免了内部的争斗和战争。

    一些游牧民族本来很强盛,但往往在关键的时候闹分裂。父亲死后,他的两个儿子或者三个儿子抢父亲的位子坐,罗马也有这种情况。一抢位子,就要打架,就要内乱。本来很强盛的部落、部族或者民族,一分裂,就要自己打自己。我们民族从西周开始,虽然自己内部斗争也不断有,但基本上还是遵循世袭制度,即父亲死了,嫡长子继位,这是当时中华民族发展的一个重要制度。一个社会的基本法律制度固定了,社会就会很稳定,内部斗争就会大大减少,这也是民族强盛的重要环节。还有一个重要环节,就是我们对外族是很开放的。

    从历史上看,中国很长很长的时候是外族统治的,如北魏。其实隋唐也有很大很大的少数民族的成份,主要是鲜卑人。有一个情况不知各位想到没有,我的小说中写过一个人叫“独孤求败”,独孤求败很骄傲,他一生与人比剑比武从没有输过,所以他改个名叫求败,希望失败一次,但却总没有败过。这个“独孤”就是鲜卑人。“鲜卑”这两个字,有些学者说“西伯利亚”就是“鲜卑利亚”,鲜卑人原本住在西伯利亚那一带。但这不是很一致的意见。

    北周的时候,有个人叫独孤信,他有很多女儿,其中大女儿嫁给了北周的皇帝,第四个女儿嫁给了唐高祖的父亲,第七个女儿嫁给了隋文帝。所以唐高祖和隋炀帝是表兄弟,唐太宗李世民则应叫隋炀帝为表叔。他们都有鲜卑的血统。唐太宗李世民的妈妈姓窦,是鲜卑人。唐太宗的皇后姓长孙,长孙和窦都是鲜卑人的姓。

    皇后的哥哥长孙无忌是唐朝很有名的宰相,他也是鲜卑人了。据我初步统计,唐朝宰相至少有2、3人是胡人,其中主要是鲜卑人。那时候说“胡人”就象我们现在说“洋人”一样,没有歧视的意思。在唐朝,有2、3个外国人当“国务院总理”,可见唐朝对外国人一点也不歧视。再说汉朝,汉武帝与匈奴交战,匈奴分裂投降了。其中一个匈奴王子叫金日石单,很受汉武帝重用。汉武帝死后,他的身后大事交给两个人,一个是霍光,一个就是金日石单。由此可见,我们民族壮大的重要原因就是非常开放。   

    我在武侠小说里写了中国武术怎样厉害,实际上是有些夸张了。中国人不太擅长打仗,与外国人打仗时,输的多,赢的少,但是我们有耐力,这次打不赢没关系,我们长期跟你干,打到后来,外国人会分裂的。如匈奴很厉害,我们打他不过。汉高祖曾在山西大同附近被匈奴人围困,无法脱身。他的手下便献了一条妙计,去向匈奴皇后说,汉人漂亮的女人很多,你如果把汉朝皇帝抓来,把汉人打垮了,俘虏了大批汉人中的漂亮女人,你这个皇后就要糟糕了。匈奴皇后中了这个诡计,便退兵了。

    匈奴后来分为南北,南匈奴投降了汉朝,北匈奴则向西走,一部分到了英国,以至灭亡了整个西罗马帝国。有意思的是,匈奴的一半被中国抵抗住了,投降了,另外一半却把整个欧洲打垮了。

    隋唐时期的突厥也是如此,他们分为东突厥和西突厥。东突厥向隋唐王朝投降了。慢慢地被华夏民族所融合。西突厥则向西行。来到了土耳其。后来土耳其把东罗马帝国打垮了,把整个君士坦丁堡占了下来,直到现在。所以我们不要一提起历史就认为我们民族不行,其实我们民族真正不行,只是16世纪以后的三、四百年的事情。

    最近我在牛津大学的一次聚餐会上遇到一位很有名的研究东亚经济的学者,他和我谈到中国经济的发展前途时说,中国的经济自古以来就很发达,人均收入一直是全世界第一,只是到了16世纪以后才慢慢被英国赶上去。而国民总收入却是到了1820年才被英国超过。中国国力居世界领先的地位竟保持了二、三千年之久。那位学者对中国经济前途非常乐观,他说大概到2020年时,中国的国民经济收入又会是全世界第一,并能长期保持下去,恐怕至少在那之后的四、五十年内没有任何国家能够赶得上。我听了之后很兴奋,问他是否有数据?他列举了很多统计数字。他是专家,不会随口乱说。我觉得他的分析是很有道理的。

    实际上我们中国古代在科学技术方面一直是很先进的,到宋朝尤其先进,大大超过了欧洲。那时我们的科技发明,欧洲是远远赶不上的。如造纸、印刷、火药、罗盘等在宋朝已经非常兴旺发达了。现在大家用的钞票也是中国发明的,在宋朝时代就已经开始使用了。那时我们的金融制度相当先进,货币的运用相当成熟。那么欧洲人什么时候才开始转机呢?应该说是到了中国的明朝,从那时起,中国开始落后了。   

    我想其中原因,一个是政治上的专制,对人民的思想控制很严,一点也不自由开放,动不动满门抄斩,株连九族,吓得人们不敢乱说乱动,全部权力控制在皇帝一人手里。另一个原因就是明朝对付不了日本倭寇的入侵,便异想天开,实行所谓海禁,把航海的船只全部烧掉,以为如此一来就能断绝与倭寇的来往,饿死倭寇。这是对日本完全不了解。这种愚蠢的禁令,当然是永乐皇帝之后、郑和下西洋之后的事情了。

    明朝一实行封锁,整个国力便开始衰退。与此同时,西方科学却开始发展,工业革命也开始了。有一个有趣的时间值得注意,那就是16世纪初的1517年,德国马丁路德公然否定教皇的权威,反对神权控制,就在这个时候,我国明朝的正德皇帝下江南。

    正德皇帝是个很无聊、很腐化的昏君,他下江南干了许多荒淫无耻的勾当。大家知道,在隋朝、唐朝,中国是很富强的,到了宋朝、元朝也还可以,那时候科学发达交通方便、对外开放。而欧洲正是封闭的时候,一切都由教廷控制,学术思想不自由。你说地球围绕太阳转,他却要你坐牢,一切都是封闭的。

    到了16世纪,欧洲自由开放了,科学发明开始了,可中国反而长期封锁起来了。这是最大的历史教训。   

    今天讲了这么多,无非是要大家明确两个观念,那就是改革和开放。中华民族之所以这样壮大,靠的就是改革和开放。当我们遇到困难的时候,内部要积极进行改革,努力克服困难,改革成功了,我们的民族就会中兴。同时我们还要对外开放,这点更为重要,因为中国人有自信心,我们自信自己的民族很强大,外来的武力或外来的文化我们都不害怕。

    另有一个重要观念,今天没有时间详谈。我认为过去的历史家都说蛮夷戎狄、五胡乱华、蒙古人、满洲人侵略中华,大好山河沦亡于异族等等,这个观念要改一改。我想写几篇历史文章,说少数民族也是中华民族的一分子,北魏、元朝、清朝只是少数派执政,谈不上中华亡于异族,只是“轮流做庄”。满洲人建立清朝执政,肯定比明朝好得多。这些观念我在小说中发挥得很多。希望将来写成学术性文字。  

    上面我讲到的那位英国历史学家汤因比在他初期写《历史研究》这部大著作的时候,并没有非常重视中国。到他快去世的时候,他得出一个结论:世界的希望寄托于中国文明和西方文明的结合。他认为西方文明的优点在于不断地发明、创造、追求、向外扩张,是“动”的文化。中国文明的优点在于和平,就好象长城,处于守势,平稳、调和,是“静”的文化。

    现在许多西方学者都认为,地球就这样大了,无止境地追求、扩充,是不可能的,也是不可取的。今后只能接受中国的哲学,要平衡、要和谐,民族与民族之间要相互协作,避免战争。由于科学的发展,核武器的出现,今后的世界大战将不可思议。一些疯狂的人也许执意要打核战争,殊不知,这种战争的结局将是人类的同归于尽。这种可能性不能说没有,我所接触到的西方学者目前对打核战争都不太担心,他们最担心的是三个问题:第一是自然资源不断地被浪费;第二是环境污染;第三是人口爆炸。这三个问题将关系到人类的前途。

    所以,现在许多西方人把希望寄托于中国,他们希望了解中国,了解中国的哲学。他们认为中国的平衡、和谐、团结的哲学思想、心理状态可能是解决整个人类问题的关键。   

    最近牛津有一个十分盛大的宴会,伦敦《泰晤士报》前总编辑李斯。莫格勋爵也参加了,他曾谈到,十九世纪世界的经济中心在伦敦,二十世纪初转到了纽约,到了战后七十年代、八十年代则转到了东京,而二十一世纪肯定要转到中国。至于这个中心是中国的北京还是上海。依我看,在北京或在上海都不是问题,只要是在中国就很好。

  • 湖北省博物馆(武汉):曾候乙尊盘

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    它出自2400年前战国时期的工匠之手,精巧得无以复加,至今无法进行3D扫描建模。

    夏冰镇 冬温酒

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    尊盘,由尊与盘两件器物组成;是盛酒器,一般作盛水器。

    冬天盘内盛装热水 可以加热尊中酒水,夏天盘中盛冰则可起到冰镇作用,可谓冬夏两相宜,相当于一个巨型“保温杯”,或宴飨xiǎng、祭祀之美器。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    铜尊重9千克,铜盘重19.2千克。玲珑剔透、极尽奢华,铸造技术水平精妙至极。

    盘底刻有铭文“曾侯乙作持用终(曾侯乙一直使用到最后)”,曾侯乙墓中出土的器物刻有这一铭文的共有208处,但只有此尊盘内的铭文有后期打磨补刻痕迹,即便是2400年后,打磨痕迹仍是清晰可辨。据考证,此处铭文显示曾侯乙并非尊盘最初主人,而是传了三代曾侯。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    尊口沿远看像云朵,实际是龙蛇盘旋环绕的镂空花纹。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    尊的颈部攀附四只反首吐舌、向上爬行的豹,豹身也以镂空的龙蛇装饰,尊的腹部和圈足满是蟠pánchī(虎形龙相物)纹和浮雕的龙。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    整个尊体共装饰有28条龙、32条蟠螭。

    盘的制作更为复杂,盘身的四个抠手,也是由无数条龙蛇组成的镂空花纹,抠手下有八条镂空夔kuí龙。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    盘足为四条圆雕的双身龙。

    整个盘体装饰龙56条、蟠螭48条。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    从尊口到盘足,还盘踞着上千只蟠pán huǐ(蜷曲的小蛇),无处不精美,处处有装饰。

    失蜡法代表作中国古代青铜器的巅峰,曾侯乙尊盘造型复杂精美,尤其是透空装饰层层堆叠,表层却又彼此独立且互不连接,只靠铜梗支撑。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    科学鉴定表明,曾侯乙尊盘集浑铸、分铸,焊接和失蜡法等多种工艺为一体,尊、盘各有34个、38个部件,分别通过56处和44处,铸、焊连成一体,部件之多 焊接之繁,十分罕见。

    2400年前的巨型“保温杯”太美了

    而失蜡法在尊和盘口沿的镂空附饰制作上的运用,更是佐证了在2000多年前,我国已经开始使用失蜡法铸造青铜器,而且造型艺术、铸造技术都已臻于完美。

    时光从不停滞,而匠人之心却以青铜为载体,永久流传。

  • 张爱玲:烬余录

    我与香港之间已经隔了相当的距离了几千里路,两年,新的事,新的人。战时香港所见所闻,唯其因为它对于我有切身的、剧烈的影响,当时我是无从说起的。现在呢,定下心来了,至少提到的时候不至于语无伦次。然而香港之战予我的印象几乎完全限于一些不相干的事。

             我没有写历史的志愿,也没有资格评论史家应持何种态度,可是私下里总希望他们多说点不相干的话。现实这样东西是没有系统的,像七八个话匣子同时开唱,各唱各的,打成一片混沌。在那不可解的喧嚣中偶然也有清澄的,使人心酸眼亮的一刹那,听得出音乐的调子,但立刻又被重重黑暗上拥来,淹没了那点了解。画家、文人、作曲家将零星的、凑巧发现的和谐联系起来,造成艺术上的完整性。历史如果过于注重艺术上的完整性,便成为小说了。像威尔斯的《历史大纲》,所以不能跻于正史之列,便是因为它太合理化了一点,自始至终记述的是小我与大我的斗争。

             清坚决绝的宇宙观,不论是政治上的还是哲学上的,总未免使人嫌烦。人生的所谓“生趣”全在那些不相干的事。

             在香港,我们初得到开战的消息的时候,宿舍里的一个女同学发起急来,道:“怎么办呢?没有适当的衣服穿!”她是有钱的华侨,对于社交上的不同的场合需要不同的行头,从水上跳舞会到隆重的晚餐,都有充分的准备,但是她没想到打仗。后来她借到了一件宽大的黑色棉袍,对于头上营营飞绕的空军大约是没有多少吸引力的。逃难的时候,宿舍的学生“各自奔前程”。战后再度相会她已经剪短了头发,梳了男式的菲律宾头,那在香港是风行一时的,为了可以冒充男性。战争期中各人不同的心理反应,确与衣服有关。譬如说,苏雷珈。苏雷珈是马来半岛一个偏僻小镇的西施,瘦小,棕黑皮肤,睡沉沉的眼睛与微微外露的白牙。像一般受过修道院教育的女孩子,她是天真得可耻。她选了医科,医科要解剖人体,被解剖的尸体穿衣服不穿?苏雷珈曾经顾虑到这一层,向人打听过。这笑话在学校里早出了名。

             一个炸弹掉在我们宿舍的隔壁,舍监不得不督促大家避下山去。在急难中苏雷珈并没忘记把她最显焕的衣服整理起来,虽然许多有见识的人苦口婆心地劝阻,她还是在炮火下将那只累赘的大皮箱设法搬运下山。苏雷珈加入防御工作,在红十字会分所充当临时看护,穿着赤铜地绿寿字的织锦缎棉袍蹲在地上劈柴生火,虽觉可惜,也还是值得的。那一身伶俐的装束给了她空前的自信心,不然,她不会同那些男护士混得那么好。同他们一起吃苦,担风险,开玩笑,她渐渐惯了,话也多了,人也干练了。战争对于她是很难得的教育。

             至于我们大多数的学生,我们对于战争所抱的态度,可以打个譬喻,是像一个人走在硬板凳上打瞌盹,虽然不舒服,而且没结没完地抱怨着,到底还是睡着了。

             能够不理会的,我们一概不理会,出生入死,沉浮于最富色彩的经验中,我们还是我们,一尘不染,维持着素日的生活典型。有时候仿佛有点反常,然而仔细分析起来,还是一贯作风。像艾芙林,她是从中国内地来的,身经百战,据她自己说是吃苦耐劳,担惊受怕惯了的。可是轰炸我们邻近的军事要塞的时候,艾芙林第一个受不住,歇斯底里起来,大哭大闹,说了许多可怖的战争的故事,把旁的女学生一个个吓得面无人色。

             艾芙林的悲观主义是一种健康的悲观。宿舍里的存粮看看要完了,但是艾芙林比平时吃得特别多,而且劝我们大家努力地吃,因为不久便没的吃了。我们未尝不想极力撙节,试行配给制度,但是她百般阻挠,她整天吃饱了就坐在一边啜泣,因而得了便秘症。

             我们聚集在宿舍的最下层,黑漆漆的箱子间里,只听见机关枪“忒啦啦拍拍”像荷叶上的雨。因为怕流弹,小大姐不敢走到窗户跟前迎着亮洗菜,所以我们的菜汤里满是蠕蠕的虫。

             同学里只有炎樱胆大,冒死上城去看电影——看的是五彩卡通——回宿舍后又独自在楼上洗澡,流弹打碎了浴室的玻璃窗,她还在盆里从容地泼水唱歌,舍监听见歌声,大大地发怒了。她的不在乎仿佛是对众人的恐怖的一种讽嘲。港大停止办公了,异乡的学生被迫离开宿舍,无家可归,不参加守城工作,就无法解决膳宿问题。我跟着一大批同学到防空总部去报名,报了名领了证章出来就遇着空袭。我们从电车上跳下来向人行道奔去,缩在门洞子里,心里也略有点怀疑我们是否尽了防空团员的责任。——究竟防空员的责任是什么,我还没来得及弄明白,仗已经打完了。——门洞子里挤满了人,有脑油气味的,棉墩墩的冬天的人。从人头上看出去,是明净的浅蓝的天。一辆空电车停在街心,电车外面,淡淡的太阳,电车里面,也是太阳——单只这电车便有一种原始的荒凉。

             我觉得非常难受——竟会死在一群陌生人之间么?可是,与自己家里人死在一起,一家骨肉被炸得稀烂,又有什么好处呢?有人大声发出命令:“摸地!摸地!”哪儿有空隙让人蹲下地来呢?但是我们一个磕在一个的背上,到底是蹲下来了。飞机往下扑,砰的一声,就在头上。我把防空员的铁帽子罩住了脸,黑了好一会,才知道我们并没有死,炸弹落在对街。一个大腿上受了伤的青年店伙被抬进来了,裤子卷上去,少微流了点血。他很愉快,因为他是群众的注意集中点。门洞子外的人起先捶门捶不开,现在更理直气壮了,七嘴八舌嚷:“开门呀,有人受了伤在这里!开门!开门!”不怪里面不敢开,因为我们人太杂了,什么事都做得出。外面气得直骂“没人心。”到底里面开了门,大家一哄而入,几个女太太和女佣木着脸不敢做声,穿堂里的箱笼,过后是否短了几只,不得而知。飞机继续掷弹,可是渐渐远了。警报解除之后,大家又不顾命地轧上电车,唯恐赶不上,牺牲了一张电车票。

             我们得到了历史教授佛朗士被枪杀的消息——是他们自己人打死的。像其他的英国人一般,他被征入伍。那天他在黄昏后回到军营里去,大约是在思索着一些什么,没听见哨兵的吆喝,哨兵就放了枪。

             佛朗士是一个豁达的人,彻底地中国化,中国字写得不错,(就是不大知道笔划的先后),爱喝酒。曾经和中国教授们一同游广州,到一个名声不大好的尼庵里去看小尼姑。他在人烟稀少处造有三幢房屋,一幢专门养猪。家里不装电灯自来水,因为不赞成物质文明。汽车倒有一辆、破旧不堪,是给仆欧买菜赶集用的。

             他有孩子似的肉红脸,瓷蓝眼睛,伸出来的圆下巴,头发已经稀了,颈上系一块暗败的蓝字宁绸作为领带。上课的时候他抽烟抽得像烟囱。尽管说话,嘴唇上永远险伶伶地吊着一支香烟,跷板似的一上一下,可是再也不会落下来。烟蒂子他顺手向窗外一甩,从女学生蓬松的鬈发上飞过,很有着火的危险。

             他研究历史很有独到的见地。官样文字被他耍着花腔一念,便显得非常滑稽,我们从他那里得到一点历史的亲切感和扼要的世界观,可以从他那里学到的还有很多很多。可是他死了——最无名目的死。第一,算不了为国捐躯。即使是“光荣殉国”,又怎样?他对于英国的殖民地政策没有多大同情,但也看得很随便,也许因为世界上的傻事不止那一件。每逢志愿兵操演,他总是拖长了声音通知我们:“下礼拜一不能同你们见面了,孩子们,我要去练武功。”想不到“练武功”竟送了他的命——一个好先生,一个好人。人类的浪费……围城中种种设施之糟与乱,已经有好些人说在我头里了。政府的冷藏室里,冷气管失修,堆积如山的牛肉,宁可眼看着它腐烂,不肯拿出来,做防御工作的人只分到米与黄豆,没有油,没有燃料。各处的防空机关只忙着争柴争米,设法喂养手下的人员,哪儿有闲工夫去照料炸弹?接连两天我什么都没吃,飘飘然去上工。当然,像我这样不尽职的人,受点委曲也是该当的。在炮火下我看完了《官场现形记》。小时候看过而没能领略它的好处,一直想再看一遍,一面看,一面担心能够不能够容我看完。字印得极小,光线又不充足,但是,一个炸弹下来,还要眼睛做什么呢——“皮之不存,毛将焉附?”

             围城的十八天里,谁都有那种清晨四点钟的难挨的感觉——寒噤的黎明,什么都是模糊,瑟缩,靠不住。回不了家,等回去了,也许家已经不存在了。房子可以毁掉,钱转眼可以成废纸,人可以死,自己更是朝不保暮。像唐诗上的“凄凄去亲爱,泛泛入烟雾”,可是那到底不像这里的无牵无挂的虚空与绝望。人们受不了这个,急于攀住一点踏实的东西,因而结婚了。

             有一对男女到我们办公室里来向防空处长借汽车去领结婚证书。男的是医生,在平日也许并不是一个“善眉善眼”的人,但是他不时的望着他的新娘子,眼里只有近于悲哀的恋恋的神情。新娘是看护,矮小美丽、红颧骨,喜气洋洋,弄不到结婚礼服,只穿着一件淡绿绸夹袍,镶着墨绿花边。他们来了几次,一等等上几个钟头,默默对坐,对看,熬不住满脸的微笑,招得我们全笑了。实在应当谢谢他们给带来无端的快乐。

             到底仗打完了。乍一停,很有一点弄不惯,和平反而使人心乱,像喝醉酒似的。看见青天上的飞机,知道我们尽管仰着脸欣赏它而不至于有炸弹落在头上,单为这一点便觉得它很可爱,冬天的树,凄迷稀薄像淡黄的云;自来水管子里流出来的清水,电灯光,街头的热闹,这些又是我们的了。第一,时间又是我们的了——白云,黑夜,一年四季——我们暂时可以活下去了,怎不叫人欢喜得发疯呢?就是因为这种特殊的战后精神状态,一九二○年在欧洲号称“发烧的一九二○年”

             我记得香港陷落后我们怎样满街的找寻冰淇淋和嘴唇膏。我们撞进每一家吃食店去问可有冰淇淋。只有一家答应说明天下午或许有,于是我们第二天步行十来里路去践约,吃到一盘昂贵的冰淇淋,里面吱格吱格全是冰屑子。街上摆满了摊子,卖胭脂,西药、罐头牛羊肉,抢来的西装,绒线衫,素丝窗帘,雕花玻璃器皿,整匹的呢绒。我们天天上城买东西,名为买,其实不过是看看而已。从那时候起我学会了怎样以买东西当作一件消遣。——无怪大多数的女人乐此不疲。

             香港重新发现了“吃”的喜悦。真奇怪,一件最自然,最基本的功能,突然得到过份的注意,在情感的光强烈的照射下,竟变成了下流的,反常的。在战后的香港,街上每隔五步十步便蹲着个衣冠济楚的洋行职员模样的人,在小风炉上炸一种铁硬的小黄饼。香港城不比上海有作为,新的投机事业发展得极慢。许久许久,街上的吃食仍旧为小黄饼所垄断。渐渐有试验性质的甜面包,三角饼,形迹可疑的椰子蛋糕。所有的学校教员,店伙,律师帮办,全都改行做了饼师。

             我们立在摊头上吃滚油煎的萝卜饼,尺来远脚底下就躺着穷人的青紫的尸首。上海的冬天也是那样的罢?可是至少不是那么尖锐肯定。香港没有上海有涵养。

             因为没有汽油,汽车行全改了吃食店,没有一家绸缎铺或药房不兼卖糕饼。香港从来没有这样馋嘴过。宿舍里的男女学生整天谈讲的无非是吃。

             在这狂欢的气氛里,唯有乔纳生孤单单站着,充满了鄙夷和愤恨。乔纳生也是个华侨同学,曾经加入志愿军上阵打过仗。他大衣里只穿着一件翻领衬衫,脸色苍白,一绺头发垂在眉间,有三分像诗人拜伦,就可惜是重伤风。乔纳生知道九龙作战的情形。他最气的便是他们派两个大学生出壕沟去把一个英国兵抬进来——“我们两条命不抵他们一条。招兵的时候他们答应特别优待,让我们归我们自己的教授管辖,答应了全不算话!”他投笔从戎之际大约以为战争是基督教青年会所组织的九龙远足旅行。

             休战后我们在“大学堂临时医院”做看护。除了由各大医院搬来的几个普通病人,其余大都是中流弹的苦力与被捕时受伤的乘火打劫者。有一个肺病患者比较有点钱,雇了另一个病人服侍他,派那人出去采办东西,穿着宽袍大袖的病院制服满街跑,院长认为太不成体统了,大发脾气,把二人都撵了出去。另有个病人将一卷绷带,几把手术刀叉,三条病院制服的裤子藏在褥单底下,被发觉了。

             难得有那么戏剧化的一刹那。病人的日子是修长得不耐烦的。上头派下来叫他们拣米,除去里面的沙石与稗子,因为实在没事做,他们似乎很喜欢这单调的工作。时间一长,跟自己的伤口也发生了感情。在医院里,各个不同的创伤就代表了他们整个的个性。每天敷药换棉花的时候,我看见他们用温柔的眼光注视新生的鲜肉,对之仿佛有一种创造性的爱。

            他们住在男生宿舍的餐室里。从前那间房子充满了喧哗——留声机上唱着卡门麦兰达的巴西情歌,学生们动不动就摔碗骂厨子。现在这里躺着三十几个沉默,烦躁,有臭气的人,动不了腿,也动不了脑筋,因为没有思想的习惯。枕头不够用,将他们的床推到柱子跟前,他们头抵在柱子上,颈项与身体成九十度角。就这样眼睁睁躺着,每天两顿红米饭,一顿干,一顿稀。太阳照亮了玻璃门,玻璃上糊的防空纸条经过风吹雨打,已经撕去了一大半了,斑驳的白迹子像巫魔的小纸人,尤其在晚上,深蓝的玻璃上现出奇形怪状的小白魍魉的剪影。

             我们倒也不怕上夜班,虽然时间特别长,有十小时。夜里没有什么事做。病人大小便,我们只消走出去叫一声打杂的:“二十三号要屎乒。(“乒”是广东话,英文Pan的音译)”或是“三十号要溺壶。”我们坐在屏风后面看书,还有宵夜吃,是特地给送来的牛奶面包。唯一的遗憾便是:病人的死亡,十有八九是在深夜。

             有一个人,尻骨生了奇臭的蚀烂症。痛苦到了极点,面部表情反倒近于狂喜……眼睛半睁半闭,嘴拉开了仿佛痒丝丝抓捞不着地微笑着。整夜他叫唤:“姑娘啊!姑娘啊!”悠长地,颤抖地,有腔有调。我不理。我是一个不负责任的,没良心的看护。我恨这个人,因为他在那里受磨难,终于一房间的病人都醒过来了。他们看不过去,齐声大叫“姑娘”。我不得不走出来,阴沉地站在他床前,问道:“要什么?”他想了一想,呻吟道:“要水。”他只要人家给他点东西,不拘什么都行。我告诉他厨房里没有开水,又走开了。他叹口气,静了一会,又叫起来,叫不动了,还哼哼:“姑娘啊……姑娘啊……哎,姑娘啊……”

             三点钟,我的同伴正在打瞌盹,我去烧牛奶,老着脸抱着肥白的牛奶瓶穿过病房往厨下去。多数的病人全都醒了,眼睁睁望着牛奶瓶,那在他们眼中是比卷心百合花更为美丽的。

             香港从来未曾有过这样寒冷的冬天。我用肥皂去洗那没盖子的黄铜锅,手疼得像刀割。锅上腻着油垢,工役们用它煨汤,病人用它洗脸。我把牛奶倒进去,铜锅坐在蓝色的煤气火焰中,象一尊铜佛坐在青莲花上,澄静,光丽。但是那拖长腔的“姑娘啊!姑娘啊!”追踪到厨房里来了。小小的厨房只点一只白蜡烛,我看守着将沸的牛奶,心里发慌,发怒,像被猎的兽。

             这人死的那天我们大家都欢欣鼓舞。是天快亮的时候,我们将他的后事交给有经验的职业看护。自己缩到厨房里去。我的同伴用椰子油烘了一炉小面包,味道颇像中国酒酿饼。鸡在叫,又是一个冻白的早晨。我们这些自私的人若无其事的活下去了。

             除了工作之外我们还念日文。派来的教师是一个年轻的俄国人,黄头发剃得光光地。上课的时候他每每用日语问女学生的年纪。她一时答不上来,他便猜:“十八岁?十九岁?不会超过廿岁罢?你住在几楼?待会儿我可以来拜访么?”她正在盘算着如何托辞拒绝,他便笑了起来道:“不许说英文。你只会用日文说:‘请进来。请坐。请用点心。’你不会说:‘滚出去!’”说完了笑话,他自己先把脸涨得通红。起初学生黑压压拥满一课堂,渐渐减少了。少得不成样,他终于赌气不来了,另换了先生。

             这俄国先生看见我画的图,独独赏识其中的一张,是炎樱单穿着一件衬裙的肖像。他愿意出港币五元购买,看见我们面有难色,连忙解释:“五元,不连画框。”

             由于战争期间特殊空气的感应,我画了许多图,由炎樱着色。自己看了自己的作品欢喜赞叹,似乎太不像话,但是我确实知道那些画是好的,完全不像我画的,以后我再也休想画出那样的图来。就可惜看了略略使人发糊涂。即使以一生的精力为那些杂乱重叠的人头写注解式的传记,也是值得的。譬如说,那暴躁的二房东太太,斗鸡眼突出像两只自来水龙头;那少奶奶,整个的头与颈便是理发店的电气吹风管;像狮子又像狗的,蹲踞着的有传染病的妓女,衣裳底下露出红丝袜的尽头与吊袜带。

             有一幅,我特别喜欢炎樱用的颜色,全是不同的蓝与绿,使人联想到“沧海月明珠有泪,蓝田日暖玉生烟”那两句诗。

             一面在画,一面我就知道不久我会失去那点能力。从那里我得到了教训——老教训:想做什么,立刻去做,都许来不及了。“人”是最拿不准的东西。

             有个安南青年,在同学群中是个有点小小名气的画家。他抱怨说战后他笔下的线条不那么有力了。因为自己动手做菜,累坏了臂膀。因之我们每天看见他炸茄子,(他只会做一样炸茄子)总觉得凄惨万分。

             战争开始的时候,港大的学生大都乐得欢蹦乱跳,因为十二月八日正是大考的第一天,平白地免考是千载难逢的盛事。那一冬天,我们总算吃够了苦,比较知道轻重了。可是“轻重”这两个字,也难讲……去掉了一切的浮文,剩下的仿佛只有饮食男女这两项。人类的文明努力要想跳出单纯的兽性生活的圈子,几千年来的努力竟是枉费精神么?事实是如此。香港的外埠学生困在那里没事做,成天就只买菜,烧菜,调情——不是普通的学生式的调情,温和而带一点感伤气息的。在战后的宿舍里,男学生躺在女朋友的床上玩纸牌一直到夜深。第二天一早,她还没起床,他又来了,坐在床沿上。隔壁便听见她娇滴滴叫喊:“不行!不吗!不,我不!”一直到她穿衣下床为止。这一类的现象给人不同的反应作用——会使人悚然回到孔子跟前去,也说不定。到底相当的束缚是少不得的。原始人天真虽天真,究竟不是一个充分的“人”。医院院长想到“战争小孩”(战争期间的私生子)的可能性,极其担忧。有一天,他瞥见一个女学生偷偷摸摸抱着一个长形的包裹溜出宿舍,他以为他的噩梦终于实现了。后来才知道她将做工得到的米运出去变钱,因为路上流氓多,恐怕中途被劫,所以将一袋米改扮了婴儿。

             论理,这儿聚集了八十多个死里逃生的年轻人,因为死里逃生,更是充满了生气:有的吃,有的住,没有外界的娱乐使他们分心;没有教授,(其实一般的教授们,没有也罢),可是有许多书,诸子百家,诗经,圣经,莎士比亚——正是大学教育的最理想的环境。然而我们的同学只拿它当做一个沉闷的过渡时期——过去是战争的苦恼,未来是坐在母亲膝上哭诉战争的苦恼,把憋了许久的眼泪出清一下。眼前呢,只能够无聊地在污秽的玻璃窗上涂满了“家,甜蜜的家”的字样。为了无聊而结婚,虽然无聊,比这种态度还要积极一点。

             缺乏工作与消遣的人们不得不提早结婚。但看香港报上挨挨挤挤的结婚广告便知道了。学生中结婚的人也有。一般的学生对于人们的真性情素鲜认识,一旦有机会刮去一点浮皮,看见底下的畏缩,怕痒,可怜又可笑的男人或女人,多半就会爱上他们最初的发现。当然,恋爱与结婚是于他们有益无损,可是自动地限制自己的活动范围,到底是青年的悲剧。

             时代的车轰轰地往前开。我们坐在车上,经过的也许不过是几条熟悉的街衢,可是在漫天的火光中也自惊心动魄。就可惜我们只顾忙着在一瞥即逝的店铺的橱窗里找寻我们自己的影子——我们只看见自己的脸,苍白,渺小:我们的自私与空虚,我们恬不知耻的愚蠢——谁都像我们一样,然而我们每人都是孤独的。

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    陈韦伶是一个单亲家庭长大的孩子,她回忆,因为潮汕地区大多人的思想都很保守,在身边的家庭,会一直想要生个儿子传承香火,在看到她是女孩子时,亲生父亲就和母亲离婚了,她跟着妈妈、外婆一起生活。在读三年级时,她离开了揭阳,和舅舅家人在佛山生活。

    《瞧一瞧》

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    她现在生活在广州一栋40多年的老楼里,有一间36㎡的自己的房子。

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    2023.4.26 徐跋骋抄袭

    中国美术学院绘画艺术学院油画系第二工作室教师徐跋骋被曝光抄袭国外艺术家的画作,尤其是艺术家希娜·加文(Seana Gavin)和吉姆·卡赞赞(Jim Kazanjian)两人的作品。大量对比图显示徐抄袭国外艺术家作品时间长达十年。希娜·加文在ins上发文表示自己很震惊,徐一副抄袭的作品居然售价高达10万美元,她号召大家揭露这一行径,不要购买徐的作品。

    4月26日,中国美术学院就此前该校教师徐跋骋被曝作品涉嫌抄袭问题回应称,学校成立专门调查组,依规开展调查。根据调查组调查,经校院两级学术委员会认定,徐跋骋学术不端行为属实。给予降低岗位等级、撤销专业技术职务的处分,并决定与其终止聘用关系。

    2023.4 钟海燕贪污2亿元

    钟海燕,女,生于1963年,1996年开始担任校长,2009年调任贵阳实验小学任校长至案发,兼任贵州省教育学会第五届理事会副会长,2020年获“全国先进工作者”称号。据称其贪污受贿的金额高达2.2亿,还涉嫌多项违法违纪行为。
    贵阳市实验小学是贵州省重点小学,集团化办学,有10多个分校,共有130个教学班,6000多名学生。权谋私、暗箱操作、接受贿赂就成了她的日常。要想进这样的小学,一个指标大概就要十万块。
    其最大的贪腐来自于贪污学生学费、课本费、辅导教材费、补课费、学校招标采购、基建维修等,其中一个校区修个游泳池就花了1.2亿,同时还在学校内高价售卖物品。

    2023.4.23 袁久红在工作群发不雅照

    4月24日,东南大学称,网传我校马院负责人袁某某在某微信群里发不雅图片,学校对此高度重视,立即开展调查。根据初步调查结果,情况属实,学校决定免去其院长职务。
    袁久红,男,1966年出生,江西兴国人,东南大学首席教授,博士生导师,曾任东南大学宣传部部长、东南大学马克思主义学院院长,第十五届校委员会委员,2014年教育部社会科学司“全国高校思想政治理论课教学能手”

    2023.4.18 钟阳接受调查

    2023.4.18消息:贵州省黔南州委副书记、州政府党组书记、州长钟阳涉嫌严重违纪违法接受纪律审查和监察调查。钟最后一次公开露面是在4月14日,参加了当天黔南州委的几场重要会议。4月17日,黔南州一家国有资本运营有限公司的党委委员雷钱龙已被带走。
    钟阳,女,1972年生,布依族;历任贵阳市团委组织部干部、部长助理、组织部部长等,在老部长的指点和帮助下,2002年5月被任命为共青团贵阳市委副书记;后在同乡刘文新帮助下,2005年升为贵阳市委秘书长;2009年调任息烽县委副书记,后为息烽县县长;2015年调回贵阳任国家经济技术开发区党工委副书记、管委会主任,花溪区委书记;2018年,其情人李再勇晋升为贵州省副省长,钟调任黔南州担任副州长,2021年任州长
    据悉,钟常胁迫男性下属,包养情人;其情人太多,其中一人举报了她。

    2023.1.24 赵明被女博士生举报

    大年初三,西南大学一位网名为“西南大学唯泉雪声”的女博士生公开举报其导师,西南大学政法学院的博士生导师赵明教授,称赵以“你毕业论文不合格,你就不能顺利毕业,想要顺利毕业,就得与其发生性关系,必须随叫随到,否则这辈子都别想毕业”,作为要挟理由该名女博士与其保持了长达3年之久的不正当关系。
    据学校通告:2022年9月16日,这位博士生就曾向学校反映其导师赵的相关问题,当时学校调查认定属实,确认导师存在严重师德师风问题。在此之后,作出取消研究生导师资格、调离教师岗位、降低岗位等级、报请主管部门批准撤销教师资格等处分决定。只是女博士发现自己的导师依然是赵明,于是她认定学校只是想着息事宁人,将事件控制在校内,这也彻底激怒了女博士,这才决意公开举报。

    2022.7 方岱宁视频会议被吻

    2022年7月初,中科院院士、北京理工大学教授方岱宁在参加一个视频会议时,一名年轻女子突然进入镜头连续亲吻他的脸,方岱宁提醒对方正在视频连线后,女子随即离开镜头。
    2022年12月7日,北京理工大学就此事发布情况通报,主要内容如下:
    经查核,视频内容是方岱宁今年7月初在线参加学术会议时发生的事情,因其行为失范,造成严重不良影响,根据有关规定,学校决定免去方岱宁的校学术委员会主任、校务委员会副主任职务,停止其研究生招生资格。视频中出现在方岱宁身边的女性为北京某公司职员,未曾在我校有过任何学习进修及工作经历。

    2019.3 王胜战贪污3亿

    王胜战,1967年出生,浙江宁海人。1986年考入浙江农村技术师范专科学校农学系园艺专业,1989年毕业分配至宁海第二职业中学任教,并担任团总支负责人,1991年到余姚市一中学担任教师,2006年任余姚市第五中学校长,2010年成为余姚中学校长,2018年王胜战被中国教育报评为“最受读者欢迎的校长”,2020年被任命为余姚市教育局党委书记、局长。
    王东窗事发的缘由是因为学校食堂配餐,余姚市一共有288所各级学校,这些学校的配餐水准全部由王一人决定。经查,王涉嫌金额高达3亿元,包养2个校长,祸害18名学生,还同103个女老师发生了实质性的关系。“早上到单位醒酒,中午陪情妇,晚上KTV”。
    2019年7月,王胜战被开除党籍、开除公职,2020年1月被判处死缓,剥夺政治权利终身,并被没收个人全部财产。