从此走进深度人生 Deep net, deep life.

分类: 财经

  • 威廉·伯恩斯坦《群体的疯狂》1-7

    前言
    1 末日论的起源 约阿希姆的子民们
    2 滥用末日叙事的悲剧 信徒与无赖
    3 短暂的致富 密西西比泡沫与南海泡沫
    4 资本主义的英雄 英国铁路泡沫
    5 米勒运动的“大失望” 数秘主义与确认偏见
    6 弹性货币政策的灾难 泡沫与崩溃的四个前提
    7 致富空想的破灭 1929年大萧条
    8 天启之牛 时代论如何兴起
    9 圣殿山的争夺 末日叙事如何影响犹太人建国
    10 《启示录》的开创者 畅销书与美国核武政策
    11 时代论的灾难 大卫教派的悲剧
    12 “被提”类小说 末日文学为何畅销
    13 资本主义的慈善家 从环球电讯、安然公司到互联网泡沫
    14 数字时代暴富梦的推手 投资分析师、大众、媒体与政治家
    15 伊斯兰国的兴衰 马赫迪与哈里发
    后记

    前言

    近两个世纪之前,一位年轻的名叫查尔斯·麦基的苏格兰人,以令人难忘的方式同时攻击上帝和玛门[1]。他出生于1814年,是一名颇受欢迎的诗人、民谣作家,还担任过美国内战记者和英国报纸的编辑,在文学生涯中享有杰出的声誉。但后人对他最深刻的印象,是他在1841年撰写了《异常流行幻象与群众疯狂》(Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions)一书,当时他才27岁。该书讲述了多个历史性群体狂热事件,其中一些与宗教和货币有关。[2]从那以后,这本书为读者不断加印。

    麦基记录了公元1000年前笼罩在欧洲的末日幻想,以及十字军东征时期惊人的宗教疯狂。不过,这本书最著名的内容是17世纪30年代荷兰郁金香投机,以及1719—1720年巴黎和伦敦双股市泡沫中的群体性金融狂热。这些情节使这本书一直享有盛誉[3]。在它出版之后,接连发生的金融狂热的频繁性、规律性及其造成的全球性影响,使得即使在写成近两个世纪之后,这本书依然是金融专业人士的必读经典。[4]

    麦基并不是第一个认识到人类的非理性具有传染性的人。例如,希罗多德写过这样一段话:
    (大流士)担任波斯国王的时候,他召见了统治下的一些希腊人,问付给他们多少钱他们才愿意吃掉自己父亲的遗体。他们回答说,无论给多少钱都不可能做这种事情。然后,当着希腊人的面,大流士又把印度卡拉提亚人(他们愿意吃掉自己双亲的遗体)召来,借助翻译问,付给他们多少钱他们才愿意焚烧自己父母的遗体。这些印度人惊恐地大叫起来,不允许大流士提这么可怕的事情。这个故事显示出习俗的意义。在我看来,诗人品达说得对:习俗乃是“万事之主”。[5]

    希腊人毕竟是古代的智者,大流士一定忍不住想要教育他们。他想传递给希腊人未言明的信息:你们也许是人类中最博学的人,但你们和我们一样具有非理性;你们只是更善于进行合理化解释而已,善于解释尽管有各种反面证据,但你们依然是对的。

    虽然古人和麦基非常熟悉人类的非理性和流行性狂热,但无法得知其中精确的生物学、进化论和社会心理原因。例如,麦基一定问过自己,为什么一群人会时不时地去追逐某种价格高得离谱的投资?

    今天,我们对此有了更好的理解。首先,金融经济学家发现,人类会本能地追求回报非常高但是发生概率非常小的结果。比如彩票,平均来说是赔钱的,但用巨额财富幻觉吸引了买家。此外,在过去几十年里,神经系统科学家已经揭示了贪婪和恐惧背后基本的解剖学和心理学机制——“大脑边缘系统”,其位于大脑左右半球中间的垂直面附近,具有对称分布的结构,包括一对伏隔核(大约位于每只眼睛的后面)和一对杏仁核(位于太阳穴下方)。

    研究人员使用功能性磁共振成像技术后发现,伏隔核不仅会因奖励而被激发,而且会因为对奖励的预期而被激发得更加强烈,无论这种预期是关于烹饪、性、社交还是金融;相反,杏仁核会因厌恶、恐惧和退缩而被激发。例如,如果你喜欢芙洛阿姨的烤宽面条,那么在你去往她家的路上,你的一对伏隔核及两核之间的连接会更快地被激发,并且很可能在你闻到菜肴香味时达到激发率的顶峰。但是,一旦你品尝到第一口,伏隔核的激发率就会下降,如果芙洛阿姨在你到达时告诉你她刚刚烤煳了这道菜,你的伏隔核就不再被激发。[6]

    这种活跃的预期传导有很明显的好处:大自然偏爱那些怀有预期并为之努力奋斗的人,而预期一旦被满足,就几乎没什么进化优势了。周围的人毫不费力地变得富有,这会大大刺激我们的伏隔核,正如经济历史学家查尔斯·金德尔伯格观察到的那样,“没有什么比看到朋友发财更干扰一个人的幸福感和判断力的了”[7]。

    几个世纪以来,小说家和历史学家都知道,人类并没有运用强大的智力冷静分析世界,而是对事实进行合理化,使其符合情感上的预期。记者戴维·哈伯斯塔姆的权威著作《出类拔萃之辈》[8],使用反讽方式说明了美国“最杰出”的决策者如何在军事介入越南事件中自欺欺人,对事实进行合理化的倾向明显;而我们最近在国外的军事行动也表明我们还没有吸取教训。[9]

    在过去几十年里,心理学家积累了很多实验数据,分析人类对“合理化”胜于“合理性”的偏好。当面对的事实和数据与我们根深蒂固的信仰相矛盾的时候,我们通常不会重新考虑并适当改变这些信仰,而往往会回避这些事实和数据。而当无法回避时,我们有时会更加强硬地继续进行错误评估。令人惊讶的是,我们甚至可能会教化、改变、使其归附或说服对方。简言之,人类的“理性”构成了一个脆弱的盖子,在麦基所说明的自欺欺人的沸腾的大锅上危险地保持平衡。

    麦基本人的行为表明,即使是最理性、信息最灵通的人也容易受到金融狂热的影响。1841年,他出版《非同寻常的大众幻想》一书后不久,英国经历了一场金融狂热,其围绕当时伟大的高科技产业——铁路,甚至比1719—1720年席卷巴黎和伦敦的双股市泡沫还要严重。投资者们贪婪地购买铁路股票,为英格兰的铁路里程从1843年的2000英里[10]增加到1848年的5000英里提供了资金支持;股市最终崩盘时,还有数千英里的铁路已在计划中但从未建成。如果说应该有人预见到这次崩盘,这个人就是麦基。

    但狂热事件发生时,麦基正担任《格拉斯哥的阿格斯》报纸的编辑,他报道了正在进行的铁路建设,却明显缺乏怀疑态度。1852年,他出版了《非同寻常的大众幻想》第二版,对此只做了一个简短的脚注。

    金融狂热可以被看作一场像《哈姆雷特》或《麦克白》一样的悲剧,有着界定清晰的人物、熟悉的叙事和精心排练的台词。四个戏剧人物控制了故事的叙述:有才华但不择手段的项目发起人,轻信并购买股票的公众,大肆渲染的媒体,以及把手伸进钱柜并无视腐败之火的政客。

    发起人走上了一条经典的莎士比亚悲剧式道路,成为最引人入胜的演员。他们大多数一开始都是才华横溢、努力工作而又有远见卓识的人,凭直觉比别人更早地知道某项新技术将给社会带来财富。在实现愿景的过程中,他们变得富有和强大,在一个以财富判断人的资本社会中,他们成为国家的雄狮。当投机活动走到尽头、泡沫破裂时,他们最终落得不光彩和破产的下场,但通常(并不总是)能够侥幸逃脱牢狱之灾。

    事实证明,公众很容易被那些英雄般的、魅力四射的发起人用花言巧语说服。要想胜任投资工作,必须具备一系列能力,包括数学能力、技术专长以及最关键的经济历史类应用知识。唉,比起数据和事实,人们更喜欢故事;当面对复杂的投资任务时,人类默认进入叙事模式,也许最令人愉快的就是那些通过购买新技术不费吹灰之力获得财富的故事。

    媒体和公众一样成为发起人的受害人。写杰出商人的改革性经营事迹,能非常轻易地损害新闻界的名誉。这些发起人以惊人的频率出现在各大杂志封面上,先是被称作英雄,后来又成为被控重罪者。

    最后,金融狂热席卷了相关政客,他们的声誉和人气曾经因过度投机带来的经济短暂繁荣而得到提升,但最后经常因为把手伸进钱柜而被抓。

    各种金融狂热故事的情节变化不大。大多数投机性事件包含两个因素:预示共同富裕的激动人心的新技术,以及宽松的信贷。在今天的美国,只有大约10%的货币供应由实际流通的纸币和硬币组成;其余部分以信贷形式存在。银行系统可以在一定程度内随意创造信贷,信贷的规模取决于银行、抵押贷款公司和其他贷款人对得到偿还的乐观程度。这个过程是如此违反常理和令人震惊,因此值得我们重复这个概念:银行印钞。事实上,银行与其所服务的公众一样容易狂躁或抑郁,当沉浸在泡沫里极度兴奋时,它们放纵的“赚钱”行为通常更能煽动起投机之火,这在2007—2009年金融危机爆发前最为显著。

    泡沫伴随着四个特征。首先,最重要的是,金融投机开始主导除了最普通的社会互动之外的一切;无论何时何地,人们见面时谈论的不是天气、家庭或运动,而是股票或房地产。其次,原本在其他领域很理智的专业人士,却放弃了可靠、高薪的工作,去参与上述资产的投机。再次,对投机持怀疑态度的人往往会遭到激烈的反对;虽然总有一些年纪够大、记忆够长、以前看过这出戏的人知道它的结局,但他们的警告遭到了鄙视和嘲笑,并在过去几十年里通常被冠以五个字:“你就是不懂”。最后,平时稳重的观察家们也开始做出荒诞的金融预测,他们预计资产价格一年内的上涨幅度,不仅仅是10%、20%或30%,而是一倍、两倍或末尾增加一个零。

    除了关于金融狂热的前三章之外,《非同寻常的大众幻想》还包含三章篇幅较长的关于宗教狂热的内容:分别讲述《圣经》预言、十字军东征和猎杀女巫。虽然宗教狂热和金融狂热看上去没有什么共同点,但它们发生的潜在力量是相同的:希望改善自己今生或来世的福祉。而放大金融和宗教群体幻想传染性的因素也很相似:人类固有的模仿、编造和接受引人入胜的叙事以及追求地位的倾向。

    宗教狂热似乎是人类历史不变的特征,最近的一个例子就是太阳圣殿悲剧。1994年10月4日晚,瑞士切伊里村的居民被镇上一座农舍冒出的火焰吓了一跳,消防队员在那里看到了一幅奇异、可怕的景象:22具尸体,其多数身穿红色、黑色或白色斗篷,还有几个妇女穿着金色斗篷。除了其中3名受害者以外,其他人都是被枪杀的。此外,还有10名受害者头上蒙着塑料袋。被发现时,大多数人躺成一个圈,头朝外;弹壳和空香槟酒瓶散落在地板上。

    这仅仅是开始;接下来的两年半时间里,瑞士和加拿大又发现了74名被谋杀或自杀的受害者,其全部为教派成员或者他们的孩子;所有的死亡事件都发生在春分或秋分、夏至或冬至的前后几天内。

    该教派由两个男子领导:一个叫吕克·茹雷,他是神秘、英俊、有吸引力的46岁比利时医生,1993年受到共谋和武器指控,但从加拿大逃脱;还有一个叫约瑟夫·迪·马布罗,是70岁的法裔加拿大人。最终的受害者里包括法国滑雪名将让·维亚尔内的妻子和儿子。维亚尔内是1960年奥运会滑雪金牌获得者,后来他将自己的名字授权给一家国际太阳镜制造商,此后他的名字成为一个著名的商标。在维亚尔内去世之前,小维亚尔内曾经告诉记者:“从生到死这段路程的主题一次又一次地被提到。茹雷解释说没什么可怕的——但恰恰相反,我开始觉得自己快要殉道了。”[11]

    1997年3月24日,最后一批圣殿教受害者被发现;两天后,在美国圣迭戈附近的兰乔圣菲小镇,警察发现了另一个末日组织——天堂之门的39名成员的尸体,他们也死在那个春分前后。他们相信自己死后将被隐藏在海尔-波普彗星尾部的宇宙飞船里运出地球。[12]

    太阳圣殿和天堂之门只是一系列著名末日组织中的两个例子:1978年,吉姆·琼斯领导的人民圣殿教在圭亚那的集体自杀及谋杀事件夺走了918条人命;1993年,大卫支教在得克萨斯州韦科镇与愚蠢的联邦当局对峙,导致86名教徒被杀;残忍的日本奥姆真理教制造了1995年东京地铁神经麻痹毒气袭击。令人震惊的是,这些组织中的许多成员,如茹雷和维亚尔内,都是受过高等教育、有一定成就的人。

    末日论的群体幻想不是现代世界特有的;中世纪的欧洲就有大量精彩故事——如果我们对它们印象不深刻的话,就可以称之为插曲。现代神经心理学研究揭示了为什么一群神志正常、聪明、能很好适应社会的人,会自欺欺人地认为世界将以一种特定的方式终结,而且往往在某个特定的日期终结。人类是通过叙事来理解世界的:无论我们如何吹捧自己的个人理性,一个好的故事,即使分析起来很有欠缺,也会萦绕在我们的脑海中,使我们在情感上产生共鸣,并且比最具决定权的事实或数据更有说服力。

    最近,心理学家开始意识到,这些引人入胜的叙事是多么有效地腐蚀了我们的分析能力。也许所有故事中最引人入胜的就是末日论的叙事;如果认识到自己存在于叙事中,那么我们都想知道叙事的结局。末日论故事深嵌于世界上的许多宗教中,尤其是亚伯拉罕诸教[13],它如此普遍以至于几乎不被看见,但它潜伏在每天的头条新闻和推特背后,它如此古老以至于至少可以追溯到人类文明的起源。

    想要了解“故事的剩余部分”的渴望深深地侵蚀着我们的意识。此外,末日论故事还有另一种不可抗拒的吸引力:它承诺将使人类摆脱一个被托马斯·霍布斯称为“孤独、贫穷、肮脏、野蛮、短见”,充斥着以牺牲正义为代价而偏袒富人和权贵的腐败的人类存在。很少有故事能像承诺救世主的回归那样让人感到欣慰。救世主会扭转局面,拨乱反正。这种对人类新开端的渴望深深地内嵌在《圣经》中,尤其是《以西结书》、《但以理书》和《启示录》。这些书为几次血腥的末日运动提供了蓝图。

    演化心理学的新兴领域为解释群体狂热的传播提供了令人信服的机制。冰河时期末期,第一批部落从西伯利亚进入北美,之后的大约一万年时间里,人类的足迹从亚北极地区到北美大平原,再到热带亚马孙河流域。人类在如此多变的环境中需要掌握生存所需的各项专门技能,生物本来不可能进化得这么快:比如,要进化出一种会在亚北极海岸制造皮艇的基因天赋,还要进化出在北美大平原上猎杀水牛的天赋,然后是进化出在亚马孙地区制造毒气喷枪的天赋,这些进化需要很长时间。(据估计,北欧成年人的乳糖耐受性和吐蕃人的高海拔耐受性的进化用了3000~10000年,这是已知人类适应性进化最快的时间。)[14]

    但人类做到了。在进化过程中,人类并没有将制造皮艇、猎杀水牛或制造毒气喷枪的独特能力硬连接到基因中,而是编码了一项通用技能——模仿能力。例如,当有足够多的人和足够多的试错时,最终会有人想出如何建造一艘可使用的皮艇,而其他人可以准确地模仿这一过程。[15]

    人类比其他物种更喜欢模仿;一旦有人有所创新,其他人很快就会采纳。然而,我们的模仿倾向也增强了适应不良性行为,其中最主要是幻想性信仰。诚然,在现代后工业社会中,模仿能力确实促进了经济发展,但它对人类生存的促进作用远不及前现代时期在亚北极、大平原或亚马孙流域所起的作用。因此,在现代世界,适应性行为和适应不良性行为之间的权衡使得模仿能力对于人类已不如过去那么有利,我们现在陷入晚更新世时期的模仿倾向中,这一倾向在现代时期的成本越来越高,其中最昂贵和最危险的代价就是对世界末日即将到来这一信仰的传播。

    人类不仅对叙事的反应比对事实和数据的反应更加强烈,而且初步研究表明,越引人入胜的故事越能侵蚀人们的批判性思维能力。[16]此外,研究还表明,叙事的提供者和消费者之间是存在内在利益冲突的:前者希望使消费者信服,并设计出最引人入胜的叙事,而后者如果是理性的,就应有意避开这些叙事,并仅仅依赖数据、事实以及分析的方法。

    人类偏好于引人入胜的叙事,与之密切相关的是,人类还具有自欺欺人的倾向。人类本来很善于发现他人撒谎的真相,但是人类用欺骗自己的能力消除了这些真相,这使人类成为更好的骗子。[17]纵观历史,在各种宗教性群体幻想的主角中,作为局外人的骗子相对较少,更多的是一些被自己的幻想欺骗的受害者。

    大约从150年前开始,基督教新教发展出一种信仰,其专业名称为“时代论前千禧年论”(简称“时代论”),其现代倡导者将其打磨成世界上最引人入胜的末日叙事。尽管其确切的内容因不同的神学风格而异,但基本叙事都是预测犹太人将返回以色列、重建耶路撒冷圣殿,并在那里恢复祭祀。然后,罗马帝国以十国联盟的形式重新组合起来,由一个有魅力、才华横溢、英俊潇洒的人领导,这个人是反基督者,是魔鬼在人间的化身,他与犹太人结成了一个七年联盟,但三年半后,这个反基督者背叛了犹太人,从而促成了外国军人对以色列的入侵。入侵者不仅包括俄国人,还包括穿越喜马拉雅山到达那里的2亿中国人。

    一场灾难性的核战争接踵而至:大决战和其他恐怖事件,统称为大灾难。七年大灾难的最后,耶稣复临,击败反基督者,建立千禧年国家。在这个过程中,数十亿人死亡。信仰耶稣的基督教徒被顺利地从大决战和大灾难中提到天堂——这就是“被提”。犹太人的结局差一些:1/3的犹太人改信了基督教,并规劝其他人也改信,从而在大灾难中幸存下来。另外2/3的犹太人就倒霉了。

    不了解上述时代论叙事,就无法充分理解当前美国社会的两极分化现状。大多数受过良好教育、非宗教取向的公民都认为这是极其怪诞的,但是,对相当一部分美国人来说,这一系列的预言事件就像《罗密欧与朱丽叶》或《教父》一样耳熟能详,像杰瑞·法威尔、金·贝克和吉米·斯瓦加特这样的电视福音布道者,他们对公众的吸引力也完全依赖于他们的时代论资质。

    几个原因决定了对时代论叙事的普遍关注。以色列,尤其是重建圣殿在这一信仰体系中的中心地位,深刻地影响了美国的中东政策。美国对以色列扩大在约旦河西岸定居点的不加批判的支持和对巴以“两国方案”的明显放弃[18],可以直接追溯到福音派,也就是所谓的基督教犹太复国主义者的鼓吹,他们现在的影响力远远超过犹太复国主义[19]者。事实上,2018年5月美国驻耶路撒冷新大使馆落成典礼的开幕式和闭幕式是由两位时代论牧师主持的。其中一位是罗伯特·杰夫里斯,曾经声称希特勒帮助过犹太人返回以色列;另一位是约翰·哈吉,他认为卡特里娜飓风是上帝对新奥尔良罪恶[20]的惩罚。[21]

    在核时代,即使是轻微的“世界末日不可避免”的宿命论也是危险的。2010年美国皮尤基金会的一项民意调查发现,超过1/3的美国人相信耶稣会在他们的有生之年回来,而且大多数人相信“被提”。[22]其中一个有此信仰的美国人就是罗纳德·里根[23]。他可以和杰瑞·法威尔这样的人畅所欲言地谈论时代论神学。福音派占据美国军队的近1/4,其中大部分是时代论者;他们的影响在空军学院尤为突出,所服务的部门控制了美国的大部分核武器。[24]1964年,丹尼尔·埃尔斯伯格和他的兰德公司老板审查完美国的核指挥系统后,放映了电影《奇爱博士》,并评论说这部电影很可能成为一部纪实节目。影片中,一位患精神病的美国空军基地指挥官奇爱博士关注于饮用水的氟化[25]——即使到今天仍然有部分时代论者被饮用水氟化问题困扰——影片中这位指挥官触发了第三次世界大战。[26]

    历史上,基督教徒一直给犹太人贴上反基督的标签,这一概念本身就容易引起暴动。即使在今天,对一些极端福音派教徒来说,把这个标签贴在某人或任何团体身上,都可以为他们的谋杀辩护。

    最后,单是时代论这一信仰就能够而且确实已经引发大规模死亡。1993年,在得克萨斯州的韦科镇,痴迷于《启示录》的大卫·考雷什[27]领导的大卫支教与不理解其信仰体系的联邦官员发生了冲突。

    启示性末日论的起源在《新约》和《旧约》中都有,并且可能更早地起源于肥沃新月地带的多神教,因此,以色列犹太人中的极端主义者和伊斯兰教国家的末日剧本,都与基督教时代论者的末日剧本有很多的相似之处,这不足为奇。它们的不同之处在于谁扮演英雄,谁扮演反派人物。今天的穆斯林末日论者几乎一致认为犹太人是反基督者,而“伊斯兰国”之所以能够从世界各地招募新兵到叙利亚和伊拉克这片杀戮之地,很大程度上依赖于从圣训中直接引用的末日论叙事。

    要想理解金融泡沫和暴力性的末日疯狂等社会潮流是如何产生和传播的,可以先理解它们在什么情况下不会发生,这同样具有指导意义。我们对群体决策智慧的现代理解开始于1906年秋天,当时的先驱博学家弗朗西斯·高尔顿(他是查尔斯·达尔文的表弟)参加了在普利茅斯举行的一年一度的英格兰西部肥畜和家禽展览。在那里,他进行了一次群体理性实验。大约800名参赛者以每个人6便士[28]的价格购买一张“公牛体重竞猜”的票,对公牛净重(即屠宰后去掉头和内脏)猜得最准的人将获得奖品。令人惊讶的是,所有猜测值的中位数为1207磅[29],与实际体重1198磅相差不到1%。所有猜测值的平均数为1197磅,几乎准确,尽管高尔顿在他发表在《自然》(Nature)上的第一篇文章中没有提到平均值这个数字,因为他认为中位数,也就是(按顺序排列后)所有数据中居于中间位置的数,在理论上比平均数更具有吸引力。[30]

    高尔顿关于集体决策准确性的结论已经被反复证实。[31]最近,《纽约客》专栏作家詹姆斯·索罗维基在他的畅销书《群体的智慧》中总结了这一概念,他在书中提出,有效的群体智慧有三个要求:个体分析的独立性,个体经验和技能的多样性,以及收集个体意见的有效方式。[32]

    那么,就我们的目的而言,什么才是“群体”——是弗朗西斯·高尔顿和詹姆斯·索罗维基提到的那些理性的人,还是吕克·茹雷、约瑟夫·迪·马布罗和大卫·考雷什这些不理性的人?

    妄想性群体与智者群体之间的区别在于其成员之间的互动程度。高尔顿的约800名参赛者中的所有人,甚至大部分人,是否真的聚集成一个集体,这是值得怀疑的。他的实验有一个关键的、通常被忽略的细节,那就是它涉及牛的净重。在牛被屠宰前,没有人知道结果,参赛者必须在参赛卡上填写自己的地址,这样获胜者才能接到通知,且参赛者为了让自己的预测结果不对外泄露,在填写卡片之前并没有聚集在一起。

    几年前,金融专家乔尔·格林布拉特对高尔顿实验进行了巧妙的改变,他向哈勒姆地区的一个小学生班级展示了一个装有1776颗果冻糖豆的罐子。和之前的实验一样,学生们独立提交的索引卡上所显示的平均估计值非常准确:1771颗果冻糖豆。然后格林布拉特让每个学生当众说出他们的估计值[33],这破坏了他们总体判断的准确性——新的“开放式”估计结果平均只有850颗果冻糖豆。[34]

    因此,一组人的互动越多,其行为就越像一个真正的群体的行为,评估结果就越不准确。有时候,群体互动变得如此紧密、频繁,就产生了疯狂。用弗里德里希·尼采最简洁的话说,“在个体中,疯狂是罕见的;但在群体、政党、民族以及时代中,疯狂是司空见惯的”[35]。麦基也意识到了这一点;也许他的《非同寻常的大众幻想》中最有名的那一句话就是,“据说,人以群体为单位思考;我们可以看到,他们成群结队地发疯,但非常缓慢地逐个恢复意识”[36]。

    因此,实现一组人整体判断的准确性,要求参与者不能像群体那样行动。此外,正如索罗维基所指出的,这还要求这组人中个体的多样性:一组人对于某项估计的观点越多,该估计就越准确。

    观点的多样性也有利于个体;正如弗朗西斯·斯科特·菲茨杰拉德所言:“检验一流智力的标准,就是在头脑中同时存在两种相反的想法但仍保持行动能力。”[37]在过去30年中,心理学家菲利普·泰洛克检验了数百位著名专家预测的准确性;他发现,那些综合考虑各种往往相互矛盾的观点的人比那些从单一理论视角看待世界的人表现得更好。[38]简单一句话:无论是在政治、宗教还是金融领域,都要提防空想家和真信徒。

    索罗维基的书描述了群体决策是如何成功的,而我的书将描述群体决策是如何失败的,以及群体决策失败时会发生什么。在最极端的情况下,不仅群体会疯狂,而且正如20世纪发生的几次事件那样,整个国家都会疯狂。

    麦基做得并不完美,他的很多编写内容甚至都不是原创的;他可能从当时四年前出版的一本理查德·达文波特的书《了解假冒、欺骗和轻信》(Sketches of Imposture,Deception,and Credulity)中获得了灵感甚至摘录了部分内容。达文波特的书涵盖了许多相同领域的内容,但没有那么多细节。[39]另外,麦基对郁金香事件进行了耸人听闻的描述,并将“郁金香狂热”这个术语引入现代词典,也为现代评论家们所不屑,他们认为麦基描述的并不是一个全社会范围的现象。[40]

    此外,麦基的章节、主题和时间顺序是混乱的;关于群体行为的章节(如金融泡沫、十字军东征)中穿插着关于时尚(头发长度、胡须和决斗)、健康和科学困境(磁化、炼金术)的章节。[41]

    也就是说,麦基意识到了,我们的社会特性会如此频繁地干扰我们的理性。在这一事实面前,麦基(以及那个时代的任何其他观察者)的错误、混乱和可能缺乏独创性的问题,都可以忽略。

    我第一次阅读《非同寻常的大众幻想》是在25年前,尽管前三章所描述的金融狂热吸引了我,但我当时认为这种狂热与20世纪90年代初期表现相对良好的资本市场是没有关联的。我错了。让我惊讶的是,在接下来的几年里,随着互联网泡沫的发展,麦基描述的金融狂热景象在现实生活中出现。

    20年后,伊斯兰国及其前身格外擅长向世界各地的信徒传教,其吸引了数千人从安全、繁荣的西方国家到伊拉克和叙利亚的杀戮战场。在很大程度上,其这样做相当于兜售了一种末日叙事,这种叙事与大量基督教徒所信仰的末日叙事非常相似。麦基对这一主题也进行了一些详细的论述。

    对深受《非同寻常的大众幻想》这本书影响的人来说,伊斯兰国的崛起敲响了响亮而清晰的警钟。如果说宗教狂热的现代表现是存在的,那么这就是随着神经科学最近取得的快速发展,审视从中世纪至今的群体幻想的时机已经成熟。

    在本书中,我忽略了几个麦基详细阐述的事件,例如时尚和健康狂热;而且,我并不直接报道政治事件。可能一些读者有疑问,在当今紧张的、两极分化的政治氛围中,我为什么选择这么做。我将这本书局限在金融和宗教群体狂热这两个领域,是为了使本书的主要内容保持在可控篇幅之内,也是因为我个人对金融和宗教群体狂热的共鸣。但是,读者会发现,这本书接下来所描述的事件及其心理学基础,可以与所有种类的狂热相联系,尤其是与20世纪的极权主义和21世纪的病毒阴谋论相联系,这不会有太大困难。

    很显然,21世纪最重要的地缘政治事件是2001年9月11日世贸双子塔和五角大楼的遇袭,这场灾难增强了一种已经确立的现代伊斯兰教末日主义,后者被西方政治和文化的主导地位以及1979年苏联入侵阿富汗重新唤醒。可以说,20世纪美国文化和政治生活中最重要的转变是基督新教福音主义的兴起,这给美国的中东政策以及战略武器的指挥和控制带来了巨大的风险。伊斯兰原教旨主义和基督新教福音主义的兴起,都可以很容易地通过以往的宗教狂热来理解。

    更笼统地说,本书将提供一个心理学框架,用来解释为什么人类有时候会出现各种类型的群体性疯狂。显然,人类是一种会模仿、会讲故事、会寻求地位、会道德性谴责他人、会怀念过去美好时光的猿类,所有这些都意味着,人类的未来必将充满宗教和金融群体狂热。

    任何一个写群体幻想的作者都很快会遇到一个非常不方便的社会学事实。就像大流士故事中的希腊人和印度卡拉提亚人一样,我们每个人都是社会规范的产物,有时,一个社会的圣礼是另一个社会的亵渎。例如,世界上有许多神学(如果不是大多数的话)倾向于将他人的信仰体系视为异端,这甚至会发生在密切相关的教派中,也就是弗洛伊德著名的“微小差异的自恋”[42]。正如那个古老的笑话,几百人共有的幻想被称为“邪教”,而数百万人共有的幻想被称为“宗教”。

    相当一部分美国人相信《启示录》的字面真理:世界将很快遭受一场末日大灾难。非原教旨主义基督徒和非基督徒可能会认为,末日叙事只是一种幻想,这种群体性幻想对信徒或世界上的其他人极少产生强烈危害。但是事实恰恰相反,所有成功的群体都在一定程度上依赖于共有的幻想。无论美国社会存在什么缺陷,我们最大的力量在于我们信仰法治和法律面前的平等;同样,我们的经济运行良好,是因为几乎所有人都相信,纸币和更为缥缈的电子交易货币代表着真实的资产和债务。但归根结底,这些有益的共同信仰只不过是全社会的骗局:只有在大多数人都相信的情况下,它们才是正确的——这就是所谓的“仙子效应”[43]。因此,我选择将注意力集中在那些变坏的群体幻想上,如果你愿意的话,那么也可以将其理解为“极其有害的大众幻想和群体疯狂”。

    本书的讲述基本按照年代顺序,从麦基没有提到过的中世纪末日狂热事件开始,到近期末日狂热最壮观的例子——中东伊斯兰国的崛起。在这两者之间,我按照发生顺序向读者介绍过去这段时间里所发生的各种金融和宗教狂热事件,以及相关的神经科学发展历程。

    我们首先从人类群体幻想的黑暗中心——中世纪的欧洲开始。在那里,一位名不见经传的西多会[44]修道士受《圣经》启示类书卷的启发,发展了一种神学,引发了一系列可怕的新教末日叛乱。

    1 末日论的起源

    约阿希姆的子民们

    老虎去打猎了,
    鸟儿开始飞翔;
    男人坐下来想,“为什么,为什么,为什么?”
    老虎睡着了,
    鸟儿降落了;
    男人不得不告诉自己他明白。
    ——库尔特·冯内古特[1]

    12世纪末,欧洲的国王和王后们踏上了艰苦的旅程,来到遥远的卡拉布里亚山上的一座修道院,沐浴在一位几乎被遗忘的西多会修道院院长——菲奥雷的约阿希姆[2]的传奇智慧中。在1190—1191年第三次十字军东征途中,狮心王理查[3]也经过这里,寻找自己的未来景象。[4]

    这位沉默寡言而又有智慧的修道院院长喜欢数字和历史类比,他将人类历史分为三个时代,并预言一个即将到来的黄金时代。这正是欧洲统治者被吸引到修道院的原因。不幸的是,约阿希姆无意中点燃了预言的导火索。他的未来景象对饱受蹂躏的穷人来说是一种雄辩的诉说,在他们心中激起了革命。在接下来的几个世纪里,他最初的和平模式演变成一种血腥的末日神学,席卷欧洲大片土地。

    要想理解这是如何发生的,需要援引《圣经》的三大末日叙事:《旧约》中的《以西结书》和《但以理书》,以及《新约》的最后一本书《启示录》。虽然这三本书对现代非宗教读者来说可能显得晦涩难懂,但它们有助于解释基督教福音派教徒与其他美国人之间的文化分化,这种分化在过去几个选举周期中变得非常明显。基督教福音派教徒对这三本书的内容像对美国独立战争故事和内战故事一样熟悉,但其他美国人并不太了解这些书。此外,即使是福音派教徒也常常不知道这三本书中故事背后的古代近东[5]历史,特别是埃及人、非利士人、亚述人、巴比伦人、波斯人,以及以色列王国和犹大王国这两个犹太王国之间的复杂关系。

    《以西结书》、《但以理书》和《启示录》为一系列宗教群体的末日幻想提供了背景,这些幻想在许多方面与瑞士切伊里村的悲剧相似。幻想是亚伯拉罕宗教[6]自诞生以来一直具有的特征,最突出的体现包括16世纪的德国明斯特镇,19世纪中期的美国米勒运动,以及随着现代以色列国家的建立、对即将到来的末日进行的各种反复和广泛的预测。

    宗教狂热往往发生在最糟糕的年代。在这样的年代,人类希望摆脱困境,回到美好的旧时代,回到一个神话般和平、和谐和繁荣的时代。现存最早的希腊诗歌之一,约公元前700年赫西俄德[7]的《工作与时日》很好地表达了这一点。当时的希腊极度贫困,作者在雅典西北部维奥蒂亚的一个农场艰难度日,他把这个农场描述为“冬天不好,夏天闷热,任何时候都不好”[8]。赫西俄德想象着,这些事情在过去的年代里肯定会好一些。在他所讲述的神话中,首先出现的是奥林匹斯山上的众神,他们创造了一个“人类的黄金种族”,这个种族:

    像诸神一样生活,没有内心的悲痛,没有劳累和忧愁。他们不会悲惨地衰老,四肢永远有力;除了远离所有的不幸,他们还享受筵宴的快乐。他们的死亡就像熟睡一样安详,他们拥有一切美好的东西。肥沃的土地自动慷慨地产出丰盛又足量的果实。他们和平轻松地生活在富有的土地上,羊群随处可见,诸神眷爱着他们。[9]

    然后是第二代种族,“用白银打造的,到目前为止还不那么高贵”。他们仍然受到祝福,但他们犯了罪而且没有向神献祭。随后是第三代种族,他们的盔甲、房屋和工具都是由青铜打造的。出于某种原因,诸神给了第四代种族比第三代种族更好的平局:一半死于战斗,另一半以半神的身份生活。赫西俄德的第五代种族是“一个铁族,人们白天不停地感到劳累和悲伤,夜晚接二连三地死去,诸神给他们设置了很多麻烦”。赫西俄德预言,他们的孩子会更差——唯利是图,口出恶言,最糟糕的是,他们不愿意赡养年迈的父母。[10]生活确实是孤独、贫穷、肮脏、野蛮和短暂的——赫西俄德的描述比托马斯·霍布斯在《利维坦》中的描述早了2000多年。

    赫西俄德时代的苦难生活尽管凄凉,但至少是当地土地和文化的固有特征——土地的贫瘠、人的贪婪和邻近城邦的侵略。但毕竟,敌对邻邦的人和他们有着相同的宗教和文化,尽管战胜方经常奴役战败的邻居,但在伯罗奔尼撒战争[11]之前,通常不会取战败方的性命。

    犹太人是怎样来到圣地定居的,这仍然是一个谜,因为历史学家质疑摩西和《出埃及记》的真实性。毋庸置疑的是,后来以色列人征服了迦南人,比征服随后凶猛的“海上民族”更容易。迦南人是巴勒斯坦地区文化上更先进但侵略性更弱的原住民,而“海上民族”是一个神秘的种族,不仅侵犯了埃及,可能还消灭了包括迈锡尼在内的几个地中海西岸文明。在所谓的“犹太人逃离埃及”后不久,当地的“海上民族”——非利士人在现代加沙地带和特拉维夫之间建立了一个滩头阵地,并开始向内陆推进。

    非利士人的威胁促进了以色列各个部落的联合。扫罗最终被选为以色列的领袖,并开启了希伯来人联盟的时期。扫罗曾经是非利士人的雇佣兵,他击败了以前的雇主。公元前1000年之后,扫罗的副官大卫在扫罗死后接替了他的职位。大卫也曾是非利士人的雇佣兵,是一位更具军事天赋和魅力的领袖,在他的领导下,他们不仅占领了北部的以色列地区和南部的犹大地区,还占领了一座由迦南人控制的、设有重防的城镇耶路撒冷,其作为大卫的私人领地。

    大卫领导下的犹太人地理版图达到最大,向北延伸到大马士革。但我们今天所说的“大卫王国”并不是一个统一的国家,而是由三个独立的部分组成的:犹大王国、以色列王国和耶路撒冷。其中犹大王国和以色列王国具有独立的王权(见图1-1),由大卫分别占有,而耶路撒冷是大卫的私人财产。

    图1-1 大卫王国的犹大王国和以色列王国

    注:书中地图系原文插附地图。

    他的儿子所罗门统一了这个联盟。所罗门像一名雄心勃勃的建筑师,他修建了一系列宫殿、堡垒和朝圣场所,其中最著名的是耶路撒冷第一圣殿。他还积极开展婚姻外交:娶了一位法老的女儿为妻,根据《列王纪上》[12],他至少拥有700个妻子和300个妃嫔。他在美吉多[13]建立的一个堡垒后来因其希腊名称而更为人所知:哈米吉多顿[14]。

    所罗门的建筑计划不仅耗费巨资,而且需要众多的劳役,使民生怨愤。公元前931年,所罗门去世,他的儿子罗波安拒绝北上到以色列首都示剑城参加加冕典礼,至此以色列王国退出联邦[15]。[16]

    当亚述人成为强大的“军事机器”时,南北分裂对犹太人的独立是致命的。公元前9世纪,北方的以色列王国开始向亚述人进贡。公元前745年,提格拉·帕拉萨三世夺取了亚述王位,他挥师西进开始分割以色列王国。公元前721年,他的继任者撒缦以色五世和萨尔贡二世(又译撒珥根二世)征服了以色列王国,萨尔贡二世的史册记录:“我带走了住在这里的27290人,并挑选了50辆战车给我的皇家军队……我修复了那座城市,使它比以前更加伟大;把被我手征服的土地上的人,迁到这里住。”[17]

    萨尔贡将以色列王国中的精英们(包括贵族、富豪、能工巧匠等)驱逐到底格里斯河和幼发拉底河沿岸;他们逐渐消失在历史的迷雾中,很可能是同化融合到当地的美索不达米亚人中了,从而出现了10个“消失的部落”。亚述人随后将目光转向了南部的犹大王国,并在公元前701年发动了一次进攻,但失败了。此后一个世纪,不知何故,亚述人没有再进犯犹大国,也许是想把该地区作为他们和埃及人之间的缓冲区。这拯救了犹大国和犹太人民,使他们免遭北部以色列王国那样湮灭消失的厄运。

    公元前605年左右,亚述被巴比伦人攻陷,犹太人面临着一股更可怕的征服力量。公元前597年,尼布甲尼撒二世带领巴比伦人攻占了耶路撒冷。据《列王纪下》记载:

    ……犹大王约雅斤和他母亲、臣仆、首领、太监一同出城,投降巴比伦王,巴比伦王便拿住他。那时,是巴比伦王第八年。

    巴比伦王将耶和华殿和王宫里的宝物都拿去了,将以色列王所罗门所造耶和华殿里的金器都毁坏了,正如耶和华所说的。

    又将耶路撒冷的众民和众首领,并所有大能的勇士共一万人,连一切木匠、铁匠都掳了去。除了国中极贫穷的人以外,没有剩下的。[18]

    更可怕的事情还在后面。大约公元前587年,巴比伦人在犹大国扶持的傀儡西底家反叛,作为回应,巴比伦人攻破耶路撒冷的城墙,蜂拥而入。国王逃跑,但在杰里科附近被捉,巴比伦人“在西底家眼前杀了他的众子,然后剜了他的眼睛,用铜镣铐把他绑起来,将他掳到巴比伦去”[19]。

    鉴于北方邻国“消失”的经历,犹地亚人[20]非常清楚,尼布甲尼撒二世正以灭绝的方式威胁着他们的文化甚至是生存,因此他们寻找一种极端的解决方式:一场奇迹般的大灾难,将他们从即将被湮灭中解救出来。——这是同时期的希腊诗人赫西俄德所不需要的,因为他的文化并没有受到这种被灭亡的威胁。

    公元前597年,与约雅斤一起被虏到幼发拉底河沿岸的流亡者中,有一位受过圣殿教育的祭司,名叫以西结。《以西结书》是他本人或他人以他的名义写的,书中记录的内容开始于五年后,也就是公元前592年。随着天堂的幻象向他打开,一辆载着上帝的战车出现了,这辆战车有四个幻影般的有翅膀的活物,每个活物都有四张脸:人脸、狮脸、牛脸和鹰脸。

    《以西结书》是《圣经》中第一本重要的末日启示类书籍,不管它的作者是谁[21],写作时间一定是在圣地环境恶化的那几十年里。正如《列王纪下》中所描述的,巴比伦人放逐了犹大王国的王室成员、祭司和富人,留下了大量的下层阶级。起初,被虏往巴比伦的这些贵族乐观地认为他们很快就会回到耶路撒冷,但公元前587年,耶路撒冷和第一圣殿被摧毁,这使他们的叙事文学朝着启示末日的方向演变。

    《以西结书》的作者讲述的故事从被征服的原因(即犹大的不敬),转向上帝的回归和犹太国家的重建。他转向了一个在接下来的几千年中越来越引起共鸣的叙事:人类的堕落,上帝的愤怒,他的回归,以及后来他儿子重建王国,并将不虔诚的人罚入地狱。

    《以西结书》依次包括三个部分:第一,以西结被任命为先知(传达上帝讯息的人);第二,重建大卫王国,并摧毁现实中的敌人,以及摧毁神话中的敌人——可怕的玛各和统治者歌革;第三,新圣殿的辉煌,以及一个复兴并扩大的犹太国家的辉煌。(《圣经》后来的书卷混淆了歌革和玛各,因为两者都可以解释为人或地区。)

    以西结还描述了大卫王国重建之后,以色列人将如何遭受这个神话中的掠夺者的入侵,然后击败他。这是《圣经》中首次实际性地提到歌革这个人物,他最终将演变成《新约》中的反基督者,是现代新教徒启示性末日预言中的主要人物之一。[22]以上三个部分的预言应验过程中包括许多奇妙而可怕的幻象,战胜邪恶力量,以及新世界的荣耀,这些成为随后许多末日叙事的基础。

    《圣经》中的第二本重要的末日启示类书籍是《但以理书》,据说写作时代与《以西结书》相同。它的开篇是征服耶路撒冷,流放巴比伦,以及尼布甲尼撒二世提挈四个聪明的希伯来人沙得拉、米煞、亚伯尼歌和但以理,“国王向他们咨询所有智慧和领悟方面的问题,发现他们比王国里所有术士和占卜师好10倍”[23]。

    尼布甲尼撒做了一个几乎记不清楚的梦。他只知道这是一个重大预兆,但不知道其他方面的细节。当宫廷占卜师说他们没有能力把梦的细节和梦的讲解告诉他时,尼布甲尼撒下令,不仅要杀死这些占卜师,还要杀死王国里的所有智者,包括四个希伯来人。

    幸运的是,上帝向但以理展示了国王梦的内容:一个可怕的幽灵,有着金色的头、银色的胸膛和手臂、青铜的腰腹和臀股、铁的腿,以及半铁半泥的脚(因此出现了现代短语“泥足”)。一块石头打碎这个野兽的脚;然后石头变得越来越大,先是变成一座山,然后充满整个天下。[24]

    但以理所描述的野兽的金、银、铜、铁恰好与赫西俄德所讲述的时代相匹配;这可能不是巧合,因为同一时期的波斯文本中也描述过根据这四种金属命名的四个历史时代。[25]

    上帝给但以理讲解了这个梦,但以理将解梦转述给尼布甲尼撒二世:野兽的头是尼布甲尼撒本人,银和铜部分代表未来较小的王国,铁和泥足是一个伟大的联合帝国,但由于铁和泥两种元素不相合,联合帝国很容易破裂。最后,上帝接管了统治权:“当那列王在位的时候,天上的神必另立一国,永不败坏,也不归别国的人,却要打碎灭绝那一切国,这国必存到永远。”[26]

    很多学者根据书中的内容推测,《但以理书》的写作时间并不是巴比伦流亡时期,而是在公元前2世纪。如果这个推测正确的话,那么从尼布甲尼撒二世到这本书的实际写作之间的3个多世纪里,发生了很多事情:居鲁士国王征服了巴比伦人,允许犹太人返回巴勒斯坦地区并建造第二圣殿;但是,公元前332年,巴勒斯坦又被亚历山大占领。在被希腊统治期间,任何一个有文化的犹地亚人[27]都知道叙事中的预言是什么:尼布甲尼撒二世梦中野兽的半铁半泥脚代表了希腊托勒密帝国和塞琉西帝国[28]——亚历山大大帝征服地区的继承国——的衰弱及其最终的毁灭。《但以理书》的作者很可能想让书看起来比实际写得早3个世纪,以增强其预言的可信度。

    希腊人给犹太人带来了另一个生存威胁。公元前167年,位于黎凡特地区的希腊塞琉西帝国统治者安条克四世任命墨涅拉俄斯为犹太大祭司。后者主张对宗教习俗进行彻底改革,其计划包括废除祭祀和摩西律法等。安条克四世还将第二圣殿改造成世俗空间,并用宙斯雕像[29]亵渎它。

    改革派祭司、传统犹太人和安条克之间的冲突逐渐失控;公元前167—前164年,安条克的军队抢劫了圣殿,摧毁了神圣的卷轴,并将任何遵守安息日、割礼和献祭仪式的人处以死刑。他还洗劫了耶路撒冷;杀害、奴役和驱逐成千上万的居民;拆毁了耶路撒冷城墙;在城里驻扎希腊军队。

    这还不是全部:犹太人被要求在圣殿敬拜宙斯雕像,并献祭猪。最终在公元前164年,传统主义者马卡比兄弟领导的起义爆发,他们首先消除了这些可憎的行为,之后建立了一个独立的犹太国家,该国家一直持续到公元前63年被罗马征服。

    《但以理书》的上半部分结束时,男主角(指但以理)被送到狮穴敬拜上帝,并在上帝的保护下奇迹般地幸存下来。在书的后半部分,但以理本人梦见了异象,他自称不理解这些异象,但实际上这些异象只是尼布甲尼撒的梦的一个变体。四头幻影般的野兽依次从海里出来,每一头都比上一头更令人敬畏:一头被拔出翅膀的狮子;一头牙齿间咬着肋骨的熊;一头有四头和四翅的豹子;最后一头挑战动物学分类,“可怕又狰狞”,有着铁牙和铁角,在但以理的注视下,铁牙和铁角的数量不断增加,其中一个角长着眼睛和嘴巴,能说“夸大的话”[30]。上帝出现了,宝座上发出火焰,他征服了第四只野兽。就像尼布甲尼撒的梦一样,这只野兽代表塞琉西帝国。在接下来的居鲁士及其接替者大流士和伯沙撒统治期间[31],但以理又看到了异象,异象以寓言的形式讲述了波斯帝国被亚历山大征服以及波斯帝国的最终解体。这本书的最后一章描述了一个神圣的审判,在这个审判中,死者被复活,一些人享受“永生”,而另一些人在上帝的永久统治下被判“耻辱和永远的蔑视”。[32]

    《圣经》中的第三本末日启示类书籍是《启示录》,95年左右由书中被称为“约翰”的人写作,他是上帝讯息的一个谦卑的接收者。作者很有可能不是当时大约90岁的使徒约翰,而是生活在小亚细亚的帕特莫斯岛上的一名囚犯,是一位更为平庸的先知。这部作品最终被大多数基督教教派编纂成《圣经》的最后一本书。

    大多数现代读者,即使有深厚的宗教背景,也会发现《启示录》是一卷难以理解的、晦涩难懂的书。历史学家R.H.查尔斯说:

    从最早的教会时代开始,人们就普遍承认《启示录》是整套《圣经》中最难读的一卷。不仅略读,即使认真研读,读者也依然会觉得困惑。这从《启示录》的解读史中也可以体现出来。[33]

    《启示录》读起来像是一堆杂乱无章的图像,甚至比《但以理书》中的异象更梦幻。它与《但以理书》的异象有很多相似之处,这可能并非巧合。

    因此,对这本书的解读,需要具备东罗马帝国以及马卡比时期的专业历史知识。查尔斯对这本书进行了细致的文学分析,他认为帕特莫斯岛上的约翰很可能在完成这本书之前就去世了,后人对他未完成的原稿进行了不适当的编辑,造成了这本书的难懂。学识渊博的学者们几乎完全缺乏对该书叙事结构的共识。在过去几个世纪,这种解读困难造成了无穷无尽的伤害和混乱。[34]

    《启示录》由22章组成;前三章是约翰写给罗马帝国东部七教堂的信。接下来两章描述了主的宝座,被24位长老和4只可敬的野兽围绕着;出现了用7个封印封严的书卷,只有犹太大卫国王的后裔才能打开;一只被杀过的七角七眼的羔羊(圣经学者认为羔羊代表耶稣)正符合要求,这只羔羊一个接一个地揭开了封印。

    第六章到第八章描述了接下来会发生什么:前四印打开后出现了四匹颜色分别为白色、红色、黑色和灰色的马,分别象征着战争、国际冲突、饥荒和瘟疫。第五印打开后出现了祭坛下的殉道者,象征着迫害;第六印是地震。接下来是一段插曲,144000名犹太人被“封印”(额上有上帝的印记;12个部落各12000人)。第七印,也是最后一个封印,是由8位天使带来的;前面7位吹号,第8位摧毁世界。

    接下来的三章出现了同样令人困惑的画面:天使们吹响了七个号角,带来类似于七印那样的灾难。中间有个插曲,约翰被一位天使命令吃一本小书,然后天使指示他设计新的耶路撒冷和圣殿。

    书的后半部分描述了一条巨大的红龙,有7个头、7顶王冠和10个角。这条龙被认定为撒旦,他试图吞食一个新生儿,但没有成功。那个新生儿是上帝的儿子,因为寓言中的玛丽即将生下他。[35]

    接着是更多的幻象:第二只7头、10角、戴着10顶王冠的野兽,制造出寻常的混乱;第三只有两个角的复合兽,也在制造混乱;“羔羊”(耶稣)归来,指挥144000名原住犹太人;7个碗(或小瓶,取决于解释版本)倾倒在地上,带来类似于封印和号角的灾难;最后,一个可怕的女性形象,巴比伦的大淫妇出现了,被学者解释为罗马帝国或是耶路撒冷的背叛者。

    在第十九章和第二十章中,一位天使将龙/撒旦抛入火湖1000年,殉道者复活。1000年后,撒旦归来,征募了一支庞大的军队,“人数之多犹如大海之沙”,包括来自玛各的歌革,进行最后的战斗,最后撒旦被永远地扔回火湖。最后的审判将正义者与邪恶者分开,后者将和撒旦一起被封进火湖,连同“死亡与地狱”。最后两章描述了规模宏大的新耶路撒冷城的荣耀,“……12000弗隆[36]。长度、宽度和高度都相等”,并且基督应许说他很快就会回来。[37]

    《启示录》的基本叙事是耶稣回到地球与邪恶做斗争,并最终将邪恶抛入火热的永恒,将正义之人提入天堂,宣判其他人,并毁灭世界。至于确切的细节如何,就只是一个解释方面的问题了。此外,几乎可以肯定的是,它与《旧约》的末日叙事有着共同的起源,特别是与它非常相似的《但以理书》。事实上,《但以理书》和《启示录》的结构和内容并非基督教和犹太教所独有;哲学家、神学历史学家米尔恰·伊利亚德的研究显示,世界各地、不同时期的宗教有许多共同的主题;其中最持久的主题是赦免正义的世界末日之火,他推测这起源于波斯教/琐罗亚斯德教[38]。[39]

    《启示录》中那些极端的模棱两可的内容,可以有无限的解释。最突出的是,如果人类历史上存在千禧年,那么应该如何理解“1000年”,以及为什么末日发生的时间如此精确。在神学术语中,对这些问题的研究被称为“末日论”:末日时代人类的最终结局。

    模棱两可和难解性更扩大了《启示录》的影响力,因为这为世界何时结束以及与之相关的各种解释性寓言开辟了道路。用宗教历史学家罗伯特·赖特的话说:

    模棱两可、选择性保留和误导性的释义结合在一起,使信徒可以对宗教教义产生重大影响。因为他们只需要巧妙地运用隐喻和寓言,便可抹去文本的字面意思,并用完全不同的东西取代它。而如果原始文本的语义非常清晰,那么无论用什么工具都无法达到这种效果。[40]

    根据2010年的一项国际调查,有35%的现代美国人相信《圣经》代表了上帝的字面意思,同样有35%的人认为耶稣会在他们的有生之年回到地球。[41]我们似乎有理由认为,信仰的回溯时间越久,这种信仰就越普遍。

    从基督教早期开始,神学家们就假定了耶稣回归的三种不同的年表。第一种是教会已经建立了千禧年,耶稣将在千禧年结束时回归。这种时间序列在神学术语上被称为“后千禧年主义”,包括现在或未来的1000年时期,然后是最后审判和耶稣回归。第二种是前千禧年主义,意思是耶稣在千禧年之前回来,然后是最后的审判;换句话说,耶稣回归、最后的审判,以及千禧年本身都在未来。最后一种是所谓的“非千禧年主义”,即千禧年只是一个寓言性的概念,在现实中并不存在。[42]在这三种解释中,前千禧年主义的叙事最引人注目。几乎从《启示录》写完那一刻开始,书中模棱两可的语言以及人类对故事结局的渴望就催生了各种源源不断的前千禧年主义末日故事。

    罗马帝国晚期最著名的基督教神学家,希波的奥古斯丁,抵制住了这种诱惑,发誓不去尝试计算末日时间,“真理之口告诉我们,这件事不是我们应该知道的,因此,我们试图预计并设定这个世界的剩余时间是徒劳的”,更通俗地说,“放松你的手指,让它们休息一下”。[43]之后一段时间里,在教会的末日论立场中,奥古斯丁的这种不干预态度一直占据主导地位,直到约阿希姆的神学继承人登上历史舞台。他们迫不及待地期望末日时代的到来。

    人类在很大程度上是通过叙事来理解世界的,虽然末日预言可能是有史以来最引人注目的,但它的预测屡屡失败。预测研究表明,人类在预测未来方面的能力很差。实际上,只要观察历史上预测事件的正确概率,就会比基于叙事的推理更好地预测未来,而显然,到目前为止,对末日时间预测正确的概率一直是零。

    既然末日预测的准确性为零,为什么我们会被这些叙事影响?更一般地说,为什么基于叙事的推理如此站不住脚?心理学家已经证明,人们是“认知吝啬鬼”[44],他们不愿意进行严格的分析,而是倾向于启发法——一种简单的心理捷径。而一个令人信服的叙事就是最有力的启发法。[45]

    20世纪,神经科学家发现人类有两种不同类型的认知过程:第一种是快速的情绪反应,位于我们大脑深处进化古老的边缘系统,即所谓的“爬虫脑”,第二种是一种缓慢得多的有意识推理,产生于进化上比较新的大脑皮质,位于大脑边缘系统的上方。2000年,心理学家基思·斯坦诺维奇和理查德·韦斯特将这两种大脑系统分别标注为系统1和系统2,自此我们就一直沿用这种最普通的分类方法。[46]

    从进化的角度来看,系统1比系统2更占支配地位是有道理的;数亿年来,早在人类进化出系统2之前,快速反应的系统1就驱动着动物们对危险信号做出行为反应,例如蛇的嘶嘶声或捕食性动物的脚步声。而反应速度较慢的系统2,可能进化时间还不到十万年,因此只能在更古老的系统1的束缚下运作。更简单地说,我们更快的情感机器引领着我们,而我们较慢的“理性”跟随着我们。在自然界中,系统1的优势是显而易见的,它使我们甚至能够在危险的感官信息进入意识之前就做出反应;但在一个相对安全、危险持续时间更长的后工业世界,系统1的优势往往会带来巨大的成本。

    因此,我们越多地依赖叙事,越少地依赖硬数据,就越远离现实世界。你是否曾在一本小说中深深迷失自己,以至于忘记了周围的世界?你有没有听过一个令人着迷的电台广播,以至于你停在车道上10分钟,这样就不会错过结尾?在心理学界,这被称为“运送”。心理学家理查德·格里格将叙事定义为一种装置,其可以暂时在精神上将听众或读者从他们周围的环境中“运送”出去;当“运送”结束时,他们会回到原来的环境中,但此时环境在“运送时有所改变”。[47]

    换句话说,一部小说或非小说、电影、舞台表演或绘画作品能够暂时将读者、观众或听众从现实世界中“运送”出去,当他们回来时,现实世界已经有了一点儿改变。正如艾米莉·狄金森[48]所说:

    没有一艘战舰能像一本书一样,

    带着我们在天地之外翱翔,

    也没有任何一匹骏马能像一页诗篇欢腾奔跳。

    最贫穷的人也能从这里通过,

    没有强迫缴费,

    这是多么廉价的马车,

    它承载着人类的全部灵魂。[49]

    在过去几十年里,研究人员已经证明,人们所掌握的事实很容易受到虚构数据的侵蚀,即使这些数据被清楚地标记为虚构。保罗·罗津和他的同事在宾夕法尼亚大学进行了一项经典实验,他们向受试者展示了两个新买的、相同的玻璃瓶,里面装有蔗糖,并且告诉受试者,这两个瓶子都是首次使用;然后向受试者展示了这两个瓶子上贴的新标签,一个写着“蔗糖”,另一个写着“氰化物”;他们坚定地告诉受试者:“记住,两个瓶子里装的都是糖。”

    然后,他们将两个瓶子里的糖分别搅拌到一些盛水的杯子里;要求受试者说出想从每种杯子中喝多少水,然后受试者从两种杯子里分别喝一小口水。最终50名受试者中的41人选择的是那些蔗糖来自标有“蔗糖”的玻璃瓶的杯子。即使让受试者自己贴上标签,实验效果仍然存在。[50]

    这项研究以及其他类似的研究表明,人类无法将虚构世界和真实世界分开,换句话说,他们无法在文学世界和现实世界之间进行清晰的“切换”。1975年,电影《大白鲨》上映。《时代》杂志报道了那个夏天:

    从前那些勇敢的游泳者,现在只敢挤在离岸几码[51]处游泳,被太阳几乎晒晕的他们紧张地踌躇在水边,出现一点点背鳍靠近海滩的迹象就会让他们很紧张。在加利福尼亚州圣莫尼卡市的冲浪场上,一个孩子对另一个孩子喊道:“你想被吃掉吗?”即使是一条卑微的被称为“海洋猎犬”的狗鲨,由于它是鲨鱼,也被怀疑有杀人意图。“杀了它,杀了它,”一位纽约长岛垂钓者对他的同伴说,“在它长大杀死我们所有人之前,”而他同伴的钓竿上挂着一条仅仅两英尺[52]长、几乎没有牙齿的鱼。[53]

    这种效果是故意的:电影制片人故意将影片上映时间推迟到夏季。正如其中一个制片人所说:“一个游泳者,如果他看过或听说过这部电影,那么当他把脚趾伸进海里时,一定会联想到一条大白鲨。”[54]

    20世纪70年代,心理学家克莱顿·刘易斯和约翰·安德森研究了可识别的错误描述对核对确凿事实的影响。在一个简单的例子中,受试者被告知了一些历史上关于乔治·华盛顿的真实描述,他是美国第一任总统,他横渡了特拉华河,他戴着假发。再把一些虚假描述提供给受试者,诸如华盛顿是《汤姆·索亚历险记》的作者,他至今仍活着,等等。这时,受试者核对真实描述所需要的时间更长,而且每增加一个虚假描述,受试者核对时所犯的错误就越多。[55]

    格里格也进行了一些细致而又专业的实验,他的实验表明,小说内容越遵循历史事实,读者接下来就越难将虚构叙事和真实事件区分开。他举的其中一个例子是《夏洛克·福尔摩斯之谜》,这本书中的历史和地理背景通常是真实的。虽然作者阿瑟·柯南·道尔的读者一开始能清晰区分虚构的19世纪伦敦与真实历史上的伦敦,但格里格发现,道尔对19世纪伦敦的描绘是如此逼真,以至于其虚构部分也侵入读者对于这个现实城市的心理图像中。[56]

    换句话说,文学作品、电影和艺术可以使人们难以区分事实和虚构。正如格里格所说:“沉浸在叙事文学中,会导致与事实和现实世界的隔离。”[57]

    其他研究人员进一步发现,引人入胜的虚构叙事能够侵蚀人类的分析过程。俄亥俄州立大学的两位心理学家,梅拉妮·格林和蒂莫西·布罗克,扩展了格里格的研究。他们通过观察首次发现,叙事很明显比辞藻华丽的争辩更能引起公众关注:

    小说、电影、肥皂剧、音乐歌词,以及报纸、杂志、电视和广播中的故事远比广告、布道、社论、广告牌等更能引起人们的注意。叙事改变信仰的力量从来没有被怀疑过,也一直令人恐惧。[58]

    格林和布罗克根据以下几个指标对“运送”进行了量化:读者构思叙事场景并将自身置于其中的能力、心理和情感的参与程度、对相关叙事的感知、想要知道结局的渴望,以及“叙事中的事件改变了我的生活”的感觉,这些能提高“运送分数”。反之,意识到正在发生的事情,注意力的分散,以及叙事随后被遗忘的容易程度,将降低“运送分数”。

    他们让受试者阅读了一个令人伤心的真实故事,故事里一个名叫凯蒂的小女孩被精神病患者刺死。他们将这个“商场刺杀案”故事以两种形式分别呈现给受试者。第一种是两栏的“非虚构”版本,小字体,看起来像报纸上的报道;第二种是类似于文学杂志的“虚构”版本,以粗体警示文字为标题,“商场刺杀事件是一个短篇故事,发表在1993年12月俄亥俄州小说杂志《阿克伦最佳小说》的专题上,其中与真实人物和地点的相似性当然只是巧合。”

    然后,根据上面讨论的“运送分数”,格林和布罗克将受试者分成两组,低分组和高分组,并询问他们对故事的看法。实验结果是,高分组受试者比低分组受试者更有可能同情故事中的小女孩凯蒂,并认为世界是不公正的,那种商场袭击是常见的,以及精神病患者的自由应该受到限制。值得注意的是,明确地将这个故事标记为虚构并没有减少故事对受试者态度的影响:对于非虚构和虚构两种形式,“运送”影响是相同的。

    接下来,他们要求受试者对一些文本内容进行初步分析,例如,识别有关“匹诺曹”以及有关“四年级练习题”的文本。在测试中,他们要求受试者圈出那些不符合“匹诺曹”内容的文本,或圈出那些四年级学生不理解的单词和短语。结果同样引人注目:两种情况下,高分组识别的内容比低分组的一半还要少。这些实验结果与假设一致,用作者的话来说,“被‘运送’的个体更少地倾向于怀疑、质疑或不信任。‘运送’使人更加倾向于将信息识别为真实。”[59]换句话说,高度的叙事性运送损害了一个人的关键能力。

    格林和布罗克注意到,将叙事明确标注为真实或虚构,对它们“运送”读者的程度没有影响,他们评论道:

    一旦读者开始阅读一篇引人入胜的叙事,那么叙事来源(真实或者虚构)的影响力就会减弱。这样一来,不管故事是不是真实的,读者都可能会采纳故事所体现的信仰。因此,当信息的来源可信度较低或者演讲者缺乏有力论据的时候,叙事的这种优势都可以被利用。[60]

    因此,读者或听众越深入了解一个故事,他们就越会停止怀疑,也就越不关注故事的真实性或虚构性。虽然反向因果关系可能是分析能力较低的人更容易被“运送”,但“运送”会减弱分析能力这个逻辑更有意义,而且叙事越有说服力,其读者就越忘乎所以。

    换句话说,一个好故事通常能胜过最铁的事实。2015年9月16日的共和党初选辩论就是一个很好的例子。当被问及疫苗的安全性时,参选者之一、著名神经外科医生本·卡森简要总结了大量存在的数据,证明疫苗接种与孤独症之间缺乏相关性。而唐纳德·特朗普却回应说“孤独症已经成为一种流行病”,然后讲述了一个被他称为“漂亮的孩子”的雇员接种疫苗后患上孤独症的故事。大多数旁听者在这次辩论中支持特朗普;一位记者写道:“特朗普知道他在做什么,因为他讲的故事比仅仅陈述事实更具感染力和说服力。”[61]如果你想说服某人,就用叙事的方式以其大脑系统1为攻击目标,而不是用事实和数据以大脑系统2为攻击目标。

    音乐比叙事更能刺激系统1。听觉信息通过内耳的毛细胞传递到听神经,然后从下脑干传递到上脑干,再从上脑干传递到丘脑,丘脑将有关声音的信息发送给系统1和系统2(见图1-2)。

    图1-2 听觉信息至系统1和系统2的传递示意图

    一对丘脑位于脑干顶部;它们被认为是大脑接收来自下面的感官信息的主要中继站。丘脑直接与系统1相连,特别是伏隔核和杏仁核,它们分别介导愉悦和厌恶。[62]丘脑还向系统2的听觉部分发送声音信息,这些听觉部分包括一部分被称为赫氏回(也称颞横回)的大脑颞叶,及其以外的大脑皮质联合区,它们负责解释声音并使我们有意识地感受到声音。关键在于,听觉与系统2的连接更为间接,因此与系统1相比连接更慢。

    从丘脑到系统1的传导更直接,这意味着,一首令人兴奋的曲调通过系统2到达我们的意识之前,它可以先通过激活伏隔核使我们产生快感;相反,当我们听到电影中的反派或英雄即将到来的厄运所伴随的黑暗小调时,我们的杏仁核几乎立刻燃烧起来。

    因此,音乐可以看作通往人类情绪的一条进化久远的高速公路。由于音乐可以如此有效地绕过我们的系统2而直接作用于系统1,它的说服力自古以来就得到了充分的体现:旋律很可能在句法上早于复杂的人类语言,母亲们会自发地为婴儿唱歌,世界各地几乎所有的宗教仪式和爱国事件都涉及音乐。

    乔治·奥威尔描述了当猪少校用一首《英格兰牲畜之歌》劝诫其追随者反抗农场主琼斯时,音乐对动物农场中的非理性动物的吸引力:

    唱这首歌使动物们激动不已。少校还没唱完,它们就开始自己唱了。即使是最愚笨的动物也已经学会了曲调和一些单词,至于聪明的动物,比如猪和狗,它们在几分钟内就把整首歌记下来了。几次试唱之后,整个农场惊人地爆发出《英格兰牲畜之歌》。牛哞哞地唱,狗哀叫着唱,羊咩咩地唱,马呜呜地唱,鸭子嘎嘎地唱。它们非常喜欢这首歌,连续唱了5遍,如果没有被打断,那么它们可能整晚都在唱。[63][64]

    现实世界中,也许最著名的具有音乐说服力的例子就是莱尼·里芬斯塔尔执导的纪录片《意志的胜利》,影片记录了1934年的纽伦堡国社党代表大会。这部电影巧妙地将理查德·瓦格纳和纳粹作曲家赫伯特·温特的音乐编排到电影中,除了希特勒和其他纳粹领导人的演讲片段外,没有任何其他口头叙述。《意志的胜利》给好莱坞电影制作人留下了深刻的印象。后来,当美国加入二战时,弗兰克·卡普拉在拍摄《我们为何而战》系列电影时进行了模仿。

    到20世纪80年代中期,音乐开始成为一种政治工具。当时美国的政治竞选广告中开始频繁采用旋律:广告中出现候选人时就在主调上采用欢快振奋的曲调,而出现竞争对手时就采用不祥的黑暗小调(或偶尔采用马戏团小丑即兴表演所用的小调)。

    这类题材的经典之作是2004年乔治·W.布什命名为《狼》的总统竞选广告,伴随着黑暗和沉思的音乐,视频中一群狼蜷缩在草地上,一段旁白开始指责国会民主党人在一个危险的世界里反恐行动不力。音乐学家和传播学学者保罗·克里斯蒂安森评论道:

    虽然图像和旁白增添了广告意义,但它们只是音乐的侍女,音乐传达了大部分情感。这不是普通的音乐,是一种人们在恐怖电影里可以找到的音乐:低沉的嗡嗡声、原始鼓声、刺耳的不和谐和弦声、奇怪的音色,以及别的。[65]

    末日叙事引人入胜的另一个原因是,人类热衷于悲剧。路肩上多辆救护车聚集在一辆被撞得变形的汽车周围,这会引起围观并影响交通;而同样位置上一辆完好的废弃汽车则不会。“数十名矿工在爆炸中丧生”这样的标题会使报纸畅销,而“情况逐渐好转”这样的标题则不会。正如托尔斯泰在《安娜·卡列尼娜》的开头所说,“所有幸福的家庭都是相似的,而每个不幸的家庭则各有各的不幸”[66],很少有小说是通过描写幸福的婚姻和和睦的兄弟姐妹而成功的。

    人类更多地关注坏消息,而不是好消息。这似乎是人性的一个明显特征,因此心理学家们进行了很多实验,以验证我们对悲剧和厄运的关注。在一项研究中,受试者对一场足球比赛下注,一周后返回,结清赌注并与研究人员一起回顾比赛。那些输了赌注的人比赢了赌注的人讨论比赛时所花费的时间要长得多。[67]人类对坏消息的关注如此普遍,以至于“坏消息比好消息强大”已成为实验心理学的基本准则之一;从进化的角度,关注负面结果会使人类更加关注环境风险,从而带来遗传优势。[68]

    和许多生物进化所驱动的心理现象一样,坏消息更加受到关注,这证明了数字时代的功能失调。例如,一项研究发现,那些恐怖、耸人听闻的假新闻报道被转发的可能性比真实新闻高70%。研究人员指出,Bots(自动运行木马病毒)并没有加速虚假新闻的传播,而操作键盘和手机的人类却做到了。YouTube(视频共享网站)上的“三度亚历克斯·琼斯”现象已经成为媒体学者们之间的一个冷笑话:只需点击三下,就可以将一个更换割草机火花塞的视频,切换成琼斯先生愤怒地诉说桑迪·胡克学校大屠杀是一场“恶作剧”的视频。[69]

    鉴于负面新闻对人类的吸引力,《启示录》能够具有持久的影响力也就不足为奇了。

    菲奥雷的约阿希姆是最早构建末日之路的基督教神学家之一。他于1135年出生在意大利的脚趾地区卡拉布里亚[70],和他的父亲一样,接受过教育并担任公证人。之后,他在快30岁的时候去圣地朝圣,在那里经历了神灵启示。从圣地回到西西里岛后,他作为隐士在埃特纳火山上生活了一阵子,然后重新穿越墨西拿海峡,在卡拉布里亚地区做了一名漫游布道士。有段时间,他静下心来研究《圣经》,并在科拉佐的一所本笃会[71]修道院担任职位。他一定是个政治老手,因为他得到了教皇路爵三世[72]的鼓励和支持,成为修道院的院长,并成功地将修道院转为西多会。[73]随后,他与另外两位教皇进行了商谈,并获得了他们在思想体系上的认可。

    他被数字迷住了,尤其是7和12:圣奥古斯丁的七国时期,创世的7天,以及《启示录》里的7个封印和7个碗;以色列的十二使徒和十二部落。更妙的是,12可以分为7和5,代表小亚细亚的7个教会和5种感官。他认为,如此强大的数字命理学无疑可以应用于《圣经》解读,不仅可以用来揭示历史或伦理,还可以用来预测未来。

    他也喜欢数字3。他认为,圣三位一体[74]是关键:它将历史分为三个时代:圣父时代,从亚伯拉罕到基督诞生;圣子时代,从基督诞生到约阿希姆时代;最后一个是包括了现在和未来的圣灵时代,这个时代将由一位手持宝剑的天使引领。

    偏好数学的约阿希姆还将经文组织成几何图式,他在图式中将历史排列成各种形状,其中包括与历史“侧枝”相连的圆圈和树木。他在《图像书》(Book of Figures)中对此进行了描述。[75]

    现代读者可能会嘲笑这种不科学的数字命理——也就是数学家埃里克·坦普尔·贝尔所称的“数秘主义”——但中世纪的神学家有一个借口:希腊数学家毕达哥拉斯就是从纯数学中推导出自然界的规律的,其卓越成就在几千年的历史中熠熠生辉,他应该说过“万物皆数字”这样一句话。在弗朗西斯·培根提出以观察为基础的科学方法之前,数字在自然哲学中占据着重要地位,不仅在科学中是这样,在神学中也是。[76]

    用心理学术语来说,我们都是寻求“模式”的灵长类动物。这并不是一个新概念:1620年左右,培根观察到人类“具有自己的本性,倾向于假设世界上存在更多的秩序和规律”[77]。也就是说,我们天生就想寻找各种往往不存在的关联。这种倾向被科学作家迈克尔·舍默称为“模式化”。约阿希姆富有幻想的数字图式就符合人类的这一倾向。[78]

    人类为什么倾向于幻觉模式呢?进化论中的物竞天择提供了现成的解释。在遥远的人类历史中,如果人类错过了危险来临的线索,例如模糊的嘶嘶声或周边视线中黄黑色相间的条纹动物,付出的代价就会非常高昂,而如果出现幻觉,到处都听到蛇或看到老虎,那么人类也需要付出一定的代价,但这种代价与被蛇咬死或被老虎吃掉的代价相比并不高。因此,不仅在人类身上,而且在任何具有正常神经系统的生物体上,进化论都支持过度解释数据。[79]

    《圣经》的内容很多,大概有783000个单词,标准印刷版有2000多页,描述了无数的参与者及其活动事件,为那些寻求模式和关联的人提供了一个宝库,特别是偏爱数学的约阿希姆,他的历史图式结束在欢乐、自由和丰富的第三时代(即圣灵时代),在这个时代,所有信徒都可以直接获得上帝的真理,而不需要以教会为媒介,这种幸福状态将一直持续到最后的审判。[80]

    约阿希姆不会用上帝的信息煽动群众,因此他并不是一个革命性的或号召性的先知,而是一个令人困惑的圣经解释者。他认为第三时代(圣灵时代)中具有完善的人性和原始共产主义,能够战胜人类的一切恶习,特别是拥有物质财富的欲望,但他不愿意提供有关第三时代的细节信息。他的预言显得有些笼统:“每个人都将以这样一种方式被给予:别人所得会比自己所得更令他高兴;比起自己所拥有的,他更在意自己能够给予别人什么”[81]。约阿希姆描述的景象会在地球上逐渐显现,中间不需要插入《启示录》中可怕的异象,因此三任教皇都支持他。约阿希姆认为未来的第三时代最终将修正当前第二时代的缺陷,但是,受第二时代封建社会压迫的群众没有约阿希姆那样的耐心。他们想要采取更积极主动的方式推动第三时代的早日到来。

    约阿希姆的数学既具有公众吸引力,又能够运用于各种圣经派别和数秘主义,因此能够以这样或那样的形式一直持续到今天。例如,在他的继承者中,新近崛起了一个方济各会的属灵派,其被日益成功的教会物质主义排斥。对他们来说,数学很简单:《马太福音》1:17[82]清楚地指出,亚伯拉罕和大卫之间隔了14代人,大卫和巴比伦囚禁之间隔了14代人,巴比伦囚禁与基督诞生之间隔了14代人。因此,第一时代持续了42代,每代持续30年,总共1260年。当前的第二时代同样持续1260年,因此将在公元1260年结束,那时将开始出现持续1000多年的第三时代。

    随着中世纪的发展,衰落的封建主义、逐渐兴起的贸易和货币经济带来了经济的增长,但经济增长又导致了极端的收入不平等。这时产生了大量恶毒的反犹主义末日叙事,其中一个就是与马丁·路德[83]的宗教异端几乎同时出现的德语版本《百章全书》(The Book of a Hundred Chapters)。

    这本书的开始是天使长米迦勒向匿名作者转达来自上帝的讯息:人类激怒了全能者[84],他即将带来可怕的毁灭,但他决定暂缓;上帝希望作者聚集信徒,等待“黑森林皇帝”的到来;“黑森林皇帝”将带来血腥的启示录式的末日时代,以及丰富的食物和酒。信徒大部分来自受苦受难的穷人,他们参与了一系列广泛的谋杀,尤其对贵族和神职人员。这本书的弥赛亚并没有容忍,而是规定在4年半的时间里每天要谋杀2300名神职人员。[85]

    教会的腐败早就引起了人们的厌恶:早在马丁·路德和约阿希姆之前,神职人员,尤其是教皇的肆意挥霍和肉欲之罪早已震惊了基督教世界。路德只是在正确的时间、正确的地点成了正确的人。谷登堡大约在70年前发明的印刷机,将复印小册子或书籍的成本降低至原来的约1/30,而维滕贝格[86]的印刷机处于新技术的前沿,不仅可以打印拉丁字母,还可以打印希腊和希伯来字母。

    路德需要贵族支持他的宗教改革,因此他将宗教分歧严格限制在神学上而避开政治。这位伟大的改革者从《罗马书》和《彼得前书》中得到忠告,恺撒的法律仍然必须遵守:“看在主的分儿上,你们要服从人类的每一条法律。”[87]

    虽然路德反对那些寻求社会改革的人,但那些人确实运用了路德的方法。路德不仅摧毁了教会对《圣经》解释权的强大垄断,而且还向所有人展示了印刷机的强大力量。当被质疑布道很少的时候,他回答:“我们用我们的(印刷)书来做(布道)。”[88]

    16世纪初,歉收的庄稼、贪婪的贵族和狂热的路德教徒共同点燃了血腥的民众起义。据说,1523年6月23日,在路德将他的《九十五条论纲》钉在维滕贝格城堡教堂的门上6年后,在德国施瓦本地区,位于现代瑞士中部的北方,女伯爵卢芬斯特林根命令1200名农民为她收集蜗牛壳,她可能有大量的线需要蜗牛壳做线轴。而这时农民正忙于农收,女伯爵为了蜗牛壳而进行的逼迫激怒了他们,引发了一场席卷欧洲大部分德语区、持续两年的农民起义。[89]

    1524—1525年,农民军队与当地贵族的雇佣兵展开了一系列战争,其统称为德意志农民战争(俗称蜗牛战争),这些缺乏训练和武器的农民叛军遭到大规模屠杀,最终大约有10万农民被杀戮。

    在整个起义过程中,德意志农民叛军主要关注的是社会问题而非宗教问题,而这场起义的血腥结局却与宗教有关,主要发起者是一位名叫托马斯·闵采尔的千禧年传教士以及被他迷惑的疯狂的追随者。

    1525年3月,叛军在施瓦本的梅明根镇上集会,提出了12条要求,也就是《十二条款》,并印刷了至少2.5万份副本。只有第一条要求是明显关于神学的:每个城市都可以选出自己的传教士,他们将“简单地宣讲福音”,这大概是为了排除拉丁天主教的弥撒仪式。接下来的十条要求更是关于经济而非宗教的:包括如何支付传教士的报酬,废除农奴制,降低地租,狩猎和捕鱼的权利,以及归还最近私有化的公共土地等。最后一条要求谦恭地指出,如果上述十一条要求中的任何一条后来被证明与圣经背道而驰,那么它们都是无效的。[90]

    但是,起义后期,闵采尔成了农民军领导人。闵采尔至少阅读并解释过约阿希姆的一篇著作,但人们对他的出身知之甚少。最可接受的猜测是,他生于德意志亚琛城外的施托尔贝格镇,其位于现代比利时、德国和荷兰的交会地带;他是工匠家庭出身,教育背景也很模糊,几乎没有留下学业记录,有人说他父亲就死在一个腐败贵族的绞刑架上,因此他具有反独裁的末日倾向。唯一可以确认的信息是他大约于1514年被任命为农民军领导人,虽然这种任命不需要大学教育背景,但他的文笔表明他接受过先进的学业教育。

    三年后,路德的宗教改革运动在维滕贝格爆发,闵采尔前往那里,在革命的激情中畅饮。他可能见过路德,甚至在他的讲坛上讲过道;他当然遇到过路德的杰出同事菲利普·梅兰希顿。起初,闵采尔与路德派并肩作战,对抗教皇的支持者;1520年,路德推荐他接替约翰内斯·西尔维于斯·伊格拉努斯做茨维考的传教士。当时伊格拉努斯要去进修,和鹿特丹的伊拉斯谟等人文主义学者一起学习。

    在茨维考,闵采尔充分表现出他在神学上偏执的冲动和对建立“千年王国”的狂热。和路德一样,他将天主教神父和修道士称为“庞大的怪物”和“撕裂肉体的女妖”,并开始鼓吹,通过与上帝直接沟通也可以实现救赎,而与圣经无关。[91]这种说法对路德和伊格拉努斯来说都太过分了。伊格拉努斯当时已返回茨维考,并将闵采尔降职到该镇一个较小的教堂。在那里,闵采尔可能受到了茨维考“先知”的影响,这些先知分享给他一些神秘的信仰,包括理想的重要性,以及救赎与圣经的无关性。

    闵采尔进行了煽动性的布道并分发小册子,这导致他被驱逐,先是从茨维考被驱逐,然后是从布拉格和其他多个城市;最后,他落脚在萨克森人居住的阿尔施泰特镇上。在被驱逐的路上,他发展了自己的天启末日主题。1524年,他对萨克森州的约翰公爵进行了一次著名的布道,其主要围绕《但以理书》中的尼布甲尼撒之梦;公爵不可能不理解这个典故,但是他回应说,罗马教堂和那些支持它的贵族已经取代了但以理的希腊塞琉西帝国;闵采尔更加清楚地向公爵指出,有理想的先知们,通常是那些没有受过正规宗教教育的平教徒[92],但是他们在解释《圣经》方面起到了主要作用,他们现在都生活在末日前最后的日子中。最令人震惊的是,闵采尔宣称自己是新的但以理,他的追随者是“被选者”,他们理解末日的紧迫性,他们的出现不仅是为了观察,而且是为了积极实现它。

    闵采尔布道后,公爵愤而不发地离去。闵采尔继续出版了更多的反教权主义小册子,这进一步恶化了他和公爵之间脆弱的关系。最终,公爵受够了,他强制关闭了闵采尔的印刷机,并将闵采尔传唤到他在魏玛的城堡里,使其接受审讯。由于担心自己会被杀,闵采尔离开了阿尔施泰特镇,又在几个动荡的地方逗留后,他成为农民战争的高潮——弗兰肯豪森战役——的叛军领导人之一。

    至此,闵采尔已经说服了自己以及许多追随者,他们相信上帝让闵采尔开启末日。他不仅用自己的“千年王国”理想来说服民众,还引用了多段圣经经文来支持自己。他似乎对《马太福音》第24章印象深刻,这一章讲述了耶稣预言圣殿将被摧毁,随后发生饥荒、瘟疫、战争、地震等全球性灾难。上帝还用基甸之剑武装闵采尔,让他和他的军队战胜处于优势地位的贵族军队,据一位观察者说,他“用他的外套袖子抓住了敌人的所有子弹”[93]。

    受此鼓励,1525年5月14日,农民叛军冲向贵族雇佣军(见图1-3)。但雇佣军仅以6人的伤亡为代价,屠杀了90%的叛军部队,约6000人被杀。[94]闵采尔仓皇逃离战场,但很快被抓获并被带到贵族面前,经过长时间的审讯后,他被斩首。[95]

    图1-3 1525年农民战争的地标

    闵采尔及其追随者的悲惨死亡,只是拉开了这场血腥的世界末日论的序幕而已。在繁荣的波罗的海海上贸易航线上,末日论将在接下来的10年里席卷欧洲西北部。

    2 滥用末日叙事的悲剧

    信徒与无赖

    1534年2月,威斯特法伦州的明斯特城的气氛狂热,居民们报告说,看见天空中出现了三个太阳,这在那个时代很容易被认为与尤利乌斯·恺撒死后出现的预兆相同,预示着将出现像屋大维、马克·安东尼和雷必达那样的后三头同盟[1]。

    这一愿景尤其激励了一个被称为再洗礼派的新教教派,该教派反对天主教传统的婴儿洗礼做法,而是对新皈依者施行成年再洗礼。有一位名叫赫尔曼·冯·克森布罗克的天主教徒,他小时候目睹了1534年事件,后来他记录到:“天空似乎张开了嘴,出现长长的裂缝,可怕的火焰从裂缝中闪烁……(农民们)看到这座城市似乎着火了,但当他们赶来调查时,发现火焰不仅没有伤害城市,而且完全消失了。”[2]

    年轻的冯·克森布罗克对街头的疯狂事件感到惊讶,并将再洗礼派描述为:

    ……如此错乱,如此失常,如此被疯狂驱使,他们超越了诗歌中描述的愤怒。他们没廉耻地在市场上跑来跑去,有的头发蓬乱,有的衣服松散,有的头巾在风中飞舞。有些人跳起疯狂的舞蹈,仿佛要在狂躁中飞翔。有些人脸朝下趴在地上,伸出手臂,身体摆成十字架的形状……有些人躺在松软的泥浆里,一遍又一遍地翻滚。有些人跪下来大声喊叫。有些人睁着闪光的眼睛号叫。有些人口吐白沫。有些人摇头咬牙地做出威胁的表情,有些人捶胸顿足、招摇过市。有人哭,有人笑。从另一个角度看,与其说我们嘲笑他们的疯狂,不如说是为他们而悲伤。[3]

    托马斯·闵采尔短暂、血腥、笨拙的起义后不到10年,约阿希姆的另一批能力更强的子民在明斯特城企图实现他们狂热的末日愿景,这被称为再洗礼派的疯狂。1533—1535年,他们一度控制了市政当局,后来又在后者的最后攻击下失败。

    德意志农民战争惨败之后,群体疯狂的中心逐渐向北移动,到了今天的德国西部和荷兰所在地(见图2-1)。几十年来,这个地区在汉萨同盟[4]的推动下出现日益繁荣的局面。汉萨同盟是一个松散的贸易联盟,沿波罗的海和北海延伸,大致从今天的爱沙尼亚共和国到比利时的佛兰德。上一章所提到的德意志农民战争主要源于对社会的不满,但这一场德国和荷兰的民间叛乱是由一种新的宗教教义——再洗礼主义——所驱动的。

    图2-1 再洗礼派疯狂事件的地标

    8世纪末,查理曼[5]已经占领了明斯特城,该地区位于今荷兰东部、德国埃姆登城南部。他派了一位名叫卢德格尔的传教士去改变该地区的宗教信仰,并强迫当地居民皈依基督教。卢德格尔在当地某处河岸上建造了一座修道院,该城由此得名[6]。随着明斯特在汉萨同盟经济中日益繁荣,该地区富丽堂皇的主教堂和众多的礼拜教堂使城市景象更加繁荣。

    明斯特城基督教会的繁荣是有代价的:用于支持教会的沉重的什一税落在教徒身上,而神职人员却不需要纳税;修道士们耕种土地,修女们在织布机上工作,他们与当地农民和布料生产商产生了竞争。如此贪婪的教会并不是明斯特城所独有的:在整个欧洲,教会行为点燃了宗教冲突和公众愤怒的火焰。[7]

    再洗礼派本身起源于10年前在瑞士苏黎世开展的一系列晦涩难懂的神学讨论。1519年,一位名叫乌尔里希·茨温利[8]的天主教牧师建立了一座改革宗教堂。茨温利参加了一系列由市议会发起的正式教义辩论,被宣布为获胜者。他们在市议会面前辩论的议题之一就是洗礼时间。从逻辑上讲,只有成年人才能按照自己的自由意志行事,才能有意义地服从于基督,《新约》中的福音书也是这样描述的。但是,婴儿洗礼是从3世纪就已经确立了的,到马丁·路德和茨温利时期,几乎已经是一种普遍的、毫无疑问的教会做法。

    茨温利在这次辩论中的反对者之一,一位名叫康拉德·格列伯的商人,反对婴儿洗礼——“洗孩子”,因为这些神学后裔长大后可能会轻视它。辩论之后,格列伯为他的一个朋友乔治·布劳罗克施行了再洗礼,然后他们两人开始为其他成年人施行再洗礼。

    当时,这并没有引起什么。茨温利本人也评论说,他和格列伯之间只有很少的神学时间,只讨论了一些“不重要的周围事件,比如应该对婴儿还是成人进行洗礼,基督徒是否可以担任地方法官”[9]。

    但再洗礼派的导火索已经点燃,或者更准确地说,是两条导火索:一条穿过波罗的海和低地国家(今荷兰、比利时,以及莱茵河、埃姆斯河、斯海尔德河和默兹河的河口),另一条穿过明斯特。这两条导火索分别燃烧,直到1534年,在明斯特合并,点燃了历史上最混乱的群体幻想之一。

    梅尔基奥·霍夫曼是一位德国毛皮贸易商,经常来往于汉萨同盟的城市间(可以带来丰厚利润),他点燃了波罗的海和低地国家的导火索。他比路德小10岁,在1523年左右获得维滕贝格大学的教授职称,并在来往行程中传播主张改革的异端教义。几年后,他对《启示录》念念不忘,开始背离路德的教义,宣扬一场即将来临的末日式善恶大战。

    和之前以及之后的启示性末日论者一样,他热衷于应用自造的末日数学。霍夫曼计算出,基督死于33年,使徒时期[10]持续了100年,直到133年。他认为,由于犹太人的罪行,人类受到了三年半的惩罚;由于巴比伦时期的邪恶,惩罚时间增加了20倍;由于教会对耶稣的疏离堕落,惩罚时间又增加了20倍,总共增加了1400年。因此,世界末日将发生在1533年,这一预言在波罗的海的多个贸易城市引发了暴动和混乱,包括吕贝克、斯德哥尔摩和一些丹麦港口。由于制造了这一系列混乱,霍夫曼被逐出这些城市。[11]

    就其性质而言,再洗礼主义是一种有吸引力但组织分散的神学,其信徒仅仅因为相信成人洗礼而被统一。最终,再洗礼派在整个西欧,尤其是汉萨同盟贸易路线上蓬勃兴起。霍夫曼的启示性再洗礼在低地国家取得了最大的成功,尤其是在东弗里西亚最大的城市埃姆登,其位于德国沿海地区,今荷兰边境以东。

    15世纪末,哈布斯堡人接替勃艮第人开始统治低地国家。此时,这些城市已成为欧洲大陆最繁荣的城市。在路德摧毁教会对《圣经》解释的垄断权以及谷登堡发明的印刷机的支持下,当地居民在一种被称为“秘密集会”的小型非官方组织下聚集。这种“秘密集会”是各种宗教派别的温床。

    1530年左右,霍夫曼经过当时宗教改革活动的密集之地——斯特拉斯堡,这座城市是再洗礼派中比较温和的瑞士版本的发源地,他将其嫁接到他的末日信条中。1531年,与《启示录》相呼应,他将斯特拉斯堡定为《启示录》提到的144000名神圣信使聚集的地方,并将在该城战胜邪恶势力的大规模围困。他向斯特拉斯堡市议会请愿建立自己的教堂,但这再一次导致他被驱逐,于是他回到了低地国家,对大量成年人进行再洗礼,仅在埃姆登主教堂的一次就有300人。[12]

    1531年12月,神圣罗马帝国当局——低地国家实际上的统治者,抓获了扬·沃克茨,他是霍夫曼的一个门徒,曾在阿姆斯特丹对50名皈依者施行了再洗礼。他们邀请他逃跑,但他选择了殉道,并与9名追随者一起被斩首。为了保护教徒,霍夫曼把宗派的教义改为禁止成人洗礼。[13]1533年,霍夫曼返回斯特拉斯堡,这很不明智。在那里,教会判定他犯有异端罪,罪行相对次要,并将他囚禁在一些条件恶劣的牢房中。他平静地接受了阴冷的新环境,因为他认为世界末日即将来临,自己不会在那里待太久。但是,这个很乐观的推测被证明是错误的。他在狱中度过了10年,其间,下面街道的市民偶尔会听到他轻轻地吟唱圣歌,并不断重复:“你们斯特拉斯堡的不敬上帝的经书家们有祸了!”[14]

    霍夫曼入狱后,他的追随者,一位名叫扬·马提斯的面包师来到阿姆斯特丹,宣称自己是先知以诺。令信徒们高兴的是,他又开始了成人洗礼。以诺是《旧约》中在生前就被上帝带到天堂的仅有的两个人物之一,另一个是以利亚,而霍夫曼在此之前已经盗用了以利亚的身份。此外,一些再洗礼派成员以《启示录》11:3~11:12的内容作为证据,证明以诺和以利亚是两个未言明的“被提”见证人。随着时间从1533年进入1534年,世界末日并没有到来,低地国家的信徒被迫将末日时间推迟到1535年,并将地点从斯特拉斯堡北移到宗教上更具宽容性的明斯特。

    1534年3月,至少3000名阿姆斯特丹的再洗礼派教徒试图穿越须得海[15]去往明斯特。哈布斯堡军队阻止了他们,并处决了大约100名异教徒,其余的被当作无辜受骗者放走。在那个时代,哈布斯堡军队的这种做法被认为是温和的。第二天,几个“使徒”激动地挥舞着刀,在阿姆斯特丹的街道上游行,警告说最后的审判将会在复活节前到来;他们被抓住并被杀死。那一年,(荷兰)海牙的哈布斯堡当局已经部署了“飞行纵队”,围捕这些低地国家的再洗礼者,对抓捕到的信徒施行酷刑,让他们在认罪和被处决之间做出选择。[16]

    1535年2月的一个寒冷夜晚,一群再洗礼者赤身裸体地跑过阿姆斯特丹高呼:“对神不敬者有祸了!”公开裸体象征着在上帝面前忠贞不渝,在明斯特也很常见。最后,拒绝穿衣服的男人被处死,拒绝穿衣服的女人被淹死。(刀和裸行者在荷兰语中留下了两个新词:zwaardlopers和naaklopers。)

    荷兰的许多其他城市也出现了再洗礼派暴动,这导致了更多的处决。到1535年中,多达20%的阿姆斯特丹人可能经历过成人洗礼,许多受洗礼者(如果不是大部分)都是无辜的局外人,他们是不断升级的镇压和抵抗(包括几场大规模的激战)下的难民。5月11日,携带武器的再洗礼者占据了该市的一个主要集市,在失败被捕之前,他们大声喊道:“爱上帝的人,加入我们吧!”3天后,当局挖掉了11名头目的心脏。当年夏天,当局割断了一位再洗礼派领袖的舌头,因为他用舌头来布道;然后,当局砍掉了他的右手,因为他用右手洗礼;最后,当局砍了他的头。[17]

    即使对于那个时代,这场对再洗礼者的镇压也显得很残酷,肯定比路德和茨温利的追随者遭受的镇压要残酷。路德和茨温利废除了教会对《圣经》解释权的垄断,这已经够糟糕的了,但至少他们尊重私有财产,尊重世俗化的政府权威。而在大多数情况下,再洗礼派却主张没收集中的财富,特别是集中在教会手中的财富,并否认现有政府的合法性。再洗礼者还在煽动性的言论中掺入了即将来临的末日这种信念;很多时候,行动会加速灭亡。

    尽管荷兰的再洗礼者众多,但由于哈布斯堡家族对荷兰控制得过于严格,他们无法成功;他们需要更温和的政治土壤,这意味着,一个事实上不受哈布斯堡家族控制的城市。他们发现了明斯特,并在那里点燃了再洗礼派疯狂的第二条导火索。

    许多汉萨同盟的城镇,如但泽和吕贝克,都是所谓的“自由城市”,基本上独立于遥远而日益衰落的神圣罗马帝国皇帝,只在名义上效忠。这些几乎独立的城镇大多由当地贵族统治,例如明斯特由一位“亲王主教”统治。被选为“亲王主教”的代价通常非常昂贵,其需要由当地大教堂挑选并必须经过教皇确认,他们更多的是以封建主的身份进行统治,而不是政教合一的身份。

    1525年,明斯特的亲王主教弗雷德里克·冯·维德由于害怕农民战争,将权力下放给一个由24名成员组成的委员会,其中包括两名共同市长。与低地国家政府不同,该委员会基本不受哈布斯堡的影响。近10年后,该委员会将成为再洗礼派实施疯狂暴力破坏的楔子。[18]

    再洗礼派将滩头阵地定在明斯特,大多数历史学家将这归因于贝尔纳德·罗特曼。他于1495年左右出生在一个铁匠家里,与他的祖先一起被指控犯有巫术罪。小罗特曼被描述为具有“变化无常的、小丑的气质”。由于太穷,他没有上学。他叔叔在明斯特圣莫里斯教堂担任教区牧师,在叔叔的指导下,他成为唱诗班男童,后来以唱歌谋生。到青春期结束声乐生涯时,他已经赚得了在美因茨市学习所需要的钱,并在那里获得了硕士学位。1529年,他回到了圣莫里斯教堂。[19]

    1530年左右,罗特曼已经成为一名有说服力的传教士,得到了富有布商贝尔纳德·克尼佩尔多林的资助。克尼佩尔多林还担任协会会长、市议会议员,首先皈依了路德教,后来在罗特曼的影响下成为一名秘密的再洗礼派教徒。克尼佩尔多林印刷了罗特曼的小册子。不仅在明斯特,而且在低地国家,这些作品都点燃了再洗礼的火焰。

    现代社会对疯狂的再洗礼派的了解在很大程度上归功于两位观察者,一位是前面提到的赫尔曼·冯·克森布罗克,另一位是海因里希·格雷斯贝克。后者是一位皈依再洗礼派的木匠,参与了整个过程,并在最后扮演了一个小而关键的角色。冯·克森布罗克和格雷斯贝克都留下了详细的书面记录,他们在记录中所体现出的个人偏见表明,这些记录看上去是可信的。[20]

    根据冯·克森布罗克的描述,最初罗特曼忠实地传授天主教教义,但后来:

    渐渐地,他开始将那些看上去与天主教教条背道而驰的教义融入他的布道中。他开始煽动平民对神职人员的愤怒,这吸引了一些渴望新奇事物的市民。[21]

    他在圣莫里斯教堂的上级决定保护他们的信众不受日益激进的观点的影响,因此借给他20个金弗罗林[22]供他去科隆深造学习。他既没有去也没偿还借款;相反,他直接前往了维滕贝格。路德和梅兰希顿的家就在那里。

    1531年,这位年轻的牧师回到了圣莫里斯教堂。他作为一位坚定的路德宗教徒,陶醉于作为煽动者的快乐之中,非常善于吸引人群到城墙外的小教堂里。根据冯·克森布罗克的记录:

    许多人,特别是那些被债务压得喘不过气来的人,像尊敬上帝一样尊敬他,听信他说的每一句话,并深信他的行为都是奉上帝之灵。即使官方明令禁止,他们还是成群结队地从城里跟着他,因为他们渴望听到他讲话,他们的渴望如此强烈,以至于他们认为除了他之外没有其他传教士了,他们蔑视、谴责和诅咒其他人以及所有的神职人员。[23]

    作为一名忠诚的天主教徒,冯·克森布罗克对罗特曼的布道不屑一顾,“与其说是有确凿的论据,不如说是拙劣的诽谤”。然而,无知的平民们无法区分什么是雄辩,什么是夸夸其谈,他们认为他说得很好。[24]

    此时,罗特曼已被圣莫里斯教堂免去牧师职务,他带领一伙暴徒来到教堂,砸碎了神像,推倒了祭坛,砸碎了一个银杯,焚烧了圣母玛利亚的画像。当局再次驱逐了他,他又一次到了维滕贝格,在那里,他给路德和梅兰希顿留下了深刻的印象,据说他们俩很有先见之明地评论道:“罗特曼要么非常好,要么非常坏。”[25]

    1532年,罗特曼再次回到明斯特,他开始公开支持再洗礼派的观点。这是一把双刃剑。成人洗礼不仅获得了听众的认可,也得到了教会的许可。到那时,对于曾经把再洗礼者绑在木桩上焚烧,以及曾经将石头绑在再洗礼者的脖子上并将他们抛入水中,教会已经表现出一丝内疚。用再洗礼主义学者克里斯托弗·麦基的话说,“有点儿像一个神学笑话”[26]。

    此时,亲王主教冯·维德仍然控制着这座城市,并强迫罗特曼停止亵渎神明的行为。罗特曼遵从了几个星期,但随后又不顾一切地给冯·维德写信说:“我问心无愧,因此我毫不怀疑我可以依靠上帝的怜悯。他会保护我,把我从危险中解救出来。”[27]

    1532年2月,罗特曼在该市的一个主要教堂——圣兰伯特教堂的院子里布道,公众被他动摇了,自发地选择以他作为自己的牧师。更重要的是,他在市议会中赢得了足够的支持,他不会再被驱逐。明斯特的宗教热情不仅限于再洗礼;全城的教堂中都有激进的路德派传教士,除罗特曼以外,他们都来自其他城市。

    在使城市皈依方面,罗特曼的成功与低地国家的霍夫曼和马提斯不相上下。罗特曼在圣兰伯特教堂的布道结束后不久,冯·维德在失意中辞职,他的继任者在被祝圣[28]之前就去世了;6月,没有多少基督教会背景的一位伯爵的儿子,弗朗西斯·冯·瓦尔德克,升任亲王主教。下半年,他封锁了这座城市,而作为回应,再洗礼派成功地突袭了城墙外冯·瓦尔德克的总部,这样明斯特就完全处于叛逆的再洗礼者的控制之下了。1533年2月,他们达成了一项妥协:教区教堂可以实行路德教,而大教堂将保持天主教。[29]

    尽管达成了妥协,但明斯特的天主教徒和路德教徒的时间已经不多了。罗特曼的小册子,由富有的布商克尼佩尔多林承销,已经渗透到了低地国家。这些小册子将私有财产列为邪恶的根源:“上帝所造的万物都是共有的,就像今天仍然可以共同享受空气、火、雨和太阳一样,任何东西都不能让某些偷窃者抓在他们自己手里。”罗特曼将明斯特描绘成一座富足的城市,它张开双臂欢迎信徒,数百名来自低地国家的可怜人南行至明斯特——再洗礼者口中所谓的新耶路撒冷城——去朝圣。

    1533年初,天主教徒、传统的路德派教徒和再洗礼派教徒不稳定地混杂在这座城市,其中的再洗礼派不想遵守与亲王主教之间的协议。与此同时,从低地国家涌入很多再洗礼者,引发了3月份的特别委员会选举,选举结果是激进的路德派占多数,相当多的再洗礼者占少数,没有天主教徒。[30]市议会对那些在基督大教堂给婴儿洗礼的家庭处以罚款,标志着新的统治开始。

    与此同时,在低地国家,扬·马提斯为一个来自莱顿市的名叫扬·博克尔松[31]的人施行再洗礼。和霍夫曼一样,马提斯是一个冲动、暴躁的传教士,而扬·博克尔松则利用自己的戏剧表演技巧和精于算计的能力塑造出一股强大的政治力量。

    作为一名镇长和一名农奴妇女的私生子,博克尔松一出生就面临着痛苦和失望,父母安排他接受了初级教育,并让他在裁缝店做学徒,但他并不擅长于此。他的一些其他天赋,很快就在明斯特显现出来:金发碧眼的英俊外表,优雅、狡黠、富有演讲造诣和表演天赋。用千禧年学者诺曼·科恩的话说,他利用这些天赋“将现实生活塑造成一部戏剧,以自己为主角,以整个欧洲为观众”[32]。

    1533年末,马提斯派了几名使者前往明斯特,他们于次年1月抵达。其中包括博克尔松,他在前一年夏天来过这座城市。一到那里,他们就发现罗特曼及其追随者已经为城里的大概1/5的成年人施行了再洗礼,该城有多达1/3的人相信世界末日即将来临。马提斯本人于1534年2月9日来到这里。[33]马提斯和博克尔松的到来标志着两位再洗礼者融合在一起:罗特曼具有说服力的土生土长的明斯特再洗礼主义,以及梅尔基奥·霍夫曼从低地地区衍生的催眠般的末日幻觉。对双方来说,他们抵达明斯特的意义非常明确。用学者拉尔夫·克勒策尔的话说:

    先知派遣使者施洗被解读为上帝正在准备世界末日。在此背景下,战争、瘟疫和通货膨胀,以及帝国的改革,突然成为末日的预兆。[34]

    事情从这里开始发展迅速。再洗礼派让使者到邻近的城市传达信息:到1534年复活节,上帝会回来惩罚恶人,很少有人能活下来;只有在新耶路撒冷城明斯特才能获得平安和救赎。世界末日即将来临。

    1534年2月6日,罗特曼为河对岸女修道院的修女们表演了一场滑稽戏剧:

    他发表了一场赞美婚姻的布道,并用他演讲中神奇的击槌声打开了修女们童贞的营房。他似乎在敦促修女们去繁殖人类,而修女们对此并不十分反感。接下来,为了让修女们进一步从愚蠢过渡到彻底疯狂,他告诉她们修道院的塔楼及房屋结构将在第二天午夜倒塌,连同所有住在里面的人。他的神谕带给修女们的与其说是痛苦,不如说是欢乐,因为她们的灵魂充满了欲望,憎恨修女的生活。[35]

    这些年轻的修女无处可去,她们认为罗特曼是上帝派来的人,于是带着自己的财产跑去了他的家。整个城市的市民都无眠,迎接末日的到来。

    但是末日没有到来,为了挽回面子,罗特曼利用了一个正符合时机的圣经例子——约拿的故事,约拿错误地预言了亚述首都尼尼微的沦陷,全能者出于怜悯而没有责罚他。两个早晨后,再洗礼派的其他成员担心罗特曼的预测能力会使教派受损,于是滑稽地冲过街道,用“可怕的喊叫和疯狂的怒吼”大声宣讲,让不信教的人忏悔,试图以此来维护他们的信誉。那天下午,扬·博克尔松和克尼佩尔多林也加入了进来,一次又一次地大喊:“忏悔!忏悔!忏悔!”他们的疯狂感染了其他人,所有人一起以各种各样的姿态跳上跳下,摇着头,还有的扑通一声倒在泥里。一位再洗礼者骑马疾驰而过,宣布结束,并告诉所有人,他看见了成千上万的天使,所有人都将听到天使们的声音。[36]

    这种疯狂激励了再洗礼者,当天晚些时候,500名再洗礼教徒占领了城市市场,后来被主流路德派教徒阻止。但路德教的阻止是短暂的;在2月23日的选举中,再洗礼派最终完全控制了市议会。2月底,武装的再洗礼派向非教徒发出最后通牒:选择接受再洗礼或被驱逐,“从这里滚开,你们这些不虔诚的人!上帝会惩罚你们!”[37]

    再洗礼派摧毁了教堂的祭坛,并花费数天时间掠夺教堂里的金银,还焚烧雕像。他们还收取刻有“DWWF”的铜币,以允许行人通过戒备森严的城门。到了月底,亲王主教的军队开始围攻明斯特城,博克尔松告诉信徒,圣经要求,当末日来临时,上帝准许基督徒不再容忍,并准许他们全副武装去防御。

    第一批被驱逐的天主教徒被允许带走他们的财产,但短缺的食物除外;最后一批离开的人只能带衣服,但衣服上的纽扣和金钩都被没收了。[38]再洗礼派教徒对政变中路德教对他们的反击记忆犹新,他们把愤怒集中在男人身上。而路德教徒和天主教男子预测亲王主教能够夺回这座城市,因此留下他们的女人来守卫他们的房屋和财产。这造成城墙内女人数量过多,很快将产生可怕的后果。[39]

    1月,再洗礼者自愿捐出所有的物质财产——因为世界将会在复活节终结,但是到了3月,市议会开始禁止私人持有财产;罗特曼和博克尔松要求所有的金银和纸币都要上交到市政厅。为了鼓励捐赠,博克尔松宣扬,信徒有三种分类:完全放弃自我的好基督徒;保留部分财产的人,他们需要向上帝祈祷,但是上帝会心存报复;只为了方便而受洗的人,他们什么也指望不上,在末日将会被烧死。

    马提斯和博克尔松把镇上所有人都聚集在大教堂广场上,向他们大声喊道,仁慈之门已经关上,上帝很生气。那些已经受洗的人被聚拢在一边,剩余的人,总共大约300人,被解除武器,被迫俯伏在地,祈求怜悯一个小时,这期间随时都可能被杀死。然后,他们被带进大教堂,被迫跪祈上帝3个多小时。最后,教堂门外的博克尔松戏剧性地打开门宣布:“亲爱的兄弟们,看在上帝的分儿上,我要告诉你们,你们得到了上帝的怜悯,你们将与我们同在,成为圣人。”第二天,他对镇上2000名未受洗礼的妇女重复了这个过程。[40]

    到3月底,这座城市已经经历完一次宗教清洗;大约有2000名天主教徒和未受洗礼的路德教徒被驱逐,人数与从荷兰和东弗里西亚迁移来的再洗礼者人数大致相等,因此人口基本保持不变,约为9000。但是,该镇的宗教结构以及心理结构已经发生变化。不易受到他人影响的天主教徒被更易受到影响的再洗礼者取代,这加剧了已经变得明显的群体幻想行为。此外,对不敬虔者的驱逐和信徒的迁移只会加强“新先知”罗特曼、马提斯和博克尔松所说的“大灾难”的确定性,即末日真的要来了。

    再洗礼者不仅要拥抱未来,还要毁灭过去,因此他们下令销毁所有市政记录,特别是债务分类账簿。狂热者们焚烧路德和阿奎那[41]的书籍;一些家庭和教堂里只剩下《圣经》。最终,博克尔松还对城市的门和街道进行一般性重命名,例如,圣路德门被简称为南门,他还按照字母顺序指派姓名给新生儿。[42]

    这些“新先知”开始残酷地惩罚持不同政见者。一位名叫胡贝特·吕舍的铁匠,在2月份的选举中失去了议会席位,还对市政记录被毁感到不满。于是他被带到博克尔松面前,先是戏剧性地被赦免,然后戏剧性地被释放,他哭着求饶,但是被一把戟刺中背部。这位身体强壮、肌肉结实的铁匠还没有死,于是博克尔松朝他的背部开了一枪;吕舍被痛苦折磨了8天才死去。[43]

    复活节前不久,马提斯参加了一些朋友的婚礼;他预言了自己的死亡,格雷斯贝克对此做了记录:

    他在那里坐了一个小时,拍打着双手,上下点着头,沉重地叹着气,就好像快要死了。最后,他又醒了过来,叹了口气说:“哦,亲爱的父亲,不要照我的意思,只要照你的意思。”他站起来,把一只手伸向每一个人,并亲吻他们的嘴唇。他说:“上帝的平安与你们同在。”然后他和妻子一起走了。(那时,再洗礼者还没有很多妻子。)[44]

    1534年,复活节在4月5日到来,但耶稣没有出现,世界也没有结束。那天,马提斯和十几名追随者离开城门,骑着马走向亲王主教的雇佣兵,后者开始屠杀他们。格雷斯贝克记录说,围城者将马提斯的尸体切成100块,玩耍似的用血淋淋的碎片相互撞击,并用一根长矛挑着他的头,然后向城内喊话:居民们应该找回他们的市长。[45]马提斯可能是想吸引耶稣回来,或者,为了完成《启示录》11章中的一段话,即以诺(他自己)和以利亚(霍夫曼,仍被扔在斯特拉斯堡监狱中)的死亡将标志着耶稣的回归。

    博克尔松在乡村传教多年,还在上一年夏天到过明斯特,传教经历磨炼了他戏剧般的间谍技巧。在附近的舍平根镇,据说他通过洗礼治愈了一个生病的女孩,到1534年初他再回到明斯特时,已经很有名气了。他很可能一直在为这一时刻做准备。在此之前,他在明斯特一直保持着相对低调的姿态,马提斯去世后,他站在教堂的上层窗户处俯瞰人群,身穿白色长袍,沐浴在烛光中,右边是克尼佩尔多林,左边是迪沃——马提斯美丽而神秘的妻子,历史只记载了她的教名。

    博克尔松告诉群众,马提斯应该被处死,因为他虚荣并贪婪,这让群众大为震惊。博克尔松指了指克尼佩尔多林,并告诉人们,当他住在克尼佩尔多林家时,看到了马提斯血淋淋地剖开了一名雇佣兵的肠子。这名雇佣兵告诉博克尔松不要害怕:马提斯将受到上帝的审判,而他,博克尔松,必须迎娶他的遗孀迪沃。之后,博克尔松再次指向克尼佩尔多林,让他证明雇佣兵说这话的时候他也在场。人群对这一神圣景象感到兴奋,不少人脱下衣服跳舞,所有人都知道了,博克尔松继承了马提斯的职位。[46]

    马提斯和罗特曼还遗留了一个问题,那就是为什么耶稣又一次没有出现,博克尔松必须向信徒解释这个问题。他预言,耶稣现在不会回来,直到新耶路撒冷城清除所有不洁的元素。

    博克尔松不仅是一位杰出的煽动家,而且还是一位有能力的军事指挥官。他加强了该市本就很强大的防御警戒线,包括双墙、护城河和石制圆形大门。9000名公民面对的是数量大致相等的雇佣兵,因此不允许有累赘:妇女不仅在火药厂协助男子,而且还将亚麻花环浸入沸腾的沥青和生石灰锅中,从城墙上扔到突袭的雇佣兵身上。晚上,博克尔松的人溜进雇佣兵帐篷,割断他们的喉咙,并给幸存者留下纸条,鼓励他们皈依再洗礼派。

    5月25日,博克尔松的部队轻松击退了亲王主教军队的进攻,其中许多人投奔进城(尽管其中6人不久就因酗酒闹事而被处死)。[47]这场胜利极大地鼓舞了再洗礼者;当然,上帝是站在他们这一边的,亲王主教军队的失败巩固了再洗礼者对城市的控制。

    7月,博克尔松宣布所有以前的婚姻无效,并命令所有成年人再婚。此时,路德教和天主教留下的女性加剧了男女比例失调,女性的数量几乎是男性的三倍。因此再洗礼派鼓励一夫多妻制。起初,再洗礼派中那些富有攻击性的男性疯狂地在城市里四处寻找年轻女性和童女,他们基于一个理论,用格雷斯贝克的话说,“拥有的妻子越多,这样的基督徒就越好。”很快,领导层意识到,由此产生的自由放任的雄性激素已经破坏了城市的稳定。为了遏制这些疯狂男性的行为,他们规定,新娶必须经过主妻的同意,并允许各方当事人都可以提出离婚。但即便如此,第一任妻子也对他们新扩大的家庭感到不满,这是可以理解的,她们经常虐待这些新添的妻子。为了鼓励人们遵守一夫多妻制,领导层将最顽固的妻子监禁起来,并斩首了不少人。[48]

    婚姻法引发了一场暴动。大约120名男人抓获了博克尔松和克尼佩尔多林,并指认他们为刽子手,但是一场反击战将这二人又营救了出来。大多数叛乱者都祈求到了宽恕,但博克尔松枪杀、斩首了47名叛乱者,还有少数叛乱者被砍死。除此之外,博克尔松还处决了更多抵制一夫多妻婚姻的妇女。

    8月,亲王主教又进行了一次袭击,他们几乎冲破了内墙,但最终被击退。袭击者遭受了可怕的损失,因为当他们爬向城墙抬起头的时候,发现迎接他们的死亡形式是煮沸的大锅、木柱和树木,一旦木桩和树木掉落,会立即将他们其中的几个人从爬梯上带下。他们中的幸运儿从破裂的外墙逃了回来。之后,亲王主教的军队几乎解散。[49]

    这场胜利鼓舞了博克尔松的精神和气势;他认为自己是大卫王转世,也是这个星球唯一合法的统治者。他还英明地推断,这样一个惊人的说法最好是出自他人之口。那年夏初,一位名叫扬·杜森舒尔的跛行金匠从附近一个小镇来到明斯特,他自称拥有预言能力。果然不出所料,在亲王主教第二次袭击失败后,他宣布上帝已为博克尔松施了涂油礼,任命他为国王。[50]

    作为君主,博克尔松宣布明斯特的旧宪法不适合新的神圣秩序,废除了市议会和两个市长职位,并以皇家法庭取而代之。“新耶路撒冷”被重新命名为“上帝的子民”。

    在击退亲王主教的第二次进攻后,邻近的亲王加强了封锁,并任命了一名新指挥官。因此,食物和供应品很难偷运到市里;这位新国王的臣民们衣衫褴褛,慢慢被饿死。博克尔松却一点儿也不担心,他对戏剧和戏服的热情开始高涨。格雷斯贝克这样描述博克尔松:

    他为自己做了一件天鹅绒外套,用华丽的丝织布制作成华丽的紧身裤和紧身短上衣,还有华丽的金帽子、一顶带天鹅绒细绳的皇冠、一把配有金鞘的刀、一把配有金鞘的匕首、戴在脖子上的许多金项链……他把世界挂在链子上,就像在他的盾形纹章上挂着的那个金色圆球一样。这像他的盾形纹章一样闪烁着蓝色斑点。[51]

    博克尔松的奢华感还延伸到为他的骑兵装备华丽的衣服,用华丽的丝绸,“制作成半身服装,一只手臂没有袖子,胸部镂空,因此他们在马背上能给人留下深刻印象”,并为他的家仆穿上红色外套,配上灰色或金色戒指,以戒指大小显示仆人等级。[52]

    10月,杜森舒尔将预言中博克尔松的统治权扩展到整个地球,并宣布上帝将吹响三次号角,这标志着该城通往上帝应许之地的旅程开始。1534年10月31日日出前,瘸腿金匠杜森舒尔爬上圣兰伯特教堂的塔楼,吹响了牛角。然后他下楼,继续在街上吹喇叭,其他人则吹奏其他乐器。成千上万的居民费力地走向大教堂广场,男人们扛着武器,女人们抱着小孩和她们最珍贵的财产。更多的号角吹响了,博克尔松骑着一匹白色的种马,全身行头,在20个护卫的簇拥下来到这里;后面跟着的是坐在马车里的迪沃王后,她由仆人侍奉着,还有他的另外15位妻子。

    此时,博克尔松已经把没有到来的末日提升到了高级剧场。他命令一位受尊敬的贵族,格拉赫·冯·武伦,带领自杀式冲锋队冲向围攻部队。然后,这位国王让冯·武伦宣布,这只是一次旨在测试他们意志的演练,他很高兴地通知他们,他们已经通过了。博克尔松脱下他的猩红色长袍,摘下王冠,放下君主权杖,和他的“长老们”一起为饥饿的群众提供了一场盛宴。除了给他们供应食物,博克尔松和长老们还与男人们开了一个轻松的玩笑——谈论他们妻子的数量。格雷斯贝克写道:

    只有一位妻子的市民羞愧地坐着。这样的人还不算信徒,不算一个真正的基督徒……他们坐着吃喝,兴高采烈。在大教堂广场上,这些人看上去并不像马上要死的人,每个兄弟都坐在妻子们旁边,到晚上可以选一位他渴求的人和他一起上床睡觉。[53]

    市民们饱足后,博克尔松站起身来,声泪俱下地宣称,他辜负了人民的期望,将退位。博克尔松刚说完,杜森舒尔就转达了上帝那里传来的消息:上帝命令他和其他26个人一起前往附近的4个城镇传播消息,以加速末日的到来。

    此外,杜森舒尔透露,博克尔松应该恢复其国王的职责,其中最主要的职责就是惩罚明斯特城中的不虔诚行为。然后,这位金匠把王冠重新戴在国王的头上,并把他的猩红色长袍和君主权杖还给了他。

    这戏剧性的一幕也许就是博克尔松本人的杰作;他在27名信使及其134位妻子面前,一举提升了自己的权威,摆脱了潜在的竞争对手。然后,国王和他的妻子以及宫廷人员,吃了一顿丰盛的晚餐;每上一道菜前,他的仆人都会大吹大擂。晚餐结束时,博克尔松沉默地坐了一会儿,然后告诉在场的人,他从上帝那里得到了启示,上帝命令他把刀和一个被俘的雇佣兵带来。他命令俘虏坐下,被拒绝后,他威胁俘虏说要把其腰斩,而不仅仅是斩首,俘虏未反抗。完成了上帝的旨意后,博克尔松结束了这顿饭。[54]

    27名信使离开了;然后26名信使被抓获并被雇佣兵处决了,除了一个名叫海因里希·格拉斯的人,他因会说拉丁语而没有被杀。这也引起了亲王主教的注意,使格拉斯有机会叛变。[55]

    格拉斯回到明斯特,讲述了他戏剧性地从亵渎上帝的人手中逃脱的故事,然后离开了这座城市,将无价的情报送给了亲王主教:食物和武器已经短缺,这座城市已经分裂,一边是曾经忠诚但现在饥肠辘辘、士气低落的民众,另一边是再洗礼派的精英们,他们的特权使他们能够保持精气和幻想。

    格拉斯离开这座城市之前给镇上的人留下一封谴责信:“现在明斯特正在进行的行为都是一场骗局,因此,我谦卑地祈祷你们最终睁开眼睛——是时候了!注意你们的行为,你们显然违背了上帝和他神圣的话语。”[56]尽管信使们已经被杀,但博克尔松安慰信徒们,信使死亡是上帝的意愿,他派遣了更多的信使到更远的低地国家去招募新的再洗礼者来守卫城镇。为了迎接增援部队的到来,他下令制造装甲车,以穿越封锁线回到城镇。

    但增援没有到来,第二批信使也杳无音信。这些持续出现的不幸事件,再加上邻近亲王向亲王主教支援了更多的雇佣兵,使他们没有机会再取得军事胜利。罗特曼告诉市民,虽然他们不能依靠外部世界,但上帝会拯救他们。随着食物和资源的日益匮乏,博克尔松削减了军队,转而专注于神学研究。

    1535年1月1日,博克尔松发表了一份宣言,其中规定,“只有那些以上帝的话语为导向的政府才能得到保护”,“做出法律决定是国王、他的摄政者以及法官的特权”,“一个不受非基督胁迫的政府不应该受到干涉,即使它还没有接受信徒的洗礼”[57]。

    一群年仅10岁的儿童因偷窃食物或涉嫌叛国而被处决。一位名叫图尔班·比尔的丹麦贵族离城后不久被发现是间谍,三个知情妇女在大教堂广场被斩首。其中一个是克尼佩尔多林的情妇,她没有被纳为妻子,因为她是妓女。被带到断头台上时,她公然谴责克尼佩尔多林的背叛行为;愤怒的克尼佩尔多林抓起一把刀砍了她的头。[58]

    到了复活节,低地国家的救援部队还没有出现,博克尔松宣称,他一直以来都是从精神意义而不是军事意义上定义“胜利”的。当镇上的流浪猫狗都已经被吃掉的时候,饥饿的市民们才被允许离城。

    博克尔松给予民众三四天的离城期限。离城民众的衣服被交换为破布;那些在期限之外离开明斯特的人被抓获并被处以绞刑。还有少数按照期限离城的民众被城外的雇佣兵屠杀,他们的头被挂在木桩上。格雷斯贝克将此解释为“霍布森选择”[59]:“他们仍然选择从城市叛逃,因为他们在城市里遭受了如此巨大的饥饿。他们宁愿被杀,也不愿在巨大的饥饿中受苦。”[60]

    几周后,为了节省食物,博克尔松允许男人与他们的某些次要妻子以及孩子断绝关系,这样他们就可以离开;博克尔松也和他的妻子以及孩子断绝了关系。格雷斯贝克观察到,“如果有人出一块面包,那么肯定有一些再洗礼者愿意用一位妻子换回一块面包。当没有面包的时候,法庭就没什么存在意义”[61]。

    这时,雇佣军每天都要将50名男性逃犯斩首,让逃犯中的妇女和儿童挤在围墙外的一块几百码宽、周长4英里的地狱般的土地上,其在一个多月的时间里都没有食物和住所。后来雇佣军允许其中的外国妇女和儿童回家,明斯特当地人被拘留,一直到城市沦陷。[62]

    大约5月23日,格雷斯贝克和其他几个人也逃离了这座城市。和以前大多数逃离者一样,他们被抓获了,但幸运的是没有被杀;就格雷斯贝克而言,由于他年轻、个性讨人喜欢以及抓获他的雇佣兵心地善良,他只是被判入狱。[63]他的成功逃离鼓励了数百人逃离明斯特,但最后几乎所有人都被杀了。

    格雷斯贝克在牢房的泥土地上为雇佣兵画了一张地图,勾画出军队应该如何进入城市。6月22日晚,一位名叫“朗斯特里特的小汉斯”的人(曾是围攻者,后来叛变到明斯特,然后又和格雷斯贝克一起逃离明斯特)和格雷斯贝克通过一个小型浮动桥游到一个能够穿过护城河的地方,35名雇佣兵从那里迅速穿过护城河,杀死了熟睡的哨兵,用小汉斯的钥匙打开了大门。在防御者最终关闭城门之前,至少还有300多名雇佣兵沿着又短又细的堤道进入(比起格雷斯贝克,围攻者们更信任小汉斯,也许是因为小汉斯最初是他们中的一员,所以小汉斯带领他们进攻,格雷斯贝克则留在桥上)。重新关闭城门后,困在城墙内的入侵者本来几乎就要被博克尔松的部队消灭了,但他们狡猾的指挥官威廉·施特丁用假谈判拖延了一段时间,直到后来亲王主教的主力兵团涌入该城,并在残酷的肉搏战中扫荡剩余的再洗礼者。[64]

    雇佣兵屠杀了600名居民,当他们发现每个人分到的战利品份额为50荷兰盾(相当于今天的1600美元)时,可能存在的任何罪恶感都消失了。再洗礼派护城河首领克里斯蒂安·克尔克林克很快被处决,一起被处决的可能还有迪沃王后。但博克尔松、克尼佩尔多林和另一名副手布伦德·克雷切丁克因各种神学犯罪、盗窃和谋杀的罪名而被慢慢审讯。博克尔松被捕几天后,亲王主教悲伤地问道:“你是国王吗?”博克尔松傲慢地回答:“你是主教吗?”[65]上层领导中可能只有罗特曼逃脱了,而且人们再也没有听说过他的消息。

    1536年1月22日是对博克尔松行刑的日子。按照帝国新刑法规定的程序,两名刽子手用一根木桩附着一个铁圈,圈住博克尔松的脖子使他不能动弹,并用灼热的钳子把他的肉撕下来。根据冯·克森布罗克的记录,“当被灼热的钳子触碰时,肌肉会发出明显的火焰,并因此散发出强烈的恶臭,使旁边的人感到恶心”[66]。

    看到这一幕,克尼佩尔多林试图用脖子上的项圈让自己窒息,但刽子手们用绳子把他张大的嘴牢牢地固定住,并把他捆在木桩上,然后又回到博克尔松身边继续钳肉,博克尔松默默地经受着这种折磨。之后克尼佩尔多林和布伦德·克雷切丁克也经历了这种折磨。然后刽子手用刀划开三个人的喉咙,最后刺中心脏。刽子手把他们直立的尸体塞进铁笼里,然后把铁笼挂在圣兰伯特教堂的塔楼上,让所有人都能看到。[67]他们的骨头在那里保存了50年,街上仍然有这三个笼子[68]。

    明斯特再洗礼派的继承者从他们的经历中吸取了教训;今天,成人洗礼的教义主要存在于阿米什和门诺派中,它们既安静又和平。

    第三个大规模的中世纪末日事件发生在17世纪中期的英格兰,当时整个英格兰都处于混乱之中。17世纪早期,议会与斯图亚特国王之间存在冲突,后者继续宣称国王的神圣权利;而议会不满于查理一世对安立甘宗[69]的支持,其更亲近天主教。

    不过,他们的冲突主要围绕财政问题。查理一世由于无法筹集到必要的资金支持他的军事行动,试图用一些非法手段结束议会的财政权力,尤其是筹集“船款”的权利。这是一项古老的皇家税,只在战时适用,而且只适用于沿海城镇。查理一世在和平时期收取议会外税收,并将其推广到内陆社区,引发了三场独立的冲突,其统称为英国内战,最终国王于1649年被斩首。奥利弗·克伦威尔建立了短暂的联邦和保护国制。克伦威尔的统治,以及他能力较弱、参与政治较少的儿子理查德的继任,被证明是灾难性的,使查理二世的君主制统治又在1660年得以恢复。

    动荡催生了两大派别:一个是平等派,主张法治、民主改革和宗教宽容;另一个是第五君主国派,是一个千禧年主义团体,其末日论支持“圣徒”统治,自认为是正义的骨干,但是和明斯特的再洗礼派一样,一点儿也不民主、不宽容甚至不谦逊。第五君主国派统治英国后,正义者将无法得到休息,因为它颁布了一项神圣法令,授权随后征服欧洲大陆。尽管这两个派别都没有完整地幸存下来,但第五君主国派在1653年短暂存在的“贝尔朋议会”(以一名成员的名字命名)中几乎掌握了政府大权。“贝尔朋议会”是克伦威尔令人眼花缭乱的一系列议会之一。[70]

    自约阿希姆以来,困难时期就会产生大量的数秘主义和末日论算术。英国外交官约翰·佩尔在1655年写道:

    有些人认为,395年是异教终结的时代,因为当时罗马帝国中不存在任何一座异教徒圣殿。在此年上加上著名的数字1260,也就是1655年,是末日的新纪元。另一些人则认为是1656年,因为他们将《创世记》第五章中先辈们的生活时间进行加总,发现从创世到洪水一共经历了1656年,并由此推断,耶稣一定和挪亚一样,在第二年到来。还有一些人认为应该再等三四年,认为1260这个数字必须从狄奥多西死后、他的儿子们分裂罗马帝国时开始算起。甚至还有一些人认为需要再等11年,我们不必惊讶,这是由数字666推算出来的。(也就是说,末日时间将在1666年。)[71]

    第五君主国派中一个叫阿里塞·埃文斯的人轻易地做出了最愚蠢的估计。《但以理书》中的“小号角”在书中代表希腊塞琉西帝国统治者安条克四世,那么它在当前时期又代表了谁,这是第五君主国派末日论中的关键要素之一。大多数信徒认为当前的小号角是国王查理一世,这让埃文斯很生气,因为他是已故国王及其大主教威廉·劳德的坚定支持者。对埃文斯来说,大主教的名字正标注着世界末日的时间:VVILLIaM LaVD中的罗马数字加起来是1667年[72]。

    在另一领域,物理学家艾萨克·牛顿写了大量文章解释《启示录》经文(在他死后,其结集成一本《对但以理预言和圣约翰启示录的考察》),但是他很明智,并没有预测耶稣复临的日期。[73]

    也许最有影响力的末日推算,当属一位名叫亨利·阿彻的传教士了。他在1642年出版了《基督亲临统治全地》,一部仅58页的著作,将但以理梦中被石头打碎的野兽重新解释为四个君主国:亚述/巴比伦、地中海/波斯、希腊和罗马。他认为即将到来的第五个君主国将由耶稣亲临统治,第五君主国派的名称由此而来。阿彻的计算表明,耶稣将会在1666年或1700年复临。这种模式完全属于新教神学范畴。路德认为第四君主国和野兽都是教皇制的隐喻。[74]

    许多第五君主国派成员都是英国内战以及克伦威尔议会和护国政体的主要参与者,他们认为自己是即将到来的基督复临和最后审判事件的被动观察者。在英国内战期间,该派别中最杰出的人物是托马斯·哈里森,他官至少将,表现出极大的勇气和极强的能力。他还担任议会议员,主张进行改革。

    大多数第五君主国教徒都主张通过法律手段寻求变革,例如哈里森。但是也有少数人并不认同,特别是一位名叫克里斯托弗·费克的煽动性传教士,他敦促公众进行一场暴力革命,去迎接一个由“圣徒”——也就是他们这些虔诚的精英——组成的千禧年神权政体。[75]

    第五君主国教徒一开始很顺利,他们(包括哈里森)都参加了战争并在新模范军中担任高级职位,也是1648年克伦威尔清除“长期议会”事件的参与者。但随着时间的推移,克伦威尔要么不愿意,要么无法接受第五君主国教徒的政治和神学要求,他们之间的联盟开始破裂。1653年,第五君主国派在贝尔朋议会中达到了权力的顶峰,但维持时间不长,随着议会的解散和随后独裁护国政体的建立,克伦威尔和第五君主国派之间的关系恶化。克伦威尔断断续续地拘留了包括哈里森在内的许多第五君主国派成员,但他通常会谨慎对待这些老盟友,没有因为他们的千禧年信仰而处决他们。例如,1654年,那时的哈里森可能已被多达8个不同选区选中进入新议会,他提交了一份请愿书,敦促恢复“一个完全自由的国家”。克伦威尔发表了反对意见,拘留了哈里森,然后“温和”警告了他;几天后,又释放了他。[76]

    用历史学家罗杰斯的话说,克伦威尔对待第五君主国派成员“就像对待自己顽皮的、被误导的孩子一样,虽然他们违背了他的意愿,但他不希望他们被监禁的天数太多,哪怕多一天也不行”。[77]

    随着1660年4月查理二世复辟,第五君主国派的幸运终于耗尽。新国王对这群人怀有偏见和仇视。哈里森不仅曾经是查理一世被监禁时的看守,而且在判处查理一世死刑的司法程序中也扮演了重要角色,因此他尤其受到查理二世的仇视。6个月后,国王审判哈里森和他的同僚们(弑君者),其中有一些是第五君主国派的成员。大多数人都被判有罪,而哈里森发现自己是第一个被判有罪的人,并被告知:

    在囚车上被拖到行刑地点;在那里,你将被吊起来,活人剖腹,你的内脏将在活着的你面前燃烧,然后你的头将被砍掉,身体将被肢解为4块,由国王陛下随意处置。[78]

    曾经目睹过查理一世被斩首的日记作者塞缪尔·佩皮斯,记载了10月13日对哈里森的行刑:

    我到查令十字街,去看哈里森少将被拖行、绞死并被肢解为4块;就在那里,观看的人都很高兴。他很快就被砍成块,头和心被展示给人群,这时人群发出巨大的欢呼声。[79]

    在这次事件中,哈里森的头和4块身体在城里被四处展示,这令国王很高兴。两天后,佩皮斯又目睹了另一位著名的第五君主国派弑君者约翰·卡鲁的死刑执行仪式,他“在查令十字街被绞死并被肢解为4块,但是,幸运的是,他的身体各块没有被吊起来展示”[80]。[81]

    第五君主国派中的一个小派系,其领导者是一位名叫托马斯·文纳的制桶工匠。他们一直幻想自己的民众支持率很高,足以通过武装暴动实现耶稣复临。尽管第五君主国派的其他一些更清醒的成员,如哈里森等人认为他们是鲁莽的,但文纳还是在1657年4月策划了一场暴动,不过暴动还没开始,就被揭发了,这证明他确实鲁莽。

    奥利弗·克伦威尔对文纳及其同伙非常宽容,只是将他们囚禁在伦敦塔;克伦威尔死后,他的儿子理查德释放了这些无能的策划者,他们只被监禁了不到两年。随着查理二世的复辟以及哈里森和其他参与弑君的第五君主国派成员的死亡,刚刚获释的文纳团队感到绝望,决定采取行动。1660年12月,文纳的一个喝醉的同伙向一个名叫霍尔的人吹嘘他即将参加一个“光荣的事业”。霍尔问是什么,他回答:“我们会把查理从王位上拉下来。因为国家应该由圣徒来统治。”霍尔迅速向当局报告了谈话内容,然后被带到国王面前,国王下令逮捕第五君主国派中的其他不满者。

    文纳和他的大约50个同伙没有被逮捕,因此他们继续执行他们的计划。1661年1月6日晚上(选择这个日期是因为他们认为第十二夜狂欢结束时城市的看守人都会喝醉),他们闯入圣保罗大教堂,并在教堂外面派了一个守卫,结果这个卫兵很快开枪打死了一位路人,因为当被问及忠于谁的时候,这位路人宣称自己忠于国王。密谋就这样暴露了,文纳那支可怜的小部队在伦敦的街道上被不断壮大的“火车队”追赶,这些“火车队”由城市民兵构成,后来国王的军队也来增援。在接下来的三天里,文纳的士兵从人数上远逊于对方,他们进行了一系列越来越绝望的殊死反抗。

    塞缪尔·佩皮斯在1月10日的日记中,简洁地描述了这群人:

    这些狂热分子击溃了他们遇到的所有火车队,把国王的近卫兵赶跑,杀死了大约20人,两次闯入城门;而这一切发生在白天,当全城武装起来的时候,他们总共不超过31人。然而我们却认为他们至少有500人(因为他们几乎在全城的每个地方都出现过,而且他们在海格特地区还待了两三天,还在其他几个地方待过)。闻所未闻,如此少的人竟敢做如此多的坏事。他们的口号是“耶稣国王和城门上的头颅”。最终,他们中很少有人会被分尸,因为他们在暴力中很难活下来:期待耶稣降临这里,并在此刻统治世界吧。[82]

    最后,文纳的追随者中大约有一半死在追杀中,其余大部分后来被绞死,但国王对文纳和他的副手执行了全套的半活剖腹刑,就像对之前的哈里森和卡鲁那样。[83]

    16世纪和17世纪,北欧人通过引人入胜的末日叙事,寻求逃离这个世界的苦难,去往一个美好的舒适世界。在施瓦本农民战争中,托马斯·闵采尔只是把末日神学附加在世俗平民起义的基础上,造成了灾难性的后果;而在疯狂的再洗礼派和第五君主国派的暴动中,从一开始到悲惨结束,都是一场末日事件。

    从18世纪开始,随着一系列金融群体幻觉席卷欧洲,整个国家不再寻求上帝的援助,而是开始寻求玛门的援助。从表面上看,宗教和金融事件似乎属于不同现象,但它们是由相同的社会和心理机制驱动的:叙事的诱人力量;人类倾向于幻想本不存在的“模式”;领袖和追随者的过于自负和过度自信;而且最重要的是,人类有一种压倒性的倾向,即模仿周围人的行为,尽管这种行为毫无根据或是一种自我毁灭。

    3 短暂的致富

    密西西比泡沫与南海泡沫

    在这片广阔的土地上,人们的思想都集中于同一个主题。这一主题吞并了政党政治:辉格党和托利党停止了争吵,雅各布斯派也停止了阴谋。在全国各地的每一家旅店、每一条道路上,谈论的内容都是一样的。在阿伯里斯特维斯,在特威德河畔贝里克,在布里斯托尔和圣戴维斯,在哈里奇和朴次茅斯,在切斯特和约克,在埃克塞特和特鲁罗,几乎在陆地的尽头,人们谈论的只是南海公司的股票——只谈论南海公司的股票!

    ——威廉·哈里森·安斯沃思,1868[1]

    18世纪初,聪明的苏格兰金融家约翰·劳留下了一条可怕的金融混乱足迹,这对20世纪90年代那些在互联网泡沫破裂中幸存的人来说非常熟悉。互联网股票只会伤害数百万投资者;但劳损害了整个法国对银行业的信心,这是更严重的打击。

    劳是苏格兰人,出生于一个有着数百年历史的著名的爱丁堡金匠世家,他的父亲、叔叔和三个兄弟都是金匠。到他1671年出生时,古老的“金匠”职业已经演变并伪装成了一个完全不同的东西:银行业。

    劳的直系祖先生活在苏格兰岛,但当时的苏格兰与未来那个雄伟、贸易自由的不列颠岛完全不同(当时,苏格兰仍然独立于英格兰)。17世纪初,英国人口仅为法国的1/3,比1348—1349年黑死病暴发前的人口还要少。劳时代的英格兰弱小、不发达,当时还卷入了一场弑君性国内战争。当时英格兰在公海上的业务不仅涉及商业,还涉及海盗和走私。随着1600年左右大型贸易组织的建立,大规模国际贸易开始缓慢出现,其中最著名的是东印度公司的贸易。

    当东印度公司的船只拉着从新兴香料贸易中赚得的金银驶入伦敦时,商人们遇到了一个后勤问题:英国没有银行系统,因此没有可靠的地方存放财富。金匠们的职业就是对客户的贵重物品进行安全储存,他们提供了最合理的替代物,即证书。商人们将贵重物品交给金匠后,会收到金匠的证书。关键是这张纸质证书可以用来交换商品和服务,换句话说,它起着货币的作用。此外,金匠们意识到,他们可以创造出超过他们所持有金银(铸币)数量的纸币。

    也就是说,金匠可以印钞。

    只有最虚伪、目光最短浅的金匠才会只制作和颁发证书给储户;大部分金匠都制作纸质证书并以高利率借出。即使是借给信用最好的人,借款年利率也常常会超过10%(尤其当英国处于战争状态时),在那10年里,借出证书比发放证书给储户更赚钱,而且只要金匠仍有偿付能力,这种情况就会一直存在。

    只有在证书持有者没有一次性全部赎回的情况下,这条菊花链才能正常运转。假设金匠的保险箱里有10000英镑的金币,他发行了价值30000英镑的证书,1/3的证书颁发给金币的主人,2/3的证书颁发给借款人。如果持有证书的人要求取出价值10001英镑的黄金或白银,那么不管他们是借款人还是最初的储户,金匠都可能被毁掉。更糟糕的是,如果证书持有者怀疑会发生这种情况,那么金匠办公室不断壮大的队伍将足以引发挤兑,从而推翻整个纸牌屋。在本例中,证书与铸币的比率为3:1;该比率越高,运行崩溃的可能性就越大。即使是最谨慎的金匠/银行家也可能陷入崩溃;1674—1688年,发生了四次有记录的“金匠挤兑”;1677—1694年英格兰银行成立期间,伦敦金匠/银行家的数量从44人下降到12人左右。

    实践当中,金匠/银行家们发现2:1的比率——每接收1英镑存款,向借款人发放1英镑贷款——是相当安全的。这一体系的重要性不容低估,因为它预示着弹性货币供应的诞生,而弹性货币供应量可以根据借款人对贷款的渴望和债权人的放贷意愿进行调整。当借贷双方情绪高涨时,货币供应量就会扩大;当他们感到恐惧时,货币供应量就会收缩。这种纸币数量扩张的现代金融术语是“杠杆”,即纸质资产总额与硬资产的比率。[2]

    银行的杠杆推动了现代金融狂热。在欧洲,它产生于17世纪,导致各种过山车般的泡沫和泡沫的破灭。在接下来的4个世纪里,金融创新产生了各种令人眼花缭乱的投资工具,每一种都只是在稍微不同的伪装下进行杠杆操作,并成为接连出现的各种过度投机的导火线。

    作为英国金匠的继承者,约翰·劳从小生活在一种英国式的银行体系中,纸张可以像稀有铸币一样发挥货币的作用。但即使在今天,许多人仍然抵制纸币的概念;在17世纪之交,纸币让很多普通人觉得可笑。

    到了1694年,年轻的劳厌倦了肮脏、贫穷、处于中世纪晚期的爱丁堡,来到伦敦。他改名为博·劳,在城市里尤其是经常在赌桌上游荡。他与一位名叫博·威尔逊的人为了一个他们都感兴趣的年轻女人而展开决斗,最终他杀死了博·威尔逊。经过审判,劳被判绞刑,然后获得缓刑,然后再次被判绞刑后,逃跑了。1695年初的《伦敦公报》写道:

    约翰·劳上尉,苏格兰人,王座法庭囚犯,最近犯有谋杀罪,26岁,瘦高个,皮肤黝黑,身材匀称,身高6英尺以上,脸上长着麻子,大鼻子,声若洪钟,从上述监狱逃跑。无论是谁能够控制并将他送回上述监狱,都将立即获得由王座法庭支付的50英镑。[3]

    17世纪末,囚犯们比今天更容易“逃跑”,而劳的朋友,可能是得到了国王威廉三世的默许,安排了他的逃跑。[4]上述身体特征描述属于故意误导,因为劳的鼻子并不大,肤色白皙。

    最初,他去了法国,在那里,他的数学能力震惊了周围的人,在赌桌上受到欢迎。但是,把劳称为赌徒,对他的能力来说并不公正。即使在今天,定量能力和专注能力在二十一点的牌桌上也很有用。300年前的赌场的效率较低,冷静计算的回报更为丰厚。这吸引了一些欧洲最聪明的数学家参加这种机会主义游戏,其中最著名的是亚伯拉罕·棣莫弗,他的机会学说构成了现代统计学的重要基础。[5]一位熟悉劳的人写道:

    如果你问我劳的消息,那么我只能说他从早到晚只和玩纸牌的人在一起。他赌博时总是很开心,每天都会提议不同的游戏。他向所有能连续投6个6的人出价10000块亮片,但如果他们投不到,那么他们每次都要给他一块亮片。[6]

    由于连续投6个6的概率是1/46656(1/66),劳的出价一定会获胜(在第10000轮6次投球之前,他输球或付款的概率为19%)。此外,只要有机会,劳都会充当纸牌的“银行家”,他可以扮演赌场而不是客户的角色,无论什么样的特定游戏规则,他都能利用一点儿统计方面的优势。[7]

    据经济历史学家安托因·墨菲估计,当劳离开法国时,他从赌场赢来的钱总计几十万英镑,这在当时是一笔巨大的财富。[8]然后他去往荷兰,在那里,他研究了阿姆斯特丹银行和该城市新证券交易所的尖端业务。他还访问了热那亚和威尼斯,熟悉了那里具有数百年历史的银行体系。

    那个时代的法国人不信任国家管理机构,因此法国几乎不存在银行体系。攒下来的里弗尔(法国古代货币)放在床垫下或袜子里,而不是放在银行里,经济急缺资金。[9]劳赞叹于意大利和荷兰的先进金融体系,并努力使之为法国带来好处;在大约10年的欧洲大陆游历中,劳将自己从职业赌徒转变为经济学家。尽管当时经济学家这一术语还没有出现。

    劳直观地认识到以稀缺金银为基础的货币供应不足是如何扼杀欧洲经济的,而充足的货币供应又是如何刺激欧洲经济的。他早已熟悉私人发行纸币的概念,但以他在荷兰银行业的经验,他认为由中央国家银行发行纸币才能解决货币基础不足的问题。

    劳的这种充足的纸币供应能够刺激经济的直觉,可以通过3个世纪后华盛顿特区出现的婴儿合作社的著名故事(至少在经济学家中非常著名)来理解。这种合作社涉及婴儿保育服务的交易。最流行的方案之一是使用“代金券”:一种票证,每张代表半小时的婴儿照顾时间;因此,一对想要看三个小时电影的夫妇需要使用六张票证。

    此类代金券/票证方案的成功在很大程度上依赖于流通中票证的精确数量。20世纪70年代早期,华盛顿特区有一家这样的合作社,由于它印制的票证数量不多,因此家长们就把它们收藏起来。许多人愿意照看孩子以赚取票证,但愿意花票证请人照顾自己孩子的人很少,因此每个人晚上出去的时间都比自己原本想要的少。

    在华盛顿特区,许多父母都是律师,正如律师们惯常做的那样,为了解决问题,他们通过立法强制要求个人花这些票证。但在经济领域,通过立法解决问题往往会失败,本案也是这样。于是一对经济学家夫妇说服合作社印刷并分发更多的票证。家长们有了充足的票证,所以晚上会出去玩儿更长时间。[10]

    同样,劳的金匠/银行业背景和经验告诉他,欧洲经济停滞的原因是铸币短缺,除了其他措施,印刷纸币可以弥补铸币的短缺。劳并不是第一个意识到这一点的人;几乎从17世纪初金匠/银行家发明弹性信贷开始,他们中的一些人就认识到,扩张纸币可以刺激经济。1650年,也就是在约翰·梅纳德·凯恩斯将以黄金为基础的货币体系称为“野蛮遗迹”的3个世纪之前,王室官员威廉·波特就指出,流通中有限的铸币数量意味着:

    尽管世界上的仓库从来没有像现在这样装满商品,但是你将会看到,由于支付能力不足,商人们进货的速度慢于他们为商品找到销路的速度,而接下来,如果人们由于极度贫困而无法从商人手中买走商品,那么贸易的大门将会关上,其结果就是财富的大门会关上……反之,如果所有人手中的货币(或者类似货币的东西)增加,那么(商人们就不需要囤积货币,只要一有货币,他们就会买进商品,并将其摆在货架上),随着货币供应量的增加,人们手中的钱越多,商品贸易就越多;而这种贸易的增加将增加财富……因此,财富的关键在于增加货币,或者类似货币的东西,而不是囤积货币。[11]

    法国以及劳的祖国苏格兰的银行体系远比荷兰和意大利更为原始,因此,法国和苏格兰的经济运行不佳。罗讷河谷纺织业的恶劣状况给劳留下了特别深刻的印象,他制订了一项通过发行纸币为工厂、托儿所、面包房和作坊融资的计划。1703年底,他认识的一位法国驻都灵大使,将他的建议转述给法国财政大臣沙米亚尔侯爵,但后者婉拒了他。

    新年前后的某个时间,劳回到了苏格兰,那里的情况更加变化无常。早些时候,在1695年,苏格兰议会将该国的远洋贸易垄断权授予苏格兰非洲和东西印度群岛贸易公司(更广为人知的名字是“达里恩公司”)。公司计划在巴拿马地峡的达里恩建立一个贸易前哨站,以缩短从欧洲到亚洲的贸易路线。该公司向达里恩派出了两支探险队,第一支探险队由于计划和供应不善而遭遇失败,而第二支探险队的成员则被西班牙人屠杀。

    1699年,该哨站落入西班牙人手中,苏格兰银行不得不暂停营业。银行的经营困难使劳感到悲痛,他进一步完善了他的经济思想,写成了两本作品:《土地银行》和《论货币和贸易》。前者提出发行以土地为担保的纸币;后者是一本详细而精辟的书,为亚当·斯密的《国富论》一书中的许多概念埋下了70年的伏笔。

    劳开始以一种非常现代的方式深入思考货币的本质。他认为,真正的货币应该有7个基本特征:价值的稳定性、同质性(也就是说,它可以以固定单位交易)、易于运输性、各地统一性、易储存而不损失价值性、可分割成更小或组合成更大的货币量,以及拥有一个关于其价值的印章或标识。[12]

    劳认为土地正符合这些标准,与土地挂钩的纸币将优于锚定白银的传统货币。在今天看来,这种以土地为单位的货币概念似乎很奇怪,但在18世纪早期,它是有道理的。大约从1550年开始,白银从秘鲁和墨西哥的巨大矿场涌入欧洲,这导致其价值贬值。相反,表示一块土地的证书可以根据其未来粮食、水果或动物产量的总和进行估价。此外,白银只有少数几个限定用途:货币、珠宝和器皿或工业用途。相比之下,土地在支持纸币的同时,还有各种广泛的农业用途。[13]正如劳所写,“土地产生了一切,但白银只是产品。土地的数量不会增加或减少,白银或其他任何产品的数量可以增加或减少。因此,土地的价值比白银或其他任何产品更为确定”[14]。

    劳逐渐将他的货币概念扩展到了土地之外,包括了那个时代最伟大公司的股票,特别是英国和荷兰东印度公司以及英格兰银行,他认为,这些公司的利润应该比白银更稳定。这是一个合理的假设;但劳没有预见到的是,他的体系本身会给那些价格带来致命的不稳定性。

    作为卡尔·马克思的先驱,劳提出了社会发展的三个阶段。在第一个阶段,货币是不存在的,易货是交换的主要形式,这时,大规模的生产制造几乎是不可能的,因为那需要前期大量的货币开支。用劳的话说,“这种易货状态下几乎没有贸易,也很少有手工生产者”。[劳的“贸易”一词具有现代GDP(国内生产总值)的意义:指消费的商品和服务总量。我们现在认为,劳认为货币时代之前是易货阶段,这种说法是不正确的,因为在原始社会,交换是通过互相赠送和积攒记号来完成的,这些做法的经济效率比易货更低。][15]

    在第二个阶段,经济在金属货币的基础上运行,但金属货币太少。虽然从理论上讲,如果货币短缺,人们就可以在较低的工资下工作,但这会妨碍制造业发展:

    人们会问,如果各国的管理良好,那么为什么它们不自己加工羊毛和其他原材料?是因为在货币短缺的地方,工人的工资很低吗?答案是,没有货币就没有人愿意工作;而且,在货币很少的地方,其几乎不能满足国家的其他需要,因为人们不能同时在不同的地方使用同一枚铸币。[16]

    在第三个阶段,当货币和信贷充裕时,国家繁荣。英国就是一个典型的例子,它在10年前刚刚成立了英格兰银行,以发行钞票。[17]银行周期性地增加和减少钞票供应;劳观察到,“随着英国货币的增加,(国民收入的)年均值也增加了;随着货币的减少,年均值也随之减少”[18]。

    劳首次描述了一个被称为“循环流动”模型的经济概念(他的理论核心),这在他的《论货币和贸易》中有数页解释。该模型可以想象为两个同心圆,货币从一个所有者向另一个所有者以顺时针方向流动,而商品和服务则逆时针流动。

    劳设想了一个孤岛,它由一位领主拥有,该领主将自己的土地出租给1000名农民,这些农民种植农作物并饲养动物,其产出占岛上产出的100%。但制成品不能在当地生产,而是通过出口多余的谷物以换取制造品进口。

    此外,岛上还有300名没有工作的贫民,他们靠上帝和农民的施舍生存。为解决这种悲哀状况,劳让领主印刷足够多的货币,用于建立工厂并雇用300名贫民,工人的工资将用于购买农民的粮食。这将增加农民交给领主的租金,领主可以继续用租金支付工人工资。

    正如现代任何一个凯恩斯主义者都会做的那样,劳将他的例子做了概括:

    贸易(也就是现代术语中的GDP)和货币相互依赖:当贸易衰退时,货币减少;而当货币减少时,贸易就会衰退。权力和财富依赖于人的数量以及国内外商品的储存数量;而这些又依赖于贸易,贸易又依赖于货币。因此,贸易和货币两者之间会产生直接和必然的影响;损害其中任何一方都将损害双方,权力和财富都将是不稳定的。[19]

    劳提出一个由苏格兰银行发行纸币的方案,但这个方案被苏格兰议会于1705年投票否决了。两年后,苏格兰通过了《联合法案》,根据该法案,苏格兰与英格兰合并,这样劳在苏格兰就面临着生命危险,因为他本应在伦敦被监禁和处决。劳请求安妮女王的赦免,但被拒绝,于是他逃回了欧洲大陆,在荷兰、意大利和法国之间辗转10年,然后于1715年在巴黎定居。[20]

    那时,他又一次被法国财政大臣沙米亚尔拒绝,他的另一个在都灵开设银行的计划也被萨伏依公爵否决。接下来,他大胆地寻求路易十四的支持。到1715年夏天,路易十四已经统治法国72年,这是欧洲君主至今的最高纪录(伊丽莎白女王必须活到98岁,也就是2024年,才能超过路易十四的在位时间)。路易十四正打算批准劳的建议时却患上了坏疽,他明确地告诉摄政王奥尔良公爵:“我的侄子,我让你成为王国的摄政王。你将目睹一个国王在坟墓里,而另一个在摇篮中;你要永远记住前者的记忆和后者的利益。”[21]英俊、迷人和富有的劳获得了摄政王的支持,并最终说服摄政王进行了一次大规模的金融尝试。

    1715年9月路易十四去世时,法国已经因参与西班牙王位继承战争而濒临破产。劳曾试图组建一家大型国有银行,但受到摄政王的限制。1716年,他成立了“私人通用银行”,正如其名所示,这是一家私人企业,总部设在劳的家里,劳成为一位新加入的法国公民。

    当时,只有5个国家——瑞典、热那亚、威尼斯、荷兰和英格兰——发行了纸币,但其不能用于日常小规模交易,因此法国人对私人通用银行的纸币持怀疑态度。[22]新银行成立之初,劳就立即规定,新纸币可以与流通中的黄金和/或白银一对一兑换。由于当时的法国长期资不抵债,经常发行不足值的金属铸币,因此新纸币的价值比当时流通中的金属铸币要高。为了吸引富有的客户并增强信心,他将存款准备金率保持在较低水平,并开展了一些“亏损业务”,包括免费兑换外币和按银行纸币面值兑换铸币业务,而不是按低得多的(高折扣的)普通的政府纸币价格进行兑换。[23]

    由于票面价值得到了保证,劳的银行纸币和服务所具有的优势引起了人们的注意。正如劳预测的那样,纸币供应的增加提振了王国经济。

    劳的下一个目标是密西西比公司。该公司最初于1684年获得特许经营权,后来通过与其他公司合并而获得法属美洲的贸易垄断权,但由于未能成功利用这些垄断权,其经营者安托万·克罗扎于1717年将特许经营权交还给了国王。现在,由于私人通用银行的成功,劳声名鹊起,他承诺通过让密西西比公司买断王室的巨额债务来拯救国家财政。在这个过程中,劳通过投机买卖公司股票,本已惊人的赌博财富更是成倍增加。

    为了使密西西比公司承担起王室的债务,他让王室扩大他的垄断权,垄断与中国、东印度群岛和“南海”(赤道以南的所有海域)的贸易。但几乎所有的相关贸易路线都已在英国、西班牙、葡萄牙的控制之下。[24]因此,密西西比公司对于这些新大陆贸易的“垄断”毫无价值。但是,这一点儿也没有减少劳的新金融体系的魅力。

    密西西比公司承担了王室的巨额债务,主要是以公民国库券的形式,国库券当时的利率为4%。由于王国的财政状况很脆弱,国库券的交易价格大大低于其面值;劳承诺,他的计划将使国库券的交易价格达到面值,这对王室来说是一个不可抗拒的诱惑。1718年12月,劳成功地使他的私人通用银行升级为国家银行,即“皇家银行”,该银行完成了货币流转链条:新银行将发行纸币,以支付密西西比公司的股票;纸币将用于购买国库券,从而减轻国王的战争债务。难以理解的是,国库券也可以直接用于购买公司股票;由于国库券是债务,公民用国库券购买股票意味着国库券的消失,这进一步改善了王室的财政状况。[25]

    劳的权力使他沉溺于与银币的斗争,他将银币视为国家的经济锁链。硬币被抛弃,纸币被引进。早在私人通用银行存续期内,政府就已经允许公众用私人银行发行的纸币支付税款。1719年初,皇家银行在法国各大城市设立分行,在这些城市,高于600里弗尔的白银交易必须用银行纸币或黄金进行;禁止使用银币支付。到1719年底,皇家银行已经买进了大部分的国库券,国家债务的消失进一步鼓舞了这个国家的动物精神。

    随着密西西比公司股价的上涨,银行印制了更多的纸币以满足对股票的需求,这进一步推高了股票价格,从而导致更多的纸币发行。很快,第一个记载翔实的全国性股市泡沫正在形成。冒失的货币扩张并不完全是劳一个人的作品,也受到了摄政王的影响。劳理解螺旋型通货膨胀的特点,但摄政王并不理解这一风险,他只是被该计划的成功鼓舞。

    以所谓的“永久资本”运营的现代公司,这只是一种花哨的说法,实际上就是,如果某个项目需要10亿美元,那么将通过销售股票来筹集大部分资金;如果费用预测准确,那么该项目将随后完成。

    密西西比公司的股票并非如此。该公司的股票不需要以全价直接购买,而是以认购的方式,以现金支付10%的股价。也就是说,为了获得股份,购买者只需支付10%的股价和20个月的分期付款(或“催缴股款”,每笔5%)中的第一笔,即只需要支付股价的15%。催缴机制是金融杠杆的一种早期形式,如果价格上涨15%,投资者的首期付款价值就翻了一番,它会放大收益和损失;如果价格下跌15%,那么投资者将被清出市场。因此,催缴机制可以被认为是保证金债务的祖先,而保证金债务是随后出现许多金融崩溃的原因,最明显的一次是在1929年。[26]

    为了满足对公司股票的需求,劳的银行发行了更多的股票;查尔斯·麦基描述了接下来发生的事情:

    至少有30万人申购这5万份新股,劳在坎康普瓦大街的住宅从早到晚都挤满了热切的申购者。由于不可能满足所有的申请人,新股东名单只能在几周后才公布,在此期间,公众的焦急情绪达到了疯狂的程度。公爵、侯爵、伯爵以及他们的夫人每天都要在劳家门前的街道上等待数小时,以了解结果。最后,成千上万的人挤满了整条大街。为了避免平民人群的推挤,贵族们在邻近的房子里租了公寓,这样他们就可以一直住在这位新财神爷散播财富的神庙附近(见图3-1)。[27]

    图3-1 约翰·劳的巴黎

    人们很少谈论其他事情,几乎所有有幸拥有股票的贵族都忙于买卖股票。坎康普瓦大街的租金上涨了15倍。

    劳对拥挤的人群感到厌倦,于是逃到他在旺多姆更宽敞的住所,但那里也很快挤满了人。这引起了议长的愤怒,因为议长的法庭就在旺多姆广场上。最后,劳搬到了苏瓦松酒店,那里有一个足够大的花园,花园可以容纳几百个帐篷;拥有该房产的幸运贵族以每月500里弗尔的价格出租每一个帐篷。

    麦基回忆说:“如果在某次会面中,摄政王让贵族们等了半个小时,那么他们会被激怒,但他们愿意等6个小时得到一次与劳见面的机会。”[28]一位女士巧妙地利用了劳对女士的殷勤,她故意让马车在劳面前翻车,劳不出所料地过来救助:她很快就承认了这是她的小伎俩,劳被她逗笑,于是给她签发了股票。拘谨的麦基提到了另外一个会让读者“微笑或脸红”的情节,但没有描述它,只是害羞地提到了一封奥尔良公爵夫人写的信:

    劳太忙了,日夜不得休息。一位公爵夫人在众人面前吻了他的手;如果公爵夫人吻了他的手,那么其他女士会如何?[29]

    其他观察者也证实了麦基的描述。1719年9月,英国大使馆的一名办事员向伦敦报告说:

    坎康普瓦大街是他们的交易场所,从清晨到深夜,这里挤满了亲王和王妃,公爵、贵族和他们的夫人等,总之,这里在法国非常有名。他们出售房地产、典当珠宝,以购买密西西比公司的股票。

    一周后,这名办事员又写道:“这个镇上的所有新闻都是关于股票买卖的。目前,法国人的脑子不会转向任何其他事情。”[30]巴黎成为一个繁荣的城市。泡沫期间,人口膨胀,城市不可避免地受到食品、服务和房地产价格飙升的负面影响。这种气氛高涨的环境下产生了“百万富翁”一词,其被普遍用来形容幸运的股东。[31]另一份大使馆报告写道:“昨天有人告诉我,一家商店在不到3周的时间里出售了80万里弗尔的蕾丝和亚麻布,主要是卖给一些以前从未穿过蕾丝的人;诸如此类的报道每天都如此令人意想不到,其他国家的人根本就难以相信。”[32]

    泡沫通常结束于看似很小的扰动,然后迅速崩塌。震动发生在1720年初,当时孔蒂亲王因没有买到足够多的公司股票而被激怒,为此,他派出了三辆马车,去皇家银行(卖出纸币)换取铸币,这些铸币本应是银行发行新纸币的基础。劳当时担任法国财政部长,不能在公众面前拒绝这一糟糕的请求,因此他做了次好选择:他向摄政王抱怨,摄政王强迫孔蒂撤销这一要求。敏锐的投资者意识到亲王所提要求和摄政王默许拒绝背后的含义:银行发行的纸币数量大大超过了其黄金和白银储备。随后发生了对该银行的全面挤兑。

    劳现在面临着一个危急的选择。他可以通过减少印刷纸币来保护货币币值,但这将损害股价;或者他可以通过印制更多的纸币来保护股价,而这将加剧本已猖獗的通胀。前一种做法将保护法国;后一种做法将保护贵族投资者。

    起初,劳选择保护货币,从而保护国家,或者他认为是这样。1720年2月底,陷入绝望的劳和摄政王开始禁止使用铸币进行交易,并将私人拥有的铸币限制在500里弗尔以内;此外,还禁止囤积银制器皿和珠宝,并招募告密者和经纪人来强制执行这些可恶的新规定。随着仆人背叛主人,父亲背叛儿子,国家的社会关系网开始瓦解。

    由于社会如此混乱,两周后,劳转而保护股价,从而保护富人,他提出每股出价9000里弗尔,这意味着需要印刷更多的银行纸币。到那时,里弗尔贬值带来的通货膨胀已经非常明显,到5月份,他通过两个步骤让里弗尔贬值了50%。1720年后期,为了控制通货膨胀,他宣布大面额纸币价值为零,抹去了国家的大部分财富;经济历史学家安托因·墨菲估计,包括密西西比公司股票和纸币在内的整个系统经通胀调整后的价值下降了约87%。对纸币和密西西比公司股票的最后一击是在那年秋天,瘟疫肆虐马赛,并威胁到巴黎,这进一步动摇了金融信心(见图3-2)。[33]

    图3-2 1719—1720年密西西比公司的股票价格

    至此,劳不仅耗尽了银行资本,也耗尽了他的政治资本。为了避免进一步的尴尬,摄政王允许他体面地离开巴黎,即先去巴黎郊区,然后出国。此时,他谋杀博·威尔逊的罪名已经获得王室的赦免。生命的最后几年里,劳在英格兰和欧洲大陆四处奔波,逃避债权人,其中最著名的债权人是伦敦德里勋爵。1719年9月,劳与伦敦德里勋爵下注,他认为密西西比公司将损害英格兰东印度公司股票的价值,因此承诺未来将向伦敦德里交付大量EIC(东印度公司)股票,这有效地“做空”了EIC的股票(“做空”就是押注股价下跌)。但是,南海泡沫(密西西比泡沫的伦敦孪生兄弟)期间,EIC的股价飙升,同时劳的体系又使法国货币相对于英国货币大幅贬值,这个赌注对劳来说成为一个灾难性的赌注。[34]

    尽管劳已经成为奥尔良公爵的政治负担,但这位摄政王仍然珍视他的才华,如果摄政王没有在1723年去世的话,那么可能会将劳重新召回巴黎。最终,劳于1729年在他深爱的威尼斯病逝,遗留下的主要财产是大量艺术收藏品,几乎没有其他东西。但总的来说,他是幸运的;而未来的泡沫主角往往会有更悲惨的结局。[35]

    密西西比公司确实拥有过一片美洲土地,就是后来的路易斯安那州。但在18世纪早期,该地区人口不足,而且流行疟疾病。为了给这片领土招募定居者,为公司的新大陆经营做准备,劳制作了欺骗性的小册子,将该地区描述为人间天堂。广告宣传失败后,劳又开始征募数千名男女白人囚犯以及非洲奴隶。

    违反纪律的士兵、名门中的害群之马、乞丐、妓女以及任何毫无戒心误入巴黎的农民都被强行运到了墨西哥湾沿岸。那些自愿去的人可以得到免费的土地、饮食和前往新领土的免费交通。[36]

    路易斯安那州所谓的“首府”,在现代的比洛克西和莫比尔[37]之间交替,不过是一处仅有几百名定居者的恶臭营地,他们中的大多数人在1721年公司倒闭后逃往新首府新奥尔良。[38]

    两个世纪以来,劳一直被描绘成一个无赖。最典型的是丹尼尔·笛福[39](以“迷雾先生”的笔名写作)写给那些希望获得巨大财富的人的建议:

    迷雾先生说,如果你已经下定决心了,除了这样做,没有什么别的办法,那么你必须做什么?很简单,你必须佩剑,杀一两个花花公子,被关进纽盖特监狱,被判绞刑,然后越狱,假如你能做到的话,记住,顺便去一个陌生的国家,转做股票经纪人,发行一支密西西比公司的股票,搅动一个国家的泡沫,那么你可能很快就会成为一个伟人;如果你有好运气,那么根据一句古老的英国格言——一旦你敢做一个记录在案的流氓,你可能很快就有希望成为一个贵族。[40]

    经济史学家们对他更为宽容。在劳的时代,经济运行中的货币不以黄金和白银为基础,这种想法在当时似乎是革命性的,甚至是可笑的。但今天的绝大多数经济学家认为,将货币供应量建立在矿山或珠宝盒中的金属量的基础上更加愚蠢。例如,金本位制的权威经济历史学家巴里·埃森格林发现,各国从大萧条中复苏的顺序与它们放弃硬通货(指金属硬币)的顺序恰好一致。[41]从本质上说,我们生活在一个叮当仙子[42]的经济中,因为每个人都相信纸币幻觉,所以它运转良好。就像穿越海格力斯之柱[43]航行、死于地中海之外的远古水手一样,劳的体系——一种群体幻想——由于缺乏经验而走向了失败,但也照亮了未来的路。

    密西西比泡沫传染了整个欧洲大陆。狂热时期,顽固的威尼斯人不再反对合股公司[44];有一些合股公司开始热情地发行股票,但后来随着巴黎灾难的消息南下而消失。荷兰也不愿落后于法国,紧随其后,进行了44次股票发行,其中有30次的价格几乎立即翻了一番。在稍欠发达的欧洲地区,贸易公司像野花一样遍地开花,然后迅速消失;18世纪欧洲股票发行中有整整40%的比重发行于1720年。[45]

    法国泡沫在伦敦最响亮的共鸣来自约翰·布朗特爵士,他出生在正确的时代。1689年,他25岁,英国在这一年继1688年光荣革命之后确立了君主立宪制。这一年,荷兰政权持有者威廉三世应英格兰新教势力的邀请进入英格兰,并以国王的身份登上王位,结束了英格兰斯图亚特君主制时代。

    在此之前,英格兰没有“国家债务”,只有国王及其家人的私人债务。1685年查理二世去世时,他和他的兄弟以及侄子欠了伦敦银行家约100万英镑,没有偿还一分钱的利息或本金。[46]由于王室不偿还贷款的风险一直存在,银行家们就理所当然地收取高利率,这压制了英国经济的发展。光荣革命之后,君主立宪制建立,国王放弃了原有的神圣权利,权利不受限制的问题得以解决,这立即使政府债务对银行家来说更具有吸引力。这反过来又更普遍地降低了利率;由于相对安全的债券不能获得高回报,投资者寻找风险更大的投资机会。这引发了未来10年合股公司的繁荣。

    布朗特是一位浸信会鞋匠的儿子,曾当过撰稿人(也就是从事法律和金融文件的写作,是一个传授房地产和金融活动内幕知识的职业)。借着这个职业,他进入一家小型商业企业集团,该集团包括一家亚麻布企业和一家伦敦供水公司。随后,他又受雇于一家最具野心的新合股公司——剑锋公司。

    起初,该公司生产先进的法式剑杆,但很快就将业务扩展到土地投机和政府债务交易。(商业模式的彻底改变,是与泡沫有关的金融诈骗的一个特征;近3个世纪后,安然公司也从一家枯燥沉闷的管道公司和发电厂蜕变为一家期货交易巨头,直至风险暴露。)

    1710年,布朗特的商业头脑引起了英国财政部长罗伯特·哈雷的注意,他请布朗特帮助解决国家巨额债务问题。与法国一样,英国的巨额债务也是从西班牙王位继承战争中遗留下来的。布朗特确实有那么一两个办法。他对债务的解决方案就是利用人们的投机心理,这也将成为他的招牌方法:政府将发行利率为6%的传统债券,债券中含有彩票,奖金从20英镑到高达12000英镑不等。债券的发行非常成功,这推动了一项更具吸引力的计划——“200万人的冒险”:一种复杂的分层彩票,起价100英镑,连续五次抽奖,最高奖金不断增加,分别为1000英镑、3000英镑、4000英镑、5000英镑,最后是20000英镑;每次抽奖,都有可能实现更大的回报,以此让输家留在游戏中。

    这些投机项目的成功使哈雷更加大胆,他于1711年成立了南海公司,目的是接管英格兰的所有巨额债务,他本人担任董事,董事会中有很多剑锋公司的人,包括布朗特。[47]作为承担政府债务的交换条件,南海公司与密西西比公司一样,获得了南美洲贸易的垄断权,但事实上当时西班牙和葡萄牙已经控制了南美洲,而且该公司董事会中没有一个人有与西属美洲贸易的经验。作为获得这项“垄断”权的部分交换条件,该公司承担了1000万英镑的政府债务。

    具有讽刺意味的是,英国南海泡沫正是在对法国体系的恐惧和嫉妒中产生的,它与巴黎泡沫几乎同时发生。但1717年密西西比公司承担法国国债,这种做法实际上是学习了此前南海公司对英国国债的承担。自1711年南海公司获得经营权的8年里,用承担政府债务换取新大陆贸易的“垄断”权,这种交换规模一直很小;但到了1720年,飞速发展的法国密西西比公司以及数千人涌入的坎康普瓦大街,让英国人羡慕不已。当年法国泡沫吹得最大时,丹尼尔·笛福在巴黎街头写道:

    你们,英格兰的迷雾先生们,在伦敦的你们是一群迟钝、冷漠的家伙;而在巴黎的我们喝着勃艮第酒和冒泡的香槟。你们连巴黎人民的一半聪明都没有。我们这里有清新的空气与柔和的火焰。100可以积累到2000,现在的股息为40%。[48]

    由于担心英格兰会被法国波旁家族所设计的金融永动机压倒,南海公司和议会设计了一个类似的体系,由南海公司承担更多的国家债务(约3100万英镑),这些债务的主要形式是年金。有人提议,这些债务的持有人,即年金受益人,应该自愿将这些政府债券转换为公司股票。

    当然,年金主要持有人是英国公民,他们从中获得收入。年金持有人必须得到一个有吸引力的报价才肯卖出,而最简单的方法就是刺激他们的大脑边缘系统,让他们相信公司的股票价格会上涨。

    南海公司出售了各种形式的股票。最典型的一种,是卖出一份票面价值(签发时的价格)为100英镑的股票,从年金持有者那里换取100英镑的年金。股票价格越高,公司越受益,因为这使公司能够为自己保留更多的股票。例如,如果股票价格上涨至200英镑,公司就只需卖出比100英镑价格时少一半的股票,并保留剩余的一半股票;如果价格上涨到1000英镑,公司就将保留90%的股票。随着股价的上涨,股票更受欢迎,这是一个正反馈循环,是所有泡沫的核心特征。

    现在,差不多3个世纪后,布朗特和哈雷对心理学的掌控的本质变得更加清晰。他们偶然发现了一种强大的方法,利用了非常古老的人类现象:人类偏好于“正偏态结果”——概率很低但是回报丰厚,即使所有回报的均值为负。例如,任何一个理性的人都不会买一张价值2美元的彩票,这张彩票的结果是50%的概率获得3美元,50%的概率什么都得不到,即它会产生1.5美元(0美元和3美元的平均数)的回报,平均损失率为25%。然而,许多人会买另一张价值2美元的彩票,它有1/2000000的机会获得3000000美元,这意味着平均赔付额也是1.5美元(3000000/2000000),平均损失率也是25%。[49]

    换句话说,哈雷和布朗特找到了一条通往人类贪婪之地的道路:大脑边缘系统强大的奖励预期电路。这是一种本能,这种本能曾经让远古狩猎者获利,但在金融领域是有害的。

    正如我们所知,在南海的垄断权几乎没有价值,但这并不妨碍该公司散布最捕风捉影的谣言。麦基写道:

    他们提到了英国和西班牙之间的条约,根据这些条约,所有西属殖民地可以自由贸易;从波托西-拉巴斯[50]矿中开采的丰富的白银将被运到英国,英国的白银将几乎与铁一样充足……与南海进行贸易的商业公司将成为有史以来最富有的公司,每投资100英镑,将为股东带来每年数百英镑的收入。[51]

    为了确保议会同意该计划,南海公司向议员们贿赂股票,该计划通过后,这些股票大幅升值。1720年4月14日,首次允许以现金形式出售股票;两周后,首次允许公众用年金换取股票;此时股价已从年初的120英镑上涨至约300英镑;到了6月,达到1000英镑以上的峰值。布朗特设计了极其复杂的细节,将这场200万人参加的冒险活动提升到了一个新的水平:公司部署了不同级别的股票连续认购,旨在吸引公众的注意力。最后,如前所述,股价越高,公司买进政府债务时向持有人提供的股票数量就越少,从而更多股票掌握在布朗特及其同僚们手中。[52]

    与法国泡沫相比,英国泡沫有四个特征。首先,法国泡沫几乎完全围绕一家公司的股票,但英国泡沫中,受当时普遍的乐观情绪所鼓励,还存在很多其他企业的上市股票。麦基列出了不少于86家被称为“泡沫公司”的英国企业,而随后的历史学家们确定的数量更是翻了一番。虽然大多数企业筹资都是为了实体经济,例如修建公路、房屋以及建立进口商品贸易,但也有很多计划是不切实际的:“头发贸易”、“永远转动的车轮”、“热风烘干麦芽”以及“将水银转化为可锻性精炼金属”。当代现存的一些资料列出了各种各样的筹资项目,其中有许多可能是虚构的,比如一个“大脑的空气泵”,或者“抽干红海的水,找到犹太人离开后遗弃在埃及的宝藏”,或者,最著名的是“为了一项大有裨益的事业;但没人知道这项事业是什么”。[53]

    南海泡沫的第二个显著特征是英国泡沫公司的杠杆程度极高。与密西西比公司股票需要15%的首付类似,南海公司股票的首期付款仅为10%~20%,其余部分将在后续催缴中缴纳。而泡沫公司的杠杆率则高于南海公司,也就是说,它们的初始认购价格较低;有时,一先令[54]可以认购一股价值1000英镑的股票(占规定购买价格的0.005%)。因此,泡沫公司的资金非常匮乏,经常会快速破产。但是,仍有少数公司资本充足,管理良好,得以生存,其中包括两家保险公司:伦敦保险公司和皇家交易所。

    股东们的财富疯狂增加,对公众产生了诱惑。麦基写道:“公众的思想处于一种不健康的发酵状态。人们不再满足于谨慎而具有可靠利润的行业,因为这些行业赚钱缓慢。明天将拥有无限财富的希望,使人们今天的行为无所顾忌,挥霍无度。”[55]

    18世纪早期的伦敦可以看作两个独立的部分:西面是威斯敏斯特区,是政府所在地,有议会大厦、圣詹姆斯宫和为白金汉公爵新建的白金汉宫;东部是商业中心,即“伦敦金融城”,其就是皇家交易所,首都的商业精英们也在这里从事各种形式的国内外商业活动:交易羊毛、木材、谷物和无数其他商品(见图3-3)。

    图3-3 南海泡沫时期的伦敦地标

    股票经纪人受到商业人士的鄙视,在皇家交易所大厅里不受欢迎,被赶到一条聚集了很多咖啡馆的狭窄小巷,这条小巷夹在伦巴第街和康希尔街形成的锐角中,被称为“交易巷”。

    通常情况下,“金融家”们在咖啡馆兜售股票,投机者在那里排队。股票的认购价格通常非常低,然后,买到股票的投机者匆忙来到附近的“交易巷”,通过股票经纪人的斡旋,他们把股票卖给更大的傻瓜。1720年春夏之交,这里的景象和巴黎坎康普瓦大街一样疯狂:哈克尼出租车供不应求,人们即使打到了车,也可能被堵在狭窄的街道上。卖咖啡的商人挤在像乔纳森、加洛韦和山姆这样的咖啡馆,小偷们也很猖獗;在巷子里比在王宫里更容易找到国王和他的宫廷人员。一位律师将此过程描述为“更像是所有疯子同时从疯人院逃了出来”[56]。

    和巴黎一样,投机助长了普遍的价格膨胀。乔治一世国王举办了全国有史以来最奢华的生日聚会,公司的董事们拆除了豪宅以建造更大的豪宅。在现代金融史的大部分时间里,房地产价格都是年租金的5~20倍;而1720年,伦敦房地产的出售价格是年租金的45倍,这一比例和21世纪初的房地产泡沫期间的比例接近。[57]南海的热情也见证了泡沫的另一个特征的诞生:证券投机成为一种时尚。在投机活动达到高潮时,伦敦的社交场合从圣詹姆斯宫和威斯敏斯特宫(即议会大厦)向东转移到伦敦金融城;在那里,一群贵族女士在“交易巷”附近租了一家商店,“闲暇时间里,当经纪人外出时,她们追捧中国瓷器”[58]。这种兴奋也不仅仅限于贵族:
    还有德鲁里巷的年轻妓女,
    她们通过在豪华马车里的交易,
    通过放荡,
    骗走他们赚得的金子。[59]

    这种氛围不利于理性决策。投机在贵族中最为热烈;6月,接近顶峰时,忧心忡忡的财政大臣约翰·艾斯拉比建议乔治国王将价值8.8万英镑的公司股票兑现为现金,这位粗鲁的国王将艾斯拉比称为懦夫,但艾斯拉比坚持己见,最终国王将其持有的约40%的股票转换为安全资产。[60]

    南海泡沫的第三个显著特征是肇事者越来越狂妄;密西西比事件中的肇事者约翰·劳一直保持了他与生俱来的礼节,但他的英国同行不是这样。虽然我们可以将布朗特或艾斯拉比形容为轻信的或虚伪的人,但这只是一个起点。从一开始,商业社会便将财富等同于智慧和正直;拥有财富的人喜欢听到别人说他们具有卓越的智力和道德品质。伴随着在金融领域内的成功,他们获得的财富和奉承不可避免地让他们产生一种侵蚀自我意识的自负。更糟糕的是,巨额财富往往更多地来源于欺诈,而不是智慧和实体经济。在这种情况下,奉承会腐蚀灵魂,正如布朗特身上所发生的那样,他这时已经演变为现代狂妄自大CEO(首席执行官)的原型。有一本作者不详的小册子,可能是作者在布朗特倒台后不久写的,描述了南海公司崩溃前不久,布朗特去往时尚度假胜地坦布里奇韦尔斯:布朗特去往坦布里奇韦尔斯的装备多么华丽,那里对他有多么尊重,他在那里表现得有多么傲慢,他和他的家人在谈到这个项目时怎样称之为“我们的项目”[61]。小册子的作者描绘了一幅经典画面:

    (布朗特)在他任期的前几个月里,除了他自己,从未允许任何人就(公司交易)做出提议;法庭记录中也没有任何与此有关的会议记录,而只有他口述的内容。他明显地塑造了一个先知的形象,用一种强调和异常激烈的语气说话;他习惯于摆出威严的姿态,斥责那些对他所说的任何话有一点点反对的人,并竭力教导人们。他所说的好像都是出于心血来潮,说的话类似于:“先生们,不要惊慌,你们必须坚定、果断、勇敢地行动。我告诉你们,在你们面前的不是一件普通的事情。世界上最伟大的事情和你们有关。欧洲所有的钱都将集中在你们这里。世界上所有的国家都要向你们缴纳贡金。”[62]

    正如历史学家爱德华·钱塞勒所指出的,从南海泡沫到互联网泡沫,都常常会唤醒其主要人物的狂妄自大:

    伟大金融家所做的计划可能会成为投机狂热的催化剂,金融家自己也会受到影响。其野心变得无限大。一方面,其获得大众面前的成功和普遍的奉承;另一方面,私人事务管理越来越混乱甚至出现欺诈;这两者之间出现鸿沟。[63]

    布朗特策划了对南海公司股票的操纵,包括从认购金中借出部分资金以购买股票。他不仅通过在价格上涨到接近最高值时卖出股票而获利,而且还秘密地向自己、朋友和许多议员增发股票,其中一些是欺诈性的。

    正如通常发生的那样,一个意想不到的事件引发了结局。1720年6月,密西西比公司股价暴跌,布朗特害怕英国其他泡沫公司会抢占南海公司的资金,于是在南海股价达到峰值时推动议会通过了《泡沫法案》。该法案要求新企业必须经过议会批准才能成立,并将新企业的股东数量限制为5名;布朗特还让法院起诉了3家现存的泡沫公司,因为它们违反了公司章程。

    就像在巴黎一样,布朗特的狂妄也蔓延至其他人。如麦基所写的,一位导演,“十分骄傲的无知富人,曾说过要用金子喂他的马”[64]。普通民众也是这样:“通过成功的赌博而暴富的无知的人,他们傲慢专横,让真正有教养和思想的人尴尬,黄金竟然有能力在社会中提拔不值得被提拔的人。”[65]布朗特对其他竞争性泡沫公司采取的行动,使自己反受其害,不仅刺破了泡沫公司,还刺破了南海公司;截至10月底,其股价已从峰值1000英镑跌至210英镑,到1721年底,跌至150英镑以下(见图3-4)。[66]

    图3-4 1719—1721年南海公司股票价格

    第四个特征,也是最后一个特征,就是南海和密西西比泡沫的区别在于它们的格局和范围。约翰·劳不是禁欲主义者,但他并没有只关注自己的私利;他真正希望通过革命性的信贷扩张刺激和推动法国经济的发展。但是,布朗特的计划很狭隘,他想通过南海公司把信贷塞进自己的口袋;当信贷扩张从南海公司扩展到其他企业时,他开始努力限制信贷,目标达到了,但这不仅摧毁了其他企业,也摧毁了南海。但从国家的角度看,布朗特计划的狭隘性使金融部门受到的损害相对短暂,这也成为南海泡沫仅有的优势,区别于法国那样灾难性的银行业崩溃、全国性的通货膨胀以及随后长期持续的对银行的恐惧。[67]

    此外,与密西西比公司不同,南海公司并没有给出一个完全空洞的承诺。即使在18世纪早期,其内在价值也可以做出合理估计。首先,它持有年金受益人(现在是公司股东)提供给它的年金,这些资产的价值大约为每股100英镑,也大约是泡沫破裂后的结算值。

    南海公司的另一个特点是,它继承了1707年西班牙授予安妮女王的西属殖民地(《阿西恩托[68]条约》)奴隶贸易垄断权,这在其假定的业务量中占据了最大份额,而根据与西班牙的条约,授权仅限于一艘装有500吨货物的“年度船舶”,这实际上排除了新大陆产品贸易。然而,新大陆产品贸易几乎对南海公司没有意义,因为公司专门从事于金融,而不是国际商业;可恶的是,其中一名董事为了自己的利益,私自使用公司500吨年限额中的60吨,被当场抓获。到了1714年,也就是泡沫破灭的6年前,由于实际贸易业务没有利润,因此公司退出贸易业务;40年后,该公司以仅仅100000英镑的价格出售了其《阿西恩托条约》的权利。[69]最后,公司的新大陆投资价值已经无关紧要,因为投机者关心的不是奴隶贸易或糖贸易中的利润,而是那些股票买卖的利润,这些股票的价格似乎涨到了天价。

    一位名叫阿奇博尔德·哈奇森的律师兼议员进行了当时最复杂的股价计算,他发表了一系列关于该公司股票的报告。幸运的是,其中一个报告写于1720年6月,正好在繁荣达到顶峰之前;报告建议,股票市值应该是该公司年金资产价值的两倍,也就是200英镑。而当时,股价已经是740英镑;他预言“现在就应该停止当前的这种疯狂”。结果,疯狂又持续了几个月;7月,股价已经达到每股1000英镑,哈奇森以这个价格估算出该公司的总价值几乎已经是英格兰所有土地价值的两倍。[70](20世纪80年代的东京房地产泡沫也是如此,当时东京皇宫的泡沫价格能买下整个美国加州的土地。)[71]

    第二年,在受害选民以及被骗议员的推动下,议会开始调查股价崩溃以及布朗特、他的同僚和政府内部人员积累的巨额财富。财政大臣艾斯拉比成为替罪羊,他被迫辞职,被关进伦敦塔,还有另外6名议员被驱逐。南海公司一直运作到1853年,不是作为贸易公司,只是作为政府债务的持有人。国王成为人们嘲笑的对象,但是没有被制裁。[72]

    一些人提出要监禁甚至绞死南海公司的董事,但董事们在被短暂监禁后勉强避免了这种命运。议会没收了他们的财产,用以补偿项目受害者;布朗特保留了他18.7万英镑资产中的5000英镑,悄悄地退休并到了巴斯[73],在那里建立起一个杰出的后代宗系,其产生了包括主教和维多利亚女王的牧师在内的很多虔诚的后裔。[74]

    《泡沫法案》是在狂热达到顶峰时通过的,该法案不仅阻止了其他公司的进一步投机,而且也无意中导致了南海公司的沉没。该法案存在了一个多世纪。但未来,对狂热及其崩溃的记忆将不可避免地逐渐消失,在激动人心的新技术和宽松信贷的鼓舞下,在发起人、公众、媒体和政客的推动下,市场的动物精神将再次崛起,从而再次产生一波狂热,使这场18世纪初的狂热也相形见绌。

    4 资本主义的英雄

    英国铁路泡沫

    20世纪50年代初,斯沃斯莫尔学院的一位社会心理学家所罗门·阿希进行了一系列开创性的实验,对中世纪群体末日幻想和18世纪金融狂热的传染性进行了研究。

    阿希让大约6个男性参与者围坐在一张长方形的桌子旁,他们正在接受视觉感知测试。他给所有人看了一张卡片,上面有一条固定长度的直线,比如说英寸[1]。然后他给他们看了第二张卡片,上面有三条线,其中一条线的长度也是英寸,另外两条线的长度稍有不同,比如3英寸和英寸(见图4-1)。参与者被要求在第二张卡片上选出与第一张卡片上长度相同的线条。这项任务需要一定的专注力,但也很容易,正常情况下受试者选错的概率是1%,连续参加12组配对实验全部正确的概率是95%。

    图4-1 阿希实验中所用的卡片

    许多(如果不是大多数的话)心理学实验都需要对受试者撒个小谎。这项测试根本不是关于视觉感知的,每组只包含一个真实的受试者。其他参与者实际上是阿希博士的助手;真正的受试者坐在桌子中间附近,这样尽量缩短他与陪试者们的平均距离。

    测试中这个真正的受试者要么最后一个回答,要么倒数第二个回答,因此在回答问题之前,他已经听到来自陪试者们的多个答案。当陪试者们答案正确时,受试者的表现与单独参加测试时相似,所有12组卡片的正确率为95%。但是,当陪试者们故意回答错误时,受试者的表现结果会急剧变差。他们中只有25%的人在12组配对中选择正确,令人难以置信的是,5%的人在12组卡片配对中全部错误。[2]此外,受试者在各组实验中表现一致:如果一个受试者在前6组实验中深受陪试者错误的影响,那么他在后6组实验中也将受到类似的影响。也就是说,其中一些受试者确实比其他人更容易受到影响。

    实验结束后,阿希博士采访了这些受试者,他们的回答发人深省。容易被影响的人担心他们的视力或心理处理能力正在衰退;其中一个受试者说:“我知道这群人不会错。”[3]即使是那些不易被影响的人也对自己与大多数人的分歧感到不安,并感觉到可能别人是对的,其中很少有人能对自己的答案完全确定。

    引人瞩目的社会科学实验往往会成为街谈巷议的话题,阿希博士的例子就是如此。在他的实验之后的几十年里,其结论越来越多地出现在大众媒体、教科书甚至学术文献中,这也恰恰表明了大多数人的随波逐流。[4]

    实际上,这些数据也呈现出一些细微差别。在存在误导性陪试者的情况下,超过一半的受试者的答案是正确的,即非一致性。此外,即使只存在一个答案正确的陪试者,也能显著降低受试者的错误率。对阿希实验的更精准的总结是,一些人比其他人更容易被影响,但25%的受试者没有受到任何影响。那么,很容易想到的是,阿希已经找出了那些最容易受到金融泡沫或世界末日信条影响的人。

    阿希博士的结果尤其显著,因为估计线长这种实验几乎不会受到情感因素的影响。打哈欠也是这样,人们对这种话题往往没有什么情感驱动的想法。当然,正如我们大多数人知道的,并且已经被实验证明,打哈欠是有传染性的。在正常、完全清醒的受试者中,传染性打哈欠不仅可以通过其他人的哈欠诱发,还可以通过打哈欠的视频诱发,即使打哈欠的人的嘴巴已经被遮住。奇怪的是,只显示嘴巴的视频并不能引起打哈欠。[5]

    在情绪饱满的时候,人们的从众性会提高。查尔斯·金德尔伯格发出了一个警告,即目睹别人的变富会产生有害影响,这一警告也适用于阿希博士的实验:在实验室里成功地抵抗了社会压力的人,在现实中却可能无法抵抗充满情绪的群体幻想。

    模仿不仅仅是一种最真诚的恭维,它对我们的生存也至关重要。在人类进化过程中,我们的物种必须要适应各种各样的环境。这种适应有两种形式。第一种是身体上的,一个明显的例子是非洲人的皮肤比北欧人更黑,因为深色皮肤可以保护底层组织免受热带阳光的伤害;相反,浅色皮肤可以在阳光较少的北纬度地区更有效地生成维生素D。

    第二种适应是文化和心理上的,正如进化心理学的先驱罗伯特·博伊德和彼得·理查森指出的那样,在亚马孙河雨林生存所需的技能与在北极生活的人所需的技能大不相同,他们:

    必须知道如何制作几十种基本的工具——皮艇、保暖衣、倒钩鱼叉、油灯、用皮毛和雪搭建的住所、防止雪盲症的护目镜、狗拉雪橇以及制作这些工具的工具……虽然我们是相当聪明的动物,但我们做不到这一点,因为我们还不够聪明。皮艇是一种由各种不同部分组成的高度复杂的物体,设计一艘好的皮艇,意味着需要找到一种极为罕见的各部分组合。[6]

    换句话说,如果你以前从未见过北极人用当地存在的原材料制作皮艇,那么你几乎不可能会制作皮艇。亚马孙本地人所需要的各种其他技能也都是如此。人类从白令海峡迁移到亚马孙河只用了不到1万年的时间,这意味着我们在此之前一定进化出了准确模仿的能力。用博伊德和理查森的话说,能够在如此不同的环境中生存,意味着人类不得不:

    进化(文化上)对当地环境的适应能力——北极的皮艇和亚马孙河流域的喷枪——这是一种适应更新世时期的混乱、快速变化世界的高超能力。然而,创造这种好处的心理机制必然伴随着内在成本。为了获得社会学习的好处,人类必须是轻信的……我们以低廉的价格获得了橡皮艇和喷枪这样奇妙的改编作品。问题在于,对这种容易适应的传统的贪婪,很容易导致不适应的情况以某种方式出现。[7]

    在过去的大概5万年里,人类物种已经从非洲诞生地传播到地球的几乎每一个角落,从北极海岸到热带,再到广阔太平洋中的各个孤岛。晚更新世时期,人类物种从北极之地向麦哲伦海峡迁徙,在这期间能够适应如此多样的环境,这依赖于人类精确模仿的能力。但是,人类在石器时代的许多适应性已经不适合于现代世界,一个经典的例子就是富含能量的脂肪和糖对我们的吸引力,在我们的进化史上,脂肪和糖曾经是稀缺的,可以帮我们维持生命,但现在作为廉价垃圾食品存在,并威胁人类健康。同样地,我们某些古老的模仿倾向也常常不适合于现代,用麦基的名言来说,会给现代社会带来“非同寻常的大众幻想与群众性癫狂”。

    群体幻想的传播还助长了另一种古老的心理冲动,即人类具有压制与日常信仰相矛盾的事实和数据的倾向。1946年,心理学家弗里茨·海德提出了所谓的“平衡状态”范式,以解释人们在日常生活中如何处理大量复杂且往往相互矛盾的数据。想象一下,你认识一个叫鲍勃的人,你和他都对某种能带来一定情感分量的物品有自己的看法,比如说安卓手机与苹果手机相比,哪一款更加高级。

    如果你很欣赏鲍勃,并且你俩都认为苹果手机更好,那么你就会感到很舒服;你现在就处于海德所说的“平衡状态”。类似地,如果你认为苹果手机更好,但是鲍勃喜欢他的安卓手机,并且你认为鲍勃是个无知的浑蛋,那么你也处于“平衡状态”,因为你对鲍勃的负面评价能够使你驳斥他的相反观点。[8]但是,如果你欣赏鲍勃但在手机问题上不同意他的观点,那么你就处于一种让自己不舒服的“不平衡状态”。

    如果你对鲍勃的欣赏只有一点点,或者如果你对手机不太在乎,那么你可以忽略自己的不适。但如果鲍勃是你最亲密的朋友,而你在一些更具情感分量的事情上(比如特朗普的总统任期问题)与他存在强烈分歧,那么你就必须采取行动解决欣赏鲍勃和政治分歧之间的不平衡。神经科学家最近发现,这种不平衡状态会增加背内侧前额叶的活跃性。背内侧前额叶是位于额头中部上方两个脑半球的大脑区域。此外,这种活跃性预示着人们对鲍勃或唐纳德·特朗普的看法将发生变化。换句话说,如果你想让你的背内侧前额叶停止烦扰你,你就必须改变对其中一个人的看法。[9]与此相反,当受试者得知专家同意他的观点,即达到平衡状态时,大脑的另一个部分,腹侧纹状体,位于两个脑半球深处的成对结构,就会被激活。[10]这一区域能接收多巴胺神经元的密集性输入,而多巴胺是一种让我们感到快乐的神经递质。

    在《非同寻常的大众幻想》1841年的初始版本中,麦基写到了南海泡沫:

    企业,像伊卡洛斯一样,飞得太高,融化了翅膀上的蜡;和伊卡洛斯一样,她也掉进了海里,当她在海浪中挣扎时,她认识到她最适合的地方是坚实的地面。从那以后,她没再尝试过这么高的飞行。[11]

    但写下这些话后的几年内,金融市场证明麦基是错的,因为投机的伊卡洛斯将再次飙升,这一次将围绕第一条蒸汽铁路的兴奋和混乱,相应的金融狂热将使1719—1720年的南海泡沫也相形见绌。很少有作家能比历史学家斯蒂芬·安布罗斯更好地描述蒸汽机爆发前的人类状况:

    1801年,一个关键事实是,世界上没有什么能比马的速度更快。没有任何人、制造品、蒲式耳小麦、大块牛肉,信件、信息,以及任何形式的想法、订单或指示能够移动得更快。没有什么能够比马更快了,就杰斐逊[12]的同时代人所知,没有什么将会比马更快。[13]

    1851年,英国历史学家约翰·弗朗西斯的经典记录见证了英国的铁路网建设。他将近代交通状况描述如下:

    用来运送农产品的机器,结构粗陋,既沉重又笨拙。即使道路状况还可以,移动(这些机器)也很困难。如果道路状况不好,那么它们要么被沼泽吞没,要么掉进堤坝中:有时,它们陷入泥泞的道路中太深了,根本无法逃脱,必须要等到温暖的天气和炙热的太阳到来才可以。几个月以来,产品都无法进入市场,水果在产地腐烂,而在几英里之外的市场上却远远供不应求……人们发现,出口到国外要比把农产品从英格兰北部运到南部的成本更低。将商品从伦敦运送到葡萄牙比从诺里奇[14]运送到伦敦更容易。[15]

    用蒸汽动力代替人力、牲畜和水车的想法,可以追溯到2000年前的托勒密希腊人,据说他们用蒸汽动力来打开和关闭一座亚历山大神庙的门。1712年左右,英国发明家托马斯·纽科门制造了第一台蒸汽机,该机体积庞大,效率低下,只能用于煤矿的排水,因为煤矿的燃料非常丰富。因此,詹姆斯·瓦特并没有像人们通常认为的那样在1776年发明蒸汽机,而是完成了一件更巧妙、更有效的事情:通过在纽科门的设计中增加一个外部冷凝器,制造出一种燃料效率高的装置,其可以在远离煤矿的地方使用。这一创新让瓦特的合伙人马修·博尔顿说出了那句名言:“先生,我这里卖的是全世界都渴望拥有的——动力。”[16]

    在接下来的25年里,瓦特首先使用笨重的发动机驱动船桨,然后不断缩小发动机体积,到1801年,发动机已经缩小到足以让理查德·特雷维西克将之安装到陆地马车上;到1808年,他已经在伦敦尤斯顿广场附近提供了价格为5先令的乘车服务。早期的装置由软铁制成,非常脆弱,那时一位技师的妻子不仅必须在凌晨4点醒来给发动机加燃料,还必须用她强壮的肩膀使发动机运转。[17]

    18世纪之交,乔治·斯蒂芬森,诺森伯兰(位于英格兰北部)一个不识字的蒸汽机看管人的儿子,继承了父亲的职业,但与父亲不同,他在夜校学会了阅读、写作和数学技能,而且将自己的天赋用于逐渐提高早期蒸汽装置的效率。拿破仑战争让英国付出了高昂的代价,干草价格的高昂暂时推动了蒸汽动力对马力拉动矿车的代替,但直到1818年,斯蒂芬森才说服纽卡斯尔地区附近达灵顿的矿主,修建了一条通往25英里外的蒂斯河畔斯托克顿的蒸汽轨道线,于1825年9月开始使用。尽管轨道线非常短,但是后来在经济上非常成功。[18]

    新铁路技术震惊了世界:1825—1845年,英格兰经历了至少三次铁路泡沫。第一次泡沫紧随斯托克顿—达灵顿铁路线的建成。斯蒂芬森早期的发动机并不可靠,运营的最初几年,煤炭车和客车经常需要马来牵引。但随着发动机的改进,多达59条铁路线列入修建计划。[19]

    第一批项目在议会中遭到了不小的反对,因为《泡沫法案》(南海事件的遗留法案,此时已经有百年历史)规定,所有的公司组建都必须由议会批准。最积极的反对者是运河和收费公路的经营者,他们认识到铁路运输会对自身利润造成损害。他们及其爪牙告诉公众,发动机的烟雾会杀死鸟类;发动机的重量会使其无法移动;发动机的火花会把货物烧成灰烬;老人们会被碾死;受惊的马会伤害骑马的人;马会灭绝,燕麦和干草种植户将会破产;狐狸会消失;而且,被噪声干扰的奶牛将停止产奶。[20]

    1825年,议会废除了《泡沫法案》,但普遍存在的金融恐慌以及落后的发动机技术,阻碍了更多项目的开展,经过1825—1826年的一番议会波折,斯蒂芬森的利物浦—曼彻斯特铁路花了4年时间才建成,于1830年9月15日正式通车。它长35英里,是当时的工程奇迹,需要建造64座桥梁并挖掘300万立方码[21]的土壤。

    这项非凡的新技术有望改变人们的日常生活,这激起了那些想要先下手为强的人的贪婪。这种刺激在1836—1837年达到顶峰。一位记者写道:“我们的语言开始受到(铁路)影响。人们用‘加蒸汽’表示‘打起精神’,用‘铁路速度’表示‘很快的速度’,并以小时和分钟估计距离。”[22]新闻报道提到,一位商人在早晨坐上从曼彻斯特到利物浦的火车,当天就能运回150吨棉花,并以巨大的利润出售,然后重复这种做法。“不是支持者,而是铁路的反对者被认为是疯子。如果这是一种狂热,那么这种狂热就像我们呼吸的空气一样。”[23]约翰·弗朗西斯写道:“1836—1837年的这几个月将长久地被商业人士铭记。数千人关注并将资本投入计划中的公司。”[24]

    和其他泡沫事件一样,利率下降进一步增强了新技术的吸引力,因为利率下降能使投资资本更加充裕。25年前,拿破仑战争引起的借贷需求提高了利率;1815年利率达到顶峰时,一个富有的英国人通过购买政府债券使其索维林金币[25]的收益率接近6%。在接下来的30年里,利率下降到3.25%。[26]当投资者不满于安全资产的超低利率时,他们就会抬高那些潜在收益更高的风险资产的价格。著名记者(也是《经济学人》的编辑)沃尔特·白芝浩在描绘英国铁路泡沫破裂后的一代人时写道:“约翰·布尔可以忍受很多事情,但他忍受不了2%的利率。”[27]换句话说,低利率是泡沫萌芽的沃土。

    低利率,加上这一时期斯蒂芬森的利物浦—曼彻斯特铁路的成功,重新点燃了铁路投机:“媒体支持这种狂热,政府也做出了许可,而人民为此付出了代价。铁路立刻成为一种时尚和狂热。英格兰规划了各条铁路。”[28]

    每一种泡沫里都有自我毁灭的种子。就这个事件而言,廉价资本催生的重复铁路线过度竞争就是种子。利物浦和曼彻斯特的股东们吃到了牛排,而那些跟随频繁的人则比不频繁的人吃到了更多酸臭的食物。1836年的《爱丁堡评论》指出:“事实上,两个比较大的地方之间(无论距离多么遥远),几乎都会有一条被某个公司占据的可行性铁轨线,通常会同时启动两条、三条或四条竞争性路线。”约翰·弗朗西斯写道:“一个大都会区的某个教区,有16项铁路计划,计划拆除的房屋超过1200栋。”[29]

    这些只是最可信的计划。在达勒姆,某位企业家同时工作于三条平行的铁路线上。第一条是成功的,另外两条,很自然地,失败了。而其他发起人的设想包括:由帆或火箭驱动的火车头,能以每小时数百英里的速度运行;高架木轨线;另外一个,根据弗朗西斯的记录,广告说法是“把残疾人抬到床上去”。[30]

    无论何时何地,免费获得的信贷和轻信的投资者都是无赖发起人的垫脚石。当时一位评论家指出,通常:

    一个穷困潦倒的冒险家突然想到,从A镇到B镇的一条铁路线是一项巨大的公共事业,他从中可以获取巨大的利益。因此,他购买了一份军用地图,布鲁克县的或者是哪个地方的地名词典,以及一份名录。首先,他在两个城镇之间画了一条线,在阴暗的山丘之间的这里或那里画了一些漂亮的曲线,目的是使它有一种真实的感觉,他称此为调查报告,尽管他和他的人根本没有去过这个地方。地名词典、名录以及支付给一个无赖或马车夫的一罐啤酒,构成了他收入来源的所有原材料。幸运的是,年收入从未低于15%、20%或30%。收入经常如此之多,他都不好意思去欺骗更多的人了。[31]

    据说埃德蒙·德·罗斯柴尔德说过,“有三种赔钱的主要方式:葡萄酒、女人和发动机。前两种更令人愉悦,而第三种迄今为止(在赔钱问题上)更为确定。”[32]随着越来越多的铁路轨道进入施工阶段,可聘用的合格工程师和劳动力数量不足,导致工期延误、成本大量超支、无法解决发动机难题等,这最终导致不可避免的破产潮。

    和南海泡沫期间的状况一样,英国的合股公司最初只筹集到所需资本的一小部分。投资者最初只需要支付股票面值的一小部分,对接下来铁路建设所需要筹集的资本承担分期缴纳的义务——这是一种干柴式“杠杆”结构,不可避免地会遇到烈火。

    回应马上就来了。钱变得稀缺;人们已经看清楚了这些人的愚蠢;各种类型的股票都下跌了。然后是可怕的不安,毁灭降临到社区,悲伤使家庭不再温暖。那些曾经因为假想的财富而趾高气扬的男人为他们的鲁莽而悲伤,而女人们则因为无法阻止而哭泣。[33]

    至19世纪30年代的泡沫破灭时,议会已经批准了2285英里的铁路修建计划,但是截至1838年,实际动工还不足1/4。其余的里程通常是不盈利的,还需要几年时间才能完成;正在进行中的则需要投资者追缴大量资金。1836—1837年暴跌之后,股票价格确实又有所回升,因此那些坚持持有股票的人也没有很差;在此之前一直稳定的股票价格,在1836年上涨了约80%,然后又迅速回落到实际上略高于泡沫前的水平。[34]到1841年,从伦敦到纽卡斯尔近300英里的旅程在17个小时内就可以实现:“一个理性的人,还能要求什么呢?”《铁路时报》为此报道。[35]

    事实上,截至1844年,普通股东对前10年的投资回报非常满意。这推动了19世纪40年代后期更大的泡沫,相关代表人物是乔治·哈德森。哈德森出生于1800年,是约克郡一个小农场主的儿子,由于被假定为会继续耕种土地,因此接受了很少的正规教育。在他9岁时,父亲去世,他被送到约克的一家亚麻布店当学徒,他也由此因祸得福。哈德森的精力、魅力和才智很快在布店里显现出来,而这些是在耕犁中无法体现的。他最终通过婚姻关系加入雇主家庭,并接管了布店。1827年,好运继续光顾这个年轻的店主,他从一个叔父那里继承了30000英镑的遗产,叔父临终时,他正好在现场(叔父遗嘱的受益人可能在最后一刻被更改为他)。[36]

    新获得的财富使他得以进入政治和银行业,1833年,他被任命为约克铁路委员会的司库,负责一条通过发行股票筹集建设资金的地方性铁路。哈德森聘请约翰·雷尼爵士勘测路线,但这位著名工程师建议采用马拉系统,这令委员会很失望。幸运的是,在某次参观叔父留给他的不动产时,哈德森遇到了乔治·斯蒂芬森,后者当时已经是一位非常著名的工程师。哈德森充分展示了自己的魅力和远见,斯蒂芬森同意建造约克—北米德兰铁路。该铁路由一家合股公司出资,第一段仅14.5英里长,于1839年开通。

    在接下来的10年里,哈德森成为公众所熟知的“铁路之王”,创建了一个由十几家铁路公司组成的帝国,其中四家是全国最大的铁路公司。他领导几家公司的董事会,经常一会儿出现在这里勘测一条新路线,一会儿又出现在那里指责一家失败公司的股东大会,并四处筹集新资本。他的生活围绕着两个权力中心展开:一个是约克,他在那里担任过几届市长,慷慨而又受人爱戴;另一个是威斯敏斯特,国家的政治中心。

    哈德森能把沙子卖给贝都因人[37]。即使是最坚定的对手,他也能扭转局面。他的标志性胜利是说服了威廉·尤尔特·格莱斯顿。格莱斯顿也许是19世纪最令人敬畏的政治家,他在1832年22岁时进入议会,在1843年成为贸易委员会主席,该委员会是议会的铁路立法部门。他先后担任了四届英国财政大臣,又于1868—1894年四次出任英国首相。

    这两个人简直有天壤之别:哈德森充满活力而未受教育,是约克郡农民的儿子,而格莱斯顿毕业于伊顿公学和牛津大学,是奴隶主的儿子。两人在当时最关键的问题上存在分歧;哈德森是正统的保守党,是一个反对废除《谷物法》的贸易保护主义者;格莱斯顿虽然名义上是保守党,但实际上是一位热诚的自由贸易者。

    不过,假如在今天,哈德森将被称为自由主义者,因为他反对政府干预商业,尤其是他所珍爱的铁路,而格莱斯顿很早就认为技术日益发达的经济领域需要政府监管。比约翰·洛克菲勒降低油价还要早几十年,格莱斯顿就预见到,实力最强的铁路公司可以通过大幅减价将竞争对手赶出市场,垄断市场后,公众将越来越受其摆布——格莱斯顿认为,哈德森的某个公司就是这样。

    1844年3月,哈德森在贸易委员会作证时,老练地强调了他与格莱斯顿的一致意见:为了公众的利益,应该限制对竞争性路线的许可(但没有提到自己的公司)。委员会推迟了这个话题,追问哈德森是如何确定票价的。委员会想知道,议会定期调整票价有什么错?哈德森一如既往地做好了充分准备,他回答说,他不反对由政府规定票价,但要求议会限制竞争性路线的许可证发放。

    委员会对哈德森的回答感到些许宽慰,提出了相对比较温和的铁路立法,规定“议会级”票价为每英里1便士。[38]但该法案使议会能够修改铁路公司的票价,这些铁路公司曾经利润如此丰厚,可以发放超过10%的股息分红;该法案通过后,对于任何已经获得许可并运营超过20年的铁路公司,政府都将有权购买。

    这令哈德森很焦虑,他给格莱斯顿写了一封公开信,信中用最悦耳、最恭维的语气对该法案中降低票价以及政府的购买选择权表示反对。他组织了一个由铁路公司所有权人组成的代表团,他们一起前往唐宁街10号的首相官邸。首相罗伯特·皮尔对此印象深刻,于是在下议院发表了一些对铁路公司有利的意见。

    格莱斯顿接受了公开信的暗示,私下会见了哈德森,会面中,哈德森把坦白直率的魅力发挥到了极致,把这位委员会主席感动了。格莱斯顿评论道:“将哈德森看作一个投机者是一个巨大的误会,他是一个非常有辨别力的人,拥有很大的勇气和很强的进取心——一个非常大胆但非常明智的设计师。”格莱斯顿基本废除了法案:只在法案中保留了低级三等车票的票价限制。[39]

    哈德森意识到,他差点儿忽略了议会的潜在监督职能,他需要更积极地参与政治。假如在今天,强大的实业家可能会为自己雇用一大群说客;但19世纪的英国具有更宽松的道德环境,有一个更直接的办法:哈德森只需要给自己买一个下议院的席位。1845年中,机会出现了。在冷清的沿海小镇森德兰,他接管了当地一条失败的铁路以及码头,作为交换条件,那里的官员们提名他为保守党的席位候选人。他于8月14日正式当选,比较类似于现代社会中同时在美国参议院任职的高盛公司董事长。

    那天晚上,一辆专列将他当选的消息从森德兰送到伦敦,第二天,另一辆专列将伦敦《晨报》对这一事件的报道带回森德兰。在胜利庆典的狂欢中,哈德森将报纸扔进人群,欢呼道:“看,看智慧的进军!”[40]两个月后,在森德兰的一次宴会上,他鼓吹自己码头公司的股票,再次激发了当地人的热情:“我不明白,为什么你们不能让圣彼得斯堡的棉花、中国和世界其他地区的产品运到森德兰港,只要你们提供设施……让我们想象一下,我们将成为世界的利物浦和曼彻斯特。”[41]

    他似乎很少睡觉;例如,1846年5月2日至3日的晚上,他在下议院工作到凌晨2:30,打了个盹儿,然后坐上开往德比(英格兰中部城市)的早班火车,其大约在伦敦、约克以及他的其中一个公司——米德兰铁路公司总部三者中间的位置(见图4-2、图4-3)。在那里,他向股东们解释他的26项提案的精髓,这些提案通过修建一些新的、扩展一些已经存在的铁路和运河,将铁路和运河系统相融合。该计划需要300万英镑的投资资本;他向心存疑惑的人坦率地承认,的确许多新线路将失败,但总的来说,它们将打造一个坚不可摧的地区铁路系统。他已经拥有大量支持者,很轻易地排除掉了那些分散的持反对意见的股东,然后通过了所有26项公司提案。[42]一位当时的评论家写道:

    资料来源:The Railway King,by Richard S.Lambert,London,George Allen & Unwin Ltd,©1964,p.57.Copyright ©1934 HarperCollins Publishers.All rights reserved.

    图4-2 1840年的英国铁路系统(粗体部分是哈德森公司建的铁路)

    资料来源:The Railway King,by Richard S.Lambert,London,George Allen & Unwin Ltd,©1964,p.238.Copyright ©1934 HarperCollins Publishers.All rights reserved.

    图4-3 1849年的英国铁路系统(粗体部分是哈德森公司建的铁路)

    似乎从来没有什么事情能让他烦乱,也没有什么事情会让他疲劳。他在议会委员会中斗争,一天又一天;他以一种认真的态度争辩和恳求,从目的上看几乎没有失败过。他今天在镇上哄骗一个委员会,明天说服一位大主教;早上,在一个不起眼的办公室里说服一些持对立主张的人,下午,以某种大胆的突袭政策震惊了证券交易所。[43]

    他的专注力和计算能力令人敬佩。人们经常看到他把头往后一仰,遮住眼睛,然后准确地预测出尚未建成的铁路线的红利,他还能同时参与两场激烈的对话。商业伙伴们发现,如果他们的分析没有抓住要点,马上就会被他打断,但很容易又会被他原谅,他对员工和陌生人非常宽宏大量。但是,他处理数字和疯狂交易的能力也伴随着一个缺点:他过分依赖口头指令,没有保存交易的账簿或记录,只是简单地认为他的愿望会实现。[44]

    1843年的英格兰铁路线还不到2000英里,但是到1848年底已经超过5000英里;哈德森控制了其中大约1450英里的路线,并对英格兰东北部拥有实际的垄断权。[45]更多的铁路线正在计划中:议会在1844年批准了800英里,在1845年批准了2700英里,在1846年批准了4500英里。以少量首期付款认购股票,然后在很久之后完成全部购买,是哈德森和大多数其他发起人的经营手段。在工程尚未开工、连运营和收入都没有的时候,新股通常就会公布每年接近10%的股息;大多数投资者被高收益吸引,却没有注意到收入的缺失意味着最初投资者的股息必须来自新投资者的资本,这在现在被称为“庞氏骗局”。在庞氏骗局下,后来股东的股息是无法获得支付的。哈德森故意泄露他的铁路项目即将被议会批准的消息,以此推动这种狂热。就像蛋糕上的糖霜,直到泡沫的最后阶段,哈德森稠密的东北部铁路网还在阻碍竞争性路线的股票发行。

    19世纪40年代,除了布朗特和哈德森这样的发起者、公众和政客外,泡沫剧场的第四个主角——媒体出现了。概括来说,那个时代有两类媒体:以《泰晤士报》为代表的“旧媒体”和以《铁路时报》为代表的铁路专报“新媒体”;前者坚持高度正统的怀疑主义,而后者则煽动投机的火焰。在泡沫最严重的时候,市面上至少有20种铁路出版物,铁路公司每周都要慷慨地花费1.2万~1.4万英镑发布广告,这些资金成为媒体的主要收入来源,而这些钱本可以更明智地用于建设。关于新提案的吹嘘文章比比皆是。一位评论家讽刺道:“委员会为绅士和男爵们高兴,下议院通过新提案的前景是肯定的。它的工程师是斯蒂芬森(此时已经是乔治的儿子罗伯特·斯蒂芬森);它的当权者是哈德森;它的银行家是格林。广告还谦虚地补充说,利润不会超过15%。”[46]一篇文章夸张地说,铁路是环绕全球的新世界奇迹:

    不满足于让利物浦成为他们的铁路中心……他们的目标是全球。遥远的印度跨越河海对铁路表示期盼,中国正在倾听这神奇的声音。古希腊被毁坏的山丘和破碎的祭坛将很快与火车头的汽笛声相呼应,或者被转变为商业圣地。通过这些宏伟的工程,河流得以跨越,领土得以穿越,商业得以特许,联邦得以巩固;通过它们,金刚石可以被分割,人类在时间和空间上拥有主宰权。[47]

    直到1843年,英国经济依旧在消化1836—1837年的泡沫,但在1844年秋天,银行的贷款利率已经降为2.5%;更为不祥的是,银行普遍认为铁路证券“像房子一样安全”,并乐于将其作为抵押品。股票认购名单会让21世纪初房地产泡沫中的美国抵押贷款经纪人都脸红:一个年收入54英镑的半薪军官在多个名单上的总收入为41500英镑;两个住在阁楼里的清洁工的儿子,其中一个认购了12500英镑的股票,另一个25000英镑,所包含的追缴金是他们无法承担的;更多的追缴金来自虚构联系方式的股东。[48]

    一位不知姓名的观察者这样描述,英国公众:

    看到整个世界都在为铁路疯狂。铁路在公众集会上受到赞扬;它是公众崇拜的对象;人们在交易所里谈论它;在参议院为它立法;在舞台上暗喻它。它渗透到每一个阶层;渗透到每一个家庭;所有人都被它诱惑。那些说话与契约一样可靠的人,现在也加入追逐铁路的行列,被旋涡带走了。[49]

    商人兼议员詹姆斯·莫里森观察到:

    不易觉察的贪婪之毒在每个阶层蔓延,不仅影响了高贵的大殿主人,也影响了简陋农舍里的合居者。公爵夫人们甚至会在众人面前用凭证弄脏手指,老女仆们会发抖地急切询问股票的价格。年轻的女士们抛弃了婚礼清单而专注于股票行情表,询问她们的爱人有关牛市、熊市操作的问题,这吓到了她们的爱人。时尚人士频繁地出现在经纪人那里,而不是出现在俱乐部。商人不再关注生意而去打理他的股票,但最终,他的股票和生意都将离开他。[50]

    按照贸易委员会的规定,每年11月30日是提交新路线计划的截止日期。1845年11月30日傍晚,当800个铁路计划发起人聚集在白厅(指英国政府)办公室时,一股狂潮席卷了首都:铁路公司允许通过的快递列车以每小时80英里的速度驶向伦敦,但那些运载竞争性路线计划书的列车被铁路公司阻止通过;一位设计师将路线计划书装进一个装饰齐全的灵柩内,然后将其运到列车上,才绕过了铁路公司的障碍。[51]

    如约翰·弗朗西斯所写的,就像南海泡沫期间一样,交易巷里挤满了人,交通堵塞,“几乎无法通行”,周围的街区“像集市一样”。他继续写道:

    谨慎的商人和敏锐的制造商都没有抵制住投机的诱惑。它像麻风病一样在他们中间传播。它不仅毁灭了无辜者,也毁灭了有罪者。它不仅毁坏了很多简陋的农舍,也扰乱了许多亲王的住所。人们急于致富,却被毁灭。他们大量购买;他们踊跃认购;他们抛弃了自己公司的存账室;如果成功了,他们就会继续买入;如果失败了,那么他们往往会自毁,使本已凄凉的家园更加悲惨。[52]

    斯蒂芬森在威斯敏斯特乔治大街的办公室比首相在唐宁街的办公室更受欢迎;铁的价格翻了一番;勘测员的工资很高,特别是那些在军械局工作的人,经常未经许可非法进入私人土地。一份议会报告表明,157名议员的股票认购额超过2000英镑;到1845年夏天,“全国出现了前所未有的对所有生意的忽视;几个月里,柜台上找不到卖货的商人,办公室里也找不到批发商,全国各地都是这样。如果你去拜访商家,那么你肯定会得到‘去城里了’这样的答复”。就连勃朗特[53]一家也参与了:艾米莉和安妮拥有约克和北米德兰的股票,而更脚踏实地的夏洛蒂则持怀疑态度。[54]

    虽然哈德森的许多商业行为,特别是他对公司治理的保密和高压手段,放在今天可能会让他坐牢,但在那时还不是非法的。再过80年,查尔斯·庞兹[55]在初始资本支付股息的操作中不会使用自己的名字;在19世纪40年代早期,这些做法不会引起法律审查(但这种情况很快就会改变)。哈德森的终结不是来自欺诈或欺骗,而只是来自过度建设和监管改革。

    与18世纪的双泡沫不同,这次事件中铁路公司的倒闭过程比较缓慢。到19世纪40年代末,哈德森的铁路网(大致从伦敦延伸到爱丁堡)越来越被东西部的竞争性路线包围。为了进一步延长铁路线来突破包围圈,他冒险性地从个人投资者那里筹集了大量资金;但与此同时,议会于1847年建立了新的监管制度,在此制度下,用新收购的资本支付旧股东的股息,这种类似庞氏骗局的做法被认定为非法。[56]

    1847年初,英格兰银行将贴现率从3.5%提高到5%,这阻碍了股票认购之后所需追缴金的资本流动。1846年的马铃薯歉收和1848年欧洲大陆的革命动乱加剧了英国的经济困境,迫使哈德森和其他铁路经营者降低股息:惊慌失措的投资者开始抛售股票,到1848年10月,股票价格从1845年的峰值下跌了60%(见图4-4)。[57]

    图4-4 英格兰铁路公司的股票价格(1830—1850年)

    虽然股价下跌的绝对数小于南海泡沫时期,甚至小于20世纪的大熊市时期,但认购机制固有的极端杠杆带来了大面积的破坏:

    很多家庭完全被毁。一个不太起眼的英格兰镇上,发生了一些悲惨的自杀事件。原本被精心培育的女儿们现在需要出去寻找面包,儿子们被迫停止学业,很多家庭被分离:房子被法院强制执行。每一个社会纽带都被破坏。那些以前过着舒适独立生活的人突然发现自己欠了大量无力支付的钱。有的放弃了一切,重新开始;有的离开英国去往欧洲大陆的其他国家,蔑视并逃避债权人的追赶。一位绅士收到了400张法院令状。还有一位贵族承受了15000英镑的债务压力,于是他坐上游艇去往美丽的地中海,在那里,他忘却了与自己有关的所有难题。[58]

    此时,即使是哈德森所犯的小过失也会引致仔细审查,而这样的小过失在过去是很容易被原谅的。证券交易所的两个对手仔细检查了买卖记录,发现哈德森的某家公司以高于市场的价格购买了另一家公司的股票,而这另一家公司恰好也归哈德森个人所有;也就是说,他诈骗股东的行为被发现了。很快,他更严重的违规行为也被发现,尽管还没有上升到需要承担刑事责任的高度,但也让他面临严重的民事判决。

    哈德森还有最后一张王牌:森德兰地区的选民依然非常感激他,这使他在议会又待了10年,只要下议院还在开会,他就不会因债务问题而被捕。随后他会以一种滑稽歌剧式的状态往返于英国和欧洲大陆之间:议会开会时,他可以安全地待在英国,并拼命挽回他的财产;休会后,他逃往巴黎。1859年,他在选举中落败,游戏结束了;朋友们离他而去,只有债权人关注他,他剩下的大量财产被没收。最后,他靠仰慕者给他购买的年金维生。[59]

    1863年的一天,查尔斯·狄更斯[60]即将乘坐“福克斯通”号船返回英格兰,遇到了他的朋友查尔斯·曼比。狄更斯写道:

    曼比向一位衣衫褴褛的人告别,我对这个人有印象,但想不起来他是谁。当我们驶离港口时,那人正站在码头边上,凄凉地挥舞着他的帽子。我对曼比说:“我肯定认识那个人。”“我想你认识,”他说,“哈德森!”哈德森住在巴黎,是曼比带过去的。临别时哈德森对曼比说:“在你回来之前,我再也吃不到一顿丰盛的晚餐了。”[61]

    后两轮铁路泡沫毁掉了英国投资者,但为英国提供了必要的基础设施。1838—1848年,铁路里程增加了10倍,直到今天,英国的铁路地图还和1848年非常相似。1848年之后的将近一个世纪里,这个数字才又翻了一番。

    事实上,不幸的铁路投资者们为英格兰提供了宝贵的公共物品——首个高容量、高速度的运输网络。19世纪初之前的英格兰,人均GDP几乎没有增长;而在此之后,它以每年约2%的速度增长——每一代人大约能翻一番,不仅在英格兰,在其他西方发达国家也是如此。这一转变在很大程度上是由蒸汽驱动的陆海运输效率带来的。[62]这种损害了技术投资者但为国家经济增长提供了必要基础设施的例子,还将继续出现。

    1841年,查尔斯·麦基出版了《非同寻常的大众幻想》第一版,正是在铁路狂热达到高潮之前,因此麦基应该会比其他任何人都更清楚地意识到这种狂热。作为一名记者和受欢迎的作家,他完全应该对此提出警告。

    但是他没有,在1852年出版的该书第二版中,他只在一个两句话的脚注中提到了这一事件。[63]19世纪30年代,青年时期的麦基曾为两份伦敦报纸《太阳报》和《晨报》撰稿并编辑;1844年,就在铁路泡沫破裂之前,他开始担任《格拉斯哥的阿格斯》报纸的编辑,并在这个职位上干了3年,这3年正是铁路从繁荣走向萧条的3年。该报纸,特别是“头条”专栏,经常转载其他报纸的文章。这些文章表明,麦基对铁路发展的总体态度是适度热情,这很可能只是对当时经济基调的一种反应。自由放任是当时的经济基调,其核心是废除《谷物法》,因为《谷物法》使地主、贵族受益,导致粮食价格过高,城市贫民挨饿。而铁路只是麦基及其圈子的次要关注点。[64]

    在麦基担任编辑期间,该报的头条确实转载了《泰晤士报》关于泡沫的可怕警告,但该报也转载了其他报纸中对铁路公司有利的文章。尽管在今天,麦基的名字几乎是“狂热”的同义词,但在当时,他似乎完全错过了他正在经历的那场浩劫。在1845年10月的一篇头条文章中,他直言不讳地说,铁路股的热情与南海泡沫没有什么共同点,南海泡沫“没有什么坚实的基础,完全是虚构的”,而铁路热情的基础:

    宽阔而安全。铁路是这个时代的必需品。其本身就是一种不动产和有形资产……沉默的哲学家和活跃的商界人士都能看出,没有什么能比英国资本用于这些项目更高尚、更有利的了。[65]

    虽然没有什么证据表明麦基也在铁路狂热中赔过钱,但作为那个时代最敏锐的观察者,他没有看到人类的金融非理性,这更证明了金融泡沫的诱惑力。到了19世纪,有这样一条旧新闻:一个世纪前,艾萨克·牛顿的例子说明,即使是具有非凡知识和智慧的人,也无法免受投资泡沫的影响。牛顿不是金融新手,南海泡沫时期,他已经担任英国皇家造币厂厂长20多年了。他在1712年购买的南海股票获得了丰厚的回报,1720年初,他以可观的利润卖出了这些股票,但那年晚些时候,他失去了理智,以更高的价格回购了这些股票。他损失了大约20000英镑,并认识到:“我能计算天体的运动,但不能计算人类的疯狂。”[66]

    英国铁路泡沫可以看作一场许诺改变人们日常生活的技术动乱。几乎与此同时,远离欧洲大陆的美国,产生了一种与之截然不同的极端末日狂热。

    5 米勒运动的“大失望”

    数秘主义与确认偏见

    20世纪50年代中期,一位名叫利昂·费斯汀格的心理学家走运了。

    费斯汀格的父亲是一位政治激进的无神论者,也是自苏联移民至美国的刺绣师。在长期杰出的学术生涯中,费斯汀格将自己的才智运用到社会心理学的新兴领域。他幸运地潜伏到美国中西部的一场飞碟狂热事件中,其正好属于他的研究领域。他的研究对象,即“情感”群体,由一位名叫多萝西·马丁的女性领导,她声称已经向人类传达了神灵们有关大地震和洪水的警报:神灵们告诉她,这两个大灾难将于1954年12月21日吞噬北美。[1]

    社会心理学家们都理解所罗门·阿希的线条长度实验,他们早就知道,社会压力通常会磨灭个体之间的观点差异,因此各个小群体和整个社会都会演化出各自的文化、道德和宗教价值观。此外,他们还知道,这些价值观的转变往往是爆炸性的,其快速扩散类似于传染病。

    20世纪20年代以来,流行病学家对疾病传播进行了数学建模,认为疾病传播主要取决于两个关键参数:病原体的传播率或传染性,以及治愈率或死亡率。社会学家发现,他们可以用同样的方法理解思想和信仰的传播。费斯汀格意识到,马丁及其信徒为他提供了一个实验室,让他能够实时观察这一传播过程。更重要的是,马丁团队提供了一个难得的机会,让他可以观察到末日预言不可避免地失败之后会发生什么。

    假如在今天,任何一个机构审查委员会都不会批准费斯汀格的这项研究。在研究中,他的助手“在没有经过马丁团队知情或同意的情况下”潜伏进了马丁的圈子。[2]费斯汀格的项目也违反了实验和伦理规定,即现场研究人员不应干预受试者的决策。当不知情的马丁及其追随者要求费斯汀格的潜伏者们就意见和建议畅所欲言时,他们被迫屡次违反了这项不干预的规定。

    作为早期的山达基[3]信徒,马丁对于“来世”并不陌生,她经历了该组织对她的“审计”过程,能够回忆起自己的受孕、出生和之前的各次转世。她的主要合作者查尔斯·劳赫德博士,则是一位更传统的末日信仰者。他是密歇根州立大学学生健康服务处的一名医生,为一个主流新教团体做国外医药的宣传工作;后来他的妻子患上失能性的神经症,他开始努力为她求医,无意中遇到了一些飞碟狂热者,他们把他介绍给了马丁女士。

    在预言大灾难的大约前一年,马丁成为一名女先知。她醒来时感到右臂一阵刺痛:“我感觉有人在试图引起我的注意。”[4]她拿起一支铅笔,很快发现自己的手非常陌生,不由自主地写字。与《圣经》中的先知们不同,她最初传达的并不是来自上帝的信息,而是来自更亲近的人的信息:当她向肢体的指挥者询问时,对方透露说自己是她去世的父亲。

    她的通灵技巧很快得到了提高;她疼痛的右臂和铅笔开始传递来自地位更高者的信息:一个叫“兄长”的人,向她提供了一些关于她死去父亲的精神需求方面的建议;其次是来自“塞勒斯”号行星和“号角”号行星的生物,其中最重要的是萨南达,他说自己是耶稣本时代的肉体化身。

    萨南达是一位完全现代化的弥赛亚,当时正在美国境内进行高级侦察,并已与马丁女士以及其他人取得了联系。萨南达及其被称为“卫士”的同伴被这个国家的某些东西(后来被德怀特·艾森豪威尔称为军事-工业综合体)激怒;作为报复,他们将把陆地撕成碎片,并在年底前用一场大洪水淹没它。1954年8月1日晚上,卫士们指示马丁及其11名追随者(其中没有费斯汀格的潜伏者)去见他们的飞碟,但马丁一行人什么也没看到,只看到一个相貌平平的男人。马丁给了那个男人果汁和三明治,但他礼貌地拒绝了,然后走开了。

    飞碟没有出现,这给马丁的团队带来了第一次动摇,有7名成员立即离开了她。马丁和其余4名坚持信仰的人没有等很久:两天后,萨南达就通知马丁,那天是他拒绝了茶点,并表示对她和其他同伴的道德品质感到满意;还告诉她,大灾难发生之前,飞碟将拯救少数人,而他们是部分被选中的人。[5]

    像几乎所有的千禧年主义者和启示性末日论者一样,马丁是一个真诚的傻瓜,而不是一个无赖。她将自己的时间和财富奉献给了她的追随者,为信仰付出了沉重的代价。当芝加哥郊区橡树公园的孩子们从父母那里听到即将到来的大灾难后开始做噩梦时,警方指控她“煽动暴乱”,并对她进行精神治疗,随后她逃离了芝加哥的家。劳赫德也因为与这一事件有关而失业。[6]

    1954年底,当救命飞碟和随后的大灾难几乎确定不会出现时,信徒们的信仰体系被证明与事实不一致,即所谓的信仰“失验”,这是费斯汀格研究的主要目标:他想精准地确定,当事实和数据与根深蒂固的观点不一致时人们会如何行动。其研究成果《当预言失败时》成为心理学家、社会学家、经济学家和政治学家公认的经典之作。[7]费斯汀格后来创造了现在人们很熟悉的术语“认知失调”,用来描述信仰和事实之间,或者更微妙地说,叙事和数据之间的情感冲突。当令人信服的叙事和客观事实发生冲突时,叙事往往会幸存下来,这种结果自远古以来就存在于人类社会。

    多萝西·马丁后来的行为体现出很多人处理认知失调的方式。她并没有根据那些与自己信仰不一致的证据修改自己的信仰体系,她和她的团队在此之前对自己的信仰相对保密,但后来他们反而加倍努力,开始就飞碟的到来进行传教。离开芝加哥地区后,她的余生一直从事于通灵研究,先是在南美、北加利福尼亚,最后在亚利桑那州的塞多纳。在1954年的信仰失验事件过去将近半个世纪后,她以德拉修女的化名在塞多纳去世。[8]

    虽然我们很容易将多萝西·马丁的预言讽刺为一种21世纪的胡编乱造,但在某种程度上,我们都是费斯汀格所说的恶魔的奴隶。马丁及其追随者们所表现出的“加倍努力”似乎是人类行为的一个近乎恒定的现象。当明斯特的再洗礼主义者反复看到博克尔松的末日预言被事实推翻时,他们的信仰,至少在一段时间内,变得更加坚定,他们也加倍努力改变周围城镇居民的信仰。同样的情况也将发生在19世纪中期众多福音派新教徒的末日预言事件中。

    这种反常行为具有某种执拗的意义。信仰失验会带来严重的精神痛苦,而缓解这种痛苦的最好方式,就是和新赢得的信徒在一起。正如费斯汀格所说:“如果越来越多的人相信信仰体系是正确的,那么显然,它终究是正确的。”[9]

    从1620年开始,与第五君主国派关系密切的英国清教徒将第一批殖民者送往北美马萨诸塞州。10年后,马萨诸塞海湾殖民地的新领导人约翰·温斯罗普向他的追随者们宣扬,他们即将看到“一个山巅之城”,该城的成功和上帝的宠爱将受到全世界的热切关注。[10]从马萨诸塞殖民地演变而来的美国,没有国教,宗教和意识形态的自由程度前所未有,这为神启性运动的扩散和发展提供了肥沃的土壤。

    18世纪初和19世纪初,分别出现了第一次和第二次“大觉醒”,即席卷美国和英国的宗教复兴;两者都催生了各种各样的非正统神学,就像之前的宗教改革一样,重视个人神灵主义,贬低有组织的宗教等级制度。

    美联储所发行的20美元纸币上那个轮廓分明、眼神锐利的面孔,总统安德鲁·杰克逊,直接促成了第二次大觉醒,这不失为一种历史讽刺。杰克逊反对建立中央银行,并于1837年美国第二合众国银行许可证到期时拒绝了它的延期申请。他这样做的时机非常糟糕:几乎同时,美国经历了一场壮观的泡沫,泡沫事件非常复杂,其特点是大量政府土地被出售、房地产投机以及棉花价格从繁荣到萧条。后来,泡沫破裂,由于没有一家中央银行能够充当救市的最后贷款人,由此造成的货币短缺使美国陷入持续近10年的萧条,并带来约25%的失业率。那个时代并没有留下什么详细的经济数据,但杰克逊的鲁莽行为给美国造成的损失可能与一个世纪后的大萧条一样严重。英国小说家弗雷德里克·马里亚特在1837年恐慌之后访问了纽约,他写道:

    猜疑、恐惧和不幸弥漫了这座城市。如果我不知道原因的话,我就会以为瘟疫正在肆虐。但笛福已经告诉我原因了。来往的人群中,人们脸上没有一丝笑容;匆忙的脚步,疲惫的脸庞,快速打招呼,或者匆忙地交流着在太阳落山之前会发生的预期损失……被解雇的机械师们像饥饿的狼群一样踱来踱去。这种剧烈的震荡像电一样传播开来,传播到数百英里以外的地方。运河、铁路和所有公共工程都已中断,一位爱尔兰移民靠着他的棚屋,手里拿着闲置的铁锹,饥饿着,他想念他的绿宝石岛[11]。[12]

    第二次大觉醒运动当时已经开始,于1837年恐慌之后加速进行。觉醒运动中的“助产师”们产生了宗教分裂,例如摩门教和各种公然的欺骗性通灵运动。所谓福克斯姐妹与死者沟通的欺骗性,不亚于伟大作家和政治家霍勒斯·格里利[13]的欺骗性。[14]

    最为壮观的是,多达10万的美国人开始相信世界将在1844年10月22日结束,这个集体幻想起源于威廉·米勒,他是一个谦逊、不爱出风头、深思熟虑的人,本来最不可能成为米勒派领导人。

    米勒出生于1782年,是父母的16个孩子中的长子。他们家位于纽约州最东北部的罗汉普顿镇(见图5-1),是一个虔诚的浸信会农业家庭,家中极度贫困,子女几乎无法接受正规教育。像那个时代的许多农家子弟一样,从9岁到14岁,他只在除了收获期和种植期之外的其他3个月里上学。在家里,这个热爱书籍的男孩只能阅读他父亲的《圣经》、《赞美诗》和《诗篇》;慷慨的邻居借给他《鲁滨孙漂流记》等通俗作品的复印本。他的文学兴趣惹恼了父亲,因为父亲注意到,这些兴趣分散了他的注意力,使他无法做农活,所以小米勒会在深夜偷偷溜到壁炉旁,在燃烧着的松树结的昏暗光线下看书。[15]

    图5-1 美国东北部的米勒主义地标

    21岁时,他结婚了,向东进入佛蒙特州几英里,搬到妻子位于波尔特尼附近的家中耕种。波尔特尼镇正是自然神论的温床。自然神论假定一个超然的至高无上的存在,即一个“神圣的钟表匠”只在远处观察他的创造物,自然神论将《圣经》视为一本纯粹的书,而不是神灵的启示——最多只不过是一本关于古代历史的有用手册。

    镇上的大量图书馆藏书反映出这种自由:伏尔泰的,休谟的,潘恩的,以及其他许多人的书,米勒津津有味地读着,并逐渐成为一名自然神论者。在波尔特尼,米勒还受到最著名的市民马修·里昂的影响。马修·里昂是国会议员、美国独立战争的退伍军人、伊桑·艾伦[16]的煽动性伙伴,还是一个臭名昭著的不可知论者。[17]

    米勒读的启蒙哲学的书越多,就越反感《圣经》:为什么上帝创造了一本完全不可理解的书,然后让那些无法正确解读这本书的不幸灵魂遭受死亡、折磨、流放和饥饿?在米勒看来,人类也有错:

    我读得越多,就越发现人类性格中的严重缺陷。我找不到人类过去历史上有什么亮点,那些世界征服者和历史英雄显然都只是人类形态的恶魔。世界上所有的悲伤、痛楚和苦难,似乎都随着他们对同伴的控制权的增强而增加。我开始对所有人都感到不信任。[18]

    波尔特尼镇上打破旧俗的氛围非常适合这位年轻的农民;他终于从家里的令人窒息的宗教氛围中解脱了,他反叛了,当着大家的面,毫不留情地模仿他祖父的华丽布道,滑稽地模仿他们的假虔诚。[19]

    米勒也确实找到了他的家庭值得称赞的地方:他的父亲曾参加过独立战争,因此作为儿子,他在爱国主义和兵役方面得到了庇护。1810年,当与英国之间的战争临近时,佛蒙特州的民兵组织授予他中尉职位;1812年美国对英宣战后,民兵组织将他提升为上尉,第二年他又调任美国正规军中尉。虽然军衔更低了,但这次调任被视为升职。不管怎样,到1814年初,他已经重新获得了上尉军衔。夏末,他来到尚普兰湖畔的普拉茨堡,在那里,人数和武器装备都处于劣势的美国军队,在一场海陆一体战中决定性地击败了英国侵略者。

    这场战争令米勒感到震惊又害怕,9月11日,他写信告诉妻子,一艘美国船只上的300名士兵和水手中,只有25人幸存。“船上的一些官员说,血是及膝深的。”第二天,他再次写信给妻子:

    天哪!到处都是屠杀。我无法向你描述这种普遍的兴奋……日落时分,在一首扬基小调[20]中,我们军营鸣放了礼炮。在一两英里范围内,1.5万~2万人同时参与海陆交战,这超过了以前我见过的任何一场战争。多么宏伟,多么高尚,但又多么可怕![21]

    这场战争不仅摧毁了英国入侵部队,还摧毁了米勒的自然神论:一支在拿破仑战争中身经百战的15000人的精锐英军,却被一支合并了1500人的正规军和4000人的志愿军的杂乱无章的美军打败,除非有一个主动支持美国的上帝,否则还有什么能够解释美军胜利的原因?“在如此困难的情况下,出现如此令人惊讶的结果,在我看来确实像是一个比人类更强大的力量所做的事情。”[22]

    战争结束后不久,他回到了罗汉普顿的农场。在那里,作为一名受人尊敬的退伍军人和小镇官员,他即将在家族的浸信会中扮演更重要的角色。

    战时的经历和回到童年时保守的宗教环境引发了他的信仰冲突,也就是他先前对上帝的不信仰和战争中看到的超自然之力之间的冲突。基于对阅读的热爱,他使用经文来分析解决这种冲突。大约在1816年的某个时候,他开始对《圣经》进行艰难的逐字逐句分析。例如,如果他遇到“野兽”这个词,且这个词在《但以理书》或《启示录》中象征着异教徒帝国,他就会强迫性地在《圣经》的其余书卷中寻找其他的“野兽”。

    经过几年的努力,通过查阅《圣经》,他找到了之前的不信仰和战争经历之间矛盾的解决办法。在《但以理书》中的四个王国中,只有以天主教会为代表的罗马仍然存在。他被《但以理书》8:14打动:“他对我说,到二千三百日,圣所就必洁净。”

    对米勒来说,一切都很清晰了:《以斯拉记》第7章中,波斯皇帝阿尔塔薛西斯在其当政的第七年发布了返回犹大并建造礼拜场所的命令,当时的历史学家估计这一年是公元前457年。根据米勒的末日论,末日时钟从这一年开始倒计时。鉴于圣经学者所假定的圣经日和时间年的等价性,世界将在2300年后,也就是1843年结束。

    米勒继承了悠久的“数字神秘主义”传统。数秘主义曾经为约阿希姆所迷恋,直至今天人们对它的迷恋还有增无减。最引人注目的现代例子是约翰·泰勒和查尔斯·皮亚齐·史密斯在19世纪末的研究成果。他们注意到金字塔结构中的一些数学巧合,例如,金字塔底部周长的两倍与高度之比接近π值,底部周长与框架石长度之比是365,以及从地球到太阳的距离几乎正好是金字塔高度的10亿倍。接着,史密斯写了一本畅销书《伟大金字塔的遗产》(Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid),详细描述了这些惊人的发现。[23]

    一个世纪后,一位名叫埃里希·冯·丹尼肯的瑞士人在另一本畅销书《众神的战车》中,利用类似的观察结果证明,外星人曾来过地球。[24]近千年来,神学怪人利用类似的数学巧合和圣经年表来预测世界末日。就在2011年,一位名叫哈罗德·坎普的基督教广播名人,预测世界将在10月21日结束。2012年,他承认了自己的错误,谦卑地接受了《马太福音》24:36的告诫:“那日子、那时辰,没有人知道。”[25]

    杰出的数学作家、趣味数学之王、社交网站策划人马丁·加德纳这样评价史密斯的《伟大金字塔的遗产》:“这一类的经典作品就是我们的遗产。很少有一本书,能如此优美地展现出一个对某种理论深信不疑的聪明人(指作者)轻而易举地掌控着整本书的主题,使其精确地契合他的观点。”[26](具有讽刺意味的是,加德纳正是在米勒神学的直系后裔——基督复临安息日会中长大的。)[27]已故“文学坏小子”克里斯托弗·希钦斯针对那些幻想的圣经日期设定,创造了一个更一针见血的术语:“白痴的里程表”[28]。

    圣经的数秘主义源于“模式”现象。《圣经》是一部包含大量数字、叙事和各种往往阐述不清的历法的汇编,勤奋的千禧年主义者几乎可以将未来的任何一个日期视为世界末日。米勒并不是第一个运用圣经数秘主义将1843年定为世界末日的人;1946年,一位名叫勒罗伊·埃德温·弗鲁姆的基督复临安息日会牧师出版了《我们祖先的预言信仰》(The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers),它是一本关于末日计算的历史书,包括四卷。其中记录的几十种末日计算时间集中在1843年。但没有任何一个人能像威廉·米勒那样使数秘主义发挥出如此毁灭性的影响。[29]

    数秘主义的影响不可避免地被另一个著名心理现象“确认偏见”放大。在“确认偏见”现象中,人类一旦确定了一个假说或信仰体系,就会只关注支持其信仰的数据,而避免使用与之相悖的数据。

    “确认偏见”这个词与心理学家彼得·沃森有关。在20世纪50年代后期的一个经典实验中,他向受试者展示了一个由三个数字组成的序列,如2-4-6,并要求他们推导出产生该序列的规则,然后让他们用另一个序列对该规则进行测试。[30]

    受试者根据上述序列推出的最明显的规则是“连续偶数”,因此他们最有可能再提出诸如8-10-12这样的序列进行测试,然后他们被告知这一序列与答案规则一致。然后,受试者可能会提出24-26-28这样的序列,然后也被告知这一序列符合规则。

    在多次连续“确认”他们的“连续偶数”规则后,受试者可能会合理地得出结论,认为这就是正确的规则。

    问题是,这三个序列还符合其他多种规则,例如“数字不断增加”或“只有正增长的数字序列”。换句话说,受试者只是试图确认自己的假设,而事实上更有效的策略是测试一些推翻假设的三数字序列,例如5-7-9,如果考官回答说这个序列也符合规则,那么他们就会知道“连续偶数”规则是不正确的,但“数字不断增加”或“每次增加二的数字序列”规则可能仍然成立。

    大多数受试者通常只测试符合其假设规则的三数字,而不是不符合其规则的三数字。这种只寻找支持假设的证据的做法,使得很少人能够推导出正确的规则。

    作为一名科学家,沃森知道,科学方法的核心是试图推翻假设,但作为一名心理学家,他怀疑人类的自然倾向是要确认这些假设。[31]心理学家很快拓展了沃森的研究,并进行了大量的实验,证明人类物种更倾向于寻找和接受确认的证据,而忽视相反的证据。正如那句老话:“一个违背自己意愿被‘说服’的人还会持有不变的看法。”[32][33]

    在20世纪70年代末的一项经典研究中,斯坦福大学的一组研究人员调查了151名大学生对死刑等争议话题的看法,并从中选出48人,其中24人强烈赞成死刑,24人强烈反对死刑(分别被称为支持者/反对者)。然后,他们向两组人展示了两组不同的研究成果,他们说这些研究成果是真实的,但实际上是虚构的。其中一组“研究”表明,死刑州的谋杀率较低,而另一组“研究”则表明,死刑州的谋杀率较高(赞成威慑/反对威慑)。

    支持者们认为,赞成威慑的研究在方法论上比反对威慑的研究更可靠,他们更加相信赞成威慑的研究;而反对者们则认为反对威慑的研究更为合理和令人信服。最具启发性的是,在实验的最后,在参与者阅读并评估了两组相互矛盾的研究结果后,每组都强化了其原来的支持及反对观点。[34]

    威廉·米勒,以及他后来的追随者们,正患上了长期的“确认偏见”病症。计算出1843年这个时间后,米勒专注于寻找确认性的证据,因此他能够说服自己,认为自己的预测是准确的。米勒得出了1843年世界末日的惊人结论:基督将出现在云端,火焰将吞噬大地。正义之人——那些信仰上帝的人——将会被提升天并获得永生,而邪恶之人不仅会被上帝毁灭,而且他们的灵魂将永远被上帝囚禁。[35]

    在近10年的时间里,米勒没有公开这个令人不安的预言,只和周围认识的人讨论。[36]但他的羞怯和内向更加提高了可信度,特别是在卫理公会、浸信会和长老会神职人员中,他们对米勒的这种同时具有学术性和非教派歧视性的方法印象深刻:任何新教派别的成员都有资格获得救赎。米勒的朋友们被他的末日论征服,但不理解他为什么不愿意布道。这其实是因为米勒害怕成为笑柄,这种恐惧可能源于他的社交拘谨和卑微的教育经历。[37]

    1831年夏,他的浸信会妹妹和妹夫邀请他从罗汉普顿去往佛蒙特州的德累斯顿演讲,那里离尚普兰湖只有16英里。虽然他以前读过传教士写的布道,但他从未发表过自己的布道。此时,他已经快50岁了,身体不好。就在普拉茨堡战争之前,他差点儿死于斑点热,此后,他经常受到各种皮肤感染的折磨。

    历史上并没有他那次演讲内容的记录,但他说的话可能与后来的书面布道没有什么太大不同:基督将出现在天空并复活死去的圣徒,正义之人将“在空中遇见主,在那里他们将把自己完全地交给主”。然后基督会把注意力转向有罪之人:

    看哪,天空布满了乌云,太阳蒙上了面纱;月亮苍白而被遗弃,挂在半空中;冰雹降下,七个号角高声吹响;闪电将硫黄火焰的鲜活光芒洒向远方;这个国家的伟大城市将永远不再崛起。[38]

    他的表现让德累斯顿的浸信会教徒们如此着迷,他们一直留他到星期日。在接下来的8年里,他应邀在新英格兰、纽约和加拿大的农村地区演讲。当无法满足远方教徒的演讲邀请时,他给他们提供了书面传单,后来产生了一系列小册子和书籍,而这又引发了更多的演讲邀请。

    有一位目击者似乎对“确认偏见”有直观理解,他对米勒既钦佩又怀疑,他描述了讲坛上的米勒:

    他本人高大魁梧,宽大的脑袋,高高的额头,一双温柔而富有表现力的眼睛,他声音里所有的抑扬顿挫都表明了他最真诚的敬拜。他的想象力相当丰富,从一个有缺陷的前提中得出的结论对他来说就是一个真正的事实。在这种精神状态下,他开始讲课,用大图表说明但以理和约翰的异象。无数的人前来听他演讲,许多心胸开阔的牧师和非宗教人士也乐于接受他的观点,全国东北部的所有地区都弥漫着极大的兴奋。[39]

    米勒所用的圣经数秘主义早已经有数百年历史,同样,他充满活力的布道风格也缺乏独创性。从约1825年开始,一位长老会牧师、第二次大觉醒的主角查尔斯·格兰迪森·芬尼在听众的参与下完善了后来大家都熟悉的“地狱之火和硫黄”的福音讲演。他的布道带来了大量皈依;一位观察家指出,芬尼经过一座城镇后,“宗教情感深深地渗透其中,人们再也无法组织舞会,而马戏团也无利可图”[40]。米勒本人并不赞成这种新的复兴主义布道方式,但是,毫无疑问他已经掌握了芬尼的技巧,而且邀请米勒演讲的许多人都认为他是芬尼技巧的有效实践者。[41]

    和许多早期福音派教徒一样,芬尼是一位坚定的废奴主义者和社会活动家。早期,米勒也有这些信念:罗汉普顿是“地下铁路”运动[42]的一个停靠站,米勒至少庇护过一名奴隶。但1840年,当他参加完一个废奴协会会议时,他确信腐败在人类社会中如此普遍,必须寻求神灵的干预来解决许多弊病,特别是奴隶制:“如果人类是罪魁祸首的话,那么可怜的奴隶的大赦之年还很遥远。但是上帝能够并将释放被俘之人。我们必须也只能向上帝寻求帮助。”[43]

    米勒华丽的演讲风格让普通听众着迷,而且,他对其他新教派别的宽容和对《圣经》文本的熟悉,也让教会的圣职人员着迷。一位持怀疑态度的教会长老想让他难堪:

    我在他房间里见到了他,提出了一大堆为难他的反对意见。令我惊讶的是,他对这些问题几乎都不陌生,而且他回答这些问题的速度和我提出问题的速度一样快。然后他提出了他的异议和问题,这难倒了我,并推翻了我所依赖的那些解释。我回家时已经筋疲力尽,感觉自己有罪,感到卑微,并下定决心要回答这些问题。[44]

    米勒的受欢迎源于他振奋人心的布道,但这是有代价的:让教徒们所感动的远不是米勒的复临主义神学,而是他演讲内容中的地狱之火和硫黄。米勒是为了从地狱之火中救赎灵魂,而邀请他演讲的人则是为了让教堂的长椅上坐满人。当然,到19世纪30年代末,他已经吸引了一大批传播他信息的支持者。例如,1838年,波士顿《每日时报》的编辑发表了一系列米勒的布道;几乎同一时间,一位名叫约西亚·利奇的牧师写了一本名为《午夜呼声!》(The Midnight Cry!)的支持米勒的小册子,其在新英格兰广泛传播;一位名叫查尔斯·菲奇的波士顿牧师,是废奴主义者威廉·劳埃德·加里森的助手之一,连续几次重读了利奇的作品。利奇、菲奇和其他几位米勒的助手将在未来几年内支持米勒运动,并最终鼓励他做出那个最失败的世界末日预测。[45]

    起初,这些支持并没有使米勒受到鼓舞;到1839年,由于年龄增长和健康状况不佳,他已经步履蹒跚;没有几个人相信4年之后的末日,他因此而沮丧并认为自己是个失败者。他不断收到演讲邀请,但他知道,分散在农村的布道只能拯救少数灵魂免遭即将到来的末日大灾难。[46]

    虽然追随者们认为他是先知,但从技术上说,他不是,因为他坚决否认与全能者(上帝)有任何交流。他只是声称自己有能力从《圣经》中领悟未来。不管他如何看待自己,他显然低估了自己富有说服力的安息日神学对美国东北部神职人员的影响力。例如,1838年,他拒绝了波士顿牧师约书亚·海姆斯和加里森的助手菲奇的演讲邀请。

    与米勒的谦虚和不谙世故不同,海姆斯儒雅而圆滑,在波士顿的改革派圈子里人脉很广。第一基督教会对他来说过于保守,因此他建立了自己的教会,并很自然地命名为第二基督教会。在海姆斯的领导下,第二基督教会发展迅速,不得不在波士顿沙登大街另建了一个有500个座位的小教堂。坚强、外向、有号召力的海姆斯丝毫没有因为米勒的羞怯而退缩。1839年秋天的某个时候,他说服米勒向会众布道,而米勒的表现也给他留下了深刻的印象,于是他将自己相当多的精力、组织能力和当时他所掌握的印刷媒介都投入米勒运动中,并有效地接管了这一事业。

    海姆斯不仅将米勒送往冷清的乡村教堂,还送往拥挤的纽约市和奥尔巴尼市大教堂。他重新出版了米勒的小册子和书籍,创办了一份非常成功的报纸《时兆》,它最初是双周报,很快就成了周报。海姆斯还与其他受米勒末日论影响的人建立了广泛的联系,那些人也出版了他们自己的米勒系报纸。其中最著名的是纳撒尼尔·索瑟德,他后来编辑了最著名的复临主义出版物《午夜呼声!》(容易混淆的是,它与利奇的小册子同名)。

    从各种最小的集会到最大的讲座,海姆斯凭直觉领悟到出版物和布道之间的协同增效作用。以引人入胜的复临主义末日叙事为特色的小册子、报纸和书籍引发了对布道的需求,而布道又引发了更多的出版物销量。信徒们到处传播米勒的话语,他们在港口付款,将一捆捆的小册子留在远洋海船和运河驳船上,或者在火车车厢里悬挂海报。[47]

    从1840年开始,海姆斯组织了几次全体大会,汇集并协调米勒的复临运动,不仅包括传统的教堂集会,还涉及大规模的“野营集会”。

    野营集会并不是海姆斯发明的;第一批野营集会在美国建国后不久就产生了,到1840年,已成为一个组织。其成员一部分是奋兴派[48]教徒,一部分是社交俱乐部成员,他们吸引了很多南卡罗来纳州、田纳西州和肯塔基州边境地区原本孤立的农民。这些农民迫切需要社交活动。通常,他们的浸信会和卫理公会组织者会清理出一片森林土地,将砍伐的树木做成粗糙的长凳和小讲坛,作为流动教堂。(另一方面,圣公会教徒和公理会教徒对野营集会及其传教活动嗤之以鼻。[49])

    米勒的追随者于1842年6月下旬举行了前两次野营集会:一次在新罕布什尔州的东金斯顿,另一次在魁北克的哈特利。新罕布什尔州的集会取得了惊人的成功:多达1万名浸信会教徒和卫理公会教徒前来参加,还有少量自然神论者和不信仰耶稣的“异教徒”,其大概是被无宗教派别歧视的伙伴关系吸引而来的。这次集会证明,海姆斯是一位后勤高手:这些聚会地点都很容易通过铁路到达,根据一位历史学家的说法,还有“大量纯净的凉水,高大的铁杉树和凉爽的树荫,以及僻静的小树林来做祈祷和敬拜”[50]。大、中型城市赞助了帐篷用来住宿,铁路建立了临时车站,为信徒们降低了票价,并让传教士免费乘车。最后,每个帐篷的“主人”都提供了一张记录表,记录着从永恒之火中救赎的灵魂。

    新罕布什尔州的集会非常成功,因此海姆斯和他的同事决定购买一个“大帐篷”,它高55英尺,直径为120英尺,可容纳4000人,过道中还可容纳数千人。在天气恶劣时,它可以在室内提供服务,并可以配备炉灶,以便在寒冷天气举行集会;这个帐篷吸引了纽约州罗切斯特市以及西至俄亥俄州的数千人。在随后的两年中,海姆斯和他的同事组织了125次野营集会,约50万人参加。[51]

    每次野营集会结束时,牧师们都会安排一场祈祷或一首告别的歌曲,其中最受欢迎的是歌曲《永不分离》。

    我们正穿过以马内利[52]的地盘,

    我们很快就将听到号角声,

    很快我们将与耶稣一起统治,

    永不,永不分离。

    什么?永不分离?

    是的,永不分离。

    因为我们很快就会和耶稣一起统治,

    永不,永不分离。[53]

    牧师随后带领会众排成一队走出帐篷,队伍螺旋排列,每个人都能与其他人握手。由于世界末日即将来临,信徒们期待着他们在“天堂野营”的下一次会面。[54]

    米勒为自己的成功付出了高昂的个人代价。起初他的身体就不太好,据他估计仅在1841年就做了627次90分钟的激情演讲。[55]在这期间,由于米勒的皮肤疾病和劳累状况,不止一次,健康问题迫使他早早回到罗汉普顿。他的助手们非常热情地接替了他,因此他对运动的影响力有所减弱。[56]

    若得不到精心管理,情绪满满的群众事件很可能会失控,后来的野营集会就发生了这样的事情。由于海姆斯忙于传播米勒的信息,他让副手查尔斯·斯塔克韦瑟负责管理沙登大街小教堂,但事实证明,斯塔克韦瑟特别善于煽动会众进入疯狂状态。由于害怕他的这种影响,海姆斯最终解雇了斯塔克韦瑟,但无法阻止他参加野营集会。在野营集会上,斯塔克韦瑟的布道使信徒相信他是圣灵的宿主,并拥有“天赋”,包括能够停止蒸汽机或在水上行走。此外,在另一次集会上,一位与会者声称读懂了一位信徒的性格和内心,然后号召追随者们联合起来反对他的怀疑者,以消除永恒诅咒的痛苦。当怀疑者们反抗时,他讲着不为人知的语言并连续击打他们,周围的人试图干预,但也被他谴责下地狱。[57]

    更重要的是,米勒和海姆斯开始失去对日益强大的复临主义传播媒介的控制。信徒们开始出版自己的报纸,名称诸如《真理之声》《将临王国的喜讯》《降临纪事》《帐篷通信》《朱比利号角》《西部午夜呼声》等。其中最后一份报纸是由卫理公会牧师乔治·斯托尔斯创办的,他曾经因为废奴活动而被关押在新罕布什尔州,又以同样的热情追求复临事业,最终落得惨痛的结局。

    1842年12月31日,新年前夕,全国各地的复临主义者聚集在沙登大街迎接1843年的到来,这将是世界的最后一年。海姆斯和斯塔克韦瑟(后者那时还没有被解雇)在拥挤的小教堂里布道。日渐虚弱的米勒向信徒们发出了一封信:

    根据我们的信仰,今年是撒旦统治我们地球的最后一年。耶稣基督会来,并打破他的头……地球上的王国将被粉碎。那有权做王的,必夺取国,得为业,直到永远。[58]

    到了2月,米勒已经从疾病中恢复到可以前往费城,在那里,巨大的中国式博物馆大厅被租来进行他的布道。兴奋之情是如此明显,等待在外面的人群也是如此不守规矩,以至于市政府因为担心市民混乱而取消了2月9日的第一次布道。第二天,米勒的布道效果很好,意外事件也没有发生。随后不久,应市长的邀请,他在特伦顿市进行了布道。在回家的路上,米勒生病了,直到那年秋天一直留在罗汉普顿。海姆斯和几位同僚将国家划分为几个区域,并在各地的教堂布道,租用大厅,还将宣传资料分发,西至威斯康星州和密苏里州,南至北卡罗来纳州和南卡罗来纳州。

    这场运动的中心在波士顿的沙登大街,想听海姆斯布道的人的数量大大超过了教堂的座位数,因此他们计划在霍华德街修建一个更大的、能容纳3000人的场地。根据城市法令的要求,这样规模的建筑需要用砖把四面都围起来,而世界末日已近,因此霍华德街地段非常理想——已经有三面墙,只需要在第四面修建一堵12英尺高的墙。

    这场运动早已引起广大公众的怀疑和奚落,此时,收到了公开的敌意。报纸上充满了警告和蔑视,认为这个信仰体系不仅危险而且极度鲁莽:如果世界末日即将来临,那么不仅在波士顿,而且在辛辛那提和克利夫兰建造会堂都毫无用处。尽管公众的反对声越来越大,但信徒们还是在1843年5月4日为霍华德街的会堂举行了落成仪式。

    正如大多数闭关自守的信仰体系那样,米勒利用确认偏见来支持他们的神学;与往常一样,《圣经》再次成为支持性数据的来源宝库:

    第一要紧的,该知道在末世必有好讥诮的人,随从自己的私欲出来讥诮说:主要降临的应许在哪里呢?因为从列祖睡了以来,万物与起初创造的时候仍是一样。(《彼得后书》,第3章,第3—4节)

    为了鼓舞因日益受到公众蔑视而灰心丧气的队伍,《午夜呼声!》开设“骗徒”和“嘲笑者角落”两个固定专栏。[59]

    米勒一直没有指明末日的确切日期。他将《但以理书》8:14中的2300年加在了波斯皇帝阿尔塔薛西斯允许犹太人返回耶路撒冷重建圣殿的那一年(公元前457年)上,这个简单的算术确定了耶稣复临的时间是1843年。随着这一年平淡无奇地过去,米勒开始敷衍:由于《圣经》中的事件是按照犹太拉比的历法计算的,3月或4月才是一年的开始,根据这一计算调整,犹太人的“1843年”直到1844年3月21日才结束,因此时间仍然充足。[60]

    1844年初,米勒重返战场,在波士顿和纽约市向广大听众布道。随着那个重大日期的临近,他与约西亚·利奇和海姆斯一起,在华盛顿特区举行了一次压轴布道。但是,被米勒称为“恺撒之家”的首都似乎更关注当年的总统选举,而不是即将到来的天启末日,这让他烦恼不已:

    我们的统治者和政治家还没有准备好放弃他们的权力,他们正在为下一任总统而进行政治斗争,就好像他们小小的“短暂权力”将永存一样。但是在上帝的话语、圣灵和历史的帮助下,我将向他们展示,一场重要的革命即将发生,这将取代选择总统的必要性。[61]

    到了3月3日,米勒已经在首都发表了19次布道,然后在返回罗汉普顿的路上又发表了几次。回到罗汉普顿的他精疲力竭,等待3月21日的末日。

    这一天,又平安无事地过去。米勒通过私人邮件写给海姆斯一些充满希望的话语,又通过复临主义的报纸将一些信息发给信徒们:他的计算从来都不精确,所以如果计算偏离了一周或一个月或两个月会怎么样?上帝仍会降临。至于海姆斯,他警告读者:“因此,我们只在心中把事件推迟一个小时是不安全的,应该要生活在不断的期待中,随时准备与我们的大法官(指耶稣)见面。有了这样的想法,我们无法为未来做出确定的安排。”[62]

    实际上还有很多回旋余地。例如,海姆斯旗下的一份报纸《时兆》在上一年发表过一篇未署名的文章,其指出了米勒的计算错误:因为基督教历法中没有0年,所以公元前457年和1843年之间仅相隔2999年,而不是3000年。因此,末日应该发生在“犹太年”的1844年,而不是1843年。

    这篇文章进一步对米勒使用的犹太教历法提出了异议。罗马人将犹太人驱逐到各地后,犹太的大麦收割(赎罪节的日期以大麦收割为基础)再也无法观测到,因此几乎所有犹太人都采用了拉比历法,这是一种精确的数学测年系统,以19年为一个周期。然而,这种较新的历法直到4世纪才开始使用。这篇文章的作者认为,更好的做法是观察圣经时代所使用的“卡拉”历法体系,该历法以最接近犹太大麦收割时间的新月出现时间为一年的开始。通过这种方法计算,天启末日将发生在1844年4月29日。[63]

    但是,那一天也安然无恙地过去了。公众的嘲笑声越来越大,米勒很容易从他的邻居那里听到一些类似的话:“什么?!还没升天?我们以为你已经升天了!不是被你妻子丢下等待被烧吧?”[64]

    《圣经》再次被挖掘出来,以解释为什么末日没有到来。《旧约》中最晦涩难懂的《哈巴谷书》2:3中有这样一段话:“因为这默示有一定的日期,快要应验,并不虚谎。虽然迟延,还要等候。因为必然临到,不再迟延。”《圣经》其他地方也出现过“迟延”一词,最重要的是《马太福音》25章中的一个寓言,10个童女等待“新郎”,新郎代表耶稣。第5节和第6节解释说,“新郎迟延的时候,他们都打盹儿睡着了。半夜有人喊着说,新郎来了,你们出来迎接他”(利奇的小册子和最著名的复临报纸《午夜呼声!》即由此得名)。这种解释使失望的信徒安心了:耶稣的工作基本上完成了,他只是在迟延。

    米勒派遵循了多萝西·马丁的追随者在飞碟首次未能出现时的剧本。一些追随者离开了,但那些留下来的人则加倍努力向周围的人传教。野营集会仍在继续,春季失望之后所产生的不信任,在降低信徒人数的同时,也为更热情的信徒带来了机会。狂热的斯塔克韦瑟被逐出沙登大街后,带走了许多追随者。另一个狂热分子卡尔文·弗伦奇宣称,信徒们不仅可以避免地狱之火,还可以实现“圆满”(一种他们所做的任何事情都可以被宽恕和被祝福的状态),包括可以在婚姻界限之外拥有很多“精神妻子”,这是所有时代的末日论领导人经常享有的特权。斯塔克韦瑟也热情地宣扬这一点。

    1844年8月,在新罕布什尔州埃克塞特市举行的野营集会上,失望与狂热交织。在一次枯燥无味的演讲中,演讲者约瑟夫·贝茨中途被米勒的一位助手打断,助手说一位以前不知名的人物塞缪尔·斯诺有紧急消息。

    斯诺告诉人们,他对《旧约》和《新约》进行了详尽的调查,并取得惊人的发现:4个犹太教圣日和4个基督教圣日之间有一对一的一致性。那一年已经庆祝了3个基督教圣日,而第4个对应着犹太赎罪日的基督教圣日还没有庆祝。赎罪日是犹太教中最神圣的节日,发生在犹太历法的第7个月(提市黎月)的第10天。

    对于1844年的赎罪日在9月23日,斯诺不同意这个日期,他觉得使用古代的卡拉历法更准确,这种历法比犹太教历法晚一个月;因此,末日时间将在10月22日。(即使如此“精确”也有一些不确定性。因为在那个时代,耶路撒冷的新月出现在数千英里之外,新大陆无法观测到,有一些信徒认为实际日期可能会延长至10月24日。)[65]

    斯诺的消息震惊了整个营地,甚至连被打断演讲的贝茨也吓了一跳,贝茨写道:

    这个消息开始发酵,传遍了整个营地。集会结束时,新罕布什尔州的花岗岩山上回响着呼喊声:“看,新郎来了,你们出去迎接他。”当满载的马车、舞台和火车驶过新英格兰地区的各个州、城市和村庄时,呼喊声仍然响亮,“看,新郎来了!”基督,我们可称颂的主,将在第7个月的第10天降临!准备好!准备好![66]

    引用的“新郎”一词再次指向《马太福音》25章。模仿海姆斯的做法,斯诺创办了名为《真正的午夜呼声》的新报纸。斯诺的计算并不是原创:早些时候,米勒本人曾有过“第7个月的第10天”的提法。1844年夏天,饱受批评的米勒派因认知失调和确认偏见而变得狂热,正好可以利用斯诺的构想。充满激情的乔治·斯托尔斯也支持这一构想。

    斯诺和斯托尔斯都是适应能力强的人:斯诺一开始自称为“异教徒”,为一家公开的无神论报纸《波士顿调查》撰稿;和那个时期的许多非信徒一样,他在阅读了米勒的著作后皈依了基督复临主义。而斯托尔斯一开始是卫理公会教徒,有一次他应邀在教堂进行废奴主义的布道;为了阻止他,逮捕他的人将他从教堂拖了出来。

    复临主义的高层们,就像所罗门·阿希的线条测试实验中更易受别人影响的受试者一样,一个接一个地,接受了“第7个月的第10天”,也就是当时日历的10月22日这个末日日期。9月下旬,该运动的旗舰报纸《午夜呼声!》的编辑内森·索瑟德在该报上刊登并支持10月22日这个末日日期。海姆斯一直是一个讲究实效的组织者,他察觉到队伍里的日期改变并提醒米勒,因为米勒以前也提过第10天/第7个月的说法;于是两人都于10月6日确认末日日期是10月22日。现在离末日大概只有两周了。[67]

    米勒在《午夜呼声!》中写道:

    我在第7个月看到了我从未见过的荣耀。虽然主在一年半前向我展示了第7个月的特殊担当,但我没有意识到这类担当的力量(《新约》和《旧约》在圣日问题上的一致性)。现在,称颂主的名字,我在《圣经》中看到了美丽、和谐和一致,我一直在为此祈祷,但直到今天才看到。——我的灵魂啊,感谢主。斯诺兄弟、斯托尔斯兄弟和其他人打开了我的眼睛,他们应该受到祝福。我快回家了。荣耀!荣耀!!荣耀!!![68]

    信徒们大致接受了斯诺的计算;10月12日,守旧者中最持怀疑态度的约西亚·利奇也开始与末日步调一致:

    我的困难全都消失了,我现在在《旧约》中上帝话语所闪耀的光芒里感到愉悦……我感到自卑,服在神大能的手下,现在我抬起头,满怀喜悦地期待10天内见到万王之王。[69]

    霍华德街的会堂里挤满了人,《午夜呼声!》和《复临通报》最先进的蒸汽印刷机24小时不停地疯狂运转,试图在耶稣关上救赎之窗前从地狱之火中拯救出尽可能多的灵魂。

    这时,信徒们已经强烈地意识到,世界上的其他人都认为他们疯了,因此他们面临着一个可怕的选择:要么继续他们的日常活动和生意,被贴上伪君子的标签;要么停止所有这些活动,被指责为狂热分子。领导层一直注意运动的公众形象,建议采取前一种做法:信徒们要过正常的生活,直到末日。

    《午夜呼声!》的最后一期报纸,在预期末日之前的10月19日出版。这期报纸包含了很多由衷的信念表达。也许最令人印象深刻的是威廉·尼古拉斯,他刚刚拜访了他的复临派邻居巴克斯特夫人:

    这是她能够吃点儿东西的第29天。但显然她身体很好,看起来很健康,邻居们说她的体力最近有所增强。她说她没有生病,身体很好。昨天和今天早上,她都出了趟门。[70]

    米勒非常谦虚,他估计有5万人相信耶稣将会在1844年复临,而其他人则认为这个数字是美国总人口2000万中的100万;受人尊敬的美国古文物学会将这场运动的信徒人数定为15万~20万。[71]10月22日,他们中的大多数人沉着自信地迎接末日,与家人在家中或教堂静静地聚集,并告别那些他们认为无法避免地狱之火的人。海姆斯从波士顿前往罗汉普顿,与米勒一起迎接救世主。

    米勒和海姆斯劝诫他们的追随者,要按照圣经的指令“你们去做生意,直等我回来”(《路加福音》19:13)进行日常活动。尽管有这样的建议,但1844年春天,许多人并没有播种庄稼,或者有的播种了但没去收割,以此表达他们的信仰。有些人结束了自己的生意,敲响了公共警报,并不再让孩子们去学校。有些人更进一步,把自己商店和面包店的东西都送给了别人。还有一些人把自己的大部分钱和世俗财产都送给了别人。[72]复临主义的报纸报道说,有几十个人在野营集会上供认了自己的罪行;当信徒们试图把钱送人时却没有成功,钞票散落在讲坛上。信徒们放弃了自己数千美元的债权;纽约立法机构宽恕了一名议员,以便他能为世界末日做准备;在罗切斯特,一名妇女供认了几年前在英国犯下的谋杀罪,并要求被送回那里受审。[73]根据一部19世纪的费城综合历史:

    米勒教堂位于伍德和卡洛希尔之间的朱利安娜街上,在那里,米勒的追随者们日夜相聚,望着星星和太阳,祈祷并警告执迷不悟者“审判日就在眼前”。他们中的许多人开始以很低的价格出售土地和房屋。其他人则捐出个人物品,结束生意或腾空房屋。在第五街的一家商店里,栗子树的上方有一块标语牌,上面写着:“这家商店为了致敬王中之王而关闭,他将在10月20日左右出现。准备好,朋友们,给他加冕万王之王!”[74]

    主流米勒派非常平静地等待10月22日的到来,他们对末日神学所产生的狂热感到忧虑:

    随着日期的临近,受骗的人们放弃了所有事情,只给自己安排各种集会,在附近的私人住宅里日日夜夜地集会。他们几乎完全忽略了自己的世俗事务,有些人甚至让幼儿自己照顾自己,或者由那些不那么痴迷于集会的人来照顾。[75]

    预期的复临日对整个社会的影响大大超过了对信徒的影响,因为每一个坚定的米勒派肯定会面对几个不信仰的人,随着10月22日的临近,每当起风或天色变暗时,这些不信仰者就会想,他们是不是不应该下这个赌注。在纽约的伊萨卡,一名男子被“着火”的喊声惊醒,他经过调查发现,起火的源头是一个基督复临派的会议厅,他对于“米勒派圣殿着火了,而不是全世界着火了”表示宽慰。[76]

    这次事件之后,20世纪20年代初,一位名叫克拉拉·恩迪科特·西尔斯的接受私人家庭教育的美国北方贵族,对米勒运动感兴趣,并通过在报纸上发布广告来征求这一事件的第一手资料。她收集了大约160个故事,将其编入一本名为《幻想的日子》(Days of Delusion)的书中,这本书极大地加深了现代人对米勒运动的疯狂的印象,尽管历史学家已经得出结论,其中的许多故事(如果不是大多数的话)通过父母、祖父母、阿姨和叔叔80年的滤化,可能已经被渲染,或者显然是不真实的。

    尽管如此,西尔斯收集的故事中仍有几个主题始终如一:许多米勒信徒在山顶上等待,还有少数信徒在墓地等待。许多故事也确实像是真实的:西尔斯的一位上了年纪的联系人,在1844年时还是一个小女孩,她记得曾向一位邻居女孩求助,这位女孩的父母都是米勒信徒,她想请这位女孩帮忙做饭。这位女孩的父母告诉她,女孩正在为被提做准备,她问:“若这没有发生,她能在一周后过来吗?”她后来回忆说:“尽管我很小,但我永远不会忘记她脸上的恐惧表情,以及她那双蓝色大眼睛里充满的泪水。”

    西尔斯的另一个故事来自一个热心的米勒信徒,他讲述了唯一神教派的牧师西奥多·帕克和诗人拉尔夫·沃尔多·爱默生的对话。爱默生说:“世界末日不会影响我;没有它,我可以继续生活。”帕克回应说:“这与我无关,因为我住在波士顿。”[77]

    西尔斯的书中最令人难忘的一个故事,描述了米勒信徒们穿着白色“升天长袍”等待升天的情景,以及他们从树上跳起后掉下来摔断脖子和四肢,有时还使用了自制翅膀的情景。这些情节虽然看似可信,但很可能是复临派反对者宣传的结果。

    批评家们还指责米勒主义导致精神病院住满了精神病患者,但这也可能是虚构的:宗教思想经常会带一点儿精神分裂症特征,它是一种常见的紊乱症,但新英格兰地区的精神病院记录本上,只在少数情况下提到了米勒主义。[78]此外,一位米勒信徒将自己所有的世俗财产都送给了别人,他的亲人很合理地试图把他关起来。1843年,一个叫普尔的信徒,为了支付从波士顿到西部说服别人皈依和传播圣经的旅费而花掉了自己的财产,他的一个兄弟把他骗到家中并试图将他送进精神病院,但他被他的复临派旅伴救了出来。[79]

    10月22日是个硬目标,10月的失望比春天的失望更强烈地打击了信仰者。他们的集体绝望压倒了一切。据米勒所说:“似乎所有的恶魔都从无底深渊中释放在我们身上。”[80]据该运动的一位长老路易斯·鲍特尔观察:

    10月22日过去了,那些忠实和渴望的信徒感到难以言表的悲伤;那些不信仰的人和恶人却在欢喜。一切都依旧。复临前兆没有了;以前的集会没有了。每个人都感到孤独,几乎不想和任何人说话。大家像是在寒冷的世界里!上帝不会来的!任何语言都无法表达出一个真正的复临派信徒的失望之情。只有那些经历过的人才能加入这个话题。这是一件丢脸的事,我们都有同感。除了询问“我们在哪里”和“下一步怎么办”以外,大家都在沉默。[81]

    救赎失败受到了广泛的鄙视。许多复临派教徒都是废奴主义者威廉·劳埃德·加里森的追随者,而加里森却说他们患有“一种可悲的大脑幻想,现在已经清楚地证明是这样的”,这格外令人感到刺痛。(加里森另有企图,他认为米勒运动抢走了废奴运动的人员和资源。)[82]

    信徒们受到了大大小小的侮辱,从小男孩们嘲讽“你还没有上升吗?”到对海姆斯的严重欺诈指控(波士顿的一家报纸建议他避免在街上露面)。

    在这些指控中,海姆斯是无辜的。他主动提出,如果有人有任何关于他欺诈的证据,那么他将提供4倍的还款(但没有找到任何证据);他找到了一些证人,这些人撤回了之前对他渎职的错误陈述;他还让银行证明他的私人财产很少。[83]随后,海姆斯积极组织对那些在复临中疏忽个人和经济事务的人进行经济救济。“大失望”[84]的直接后果是,暴徒洗劫并烧毁了会堂,闯入集会并挥舞枪支挑衅。1845年1月29日,米勒被罗汉普顿浸信会逐出了教会,这对米勒本人是一种极大的侮辱。

    与多萝西·马丁的追随者一样,复临派教徒对这种强烈的认知失调做出了各种各样的反应。斯诺与马丁女士以及她最忠实的追随者们一样,加倍努力,坚持认为末日即将到来。斯诺的顾问乔治·斯托尔斯则恰恰相反,他否认了自己之前的信仰。

    其他人有两种应对方式。第一种,最终成为最重要的一种,是“灵化”论,由来自纽约州北部的一位名叫海勒姆·埃德森的米勒派人士提出。埃德森声称基督在10月22日采取了行动,不过是以簿记模式,而不是以末日模式。他没有回到地球,而是进入了“至圣所”,正辛苦地将人类分为粗俗和善良两类。最终,他将完成名单设定,然后才回到地球做最后的判决。

    10月22日“大失望”的第二种应对认知失调的方式是“闭门”论。持这种观点的人认为耶稣还没有复临,但已经在10月22日那天,对那些没有看到光明的人关闭了极乐城之门,耶稣只会拯救选民,也就是他们。而且,作为选民,他们的“圆满”赋予他们各种性特权,从“淫乱的洗脚礼”到“圣洁的亲吻”,再到精神婚姻的最终肉体回报。[85]

    米勒,就像他经常做的那样,采取了一种微妙的、界限不清的方式,躲躲闪闪、支支吾吾,最后将责任归咎于现有历史数据不精确;末日肯定会到来,但由于计算的不精确性,它可能发生在长达数年之后。

    此时,他已经精疲力竭、病入膏肓。他徘徊了5年后最终死去。精力充沛、精明强干的约书亚·海姆斯试图将这场运动凝聚起来。10月22日的承诺对他来说只是一个务实事件,而不是神学信仰,因此他很快就改变了立场。他拒绝进一步做任何日期设定,并试图压制他所鄙视的“灵化”论和“闭门”论。这激怒了诸如斯诺那样的“闭门”人,斯诺谴责米勒和海姆斯将会因叛教而下地狱。[86]

    海姆斯不可避免地失败了;米勒派会众萎缩,报纸订阅量急剧下降,运动分裂得无法修复。斯诺的正统派很快就消失了;以海姆斯和米勒为代表的主流群体承认了他们的预测错误,但仍然相信即将发生的耶稣复临。海姆斯本人逐渐远离了这场运动,最终回归到童年时代的信仰——主教制度主义。

    和16世纪的再洗礼派一样,一小部分的“灵化”者幸存下来,并发展出一个和平的现代教派——基督复临安息日会。今天的基督复临安息日会是一个温和的现代主流团体,交际保守,鼓励素食主义,遵守严格的安息日禁令。该教派依然宣扬耶稣复临,但并不确定复临日期,这是可以理解的。[87]

    但幻想的复临派末日论余烬从未熄灭。“大失望”一个半世纪后,一个脱离复临安息日会的小教派,大卫·考雷什的大卫支教,引发了美国宗教史上最悲惨的事件。

    正如心理学家利昂·费斯汀格描述的那样,日期设定会产生一种内在的不稳定动态。预言越精确,就越有说服力;前几次的预言没有实现,由此产生的认知失调鼓励信徒们以更大的活力和精准度宣讲自己的信仰,从而吸引了更多的信徒;最后,一个大胆而精确的预言出现了,这个预言肯定会失败,然后动摇大多数追随者,只留下一小部分顽固的信徒。费斯汀格的研究解释了米勒事件,但他的描述不仅适用于宗教信仰,还适用于政治和文化信仰:

    尽管有一个限度,超过这个限度,信仰的失验将很难被承受,但很明显,引入相反的证据有助于增加信仰者的信念和热情。[88]

    主流基督教派再也不会犯错去进行日期设定了。正如宗教历史学家欧内斯特·桑登所说:

    米勒事件几乎摧毁了整整一代的美国前千禧年主义者……但把注意力集中于1843年时,米勒也引入了一个可能会摧毁这场运动的因素……米勒在1844年之前越成功,就意味着1844年之后的千禧年主义者传道越困难。美国人花了很长时间才忘记威廉·米勒。[89]

    但是,仍有一些人无法抗拒将《圣经》的模糊语言转化为精确预言的冲动。20世纪,米勒的神学继承人学会了对末日发生日期含糊其词,但事实证明他们依然过分地热衷于末日的发生;正如米勒及其追随者忍不住要从《圣经》中推出一个确定日期一样,他的现代追随者们总是尝试做一件事,即将当天的报纸头条事件外推到看似合理的末日叙事中,但不可避免地都失败了。正如多萝西·马丁的飞碟一样,每一次的认知失验都会产生更多的信仰归附和更离奇的叙事。

    令人担忧的是,这些叙事将对那些控制世界末日机器的人[90]产生巨大的影响。

    6 弹性货币政策的灾难

    泡沫与崩溃的四个前提

    人们在最快乐的时候,都是最轻信的;当人们刚刚赚了很多钱,当一些人真的在赚钱,当大多数人认为他们在赚钱,此时就是人们最快乐的时候,也是捏造谎言的最巧妙时机。人们在这样一小段时间里几乎会相信任何事情。 ——沃尔特·白芝浩[1]

    1929年初秋,温斯顿·丘吉尔在加拿大进行了一次悠闲的私人火车旅行。10月24日,黑色星期四,他抵达纽约,正值那个秋天第一次股市大暴跌,他在那里看到,“就在我房间的窗户下,一位绅士从15层纵身跳下,摔得粉身碎骨,引起一场严重混乱,消防队也赶来了”。第二天,丘吉尔被邀请进入纽约证券交易所的访客大厅,他在那里注意到:

    我以为我会看到混乱;但眼前的平静和有序出人意料。(证券经纪人)被最严格的规则约束,不能奔跑或提高说话的音量。于是,他们就在那里,来回走动,就像一段被扰乱的蚂蚁群的慢镜头影像一样,以旧价格的1/3和现值的1/2互相提供大量的证券。凑在一起较长时间后,他们发现没有人能买得起他们被迫卖出的股票。[2]

    此后不久,他乘船回家,没有意识到4年前他在财政上的一窍不通[3]与眼前发生的重大事件之间的联系。不过,这次股票崩盘事件确实影响了丘吉尔,摧毁了他的投机性投资组合,使他负债累累。他个人的不幸却给后世带来了一线希望:为了偿还债主,他开始依赖自己最可靠的饭票——他的笔。在接下来的10年里,他创作了一些优秀的书籍、许多文章,甚至还有一部剧本。

    将丘吉尔1929年之前的政治生涯形容为“起起落落”未免有些轻描淡写。作为第一次世界大战期间的海军大臣,他曾大力支持加利波利之战,之后的惨败导致数千人死亡,他也被降级。10年后,首相斯坦利·鲍德温没有意识到丘吉尔对财政一窍不通,任命他为财政大臣(相当于英国的财政部长)。(丘吉尔是这样描述他与财政部专家的互动的:“如果他们是士兵或将军,我就会理解他们在说什么了。但好像他们说的都是波斯语。”)[4]

    经济学家在讨论金融泡沫时,最常提到的名字是海曼·明斯基。20世纪50—80年代,明斯基在经济学界扮演了一个奇怪的角色——一个长头发的反传统主义者,他认为资本主义从根本上是不稳定的,他是一个现代的、更理智的卡尔·马克思。他比任何一个20世纪的观察家都更好地理解和描述了泡沫及其破灭的病理生理学,认为泡沫及其破灭需要具备两个必要条件:利率下降带来的信贷宽松,以及激动人心的新技术的出现。

    首先是利率。第一次世界大战前,英镑纸币可以以每盎司4.86美元的价格自由兑换成黄金主权硬币,纸币持有人相信有足够数量的黄金满足任何需求。由于英镑似乎坚挺,因此将英镑兑换为黄金的人相对较少;毕竟,持有一大块黄色金属有什么用呢?但是,当英国开动印刷机、用印钞的方式来支付战争费用时,不断增加的纸币数量侵蚀了人们对纸币的信心,持有者越来越希望将纸币兑换成黄金。

    战争结束后,由于英国的黄金数量几乎不足以支付纸币,英国不得不暂停兑换,以免贬值纸币的持有者耗尽国家的黄金储备。但是,1925年,丘吉尔按照旧价格恢复金本位制,这一举措是灾难性的。被高估的英镑使英国国内商品更加昂贵,从而减少了出口;此外,人为的高汇率也使外国商品更便宜,从而鼓励了进口;到1926年,英国的黄金储备下降了惊人的8000万英镑(占其总量的10%)。[5]

    自美国诞生以来,美国和英国的政府官员就建立了密切的私人友谊,而在这个关头,这种关系——世界上两位最重要的央行行长美联储主席本杰明·斯特朗和英格兰银行行长蒙塔古·诺曼之间的友谊,却被证明是特别不幸的。

    提高英镑价值和阻止黄金外流的最可靠方法是降低美国利率,这可以使以英镑计价的资产相对更具吸引力。1927年,斯特朗这样做了,从而帮助诺曼摆脱了困境,但这只是暂时的。当时的美国已经处于经济繁荣时期,在丘吉尔即将结束其北美之行、到达纽约之际,低利率引发了一股投机热。

    到了1929年,发达国家已经习惯了周期性的金融动荡。漫不经心的观察家和历史学家经常将这些繁荣和萧条称为疾病,而医学模式确实有助于了解该类事件中的患者和疾病,不管是个人事件还是社会事件。

    医生从三个基本视角来理解疾病:病理生理学视角,即疾病过程的生物化学和生理学基础;解剖学视角,即受影响的身体部位;症状和体征视角,即病人的感觉和医生看到的情况。

    我们可以用同样的方式理解泡沫和崩溃。例如,它们的病理生理学,涉及人类心理的反复无常和现代银行系统信贷供应的不稳定性。它们的解剖结构由“4P”组成,即发起人(promoters)、公众(public)、政客(politicians)和媒体(press)。最后,它们的症状和体征包括对几乎不劳而获的财富的迷恋——一种具有社会传染性的迷恋,发起人的傲慢,以及公众对他们的崇拜。[6]

    根据海曼·明斯基的理论,泡沫膨胀不仅需要1927年本杰明·斯特朗降低利率所产生的那种信贷宽松,还需要激动人心的新技术的出现。这样的技术进步出现在科学或工程领域,比如19世纪的铁路;或者出现在金融领域,比如17世纪和18世纪的合股公司。[7]新技术或金融产品可以是股票、房地产或者其他工具,投资者为它们的出现而激动,开始向它们投入资金。由于这些资产也可以成为贷款的抵押品,因此资产价格的上涨意味着投机者可以以资产作为抵押品,借更多的钱继续购买这些资产,这进一步抬高了价格,然后他们又能够借更多的钱——这是一个自我强化的“良性循环”,但只限于上升时期。因此,狂热、恐慌和崩溃从1600年左右开始成为西方生活中长期反复出现的一部分,这绝非偶然,因为那个时候首次出现“技术替代”和弹性纸币信贷。

    今天,技术替代可以采取多种形式。令人目眩的科技进步速度似乎是现代生活的一个永恒特征:仅仅在20年前,如果人们被告知世界范围内的个人视频通信将无处不在且几乎免费,那么人们会难以置信。就在20世纪40年代,即使是年富力强的人也经常受到霍乱、伤寒、细菌性肺炎和脑膜炎等常见细菌性疾病肆无忌惮的折磨,这与他们财富的多少和社会阶层的高低无关。但在发达国家,在青霉素等抗生素出现后,这些灾难极其罕见。

    相比之下,在1600年之前,缺乏技术是一个被接受的事实。在印刷机出现之前,许多技术进步都轻易地丢失了,因为手工抄写文档如此费力和昂贵,没有足够的副本流传下来。此外,低识字率意味着工匠们往往无法记录他们的技术,这些技术也随着工匠的消失而消失。例如,罗马人发明了混凝土,但混凝土的使用实际上随着帝国的灭亡而消失;直到1756年,约翰·斯梅顿才重新揭示了波特兰水泥的秘密。

    1450年左右,谷登堡发明了批量生产的可移动式印刷机,消除了技术进步的这一特殊障碍,但其他障碍仍然存在;1600年以前,西方的人均GDP几乎没有增长,东方也是直到很久之后才有增长。

    1620年,哲学家弗朗西斯·培根出版了他的《新工具》[8]一书。在培根之前,科学家被称为“自然哲学家”,他们通过亚里士多德的“演绎”法,从公理出发发展自己的模型,所有进一步的推理是以不可置疑的公理为基础的。在这一体系中,可观察到的事实几乎是事后补充上的。

    《新工具》本身就是一种技术替代,它有双重作用。首先,它认识到旧的亚里士多德式的演绎推理体系压制了人类进步;其次,它提出一个可行的替代方案——一个“归纳”过程,即仔细收集经验性数据,然后将数据与理论相匹配——这才是现代科学方法的本质。接下来几代人的时间里,培根那些有才智的继承者,如胡克、博伊尔和牛顿(仅举几个例子)成立了伦敦皇家自然知识促进学会(现在简称为英国皇家学会)。这催生了整个欧洲的类似群体,科学发现开始惊人地加速。[9]

    17世纪不仅诞生了科学方法,还有第二次社会革命,即弹性货币的出现。大多数美国人误解了一个概念,以为货币就是由政府颁发的绿色纸张,一种“可以支付所有债务,包括公共债务和私人债务的法定货币”,或者,在过去是一种印有字样的金银小圆片。但是,在古代,几乎任何东西都可以是货币:一定标准的小麦、油,或者随着时间的推移,白银出现。一直到公元前7世纪中期,小亚细亚的吕底亚人才铸成第一枚琥珀金币,那是一种金银的混合币。

    今天,我们生活在一个完全不同的世界。在美国,只有1/10的货币是流通纸币和硬币;政府和银行计算机的按键输入创造了其余部分的货币。例如,银行发放抵押贷款时,不会采用运动包里装满印有亚历山大·汉密尔顿、本杰明·富兰克林和各种已故总统照片的绿色亚麻布[10]的形式;相反,它会向贷款公司发送一个电子包。这些支票或电子包肯定没有相应数量的纸币和硬币作为支持,更不用说金、银或牛作为支持了。

    这种信用体系在今天被称为“部分准备金银行体系”,由17世纪的金匠们创立,在之后的几个世纪里变得越来越有弹性。早期银行如果发行远高于2:1的存款准备金率的凭证,就有可能遭到储户挤兑,被要求归还资金。随着银行联盟和政府运营的中央银行的发展,商业银行的这一比率增长到约10:1,投资银行的这一比率可能会更高。存款准备金率上升的幅度取决于消费者和投资者想借多少钱,银行愿意贷多少钱,以及越来越多地取决于政府监管机构允许多少杠杆。[11]扩大准备金率的一个恰当的比喻就是橡皮筋:1913年美国国会立法规定,建立联邦储备银行就是要完成“提供弹性货币”的任务。[12]

    21世纪初的房地产市场是一个完美的海曼·明斯基范式案例。2000年之前,房地产市场相当平静、稳定和沉闷,银行只向最安全的借款人提供抵押贷款,即那些信用记录良好、收入稳定、几乎没有其他债务、所需贷款额远低于房屋市值的借款人。因此,这样的借款人几乎总是能按时还清抵押贷款,违约率很低,银行也获得了适中的利润。

    然而,银行经理们开始注意到,一些竞争性银行机构的贷款要求比较宽松,其可以为更多的借款人提供服务,从而赚更多的钱;最终,几乎所有银行都效仿了这一做法。大约在同一时间,另一种现象开始流行:银行向华尔街公司出售抵押物,这些公司将抵押物打造成越来越冒险的组合,如债务抵押债券。这就是所谓的贷款证券化,它将房主抵押贷款违约的风险从最初比较了解初始借款人情况的银行,转移到容易上当受骗的机构和世界各国政府,而这些机构和政府并不了解最初的借款人情况。

    贷款标准的降低蔓延到整个银行系统,违约率开始上升。起初,抵押品标的房屋的价值上升,银行和抵押贷款证券的持有人基本没有遭受过损失,因为他们可以将违约人的抵押物没收并转售获利。但从约2007年开始,不断增加的被迫出售的房源压低了房价,银行和证券持有人开始亏损;最终,有的破产,有的得到了联邦政府救助。最后,所有银行都收紧了贷款标准。银行贷款的收缩进一步降低了房价,迫使房主抵押贷款违约。

    这一过程不仅发生在美国,而且发生在全球。在房地产泡沫的前五年,大约在2002—2007年,似乎一个人只要活着,就有资格抵押贷款;而泡沫破灭后,银行恨不得数一下贷款申请人有几颗金牙,以确定贷款资格。类似地,消费者、投资者和潜在房主对偿还债务的兴趣比对获得贷款的兴趣大得多,因此信贷供应和货币供应量都下降了。

    明斯基于1996年去世。他告诉我们,上述周期是弹性货币体系的必然结果。在弹性货币体系中,不管是政府的中央银行(例如美联储)还是私人银行,都可以扩张和收缩货币供应。此外,他认为,这种货币扩张和收缩几乎发生在市场经济的所有领域,不仅发生在住房领域,也发生在企业管理以及股票和债券市场。

    明斯基著名的“金融不稳定假说”指出,当金融环境比较安全稳定时,资金必然将逐渐从安全的借款人处转移到风险越来越高的借款人处。最终事情将失去控制,导致上述那样的风险爆发,这使得放款人和投资者更加谨慎,循环重新开始,这一过程大概每十年发生一次。简言之,稳定带来不稳定,不稳定带来稳定,放款人的周期性恐惧和贪婪循环着经济系统。[13]当然,这还要有间歇性贪婪的借款人,否则贪婪的放款人将缺乏客户。

    虽然明斯基没有明确指出,但他的直觉告诉他,除了“技术替代”和信贷宽松之外,另外两个因素也必须满足:对以往繁荣和萧条的遗忘,以及对传统和审慎的投资方法的放弃。

    记忆缺失是金融不稳定假说的隐性因素。金融危机过后,损失惨痛的记忆依然历历在目,银行家和投资者都回避风险;前者只提供最安全的贷款,而后者不愿购买股票。随着市场慢慢复苏,不愉快的记忆逐渐消失,参与者又愿意面对风险,不稳定周期重新开始。

    引发金融狂热的最后一个因素,是放弃头脑冷静的金融计算,转而采用引人入胜的叙事。当人类面临困难或不可能完成的分析任务时——比如评估一家从未产生过利润更不用说股息的公司——他们默认回到更简单的分析方法,也就是心理学家用“启发式”一词所表示的心理捷径。

    当人类面对具有挑战性的或不可能解决的难题时,就会采取“启发式”方法。过去几十年中,心理学家把对这种方法的理解扩展到金融领域,尤其是金融狂热。20世纪40年代,密歇根大学的匈牙利心理学家乔治·卡托纳开始研究经济学和人类心理的交叉领域,开创了与经济(行为)相关的心理学测度。他不仅创立了现在正广泛使用的消费者情绪指数,还取得很多其他方面的成就,密歇根大学也成为心理学研究的温床。

    密歇根大学的另一个开拓性研究领域是决策理论。这引起了以色列研究员阿莫斯·特沃斯基的注意[14],特沃斯基特别聪明,认识他的人喜欢拿他的智力开玩笑:“你越快地意识到特沃斯基比你聪明,你就越聪明。”[15]密歇根大学的研究人员认为,人类是熟练的直觉统计专家——直至今天也有很多经济学家这样认为;就像我们毫不费力就可以掌握语法和句法规则一样,人类也很好地掌握了统计和概率。

    起初,特沃斯基也认为上述说法是合理的,但当他与来自耶路撒冷希伯来大学的院士丹尼尔·卡尼曼辩论时,他被对方说服。1970年前后,两人进行了一系列著名的实验,彻底改变了经济学家和心理学家看待决策的方式。他们证明,不仅普通人具有糟糕的统计直觉,甚至心理学家也是这样。[16]在一项经典研究中,他们这样介绍了他们的目标主体:

    史蒂夫非常害羞和内向,乐于助人,但对人或现实世界不感兴趣。他有一个温顺整洁的灵魂,要求秩序和结构,对细节感兴趣。

    然后,卡尼曼和特沃斯基询问受试者,史蒂夫最有可能是农民、推销员、飞行员、图书管理员还是医生?大多数人选择图书管理员,因为上面的描述最符合人们对图书管理员的刻板印象。然而,现实中农民的人数比图书管理员多20倍,而且有很多害羞的农民,因此史蒂夫更可能成为他们中的一员,而不是图书管理员。[17]

    他们还发现,人类存在广泛的系统性分析错误,有些甚至是由最聪明的人犯的,仅举几个例子:无视基础频率(例如,没有意识到农民比图书管理员多得多);没有意识到大样本比小样本更可靠;对人类从随机数据中感知不存在模式的倾向估计不足;没有理解在连续多次尝试时、任务结果通常都会趋向于一般水平。[18]实验结束时,他们对人类可悲的理性状态深感失望:

    也许令人惊讶的是,人们未能从一生的经验中推断出基本的统计规则,如趋向平均值的回归,或样本大小对抽样变异性的影响。尽管在普通生活里,每个人都会接触到许多可以归纳出这些规则的例子,但很少有人能自己发现抽样和回归的原理。[19]

    他们的实验揭示出人类天生的认知懒惰性。与其停下来严格分析史蒂夫最有可能从事五种职业中的哪一种,不如回到以下捷径:史蒂夫符合图书管理员的刻板形象——这就是故事的结尾。[20]

    很显然,卡尼曼和特沃斯基的发现与金融泡沫相关。1720年的南海公司、1928年的美国无线电公司、1999年的Pets.com[21]或今天的特斯拉,这些公司的投资者没有尝试对高预期未来收益的股票价值进行估计,因为这几乎无法估计,而是默认回到了简单的启发式方法:“南海/美国无线电/Pets.com/特斯拉是一家伟大的公司,它将改变世界,因此人们几乎值得为此支付任何价格。”

    卡尼曼、特沃斯基和其他研究人员还发现,最有力的启发法之一是人类对显著性事件的敏感性,即过分强调引人注目的事件。“9·11”袭击是一个极端例子,它是过去半个世纪中具有决定性意义的美国事件,造成近3000人死亡。“9·11”后,即使是只导致一人死亡的恐怖袭击也会成为头条新闻,但媒体基本上没有注意到普通枪支暴力、类鸦片或车祸导致的个人死亡事件,尽管在美国,这三类事件每年都导致3万多人丧生。[22]美国人死于恐怖袭击的概率远远小于死于雷击的概率,然而,美国在反恐问题上投入的资源远远多于防止因枪支、车祸和毒品造成的十几万人的死亡而投入的资源。(类似地,任何打算去以色列旅游的游客都可能会被朋友或家人问到是否担心恐怖主义,尽管自2005年以来,以色列人死于交通事故的平均概率是死于恐怖袭击的20倍。)[23]

    卡尼曼和特沃斯基将上述的显著性谬误称为“可用性启发式”;人们更有可能在地震或洪水发生后立即购买保险。很自然地,他们将之称为“近因启发式”。

    简言之,人类是显著性事件的俘虏,这以各种不同的形式适用于金融狂热。一项新技术能给人们带来激动人心的新鲜感,比如能够以每小时数百英里的速度环绕地球飞行,或者能够瞬间将娱乐活动或时事带入家庭,这种新鲜感非常显著——直到这种新鲜感消失。

    近因启发式扭曲了投资者对长期事实的看法:如果股票价格在过去几年一直上涨,他们就会认为它会永远上涨;随着股价攀升,股票变得更具吸引力,从而推动股价进一步上涨。这将成为一个自我持续的“良性循环”,可以将股价推向高位。当然,在长期熊市期间,情况正好相反。

    和大多数经济学家一样,明斯基对心理学不太感兴趣,但他清楚地认识到人类对叙事的偏好超过对定量推理的偏好。人们都喜欢好故事;当被泡沫控制时,当面临不愉快或难解的计算时,一个引人入胜的叙事可以轻松地绕过严格缜密的分析。把这些叙事看作导致泡沫疾病扩散至整个社会的病原体,并不算过度简单化。

    我们只需要稍微扩展一下上文中弹性货币的比喻,便很容易理解泡沫是如何破灭的。想象一根直径一英寸、长几百英尺的橡皮筋。橡皮筋周围聚集着数百名观察家,他们中的大多数人只是在闲逛。不过,他们中有几十人正在努力把橡皮筋拽长。继续想象,橡皮筋长度的不断增加给拽动的人带来了财富;随着时间的推移,这吸引了更多闲散的人群。他们中更天真的成员相信橡皮筋可以一直被拽长;但很多人知道它迟早会剧烈收缩,计划在第一次出现收缩迹象时就放手,并相信自己知道什么时候该放手;也就是说,他们已经准备好松开它。

    最终,一些人松手了,这增加了剩下的人的压力。然后,那些准备好放手的人也匆忙放手,很快,橡皮筋不仅恢复到它的自然长度,而且卷曲成一个紧密的线圈。最后,一些聪明的观察家发现,皱巴巴的线圈很容易被再次拉长,于是循环又开始了。

    到20世纪20年代,海曼·明斯基的4个条件都已经确立。

    第一次世界大战后,五项技术进步震撼了人类生活。19世纪末的内燃机是其中第一项发明,并促进了另外两项发明:莱特兄弟发明的飞机和汽车的普及。汽车的普及使人们可以随意长途旅行,到1925年,超过1/3的美国家庭拥有汽车。[24]

    第四项发明是无线电。1895年,古列尔莫·马可尼在意大利农村地区成功将莫尔斯电码字母“s”传输至几公里外。随后20年里,这项昂贵的新技术被私人保留,用于传输私人敏感信息和有价值的信息;在美国,无线电甚至主要用于一个领域——海上通信,因为事实证明,海上通信比在陆地上以及通过海底电缆在大陆之间通信更可靠、更便宜。

    1915年,马可尼电报公司的一名雇员戴维·萨诺夫写了著名的《广播音乐盒备忘录》,建议公司向公众开放广播媒介,“通过无线方式将音乐带入家庭”。萨诺夫做了一些努力才让马可尼将他颇有利润的私人媒介向公众开放。1919年,马可尼电报公司和通用电气公司合并成立美国无线电公司,到1920年,匹兹堡的KDKA和底特律的WWJ这两个最早的无线电台开始运营。音乐会、体育赛事和突发新闻有史以来第一次实现现场直播;毫无疑问,在改变日常生活方式上,无线电所起到的作用与电报和互联网的发明和传播并驾齐驱。

    将乔治·伯恩斯和格雷西·艾伦[25]的表演,或1921年杰克·邓普西和乔治·卡彭蒂耶之间的重量级拳王争霸赛的消息带进美国各个家庭的客厅,这比20世纪90年代初互联网的出现更让人震惊。美国无线电公司开始成为投资者的宠儿,到20世纪20年代末,当有人提到“无线电”这个词时,它最可能指的是股票的昵称,而不是媒介或硬件。

    第五项技术进步涉及电力公司的快速扩张,这些公司越来越多地为美国家庭提供照明,为工厂提供动力。尽管约翰·摩根和他的同事们在一代人之前就已经合并了通用电气公司[26],但通用及其竞争对手们用了几十年的时间才使国家完全通电。

    所有这五项“技术替代”——内燃机、飞机、汽车、无线电和广泛可用的电力——刺激了20世纪20年代经济的蓬勃发展。此外,亨利·福特的批量生产技术和弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒的影响也是如此。泰勒是一位机械工程师,从19世纪末开始,领导了“效率运动”,将秒表转变为工人生产力和企业收益的驱动力[27]。1922—1927年,美国的工人产出以每年3.5%的速度增长,公司股东很高兴;但公司员工的反应不那么热情。[28]由于泰勒带来了很大的影响,“泰勒主义”进入了英语词汇;具有讽刺意味的是,它得到了列宁和斯大林的支持,但在美国并不总是得到称赞,特别是在迅速发展的工会运动中。

    20世纪20年代,美国出现了第二个明斯基因素——信贷宽松。明斯基知道,技术替代不仅可以是技术方面的,也可以是金融方面的。20世纪20年代产生了大量金融杠杆方面的“进步”,如经纪人贷款、投资信托和控股公司,它们都提供了新的、强大的资金来源。这些资金可以被借入,然后被配置到股市。在越来越多的美国人看来,这些资金更像是能喷出财富的源泉。正如经济学家约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷思所说:“金融界一遍又一遍地欢呼这一类似于车轮发明的伟大创新,但其版本往往不太经受得起考验。”[29]

    20世纪以前,股票市场杠杆的主要形式是以较少的初始认购金购买股票,之后以追缴金的方式完成剩余资金额的追加。贪婪的投机者认为,他们可以通过出售这些部分持有、正在升值的股票去支付之后的追缴金;少数幸运者做到了,但大多数没有做到,而且许多人破产了。

    相比之下,20世纪20年代的投机者则是全款购买股票,不过是用借入资金购买的,有时借入资金高达股票价值的90%。举个例子,投资于价值为1000美元的股票,需要用100美元的自有资金和900美元的“经纪人贷款”支付。如果这些股票的价值增加10%,现在值1100美元,那么偿还贷款后留给投机者的是200美元,从而使他原来的100美元投资翻了一番。但是,如果股票的价值下降10%至900美元,债权人就会向借款人发出“追加保证金通知”,要求借款人提交更多的资金来保护其900美元的贷款。如果资金不到位,那么贷款合同允许债权人出售头寸,以保护其900美元的贷款。经纪人贷款并不便宜;随着股票价格的上涨,对贷款的需求也随之增加,到1929年,贷款年利率已提高到15%,从而逐渐增加了股票购买者的负担。

    除了最乐观的投机者,其他人都至少隐约意识到了股票投机的风险。但对银行来说,经纪人贷款本身似乎是100%安全的,银行以5%的利率从美联储获得资金,并以该利率的两倍或三倍向投机者发放贷款,这是一种简单且利润丰厚的操作。金融资本的主要功能是将资金有效地从资金过剩的人手中转移到需要资金的人手中,泡沫会扭曲这种流动,从而腐蚀一个国家的经济;20世纪20年代,不少大公司将维持和发展业务所需的资金转移到保证金贷款市场,这正是一种扭曲。[30]

    我们从经纪人贷款的高利率,可以清楚地看出美联储要安全刺破已形成的泡沫有多难。即使在今天也很难。1929年,在理论上,美联储是可以阻止经纪人贷款流动的,只要把再贷款利率提高就可以;但由于银行和企业的贷款利率已经达到两位数,如果美联储将再贷款利率提高到几乎和贷款利率一样高,那么这在经济上将会是灾难性的。即使政府要求经纪人贷款提高利率,这也不会对热情的投机者产生太大影响,因为他们的净资产(至少在账面上)正在以更高的速度增长,在一个自我维持的循环里,昨天的价格上涨推动了明天继续上涨。美联储发现,自己就像从山上飞驰而下无法自控的滑板手,只有两种选择:故意撞到树上,或者继续深蹲向前,然后以更高的速度撞树。美联储选择了后者。(1929年10月的最初崩盘确实抑制了对经纪人贷款的需求,使经纪人贷款利率降至7%。)

    20世纪20年代,金融狂热也感染了当时已经稳定运行的投资信托机构。18世纪末,荷兰商人亚伯拉罕·范·凯特维奇创建了大概是世界上的首个共同基金——“团结创造力量”[31],它是一个可对公众发行的投资集合,汇集了欧洲各地和新大陆种植园的企业股份。[32]在接下来的一个世纪里,投资信托的概念传遍了整个欧洲,特别是苏格兰。到了1893年,随着波士顿个人财产信托的成立,投资信托的概念又传到了美国。这些保守运作的基金通常可以像股票那样交易,按需买进和卖出。在20世纪20年代创立的信托投资公司中,有几个至今仍存在:美国通用投资公司、三角洲公司、亚当斯快递公司和中央证券公司。

    另一个信托公司——高盛交易公司却没能幸存。高盛公司是直到泡沫后期才涉足投资信托业务的,1928年12月,它出资成立了高盛交易公司。最初,交易公司比较谨慎;它直接持有所有的股票和债券,也就是说,没有杠杆;此外,母公司高盛保留了该交易公司90%的股票所有权,只向公众出售了其中的10%。用今天的术语来说,高盛交易公司可以被认为是由先锋或富达[33]建立并持有几乎所有股票的简单的共同基金。

    高盛交易公司很快就不再保守。几个月后,它与高盛旗下的另一个公司——金融实业公司合并。市场如此泡沫化,1929年2月,就在合并后几天,新组建的高盛交易公司的价值就达到其持有证券价值的两倍;相当于将一美元的钞票以两美元的价格向公众出售。

    大多数公司都会对这样的结果感到高兴,但高盛公司还不满足,随后它回购了自己的股票,这进一步提升了其股票价值。此时,高盛公司开始以极度膨胀的价格向公众出售其持有的交易公司股票。接着,交易公司迅速投资成立了一个新的信托公司——谢南多厄公司;而谢南多厄公司在荒谬层上又堆起了一层荒谬,它发起成立了第三级信托公司——蓝山公司。正如加尔布雷思所说:

    该信托公司的优点在于,它使公司发行在外的证券数量与现有公司资产数量几乎完全分离。前者可以是后者的两倍、三倍或任意倍数。[34]

    在著名的高盛大厦内,谢南多厄和蓝山各自发行了普通股和“可转换优先股”,后者本质上与债券相同,每年需要向其持有者支付6%的利息。这两个信托公司事实上利用其可转换优先股为自己提供经纪人贷款,根据加尔布雷思的描述,这种“乘数”放大了普通股的价格波动。

    按照普通标准,杠杆作用并没有那么大:谢南多厄的股票中只有约1/3是债券式可转换优先股,这一比重在蓝山的股票中不到1/2。但这两个公司杠杆的乘数,以及高盛交易公司处于上层所有权结构的乘数,破坏了局势的稳定。谢南多厄控股蓝山,但只有在蓝山的可转换优先股持有人获得6%的利息支付后,谢南多厄才获得支付;同样,交易公司控股谢南多厄,但只有在谢南多厄的可转换优先股持有人获得利息支付后,交易公司才能获得支付。因此,当沿着金字塔向上方的交易公司移动时,价格波动幅度成倍增加。而同时,交易公司也承担着自己的股息债务。例如,谢南多厄只向其普通股股东支付了一小笔股息,到1929年12月便永久停止了支付。

    高盛公司的信托船队是为风平浪静的海洋设计的,只要价格上涨,航行就会顺利。但几乎就在这三个信托公司成立后不久,天就变了,这些公司按照与创建相反的顺序陆续倒闭:首先是蓝山,然后是谢南多厄,最后是交易公司。

    杠杆结构产生了毁灭性的影响。1929年底,道琼斯工业指数已经从10月的崩盘中有所回升,比9月的峰值“仅”下跌了35%。但相比之下,这三个信托公司的股票下跌了75%左右。到1932年中期的市场低点,道琼斯工业指数下跌了89%,信托指数下跌了99%,仅在高盛的这三个信托公司中,公众承担的总损失就约为3亿美元。就在1929年8月和9月,美国各大公司发行了价值超过10亿美元的类似的投资信托基金,这在那个时代是一个惊人的数字,其中大部分基金到1932年已经蒸发。[35]此时大萧条已经开始,并将持续,直到第二次世界大战。第二次世界大战作为一个巨大的公共工程项目,推动了经济活力的恢复。[36]

    到1929年,第三个因素——对上一次泡沫的健忘——也已牢固确立。上一代人确实经历了两次市场下跌。第一次是1907年的恐慌,是一次相当奇怪的事件。它的触发事件其实是一次失败的股票投机,但其规模非常小。两兄弟、铜矿巨头奥托·海因策和奥古斯塔斯·海因策,试图操作一桩复杂的计谋,即尝试对他们的联合铜业公司的股票进行轧空操作,但彻底失败了。[37]

    奥古斯塔斯·海因策还拥有蒙大拿州的一家小银行——比尤特储蓄银行,该银行也随着失败的轧空操作而破产。1837年,安德鲁·杰克逊总统对第二合众国银行实施了“安乐死”[38],使得美国在私人贷款枯竭时没有“最后贷款人”来提供急需的资本。由于各大银行之间相互借贷,其中一个银行的失败会像多米诺骨牌一样蔓延;如果没有央行出面救助,那么温和的衰退可能会演变成全面的恐慌和萧条。19世纪30年代末就发生了这样的金融危机,那是美国历史上最严重的金融危机之一。

    1907年,海因策的银行的倒闭拖垮了规模更大的银行,并最终将股价压低了约40%,直到约翰·摩根“画出一条线”——在这条线之上的银行是他认为有偿付能力的银行,因此值得支持,在这条线之下的是允许倒闭的银行,此时,恐慌才停止。出于历史巧合,摩根生于1837年,也就是美国最后一个中央银行关闭的那一年;1913年,随着重建中央银行的《联邦储备法》通过,摩根去世。在世76年的大部分时间里,他都扮演了美国央行行长的角色。1893年经济萧条耗尽美国财政部黄金储备时,正是他策划挽救了美国的金本位制。

    1929年之前的第二次市场衰退发生在第一次世界大战结束时。这场战争提振了美国股市,但随着农产品价格的下跌,股市投机很快被绝望替代:1919年夏天,股票市场达到顶峰,之后的一年里,股票价格逐渐下降了约1/3,当然这一时期产生的丰厚股息可以抵销一部分的价格下跌损失。[39]因此市场的下跌相对温和。

    在第一次世界大战之前的美国,只有富人才拥有股票,因此1907年恐慌和1919年股价下跌都没有给公众留下太多持久的印象。到1929年,新的投资者被内燃机、飞机、汽车、无线电和电力带来的奇迹吸引,忘记了之前的泡沫。

    产生泡沫的第四个因素是对保守的传统股票估值方法的放弃。美国在第一次世界大战中所需要的资金,部分来源于数十亿美元的自由债券发行,收益率为3.5%~4.5%。在这一过程中,普通的美国人被引入证券市场。自由债券充当了公众投资的“训练轮”,并提供了安全而适度的回报率。

    政府债券可以被视为安全资产的基准,或者说,政府债券的收益率是金融经济学家所谓的“无风险利率”。几个世纪以来,投资者购买股票完全是为了股息,而由于股票有风险,为了吸引买家,股息收益率必须高于相对安全的政府证券的收益率。例如,乔治·哈德森必须向其铁路股票的买家承诺,股息收益率远远高于英国政府债券3%~4%的收益率。与英国同行一样,理性的美国投资者不要求也不期望从股价上涨中获益,但他们希望获得比安全的政府债券更高的平淡但稳定的股息流;第一次世界大战前,美国的平均股票收益率在5%左右。[40]到了20世纪20年代,人们普遍认为,股票应该以年收益的10倍左右卖出,以便轻松地收回成本。

    今天,不管是不是明智的投资者,都认为公司利润和股价的长期上涨是理所当然的,因此可以容忍低得多的股息支付。但在20世纪之前,很少有持续的股价上涨,除非是最成功的公司。即使在最顺利的情况下,股价涨幅也很小。例如,英格兰银行和东印度公司是英国早期最成功的两家合股公司,即使是这两家精心挑选的公司,1709—1823年,其股价平均每年也仅上涨0.7%和0.6%。[41]

    那么,那些最有成就的投资者是如何评价美国无线电公司的?到1929年金融危机时,美国无线电公司还没有产生任何股息,而且,它在1937年之前都没有产生股息。[42]到20世纪20年代末,投资者显然认为该公司前景光明,但他们没有工具为它估计一个合适的价格,以支付该公司未来的预期利润。再过10年,欧文·费雪、约翰·伯尔·威廉姆斯和本杰明·格雷厄姆等金融经济学家就会推导出计算股票或债券内在价值的复杂数学方法,特别是那些具有高度投机前景的股票或债券的内在价值的计算方法。这种估计未来所有股息价值并将其“贴现”到即期的技术,就是所谓的“股利贴现模型”。这种模型即使到今天也很难被普通投资者理解,此外,其准确性也非常有限,甚至连专业人士也经常抵制它。[43]

    20世纪20年代,随着无线电、汽车和飞机的发展,技术环境的不断完善,公众很容易相信旧的证券评估规则不再适用。正如20世纪伟大的投资者约翰·邓普顿所说:“英语中最昂贵的一句话是‘这次不一样’。”[44]

    本杰明·格雷厄姆在记述那段时间时说:
    按照股市繁荣前的标准,股票的销售价格是其平均年收益的10倍;而现在,如果公用事业公司的一只股票的销售价格达到其最高年纪录收益的35倍,那么大家不会认为该价格太高,而会认为仅仅是估值标准提高了……因此,所有的价格上限都消失了,股票的价格不是取决于它能够卖出的价格,而是取决于它值得卖出的价格……这个原则将得出一个诱人的推论:在股票市场中赚钱是现在世界上最容易的事情。[45]

    到了1929年,卡尼曼和特沃斯基的各种启发式,特别是那个时代新技术的显著性、证券价格的飙升以及信贷的宽松,已经压倒了对证券价格的理性分析。

    经济学家马克斯·温克勒说得最简单。股市崩盘后,在提到最新的股利贴现模型时,他敏锐地观察到,20世纪20年代的股市不仅贴现了远期,也贴现了未来。[46]

    7 致富空想的破灭

    1929年大萧条

    和密西西比公司、南海公司和英国铁路泡沫等事件一样,对1929年美国股票崩盘事件的剖析也涉及“4P”:发起人、公众、政客和媒体。

    20世纪早期,塞缪尔·英萨尔继承了约翰·劳和乔治·哈德森的衣钵,创建了一个工业巨人企业,为美国的大型工厂提供动力,为数百万家庭提供照明。

    他出生于1859年的伦敦,父亲是一名中产阶级平教徒传教士和禁酒旅馆店主。英萨尔十几岁时主要忙于文员和速记员的工作,和那个时代许多雄心勃勃的年轻人一样,他崇拜托马斯·爱迪生。在失去一家伦敦拍卖行的工作后,他看到爱迪生旗下的一家英国电话公司的招聘广告,非常高兴,并成功地应聘到那里。

    他的上司很快就发现,英萨尔的办公技能远远超过了速记和簿记。几年后,公司选中英萨尔去美国总部工作,他回应说:“如果能成为爱迪生本人的秘书,我就去。”为了看起来比实际的21岁成熟,他开始留鬓角。1881年初,他横渡大西洋到了爱迪生身边,在那里工作了11年,并在公司的各个职位上一路晋升。

    越来越多地,英萨尔的命运不仅与爱迪生捆绑,还与支持爱迪生的约翰·摩根捆绑。那时,正值摩根在社会影响力和对技术的敏锐性方面达到了个人顶峰,作为一名早期电力爱好者,他在麦迪逊大道219号的家里安装了爱迪生的第一个白炽灯泡。在当时没有电网的情况下,这是一项不小的成就。后来摩根资助建设了曼哈顿第一座大型发电厂和输电线路,弥补了没有电网这一缺陷。

    对爱迪生来说很不幸的是,由于低压直流系统不适合长途传输,爱迪生通用电气公司的市场份额逐渐被汤姆森-休斯敦电气公司占据(其建造了交流高压电网)。汤姆森-休斯敦电气公司由电气工程师伊莱休·汤姆森和埃德温·休斯敦于1882年创建,是爱迪生通用电气公司的竞争对手。从1883年开始,爱迪生通用电气公司逐渐走向终结,因为当时英国发布了一项变压器专利,该变压器能够“降低”住宅用长距离交流输电线路中的高压电流。美国西屋电气公司很快采用了这项专利,并在公司里部署了汤姆森-休斯敦公司的交流电系统。

    1892年,在摩根投资公司的推动下,爱迪生通用电气公司与汤姆森-休斯敦电气公司合并,这巧妙地避免了爱迪生的公司的倒闭。但爱迪生本人从未承认过交流电的优越性;他一气之下卖掉了他在通用电气的股票,后来,当有人提醒他这些股票会值很多钱时,他说:“好吧,都卖没了,但我们花钱时很开心。”[1]

    英萨尔是经营电力设施的天才。在公司被合并前的10年里,他逐渐帮助爱迪生吞并了竞争对手,并取得芝加哥地区的垄断地位。[2]但1892年公司合并之后,他不再经营芝加哥公司,也开始无所事事。第二年,他自己接管了爱迪生在芝加哥孤立的各项业务,在那里,他熟练地收购、管理小型公用事业公司,并将其合并为大型公司。到了1905年,他将业务扩展到芝加哥以外的中西部地区;他游刃有余地经营自己的公司,而且那时是为了公众的利益。不断扩大的规模经济使他能够逐步降低行业价格,并引入非高峰低定价策略。由于电力服务对社会日益重要,他支持政府的法定监管,甚至有一次他还建议,如果他的公司无法为客户提供适当的服务,那么这个工作应该由政府来做。[3]

    如果他将自己的目标仅专注于为工业和城市照明提供电力,那么他仍将被人们铭记。遗憾的是,他对用电客户审慎而正直的关心并没有延伸到公司股东身上。英萨尔早期金融阴谋的典型例子是1912年中西部公用事业公司的上市,其主要目的不是发电,而是为其他业务筹集资金。英萨尔复杂金融阴谋的核心是他以个人身份以360万美元的价格购买了中西部公用事业公司所有的优先股和普通股,然后,转身以360万美元的价格向公众出售了所有优先股和1/6的普通股,这样实际上他自己免费获得了公司5/6的普通股。

    和哈德森一样,英萨尔也热心于公益,工作起来像特洛伊人。也和哈德森一样,他慷慨地资助市政项目和艺术项目,包括芝加哥的市民歌剧院,其被当地人称为“英萨尔的王座”。他在芝加哥北部的利伯蒂维尔建造了一个占地4445英亩[4]的庄园,居民们“在英萨尔的庄园里建房子,将出生在英萨尔医院的孩子们送到英萨尔学校上学,使用英萨尔灯,用英萨尔煤气烹饪,在英萨尔公路上行驶,在英萨尔银行存钱,在英萨尔高尔夫球场上打高尔夫”[5]。该镇代表了他庞大帝国的缩影。在鼎盛时期,该帝国由很多公司组成,这些公司的发电厂雇用了72000名工人,为1000万个客户服务。他是65家公司的董事会主席或成员,并担任11家公司的董事长。[6]

    早在1898年,英萨尔就凭直觉认为,在公用事业领域,国家机构的监管比城市运营的竞争更为可取。到第一次世界大战时,公用事业公司完全在政府监管之下,主要归功于英萨尔本人对该行业的引领。[7]政府监管限制了公司的利润,但就像之前的哈德森一样,英萨尔明白,最大的财富不在于提供商品和服务,而在于为商品和服务提供资金。

    英萨尔控股公司的复杂性超出了大多数观察者的理解能力,甚至可能超过了英萨尔本人的理解能力。他将数百家公司层层叠加,底层公司有时又部分地控股顶层公司。历史学家兼记者弗雷德里克·刘易斯·艾伦的一小段描述可以展现英萨尔的鲁布·戈德堡机械[8]般的复杂结构:

    缅因州的小安德罗斯科金电力公司由安德罗斯科金公司控制;而安德罗斯科金公司由缅因州中部电力公司控制;缅因州中部电力公司由新英格兰公共服务公司控制;新英格兰公共服务公司又由国家电力公司控制,国家电力公司又由中西部公用事业公司控制。[9]

    当时,代表公司所有权和控制权的中西部公用事业公司普通股,由英萨尔的私人公司公用事业投资公司持有,因此共7个层级的公司。于是,杠杆作用呈多倍增加,不仅仅是撇奶油[10],用艾伦的话来说,还有来自多个组织层级的“超级富豪奶油”和“超超级富豪奶油”。[11]到1928年,英萨尔的这种拜占庭式的公司结构几乎已经不是个例,而是规则。当年,在纽约证券交易所上市的573家公司中,92家为纯控股公司,395家为控股和经营性公司,只有86家为纯经营性公司。[12]

    为了以虚高的价格向公众出售公司股票,必须创造盈利的幻觉。英萨尔有一套与布朗特和哈德森相当的金融骗术,其中最著名的就是让他的公司以不断上涨的价格相互购买资产,然后将每笔购买业务的利润都入账。就好像丈夫以1500美元的价格将之前1000美元入手的雪佛兰汽车卖给妻子,而妻子则以同样的方式将她的福特汽车卖给丈夫,这样每人都获得了500美元的收益。

    与之前的布朗特和哈德森,以及之后的互联网巨头一样,英萨尔受到公众和媒体的崇拜。20世纪20年代,他威严的照片两次登上《时代》杂志封面;与他在大陆银行前见一面据说价值100万美元。[13]英萨尔的销售员们推动了这场杠杆式闹剧最后一幕的出现。1929年初,经过专门训练的销售队伍开始首次向公众出售其顶层公司英萨尔的公用事业投资公司的股票,最初的售价是英萨尔为其资产支付的价格的10倍,后来随着人们对该公司的热情高涨,其售价超过了30倍。英萨尔的公司结构就像高盛信托一样,是为繁荣时期设计的。任何经济波动都会削弱电力公司支付债券利息和优先股(对公司收入享有优先权)分红的能力,而这又将严重影响其普通股的股息和价格。普通股股东通常以保证金形式认购股票,他们的净资产也将受到影响。这一过程随着英萨尔控股公司的金字塔结构逐层加速。

    这正是1929年以后发生在英萨尔和他的60万股东中的大部分人身上的故事。与哈德森一样,英萨尔始终对自己的计划坚信不疑,公司股价在漫长而艰难的1929—1932年熊市中缓慢跌落直至崩溃。他借了数百万美元,试图用他的多层公司结构来抬高公司股价,但徒劳无功。1932年4月,就在股市最终触底前的3个月,他的银行家们把他召集到纽约的一家办事处并告诉他,他们将不再支持他。“这意味着公司要进入破产管理吗?”他问道。“是的,英萨尔先生,恐怕是这样。”[14]这对投资大众产生了巨大的损害;一份会计报告估计,到1946年,一场围绕中西部证券公司破产的持久法律争论终于结束时,公众损失数额会达到6.38亿美元。[15]而到那一年,股票市场已基本恢复;因此1932年股市崩盘时,在接近市场最低点的时候,公众遭受的损失肯定达到了数十亿美元。

    英萨尔最后的经历和他的控股公司一样错综复杂,与哈德森的垮台过程遥相呼应。在破产数月后,他因与出售公用事业公司股票有关的邮件欺诈而被起诉,逃往法国,当政府试图将他带回受审时,他又逃往希腊,因为希腊与美国的引渡条约已经商定但尚未签字生效。但雅典当局忽略了这一瑕疵,无论如何还是把他经由土耳其送回了美国。[16]回到美国,他再次出现在《时代》杂志封面上,这一次帽子遮住了他的脸。他被剥夺了大部分财富,但仍然可以组织起强有力的法律辩护团队,对他的多项指控最终被击败了。回到法国时,已是78岁高龄的他痛苦而虚弱,瘦得不成样子。1938年7月16日,在巴黎的一个地铁站,当他把手伸向售票员时,突然心脏病发作而死去,口袋里只有几个法郎。由于他心脏不好,他的妻子曾一再警告他不要乘坐地铁。[17]

    在巨大的债务规模中,英萨尔的控股公司的债务只占相对较小的一块。正如密西西比、南海和铁路事件那样,20世纪20年代末的美国股票狂热以一种极端的乐观情绪感染了民众和商界,导致其过度借贷。[18]1922—1929年,美国的全国总债务增长了68%,但全国总资产仅增长20%,收入仅增长29%。[19]在崩盘之前,债务的增长速度可能一直快于经济的其他方面。私人债务增长尤其迅速;与政府不同的是,个人和公司不能通过征税或印钞来消除债务,而且由于个人和公司是20世纪20年代债务的主要引擎,因此,当事件爆发时,其债务承担带来的负面影响也尤其大。

    20世纪20年代泡沫事件的另一个主要发起人是股票池,它通常是一个由经纪人和金融家组成的特设小组,他们按照精心设计的顺序相互买卖股票,操纵特定公司的股价,旨在引起小投资者的注意。他们聚集在券商大厅的股票报价器和黑板前,得出某只股票已“被控制”的结论,也跟随买入,进一步推高价格。

    股票池的关键人物是股票交易所的场内“专家”:他是在交易所场内为公众买卖股票的经纪人,保存着一本珍贵的客户买卖“订单簿”,这能够预测未来的股票走向。当订单簿上的公开购买订单列表足够庞大时,股票池的参与者就会将自己的股票出售给那些由股价暴涨引来的投资者,并获得数百万美元的利润。

    最臭名昭著的股票池集中在无线电领域,例如众所周知的美国无线电公司,其参与者似乎是美国政界和商界的名人:杜邦和通用汽车公司的财务主管约翰·J.拉斯科布,美国钢铁公司的最高领导者查尔斯·施瓦布,沃尔特·克莱斯勒,佩尔西梅·洛克菲勒,伍德罗·威尔逊总统的前助手约瑟夫·塔马尔蒂。内线交易在20世纪20年代并不违法。对现代读者来说,另一个名字很突出:戴维·萨诺夫夫人,美国无线电公司总裁的妻子。

    然而,有史以来最伟大的股票池经理应该是约瑟夫·P.肯尼迪[20]。经常有一些传说,将肯尼迪家族的财富与私酒交易联系在一起。不过,没有可靠证据支持这一点,而且无论如何,非法制造烈酒对一个哈佛经济学毕业生来说并不是一个理性的职业选择。他的血统更适合华尔街。在那里,他通过传奇般的股票池操作积累了一笔财富,后来又将这笔财富扩展到好莱坞和房地产等领域。

    正如19世纪40年代乔治·哈德森在铁路领域的庞氏骗局式融资——用新股东的资本支付旧股东的股息——在那时是可以接受的,也是合法的,20世纪20年代的股票池行为也是如此,在1933年和1934年的相关证券法[21]通过之前,这种公然操纵股价的行为没有被禁止。

    金融狂热的第三个和第四个解剖位置是政客和媒体,这两个部分巧妙地集中在约翰·J.拉斯科布身上。拉斯科布的父亲是一个雪茄制造商(经营规模中等),于1898年去世。之后的拉斯科布与英萨尔一样好运,成为工业巨头皮埃尔·S.杜邦的私人秘书,并最终成为这家大型化工公司的财务主管。1920年,杜邦拯救陷入困境的通用汽车,拉斯科布接管了通用汽车的财务。20世纪20年代后期,拉斯科布成为股票爱好者,参与了一些最成功的股票池。[22]1928年,民主党任命他为全国委员会主席。

    然而,拉斯科布最让人印象深刻的是一次臭名昭著的采访,采访文章名为《人人都应该富有》,并发表在《女性家庭杂志》1929年8月刊,当时该杂志的订户已超过200万。其中最臭名昭著的一段话正解释了文章标题的主旨:

    假设一个男人23岁结婚,并开始每月定期储蓄15美元——几乎任何一个有工作的人都可以做到,只要他足够努力。如果他投资于优质普通股,并将股息和股权进行再投资,那么20年后他将至少有8万美元,以及每月约400美元的投资收入,这样他会很富有。任何人都能做到这一点,所以我坚信任何人不仅可以富有,而且应该富有。[23]

    拉斯科布的这段话,是泡沫时代媒体对不费吹灰之力的财富的经典赞歌,巧妙地说明了即使是两大著名公司的首席财务官也会采取启发式捷径。如今,我们只要借助资产负债表或财务计算器,并且具备一定的能力就能计算出,20年里将每月15美元的储蓄转化为8万美元需要25%的年平均回报率;但1929年,这一计算更加困难。虽然拉斯科布可能拿出了他的铅笔、纸和复利表,但事实上他没有提到25%这一隐含的长期投资回报率(这一数字即使在1929年也高得离谱),很可能他只是凭空说出了这些数字。

    像拉斯科布这样的政客,在泡沫及其破灭中扮演着双重角色。首先,和其他人一样,他们也陶醉于追求不费吹灰之力的财富,就像1719—1720年的乔治一世国王和奥尔良公爵以及铁路泡沫时期的大部分议会成员一样。之后的几十年,现代政治廉洁和立法遏制了这种腐败,至少在发达的西方国家是如此,这让政治领导人有了更为神圣的责任,即要保证经济基本健康发展:在经济扩张时期,没有过度投机,而在经济收缩时期,国家领导人能够平稳地避免任何担忧或恐慌。

    20世纪20年代时也是如此。在1928年共和党大会上,赫伯特·胡佛在提名演讲中庄严地吟诵道:“今天,我们美国比以往任何时候都更接近于最终战胜贫困。贫困家庭正在从我们中间消失。”[24]经济崩溃后,胡佛和他的财政部长安德鲁·梅隆一再向公众保证经济“基本上是健康的”。胡佛还开创了一种在面临经济危机时的反应,其将成为现代世界各国领导人的标准反应,被约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷思称为“无事由会议”:在这种会议上,国家的政治、金融、经济领袖都被召入白宫,“不是因为有事要做,而是因为有必要给人留下正在做事的印象”[25]。

    有可能实时发现泡沫吗?

    现代金融的伟大进步之一,是芝加哥大学的尤金·法玛提出的有效市场假说。20世纪60年代,尤金·法玛认识到,金融市场能够快速将新信息——市场变故——转化为价格。但市场变故是无法被预测到的,因为我们也不可能预测到未来的价格方向。

    而且,有效市场假说认为,当前市场价格能够准确反映现有信息,因此狂热不应该出现。正如法玛尖锐地指出:“坦率地说,‘泡沫’这个词让我发疯。”[26]

    有效市场假说的支持者对泡沫的厌恶是可以理解的;现代金融学的核心是构建和测试市场行为模型。艾萨克·牛顿所谓的“我能计算天体的运动,但不能计算人类的疯狂”很容易被理解,但它揭示了一个更深层次的事实:牛顿是有史以来世界上最伟大的数学建模者之一,如果连他都不能用数学术语来描述泡沫,那么也许没有人能做到。

    耶鲁大学的罗伯特·席勒与法玛共同获得了2013年诺贝尔经济学奖。席勒认为,当上涨的价格能够实现自我维持时,泡沫就会出现,用他的话说就是,“当价格也被狂热传染的时候”[27]。尽管所有泡沫都是如此,但仅凭这一现象无法识别泡沫,因为投资者一直在到处追逐当前高回报的资产。然而,像1719—1720年、19世纪40年代和20世纪20年代那样的大规模泡沫是罕见的,因此仅仅靠每天自我维持的价格上涨这一判断标准,会产生很高的误报率。

    最高法院大法官波特·斯图尔特在审理雅各贝利斯诉俄亥俄州案[28]时遇到了同样的难题。虽然它所涉及的领域不是金融业,但他的方法提供了考虑泡沫的另外一种方式:

    根据宪法第一和第十四修正案,这一领域的刑法犯罪仅限于“硬核色情物品”。今天,我将不再试图用寥寥几笔就对我所理解的这类物品做进一步的界定,也许我永远无法成功地做到这一点。但是,当我看到它的时候,我就知道是它。[29]

    正如牛顿无法模拟人类的疯狂一样,也如法玛教授讨厌“泡沫”这个词一样,斯图尔特大法官这段著名的话表明,尽管他无法从语言学角度描述什么是硬核色情物品,但他知道它是什么样子的。这同样适用于金融业:即使我们不能对泡沫进行建模,但现在我们肯定已经知道它们是什么样子了。

    到目前为止,密西西比公司、南海公司、英国铁路和20世纪20年代的美国股票市场都呈现出4个极具特色的特征。第一个特征是,金融投机成为日常对话和社会互动的主要话题,从坎康普瓦大街和交易巷的人群,到20世纪20年代美国券商大厅的人群。据弗雷德里克·刘易斯·艾伦回忆,在20世纪20年代:

    一夜之间发财的故事挂在每个人嘴边。一位金融评论员报告说,他的医生发现病人在谈论股票市场时不关心其他任何事情,他的理发师不止一次地用热毛巾打断客户对蒙哥马利·沃德股票前景的描述。妻子们问她们的丈夫为什么这么慢,为什么他们不参与这一切,结果她们的丈夫在当天早上已经买了100股美国亚麻籽公司的股票。[30]

    泡沫的第二个特征是,相当一部分通常情况下能力强、头脑清醒的人,现在却放弃了安全、高薪的职业,全职从事金融投机。例如,如果没有当时的金融刺激,那么布朗特和哈德森都会继续成为相对成功的亚麻布经销商。艾伦描述过一位女演员,她把自己在公园大道的住所装修成一家小型经纪公司,“周围摆满了表格、图表和财务报告,越来越多地通过电话进行市场操作,而且越来越沉迷于此”,而另一位艺术家“曾经口若悬河地说,只有高更[31]才会一边画画,一边宣扬国家贝拉斯·赫斯(一家现已不复存在的邮购商行)的股票价值”[32]。

    泡沫的第三个也是最持久的特征是,信徒对怀疑论者的猛烈抨击。20世纪20年代末,如果说有人能够以血统和历史感来表达怀疑并警告公众的话,这个人就是保罗·莫里茨·沃伯格。沃伯格于1868年出生于一个德国犹太家庭,其家族具有中世纪威尼斯的银行背景。在1911年入籍美国之前,他在欧洲金融机构中迅速崛起;1914年,他作为创始成员宣誓就职美国联邦储备委员会。

    沃伯格在移民之前曾经见过类似的欧洲泡沫,他知道泡沫的结局。1929年3月,在担任国际承兑银行行长期间,他注意到,股票价格已经完全脱离了合理范围内的估值,并惊恐地指出,贷款数量的激增已经导致“无限制的投机狂欢”,这最终不仅会损害投机者,而且“还会导致整个国家的经济萧条”。[33]

    这一惊人准确的预测却遭到了公众的强烈谴责。最温和的方式是批评他“过时”;还有愤怒的观察家指责他“粗暴抨击美国的繁荣”,这些语句几乎与两代人之后抨击互联网泡沫怀疑论者的语句一模一样。[34]

    著名投资顾问罗杰·巴布森也有同样的遭遇。他在10年前创办了巴布森学院,1929年9月5日,在该学院举办的一次人数众多的商业会议上,他发表演讲:“迟早会有一场崩盘,而且它可能会很可怕。”与沃伯格一样,他预测会有一场严重的萧条。正是在那天,市场急剧下跌,即所谓的“巴布森崩盘”。沃伯格很容易受到本土主义和反犹太主义的攻击,而巴布森则更容易成为被攻击的目标,因为他之前已经证明了自己是个怪人:他的作品中有一份名为《重力——我们的头号敌人》的宣言,他还成立了重力研究所,其主要目的是发明一种保护盾来抵御重力的致命力量。

    如果是在正常时期,那么巴布森的预言顶多会受到温和的质疑。但当时并不是正常时期。报纸讽刺地称他为“韦尔斯利[35]的圣人”,并指出他先前预言的不准确之处。一家投资公司警告其客户,“我们不能因为某位著名统计学家对市场的不利预测而仓促抛售股票”[36]。

    明斯基的健忘症因素通常揭示了泡沫时期的代沟现象;只有年龄足以回忆起上一次繁荣和萧条的参与者才可能持怀疑态度。而他们更年轻、更热情的伙伴会嘲笑他们是守旧派,与经济和金融市场的新现实脱节。简言之,泡沫主要集中在记忆短暂的年轻人领域。

    无论是由于何种机制,这些激烈反应都可以理解为弗里茨·海德理论中的平衡和不平衡状态。正如末日信徒的期望那样,没有什么信仰能比不劳而获和无限财富的承诺更令人愉快,信徒也不会轻易放弃这样一个令人安慰的概念。对忠实的信徒来说,阻力最小的方法就是给怀疑论者贴上“不理解”的标签,从而达到平衡状态。

    泡沫的第四个也是最后一个特征是极端预测内容的出现,比如南海事件中预测西班牙奇迹般地将其新大陆贸易的垄断权转让给英国、投资100英镑可以获得数百英镑的年度分红,英国铁路事件中预测即将“主宰时空”,美国股票泡沫中拉斯科布隐含预测的25%的市场年回报率。

    1929年,耶鲁大学的欧文·费雪做出了结束所有预言的预言。也许费雪是那个时代最伟大的金融经济学家,他发展了许多现代数理金融学的理论基础,至今仍受到尊敬。但是,人们更记得他于1929年10月15日在曼哈顿采购代理协会说的话,那是在黑色星期四的9天前:“股票价格已经达到了一个看似永久的高峰状态。”[37][38]

    没有“阳光查理”米切尔的故事,1929年的崩盘历史就不完整。英萨尔和哈德森至少为子孙后代提供了重要的基础设施,这些遗产减轻了他们的罪恶。但是,查理·米切尔,这个时代的伟大的金融发起人——和掠夺者——无法得到任何救赎。

    和英萨尔一样,米切尔出身卑微。1907年,他成为总部位于纽约的美国信托公司的总裁奥克利·索恩的助手。米切尔就职时正赶上当年的大恐慌,美国信托公司正处于这场风暴的中心,索恩领导这家公司化解了银行挤兑危机。30岁的米切尔作为助手,在整个危机期间投入了大量的时间,经常晚上不回家,睡在老板办公室的地板上。1911—1916年,他开始经营自己的证券经纪公司,随后被纽约城市银行(花旗银行的前身)聘请,为其管理小型股票和债券销售部门——纽约城市公司。

    商业银行家履行3项近乎神圣的职能,其对任何资本主义社会都至关重要:保护他人的货币;向企业提供营运资本,否则经济将无法运转;创造货币。相比之下,投资银行家却向公众出售股票和债券,这是一种风险更大、在道德层面更模棱两可的行为。

    银行监管机构早就明白它们之间的区别。事实上,监管机构禁止商业银行拥有投资银行。但不能拥有也并不意味着无法控制。通过控制的方式,米切尔和他的银行的律师们设法构建了与纽约城市公司的关系。[39]简言之,查理·米切尔是一名伪装成女王的军官的海盗,在纽约城市银行旗下航行。纽约城市公司收取了大量费用,成为一家投资银行,其主要职能是向公众出售新发行的股票和债券,进而为公司创造资本。不幸的是,该公司出售的许多股票和债券都是不可靠的,这些证券出售给了那些毫无戒心的纽约城市银行的客户,这加剧了银行的渎职行为。之后,纽约城市公司和银行承销了外国政府发行的更加不可靠的债券。

    米切尔在1916年接管纽约城市公司时,该公司在银行总部只占用了一间办公室,只有4名员工。发起人不仅需要公众和客户,还需要媒体。繁荣时期的媒体能带来一大群轻信的新兵。20世纪20年代,杂志专栏作家布鲁斯·巴顿是典型的媒体骗子,他的父亲是一位传教士,曾将耶稣描述为“A-1推销员”。1923年,他写了一篇关于米切尔的吹捧文章,题为《这里有什么其他人做不到的吗?》。在一次采访中,米切尔向巴顿讲述,当他的年轻推销员遇到萧条期时,他会带推销员到银行家俱乐部的顶层去看看下面的人群。“下面有600万人,他们的收入有成千上万美元。他们正在等待有人告诉他们如何使用自己的储蓄。你应该好好看看,吃一顿丰盛的午餐,然后去那里告诉他们。”[40]

    米切尔的魅力和干劲、媒体的热情以及20世纪20年代股市的狂热,这些因素都推动了纽约城市公司不断扩大其经营规模;到1929年,该公司雇用了1400名销售和支持人员,他们分散在58个分支机构中,所有这些人员都通过11000英里的私人电话线与纽约总部相连(因此现代社会将提供全方位服务的证券经纪公司蔑称为“电线屋”)。面对指责,米切尔发出了几乎不间断的规劝:“我们希望能够完全做到,除了童工之外,我们所有的销售人员都是正式员工。”该公司实现了这一抱负,并且实现了更多目标,在20世纪20年代每年承销了超过15亿美元的股票和债券,比任何其他投资银行都多。[41]

    该银行向轻信的客户大力推销纽约城市公司的投资银行“专长”。这些客户得到的建议是,购买具有诱人优惠券的债券,以及价格不断上涨的更诱人的股票,以取代传统的低收益但安全的储蓄。

    米切尔可能不是证券经纪行业销售大赛的最早发起人,但他将此细化为一门艺术,向获胜的“员工”提供高达25000美元的奖金(“员工”这个术语并不讨人喜欢,但仍然很自然地用在金融业中)。米切尔的公司非常成功,其卖光了所有的债券。通常情况下,公司和外国政府会争取由投资银行发行其债券,但纽约城市公司通过主动鼓励公司发行更多债券,扭转了这种局面。更为离奇的是,米切尔将销售人员分散到不稳定的巴尔干和南美洲国家,为那些贫困的政府提供廉价资本。

    尽管销售人员汇报了秘鲁和巴西的米纳斯吉拉斯州等外国政府的无能和数据造假,而且其几乎肯定会违约,但米切尔和纽约城市公司仍继续向银行的轻信客户出售这些外国债券。

    1921年,他从纽约城市公司总裁升任银行总裁,这为他的销售大业扫清了最后一道障碍。文学评论家埃德蒙·威尔逊最好地捕捉到了米切尔的精神,他描述了米切尔派出的推销员,他们“敲开农村各户房屋的门,像那些推销吸尘器或刷子的人一样”;20世纪20年代早期和中期,纽约城市公司主要销售债券;慢慢地,随着市场牛市势头增强,该公司将销售重点从债券转向股票,不仅销售负债的亚纳康达铜业等公司的高风险股票,甚至销售银行自己发行的股票,而如果没有该公司与银行合法分离的遮羞布,那么这样的股票本来就是非法的。[42]

    1958年,威尔逊描述了米切尔:

    在10年的时间里,他向美国公众出售了价值超过150亿美元的证券。他向公众出售汽车公司的股票,这些股票现在打了水漂;他向公众出售濒临破产的南美洲共和国的债券;他向公众出售自己银行的股票。1929年10月后,这些股票的价格在3周内从572美元下跌到220美元,最近它们只值20美元。[43]

    在这次股票崩盘事件中,米切尔让他的客户财富归零。公众对这一事件的印象集中在10月戏剧性的“黑色日子”上。24日,黑色星期四,摩根大通领导的财团上演了戏剧性的救援,到这天中午,恐慌基本消除。但到了黑色星期一和黑色星期二,即28日和29日,曾在24日拯救了股市的财阀们——米切尔、摩根大通的托马斯·拉蒙特和大通国民银行的阿尔伯特·威金——已经耗尽了勇气和资金。连续两天,股市分别下跌13.5%和11.7%。[44]

    到10月29日收盘时,股票价格已从9月的峰值下跌了39.6%:可以肯定的是,价格下跌幅度比1973—1974年、2000—2002年和2007—2009年的价格下跌幅度还要大。此外,到1930年4月中旬,股票市场又挽回了2/5以上的损失。[45]

    在1907年的金融危机期间,只有少数美国人拥有股票,即使到了1929年,也只有10%的美国人拥有股票,因此,1929年的最初下跌对普通民众的直接经济影响相对较小。[46]但在接下来的几年中,腐败蔓延到了商业活动的心脏——银行系统,经济陷入混乱。到1932年中,股票价格从1929年的峰值水平暴跌了近90%。1931年12月11日,距离1932年中最终触底还有6个月(见图7-1)。一位小投资者本杰明·罗思在日记中写到了投资者的贫困:

    图7-1 1925—1935年的道琼斯工业股票平均价格指数

    一位非常保守的年轻已婚男子告诉我,在过去的10年里,他成功偿还了房子的抵押贷款。几周前,他又将房子进行了抵押,获得的5000美元贷款用于投资优质股票,且他打算长期投资。我认为两三年后,他将获得可观的利润。人们普遍认为,现在可以以非常有吸引力的价格购买优质股票和债券。困难在于人们手头没有资金。[47]

    没有资金的公众是愤怒的公众,就像在1720年和1848年那样,公众想要证明自己的成功。金融幽默作家弗雷德·施韦德用最简洁的语言描述:“赔光钱的客户当然更愿意相信自己是被抢了,而不愿意承认自己是在傻瓜的建议下做了傻瓜。”[48]截至1929年,银行拥有23万名客户;目前尚不清楚具体有多少客户开立了纽约城市公司的证券经纪账户,但估计至少有数万人,而且可能会更多。[49]与其他证券经纪人的客户(自愿走进门购买证券)不同,米切尔的客户原本打算找一家安全的商业银行存钱,结果却像是跌跌撞撞地走进了一家妓院。

    一个最不可能的人物命中注定地成为查理·米切尔的复仇天使:一位直言不讳的意大利裔美国律师,名叫费迪南·佩科拉,他的父亲是一名制鞋厂工人,因工伤致残,他的受教育时间也因此被缩短。19世纪90年代末,十几岁的佩科拉从大学辍学,以供养父母和兄弟姐妹,但他设法攻读了法律学位。随后的很长一段时间里,他担任纽约市的地方检察官助理,并成功起诉了许多起金融案件。

    崩盘和随后的熊市促使美国参议院的银行货币委员会展开了对证券业的调查。委员会从1932年开始举行听证会,审问了米切尔和其他许多人。前两名律师的审问毫无效果,于是委员会解雇了他们。

    佩科拉在审问工作中的出色表现引起了班布里奇·科尔比的注意。班布里奇·科尔比是一位杰出的律师,曾在伍德罗·威尔逊时期担任国务卿,他向即将离任的共和党委员会主席彼得·诺贝克推荐了年轻的佩科拉。那时,诺贝克正在拼命寻找人来替代他之前解雇的律师。[50]

    佩科拉从1933年1月24日开始担任首席律师;他必须全力以赴,因为一开始就远远落后于形势。就在他被聘用3周后,他第一次与英萨尔信托公司的人打交道,没占到优势。因此,1933年2月21日,当身材高大、颇有气场、皮肤黝黑、极度自信的米切尔大步走进委员会会议室时,这位新任首席律师看上去不可能是他的对手。

    但佩科拉很快就找到了自信,主导了听证会并彻底摧毁了起诉目标,历史上将这场诉讼称为“佩科拉听证会”。正如我们见过的,巨额财富的拥有者将受到极大的奉承,这反过来腐蚀了他们的自我意识,当涉及犯罪行为时,这是一个致命缺陷。此外,犯罪企业通常会给其员工洗脑,使员工们认为自己的行为是正常的,甚至是值得赞扬的。

    同样的事情也经常发生在金融公司的欺诈行为上。在这些公司里,员工们学着用“符合客户最佳利益”这一借口来合理化自己的行为。有魅力和成功的企业领导者尤其会这样培训员工;正如老话所说,鱼从头开始向下腐烂。打击犯罪的行家佩科拉很快就认识到,米切尔正是这种典型的企业精英,纽约城市公司的作案手法在法律上或道德上没有任何问题,因此,起诉他的最有效方法,是让他解释他是如何领导他的销售人员的。在8天的证词中,佩科拉以礼貌、低调的方式,有条不紊地引导着傲慢的米切尔穿过了纽约城市公司销售机构的道德沼泽,并彻底摧毁了米切尔。

    米切尔需要支付多少钱才能说服他的销售人员将股票和债券出售给客户?米切尔回答说,不多,每年只有大约25000美元——此时一个美国工人的年均收入只有800美元。纽约城市公司如何支付其高管薪酬?根据出售证券的利润,而不是根据这些证券给客户带来的收益。这一体系支付给米切尔多少钱?每年超过100万美元——即使是对于那个时代的最高级的管理者,这也是一个闻所未闻的工资水平。

    更糟糕的是,1929年,米切尔以低于成本的价格将纽约城市公司的股票卖给了自己的妻子,然后立即又从她那里买回,没有缴纳个人所得税;他还对纽约城市银行的股票进行了典型的股票池操纵;向高级管理人员发放奢侈的可免除“贷款”,但粗暴地对待普通员工,强制性地要求普通员工购买银行的股票,以远高于市场的价格抵销员工的未来工资。当他的普通员工最终付清高价购买的股票时,他便解雇了他们。[51]

    当骇人听闻的工资和贷款、逃税把戏和员工受虐充斥着头条新闻时,最初自信的米切尔慢慢意识到自己已经陷入很大的麻烦中。然而,佩科拉的目标更高:他想揭露鼓动客户用借来的钱购买大量风险证券的销售人员(不仅仅是纽约城市公司的销售人员)扭曲的动机,这是让成千上万辛勤工作的美国人破产的原因。他在听证会的第4天开始做这项任务,并展示了该公司如何在有充分的机会接触普通银行存款人名单的情况下,按照销售指导书的措辞,“无情地”向公众出售股票和债券。[52]

    听证会的第六天,即2月28日,佩科拉再次转换关注点,关注对个人投资者造成的损害。在听证会之前,委员会已经收到数百封纽约城市公司的破产客户的来信。他们的共同点是谨慎和节俭,购买了政府债券,生活终于可以较为舒适,然后被纽约城市公司的销售人员说服,反复购买高风险股票和债券,最后陷入贫困。

    佩科拉挑选了其中最让人同情的一位,即来自宾夕法尼亚州波茨维尔的埃德加·布朗。布朗最近卖掉了一家连锁剧院,出于健康原因想搬到加利福尼亚州,他想寻找一家全国性的金融机构,以获得财务和后勤方面的建议和支持。在一家全国性的杂志上,他看到了这则广告:

    您在考虑一次长途旅行吗?如果答案是肯定的,那么我们将支付您与我们机构联系的费用,因为您将不再需要当地银行家的建议,而是将与我们密切联系,我们将指导您的投资。[53]

    关键是,该广告是由纽约城市银行发布的,但是纽约城市公司的弗雷德·拉梅尔联系了布朗,要帮助他投资10万美元。布朗积蓄中的大部分是卖剧院所得,其中的1/4已经购买了债券,主要是美国政府债券。布朗对拉梅尔只提出了一个要求:避开股票。

    在布朗的准许下,拉梅尔为他购买了各种国内外债券,远远超过了布朗10万美元的储蓄,因此布朗又从包括纽约城市银行在内的多家银行贷款,总计18万美元。当他的债券投资组合甚至在市场崩盘之前就暴跌了的时候,布朗抱怨道:

    布朗:然后(拉梅尔)说“好吧,那是你坚持只买债券的错。你为什么不让我卖给你一些股票?”。嗯,股票市场一直在上涨。于是我完全相信了,说“好,那买股票”。

    佩科拉:你告诉他买什么股票了吗?

    布朗:从来没有。

    佩科拉:那他为你买股票了吗?

    布朗:我可以开玩笑地回答一下吗——他买股票了吗?

    听证会的书记员尽职地记录了一句话:“长时间的大笑”。[54]

    布朗随后向听证会出示了一份大量购入股票的记录,佩科拉为了减轻书记员的负担,并没有让其记录。布朗讲述了他如何前往纽约城市公司总部,抱怨拉梅尔的账户交易过于激进,以至于尽管股市不断上涨,但他的投资组合的价值一直在下降。他被告知,公司将调查此事,他将得到答复。

    布朗确实收到了拉梅尔的回信,但他建议布朗购买更多的股票,包括纽约城市银行的股票;到1929年10月4日,他的投资组合的价值进一步下降。布朗前往纽约城市公司的洛杉矶办事处,要求出售自己的所有仓位[55],但接下来,“他们好似把我看作一个想把自己的母亲赶出家门的人,我立刻被那里所有的销售员包围,他们让我知道出售仓位是非常非常愚蠢的”。

    该公司终于在10月29日黑色星期二卖出了布朗的股票,当时布朗的保证金已经用完,他一无所有。此外,该公司以最虚假的方式——远低于市场的价格购买了布朗的证券。

    布朗,两年前的身价为10万美元(约可折合为今天的150万美元),现在成了贫民。令人惊讶的是,布朗此时想再贷款25000美元以进一步投机亚纳康达铜业公司的股票,而银行拒绝了,理由是布朗失业又破产。[56]

    1929年以前,那些成功的商界人士几乎具有被膜拜的地位,成为国家利益的最终仲裁者;但1933年后的一段时间里,佩科拉听证会将华尔街列为头号公敌,还将“银匪”[57]一词引入了美语词汇中。这个词在两代人之后的2007—2009年全球金融危机中又死灰复燃。

    听证会于3月2日结束,也就是富兰克林·罗斯福就职典礼的前两天。现代经济史学家认为罗斯福的竞选口号是银行大规模倒闭的重要原因,特别是他威胁要让美元相对黄金贬值的言论,而他最终也实施了这一政策。[58]公众渴望报复,听证会后的两个月内,米切尔因涉嫌欺诈而受审。与布朗特和哈德森一样,米切尔可能没有做任何违犯证券法的事情,那时的法律比较宽松,因此所有的指控都不成立,他被无罪释放。当然他必须与政府解决补税问题。在接下来的20年里,他甚至重新获得了一些财富以及体面的社会地位;他最后的住所在第五大道,现已成为法国领事馆。

    正如两个世纪前南海股票崩溃后发生的那样,相关法律的修改姗姗来迟。在听证会之后的15个月内,罗斯福签署了一整套受佩科拉委员会启发的证券立法的文件,包括严格区分投资银行和商业银行的《格拉斯-斯蒂格尔法案》;1933年和1934年的相关证券法,分别规范证券的发行和交易;1940年的《投资公司法》,主要监管金融顾问和投资信托(当今共同基金的前身)。

    美国证券交易委员会是根据1934年的《证券交易法》设立其规定的机构。金融界最大的讽刺之一是,美国证券交易委员会的第一任专员正是曾经股票池的完美操纵者约瑟夫·P.肯尼迪。当有人向罗斯福指出肯尼迪不适合担任此职位时,罗斯福调侃道:“只有小偷才能抓住小偷。”[59]

    弗雷德·施韦德以其特有的幽默,从当代视角对此次崩盘事件进行了解释:

    1929年,有一列火车的奢华车厢,每周早上都会到达宾夕法尼亚车站。当火车停下来时,一直在打桥牌、读报纸、攀比财富的百万富翁们从车厢前端走了出来。靠近车厢门的地方放着一个银碗,里面有很多硬币。那些需要5美分换乘市区地铁的人会拿走一枚。他们不需要用任何东西来交换硬币;这根本不算钱,就像羽毛牙签一样免费提供。只是5美分而已。

    1929年10月的突然崩盘有很多解释。我更喜欢的解释是耶和华之眼,愤怒的上帝正好在10月碰到了那个碗,在可以理解的突然恼怒中,耶和华踢翻了美国的金融结构,结果就是碗里的硬币永远消失了。[60]

    阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦有一句名言,复利是宇宙中最强大的力量(实际上这句话并不是爱因斯坦说的)。事实并非如此。健忘才是宇宙中最强大的力量。佩科拉听证会后短短两年,弗雷德里克·刘易斯·艾伦就预见性地观察到了这一点:

    圣乔治攻击巨龙,受到热烈的赞扬[61];但总有一天,圣乔治死了,观众散去,圣乔治的继任者发现龙是一个非常有说服力的家伙,开始怀疑为什么会有屠龙这样的事情发生,时代是否改变了,以及是否有必要让龙受到最温和的约束。[62]

    随着佩科拉委员会逐渐淡出人们的记忆,圣乔治不仅失去了警惕,还躺在路边流血不止,无法保护一群几乎忘记了拉斯科布、英萨尔和米切尔的公众,新的发起者又将诞生。

  • Hongyang (Bruce) Yang, Xiao-Yang Liu, Christina Dan Wang Hongyang (Bruce) Yang, Xiao-Yang Liu, Christina Dan Wang:金融大语言模型:开源金融大型语言模型

    摘要

    大语言模型(LLM)已经显示出在不同领域革命自然语言处理任务的潜力,引发了人们对金融的极大兴趣。访问高质量的金融数据是金融LLM(FinLLMs)面临的第一个挑战。虽然BloombergGPT等专有模型利用了其独特的数据积累,但这种特权访问需要一种开源的替代方案来实现互联网规模的金融数据民主化。
    在本文中,论文提出了一个用于金融部门的开源大型语言模型FinGPT。与专有模型不同,FinGPT采用以数据为中心的方法,为研究人员和从业者提供可访问和透明的资源来开发他们的FinLLM。论文强调了自动数据管理管道和轻量级低秩自适应技术在构建FinGPT中的重要性。此外,论文还展示了一些潜在的应用程序,作为用户的垫脚石,如机器人咨询、算法交易和低代码开发。通过开源AI4Finance社区内的合作,FinGPT旨在刺激创新,使FinLLM民主化,并释放开放金融的新机遇。

    1 介绍

    人工智能的不断扩展和进化为大型语言模型的扩散提供了肥沃的土壤[Vaswani等人,2017;Radford等人,2018;Devlin等人,2018年;Ethayarajh,2019;Lewis等人,2019;刘易斯等人,2020;Brown等人,2020年;Thoppilan等人,2022],从而实现了跨不同领域的自然语言处理格局的变革。这一全面的变化引起了人们对这些模式在金融领域的潜在应用的浓厚兴趣。然而,很明显,获取高质量、相关和最新的数据是开发有效、高效的开源金融语言模型的关键因素。

    在金融领域使用语言模型揭示了复杂的障碍。这些问题包括获取数据的困难、处理不同的数据格式和类型、管理数据质量的不一致,以及对最新信息的基本要求。特别是,由于网络平台、API、PDF文档和图像等不同的数据介质,历史或专门的金融数据提取被证明是复杂的。

    在专有领域,BloombergGPT[Wu et al.,2023]等模型利用其对专业数据的独家访问来训练特定于金融的语言模型。然而,他们的数据收集和训练协议的可访问性和透明度受到限制,这加剧了对更开放和包容的替代方案的需求。为了回应这一需求,我们正在目睹一种转变趋势,即在开源领域实现互联网规模的金融数据民主化。

    在本文中,解决了上述与金融数据相关的挑战,并介绍了金融大型语言模型(FinLLM)的端到端开源框架FinGPT。FinGPT采用以数据为中心的方法,强调了数据采集、清理和预处理在开发开源FinLLM中的关键作用。通过支持数据可访问性,FinGPT渴望加强金融领域的研究、合作和创新,为开放金融实践铺平道路。

    论文的贡献总结如下:
    民主化:FinGPT作为一个开源框架,旨在使金融数据和FinLLM民主化,揭示开放金融中尚未开发的潜力。

    以数据为中心的方法:认识到数据管理的重要性,FinGPT采用以数据为核心的方法,并实施严格的清理和预处理方法来处理各种数据格式和类型,从而确保高质量的数据。

    端到端框架:FinGPT为FinLLM提供了一个全栈框架,共有四层:
    –数据源层:该层确保全面的市场覆盖,通过实时信息捕获解决金融数据的时间敏感性问题。
    –数据工程层:该层主要用于实时NLP数据处理,解决了金融数据中高时间敏感性和低信噪比的固有挑战。
    –LLM层:该层专注于一系列微调方法,缓解了财务数据的高度动态性,确保了模型的相关性和准确性。
    –应用层:展示实际应用和演示,该层突出了FinGPT在金融领域的潜在能力。

    对FinGPT的愿景是成为刺激金融领域创新的催化剂。FinGPT不仅限于提供技术贡献,它还为FinLLM培养了一个开源生态系统,促进了实时处理和用户定制适应。通过在开源AI4Finance社区内培育强大的协作生态系统,FinGPT能够重塑我们对FinLLM的理解和应用。

    2 相关工作

    2.1 LLM和ChatGPT

    大语言模型(LLMs)已被公认为自然语言处理的技术突破,如GPT-3和GPT-4[Brown et al.,2020]。它们采用基于Transformer的架构,在各种生成任务中表现出令人印象深刻的性能。

    2.2 金融中的LLMs

    LLMs已被应用于金融部门的各种任务[Dredze et al.,2016;Araci,2019;Bao et al.,2021;DeLucia et al.,2022],从预测建模到从原始金融数据生成富有洞察力的叙述。鉴于这一领域的文本数据丰富,如新闻文章、电话财报会议记录和社交媒体帖子,最近的文献将重点放在使用这些模型进行金融文本分析。

    金融LLMs的第一个例子是BloombergGPT[Wu et al.,2023],它是在金融和一般来源的混合数据集上训练的。尽管其能力令人印象深刻,但访问限制仍然存在,高昂的培训成本促使人们需要低成本的领域适应。

    论文的FinGPT应对了这些挑战,推出了开源金融LLM。它采用从人类反馈中强化学习(RLHF)来理解和适应个人偏好,为个性化财务助理铺平了道路。论文的目标是将ChatGPT等普通LLMs的优势与财务适应相结合,利用LLMs在金融方面的能力。

    2.3 为什么选择开源FinLLM?

    AI4金融基金会是一个非营利的开源组织,集成了人工智能(AI)和金融应用程序,包括金融大型语言模型(FinLLM)。凭借在培育金融科技(FinTech)工具创新生态系统方面的良好记录,如FinRL[Liu et al.,2021]和FinRL-Meta[Liu等人,2022],该基金会准备进一步加速FinLLMs的发展。这是坚定的承诺和前沿的贡献,为人工智能在金融领域的变革性应用铺平了道路。

    通过使FinLLMs民主化来促进平等机会:采用开源方法促进普遍获得最先进的技术,秉承使FinLLMs民主化的精神。

    • 培养透明度和信任:开源FinLLMs全面概述了其基础代码库,增强了透明度和信任。
    • 加速研究和创新:开源模式推动了人工智能领域的研究和开发进展。它使研究人员能够利用现有的模型,从而促进创新和科学发现的更快发展。
    • 加强教育:开源FinLLMs是强大的教育工具,为学生和研究人员提供了通过直接参与全面运作的模型来探索FinLLMs复杂性的前景。
    • 促进社区发展和协作参与:开源促进了全球贡献者社区。这种合作参与增强了该模型的长期耐用性和有效性。

    3 以数据为中心的FinLLM方法

    对于金融大语言模型(FinLLMs),成功的策略不仅基于模型架构的能力,而且同样依赖于训练数据。论文以数据为中心的方法优先考虑收集、准备和处理高质量数据。

    3.1 金融数据和独特特征

    金融数据来源多种多样,具有独特的特点。我们深入研究了不同财务数据来源的细节,如财务新闻、公司档案、社交媒体讨论和公司公告。

    • 金融新闻报道了有关世界经济、特定行业和个别公司的重要信息。此数据源通常具有以下特点:
    • 及时性:金融新闻报道是及时和最新的,经常捕捉金融世界的最新发展。
    • 动态性:金融新闻中包含的信息是动态的,随着经济状况和市场情绪的变化而迅速变化。
    • 影响:金融新闻对金融市场有重大影响,影响交易员的决策,并可能导致市场剧烈波动。

    公司备案和公告是公司提交给监管机构的官方文件,为公司的财务健康和战略方向提供了见解。它们的特点是:

    • 细粒度:这些文档提供了有关公司财务状况的细粒度信息,包括资产、负债、收入和盈利能力。
    • 可靠性:公司填充物包含经监管机构审查的可靠且经过验证的数据。
    • 周期性:公司的填写是定期的,通常每季度或每年提交一次,定期提供公司财务状况的快照。
    • 影响力:公司公告通常对市场产生重大影响,影响股价和投资者情绪。

    与金融相关的社交媒体讨论可以反映公众对特定股票、行业或整体市场的情绪。这些讨论往往表现为:

    • 可变性:社交媒体讨论在语气、内容和质量上差异很大,使其成为丰富但复杂的信息来源。
    • 实时情绪:这些平台经常捕捉实时市场情绪,从而能够检测公众舆论的趋势和变化。
    • 波动性:社交媒体上表达的情绪可能高度波动,随着新闻事件或市场波动而迅速变化。

    趋势通常可以通过Seeking Alpha、Google Trends等网站以及其他以金融为导向的博客和论坛观察到,为市场走势和投资策略提供了重要的见解。它们的特点是:

    • 分析师视角:这些平台提供了经验丰富的金融分析师和专家的市场预测和投资建议。
    • 市场情绪:这些平台上的话语可以反映对特定证券、行业或整个市场的集体情绪,为主流市场情绪提供有价值的见解。
    • 广泛的覆盖范围:趋势数据涵盖不同的证券和细分市场,提供全面的市场覆盖范围。

    这些数据源中的每一个都为金融世界提供了独特的见解。通过集成这些不同的数据类型,像FinGPT这样的金融语言模型可以促进对金融市场的全面理解,并实现有效的金融决策。

    3.2 处理金融数据的挑战

    • 时间敏感性高:金融数据具有时间敏感性。市场动态消息或更新一旦发布,为投资者提供了一个狭窄的机会窗口,使他们的阿尔法(衡量投资相对回报的指标)最大化。
    • 高动态性:金融格局正在不断演变,每天都有新闻、社交媒体帖子和其他与市场相关的信息涌入。频繁地对模型进行再训练以应对这些变化是不切实际的,而且成本高昂。
    • 低信噪比:金融数据通常表现出低信噪比[Liu et al.,2022],这意味着有用的信息通常与大量无关或有噪声的数据相比相形见绌。从信息的海洋中提取有价值的见解需要复杂的技术。

    解决这些挑战对于有效利用财务数据和最大限度地发挥FinLLMs的潜力至关重要。

    4 FinGPT概述:FinLLM的开源框架

    图1:FinGPT框架

    FinGPT代表了一个创新的开源框架,专门为在金融领域应用大语言模型(LLMs)而设计。如图1所示,FinGPT由四个基本组件组成:数据源、数据工程、LLMs和应用程序。这些组件中的每一个都在维护FinGPT在处理动态金融数据和市场条件方面的功能和适应性方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

    数据源层:FinGPT管道的起点是数据源层,它协调从广泛的在线来源获取大量财务数据。该层通过整合新闻网站、社交媒体平台、财务报表、市场趋势等数据,确保全面的市场覆盖。目标是捕捉市场的每一个细微差别,从而解决金融数据固有的时间敏感性。

    数据工程层:该层专注于NLP数据的实时处理,以应对金融数据固有的高时间敏感性和低信噪比的挑战。它结合了最先进的NLP技术来过滤噪声并突出显示最显著的信息。

    LLMs层:它位于核心,包括各种微调方法,优先考虑轻量级自适应,以保持模型的更新和相关性。通过维护更新的模型,FinGPT可以处理金融数据的高度动态性,确保其响应与当前的金融环境同步。

    应用层:FinGPT的最后一个组件是应用层,旨在展示FinGPT在实践中的适用性。它提供金融任务的实践教程和演示应用程序,包括机器人咨询服务、量化交易和低代码开发。这些实践演示不仅为潜在用户提供了指南,还强调了LLM在金融领域的变革潜力。

    4.1 数据来源

    FinGPT管道的第一阶段涉及从广泛的在线来源收集广泛的金融财务数据。这些包括但不限于:

    财经新闻:路透社、CNBC、雅虎财经等网站是财经新闻和市场更新的丰富来源。这些网站提供了有关市场趋势、公司盈利、宏观经济指标和其他金融事件的宝贵信息。

    社交媒体:推特、脸书、Reddit、微博等平台在公众情绪、热门话题以及对金融新闻和事件的即时反应方面提供了丰富的信息。

    备案:美国证券交易委员会等金融监管机构的网站提供公司备案信息。这些文件包括年度报告、季度收益、内幕交易报告和其他重要的公司特定信息。证券交易所的官方网站(纽约证券交易所、纳斯达克、上海证券交易所等)提供有关股价、交易量、公司上市、历史数据和其他相关信息的重要数据。

    趋势:像Seeking Alpha、Google Trends和其他专注于金融的博客和论坛这样的网站可以访问分析师的意见、市场预测、特定证券或细分市场的走势以及投资建议。

    学术数据集:基于研究的数据集,为复杂的财务分析提供精心策划和验证的信息。

    为了利用来自这些不同来源的丰富信息,FinGPT结合了能够抓取结构化和非结构化数据的数据采集工具,包括API、web抓取工具和直接数据库访问(如果可用)。此外,该系统旨在尊重这些平台的服务条款,确保数据收集符合道德和法律。

    数据API:在FinGPT框架中,API不仅用于初始数据收集,还用于实时数据更新,确保模型在最新数据上进行训练。此外,还实施了错误处理和速率限制策略,以遵守API使用限制并避免数据流中断。

    4.2 金融NLP的实时数据工程管道

    金融市场实时运作,对新闻和情绪高度敏感。证券价格可能会因新信息而迅速变化,处理这些信息的延迟可能会导致错失机会或增加风险。因此,实时处理在财务NLP中是必不可少的。

    实时NLP管道的主要挑战是有效地管理和处理连续流入的数据。管道中的第一步是建立一个实时获取数据的系统。这些数据可能来自我们的数据源API。以下是设计用于数据摄取的实时NLP管道的步骤。

    数据清理:实时数据可能有噪声且不一致。因此,实时数据清理包括删除不相关的数据、缺失值处理、文本规范化(如小写)和错误更正。

    标记化(Tokenization):在实时应用程序中,标记化必须动态执行。这涉及到将文本流分解为更小的单元或标记。

    停止词删除和词干/词干化:对于实时处理,可以使用预定义的停止词列表从tokens流中过滤出这些常见的单词。同样,词干和引理化技术可以用于将单词简化为词根形式。

    特征提取和情感分析:特征提取包括将原始数据转换为机器学习模型可以理解的输入。在实时系统中,这通常需要一个快速高效的过程。可以使用诸如TF-IDF、Bag of Words或诸如Word2Vec之类的嵌入向量之类的技术。情感分析也可以对清理后的数据进行(将一段文本分为正面、负面或中性)。

    提示工程:创建有效的提示,引导语言模型的生成过程达到理想的输出。

    警报/决策:一旦输入提示,就需要对结果进行沟通或采取行动。这可能包括根据特定条件触发警报,通知实时决策过程,或将输出输入另一个系统。

    持续学习:在实时系统中,模型应该适应数据的变化。可以实现连续学习系统,其中在新数据上定期对模型进行再训练,或者使用可以用每个新数据点更新模型的在线学习算法。

    监控:实时系统需要持续监控,以确保其正常运行。管道中的任何延误或问题都可能产生直接影响,因此制定强有力的监控和警报非常重要。

    4.3 大语言模型(LLMs)

    一旦数据准备好,就可以与LLMs一起使用,以生成富有洞察力的财务分析。LLM层包括:

    LLM APIs:来自已建立的LLMs的API提供基线语言功能。

    可训练模型:FinGPT提供了可训练模型,用户可以对其私人数据进行微调,为金融应用程序进行定制。

    微调方法:各种微调方法使FinGPT能够适应个性化的机器人顾问。

    为什么要微调LLM而不是从头开始重新训练?

    利用预训练的大型语言模型(LLM)并对其进行金融微调,为从零开始进行昂贵而漫长的模型再训练提供了一种高效、经济高效的替代方案。

    BloombergGPT虽然在金融方面有着非凡的能力,但也有着密集的计算需求。它使用了大约130万GPU小时进行训练,当使用AWS云的2.3美元费率计算时,这意味着每次训练的惊人成本约为300万美元。与BloombergGPT等模型的高计算成本相比,FinGPT通过专注于顶级开源LLMs的轻量级改编,提供了一种更容易访问的解决方案。适应成本大幅下降,估计每次训练不到300美元。

    这种方法确保了及时更新和适应性,这在动态金融领域至关重要。FinGPT是开源的,它不仅提高了透明度,还允许用户定制,以适应个性化金融咨询服务的兴起趋势。最终,FinGPT的成本效益高、灵活的框架有可能使金融语言建模民主化,并促进以用户为中心的金融服务。

    通过低秩自适应(LoRA)进行微调

    在FinGPT中,利用一个新的金融数据集对预训练的LLM进行微调。众所周知,高质量的标记数据是包括ChatGPT在内的许多成功LLMs的关键决定因素。然而,获取此类顶级标签数据往往在时间和资源方面代价高昂,而且通常需要金融专业人员的专业知识。

    如果我们的目标是使用LLMs来分析金融相关的文本数据并协助量化交易,那么利用市场固有的标签能力似乎是明智的。因此,论文使用每个新闻项目的相对股价变化百分比作为输出标签。论文建立了阈值,根据新闻项目的情感将这些标签分为积极、消极和中性三类。

    在相应的步骤中,在提示工程过程中,提示模型从正、负和中性输出中选择一个。此策略确保了预训练信息的最佳利用率。通过部署LLMs的低阶自适应(LoRA)[Hu et al.,2021;Dettmers et al.,2023],将可训练参数的数量从61.7亿减少到仅367万。

    通过股票价格强化学习进行微调(RLSP)

    同样,可以用股票价格强化学习(RLSP)代替人类反馈强化学习,正如ChatGPT所使用的那样。这种替代背后的原因是,股价提供了一个可量化的客观指标,反映了市场对新闻和事件的反应。这使得它成为训练我们的模型的一个强大的实时反馈机制。

    强化学习(RL)允许模型通过与环境的互动和接收反馈进行学习。在RLSP的情况下,环境是股票市场,反馈以股票价格变化的形式出现。这种方法使FinGPT能够完善其对金融文本的理解和解释,提高其预测市场对各种金融事件反应的能力。

    通过将新闻情绪与相关股票的后续表现联系起来,RLSP提供了一种微调FinGPT的有效方法。从本质上讲,RLSP允许模型推断市场对不同新闻事件的反应,并相应地调整其理解和预测。

    因此,将RLSP集成到FinGPT的微调过程中,为提高模型对金融市场的理解和预测准确性提供了强有力的工具。通过使用实际股价走势作为反馈,直接利用市场的智慧使FinGPT模型更加有效。

    4.4 应用

    FinGPT可以在金融服务中找到广泛的应用,帮助专业人士和个人做出明智的财务决策。潜在应用包括:

    • 智能投顾:提供个性化的财务建议,减少定期面对面咨询的需要。
    • 量化交易:为明智的交易决策产生交易信号。
    • 投资组合优化:利用众多经济指标和投资者档案,构建最佳投资组合。
    • 金融情绪分析:评估不同金融平台的情绪,以获得富有洞察力的投资指导。
    • 风险管理:通过分析各种风险因素制定有效的风险策略。
    • 金融欺诈检测:识别潜在的欺诈交易模式,以增强金融安全。
    • 信用评分:根据金融数据预测信用度,以帮助贷款决策。
    • 破产预测:根据财务和市场数据预测公司的潜在破产或破产。
    • 并购预测:通过分析财务数据和公司简介来预测潜在的并购活动,帮助投资者预测市场走势。
    • ESG(环境、社会、治理)评分:通过分析公开报告和新闻文章来评估公司的ESG评分。
    • 低代码开发:通过用户友好的界面促进软件创建,减少对传统编程的依赖。
    • 金融教育:担任人工智能导师,简化复杂的金融概念,提高金融素养。

    通过将这些不同但相互关联的组件联系起来,FinGPT为在金融领域利用人工智能、促进金融行业的研究、创新和实际应用提供了一个全面且可访问的解决方案。

    5 总结

    总之,大语言模型(LLM)与金融部门的变革性整合带来了独特的复杂性和巨大的机遇。应对高时间敏感性、动态金融环境和金融数据信噪比低等挑战需要高效的解决方案。FinGPT通过利用预先存在的LLMs并根据特定的金融应用对其进行微调,做出了创新性的回应。与BloombergGPT等模型相比,这种方法显著降低了适应成本和计算需求,为金融语言建模提供了一种更易于访问、更灵活、更具成本效益的解决方案。因此,它能够持续更新,以确保模型的准确性和相关性,这是动态和时间敏感的金融世界中的一个关键方面。

    6 未来工作

    FinLLMs,或金融大语言模型,呈现了一个未来的愿景,个性化的机器人顾问或助手触手可及。它旨在使获得高质量财务建议的途径民主化,利用先进的语言建模技术来理解大量的财务数据,并将其转化为可操作的见解。以下蓝图概述了FinLLM的未来方向。

    • 个性化:FinLLM战略的核心是个性化微调的概念。FinLLM使用LoRA和QLoRA等技术,使用户能够根据自己的特定需求定制模型,从而创建个人机器人顾问或助手。这与金融服务定制的更广泛趋势相一致,因为消费者越来越多地需要符合其独特风险状况和财务目标的个性化建议。
    • 开源和低成本适应:FinLLM支持开源价值观,为用户提供所需的工具,以低成本(通常在100美元至300美元之间)将大型语言模型(LLM)适应自己的需求。这不仅使人们能够民主地获得先进的金融建模技术,而且还培养了一个充满活力的开发人员和研究人员社区,共同推动金融人工智能领域的发展。
    • 获得高质量的金融数据:FinLLM不仅提供建模技术,还提供了获得高质量金融数据的机会。这确保了用户拥有有效训练其模型所需的数据,同时也简化了数据管理过程。通过提供带有演示的数据管理管道,用户能够充分利用其财务数据的潜力,进一步增强了这种访问能力。

    附:论文英文版

  • Torsten Dennin《From Tulips to Bitcoins_ A History of Fortunes Made and Lost in Commodity Markets》31-42

    31 Wheat: Working in Memphis 2008

    The price of wheat speeds from record to record. Trader Evan Dooley bets on the wrong direction, juggling 1 billion USD and dropping the ball. This results in a loss of 140 million USD for his employer, MF Global, in February 2008.

    “I simply do not know where the money is.” —Jon Corzine, CEO of MF Global

    Less than a month after Jérôme Kerviel’s catastrophic bet on European equity indices, which resulted in losses of nearly 5 billion USD to French investment bank Société Générale, another trader caused difficulties for his employer.
    This time it was through speculation on wheat futures. At the end of February 2008, MF Global, one of the world’s largest futures and options brokers, had to admit that one of its traders in Memphis, Tennessee, had speculated on wheat futures with corporate accounts. Within hours, a loss of about 140 million USD occurred.

    Spun out of Man Financial Group in 2007, MF Global was a commodity brokerage house that offered clearing and execution services. It had ambitions to become a financial services firm on the order of a Goldman Sachs or JPMorgan, and its CEO was Jon Corzine, former chairman of Goldman Sachs and onetime governor of New Jersey. Although it was a niche player on Wall Street, MF Global was a force on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), with 3 million futures and options positions open with a face value of more than 100 billion USD. Its customers made up almost 30 percent of the trading volume on the CME.

    Trading Wheat

    After corn, wheat is the second-biggest agricultural crop in the world, and it is traded worldwide on commodity futures exchanges. On the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT), wheat is traded under the symbol W and the current contract month (e.g., W Z0 for wheat December 2020). One contract refers to 5,000 bushels of wheat, and each bushel is equivalent to 27.2 kilograms.
    Priced at 7.50 USD per bushel in November 2007, US wheat was already trading above 8 USD by the beginning of 2008. In part this was due to a tightening supply, but the increase was also increasingly driven by speculative capital, along with a weak US currency. The price broke through 9 and 10 USD per bushel within days, and at the end of February the situation had really gotten out of hand. On February 27, wheat contracts close to delivery experienced price movements of as much as 25 percent within a day. Although trading opened positive, by noon the price had fallen to 10.80 USD.

    Trader Evan Dooley speculated on falling
    prices of 2 million tons of wheat.

    In the afternoon, however, the price jumped again, to 13.50 USD per bushel. The news that Kazakhstan, one of the largest exporters of wheat, wanted to introduce export taxes to reduce sales was boosting the US wheat price. It was the strongest intraday price movement in wheat ever observed.
    However, there was also another explanation for the price swings: Evan Dooley, who had been a trader at MF Global since November 2005, had quickly entered significant positions in wheat futures on his own account in the morning hours of February 27. With these unauthorized actions, the 40-year-old trader exceeded his limits by far.
    Betting on a falling wheat price, Dooley is said to have traded around 15,000 futures—2 million metric tons of wheat. The value of the position varied between 800 million and 1 billion USD. However, as the wheat price continued to rise sharply, the company was forced to close the position with losses, that is, to buy further futures contracts. This led to a further price jump to a level that the market would not reach again, despite continuing strength, for several years.

    Figure 28. Wheat prices in US cents/bushel, 2007–2008, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    MF Global shares lost more than 25 percent in value on that day. The losses came to approximately 140 million USD and represented four times the previous quarter. Concerned about the extent of the loss, MF Global promised to revise its internal policies and risk management. Dooley was fired immediately, and MF Global was fined 10 million USD for lack of supervision of its traders. Dooley himself was sentenced to five years in federal prison and had to make restitution of 140 million USD.
    On a side note, MF Global collapsed in 2011 when the company reported a 192 million USD quarterly loss. Client funds disappeared in the aftermath, which became a huge scandal. However, the failure of MF Global, with more than 40 billion USD in assets—the eighth-biggest bankruptcy in US history—was modest compared with the chaotic 2008 failure of Lehman Brothers, which had a 691 billion USD balance sheet. Regulators were eager to show that not all Wall Street firms were too big to fail. They happily let MF Global go under.

    Key Takeaways
    •Less than a month after Jérôme Kerviel’s catastrophic bet on European equity indices in 2008, another trader caused trouble for his employer: Evan Dooley of MF Global speculated on falling wheat prices and built up a short position of almost 1 billion USD.
    •Wheat prices kept climbing higher and higher, however, from 7.50 USD per bushel in late 2007 to more than 10 USD per bushel in January 2008.
    •On February 27, 2008, the price of wheat traded in Chicago fluctuated in the course of the day by 25 percent—falling back to 10.80 USD per bushel, then jumping again to 13.50 USD in the afternoon. MF Global accumulated a loss of about 140 million USD within hours.

    32 Crude Oil: Contango in Texas 2009

    The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude oil collapses, unsettling commodity traders around the world. A 10,000-person community in Oklahoma becomes the center of world attention. The concept of “super-contango” is born, and investment banks enter the tanker business.

    “Super-Contango is a state in which a forward price of a commodity is higher than the spot price to a greater extent than can be explained by the interest and storage costs that explain the usual state of contango.” —Moneyterms.co.uk

    Cushing is a small town in Oklahoma with fewer than 10,000 residents: There’s a Wal-Mart, some fast-food restaurants, and a few gas stations. Only massive tanks, pipes, and refineries hint that the town is somehow special. In the south of the city is a complex for the strategic oil reserves of the United States, with a capacity of 35 million barrels—one of the largest in the country.
    Suddenly, at the beginning of 2009, Cushing—the only delivery location for West Texas Intermediate (WTI), the US benchmark for crude oil—became the focus of the world’s attention. In the oil market, big-time inventory building had begun. And it began on a large scale.

    Trading in Crude

    Because of the many different types and qualities of crude oil, market participants have agreed to trade in a few local varieties for reference: At the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX), this is US West Texas Intermediate (WTI) oil, at the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) in London it’s North Sea Brent, and in Singapore the Asian reference is Tapis. Additionally, there is an OPEC basket price, which calculates the average price of seven different types of crude: Sahara Blend (Algeria), Minas (Indonesia), Bonny Light (Nigeria), Arab Light (Saudi Arabia), Dubai (United Arab Emirates), Tia Juana Light (Venezuela), and Isthmus (Mexico). On commodity futures markets, WTI and Brent are the primary references for the price of oil, which is traded in 1,000 barrels per contract under the abbreviations CL (WTI) and CO (Brent) as well as the corresponding contract months (e.g., Z9 for December 2019).
    In the wake of the financial market crisis and the deteriorating economic outlook, the price of crude oil had come under massive pressure in the second half of 2008. That summer, crude oil had briefly traded at more than 145 USD for a short time. But then, the price dropped to less than 45 USD. The withdrawal of investment capital (“deleveraging”) also contributed significantly to the price decline. This became obvious through an analysis of the short-term crude oil contracts in which financial investors are typically invested, and which were now much more affected than long-term contracts.

    Figure 29. Crude Oil (WTI) Term Structure in USD/barrel, 2008. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The forward term structure, which tracks the price of future crude oil deliveries over a period of several years, was still nearly flat in summer 2008, but from there, the contango structure of crude oil (WTI) increased. Contango refers to the situation in which spot prices are below the level of futures prices. This could be due to warehousing costs, including insurance and interest, for example, although those can be superseded by the effects of supply and demand.
    Between October and December 2008, the contango became extreme. The price decline at the short end of WTI contracts led to a record price difference (the spread)—in excess of 20 USD—between contracts for WTI January 2009 and WTI December 2009. Commodity traders introduced the term “super-contango” to describe what was happening, and commodity analysts called the price distortion of crude oil “absurd.” WTI decoupled completely from other crude oil reference prices such as Brent and, as a barometer for international crude oil markets, was “as useful as a chocolate oven glove,” noted a commodity analyst of Barclays, the British investment bank. What led to this situation? And, more importantly, what were the implications?

    Super-contango! Front-end WTI traded as low as 35 USD, while later crude contracts with later dates stayed above 50 USD.

    The world’s attention turned to Cushing, the world’s “pipeline crossroads” and the only source of WTI crude oil. Contango favors stockpiling, because instead of a low current price, oil can be sold for more at a later date. The only obstacle is that the owner of the crude needs to have appropriate storage facilities. At Cushing, due to the increasing contango, the storage level of oil was steadily increasing.

    Figure 30. Price spread of crude oil January (CLF9) and December 2009 (CLZ9) in USD/barrel. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In January, oil inventories counted more than 33 million barrels (1 barrel equals 159 liters), and the remaining capacity literally was disappearing like ice in sunshine. The super-contango led to “super-storage,” because every holder of crude oil futures without the appropriate capacity had to sell crude oil, if needed, regardless of price. At its low, US crude oil was trading below 35 USD.
    It’s hard to know whether the super-contango was merely an expression of the short-term oversupply of the crude oil market due to the economic slowdown, or whether this was the effect of disinvestment of index and hedge fund capital in the forward contracts. In any case, the steepness of the crude oil forward curve continued to increase.

    Figure 31. Baltic Dirty Tanker Index, 2002–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    An additional factor, apart from the price differences, distinguished this situation from past events: The economic slowdown and the effects of the credit crunch had put international freight rates under extreme pressure. At the beginning of 2009, freight rates for oil tankers were around 85 percent below their highs in summer 2008.

    The crude oil super-contango, combined with low freight rates, provided a lucrative business for investment banks.

    For a short while early in 2009, the price difference between a current crude oil contract and a December 2009 contract exceeded 30 percent. The combination of super-contango and the low crude oil tanker freight rates opened up a new field not only for crude oil traders but also for investment banks, since it was possible to store crude oil in oil tankers on the high seas.
    With sufficient inventories, it made no sense to sell oil at prices below 40 USD, if you could sell above 55 USD risk-free through a futures contract. January crude oil prices were trading 20 USD below December contracts, while the cost of storage aboard on a supertanker in January 2009 averaged around 90 US cents a barrel. Assuming that transportation, insurance, and financing were secured, there was an opportunity for immense profit for oil companies and traders.

    Tanker Talk

    The Baltic Exchange is a global marketplace for shipbrokers, shipowners, and charterers. The various indices of the stock exchange offer an important overview of freight rates differentiated according to cargo types, ship sizes, and shipping routes. The Baltic Clean Tanker Index tracks tankers carrying clean cargo, such as oil products (petrol, diesel, fuel oil, or kerosene); the Baltic Dirty Tanker Index is for tankers that carry cargo such as crude oil. In 2009, freight rates for bulk carriers—summarized in the Baltic Dry Index—had fallen by 94 percent since the previous summer, due to the economic slowdown and the credit crunch during the international financial crisis. In comparison, the freight rates for tankers lost a little less. Freight rates for crude oil fell by around 85 percent.
    Tanker lease periods between three and nine months were particularly sought after.
    In February 2009, Frontline, the world’s largest owner of supertankers, reported that 25 tankers had been chartered, and there were still open inquiries about 10 more ships. Any tanker that held less than 2 million barrels of oil was not statistically recorded, but industry experts estimated that there were as many as 80 million barrels on the water at the time, more than twice as much oil as was in official storage in Cushing. The profitable business had also taken on a new dimension. The new customers were no longer BP or Exxon, but Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, Citibank, Barclays, and Deutsche Bank.
    Ship brokers around the globe were surprised by the extent of storage inquiries. After all, 35 supertankers accounted for roughly 10 percent of crude oil tanker capacity worldwide. Due to additional demand, tanker freight rates recovered slightly from their lows. However, the floating inventories prevented a significant spike in oil prices during the year, despite any improvement in underlying economic data. After a nearly 75 percent drop in crude oil prices in just one year, the supply surplus of floating stock unsettled the market. For 2008, the International Energy Agency (IEA) reported a decline in oil demand for the first time since 1983.

    Key Takeaways
    •Cushing, a small town in Oklahoma, is the pipeline capital of the world—the only delivery point for WTI, the most important benchmark for crude oil.
    •In the summer of 2008, crude oil was trading above 145 USD. But then the price collapsed to less than 45 USD, and WTI switched from backwardation into a deep contango. A super-contango was born.
    •In combination with low freight rates due to the economic crisis, the oil super-contango provided a lucrative business for investment banks, which could physically buy oil, store it in supertankers, and sell it on futures exchanges, locking in a secure profit.
    •The super-contango led to a massive supply glut in crude oil for a number of years.

    33 Sugar: Waiting for the Monsoon 2010

    A severe drought threatens India’s sugar harvest, and the world’s largest consumer becomes a net importer on the world market. Brazil, the largest exporter of sugar, has its own problems. As a result, international sugar prices rise to a 28-year high.

    “The peacocks are not dancing.
    It will not rain.”

    —P. K. Dubey in Monsoon Wedding (2001)

    June 2009 was the driest summer month in India for more than 80 years, and the dry season was nowhere near ending. In the first week of August, rainfall was only one-third of its normal level. In the main agricultural areas in the north of the country, the weather phenomenon called El Niño had practically stopped the monsoon, whose season on the subcontinent usually lasts from the beginning of June to the end of September.
    One consequence of El Niño in India is significant crop failures, but India’s frequent experience of drought and famine has historically led to large storage facilities. According to the US Department of Agriculture, about 20 million metric tons of rice and about 30 million tons of wheat were stored in 2009. For sugar, however, the situation was quite different.
    Crop failures were so severe, especially in the state of Uttar Pradesh, that India—the second-largest sugar producer in the world—changed from being a net exporter of the crop to becoming a net importer. After producing more than 26 million metric tons of sugar the year before, the country was initially expected to consume 22 million tons of sugar in 2009. However, in August, the Indian Ministry of Agriculture revised the harvest estimates downward, first to 17 million tons and later to 15 million tons. It was not until 2011 that the Indian authorities expected a harvest of around 25 million metric tons of sugar.

    Sweet!

    Almost three-quarters of the sugar produced in more than 100 countries comes from sugarcane, grown primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. Sugar beets come mainly from the European Union and Russia. Brazil, the largest sugar producer and exporter, is responsible for about 16 percent of the world’s sugar, followed by India (14 percent), China (6 percent), and the United States (5 percent). In Brazil, more than half of the sugar harvest is processed into fuel (ethanol).
    Sugar is traded on multiple futures exchanges in different classifications. The most liquid trading is in Sugar No. 11 (ticker SB) on the New York Board of Trade (NYBOT), where futures contracts are traded in US cents per pound and comprise approximately 50 metric tons of sugar (112,000 pounds). Together with wheat, corn, and soybeans, sugar is the most liquid traded agricultural commodity.

    In 2008, the global trading volume of sugar was about 45 million tons, which equates to almost one-third of the quantity produced worldwide. Two-thirds of total sugar production is consumed directly in producer countries and is excluded from global trade. If other trade barriers, such as quotas and trade agreements, are taken into account, only about 25 percent of the world’s sugar is available to the global market, and about 40 percent of that comes from Brazil, which has quadrupled its sugar production since the early 1990s.

    With severe weather in India and Brazil, the price of sugar shot up.

    Like India, Brazil also had to cope with severe weather conditions in 2009. The problem there was not drought, however, but too much water.

    Figure 32. Sugar prices in US cents/lb, 1970–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Over the past 40 years, the price of sugar has been very volatile. Starting with prices as low as 1 US cent per pound in 1967, the price exploded in the mid-1970s to more than 60 US cents. Then, in 2004, the price of sugar slipped below 6 US cents—levels that had not been seen for more than 20 years.
    In 2010, however, there was a sugar rush! Massive imports from India and weather-related delivery delays in Brazil pushed the raw sugar price to a 28-year high. Futures contracts closed at 29.90 US cents per pound on January 29, 2010, a premium of more than 150 percent compared to the previous year. The situation calmed down only after the March contracts expired on February 26, 2010. At that point positive data from Brazil signaled that the worst scarcity was over.

    Key Takeaways
    •The three most important sugar producers worldwide are Brazil, India, and China, and the latter two mostly produce the crop for their own use.
    •The summer of 2009 was the driest summer in India for more than 80 years. El Niño caused significant crop failures, India became a net importer of sugar on the world market, and Brazil had weather-related problems as well. The price of sugar spiked around the globe.
    •Sugar prices rose to just under 30 US cents per pound by the end of January 2010—more than 150 percent over the previous year. Compared to prices in 2004, when sugar traded below 6 US cents, it represented a staggering increase of 500 percent and the highest price in almost 30 years.

    34 Chocolate Finger 2010

    Due to declining harvests in Côte d’Ivoire (the Ivory Coast)—the largest cocoa exporter on the world market—prices are rising on the international commodity futures markets. In the summer of 2010, cocoa trader Anthony Ward, “Chocolate Finger,” wagers more than 1 billion USD on cocoa futures.

    “Of course they are people. They’re Oompa Loompas.“ —Willy Wonka in the movie Charlie and the Chocolate Factory

    Cocoa, native to Central and South America, was considered by the Maya and the Aztecs to be a gift from the gods and therefore sacred. The seeds of the cacao tree also served as a means of payment. In the treasuries of Aztec king Moctezuma II, the Spanish conquistadors discovered, in addition to gold, more than 1,200 tons of cocoa—tax revenues and a huge currency reserve.
    Today cocoa is an important cash crop, an export commodity for many developing countries, and the raw material for the production of chocolate. (In Germany, one of the countries with the highest per capita consumption of chocolate worldwide, every person eats an average of around 9 kilos per year.) Production costs for chocolate depend on the cocoa content, cocoa quality, and processing time, so that for a normal chocolate bar, the price of cocoa accounts only for about 10 percent of the cost of production.
    Cocoa is traded in New York on the New York Board of Trade (NYBOT) and in London on the London International Financial Futures Exchange (LIFFE) in contracts of 10 tons each in USD and GBP, respectively.

    The 10 largest cocoa producers account for more than 90 percent of the world’s crop. Côte d’Ivoire dominates global production with a market share of more than a third of world production.

    In July 2010, market rumors in London suggested that the Armajaro hedge fund had placed a 1 billion USD bet in the cocoa market. Fund manager Anthony Ward was said to have bought around 240,000 tons of cocoa in an attempt to corner the market. This would have accounted for about 7 percent of global cocoa production and the majority of the available quantities. While some traders saw this as a bet that cocoa prices would continue to rise due to a declining supply, others argued that Ward was creating an artificial shortage and manipulating the market through his massive purchases just before the start of the annual cocoa harvest in October.

    Where’s the Cocoa?

    Cocoa’s main growing areas have shifted in recent years from Central America to Africa. The 10 largest producer countries account for more than 90 percent of the global cocoa harvest. Of these, Côte d’Ivoire is the largest supplier of cocoa in the world, with a market share of more than 33 percent. Indonesia, Ghana, Nigeria, Brazil, and Cameroon follow far behind. By 2010, however, cocoa production in Côte d’Ivoire had fallen by more than 15 percent over the previous five years, largely due to poor crop maintenance and pest infestation. Cocoa production in 2008–2009 was the smallest harvest in the previous five years, at just 1.2 million metric tons, a trend that market participants expected for the 2009–2010 crop as well.
    At age 50, Anthony Ward was considered a genius in trading cocoa. His attempt to corner the market for cocoa was spectacular but not an isolated event. In 2002, Ward had purchased more than 200,000 tons of cocoa—the equivalent of 5 percent of the world’s cocoa market—through futures contracts. That was not the biggest cocoa transaction, however. The cocoa trading desk at Phibro, Salomon Smith Barney’s commodity trading business, had taken a position of 300,000 tons of cocoa in 1997. The head of the cocoa trading desk at that time? Anthony Ward.

    Anthony Ward had been a cocoa trader and industry expert since 1979. In the first months of 2010, the price rose more than 20 percent because of his trades.

    Anthony Ward gained his first trading experiences in 1979 with tea, rice, cocoa, and rubber. In 1998 he co-founded Armajaro with Richard Gower, initially focusing on cocoa, then adding coffee and, later, other agricultural goods. Today Armajaro manages 1.5 billion USD and, with a local presence in Côte d’Ivoire, Indonesia, and Ecuador, is one of the largest cocoa suppliers to the world market. After Ward’s trades in July 2010, the British press dubbed Ward “Willy Wonka,” after the character in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and “Chocolate Finger,” in homage to a James Bond villain.

    Figure 33. Cocoa prices in USD/ton, 1990–2012. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In 2009 and 2010, increasing demand, declines in production, and price speculation by hedge funds caused cocoa prices to rise more than 150 percent within two and a half years and to reach their highest level since 1977. A ton of cocoa in mid-July cost more than 3,600 USD. Because of Armajaro’s purchases, the short-term price of cocoa rose: A July contract carried a 300 USD premium compared to a December 2010 contract. Customers had to pay a premium of around 15 percent compared to a later delivery (backwardation).

    In a letter to the NYSE and LIFFE, 16 companies and trading houses complained about market manipulation of the cocoa market. However, LIFFE declared that “indications for a market manipulation are not recognized.”

    Key Takeaways
    •The cocoa market is relatively small and highly concentrated: Côte d’Ivoire dominates global cocoa production with a market share of more than a third of world production. The 10 largest cocoa-producing countries account for more than 90 percent of the world’s crop.
    •During the summer of 2010, rumors spread that hedge fund Armajaro had placed a bet of 1 billion USD in the cocoa market. Fund manager Anthony Ward, nicknamed “Willy Wonka” and “Chocolate Finger,” is said to have bought around 240,000 tons of cocoa in an attempt to corner the market.
    •Compared to price levels in early 2009, cocoa prices in London and New York rose by more than 150 percent and reached their highest level since 1977. A ton of cocoa cost more than 3,600 USD in July 2010—an increase of more than 500 percent compared to 2002. It was a successful bet for Chocolate Finger.

    35 Copper: King of the Congo 2010

    The copper belt of the Congo is rich in natural resources, but countless despots have looted the land. Now Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation (ENRC) is reaching out to Africa, and oligarchs from Kazakhstan aren’t shy about dealing with shady businessmen or the corrupt regime of President Joseph Kabila.

    “The West exploited Africa and now it wants to save it. We have been living with this hypocrisy for too long. Africa can only be saved by Africans.” —Joseph Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
    “We bought an asset from the Democratic Republic of Congo that was for sale.” —Sir Richard Sykes, ENRC

    On Friday, August 20, 2010, investors in the city of London listened closely as Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation (ENRC), a 12 billion USD, London-listed Kazakh mining company, took over the majority stake in Camrose Resources, which held the Kolwezi mining licenses recently expropriated by the government of the Congo. The previous owner of the extremely lucrative licenses? The Canadian mining company First Quantum Minerals. This was explosive news!

    All of a sudden, after decades of colonialism, dictatorship, and warfare, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) was once again the focus of media attention and the international mining industry. The Congo, one of the poorest countries in the world, nevertheless has an immense wealth of natural resources. The African copper belt stretches from the Congolese mining province of Katanga to northern Zambia. Here lies around 10 percent of the world’s copper reserves. And in 2010, copper was scarcer and more expensive than ever before: Based on its 52-week low, the price of the metal had increased that year alone by 50 percent. For the first time, copper traded above 9,000 USD per metric ton on the London Metal Exchange (LME).

    An Introduction to the Congo

    The Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire, is the third-largest country in Africa, after Sudan and Algeria. Neighboring countries—the (formerly French) Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia, Tanzania, and Angola—are all much smaller. With its wealth of natural resources, such as cobalt, diamonds, copper, gold, and other rare minerals, the Congo is a prime example of the “resource curse” thesis: The 70 million inhabitants of the Democratic Republic of the Congo are among the world’s poorest. Only Zimbabwe has a lower per capita GDP.
    The Congo, whose capital is Kinshasa, gained independence from Belgium in 1960 under President Kasavubu and the popular Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. A period of instability and military intervention followed, beginning in 1965, under the long dictatorship of Mobutu Sese Seko, during which Mobutu and the elite of the country (now called Zaire) systematically looted the wealth of the nation.
    The system collapsed in 1997, when Mobutu was ousted by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. In January 2001, L.-D. Kabila was murdered by one of his bodyguards under unclear circumstances, and the presidency passed to his son, Joseph Kabila. The latter stayed in power until the end of 2018. In January 2019, opposition leader Felix Tshisekedi was declared the fifth president of Congo-Kinshasa since its independence of Belgian colonial supremacy.
    Despite the official end of the second Congo war in July 2003 (the first took place in 1997–1998), conflicts still persisted in the country up until today. In the course of this “African World War,” which involved eight African states and 25 armed groups, more than 5 million people died. It was the bloodiest armed conflict since World War II.
    The Kamoto Mine near the town of Kolwezi is in the heart of the Congo’s mining district, where more than 3 million tons of copper and more than 300,000 tons of cobalt are believed to be in the ground. The current market value of copper reserves alone exceeds 30 billion USD. When the mine was still in operation, the machines of state-owned mining company Gécamines, once the largest company in Africa, moved about 10,000 tons of rock each day. In September 1990, however, the central part of the mine collapsed, burying many miners. The operation came to a standstill. Under the Mobutu dictatorship, reinvestments were neglected, and the largest mines fell into decay. In the late 1990s, Gécamines sold most of its projects to international mining corporations.

    Figure 34. Copper and share price of First Quantum Minerals, 2009–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Beginning in 2007, the Congolese government undertook a review of more than 60 foreign mining agreements in order to increase state involvement and ownership in the mining sector. Since then, the revision of mining licenses has created multiple sources of conflict.

    The government was aiming for at least 35 percent government ownership in future mining projects. In addition, newer regulations called for a signing bonus of 1 percent of the project value, a 2.5 percent license fee on the gross income, and a stipulation that the mine would go into production within two years.

    The value of the mineral reserves of the African copper belt between the DRC and Zambia exceeded the GDP of half the African continent.

    In August 2009, after a 2½-year review by the government, Canadian First Quantum Minerals’ Kolwezi license was terminated. The government accused First Quantum of breaching the 2002 mining regulations, though First Quantum denied it. One of the contentious issues was the increase of the Gécamines’ share by 12.5 percent—for zero costs involved.
    The situation for the Canadian company was precarious, since it had already invested more than 700 million USD in expanding Kolwezi. Moreover, after First Quantum couldn’t come to an agreement with the Kabila government, the Congolese Supreme Court also revoked the company’s licenses for the Frontier and Lonshi mines in favor of the state mining company Sodimico—another bitter blow to First Quantum.

    Sly Foxes

    The wealth of natural resources in the Katanga province of the Congo smoldered into a power struggle among the three craftiest businessmen on the continent: George Forrest, Billy Rautenbach, and Dan Gertler. Sixty-seven-year-old Forrest, head of the Forrest Group, had been born in the Congo and was the old man of the Congolese mining industry. In early 2004, a few months after the end of the war in the Congo, Forrest and Kinross Gold entered into a joint-venture agreement with the government over the Kamoto Copper Company (later Katanga Mining).
    Rautenbach, founder of Wheels of Africa, the largest transport company in southern Africa, was a friend of Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe. He went after the jewel, Katanga Mining, through the British company Camec. However, after a short takeover battle, the Congolese government announced a review of those mining licenses, and Rautenbach took the hint. He pulled back in September 2007. Rautenbach had previously been the manager of Gécamines but was replaced by Forrest, which accounted for the hostility between the two men.
    Meanwhile, Gertler was laughing on the sidelines. Just 30 years old, he closed a joint-venture contract with the government of the Congo in 2004 for the development of KOV (Kamoto-Oliveira Virgule, later the company Nikanor). KOV was the only mine in Katanga with more resources than Kamoto Copper Company. More than 6.7 million metric tons of copper and 650,000 tons of cobalt—twice as much as in Kamoto—were estimated to be in the ground. According to market prices in 2018, the value of these resources alone exceeds half the GDP of Africa.
    During the takeover battle for Katanga, Gertler bought shares in that mine through Nikanor. Camec finally lost its bid at the beginning of 2008, and Nikanor and Katanga Mining merged. In addition to his financial resources, Gertler had excellent connections: He is the grandson of the founder of Israel’s diamond exchange, a friend of then-Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon, and the same age as Congo president Joseph Kabila, whom he considered a close friend.
    In January 2010 the newly established Highwinds Properties, owned by Dan Gertler, was awarded the Kolwezi license in a shady deal. A few months later came the bombshell. On August 20, 2010, ENRC confirmed that it had secured the licenses to Kolwezi through its 50.5 percent acquisition of Camrose Resources for 175 million USD. The company said it intended to cooperate with Cerida Global, another Dan Gertler–controlled company. With the acquisition of Camrose, ENRC was also committed to a 400 million USD loan for Highwinds and a loan guarantee of another 155 million USD for Cerida’s debts.

    The Kazakh company ENRC aggressively expanded its business in Africa and was not shy about dealing with African despots like Joseph Kabila.

    Camrose also offered a majority stake in its subsidiary Africo to ENRC, whose copper and cobalt projects were located near its Camec properties. This was of high strategic importance for the Kazakh company, since ENRC had acquired the Central African Mining and Exploration Company (Camec) for 955 million USD in 2009. This is where Dan Gertler came into play, as Camec was 35 percent owned by the Israeli investor, who quickly unified the three Kazakh oligarchs—Alexander Mashkevitch, Patokh Chodiev, and Alijan Ibragimov—who owned 40 percent of ENRC.
    The deals between Camec and Camrose were important milestones for ENRC’s aggressive expansion policy in Africa, along with a 12 percent stake in Northam Platinum in South Africa that ENRC acquired in May 2010. Regardless of pending possible expropriations and a skeptical attitude by many institutional investors, only time would show whether ENRC would have a more favorable outcome in Congo than its Canadian rival, First Quantum.
    Sometimes time flies. In November 2013, ENRC delisted its shares from the London stock exchange. The following April, an official investigation into bribery and sanction-busting began in England, and the founding partners decided to take the company private again. In February 2014, news spread that the company needed to sell all its international assets—including the copper mines in the Democratic Republic of the Congo—to repay debts. President Kabila, however, stayed in power until the end of 2018.
    In January 2019, the opposition leader Felix Tshisekedi was declared the fifth president of Congo-Kinshasa. Leader of the opposition, Martin Fayulu, complained that Kamila, despite officially stepping down from office, would with his associates most likely continue controlling the levers of powers. Presidential elections had been due for more than two years, but elections had been postponed several times despite forceful protests. Since the end of Belgian colonial supremacy in 1960, the country had never seen a peaceful transfer of power.

    Key Takeaways
    •The African copper belt that runs between the Congo and Zambia holds an incredible wealth of natural resources. In 2010 it became the focus of upheaval when President Kabila revoked the mining license of Canadian firm First Quantum Minerals.
    •Copper was now big business, as copper prices traded at record highs of more than 9,000 USD per ton on the London Metal Exchange (LME).
    •The Kazakh (but London-listed) resource company Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation (ENRC) began to massively expand its footprint in Africa. The firm’s leaders were willing to deal with shady businessmen as well as with President Kabila’s corrupt regime.
    •In a murky transaction involving Dan Gertler’s Highwinds Properties, the expropriated assets of First Quantum were sold to ENRC. International investors were shocked, and the company went private a couple of years later.

    36 Crude Oil: Deep Water Horizon and the Spill 2010

    Time is pressing in the Gulf of Mexico. After a blowout at the Deepwater Horizon oil rig, a catastrophe unfolds—the biggest spill of all time. About 780 million liters of crude oil flow into the sea. Within weeks BP loses half its stock-market value.

    “This well did not want to be drilled . . . it just seemed like we were messing with Mother Nature.” —Daniel Barron, survivor of the Deepwater Horizon disaster
    “I would like my life back.” —Tony Hayward, CEO of BP

    Deepwater Horizon was one of the world’s most advanced deepwater rigs. Installed in 2001, it was 121 meters long, 78 meters wide, and 23 meters high and cost 350 million USD. In April 2010, the giant lay about 40 miles off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of Mexico. Since February, the platform had been busy in the Mississippi Canyon Block 252, drilling in the Macondo reservoir about 4,000 meters below sea level.
    April 20, 2010, promised to be a successful day, because the drill hole identified as API Well No. 60-817-44169 was about to be completed. The well would be sealed and prepared for production by a production platform. Every day counted because platform operators like Transocean charged oil companies on a daily basis. And in this case, BP was already concerned because Deepwater Horizon had been behind schedule for 43 days. The delays had already cost the big oil company more than 20 million USD.

    Twenty years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, an even bigger environmental catastrophe was looming on the horizon.

    The Exxon Valdez—A Past Catastrophe

    Shortly after midnight on March 24, 1989, the most severe environmental disaster in the history of the United States occurred. The 300-meter-long oil tanker Exxon Valdez was on its way from the oil-loading station of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, in the port city of Valdez, Alaska, when it collided with Bligh Reef in Prince William Sound. The accident caused a spill of almost 40,000 tons of crude oil. Around 2,000 km of coastline were contaminated, and hundreds of thousands of fish, seabirds, and marine animals died. Captain Joseph Hazelwood was drunk in his room at the time of the accident, and third officer Gregory Cousins had the bridge.
    Despite an extensive cleanup, the ecosystem remains severely disturbed three decades later.
    That morning, four BP managers arrived by helicopter to monitor the completion of the drilling. Only a few hours before, experts from the oil services company Halliburton had cemented the drill hole closed, but employees of Schlumberger, who were about to test the cement seal, were sent back to shore by the BP managers before they had accomplished their task.

    Deepwater Horizon drilled for black gold in the Gulf of Mexico on behalf of BP.

    To accelerate completion of the work, BP urged rapid replacement of the drilling mud in the well with seawater to prepare for early production. This decision precipitated an argument between BP and the Transocean managers, who considered that step premature. Unlike seawater, drilling mud holds back rising gas and oil. However, the managers of BP prevailed, and the work began.
    The decision would prove disastrous. The hole had a leak, and drilling mud and gas bubbles began to spill out. The cement plug also appeared to be leaking. Work continued into the night, until suddenly a sharp hiss of methane was heard and a fountain of mud shot out of the derrick, signaling a blowout.
    As the methane ignited, a huge column of flame rose into the sky. Suddenly the entire derrick was on fire, and four workers on the drilling deck were dead.
    The alarm sensors designed to warn of fire and a concentration of toxic or exploding gases had been turned off to keep workers from being disturbed by false alarms in the middle of the night. Now, below deck, it was chaos. Workers, some of them barely awake and dressed in little more than a life jacket, were jumping off the platform into the water, trying to save themselves. But with the Deepwater Horizon in flames, the oil on the water’s surface had caught fire as well. Chaos also reigned in the rig’s two lifeboats.

    Around 11 pm, the Damon B. Bankston, an 80-meter-long supply ship, rescued the survivors. Eleven people had died in the explosion. Two days later, the oil platform sank in the Gulf of Mexico.
    The demise of the platform marked the beginning of the biggest environmental disaster in the history of the United States, an event that would provide the plot for a Hollywood blockbuster movie, starring Mark Wahlberg, in 2016.

    The Macondo drilling ended in disaster. In the largest oil spill in the United States, nearly 780 million liters of crude oil ran out, and the market value of BP fell by half.

    When fire broke out on the deck of the Deepwater Horizon, engineer Christopher Pleasant pressed the emergency button for the blowout preventer (BOP), a series of shut-off valves mounted directly above the well bore to interrupt the flow of oil into it. Like huge pliers, the massive shear jaw of the BOP was supposed to cap and close the well in case of disaster. The automatic emergency system was activated, but nothing happened.
    A commission of inquiry later found that the Deepwater Horizon blowout preventer was poorly maintained, the hydraulic system was leaking, and the safety instructions had not been properly maintained. In addition, the ring valve of the device had been damaged weeks before. Not only was the blowout preventer in poor condition, as early as September 2009, BP had reported almost 400 defects on the rig to Transocean. However, maintenance had been delayed, and more than 26 systems were in poor condition. There were even problems with the ballast system.
    After the platform sank, an oil slick formed. Approximately 1.5 km by 8 km at first, it expanded to almost 10,000 square kilometers within a few days. Between 5 and 10 million liters of crude oil were flowing out every day, and Louisiana, Florida, Mississippi, and Alabama all declared a state of emergency. According to the US Department of the Interior’s Flow Rate Technical Group (FRTG), the amount of oil that flowed out every 8 to 10 days matched the total amount of oil from the Exxon Valdez disaster. BP estimated that there were around 7 billion liters of crude oil in the source. Thus, it would take another two to four years until the entire amount of oil had oozed into the sea.
    Shortly after the platform sank, BP initiated two independently made side-to-side relief wells (called the “bottom-kill method”), but the drilling would have taken about three months. Meanwhile, the capture of the oil with the aid of large steel domes was failing.

    The depth of the seabed—around 1,500 meters—complicated the work. At the end of May 2010, several attempts were made to plug the leak with mud and cement (the “top- kill method”), but they, too, were unsuccessful. In the middle of July, BP succeeded in significantly reducing the oil flow with a new sealing attachment—a temporary closure was successful. As a result, on August 6, the leak was finally sealed permanently using a modified variant of the top-kill method (“static-kill”)—pumping in liquid cement through side relief holes. On September 19, five months after the Deepwater Horizon sank, BP declared the well “officially dead.”

    It took five months to seal the oil leak.

    It was estimated that nearly 5 million barrels of oil, around 780 million liters, had run out, and BP’s stock-market value fell by half in the course of the disaster. The company announced that it would divest 10 billion USD worth of assets to defer the cost of the spill.

    Figure 35. BP, share price fluctuation during first half of 2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    At that point only about 3 billion USD in costs had accumulated. But BP also set up a trust fund of more than 20 billion USD for the future consequences of the catastrophe. Still unanswered is the question of who bears the responsibility for the disaster. Undoubtedly, BP took high risks, applied non-industry-compliant practices to save costs, and, as the principal, bears the financial responsibility. Transocean’s role as operator of the oil platform also needs to be clarified, especially since the platform was in relatively poor condition. For Halliburton, the questions revolve around the doubtful completion of the cement seal of the well, and initial claims have also been made to BP’s partner companies Mitsui and Anadarko.
    The disaster heightened public awareness of the risks associated with deepwater drilling, both in the Gulf of Mexico and in planned projects off Brazil and Africa. As a direct result of the catastrophe, the US government passed a deep-sea moratorium, temporarily banning all new deep-sea drillings. Although this was later repealed, no new licenses have been awarded. As a further consequence, President Barack Obama fired the head of the Minerals Management Service, Elizabeth Birnbaum. The agency, now renamed the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, had grossly and negligently violated its oversight responsibilities.
    It is impossible to estimate the economic consequences of the disaster, let alone the environmental consequences, which include not only the direct effects of the oil pollution but also the burning of oil and the use of toxic chemicals like Corexit, which have been used to combat the oil spill. BP said in 2018 that it would take a new charge over the Deepwater Horizon spill after again raising estimates for outstanding claims, lifting total costs to around 65 billion USD. The story of the disaster in the Gulf of Mexico will play out for decades in the future.

    Key Takeaways
    •At the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico, the Macondo drilling, at about 4,000 meters below sea level, ended in disaster. Nearly 780 million liters of crude oil ran out, and the market value of BP, the oil and gas company in charge, fell by half within weeks.
    •The oil spill caused the biggest environmental catastrophe in the history of the United States, far more devastating than the oil spill of the Exxon Valdez 20 years earlier.
    •As a consequence, US authorities temporarily froze all deepwater drilling licenses. BP is estimating a price tag of more than 65 billion USD.

    37 Cotton: White Gold 2011

    The weather phenomenon known as La Niña causes drastic crop failures in Pakistan, China, and India due to flooding and bad weather conditions. Panic buying and hoarding drive the price of cotton to a level that has not been reached since the end of the American Civil War 150 years ago.

    “It’s not something you’re going to see again in your lifetime.” —Sharon Johnson, senior cotton analyst
    “I think there’s still hope for prices to go higher.” —Yu Lianmin, Chinese cotton farmer

    In ancient Babylon, cotton was known as “white gold,” and the fabric has remained popular throughout history, woven by hand for hundreds of years. At the end of the 18th century, however, spinning and weaving mills began to produce fabrics and clothing at a much lower cost than could be done by hand. By the 19th century, the cotton business was booming, due to recent inventions such as the steam engine, the cotton gin, the spinning jenny, and mechanical looms.
    The textile industry of the United Kingdom required ever larger quantities of the raw material, which was produced in its colonies or elsewhere abroad, especially in the southern United States, where cotton had expanded tremendously in the early 1800s. The crop thrived everywhere that was moist and warm, and labor was cheap in the American South. For about 250 years enslaved Africans had toiled on southern plantations, and cotton production grew from just 10,000 bales a year to more than 4 million until slavery was abolished after the end of the American Civil War in 1865. During that war, the price of cotton rose to dizzying heights that would only be reached again in spring 2011, almost 150 years later.

    The last time cotton reached almost 2 USD per pound was after the American Civil War.

    Since 1995, cotton had traded mostly between 0.40 and 0.80 USD, but at the end of September 2010, for the first time in 15 years, the price of cotton broke the 1 USD/lb level. A few months earlier, in May, the German magazine Der Spiegel had bemoaned “the end of cheap jeans,” as it noted the price explosion in cotton. But that was only the beginning. By November, cotton prices had increased another 40 percent. A sharp correction followed, but by the end of December cotton was up to 1.40 USD. And, beginning in January 2011, the market was unstoppable. The price spiked to more than 2.15 USD in March 2011—four times the level of early 2000 and a 480 percent increase over the November 2008 price.
    It was the highest price ever paid for cotton since the introduction of cotton trading on the New York Cotton Exchange in 1870.

    Figure 36. Cotton prices in US cents/lb, 2005–2013. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The price had actually been rising for several years. At the end of 2009, the global textile industry had forecast robust growth of around 3 percent for the following year. However, flooding and bad weather conditions in several important producer countries such as China, India, Pakistan, and Australia led to significant crop losses. Because of the falling inventory, high premiums were paid for material that was available in the short term.

    Once again, severe weather conditions influenced agriculture prices.

    In Pakistan, the world’s fourth-largest cotton-producing country, floods hit more than 14 million people in 2010, according to UN estimates. The exceptionally heavy monsoon season was considered the strongest in more than 80 years, and rain destroyed more than 280,000 hectares of cotton. According to the Pakistan Cotton Ginners Association, the flood destroyed 2 million bales of cotton. The All Pakistan Textile Mills Association also reported a worrying shortage of cotton. Only 30 percent of the mills had raw material in stock for the next 90 days, and Pakistan would soon stop exporting cotton.

    A few weeks later, India, the second-largest cotton producer in the world, followed suit. The Indian Ministry of Textiles stopped exports, since without the ban the Indian textile industry would not have been guaranteed an adequate supply of cotton. Indian exports dropped to 0.5 million metric tons, having exceeded 1.5 million tons in the 2007–2008 season.
    There were several reasons for the shortage beyond the dynamic growth of the domestic Indian textile industry. The world’s largest cotton producer and importer, China, was also enduring a shrinking cotton harvest for the second year in a row, due to low temperatures and too much rain. China Cotton Association statistics in December 2010 showed monthly imports doubling year over year.

    Cotton Basics

    Most cotton species and varieties are cultivated as annual plants and have high requirements for heat and water. In the Northern Hemisphere, sowing takes place from the beginning of February to the beginning of June, depending on the location.
    China, India, the United States, Pakistan, Brazil, and Uzbekistan together account for around 85 percent of the world’s cotton production, with China and India producing more than half of the global market volume. In the 2009–2010 harvest, the amount of cotton grown worldwide reached 25 million metric tons.
    Cotton is used mainly in textiles, accounting for about one-third of the world’s textile fibers. These can be categorized into natural fibers—such as vegetable fibers (e.g., cotton or linen) and animal fibers (e.g., wool, hair, and silk)—or artificial (synthetic) fibers. Synthetic fibers actually dominate the industry, accounting for almost 60 percent. They can be divided into cellulosic fibers (e.g., viscose) and those derived from petroleum. The most important synthetic fibers are polyester, polyamide, and polyacrylic fibers.
    Cotton is traded on the commodity futures exchanges in the United States under the symbol CT and the respective contract month in a contract size of 50,000 lb per contract.
    In late 2010 and early 2011, flooding and Cyclone Yasi caused severe damage in Australia, which ranked eighth among the top 10 cotton producers worldwide. The Australian Cotton Shippers Association, which had predicted a bumper harvest of more than 4 million bales, reduced its forecast by more than 10 percent.

    Blocks on cotton exports worsened the situation, and panic buying and hoarding were the result.

    Cotton processors in the region reacted in panic. Willing to pay any price for raw material, they pushed prices ever higher. Cotton farmers who still had inventory continued to aggravate the situation. The China National Cotton Information Center estimated that around 2 million tons of available material never reached the market in China. For example, in Huji, in Shandong province, about 220 kilometers from Beijing, growers held back more than 50 percent of their harvest at the end of January, expecting prices to continue to rise. Because of the short shelf life of cotton, that strategy could only be maintained until April or May.
    In any case, the price boom in cotton was short lived. The International Cotton Advisory Committee in Washington estimated that the acreage for the 2011–2012 season would increase to 36 million hectares, the most in 17 years. It was a natural response to record prices. In the short term, however, most processors had no choice but to mix cheaper synthetic fibers with the more expensive cotton.

    Key Takeaways
    •If you thought that the exciting times of trading cotton took place more than 100 years ago, events in 2010 proved you wrong.
    •The first impacts of global climate change were evident in a series of extreme weather events. Flooding and bad weather conditions caused by La Niña accounted for significant crop losses in several important cotton-producing countries, such as China, India, Pakistan, and Australia.
    •Cotton processors in the region reacted in panic, driving prices higher. Cotton farmers who still had stocks held back their supply in expectation of even higher profits.
    •As a consequence, cotton prices shot through the roof. Cotton, which once traded at 40 US cents per pound in 2009, doubled in value within a year to 80 US cents and skyrocketed to 2 USD in 2011. This was an increase of 500 percent in two years!
    •Because of short supplies, export restrictions, panic buying, and hoarding, the price of cotton rose to a level not reached since the end of the American Civil War 150 years ago.

    38 Glencore: A Giant Steps Into the Light (2011)

    In May 2011, the world’s largest commodity trading company—a conspicuous and discreet partnership with an enigmatic history—holds an IPO. The former owners, Marc Rich and Pincus Green, have been followed by US justice authorities for more than 20 years. Without mandatory transparency or public accountability in the past, they were able to close deals with dictators and rogue states around the world.

    “Glencore is Marc Rich’s legacy.” —Daniel Ammann, author of The King of Oil
    “My business is my life.” —Marc Rich

    It was the week before the Easter holidays in 2011, on a warm, sunny day in the banking metropolis of Frankfurt am Main, Germany. For the first time that year, temperatures climbed above 72 degrees Fahrenheit, and the city was full of people enjoying the sun’s warm rays. It was also the first week of “investor education” concerning the biggest IPO of the year, for Glencore.
    Equity sector specialists were explaining corporate strategy and the business model of the world’s largest commodity trading house and the reasons why institutional investors should participate in its initial public equity offering. In a meeting room in one of the bank towers, high above the city center, 11 people nibbled on light snacks. The analyst was late, however, thanks to too many meetings and telephone conferences. And much of the information about corporate returns remained unclear. It seemed that Glencore was not being completely transparent. How exactly did the commodity giant—whose value was estimated at between 60 and 80 billion USD by the banks in the consortium and whose management team was known only to industry insiders—earn its money? Until the IPO, the Switzerland-based company had cherished one thing above all: secrecy.
    Glencore (the name was derived from Global Energy Commodity Resources) was one of the world’s leading commodity players. Its business activities included the production, processing, and trading of aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, lead, iron ore, coal, and crude oil as well as agricultural products. In terms of sales, the company was the largest in Switzerland and the largest individual shareholder, with 33 percent, of the multinational mining company Xstrata. Before the IPO, Glencore was completely owned by its management and employees, but until 1993 it had had a turbulent history determined by only one man: Marc Rich, nicknamed “The King of Oil.”

    Marc Rich was the world’s most successful commodity trader. Together with Pincus Green, he broke the Seven Sisters cartel, the dominant oil companies until the 1970s.

    Within commodity markets, Marc Rich was a legend. No commodity trader before or after him has ever been so successful. As a son of German-speaking Jews, Rich began his career in 1954 with Philipp Brothers, then the world’s largest commodity trader. Strong economic growth in Europe, the United States, and Asia made the 1960s a boom decade for commodity trading. But in 1973, when the company earned a record profit in which Marc Rich and Pincus Green played a decisive role, a dispute about future payments arose.
    Rich and Green left Philipp Brothers and convinced Jacques Hachuel, Alexander Hackel, and John Trafford to follow them. Together they founded Marc Rich + Co AG in Zug, Switzerland, on April 3, 1974.

    Rich and Green revolutionized commodity trading, breaking the multinational Seven Sisters oil companies cartel and becoming major players in international petroleum trading. In the early 1980s Rich was the world’s largest independent oil trader. Marc Rich + Co generated more profit than UBS, the biggest bank in Switzerland, and Rich’s private wealth was estimated to total more than a billion USD.
    Initially, the company focused on the physical trading of iron, nonferrous metals, and minerals. Crude oil and coal marked an expansion into energy. With the acquisition of an established Dutch grain distribution company in 1982, Rich + Co also entered the agricultural sector. Through further acquisitions in mining, smelting, refineries, and processing, the company continued to grow in the 1980s and 1990s.

    Who Was Marc Rich?

    Marc Rich, born Marcell David Reich on December 18, 1934, in Antwerp, Belgium, was the son of German-speaking Jews. Fleeing war and persecution, the family immigrated to the United States and changed the family name to Rich. As a young man, Rich studied at New York University but left after two semesters to join Philipp Brothers in 1954, then the largest commodity trading company in the United States. He started his career under Ludwig Jesselson, and between 1964 and 1974 he worked as a manager of the Philipp Brothers offices in Spain. In 1974 Rich left the company and with Pincus Green and others founded Marc Rich + Co AG.
    Within the next two decades, the new commodity trading company would become the most successful in the industry. But because of business ties to Iran—despite American political and economic sanctions and the US abolition of diplomatic relations in April 1980—Rich and Green became the focus of the US Justice Department. Accused of organized crime and tax fraud, Rich avoided prosecution by fleeing to Switzerland, where for 20 years he and Green proceeded with business as usual, while they were pursued by US justice.
    After a management buyout in 1993, Rich separated from the firm, and the group was renamed Glencore. At the time, Forbes magazine estimated his private assets at more than 1.5 billion USD.
    Rich never went to trial, and on his last day of office, January 20, 2001, President Bill Clinton granted full and unconditional pardons to Rich and Green in a still-controversial act.
    In June 2013, Rich died of a stroke at a hospital in Lucerne, Switzerland, at the age of 78.
    As it hunted for the next source of profits, the company was not picky. The list of its business partners read like a “Who’s Who” of international rogue states and dictatorships. The company traded commodities with Iran during the hostage crisis and with Fidel Castro’s Cuba, as well as with Slobodan Milosevic’s Yugoslavia, North Korea, Muammar Gaddafi’s Libya, the Soviet Union under Brezhnev, South Africa’s apartheid regime, and Nigeria and Angola in the late 1970s.
    In the 1990s, though, the tables turned. Pincus Green and Alexander Hackel resigned, and the press relentlessly excoriated the company’s business behavior. Finally, after heavy trading losses, Rich lost the support of other senior managers.
    In November 1993, the 39 most important employees of Marc Rich + Co met at the Parkhotel in Zug to discuss the future of the company without Rich. Led by Willy Strothotte, they agreed on a management buyout, and by the following November, Rich had gradually sold his shares of the firm to management and senior employees, about 200 people in all. The value of the company—an industry leader in trading crude oil, metals, and minerals—was estimated to be between 1 and 1.5 billion USD. The new owners renamed the company Glencore, eliminating all traces of the Marc Rich name after 20 years.
    Strothotte took over as chairman of the board of directors of Glencore but also moved into a top position at Schweizerischer Südelektra, which was renamed Xstrata in 1999 and was 33 percent owned by Glencore. The two companies maintained a close relationship. While Xstrata concentrated on commodity production, Glencore focused on marketing and trading raw materials. Xstrata, listed in London, offered transparency for investors. However, Glencore’s business continued to play out behind the scenes.

    Figure 37. Glencore (GBP). Equity price performance since IPO on May 19, 2011. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    As Glencore reached the limits of growth within its corporate structure, it badly needed fresh capital, a situation exacerbated by the fact that some of the management team had to be reimbursed within the next couple of years. The initial public offering, which raised 12 billion USD, satisfied that hunger for cash. On May 19, 2011, shares of Glencore were listed for the first time in London at 5.27 GBP. In February 2012, the company announced a merger with Xstrata that would be concluded almost a year later under CEO Ivan Glasenberg. The CEO of Glencore since 2002, Glasenberg had been with the company since 1984 and, with an estimated 5 billion USD net wealth, he became one of the top 10 richest people in Switzerland.
    It turned out that Glencore’s management had cashed out at the peak of the cycle: The share price of the initial IPO has never been reached again. Instead, during a commodity sell-off, shares plunged to 67 GBP on September 28, 2015, a loss of 87 percent since the IPO. In January 2019, however, Glencore’s share price had recovered to 3 GBP, which shows that its business model as a listed company was working.

    Key Takeaways
    •The commodity trading company Glencore had a turbulent history that, until 1993, was determined by one man—Marc Rich, nicknamed “The King of Oil.” Rich had founded Glencore’s predecessor company, Marc Rich + Co AG, in Zug, Switzerland, in 1974.
    •With private wealth of more than 1 billion USD, Rich became the most famous commodity trader by breaking the Seven Sisters cartel, and by becoming the world’s largest independent oil trader. His list of business partners read like a “Who’s Who” of international rogue states and dictatorships.
    •Glencore and other commodity trading companies generally maintain an aura of secrecy, since they prefer to strike their deals in private. However, to overcome financing constraints, Glencore, which was completely owned by its management and employees after 1993, raised 12 billion USD in its initial public offering in May 2011. It merged with mining giant Xstrata one year later and became a leader in both mining and commodity trading.
    •In May 2011, shares of Glencore were listed for the first time in London at 5.27 GBP. In hindsight, that was the top of the cycle; during the following bear market in commodities, the shares plunged to 0.67 GBP in September 2015. Today, shares of Glencore have recovered to 3 GBP.

    39 Rare Earth Mania: Neodymium, Dysprosium, and Lanthanum 2011

    China squeezes the supply of rare earths, and high-tech industries in the United States, Japan, and Europe ring the alarm bell. But the Chinese monopoly can’t be broken quickly. And the resulting sharp rise in rare earth prices lures investors from around the globe.

    “The Middle East has oil. China has rare earths.” —Deng Xiaoping, 1992

    In 2013, geologist Don Bubar bought 4,000 hectares of land in the wilderness of Canada for less than half a million USD, hoping that in a few years the area would be worth billions. Bubar and his company, Avalon Resources, planned to develop a mine for rare earths and to start production by 2015. Gold fever had seized the mining industry. Almost 300 companies worldwide were exploring for rare earths and other exotic metals like lithium, indium, or gallium. Investors were happy to spend their money on these projects, because the supply of rare earths is limited, demand was high, and prices were soaring, reflected in press headlines almost every day.
    Rare earths have become indispensable for modern high-tech applications—in computers, mobile phones, or flat screens, for example, and the growth of regenerative energy can’t be achieved without rare earths in electric/hybrid cars or in wind power plants. But these metals have been at the center of a trade conflict between the main producer, China, and the industrialized countries, a situation that has been worsening over the past few years.

    What Are Rare Earths?

    Rare earths consist of 17 metals: scandium, yttrium, and the lanthanides group of lanthanum, cerium, dysprosium, europium, erbium, gadolinium, holmium, lutetium, neodymium, praseodymium, promethium, samarium, terbium, thulium, and ytterbium. In most deposits, light rare earths (cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and praseodymium) are found in large quantities, while the occurrence of heavy rare earths (yttrium, terbium, and dysprosium among others) is considerably lower.
    One of the most extensively used metals is neodymium, which is indispensable for the production of permanent magnets, that is, magnets that do not discharge. Neodymium is used in mobile phones and computers, wind turbines, and electric/hybrid cars. Each megawatt of power from a wind generator requires between 600 and 1,000 kg of permanent magnets made of iron-boron-neodymium alloys. Moreover, in every wind turbine, there are several hundred kilos of neodymium and dysprosium.
    Lanthanum is also used in many high-tech applications. For example, about one kg of neodymium is needed for the hybrid engine of a Toyota Prius, but the batteries contain about 15 kg of lanthanum. The German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources expects the demand for rare earths to rise to 200,000 metric tons a year. At current prices, this means a market size of 2 billion USD. Compared to other metal markets, such as that for copper, with an annual production volume of almost 20 million metric tons and a market value of almost 140 billion USD, rare earths are a tiny but profitable segment.
    China has dictated world market prices of rare earths, since its production accounts for about 97 percent of the global volume of 120,000 tons per year. China also has almost 40 percent of the world’s reserves, while other significant reserves are located in Russia, the United States, Australia, and India.
    Similar to OPEC’s actions during the oil crises of the 1970s, China has been manipulating exports for years, and the United States, Japan, and Europe have all complained about export restrictions and high export duties. In 2005, exports were around 65,000 metric tons per year, but the volume has shrunk dramatically since then. As a result, prices for rare earths rose sharply from 2005 to 2008, and there was another price push in the third quarter of 2009. For the first half of 2011, the Chinese government announced exports of just 14,500 metric tons, and prices rose again. A kilogram of neodymium in May 2011 cost almost 300 USD, compared to just 40 USD 12 months earlier.
    China also used its dominance in rare earth production as a political weapon. When Japan detained a Chinese ship captain, China banned rare earth exports to Japan in September 2010.

    Figure 38. Rare earth carbonate, neodymium, dysprosium, and lanthanum, 2010–2013. Chinese onshore prices in RMB, indexed 30.12.2009=100. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Over the past 20 years, industrialized nations have maneuvered themselves into this economic dependency. In the mid-1960s, the United States began producing rare earths in the Mountain Pass Mine, in the Mojave Desert of California. Until the late 1990s, this mine alone covered the world’s demand for these metals. Within the industry, this time period is known as the “Mountain Pass era.”

    However, due to environmental constraints and low prices for rare earth metals, the mine closed in 2002. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the Chinese—able to produce the rare earths more cheaply and without worrying about environmental requirements—have begun to flood the world market.
    The main Chinese production comes from Mongolia, where only a few kilometers away from the city of Baotou, with its multimillion population, is Bayan Obo, one of the world’s largest open-air mines.

    It is estimated that up to 35 million metric tons of rare earths—more than half of total Chinese production—come from Bayan Obo. Another large segment of the Chinese supply derives from the southern provinces, where there are numerous small illegal projects in addition to official government mines. Production has its price, however. Processing rare earths generates large amounts of poisonous residues, which leads to heavy pollution by thorium, uranium, heavy metals, acids, and fluorides. Thus, untreated sewage has turned the nearby 12-kilometer-long drinking-water reservoir at Baotou into a waste dump enriched with chemicals and radioactive thorium.

    Bayan Obo in China is the world’s largest mine for rare earth minerals.

    Such heavy environmental damages are ironic, since these rare earths are indispensable to the clean energy industry, especially wind turbines and electric/hybrid cars. There’s no short-term, easy way out of the West’s self-inflicted scarcity. Development of an independent production capacity without environmental problems is a very capital-intensive undertaking. Exploration and exploitation of rare earth deposits is somewhat less problematic; despite their name, rare earths are not really scarce. Even the rarest metal in the group is around 200 times more common than gold.

    Skyrocketing prices of rare earths have attracted many adventurers.

    Skyrocketing prices in 2011 attracted investors and adventurers around the globe, as small mining companies began to search for rare earths and other exotic metals, and investors looked for attractive rare earth deposits to invest in. However, the majority of new rare earth deposits will never be developed or even have the slightest chance to go into production.
    The two most promising companies were Molycorp and Lynas. Molycorp, which had an IPO in 2010, planned to reactivate the Mountain Pass Mine, while Lynas aimed to start production at the Mount Weld Mine in Australia in 2011. All other projects were looking at a planning horizon of at least five years. Meanwhile, the absence of a processing infrastructure was an even greater obstacle than the need for capital-intensive funding.
    In 2015, Molycorp filed for bankruptcy after facing challenging competition and declining rare earth prices. The company was then reorganized as Neo Performance Materials. Lynas successfully got into production and made a first shipment of concentrate in November 2012. Today it operates a mining and concentration plant at Mount Weld and a refining facility in Kuantan, Malaysia. In September 2018, however, the processing facilities in Malaysia came under government review because of environmental concerns, and shares of Lynas began to tumble.
    China will continue to be the dominant source of rare earths, which perfectly fits into the strategic plan issued by Chinese premier Li Keqiang and his cabinet in May 2015: Made in China 2025.

    Key Takeaways
    •The group of 17 rare earth metals, with exotic names like neodymium, dysprosium, or lanthanum, have become indispensable for modern high-tech applications like wind turbines and e-mobility.
    •In 2011, China squeezed the supply of rare earths, using its dominance in rare earth production as a political weapon. Because its production accounts for more than 90 percent of global supply, China has been able to dictate world market prices.
    •High-tech industries in the United States, Japan, and Europe sounded the alarm, but it was impossible to break the Chinese monopoly on the supply of rare earths in the short term. As a consequence, rare earth prices increased sharply, an average of 10 times between 2009 and 2011. Prices of neodymium and dysprosium, which are in the highest demand, increased even more drastically. This price spike attracted global investors who were eager to invest in rare earth deposits.

    40 The End? Crude Oil Down the Drain 2016

    A perfect storm is brewing for the oil market. There is an economic slowdown and too much storage because of contango. The world seems to be floating in oil, whose price falls to 26 USD in February 2016. But the night is always darkest before dawn, and crude oil and other commodities find their multiyear lows.

    “Everybody be cool. You—be cool.” —Seth Gecko in From Dusk till Dawn
    “The crude oil supply glut is gone.” —Nick Cunningham, www.oilprice.com

    The Armageddon of the global financial crisis had been stopped by the massive bailouts and unconventional monetary policy of central banks around the world. As for oil, WTI crashed from almost 150 USD/barrel in June 2008 and traded temporarily below 33 USD during spring 2009. By the end of that year, crude prices had recovered to 80 USD, and between 2011 and 2014 the reference point for crude oil was 100 USD.
    But in hindsight, the summer of 2014 proved to be just the quiet before a massive storm: WTI fell from almost 110 USD to less than 26 USD—a drop of 76 percent, even lower than it had been during the financial crisis. (Actually it was the lowest level for crude prices since 2003.)
    Crude oil was not the only victim. The year 2016 began as an ugly one for all commodities as the Chinese domestic stock market plunged, and many other equity indices around the world followed in a case of Asian contagion. Demand in China was of fundamental importance for commodities because of demographics, growth, and the country’s immense raw material purchases. The US dollar retreated massively from highs of 100 on the Dollar Index, and raw material prices dropped further.

    Figure 39. Crude oil (WTI): recovery and bear market, 2008–2016. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The massive price drop during the financial crisis had caused the term structure for crude oil to flip into contango, in which spot prices are below those of future delivery dates. It made more sense to store oil than to sell it, but the glut in supply overtaxed existing holding facilities, eventually leading to the use of supertankers as floating storage.
    By the end of summer 2015, crude inventories were still rising and prices had started to crash. In early 2016, storage levels had barely declined from their 80-year highs of 490 million barrels in the United States alone, leading to pessimism about the future.
    The International Energy Agency (IEA) noted that crude oil markets could “drown in over-supply” because of rising storage levels around the world. The agency said that the world had added 1 billion barrels of oil in storage in 2015, and storage levels were still rising. Even in the fourth quarter, normally when stocks are drawn down, inventories continued to climb.

    Crude oil crashed because of a massive global supply glut. Oil prices fell to less than 26 USD.

    There were dire warnings that the world could soon run out of storage space for oil, which would depress prices even further. Oil tumbled to its lowest level in more than 12 years, as the crude stockpiled at the delivery point for New York futures reached a record.
    On February 11, 2016, when the S&P 500 index posted a 12 percent loss on the year, the Baltic Dry Index—which measures the shipping activity of dry bulk cargos around the world—fell to an all-time low of 290. The activity in commodity markets came to a halt, and the Bloomberg Commodity Index posted a 30 percent loss on the year. However, February 11 marked the lows for many assets, and the markets began to improve in the weeks and months that followed.

    OPEC and Russia agreed to a joint production cut to fight the supply glut. Finally prices started to recover.

    Capitulation Price Levels

    In early February 2016, the S&P Goldman Sachs Commodity Index and Bloomberg Commodity Index, two important commodity market references, posted double-digit losses. Investors were devastated since 2015 had already been a bloodbath for commodities. Crude oil traded as low as 26 USD/barrel, copper below 2 USD/lb, and even gold traded as low as 1,050 USD/oz. Cryptocurrencies weren’t given much attention from investors at that time. Bitcoins, for example, had a bad year in 2015, trading below 200 BTC/USD, and started to recover in 2016.
    Gold was the first among the group of more than 20 commodities to indicate a turnaround, as prices started to climb, and exceeded its 200-day moving average rather quickly, a strong technical indicator for bullish markets.
    In the face of the massive supply glut, OPEC and Russia agreed to a joint cut in production. It was OPEC’s first agreed cut since 2008, when oil prices collapsed late in the year after hitting record levels during the summer. And it had the potential to restore some longer-term stability to the global oil market. The wild card was renewed production in the United States, pushed by shale oil and fracking on the back of rising prices. Some feared that this could simply end up prolonging the glut and pushing prices back down.
    But there was also evidence that the massive inventories of raw materials were declining, and demand was finally picking up. And demographic trends continued to support the rationale that more people in the world would require more commodities in the years ahead. Both classic economic theory and common sense dictate that as demand rises, inventories fall and prices rise.

    Figure 40. Commodity performance in 2016. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Meanwhile commodity prices were rising, with gold leading the way. The precious yellow metal traded to more than 1,380 USD in the wake of Britain’s Brexit vote, and silver shot up above 21 USD. Crude oil rose from just above 26 USD per barrel in February to more than 50 USD at the beginning of October. The price of sugar increased from 10 US cents per pound in August 2015 to more than 24 US cents on September 29, 2016. The prices of iron ore, zinc, tin, nickel, and lead all posted double-digit gains in 2016. In perhaps the most optimistic signal for commodity markets, the Baltic Dry Index rose from 290 in February to 915 in early October, an increase of more than 215 percent.

    Crude oil prices doubled from their lows in 2009, and commodities started to shine again.

    It appeared that prices for raw materials had reached a significant bottom. Commodities as an asset class posted impressive gains, rising by more than 20 percent from its lows in 2016 to the end of the year. WTI more than doubled in that period to above 55 USD/barrel.
    Production cuts that had been in place since the start of 2017 helped halve the excess of global oil stocks, although, according to OPEC, those remained above the five-year average, at 140 million barrels. It was not until May 2018 that OPEC said the global oil supply surplus had nearly been eliminated.

    Key Takeaways
    •“Super-contango” had caused a massive supply glut in crude oil, during which storage facilities for WTI in Cushing, Oklahoma, reached maximum capacity: The world seemed to be floating in oil, and WTI crashed from almost 110 USD to less than 26 USD in February 2016—a drop of 76 percent and the lowest level for crude oil prices since 2003.
    •During 2016, the Chinese domestic stock market plunged, and many other equity indices around the world followed, leading commodity markets lower as well. However, in spring 2016, commodity markets found a bottom, and commodities as an asset class posted impressive gains over the full year, rising by more than 20 percent. The price of WTI more than doubled in that period to more than 55 USD/barrel.
    •Nevertheless, it would take until May 2018 until OPEC confirmed that the global oil supply surplus had nearly been eliminated.

    41 Electrification: The Evolution of Battery Metals 2017

    Elon Musk and Tesla are setting the pace for a mega trend: electrification! Demand from automobile manufacturers, utilities, and consumers pushes lithium-based battery usage to new heights. For commodity markets, it is not only lithium and cobalt but also traditional metals like copper and nickel that are suddenly in high demand again. Electrification might prove to be the “new China” for commodity markets in the long term.

    “Tesla is here to stay and keep fighting for the electric car revolution.” —Elon Musk

    The year 2016 issued a wake-up call for the automotive and oil industries. OPEC, the mighty oil cartel, massively revised its growth expectations for electric vehicles (EVs) upward by 500 percent. Instead of the 46 million EVs by 2040 it had envisioned in 2015, OPEC was now looking at a forecast of 266 million EVs.
    If those projections turn out to be correct, by 2040 demand for oil could fall by 8 million barrels a day. That is about what the United States currently produces in a day, or roughly 8 percent of global consumption. (The world consumes almost 100 million barrels of crude oil every day, of which 75 percent is related to the transportation sector.)

    Elon Musk and Tesla

    Elon Musk, founder and CEO of SpaceX, Tesla, and Neuralink, was born in Pretoria, South Africa, in 1971. As of February 2018, Musk had a net worth in excess of 20 billion USD and was listed by Forbes as the 53rd-richest person in the world. In December 2016, he was ranked 21st on the Forbes list of “The World’s Most Powerful People.” Musk also founded PayPal, which was bought by eBay for 1.5 billion USD in October 2002.
    Tesla, based in Palo Alto, California, specializes in electric vehicles (EVs), lithium-ion battery energy storage, and solar-panel manufacturing through its subsidiary company SolarCity. Tesla operates multiple production and assembly plants near Reno, Nevada, while its main vehicle-manufacturing facility is in Fremont, California. The Gigafactory in Reno primarily produces batteries and battery packs for Tesla vehicles and energy storage products. According to Bloomberg, over the past 12 months Tesla has been burning money at a clip of about 8,000 USD a minute (roughly 500,000 USD an hour).
    In 2017 Tesla produced and sold 100,000 cars. It might be the beginning of a revolution, but so far EVs are hardly making a dent. German automakers BMW, Mercedes, and Audi together sold 6.6 million cars, and for these traditional car companies, the electric catchup has just started. In Germany, new car registrations of EVs reached 55,000, half of which were plug-in hybrids. This represented 1.6 percent of the new car market, based on 3.4 million new cars in Germany. Compared to 43.8 million total cars in use in that country, it was basically a grain of sand in the desert.

    EVs made up 1.6 percent of new car registrations in car-crazy Germany in 2017. However, Bloomberg New Energy Finance estimates that by 2040, EVs will make up to 40 percent of global new car registrations—tremendous growth!

    Currently China makes up half of the global EV market, according to the International Energy Agency’s Global EV Outlook 2018. In 2017, China sold 579,000 EVs, a 72 percent increase compared to 2016. Meanwhile, the global stock of electric passenger cars exceeded 3 million last year.
    But compared to the bigger picture, that’s merely a drop of water in the ocean, since according to BMI Research, the global car fleet can be estimated at around 1.2 billion cars. And global sales of passenger cars are forecast to exceed 81 million vehicles in 2018. Along with China, the United States is among the largest automobile markets worldwide, in terms of both production and sales.
    Therefore, it is all about the future as automakers start to expand their business into the electric mobility sector. Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) estimates that by 2040, global EV penetration of new car registration could reach 35 to 40 percent.

    Figure 41. Cobalt prices, 2012–2018. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    For commodity markets, this might signal the beginning of an avalanche, as electric cars demand additional raw materials. For example, studies done by the investment bank UBS and BNEF suggest that by 2040 there will be a significant surplus demand for graphite, nickel, aluminum, copper, lithium, cobalt, and manganese. Other commodities, like crude oil, steel, as well as platinum and palladium, would be negatively affected.

    For commodity markets, the mega trend of electrification could turn out to be an enormous new source of demand.

    Prices for cobalt and lithium, which are both essential for different types of batteries, are experiencing a bull market. Lithium-based batteries first had commercial applications a couple of years ago. Now we have them in almost all mobile devices: laptops, smartphones, electric tools, and cars. Gigafactories have been ramped up in the United States and China, and battery prices are falling because of economics of scale and scope. That, in turn, triggers new applications.

    Figure 42. Benchmark Lithium Index, 2012–2018. Data: Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, 2019.

    Tesla might lose its leadership in electric cars, but Elon Musk kicked off a revolution in electrification and energy usage—a revolution that works to the good of humanity and, as a side benefit, will be good for commodity markets as well.
    The electrification of the automobile industry is a gigantic step, but only the tip of an iceberg. The ability to store energy is the missing link in growing alternative (wind, solar, and water) energy production. By 2025, power banks and power walls—instruments for decentralized energy storage at home, for example—might exceed sales for lithium-based batteries for the car industry. And this market is much bigger and promises much higher growth!

    Key Takeaways
    •There is a bull market for battery metals like lithium and cobalt, as battery-producing facilities shoot up like mushrooms. Prices for cobalt quadrupled from 25,000 to 100,000 USD per ton in 2017.
    •Elon Musk and Tesla are at the forefront of a mega trend in electrification. Although sales of electric vehicles today are minuscule, industry estimates peg them at 40 percent of global new car registrations by 2040. We might be witnessing the beginning of a revolution.
    •E-mobility is the first step, but energy storage is the missing link to alternative energy production by wind, sun, and water.
    •Together, e-mobility and energy storage might prove to be the “new China” for commodity markets in the long term, since demand is climbing not only for lithium and cobalt, but also for traditional metals like copper and nickel.

    42 Crypto Craze: Bitcoins and the Emergence of Cryptocurrencies 2018

    Bitcoins, the first modern cryptocurrency, emerged in 2009, described in a white paper the previous year by the pseudonymous Satoshi Nakamoto. The value of bitcoins explodes in 2017 from below 1,000 to above 20,000 USD, attracting worldwide attention. This stellar price rise, followed by a crash of almost 80 percent in 2018, makes bitcoins the biggest financial bubble in history, dwarfing even the Dutch tulip mania of the 17th century. Despite the boom and bust, the future looks bright, as underlying blockchain technology reveals its potential and starts to revolutionize daily life.

    “[Bitcoin/Blockchain] is the next major IT revolution that is about to happen.” —Steve “Woz” Wozniak, co-founder of Apple
    “With all of the calls of ‘bubble,’ it’s worth remembering that we’re in the early stages of global adoption as well as the early stages of development of the technology.” —Ari Paul, Forbes

    The punch came fast. Before boarding a flight to leave the country on April 1, 2018, Robert Farkas, co-founder of Centra Tech, was arrested by local criminal authorities in the United States. Half a year earlier, in September 2017, celebrity boxer Floyd Mayweather had posted happy pictures of himself living la dolce vita, spending money in expensive shops in Beverly Hills with his cryptocurrency-based Centra card.
    Farkas and his Centra Tech co-founder Sohrab “Sam” Sharma had claimed to offer a debit card, backed by Visa and Mastercard, that would allow people to convert cryptocurrency to US dollars to spend on everyday goods. The Securities and Exchange Commission alleged that Centra had no relationship with either card company. Sharma and Farkas had created fake biographies of fictional executives and paid celebrities to tout the upcoming initial coin offering (ICO)—an unregulated process by which a company can issue a new digital coin in exchange for real money—and the promise of quick riches on social media. Sharma and Farkas had swindled about 32 million USD from investors.
    Centra Tech is just one example of multiple scams and frauds in the crypto and ICO market in 2018, but it was dwarfed by other ICO scams like Modern Tech, which had made off with more than 660 million USD.
    It is still pioneer days in the technology sector, where ICOs are more popular and better known than companies’ traditional initial public offerings (IPOs). ICOs have quickly become a more important source of project funding than endless discussions with venture capital companies. There’s a dark side, however. The opportunities of a fast-developing market always attract fraud and black sheep. That is part of the game.

    The bitcoin was born in 2009. Today, more than 2,000 alternative coins exist.

    December 2018 is still the Wild West in an industry that is barely 10 years old. Bitcoins (BTC), described in a white paper in November 2008 and first released as open-source software in January 2009 by the pseudonymous Satoshi Nakamoto, are generally considered the first decentralized cryptocurrency. It was originally created as an alternative, decentralized payment method. Since then, more than 2,000 alternative coin variants have been created. Like Napster 10 years earlier, the system works without a central bank, as a peer-to-peer network in which transactions take place directly between users, without an intermediary. Blockchain is the technology behind cryptocurrencies, and it is fast becoming a platform for a vast number of innovations in peer-to-peer transactions.
    A blockchain is a cryptographically protected distributed ledger. It’s what protects you or anyone else from making a copy of that bitcoin you just bought. In fact, anything that you can make a mental list of, you can manage with blockchains—everything from tracking land and real estate ownership to the way we distribute medicine and how we grant certificates and diplomas. Some of these ideas are brilliant, while others are ridiculous.

    Digital Assets, Cryptocurrencies, and Tokens

    A digital asset is anything that exists in a binary format and comes with the right to use it, while the term “cryptocurrency” refers to coins that fulfill the characteristics of standard paper-based money (fiat money). The characteristics are its function as a store of value, a unit of account, and fungibility. Examples include bitcoin, ethereum’s ether, and ripple’s XRP. Note that ethereum and ripple refer to the underlying blockchain and not to their cryptocurrencies. Crypto tokens are similar to cryptocurrencies in that they are built on blockchains.
    Cryptocurrencies are the most common form of tokens, but crypto tokens are broader representations of a blockchain’s value. That value is manifested across a diverse range—from cryptocurrencies to loyalty points and even to assets built on the blockchain.
    Ethereum, for example, is the underlying blockchain for several tokens that use its platform to develop services and products. The difference between cryptocurrencies and crypto tokens becomes important within the context of investment. For example, cryptocurrency valuation is derived from a coin’s success in adhering to the characteristics of money. On the other hand, crypto token valuations depend on a different set of factors, such as protocol adoption and robustness.
    Originally, cryptocurrencies were designed to offer a decentralized alternative to traditional fiat currencies. Even at peak valuation in December 2017, bitcoins—plus the sum of all other cryptocurrencies a decade after their invention—represented just a fraction of physical money in US dollars, euros, pound sterling, or yen in terms of value. In volume, bitcoins are still by far the biggest cryptocurrency, followed by ether, ripple, and dash. In 2018, the 500 biggest coins had a combined market capitalization of 500 billion USD, of which bitcoins made up two-thirds. Physical US dollar notes in circulation are valued at 1.5 trillion USD, and that is only a minor fraction of the total US dollar supply. Next in line is physical gold, whose circulating value is estimated at 8 trillion USD, before taking the whole currency market into consideration. All fiat currencies together add up to a value of 83 trillion USD, which includes all physical money in circulation and electronic, that is, virtual money.
    Another important factor is the concentration of holdings. About 40 percent of bitcoins are held by perhaps 1,000 users. The top 100 bitcoin addresses control 17.3 percent of all the issued currency, according to Alex Sunnarborg, co-founder of the crypto hedge fund Tetras Capital. That’s important, since the cryptocurrency was designed to reach a maximum of 21 million bitcoins. Bitcoins are added by “mining,” a process by which transactions are verified and added to the public ledger. Currently, one bitcoin is added approximately every 10 minutes. With ether, the top 100 addresses control 40 percent of the supply, and with smaller currencies top coin holders control more than 90 percent because many of them are members of the teams running these projects.
    Bitcoins were first explained to the public as a form of digital money, and that is how its successors and competitors like litecoin and ether have been framed as well. Each of these currencies resembles traditional money in certain ways: They are abstractions of economic value and can be traded. But none of them offers the most basic role of a currency as a relatively stable medium of exchange. There is too much friction involved. Each transaction takes too long, uses too much energy, and involves too many risks.

    Bitcoins are more than digital money.

    The biggest problems with bitcoins have emerged because the mechanics of buying and holding them are so inscrutable that nearly everyone pays third parties to handle them. Those wallet-service middlemen become points of failure for the whole system. They get hacked, their systems go down, and they are ordered by governments and regulators to report transactions that users thought would be anonymous.

    The Mt. Gox Heist

    Launched in 2010 by Jed McCaleb, who later founded ripple, Mt. Gox, by 2013, had become the largest bitcoin exchange in the world. Based in Shibuya, an area in Tokyo, Japan, at that point Mt. Gox was handling more than 70 percent of all bitcoin transactions worldwide. In June 2011, when Mt. Gox was acquired by Mark Karpelès, the company was hacked the first time, and 2,000 bitcoins were stolen. As a consequence, a number of security measures were initiated, including arranging for a substantial number of bitcoins to be taken offline and held in cold storage. As a result of an investigation by the US Department of Homeland Security regarding the company’s license, the US government seized more than 5 million USD from Mt. Gox, and the company had to announce a temporary suspension of US dollar withdrawals. But that was not the biggest problem. As it turned out, the company had been the victim of an ongoing hack for more than two years.
    In February 2014, Mt. Gox suspended trading, closed its website and exchange service, filed for bankruptcy protection in Japan and the United States, and began liquidation proceedings soon after. The crypto exchange announced that approximately 850,000 bitcoins belonging to customers and the company were missing (valued today at 4.2 billion USD). Although 200,000 bitcoins were eventually recovered, the remaining 650,000 have never been found.
    CEO Mark Karpelès was arrested in August 2015 in Japan and charged with fraud and embezzlement and manipulating the Mt. Gox computer system to increase the balance in an account. US authorities followed the trail of money, and in July 2017 Alexander Vinnik was arrested in Greece and charged with playing a key role in the laundering of bitcoins stolen from Mt. Gox. Vinnik is alleged to be associated with BTC-e, an established bitcoin exchange, which was raided by the FBI as part of the investigation. The BTC-e site has been shut down, and the domain has been seized by the FBI. But no money has been found so far.
    What is a fair price for a bitcoin? Is it 1 or 100,000 USD? Some financial analysts today emphasize that bitcoins have no intrinsic value at all, and some economists refer to the Fisher equation, which pins the current value of a bitcoin to 20 to 25 USD in regard to the total available number of bitcoins, transaction speed, and trading volume. But it’s important to note that for this equation it is not the status quo but the future potential of the technology and application that is relevant for a bitcoin’s value. And it is hard to see limits to the application of blockchain technology.

    In May 2010 Laszlo Hanyecz bought two pizzas in Jacksonville, Florida, for 10,000 BTC. It was the first real-world bitcoin transaction.

    Bitcoins became a hot topic in 2017 in the financial mainstream because of tremendous price fluctuations. Let’s take a step back: Prices initially were measured in US cents and single-digit US dollars in the land of Dungeons and Dragons or World of Warcraft. But on May 22, 2010, Laszlo Hanyecz made the first real-world bitcoin transaction by buying two pizzas in Jacksonville, Florida, for 10,000 BTC, valuing one bitcoin at 0.003 USD. One year later, in spring 2011, bitcoins were traded at parity with US dollars. And six years after that, on December 17, 2017, bitcoins surpassed 20,000 USD for the first time.

    Bitcoins traded at 0.03 USD in May 2010 and above 20,000 USD in December 2017.

    That same month, in December 2017, the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) introduced and listed futures contracts on bitcoins in the commodity segment, allowing a hot speculative bubble to unfold. Bitcoins became commoditized and open to new investors and the mainstream, beyond the niche of electronic wallets. Until then, bitcoin and other cryptocurrency trading had been limited to specialized exchanges like Bitfinex, Kraken, or OKCoin, where you had to exchange US dollars or euros into bitcoins with your electronic wallet, though bitcoins were exchangeable into any other cryptocurrency. From its high in December, bitcoins crashed to below 6,000 USD within two weeks.

    Figure 43. Price of bitcoins surpassed 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and finally 20,000 USD in 2017. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In December 2018, bitcoins tumbled below 3,500 USD to a 13-month low before stabilizing. The slide fueled a sell-off among rival tokens ether, litecoin, and XRP. After months of stability at around 6,000 to 6,500 USD, bitcoins and other cryptocurrencies had lost more than 700 billion USD in market capitalization since their peak in December 2017.
    Regulatory concerns played a role, as the US Securities and Exchange Commission announced penalties against two companies that hadn’t registered their initial coin offerings as securities. Also, the US Justice Department was in the process of investigating whether the previous year’s rally was fueled by market manipulation.
    As Robert Shiller noted in his book Irrational Exuberance, it is impossible to spot a bubble and time its burst if you are part of it. That is possible only in hindsight. But after the stellar rise from less than 1 USD before 2011 and the crash by almost 80 percent from its December 2017 peak, the verdict is official: The bitcoin craze is the biggest financial bubble in history! It even dwarfs the tulip mania of the 17th century, which had previously exceeded every historic financial market bubble, including the Mississippi or South Sea Bubble, the run-up in equity prices before the busts of the Great Depression and Black Friday, or—more recently—the dot-com bubble and the rally before the world financial crisis hit in 2008.

    It may comfort investors that an 80 percent crash is not a unique event in the crypto space. In the past five years, the value of bitcoins was cut in half three times, and crashed by more than 25 percent 16 times, only to rise to new highs until 2018. Think back . . . how many years did it take to recover your losses from the dot-com bubble? Measured by the NASDAQ Composite, on average that took about 15 years! In the past, recoveries in the crypto universe have been much faster.

    The year 2013 was a rough ride for bitcoins. And the Mt. Gox heist almost became an extinction event for the cryptocurrency.

    In percentage terms, the bitcoin crashes of 2013 were almost as bloody as 2018. Prices ran up from a couple of US dollars to more than 1,200 USD, before plummeting. In April 2013, bitcoin prices fell from 230 to 67 USD overnight, a massive 70 percent drop in 12 hours. It took seven months to recover. After April, bitcoin prices hovered around 100 to 120 USD until later in the year, when prices suddenly skyrocketed to 1,200 USD in late November. However, in December the price tumbled back to less than half of that.
    Adding to the long road of recovery after the collapse in December 2013 was the Mt. Gox scandal. Bitcoins steadily increased in price through January and February, when they suddenly dropped by nearly 50 percent from 880 to below 500 USD because of the Mt. Gox heist.

    Figure 44. Historic bitcoin price corrections, 2013–2017. Data: Coindesk.com.

    One of the results of the erratic price swings of 2013–2014 is the emergence of an active cryptocurrency trading scene with its own slang, a special language established by crypto enthusiasts. The term “HODL” is probably the best known. During a massive price crash in 2013, someone called “GameKyuubi,” apparently drunk, posted “I AM HODLING” in a Bitcoin Talk forum. What the user in the post wanted to convey was the fact that despite the sharp drop in price, he was choosing to hold on to his bitcoins. The post went viral, and #HODL has been interpreted as “Hold On for Dear Life,” which corresponds to “Buy & Hold,” an investment strategy every long-term investor can relate to.

    #HODL. Hold On for Dear Life.

    Crypto slang today is very colorful, with a multitude of new terms and phrases whose meanings go way beyond their traditional definitions. There are words and abbreviations such as “mooning,” “fudding,” ADDY, JOMO, BTFD, and DYOR—the list goes on and on. HODL, however, is by far the most popular of these terms, and one that almost all cryptocurrency investors can identify with.

    Anti-money-laundering measures and the Chinese ban on cryptocurrencies and ICOs weighed heavily on bitcoins in 2018.

    How does one account for the extraordinary bitcoin rally and its bust? Originally, bitcoins were founded to redistribute value and move money away from banks and other financial institutions to people. Anyone could become a bank, a payment service, or a lender. But bitcoins and other cryptocurrencies also became a loophole for money laundering and capital flight. Because of the low level of legal regulation, the use of cryptocurrency spread into the shadow economy. The implementation of an automatic exchange of information in 2017 led to last-minute panic as a new global standard on the automatic exchange of information targeted tax evaders. The new system provides for the exchange of non-resident financial account information with the tax authorities in the account holders’ country of residence. Data was exchanged for the first time in September 2017, but the majority of the 100-plus jurisdictions had implemented the system by January 1, 2018.

    The Top 5 Crypto Billionaires in 2018

    1.Chris Larsen (57), co-founder of ripple, owns 5.2 billion XRP, the token launched by ripple, whose current value is 8 billion USD.
    2.Joseph Lubin (53), co-founder of ethereum, has an estimated wealth of 1–5 billion USD.
    3.Changpeng Zhao (41), founder and CEO of Binance, the world’s largest cryptocurrency exchange, has an estimated wealth of 1–2 billion USD.
    4.Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss (36) were early investors in bitcoins and the founders of Gemini in 2015. Their estimated wealth is 0.9–1.1 billion USD.
    5.Matthew Mellon (45), an early investor in ripple’s XRP, has an estimated wealth of 0.9–1 billion USD.
    Source: Business Insider, 2018.

    Capital flight has also worried the government of China. By buying bitcoins, the Chinese have been able to move funds abroad. In September 2017, renminbi-to-bitcoin trades made up more than 90 percent of all bitcoin transactions. The government outlawed fiat money from being used in cryptocurrency purchases and even imposed travel bans on Huobi and OKCoin executives, two of the nation’s largest crypto exchanges. Chinese regulatory authorities also imposed a ban on ICOs and finally termed them illegal in China in September 2017. Huobi was forced to move its operations to Singapore, while OKCoin, renamed OKEx, was embraced by Malta. Many Chinese simply transferred their bitcoins to the now-offshore exchanges and carried on trading—until February 2018.
    That February, the People’s Bank of China (PBOC), which is the central regulatory authority, issued a statement that “it will block access to all domestic and foreign cryptocurrency exchanges and ICO websites,” basically shutting down all cryptocurrency activities in the country. And the authorities were not bluffing: In April 2018, police stormed a large-scale bitcoin mining operation in the city of Tianjin and confiscated 600 computers in the raid

    For bitcoins and blockchains, 2018 was like 1992 for the internet—early days. To reveal the cryptocurrency’s full potential, another 10 years are needed.

    The Chinese government has been successful in imposing stricter capital controls, banning bitcoin trading and ICOs, and shielding its people from bad influences by its Great Firewall. But China will not be able to turn back time for blockchain technology and its applications.
    The blockchains and cryptocurrencies will achieve their full potential in a decade, said Steve Wozniak, co-founder of Apple, in 2018, and according to Jack Dorsey, CEO of Twitter, bitcoins will become the world’s “single currency.” Previously, from 2014 to 2017, Jamie Dimon, CEO of JPMorgan Chase, was regularly quoted about his views of bitcoins: “Bitcoin is a fraud,” he said, as well as “Bitcoin will not survive,” and “Bitcoin is going nowhere.” In 2018, Jamie Dimon regretted that he had called bitcoin a fraud but still remained bearish. Meanwhile, earlier in that year, overwhelmed by client demand, JPMorgan Chase’s top rival, Goldman Sachs, announced the setup of a cryptocurrency trading desk.
    As for a distributed ledger technology like blockchain, its situation today is like that of the internet in 1992, with immense potential but a steep and messy learning curve. Every successful new technology undergoes an explosion of growth in which we try to use it for everything, until time reveals what the best applications and limitations are. Investing in dot-com stocks in the late 1990s was a roller-coaster ride, and many of the pioneers in that field ultimately failed. The real impact of the internet has taken decades to unfold, but the future of e-commerce and society has been changed forever.

    Blockchain technology has the potential to be just as impactful over time. Just as with the dot-com bubble, backing any single player in the crypto craze is like placing a bet on 27 red in a game of roulette. It is too early and the outcomes are too uncertain to identify potential winners. However, with the digital revolution we are experiencing right now, the economic landscape will be transformed in drastic ways. And, despite its sins of adolescence and the irrational exuberance of crypto trading’s early years, crypto tokens and blockchain technology have already begun to revolutionize our world. The applications in real estate, property, banking and financial services, and health care, just to name a few, are limitless and can only be compared with the development of the internet or the rise of smartphone applications. It might be that we are witnessing the first glimpse of a tokenized and coin-based economy. The future looks bright.

    Key Takeaways
    •Bitcoins were introduced in 2009 as an alternative, decentralized payment method using blockchain technology. Today more than 2,000 alternative coins (“altcoins”) exist.
    •Over 10 years the price of bitcoins rose from 0.003 USD in 2010 to 1 USD in 2011, to more than 1,000 USD in 2017. It exceeded 20,000 USD in December 2017, but within weeks, bitcoins dropped by almost 80 percent to below 3,500 USD in December 2018.
    •This tremendous boom and bust has made bitcoins the biggest financial bubble in history, greater even than the Dutch tulip mania of 1637.
    •The boom and bust of 2017–2018 has been associated with the Chinese ban on cryptocurrencies and ICOs, as well as anti-money-laundering measures like the implementation of automatic exchange of financial information in more than 100 countries. The beginnings of new disruptive technologies often attract black sheep and fraud, and many of the ICOs did turn out to be scams.
    •For bitcoins and blockchain applications, it is still early days. To reveal their true potential, another decade is needed. But from today’s perspective, the applications seem limitless.

    Outlook: The Dawn of a New Cycle and a New Era

    We are at the dawn of the 2020s and the commodity and crypto markets are in the starting blocks for a new rally. At the beginning of 2016, commodity investors looked back on five painful bear market years. In 2015, the Bloomberg Commodity Index, which measures the performance of 22 commodities like crude oil, gold, copper, wheat, and corn, lost 25 percent of value. And it got worse: In January 2016, commodity markets traded down an additional 7 percent. The Bloomberg Commodity Index was trading at its lowest level since its inception in 1991. Since spring 2014, investors had lost almost half of their invested funds. Investors in gold and silver mining companies, in particular, were hit hardest. The Arca Gold BUGS Index and Philadelphia Gold and Silver Index, both representing the biggest gold and silver mines, traded down to levels last reached at the beginning of 2000, when a troy ounce of gold was 260 USD.

    From summer 2011 to the beginning of 2016, investors saw 80 percent of their principal vanish into thin air, while gold in the same period traded down from above 1,900 USD to 1,050 USD (–45 percent). Mining in general suffered greatly. Market capitalization of companies included in the MSCI World Metals & Mining Index dropped by more than 80 percent since their peak valuation during the commodity super cycle in 2008. Shares of Glencore, the biggest mining and commodity trading company in the world, traded down to 67 GBP at the end of September 2015. From its highest prices in 2011, investors lost more than 80 percent of their capital. Compared to its closing price of 527 GBP for its initial public offering in May 2011, this represented a loss of shareholder value of almost 90 percent!
    Market exaggerations drove credit default swaps for mining companies into the stratosphere. For example, Glencore’s 2.5 percent yielding bond, maturing in 2019, dropped by 25 percent within three months to 75 US cents per dollar, offering a yield to maturity of more than 17 percent per year for investors. The same held true, for example, for bonds of Freeport-McMoRan, Teck Resources, First Quantum, or Lundin Mining, all large cap mining companies. Investors anticipated the bankruptcy of a whole industry.

    Figure 45. 50 years of commodity markets ups and downs. Did we see the beginning of a new bullish cycle in 2016? Data: Bloomberg, 2019

    .In retrospect, we witnessed capitulation levels at the beginning of the year 2016. However, bold investors were able to make a killing in commodities during an early recovery. Compared to January 2016, gold mines tripled in value in just half of a year while gold gained 30 percent. Shares of Glencore approached 300 GBP, quadrupling in value compared to its lows just a couple of months before.
    While commodity markets crumbled and value in mining evaporated, world equity and bond markets celebrated the time of their life. MSCI World increased steadily after its drop by almost 60 percent during the financial crisis of 2008–2009. In the United States, the Dow Jones and S&P 500 were both trading at all-time highs in late 2016 and continued their path of success until January 2018. At the same time, yields of 10-year bonds in the United States fell below 1.5 percent, while in Europe, German 10-year bonds dropped into negative territory. Bond investors woke up every day believing their party would never stop.
    Looking at the long-term relationship between equities and commodities by taking the ratio of S&P Goldman Sachs Commodity Index versus the S&P 500, one fact is striking: Relative valuation is extreme. Compared to equities, commodities have been stuck in the penalty box since the China-fueled commodity super cycle burst. Similar to the tech bubble 15 years ago, Alphabet (Google) today is valued equal to the aggregated market capitalization of all companies included in MSCI World Metals & Mining Index (more than 180 companies, including mining giants like BHP Group, Rio Tinto, Glencore, Vale, Barrick Gold, and Newmont Mining)! One has to ask: What is cheap, and what is expensive?

    Figure 46. Relative valuation of commodities versus equities. Buy commodities! Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Therefore, it is no surprise that after a severe five-year bear market, a 15 percent rise in commodity markets in 2016 passed the majority of investors unnoticed. From their intra-year lows, commodity market indices like the Bloomberg Commodity Index (BCOM), S&P Goldman Sachs Commodity Index (S&P GSCI), and Rogers International Commodity Index (RICI) all gained more than 25 percent and surpassed equity-index performance. Furthermore, metals and mining as well as oil and gas led the equity-index sector performance in the United States and Europe, but fund manager surveys show that investors continued to be massively underweighted in resources equities.
    Recent history aside, investors can refer to several commodity markets that are still in oversupply. But in terms of supply-demand imbalances following the boom of the commodity super cycle, the worst is behind us. Slashes of industry investments in mining, as well as in oil and gas, will have brutal results in 2020–2030, when natural depletion will combine with and outweigh reduced exploration and development expenditures. With fundamental market data for commodities just starting to improve, commodity prices reached a technical bottom. A shift of the 200-day moving average to the upside in April 2016 was a first positive sign for a bullish market environment in commodities in the future.
    In conclusion, 2016 might prove to have been the dawn of a new cycle for commodity investors, a multiyear period of rising prices, which also reflects healthy prospects for the global mining industry. In the coming years, new trends like battery metals for electrification, e-mobility, and the megatrend of digitalization, which includes cryptocurrencies, will become an important and enormous driver for productivity, growth, and commodity markets. Electric vehicles might not need gasoline or diesel, but demand for gold, copper, nickel, cobalt, lithium, and rare earths increases drastically. If this scenario holds true, we witnessed the beginning of a new cycle which can only be compared to the awakening of the Chinese economy almost 20 years ago. It is also the beginning of a more mature stage in blockchain and bitcoins, as the exuberance of the early years is gone and opens the path to future applications.

    Epilogue

    “Commodities tend to zig when the equity markets zag.” —Jim Rogers, commodity expert and co-founder of the Quantum Fund

    Let us take a short time trip back to the year 2001. The average price for a barrel of crude oil was 26 USD. In the course of the year, the price of a ton of copper dropped from 1,800 to below 1,400 USD. Gold traded between 255 and 293 USD per troy ounce and made its first serious attempt in modern times to jump above 300 USD.

    Prices for wheat and corn averaged 2.70 and 2.08 USD per bushel. The terror attacks of 9/11 on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, which killed about 3,000 people, were the most traumatizing events in 2001. Although the head of Al-Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, was shot in an elite U.S military mission in 2011, the war against global terrorism still has not been won today, almost 20 years later. But at least a military victory against the Islamic State seems imminent. In the White House, Democrat Bill Clinton was replaced by Republican George W. Bush; 15 years later Republican Donald Trump took over the presidency from charismatic Democrat Barack Obama. Cynical observers note that 9/11 has been replaced by 11/9, the date Donald Trump’s election was announced.

    In 2001, commodities as a professionally recognized and investable asset class were still in their infancy. The Bloomberg Commodity Index, as a measure of commodity market performance, had been launched just a few years earlier, in 1998, as the Dow Jones AIG Commodity Index. Alternative investments in addition to traditional investments in equities and bonds have since become more fashionable, thanks to the investment strategies of endowment funds such as those at Yale and Harvard Universities. In 2005, Gary Gorton and K. Geert Rouwenhorst published “Facts and Fantasies about Commodity Futures,” which also helped anchor commodities as an integral part of a global asset allocation.

    At the end of 2001, China entered the World Trade Organization (WTO), an event that marked the beginning of rapid growth of the Chinese economy and caused massive turbulence for global commodity markets. Within a few years, China had evolved as a dominant factor in global commodity demand, and the commodity super cycle was born.

    Crude oil reached 147 USD per barrel, copper traded above 10,000 USD per ton, gold surpassed 1,900 USD per troy ounce, and wheat and corn shot up to 9.50 and 8.40 USD per bushel. But depression followed euphoria in the form of years of sluggish growth in the aftermath of the global financial and economic crisis. The year 2008 was an annus horribilis for global capital markets, as equity and commodity markets dropped by more than 50 percent. A period of deleveraging and sluggish growth followed a nonsustainable recovery. Thereafter, commodity markets faced five years of a severe bear market.
    Today, approaching 2020, we are witnessing the starting point of a new commodity bull market and a maturing of the market for cryptocurrencies. The exuberance of the commodity super cycle is gone, invested assets are rising again for the first time in years, and commodity market performance is up ahead of equities. The price of a barrel of oil tested a low of 26 USD during spring 2016 but has since nearly tripled from that level. Copper traded in excess of 6,000 USD per ton. Gold rose above 1,300 USD per troy ounce. In the agricultural sector, wheat and corn prices averaged 4.80 and 3.60 USD per bushel. From a technical perspective, bottom building was completed in 2016, as commodities went above their 200-day moving average and created a bullish chart pattern in 2017. Nevertheless, even at the start of 2019 the majority of commodities still traded way below their medium- to long-term average prices, and bitcoins are in a phase of bottom-building.
    In hindsight, 2016 proved to be the turning point for commodities, as fundamentals started to improve, prices recovered, and the way was cleared for a new market cycle.
    The 42 chapters of this book show, on the one hand, that commodity market speculation was not invented in this decade. On the contrary, in the 1980s and 1990s commodities had only disappeared from investors’ radar screens, while the 1970s also saw tremendous commodity price spikes. Many of the episodes described here—from the Dutch tulip mania in the 17th century to the fantastic rise and fall of bitcoins in the 21st century—show how dramatically temporary imbalances on the supply or demand side can affect individual commodity markets. The real economic consequences should not be underestimated, as unlike stocks, bonds, or currencies, commodities are real assets. Political unrest and failing governments because of high food prices in Africa, which led to the Arab Spring, or current instabilities in Venezuela and Brazil due to low oil prices, are only two examples.
    Tulips and bitcoins are linked as the two biggest financial bubbles in history, despite nearly 400 years between them. Meanwhile markets and events have given rise to 40 fantastic stories from the commodity world. The wheel of time continues to turn, and due to the cyclical nature of commodity markets, extreme events are doomed to repeat themselves, albeit in a modified form. Each market is determined in its extreme phase by greed and fear; and the short memory of capital markets is proverbial anyway.
    The episodes summarized in this book are meant to highlight the booms and busts of commodity and crypto markets. Besides extreme price fluctuations, this book aims to show an insider’s perspective on speculation, gains, and losses that determine individual fates. The extent and velocity of price spikes are stunning, even for long-term investors. Linking commodity market events over several hundred years demonstrates the parallels among events in the past and prepares us for future developments including blockchain and bitcoins.

    Glossary of Terms

    AddyShort version of “address,” usually meaning your public key or the address of your crypto wallet. A bitcoin address is used to send and receive bitcoin transactions. The address is made up of a sequence of letters and numbers but can also be represented as a QR code.
    AgflationA period of rising food prices caused by increased demand for agricultural commodities, as was seen for both food and biofuels in 2007–2008. The word is a combination of the terms “agriculture” and “inflation.”
    AltcoinAltcoins or coins are alternative cryptocurrencies launched after bitcoins. Today there are more than 4,000 altcoins, which differ from bitcoins in various ways. An example of an altcoin is litecoin.
    Backwardation and ContangoIn finance, the difference between a spot (or cash) price and future prices defines the term structure. Backwardation occurs when the price for future delivery is lower than the spot price (e.g., the price of crude oil delivered in 3 months is 60 USD/barrel and the spot price is 70 USD/barrel). Contango occurs when the price for future delivery is higher than the spot price (e.g., the price of gold delivered in 1 year is 1,400 USD/oz and the spot price is 1,300 USD/oz). Contango is common for financial futures and gold, whereas backwardation is often seen in commodity markets and implies a positive carry for investors.
    BlockchainA blockchain is a growing list of records, called blocks, that are linked using cryptography. Blockchain is a form of Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT), which is a consensus of replicated, shared, and synchronized digital data geographically spread across multiple sites, countries, or institutions. There is no central administrator or centralized data storage.
    Bull and Bear MarketIn finance, the terms bull and bear market describe the general direction of a market. The use of “bull” and “bear” derives from the way the animals attack their opponents. A bull thrusts its horns up into the air, while a bear swipes its paws downward. These actions are metaphors for the movement of a market. If the trend is up, it’s a bull market. If the trend is down, it’s a bear market. A bear market usually is defined when prices drop to 20 percent or more below their recent top, while a smaller price decline is considered to be a correction.
    BTCBitcoin (BTC, or). A cryptocurrency, a form of electronic money, 1 bitcoin is divided into 1,000 millibitcoins and 100,000,000 satoshis. A bitcoin is currently worth about 4,000 USD.
    BTFDAn abbreviation for “Buy The Fucking Dip,” a stock market term to buy stocks or other assets during a price correction.
    Cornering a MarketIn finance, cornering a market consists of obtaining sufficient control of an asset—for example, a stock, currency, or commodity—in an attempt to manipulate the market price. Control usually means to have a dominant share in ownership.
    (Market) CrashA crash in stocks, commodities, or cryptocurrencies is a sudden dramatic decline of prices across a significant cross-section of the market, resulting in a significant loss of paper wealth. Crashes are driven by panic as much as by underlying economic factors. They often follow speculative stock market bubbles.
    CryptocurrencyA cryptocurrency is a digital asset designed to work as a medium of exchange that uses a high level of cryptography to secure financial transactions, control the creation of additional units, and verify the transfer of assets. Cryptocurrencies are an alternative and digital currency, which use decentralized control as opposed to the centralized digital currency and central banking systems of fiat currencies. The most popular cryptocurrency is bitcoin. The most common categorization of cryptocurrencies are alternative cryptocurrency coins (altcoins) and tokens (which are not meant to be a medium of exchange).
    DYORAn abbreviation for “Do Your Own Research.” It is used often in internet forums and blogs as a reminder for readers to do their own research on a subject, rather than take everything they read at face value.
    Fiat CurrencyA “regular” or “normal” currency today, such as the US dollar, euro, or pound sterling. Fiat money is a currency without intrinsic value that has been established as money, often by government regulation, and is backed by the government. (The term fiat comes from the Latin for “let it be done.”) This approach differs from money whose value is underpinned by some physical good such as gold or silver (the “gold standard”) or economic value like some cryptocurrencies.
    FOMO / JOMOAn abbreviation for “Fear of Missing Out.” It is defined as a fear of regret, which may lead to a compulsive concern that one might miss an opportunity for social interaction, a novel experience, a profitable investment, or other satisfying events. FOMO perpetuates the fear of having made the wrong decision. JOMO, on the other hand, describes the “Joy of Missing Out,” the antithesis of FOMO.
    FUDThis describes the spreading of “Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt,” typically through the media. It’s a disinformation strategy broadly used in politics, public relations, sales, marketing, and investing. Generally, FUD is a strategy to influence perception by disseminating negative or false information and a manifestation of the appeal to fear.
    Gold and SilverGold (symbol AU, from the Latin aurum) and silver (symbol AG, from the Latin argentum) are precious metals that have been used for thousands of years as a measure of value. Since the sixth century BCE, gold and silver have been minted as coins. In the past, a gold or silver standard was often implemented as a base of monetary policy. Officially, the world gold standard was abandoned for a fiat currency system after 1971 (the “Nixon Shock”).
    Gold StandardThe gold standard is a monetary system where a country’s currency or paper money has a value directly linked to gold. (Variations include the silver standard or bimetallic standard.) Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point, although many hold substantial gold reserves. After World War II, a system similar to a gold standard was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the US dollar, and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of 35 USD per ounce. All currencies pegged to the US dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold. In August 1971, President Nixon ended the convertibility of US dollars into gold, which marked the beginning of the fiat currency system of floating exchange rates.
    HODLAn abbreviation for “Hold On for Dear Life.” HODL was originally a typo, originated in a December 2013 post on the Bitcoin Forum during a price crash. It became very popular within the cryptocurrency community as encouragement for holding the cryptocurrency rather than selling it (buy and hold).
    ICOAn Initial Coin Offering (ICO) is a type of funding using cryptocurrencies. In an ICO, a quantity of cryptocurrency is sold in the form of tokens to investors in exchange for legal tender or other cryptocurrencies such as bitcoins or ether. ICOs can be a source of capital for startup companies and can usually avoid regulatory compliance and intermediaries such as venture capitalists, banks, and stock exchanges.
    Long and ShortIn trading, an investor can take two types of positions: long and short. An investor can either buy an asset (going long), or sell it (going short). In a long (buy) position, the investor is hoping for the price to rise. In a short position, the investor hopes for and benefits from a drop in the price of the asset. Entering a short position is a bit more complicated than purchasing the asset.
    MooningIn the cryptocurrency world, mooning refers to an instant surge in pricing in a positive way. If someone says, “the bitcoin is mooning,” it means the price of a bitcoin has surged instantly for a certain time.
    Pump and DumpThis is a form of securities fraud that involves artificially inflating the price of an owned stock through false and misleading positive statements, in order to sell the cheaply purchased stock at a higher price. Once the operators of the scheme dump—that is, sell—their overvalued shares, the price falls and investors lose their money. False or misleading information can be spread by spam email, social media, internet forums, or blogs. The scheme is most common with small cap cryptocurrencies and very small exchange listed corporations, that is, microcaps.
    Rare Earth Metals or Rare Earth ElementsA set of 17 elements, specifically 15 lanthanides as well as scandium and yttrium. These are: cerium, dysprosium, erbium, europium, gadolinium, holmium, lanthanum, lutetium, neodymium, praseodymium, promethium, samarium, scandium, terbium, thulium, ytterbium, and yttrium. A common distinction differentiates between light rare earth elements and heavy rare earth elements. Rare earth elements are used in many high-tech applications, like electric motors of hybrid vehicles, wind turbines, hard disc drives, portable electronics, microphones, and speakers.
    SatsShort for “satoshi,” the smallest fraction of a bitcoin. There are 100,000,000 satoshis in a bitcoin. The term derives from the pseudonym of bitcoin inventor Satoshi Nakamoto. Currently, 10,000 sats are equivalent to 65 US cents.
    Strong and Weak HandsIn finance, strong hands refer to well-financed investors or speculators, typically long-term holders who are unlikely to exit their position based on small market movements. Weak hands refer to the opposite.
    Rogue TraderA trader who makes unauthorized trades, often in the gray area between civil and criminal transgression. A rogue trader may be a legitimate employee of a company yet enter into transactions on behalf of his or her employer without permission.
    Tokens(Crypto) tokens are a digital representation of a particular asset or utility and a category of cryptocurrencies. Tokens can represent basically any asset that is fungible and tradeable, such as property or real estate, commodities, loyalty points, or even other cryptocurrencies.
    USDThe US dollar (USD, or $) is the official currency of the United States of America and its territories. Dollar is also the name of more than 20 currencies, including those of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. One US dollar is generally divided into 100 US cents.
    WalletIf you want to store bitcoins or any other cryptocurrency, you will need to have a digital wallet. A cryptocurrency wallet is a software program that stores private and public keys and interacts with various blockchains to enable users to send and receive digital currency and monitor their balance. There are various forms of wallets: online, offline, hardware, and paper, all with varying levels of security.
    WhaleThe term “whale” is frequently used to describe a very big player or a very big investor in the market. The ocean is a metaphor for the market, since one can then extend it to include big fish and small fish, sharks, waves as the market moves, and so forth.

    List of Abbreviations

    BMOBank of Montreal
    BTCBitcoin
    CADCanadian Dollar
    CBOTChicago Board of Trade
    CHFConfoederatio Helvetica Franc, or for short, Swiss Franc
    CMEChicago Mercantile Exchange
    ct.Carat
    DOEDepartment of Energy
    EURThe euro is the official currency of 19 of 28 member states of the European Union (EU).
    EVsElectric Vehicle(s)
    FAOFood and Agricultural Organization
    GBPPound Sterling (Great Britain Pound)
    ICEIntercontinental Exchange
    IEAInternational Energy Agency
    kgKilogram
    lbPound
    LIFFELondon International Financial Futures Exchange
    LMELondon Metal Exchange
    LNGLiquefied Natural Gas
    LTCMLong-Term Capital Management
    NOKNorwegian Krona
    NYMEXNew York Mercantile Exchange
    MMBtuMillion British Thermal Units
    OECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
    OPECOrganization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
    ozTroy Ounce
    RBCRoyal Bank of Canada
    USDUS Dollar
    USDAUS Department of Agriculture
    WTIWest Texas Intermediate (crude oil)

    List of Figures

      Figure 1.Rice. Candlestick chart in USD/cwt 2016, Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
      Figure 2.Crude oil prices 1861–2018, in USD/barrel (real prices of 2015). Data: BP Statistical Review of Energy, 2019.
      Figure 3.Prices for soybean oil, 1960–1964, in US cents/lb, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
      Figure 4.Wheat prices, 1970–1977, in US cents/bushel, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
      Figure 5.Gold-silver ratio, 1973–2013. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
      Figure 6.Crude oil prices, 1965–1986, in USD/barrel. Data: Datastream, 2019.
      Figure 7.Diamond prices, 2003–2016. Prices indexed over different sizes and qualities. Data: PolishedPrices.com, Bloomberg, 2019.
      Figure 8.Silver prices, 1970–1982, in USD/troy ounce. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
      Figure 9.Crude oil prices, 1989–1991, in USD/barrel. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 10.Crude oil future term structure in 1993/1994, in USD/barrel. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 11.Silver prices, 1994–2008, in USD/troy ounce. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 12.Silver, Pan American Silver, and Apex Silver, 1998–2009. Performance indexed 1998. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 13.Copper in US cents/lb, 1995–1997. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 14.Share price of Bre-X, 1992–1997, in Canadian dollars (CAD). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 15.Palladium in USD/ounce, 1998–2004. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 16.Copper prices in USD/ton, 2003–2007, London Metal Exchange (LME). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 17.Zinc prices in USD/ton, 2003–2006, London Metal Exchange (LME). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 18.Natural gas prices in USD/MMBtu, 2003–2007, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 19.Price spread between natural gas March and April 2007 delivery, in USD/MMBtu, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 20.Future term structure of natural gas in USD/MMBtu, 2010, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 21.Frozen orange juice concentrate prices in US cents/lb, 2002–2006.Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 22.Norwegian salmon prices in NOK/kg, 2000–2011. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 23.Steel prices in USD/ton, 2000–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 24.Wheat prices in US cents/bushel, 2005–2008, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 25.Natural gas prices in USD/MMBtu, 2003–2007, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 26.Platinum prices in USD/troy ounce, 2004–2009. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 27.Rice prices in US cents/cwt, 2000–2010, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 28.Wheat prices in US cents/bushel, 2007–2008, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 29.Crude oil (WTI) term structure in USD/barrel, 2008. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 30.Price spread of crude oil January (CLF9) and December 2009 (CLZ9) in USD/barrel. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 31.Baltic Dirty Tanker Index, 2002–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 32.Sugar prices in US cents/lb, 1970–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 33.Cocoa prices in USD/ton, 1990–2012. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 34.Copper and share price of First Quantum Minerals, 2009–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 35.BP share price fluctuation during first half of 2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 36.Cotton prices in US cents/lb, 2005–2013. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 37.Glencore (GBP). Equity price performance since IPO on May 19, 2011. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 38.Rare earth carbonate, neodymium, dysprosium, and lanthanum, 2010–2013. Chinese onshore prices in RMB, indexed 30.12.2009=100. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 39.Crude oil (WTI): recovery and bear market, 2008–2016. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 40.Commodity performance in 2016. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 41.Cobalt prices, 2012–2018. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 42.Benchmark Lithium Index, 2012–2018. Data: Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, 2019.
    Figure 43.Price of bitcoins surpassed 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and finally 20,000 per USD in 2017. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 44.Historic bitcoin price corrections, 2013–2017. Data: Coindesk.com.
    Figure 45.50 years of commodity markets ups and downs. Did we see the beginning of a new bullish cycle in 2016? Data: Bloomberg, 2019.
    Figure 46.Relative valuation of commodities versus equities. Buy commodities! Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    References

    1.Tulip Mania: The Biggest Bubble in History (1637)

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    2.The Dojima Rice Market and the “God of Markets” (1750)

    Mattheis, P. “Der Reishändler.” SZ-Serie: Die großen Spekulanten 39. www.sueddeutsche.de, 28 October 2008.

    Needham, J. “Samurai trader!” www.financialsense.com, 20 January 2008.

    3.The California Gold Rush (1849)

    Bojanowski, A. “Neuer Goldrausch in Kalifornien—‘Es ist wie 1849.’” www.sueddeutsche.de, 17 June 2008.

    “Going to California—49ers and the Gold Rush.” http://americanhistory.about.com, 2008.

    “Gold Rush.” The California State Library, www.library.ca.gov/goldrush, 2007.

    4.Wheat: Old Hutch Makes a Killing (1866)

    “B. P. Hutchinson dead—once leading grain speculator in this country.” The New York Times, 17 March 1899.

    Ferris, W. G. The Grain Traders. The Story of the Chicago Board of Trade. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1988.

    Geisst, Charles. Wheels of fortune—The history of speculation to respectability. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2002.

    “The great speculator fails—Mr. Hutchinson leaves Chicago and his trades closed out.” The New York Times, 30 April 1891.

    Teweles, R. J., and Jones, F. J. The Futures Game—Who Wins? Who Loses? And Why? New York: McGraw-Hill, 1987.

    5.Rockefeller and Standard Oil (1870)

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    6.Wheat: The Great Chicago Fire (1872)

    Ferris, W. G. The Grain Traders: The Story of the Chicago Board of Trade. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1988.

    Geisst, C. Wheels of fortune—The history of speculation to respectability. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2002.

    “The wheat corner—sudden collapse of the grain gamblers’ schemes in Chicago loss of the clique over USD 1,000,000.” The New York Times, 23 August 1872.

    7.Crude Oil: Ari Onassis’s Midas Touch (1956)

    “Aristoteles Onassis—Reicher Mann ganz arm.” www.stern.de, 13 January 2006.

    “Kalkuliertes Risiko.” Der Spiegel 29(1978), www.spiegel.de.

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    8.Soybeans: Hide and Seek in New Jersey (1963)

    Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), www.fao.org, December 2008.

    “The man who fooled everybody.” www.time.com, 4 June 1963.

    Miller, N. C. The Great Salad Oil Swindle. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1965.

    “Wall Street: spreading the losses.” www.time.com, 6 December 1963.

    9.Wheat: The Russian Bear Is Hungry (1972)

    “Another Soviet grain sting.” www.time.com, 28 November 1977.

    The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), www.fao. org, December 2008.

    Mattheis, P. “Der Turtle-Chef.” SZ-Serie: Die großen Spekulanten (33), www.sueddeutsche.de, 29 January 2008.

    Peters, M., Langley, S., and Westcott, P. “Agricultural commodity price spikes in the 1970s and 1990s.” United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), March 2009, www.ers.usda.gov.

    10.The End of the Gold Standard (1973)

    Schulte, T. “Silber—das bessere Gold.” Kopp Verlag, 2010.

    “Die Silber-Panik” (1893). http://zeitenwende.ch.

    “US-Bundesstaaten wollen einen Gold- und Silberstandard.” www.bullion-investor.net, 7 March 2010.

    11.1970s—Oil Crisis! (1973 & 1979)

    “Die Ölkrise 1973.” http://zeitenwende.ch, 2009.

    Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), www.opec.org, 2008.

    US Department of Energy, www.eia.doe.gov, 2008.

    12.Diamonds: The Crash of the World’s Hardest Currency (1979)

    Grill, B. “Herr der Diamanten.” www.zeit.de, 2 October 2003.

    “Im Griff des Syndikats.” Der Spiegel 44 (1989), www.spiegel.de.

    Kühner, C. “A diamond’s best friend—Antwerpen, Weltzentrum des Diamantenhandels.” NZZ Folio, December 1993.

    Schulz, B. “Nicholas Oppenheimer—Der Diamantenkönig.” www.faz.net, 22 October 2006.

    13.“Silver Thursday” and the Downfall of the Hunt Brothers (1980)

    Boehringer, S. “Aufstieg mit Öl, Absturz mit Silber.” SZ-Serie: Die großen Spekulanten 17, www.sueddeutsche.de, 14 May 2008.

    “Die Gebrüder Hunt verzocken sich am Silbermarkt.” www.faz.net, 26 February 2004.

    14.Crude Oil: No Blood for Oil? (1990)

    “Fünf Jahre Irak-Krieg—Chronik eines umstrittenen Feldzugs.” www.spiegel.de, 17 March 2008.

    “Der Golfkrieg 1991.” www.faz.net, 24 February 2001.

    Pollack, K. “Der gefährlichste Mann der Welt.” Der Spiegel 6 (2003), www.spiegel.de.

    Pollack, K. The Threatening Storm—The Case for Invading Iraq. New York: Random House, 2002.

    Thumann, M. “Trotz Blut kein Öl.” www.zeit.de, 16 June 2009.

    15.The Doom of German Metallgesellschaft (1993)

    Knipp, T. Der Machtkampf. Der Fall Metallgesellschaft und die Deutsche Bank. Düsseldorf: Econ Verlag, 1998.

    Landler, M. “Spotlight: Heinz Schimmelbusch’s comeback.” www.nytimes.com, 10 August 2007.

    ”Metallgesellschaft reports talks with ex-chief fail.” New York Times, 5 April 1996.

    “Missmanagement bei Metallgesellschaft.” www.manager-magazin.de, 28 August 2001.

    16.Silver: Three Wise Kings (1994)

    Chasan, E. “Apex Silver Mines files for bankruptcy protection.” www.reuters.com, 14 January 2009.

    Fuerbringer, J. “Buffett likes silver; Soros, a silver mine.” www.nytimes.com, 26 March 1998.

    Morgenson, G. “Gates putting some money in silver miner.” www.nytimes.com, 29 September 1999.

    The Silver Institute, www.silverinstitute.org.

    Weitzman, H. “Morales pledges to nationalize mining industry in Bolivia.” www.ft.com, 9 May 2006.

    17.Copper: “Mr. Five Percent” Moves the Market (1996)

    Bastian, N. “Kupferfinger sucht einen neuen Job.” www.handelsblatt.com, 12 December 2005.

    www.kupferinstitut.de.

    Neidhart, C. “Hamanaka—der Vorstadt-Spießer.” SZ-Serie: Die großen Spekulanten 2. www.sueddeutsche.de, 29 January 2008.

    18.Gold: Welcome to the Jungle (1997)

    Behar, R. “Jungle Fever.” Fortune, 9 June 1997.

    BHP Billiton, Minerals Companion, 2006

    “Goldenes Grab.” Der Spiegel 16 (1997), www.spiegel.de.

    Goold, D., and Willis, A. The Bre-X Fraud. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1997.

    19.Palladium: More Expensive Than Gold (2001)

    Frank, R. “Eine Seltenheit: Palladium-Münzen.” www.moneytrend.at, January 2001.

    United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Market Information in the Commodities Area (InfoComm), www.unctad.org/infocomm.

    Wolf, C. “Palladium—Rasante Rekordjagd.” www.focus.de, 18 January 2001.

    20.Copper: Liu Qibing Disappears Without a Trace (2005)

    “Bad bets in the copper market.” www.economist.com, 18 November 2005.

    Busch, A. “China treibt den Kupferpreis von allen Seiten in die Höhe.” www.handelsblatt.com, 12 December 2005.

    Hoffbauer, A. “Die diskreten Kontrakte des Herrn Liu.” www.handelsblatt.com, 12 December 2005.

    Mortished, C. “City gripped by mystery of the phantom copper dealer.” The Times, 15 November 2005.

    Powell, B. “Buy! Sell! Run!” www.time.com, 20 November 2005.

    21.Zinc: Flotsam and Jetsam (2005)

    BHP Billiton, Minerals Companion, 2006.

    International Lead and Zinc Study Group, www.ilzsg.org, 2009.

    London Metal Exchange, www.lme.co.uk, 2009.

    “A user guide to commodities.” Deutsche Bank, September 2008.

    “Zinc in New Orleans flooded warehouses.” Reed Business Information, 2009.

    “Zinc price soars after New Orleans supply freeze.” www.telegraph.co.uk, 7 September 2005.

    “Zinc under supply tightness.” Metalworld, September 2005.

    22.Natural Gas: Brian Hunter and the Downfall of Amaranth (2006)

    “Amaranth trading led to MotherRock loss.” Bloomberg, 25 June 2007.

    Energy Information Administration, www.eia.doe.gov, 2009.

    “Hedge-Fonds hat angeblich fünf Milliarden Dollar verwettet.” www.handelsblatt. com, 19 September 2006.

    “Hedge-Fonds MotherRock schließt.” www.handelsblatt.com, 7 August 2006.

    “In sieben Tagen 4,5 Milliarden Dollar Verlust.” www.manager-magazin.de, 19 September 2006.

    “Milliardenverlust von Hedge-Fonds läßt Märkte kalt.” www.fazfinance.net, 20 September 2006.

    US Department of Energy, www.energy.gov, 2009.

    Copeland, R. “Ten years after blowup, Amaranth investors waiting to get money back.” Wall Street Journal, www.wsj.com/articles/ten-years-after-blowup-amaranth-investors-still-waiting-for-money-back-1451524482, 1 January 2016.

    23.Orange Juice: Collateral Damage (2006)

    “Orange juice falls.” The New York Times, 22 January 2004.

    “Orange juice rises.” The New York Times, 14 August 2004.

    www.flcitrusmutual.com.

    www.nws.noaa.gov.

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    24.John Fredriksen: The Sea Wolf (2006)

    Bomsdorf, B. “John Fredriksen—Milliardär und Tankerkönig.” www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article1799093/John-Fredriksen-Milliardaer-und-Tankerkoenig.html, 14 March 2008.

    “Kathrine und Cecilie Astrup Fredriksen Schnappen sich diese schönen Milliardärs-Töchter TUI?” www.bild.de/politik/wirtschaft/kaufen-diese-schoenen-milliardaers-toechter-tui-11713918.bild.html, 2 July 2010.

    “Lachsfieber: Brisante Recherchen über einen Nahrungsmittelgiganten.” www.ardmediathek.de.

    OECD-FAO: Agricultural Outlook 2011–2012. www.fao.org.

    25.Lakshmi Mittal: Feel the Steel (2006)

    Feel the Steel is the logo of Pittsburgh Steelers (www.steelers.com).

    “Arcelor und Mittal. Stahl-Giganten einigen sich auf Fusion.” www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/arcelor-und-mittal-stahl-giganten-einigen-sich-auf-fusion-a-423475.html, 25 June 2006.

    “Der größte Stahlproduzent der Welt entsteht.” http://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/rohstoffe-der-groesste-stahlproduzent-der-welt-entsteht-1192255.html, 25 October 2004.

    James, J. “Steel’s new spring.” Time magazine, www.time.com, 31 October 2004.

    Kanter, J., Timmons, H., and Giridharadas, A. “Arcelor agrees to Mittal takeover.” www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/business/worldbusiness/25iht-steel.html, 25 June 2006.

    Kroder, T. “Lakshmi Mittal: Der Stahlbaron aus Indien.” www.ftd.de, 25 October 2004.

    www.arcelormittal.com.

    “Lakshmi Mittal ‘Stahl-Maharadscha’ mit Familiensinn.” www.stern.de/wirtschaft/news/lakshmi-mittal–stahl-maharadscha–mit-familiensinn-3498140.html, 27 January 2006.

    “Mittal/Arcelor Fusion perfekt.” http://www.manager-magazin.de/unternehmen/artikel/a-428605.html, 26 July 2006.

    Zitzelsberger, G. “Fusion der Stahlgiganten. Ein moderner Maharadscha.” www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/fusion-der-stahlgiganten-ein-moderner-maharadscha-1.819924, 5 December 2008.

    26.Crude Oil: The Return of the “Seven Sisters” (2007)

    Hoyos, C. “The evolution of the Seven Sisters.” www.ft.com/content/2103f4da-cd8e-11db-839d-000b5df10621, 11 March 2007.

    Hoyos, C. “The new Seven Sisters: oil and gas giants dwarf western rivals.” www.ft.com/content/471ae1b8-d001-11db-94cb-000b5df10621, 12 March 2007.

    “Petro-China—Das teuerste Unternehmen der Welt.” www.faz.net, 5 November 2007.

    “The Seven Sisters still rule.” www.time.com, 9 September 1978.

    Vardy, N. “The new Seven Sisters: today’s most powerful energy companies.” https://seekingalpha.com/article/30922-the-new-seven-sisters-todays-most-powerful-energy-companies, 28 March 2007.

    27.Wheat and the “Millennium Drought” in Australia (2007)

    “Dried up, washed out, fed up.” The Economist, 4 October 2007.

    “Dramatische Dürre.” www.spiegel.de, 20 April 2007.

    “Dürre in Australien.” www.faz.net, 10 November 2006.

    “Dürre in Australien.” www.stern.de, 2 January 2007.

    “Dürre treibt Bauern in den Selbstmord.” www.stern.de, 24 October 2006.

    “Extremwetter—Jahrtausend-Dürre in Australien.” www.spiegel.de, 7 November 2006.

    International Grains Council (IGC), www.igc.org.uk, 2009.

    “Der Weizenpreis läuft von Rekord zu Rekord.” www.faz.net, 26 February 2008.

    28.Natural Gas: Aftermath in Canada (2007)

    “BMO Financial hikes commodity-trading loss view.” Reuters, May 2007.

    “BMO says commodity-trading losses to dent profit.” Reuters, April 2007.

    “Ex-BMO trader gets fine.” www.thestar.com, 7 November 2009.

    “How did BMO’s USD450M loss just materialize?” Financial Post, April 2007.

    29.Platinum: All Lights Out in South Africa (2008)

    Cotterill, J. “S Africa power monopoly too big to fail.” Financial Times, 6 February 2019.

    “Eskom says SA needs ‘at least’ 40 new coal mines.” www.mg.co.za, 8 August 2009.

    Johnson Matthey, www.matthey.com, 2009.

    London Platinum and Palladium Market, www.lppm.org.uk, 2009.

    “Stromausfall in Südafrika erreicht Rohstoffmärkte.” www.fazfinance.net, 25 January 2008.

    30.Rice: The Oracle (2008)

    Müller, O. “Angst vor Hungersnot—Hoher Reispreis macht Asien nervös.” www.handelsblatt.com, 9 April 2008.

    “USA rechnen mit mehr als 100.000 Toten.” www.focus.de, 7 May 2008.

    31.Wheat: Working in Memphis (2008)

    “Rohstoffmärkte sind spekulativ überhitzt.” www.faz.net, 6 March 2008.

    “Rogue trader rocks firm—Huge wheat futures loss stuns MF Global.” www.chicagotribune.com, 29 February 2008.

    32.Crude Oil: Contango in Texas (2009)

    Baskin, B. “Oil stored at sea washes out rallies.” http://online.wsj.com, 5 February 2009.

    Bayer, T. “‘Super-Contango’—Unternehmen bunkern Öl.” www.ftd.de, 8 December 2008.

    Hecking, C., and Bayer, T. “Abgeschmiert in der Prärie.” www.ftd.de, 19 January 2009.

    33.Sugar: Waiting for the Monsoon (2010)

    Abraham, T. K. “World sugar shortage to extend a third year.” Bloomberg, 29 January 2010.

    Hein, C. “Indien betet für einen stärkeren Monsun.” www.faz.net, 12 August 2009.

    Kazim, H. “Dürre bedroht Indiens Wirtschaft.” www.spiegel.de, 18 August 2009.

    Lembke, J. “Der Zuckerpreis ist kaum zu stoppen.” www.faz.net, 7 August 2009.

    Mai, C. “Zuckerpreis erreicht 25-Jahres-Hoch.” www.ftd.de, 3 August 2009.

    Merkel, W. “In Indien und Australien wird die Dürre noch größer.” www.welt.de, 24 September 2009.

    Stern, N. “Ernteausfälle in Indien treiben Zuckerpreis.” http://diepresse.com, 16 August 2009.

    34.Chocolate Finger (2010)

    “Kakao als Spielball der Spekulation.” www.faz.net, 20 July 2010.

    Marron, D. “The cocoa corner: Is Choc Finger down USD 150 million?” http://seekingalpha.com, 26 July 2010.

    Murugan, S. “What’s driving cocoa?” http://seekingalpha.com, 4 August 2010.

    “Sweet dreams. A hedge fund bets big on chocolate.” www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2010/08/05/sweet-dreams, 7–13 August 2010.

    Werdigier, J., and Creswell, J. “Trader’s cocoa binge wraps up chocolate market.” www.nytimes.com, 24 July 2010.

    35.Copper: King of the Congo (2010)

    “Congo—Africa’s disaster.” www.independent.co.uk/voices/editorials/leading-article-congo-africas-disaster-2013789.html, 30 June 2010. “Kongo will mehr von eigenen Rohstoffen profitieren.” www.gtai.de, 24 June 2010.

    MacNamara, W., and Johnson, M. “Disquiet over ENRC’s purchase of Congo assets.” www.ft.com/content/19fe6f94-b791-11df-8ef6-00144feabdc0, 3 September 2010.

    MacNamara, W., and Thompson, C. “Congo seizes First Quantum Minerals’ assets.” www.ft.com/content/27d6e104-b530-11df-9af8-00144feabdc0, 31 August 2010.

    Thompson, C., and MacNamara, W. “ENRC buys into disputed Congo project.” www.ft.com/content/870a8b2a-acda-11df-8582-00144feabdc0, 21 August 2010.

    36.Crude Oil: Deep Water Horizon and the Spill (2010)

    “780 Millionen Liter—die bisher größte Ölpest aller Zeiten.” www.zeit.de/wissen/umwelt/2010-08/bp-oelloch-leck-verzoegerung, 3 August 2010.

    Bethge, P., and Meyer, C. “Die Alptraum-Bohrung.” www.spiegel.de/spiegel/a-713063.html, 23 August 2010.

    “Ölkatastrophe im Golf von Mexiko Alarm auf Bohrinsel war offenbar abgeschaltet.” www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/oelkatastrophe-im-golf-von-mexiko-alarm-auf-bohrinsel-war-offenbar-abgeschaltet-a-708247.html, 24 July 2010.

    “Ölpest im Golf von MexikoAuch BP macht die Katastrophe jetzt Angst.” www.stern.de/panorama/wissen/natur/oelpest-im-golf-von-mexiko-auch-bp-macht-die-katastrophe-jetzt-angst-3284936.html, 30 May 2010.

    “Ölpest im Golf von Mexiko BP-Experten durchtrennen leckendes Öl-Rohr.” www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/natur/oelpest-im-golf-von-mexiko-bp-experten-durchtrennen-leckendes-oel-rohr-a-698597.html, 3 June 2010.

    “‘Static Kill’ erfolgreich. BP stopft Öl-Bohrloch.” www.stern.de/panorama/wissen/natur/-static-kill–erfolgreich-bp-stopft-oel-bohrloch-3537142.html, 4 August 2010.

    37.Cotton: White Gold (2011)

    Cancryn, A., and Cui, C. “Flashback to 1870 as cotton hits peak.” www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704300604575554210569885910, 16 October 2010.

    Cui, C. “Chinese take a cotton to hoarding.” www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704680604576110423777349298, 29 January 2011.

    Industrievereinigung Chemiefaser e.V. (IVC), www.ivc-ev.de.

    National Cotton Council of America, www.cotton.org.

    Pitzke, M. “Preisexplosion bei Baumwolle Das Ende der Billig-Jeans.” http://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/unternehmen/preisexplosion-bei-baumwolle-das-ende-der-billig-jeans-a-696579.html, 25 May 2010.

    United States Department of Agriculture, www.usda.gov.

    White, G. “Cotton price causes ‘panic buying’ as nears 150-year high.” www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/markets/8301886/Cotton-price-causes-panic-buying-as-nears-150-year-high.html, 4 February 2011.

    Wollenschlaeger, U. “Baumwolle: Auf Rekordpreise folgt Rekordproduktion.” www.textilwirtschaft.de/business/unternehmen/Baumwolle-Auf-Rekordpreise-folgt-Rekordproduktion-69081?crefresh=1, 9 March 2011.

    38.Glencore: A Giant Steps into the Light (2011)

    Ammann, D. “King of Oil.” Orell Füssli Verlag, Zurich, 2010.

    Ammann, D. “Marc Rich: Der mann, der seinen Namen verlor.” www.weltwoche.ch, 23 May 2007.

    Honigsbaum, M. “The Rich list.” In The Observer, www.guardian.co.uk, 13 May 2001.

    “Rohstoffhändler Marc Rich gestorben.” www.srf.ch/news/wirtschaft/rohstoffhaendler-marc-rich-gestorben, 27 June 2013.

    Schärer, A. “Die Erben des Marc Rich.” www.woz.ch, 13 December 2001.

    “Warum Marc Rich bei Madoff rechtzeitig ausstieg.” www.tagesanzeiger.ch/wirtschaft/unternehmen-und-konjunktur/Warum-Marc-Rich-bei-Madoff-rechtzeitig-ausstieg/story/30815433, 27 January 2011.

    39.Rare Earth Mania: Neodymium, Dysprosium, and Lanthanum (2011)

    Quote from: J. Perkowski, Behind China’s Rare Earth Controversy. http://www.forbes.com/sites/jackperkowski/2012/06/21/behind-chinas-rare-earth-controversy/#e5aaecd16b82, 21 June 2012.

    Blank, G. “Wichtiger Rohstoff Seltene Erden. Knappheit made in China.” www.stern.de/digital/computer/wichtiger-rohstoff-seltene-erden-knappheit-made-in-china-3874186.html, 29 December 2010.

    “Chinas schwere Hand auf den seltenen Erden.” www.nzz.ch/chinas_schwere_hand_auf_den_seltenen_erden-1.8096711, 22 October 2010.

    Geinitz, C. “Streit mit China um seltene Erden spitzt sich zu.” www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/rohstoffe-streit-mit-china-um-seltene-erden-spitzt-sich-zu-13091.html, 25 October 2010.

    Jung, A. “Rohstoffe. Wettlauf der Trüffelschweine,” www.spiegel.de/spiegel/print/d-75159727.html, 15 November 2010.

    Liedtke, M., and Elsner, H. “Seltene Erden,” Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe.” www.bgr.bund.de, 20 November 2009.

    Lohmann, D. “Kampf um Seltene Erden. Hightech-Rohstoffe als Mangelware.” www.scinexx.de/dossier-540-1.html, 13 May 2011.

    Mayer-Kuckuk, F. “Strategische Metalle China verknappt Molybdän-Förderung.” www.handelsblatt.com/finanzen/maerkte/devisen-rohstoffe/strategische-metalle-china-verknappt-molybdaen-foerderung/3579078.html?ticket=ST-1201086-huIl3W7cP5RSMLdwDNFj-ap3, 1 November 2010.

    40.The End? Crude Oil Down the Drain (2016)

    Cunningham, N. “OPEC: the oil glut is gone.” https://oilprice.com/Energy/Crude-Oil/OPEC-The-Oil-Glut-Is-Gone.html, 14 May 2018.

    Cunningham, N. “The world is not running out of storage space for oil.” https://oilprice.com/Energy/Energy-General/The-World-Is-Not-Running-Out-Of-Storage-Space-For-Oil.html, 21 January 2016.

    Dennin, T. “The dawn of a new cycle in commodities.” Research Paper, Tiberius Asset Management AG, April 2016.

    EIA. “Crude oil prices to remain relatively low through 2016 and 2017.” www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=24532, 13 January 2016.

    El Gamal, R., Lawler, A., and Ghaddar, A. “OPEC in first joint oil cut with Russia since 2001,” Saudis take ‘big hit.’” www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-idUSKBN13P0JA, 30 November 2016.

    Raval, A. “‘Oil market glut will persist through 2016,’ says IEA.” www.ft.com/content/e27ff724-717e-11e5-9b9e-690fdae72044, 13 October 2015.

    Shenk, M. “WTI crude falls to 12-year low at $26.14 per barrel.” www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-02-10/oil-holds-losses-near-3-week-low-amid-record-cushing-supplies, 11 February 2016.

    41.Electrification: The Evolution of Battery Metals (2017)

    Autoverkäufe 2017. “Mercedes fährt BMW und Audi davon.” cwww.abendblatt.de/wirtschaft/article213089441/BMW-verkauft-so-viele-Autos-wie-nie.html, 12 January 2018.

    BNEF New Energy Outlook, https://about.bnef.com/new-energy-outlook, 16 August 2018.

    Hull, D., and Recht, H. “Tesla doesn’t burn fuel, it burns cash.” www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-tesla-burns-cash, 3 May 2018.

    Kraftfahrtbundesamt, www.kba.de.

    42.Crypto Craze: Bitcoins and the Emergence of Cryptocurrencies (2018)

    Akolkar, B. “China officially bans all crypto-related commercial activities.” 22 August 2018, https://bitcoinist.com/china-officially-bans-crypto-activities/.

    “Comparing 25 of the biggest cryptocurrencies.” World Economic Forum, March 2018, www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/03/comparing-the-25-most-notable-cryptocurrencies.

    “Cryptoprimer.” www.investopedia.com/tech/crypto-primer-currencies-commodities-tokens/#ixzz5HfVcEWBS.

    Kharif, O. “The bitcoin whales: 1,000 people who own 40 percent of the market.” https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-08/the-bitcoin-whales-1-000-people-who-own-40-percent-of-the-market, 8 December 2017.

    Kharpal, A. (2017): “Founders of a cryptocurrency backed by Floyd Mayweather charged with fraud by SEC.” www.cnbc.com, 3 April 2017.

    Lee, J. “Mystery of the $2 billion bitcoin whale that fueled a selloff.” https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-09-13/mystery-of-the-2-billion-bitcoin-whale-that-fueled-a-selloff, 13 September 2018.

    Meyer, D. “China enlists its ‘great firewall’ to block bitcoin websites.” http://fortune.com/2018/02/05/bitcoin-china-website-ico-block-ban-firewall/, 5 February 2018.

    Paul, A. “It’s 1994 In cryptocurrency.” www.forbes.com/sites/apaul/2017/11/27/its-1994-in-cryptocurrency/#7a81d58eb28a, 27 November 20017.

    Potter, S., and White, T. “No end in sight for crypto sell-off as bitcoin breaches $4,250.” www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-11-20/no-end-in-sight-for-crypto-sell-off-as-tokens-take-fresh-hit.

    Shiller, R. “Irrational exuberance.” Crown Business, 9 May 2006.

  • Torsten Dennin《From Tulips to Bitcoins_ A History of Fortunes Made and Lost in Commodity Markets》16-30

    16 Silver: Three Wise Kings 1994

    Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros show their interest in the silver market in the 1990s—investing in Apex Silver Mines, Pan American Silver, and physical silver. It is silver versus silver mining. Who would lead and who would lag?

    “The financial markets generally are unpredictable.” —George Soros

    At the beginning of May 2006, Bolivia’s leftist president Evo Morales practiced a little saber rattling as he threatened to nationalize the country’s domestic mining industry. A lot of silver was at stake, given Bolivia’s two important mines, San Cristóbal (part of Apex Silver Mines) and San Bartolomé (Coeur d’Alene Mines). (Morales had already implemented nationalization of the natural gas industry a week earlier.) In reaction, the stock prices of Apex Silver fell dramatically. From a price of 26 USD in April, the stock plunged to below 13 USD by June. It was a demonstration of how risky investments in mineral resources can be because of politics.

    Some Facts About Silver

    Silver is about 20 times more common than gold, with the most significant deposits found in North and South America. According to industry figures, there are only 25 relevant silver mines worldwide, and half of their sales are generated by precious metal production. The overwhelming share of global silver production is coupled to the extraction of other metals, especially lead, zinc, copper, or gold. According to the Silver Institute, industrial applications account for about 50 percent of total demand, followed by jewelry and photography.
    For standardized silver trading on commodity exchanges, the ticker XAG stands for the price of a troy ounce of silver in USD. The center of physical silver trade is the London Bullion Market, and the London Bullion Market Association (LBMA) fixes an official price once a day. COMEX, part of the New York Mercantile Exchange, is the largest trading place for futures and options on silver. There silver futures are traded under the symbol SI, followed by the contract month and year (e.g., SIH0, Silver March 2020 Futures).
    It’s not always clear, however, where the best investments lie. In the mid- and late 1990s, Warren Buffett, George Soros, and Bill Gates all entered the silver market as major professional investors, and their actions attracted attention within the international financial community. Like the three kings in the Bible, these men inspired private and institutional investors to follow their lead. However, though Soros, Buffett, and Gates all invested in silver, they used different instruments—physical silver and equity investments in silver-mining companies.

    Figure 11. Silver prices, 1994–2008, in USD/troy ounce. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    George Soros, born in Hungary in 1930, is known for the success of his Quantum Fund—a hedge fund founded by him and Jim Rogers—and for his bets in 1992 against the pound sterling, which forced the Bank of England to depreciate its currency. Today his net worth is estimated by Forbes to be around 14 billion USD. At the end of 1994, Soros invested in Apex Silver Mines and, together with his brother Paul, temporarily held more than 20 percent of the company. Founded in 1993, Apex owned 65 percent of San Cristóbal, a silver-zinc-lead mine in southwestern Bolivia that was estimated to contain 450 million ounces of silver. Apex also was active in Argentina, Bolivia, Mexico, and Peru.
    Warren Buffett, also born in 1930, is the third-richest man in the world, with an estimated net private wealth of about 47 billion USD. As CEO of Berkshire Hathaway, an investment holding company he founded, he has demonstrated outstanding investment success over decades. The annual general meetings of the firm are reported to be a “Woodstock for investors,” with more than 20,000 people following every statement by the “Oracle of Omaha,” as Buffett is known.

    In the mid- and late 1990s, Warren Buffett, George Soros, and Bill Gates all got involved in the silver market.

    William “Bill” Henry Gates III, born in 1955, founded the Microsoft Corporation together with Paul Allen in 1975 and has a fortune of 53 billion USD, which made him the second-richest man in the world before he began to donate large amounts to charitable causes. In 1999 Gates got involved in Pan American Silver as the third big investor in the silver market after Soros and Buffett.
    Buffett tried a different strategy. In 1998, before official publication of its annual financial statements, Berkshire Hathaway announced that the company had acquired a total of 130 million troy ounces of silver between July 25, 1997, and January 12, 1998. That was about 4,000 metric tons of silver, which accounted for about 20 percent of the global annual mine production. For Berkshire Hathaway, however, this represented a mere 2 percent of its total invested capital.
    The investment in the physical metal surprised the international financial community, as Buffett had always been known for his value-oriented equity investment style. In this case his rationale was based on the discrepancy between supply and demand in the metal over the previous few years and a significant decline in inventories. The increase in silver price that followed proved him right. His investment was very profitable.
    As for Bill Gates, it became public in September 1999 that through Cascade Investment LLC he had purchased more than three million shares of Pan American Silver at an average price of about 5.25 USD. This represented 10 percent of the company, which was founded in 1994 and which now had a portfolio of silver-mining projects in Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina.
    Looking at the price performance of silver versus share price performance of Apex Silver and Pan American Silver since 1997, an interesting picture emerges.

    Figure 12. Silver, Pan American Silver, and Apex Silver, 1998–2009. Performance indexed 1998. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    By the end of 2008, silver was performing the best, followed by the share price of Pan American Silver. Although Apex Silver shares first traded in line with silver and with Pan American Silver, it later crashed: It fell 90 percent between its IPO in 1997 and the end of 2008. Bankruptcy followed. What had happened?

    When Bolivian president Morales threatened mining companies with nationalization, investors panicked.

    President Morales’s threat to nationalize Bolivian mining projects unsettled investors. Actually, in place of a direct nationalization, the tax burden in Bolivia was heavily increased. Nevertheless, Apex Silver was forced to a sell part of its flagship asset to Sumitomo. Developing the San Cristóbal Mine became more and more expensive, as the cost of energy exploded. In order to obtain credit, Apex Silver had to sell futures in high quantities of silver, zinc, and lead. As commodity prices rose, these hedges led to increasing losses, and in January 2009 the company announced bankruptcy.

    So which investment was better? The share price of both Apex Silver and Pan American Silver temporarily outperformed silver, because annual production and the value of total mineral resources in the ground had a leverage effect. But leverage is the price investors pay for entrepreneurial and market risk. And when compared to Apex Silver, an investment in physical silver proved to be the much safer bet.

    Key Takeaways
    •Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros became interested in the opportunities offered by the silver market in the 1990s.
    •Over a decade, the price of silver climbed from below 4 USD to more than 8 USD in 1997. It reached 22 USD in 2008.
    •Silver mining companies seemed to offer a much higher return than a direct investment in silver, but this higher expected return came with a price.
    •Because of the rising silver price, Bolivian president Evo Morales threatened to nationalize his country’s domestic mining industry. Shares of Apex Silver crashed by more than 90 percent from its IPO in 1997, followed by bankruptcy.

    17 Copper: “Mr. Five Percent” Moves the Market 1996

    The star trader of Sumitomo, Yasuo Hamanaka, lives two lives in Tokyo, manipulating the copper market and creating record earnings for his superiors but also carrying on risky private trades. In the end, Sumitomo endures a record loss of 2.6 billion USD, and Hamanaka is sentenced to eight years in prison.

    “Who is Mr. Copper?” Investopedia

    For years Yasuo Hamanaka was the head trader at Sumitomo Trading in Tokyo, the commodity trading subsidiary of Japanese conglomerate Sumitomo. In insider circles he was known by his nicknames—“Copper Fingers” or “Mr. Five Percent,” because he controlled as much as 5 percent of the global copper market. He earned huge profits for his company. However, on June 5, 1996, Hamanaka revealed that he’d lost 1.6 billion USD of his company’s money. Since then, the Sumitomo scandal has been considered one of the biggest financial frauds in recent history.

    Some Copper Basics

    The global production of copper, which is used mainly in construction and electrical and mechanical engineering, is around 20 million metric tons. Chile is the largest producer, with about one-third of the world’s output, followed by Indonesia, the United States, and Australia. Copper can be recycled and reprocessed almost without loss of quality, and along with aluminum, it is the most frequently traded industrial metal. The two most important exchanges are the London Metal Exchange (LME) and the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). At LME copper trades in US dollars per ton; at NYMEX, in US cents per pound. In the United States, the ticker symbol is HG, followed by the contract month and year (e.g., HGZ9, for copper with delivery in December 2019). Currently copper costs 2.80 USD per pound, or 5,600 USD per ton.
    In 1985 Yasuo Hamanaka, a 37-year-old expert in copper trading on the commodity futures markets, was hired by the Sumitomo Corporation in Tokyo. His department suffered a considerable loss in the mid-1980s, but the head of trading, and later Hamanaka himself, managed to conceal it with secret trades. Contrary to company tradition in which a trader changed position after a certain period of time, Hamanaka remained at his post for 11 years, because he generated such high profits.

    The Japanese trader Yasuo Hamanaka was a dominant factor in global copper. But he lost his bet against China.

    Any allegations about market manipulation and fraud from the LME went unheeded, while Hamanaka’s influential comments about rising copper demand and the occurrence of an artificial shortage were often published in the financial press. Even as Sumitomo’s star trader was making a modest impression, however, he was actually living a double life, professionally and privately. During the day he officially traded for Sumitomo; secretly at night he traded for himself on the LME and NYMEX. He lived with his family of four in a small house in Kawasaki, an unattractive Tokyo suburb, and drove a small car. But he enjoyed expensive trips with a lover from the Ginza entertainment district and—of course—had a Swiss bank account.
    Beginning in 1993, Hamanaka recognized that the Chinese economy was developing an enormous demand for copper due to its fast industrialization, and he bet that prices would rise. However, the Chinese put the market under pressure by talking down the price. Hamanaka’s losses started to pile up. He faked balance sheets, trading reports, and his superiors’ signatures in order to obtain additional credit lines to increase his positions and move the market in the “right” direction. But the Chinese seemed in no hurry to buy. By the end of 1995 and the beginning of 1996, the situation was slowly becoming critical. Now mentally unstable, Hamanaka was drinking heavily.
    In June 1996, the star trader had no choice but to admit the extent of his losses: Uncovered futures positions came to 1.8 billion USD. Shocked, Sumitomo dismissed Hamanaka, and in a panic it liquidated all positions. This caused another 800 million USD in losses for the company, as the price of copper dropped by 27 percent in a single day due to the sheer volume of the sales orders. In the end, the Sumitomo Corporation realized a loss of 2.6 billion USD, the biggest ever for a single company in the international financial markets.

    By liquidating copper futures positions it could not cover, the Sumitomo Corporation faced a loss of 2.6 billion USD.

    Figure 13. Copper in US cents/lb, 1995–1997. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Afterward, reporters wondered how a single trader could have concealed such an unprecedented loss from his superiors. Obviously, internal audits, risk management, and supervision at Sumitomo had failed because, despite the immense transaction volume, none of Hamanaka’s superiors knew about his deals in detail. As for Hamanaka himself, the public considered him a criminal offender. He admitted his guilt in court and was sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment in 1998.

    Key Takeaways
    •Yasuo Hamanaka began trading copper for the Japanese conglomerate Sumitomo in 1985. Because of the size of his orders, and his control of up to 5 percent of the global copper market, Hamanaka earned the nicknames “Copper Fingers” and “Mr. Five Percent.”
    •After 1993, Hamanaka bet on rising copper prices caused by increasing Chinese demand, but when prices continued to fall, he lost money. Hoping that prices would recover, Hamanaka continued to hide his cumulative losses through secret trades.
    •In 1996, however, Hamanaka was forced to reveal a loss of 1.8 billion USD. Shocked, his superiors ordered all positions to be sold immediately, which caused a 27 percent drop in copper prices in a single day and resulted in an additional loss for Sumitomo of 800 million USD.
    •The Sumitomo copper scandal in Japan of 1996 was one of the biggest financial frauds in history; a single person caused a loss of 2.6 billion USD.

    18 Gold: Welcome to the Jungle 1997

    In the jungle of Borneo, the Canadian firm Bre-X supposedly finds a gold deposit with a total estimated value of more than 200 billion USD. Large mining companies and Indonesian president Suharto all want a piece of the pie, but in March 1997 the discovery turns out to be the largest gold fraud of all time.

    “Geologically, it’s the most brilliant thing I’ve ever seen in my life! It’s so big, it’s scary. It’s f***ing scary!” —John Felderhof, Bre-X
    “This can’t be a scam! Do some more tests! Figure it out! I know it’s there, okay?” —Peter Munk, Barrick Gold

    St. Paul is a remote community with roughly 5,000 inhabitants northeast of Alberta, Canada. Its only tourist attraction has been a landing platform for UFOs that was erected on June 3, 1967. In the middle of the 1990s, however, the tiny town became the focus of international media: Every 50th resident was a shareholder of the mining company Bre-X, whose value had increased 500-fold within just three years. As a result, the number of millionaires in St. Paul had suddenly shot up dramatically. At the center of attention was John Kutyn, an employee of the local savings bank, who had sold everything, including his car and his motorcycle, to invest in Bre-X early on.

    St. Paul, a small Canadian community of 5,000, recorded a sudden surge in resident millionaires.

    Kutyn spread the news about the gold discovery of the century among his neighbors and customers. He would be one of the few who managed to exit the company before it collapsed. A wealthy man, he went on to settle in New Zealand.

    Where’s the Gold?

    Based on industry estimates of the World Gold Council, around 190,000 metric tons of gold have been produced throughout history, of which one-fifth is stored in central bank vaults. The main gold-producing countries are China, Australia, Russia, the United States, and Canada, followed by Peru, Indonesia, South Africa, Mexico, and Ghana. Together, these 10 countries account for around 75 percent of global mine production. Former number-one gold producer South Africa now barely makes the top 10. Though it dominated gold mining for more than 30 years, the country’s production peaked in the 1970s.
    The center of global gold trading is the London Bullion Market, and most of the demand comes from the jewelry industry, followed by investors and industrial applications. The largest gold-producing companies in terms of volume are Barrick Gold, Newmont Mining, and Goldcorp.
    In the 1980s Canada had witnessed a boom in exploration companies, which searched the world for crude oil, gold, and other commodities. Among them was Bre-X, founded by former stockbroker David Walsh late in the decade. From an initial 0.30 Canadian dollar (CAD), the value of Bre-X shares fell to a few cents in 1993. But that would change after Walsh and a geologist named Felderhof bought exploration rights for Busang in the jungle of Borneo, Indonesia. Together with his colleague Mike de Guzman, Felderhof had explored Busang for another company in the mid-1980s, and the two men had found small traces of gold. On May 6, 1993, Bre-X announced that it had acquired a license for Busang. At that point the share price was around 0.50 CAD. But drilling samples validated gold levels of more than 6 grams per ton of rock. Since 3 grams are considered an excellent result, this caused a sensation.

    Was Busang home to the biggest gold treasure of all time?

    It wasn’t long before analysts picked up the Bre-X story. In March 1994 the stock rose to 2.40 CAD. By September, after a year of exploration and testing, the management of Bre-X estimated that Busang’s ore resources were between 3 and 6 million ounces of gold. As Bre-X’s drill results got better and better, gold experts and analysts published ever more optimistic forecasts.
    In November 1995 Busang’s gold resources were estimated at more than 30 million ounces, and toward the end of the year the stock price of Bre-X shares climbed above 50 CAD! At the annual general shareholders’ meeting in May 1996, the company was valued at 200 CAD per share, which then split by 1:10. The estimates kept rising: Bre-X reported more than 39 million ounces of gold in June 1996, 47 million ounces in July, 57 million ounces in December, and 71 million ounces in February 1997. Shortly afterward, Felderhof publicly speculated about resources of more than 100 million ounces. This would have made Busang the richest gold deposit of all time. Market rumors even doubled the estimate: Some 200 million ounces, about 6,000 tons, were supposed to lie hidden in the jungle of Borneo!

    Though the company had not produced a single ounce of gold, Bre-X shares rose 500-fold.

    At the beginning of September 1996, the stock reached its highest price—28 CAD (which corresponded to a price of 280 CAD before the stock split) and a market capitalization of more than 4 billion USD. In just three years the value of Bre-X shares had increased by more than 500 times, even though not a single ounce of gold had been commercially produced!

    In the meantime, the industry’s big names—Placer Dome, Newmont Mining, Barrick Gold, and Freeport-McMoRan—were also taking part in the race for Busang. Indonesian president Haji Muhammed Suharto wanted his share of the treasure, too. In December 1996 the Indonesian government, Bre-X, and Barrick Gold agreed to divide Busang among themselves. The following February, Freeport joined the group.
    But then things began to fall apart. On March 19, 1997, Mike de Guzman committed suicide by jumping from a helicopter. During the due-diligence process, independent drill holes had revealed only negligible amounts of gold. A week later, lab results showed that Bre-X had manipulated the initial samples. It was a personal disgrace for Peter Munk, the head of Barrick Gold, and the news caused investors to panic. The share price of Bre-X collapsed, and the stock was suspended from trading. Later Bre-X had to declare bankruptcy, and the stock became worthless.

    Figure 14. Share price of Bre-X, 1992–1997, in Canadian dollars (CAD). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The Bre-X fraud remains one of the biggest capital market scandals in Canada and the biggest mining scandal ever recorded, causing serious lingering damage to the reputation of the Canadian stock market. Major investors who were hurt included the Ontario Municipal Employees Retirement Board, the Quebec Public Sector Pension Fund, and the Ontario Teachers Pension Plan. In addition, many small investors, including some 200 residents of St. Paul, saw their money vanish into thin air.

    Bre-X crashed. The stock was worthless.

    Not everyone suffered. David Walsh capitalized 35 million USD by selling Bre-X shares before the collapse and moved to the Bahamas. John Felderhof was able to sell nearly 3 million Bre-X shares, with a total value of almost 85 million CAD, between April and September 1996. He found a new home in the Cayman Islands. The Bre-X scandal was finally settled in 2002. However, legal disputes continue today.

    Key Takeaways
    •The Bre-X scandal remains the biggest corporate mining scandal in Canada to date.
    •In 1993 David Walsh and John Felderhof claimed to find the gold deposit of the century in Borneo. Their company, Bre-X, rose from a penny stock, trading below 30 Canadian cents, to 4 billion USD in market capitalization. From mid-1993 to mid-1996, the value of Bre-X shares increased by a multiple of 500. Indonesian president Haji Muhammed Suharto and large multinational gold companies all wanted a piece of the pie.
    •But in March 1997 the discovery was unmasked as the largest gold fraud of all time. Lab results confirmed that the company had manipulated its gold samples. Bre-X declared bankruptcy; its stock was worthless.

    19 Palladium: More Expensive Than Gold 2001

    In 2001 palladium becomes the first of the four traded precious metals—gold, silver, platinum, and palladium—whose price breaks the psychological mark of 1,000 USD per ounce. That represents a tenfold increase in just four years. The reason lies in continuing delivery delays by the most important producer: Russia.

    “The actual level of Russian stockpiles of palladium is a closely guarded state secret.” —United Nations Conference on Trade and Development

    Russia is the epicenter of the global palladium market, due to its high share of world annual production and its strategic inventories, which were built up through overproduction in the 1970s and 1980s. Since palladium is mainly a by-product of the production of other metals such as platinum or nickel, the production of palladium continues even when the supply of the metal is sufficient and prices are low.

    Russia dominated global palladium production and held significant inventories.

    The majority of palladium comes from Russia—and from a single spot, the Norilsk nickel deposit in northern Siberia. If supplies of Norilsk nickel are unable to keep pace with demand, stocks held by the Russian precious metals authority Gokhran, which is under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance, and the Russian Central Bank, fill the gap.

    A Palladium Primer

    Together with platinum, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium, and iridium, palladium is part of the platinum group of metals (PGM). More than 50 percent of the market for the metal depends on automobile catalysts and other industrial processes, though palladium is also used in jewelry. On average over the past five years, just over 50 percent of the annually mined palladium has come from Russia. Other important producer countries are South Africa, which accounts for just under one-third of global production, and the United States, with 15 percent of the global supply. With an annual production volume of around 220 metric tons, the market for palladium is significantly smaller than, for example, gold or silver. (For comparison, around 3,000 metric tons of gold and 24,000 of silver are produced each year.)
    The London Bullion Market Association’s (LBMA) twice-daily price fixing is the most internationally recognized price reference, and futures in palladium are traded in the United States (NYMEX) and Japan (TOCOM).

    Figure 15. Palladium in USD/ounce, 1998–2004. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In the late 1990s the development of automobile catalysts made palladium an important industrial metal, and it was increasingly used instead of platinum because of the relatively low price at the time. But lack of deliveries from Russia started to drive the price up.
    In 1997 palladium deliveries from Russia halted for seven months. The next year deliveries stopped again. Moreover, analysts began to question the actual physical availability of the metal. It seemed that a large share of the palladium inventory had been collateralized by Western banks for credits in the aftermath of the Russian Financial Crisis of 1997.

    The price of palladium rose from 120 USD to more than 1,000 USD, making the metal more valuable than gold, silver, and platinum.

    The price of palladium rose from 120 USD per ounce in early 1997 to more than 200 USD in 1998. In April of that year, the price of the metal surpassed the gold price for the first time since 1971, due to continued supply disruptions in Russia. And the prices for palladium continued to climb: to 400 USD, then to 600 USD. In February 2000 the price of palladium skyrocketed to more than 800 USD, while the price of gold averaged just under 300 USD during that period. It seemed as though the price would consolidate, but instead it rose again to 1,000 USD.
    At the beginning of 2001, palladium broke through the psychological barrier of 1,000 USD, the first of the four traded precious metals—the others are gold, silver, and platinum—to do so. The shortage pushed the price up to almost 1,100 USD at the end of January 2001. The value of palladium had increased almost tenfold in just four years!
    It didn’t last. Subsequently, the value of palladium fell as low as 200 USD, after Russia announced long-term supply contracts with Japan, which were expected to start in January 2001. Then, during the commodity boom in the first decade of the new millennium, the price of palladium once again reached 600 USD before consolidating. Still this represented only a triple rise, compared with a multiple of 10 in 2001.
    In 2015 a major emissions scandal in the car industry (“Dieselgate”) fueled another palladium rally. In September of that year, the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA) issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to the Volkswagen Group. The German car manufacturer had intentionally manipulated data and software in its diesel engines to meet emissions limits. The scandal spread to other manufacturers and raised awareness of the higher levels of pollution emitted by diesel-powered vehicles. The price of palladium, which was used in catalysts for gasoline cars, more than doubled, from less than 500 USD in mid-2015 to more than 1,100 USD at the end of 2018. At the beginning of 2019, Palladium was trading at 1,320 USD, once again higher than gold. Investors are wondering how long the rally will last this time . . .

    Key Takeaways

    •More than 90 percent of palladium reserves are found in Russia and South Africa. The metal (together with platinum) is predominantly used in automobile catalyst systems and related industrial applications.
    •In January 2001 palladium prices rose to 1,100 USD, 10 times the value of four years before.
    •Palladium became more valuable than gold, silver, or platinum, as Russia, the biggest producer and exporter of the metal, withheld shipments.
    •Dieselgate, the global diesel-related emissions scandal, fueled a new rally in palladium, whose prices have more than doubled again since 2015.

    20 Copper: Liu Qibing Disappears Without a Trace 2005

    A trader for the Chinese State Reserve Bureau shorts 200,000 tons of copper and hopes for falling prices. However, when copper prices climb to new records, he disappears and his employer pretends never to have heard of him. What sounds like the plot of a thriller shocks metal traders all over the world.

    “It’s one thing to have a rogue trader on your staff—that happens. But I’d be amazed if China wanted a reputation as a rogue nation in these markets, where it has become such an important player.” —Anonymous trader

    Most people even have trouble pronouncing the name Liu Qibing, but in November 2005 the Chinese copper trader was the number-one topic of conversation on the commodity futures exchanges in London, New York, and Shanghai. Rumors were circulating about a massive, speculative short position in the copper market: Liu Qibing, in his capacity as a trader for the Chinese State Reserve Bureau (SRB), was said to have shorted futures contracts on the London Metal Exchange (LME) amounting to 100,000 to 200,000 tons.
    Unlike Yasuo Hamanaka in Japan almost ten years earlier, Liu Qibing was speculating on falling copper prices. However, prices continued to rise, and the talk of a massive short position temporarily drove London’s three-month-forward copper contracts to a record high of nearly 4,200 USD per metric ton.

    Starting at 1,500 USD, the copper price bounced up to 9,000 USD per ton.

    Copper prices had started to climb since the turn of the millennium. In December 2003 the price of copper broke the 2,000 USD per ton mark for the first time, while the average price of previous years was only slightly above 1,500 USD. Just a few months later, the price breached the 4,000 USD level. The trigger for this development lay in the growing demand of the Chinese economy, which required more and more of the red metal for its infrastructure and housing industry. Although the OECD countries (members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) collectively consumed about 80 percent of the world’s copper output at that time, China’s growth was more dynamic. Copper consumption in OECD countries increased on average by 2.5 percent per year over the previous five years. However, China’s demand grew by about 15 percent per year over the same period, while supply growth proved inflexible. At peak times China’s demand growth accounted for more than 80 percent of global demand growth.

    China was sucking global copper markets dry.

    At that time China alone accounted for a quarter of the world’s copper consumption. Meanwhile, the prices for industrial metals continued to rise, because producers were slow to respond with an increased supply. There were several reasons for their reluctance: First, the development of new mines usually takes several years until the first ton of copper can be produced. Second, many producers didn’t trust the high price level to last and therefore delayed long-term investment projects. By 2004, however, the extension of existing projects and the activation of new mines were entering a decisive phase. Experts—including the world’s largest copper producer, Chilean Codelco, and the Chinese State Reserve Bureau—expected the supply to increase at the end of 2005, and the rise in copper prices should have come to an end. As it turned out, that was a misperception for which China paid dearly.
    Contrary to expectations, almost all major producers had problems with production. Costs increased; high oil prices, strikes, and even earthquakes all had a lasting effect. The projected additional supply in the copper market was lagging, and demand, continually fueled by China’s dynamic economic growth, was jumping ahead. As a consequence, the price rose steadily. The rumors surrounding Liu’s positions created additional momentum, as copper inventories on commodity futures exchanges in London, New York, and Shanghai reached their lowest levels in 30 years.

    Figure 16. Copper prices in USD/ton, 2003–2007, London Metal Exchange (LME). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The newspaper China Daily reported that 130,000 metric tons of copper were sold by Liu Qibing for the SRB at an average price of 3,300 USD per ton. As the price of copper rose above 4,000 USD, Liu broke off contacts with other traders in London and China and disappeared. His cell phone remained silent, the door of his apartment on the 10th floor of a Beijing building never opened, and he was absent from his job in Shanghai.

    The Chinese trader broke off all contacts, never answered his cell phone, and his employer denied his existence.

    At first Liu’s employer denied he existed. Later, the SRB claimed that the trader was acting solely on his own behalf. The SRB, which was founded in 1953, was supposed to stabilize prices and secure supplies through commodity trading, not earn profits through speculation. Industry experts considered the 36-year-old trader, who was under house arrest according to Chinese sources, more a pawn than a perpetrator.
    Liu, the son of a farming family from Hubei Province, had been with the SRB since 1990 and had been trained for futures and options trading at the London Metal Exchange (LME). Between 2002 and 2004, Liu is said to have generated more than 300 million USD in risky copper trades for the SRB. Now, the Chinese state was facing losses of hundreds of millions of dollars. In response, the government in Beijing tried to push down the world market price through copper auctions. In a first tranche, 50,000 tons were sold. Another tranche of a similar size was to follow, and the leadership in Beijing spread the word that the country had 1.3 million tons of copper in reserve. However, market participants estimated that the amount of copper available was just half that. The Chinese government’s actions were unsuccessful, as more and more market participants took counter-positions to force China to make physical delivery of the metal in late December.
    Hedge funds—called “crocodiles” in China—particularly saw an opportunity to generate short-term profits. The copper price climbed above 5,000 USD in January 2006, to 6,000 USD in early April, and to 7,000 USD at the end of that month. It rose to the dizzying heights of nearly 8,800 USD a ton in May, before normalizing again over the coming months.

    Key Takeaways
    •Like the Japanese trader Yasuo Hamanaka almost 10 years before, Chinese trader Liu Qibing was caught on the wrong side of the copper market. He speculated on falling prices and lost a great deal.
    •Liu was working for the Chinese State Reserve Bureau (SRB), which handled the Chinese economy’s rising demand for the commodity. Market intelligence estimated Liu’s short position at about 100,000 to 200,000 tons of copper.
    •Copper prices climbed from 1,500 USD per ton in 2003 to almost 9,000 USD in 2006, and Liu, labeled as a rogue trader, vanished.

    21 Zinc: Flotsam and Jetsam 2005

    The city of New Orleans, called The Big Easy, is well known for its jazz, Mardi Gras, and Creole cuisine. Less well known, however, is that about one-quarter of the world’s zinc inventories are stored there. Hurricane Katrina’s flooding makes the metal inaccessible, and concerns over damage cause the price of zinc to rise to an all-time high.

    “It’s totally wiped out . . . it’s devastating.” —President George W. Bush

    Zinc, which is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME) in US dollars per metric ton, is the third-largest metal market, after copper and aluminum. But in the first years of the new millennium, zinc and lead were considered the ugly sisters of copper and aluminum, because of years of low prices and low margins for mining companies. Global supply was stagnating.

    What Happens at the LME?

    At the London Metal Exchange (LME), copper, aluminum, zinc, lead, nickel, and tin, as well as molybdenum, cobalt, and steel are traded. To capture the opportunities of electrification and electronic vehicles, LME plans to introduce lithium, manganese, and graphite futures contracts in the near future. Trading takes place in two rounds, in the morning and afternoon, in an open ring (“open pit”) during which the daily official trading price is determined. In 2012 the 137-year-old LME agreed to a 1 billion GBP takeover from the Hong Kong Exchange and Clearing (HKEx) after a nine-month auction battle that included ICE, CME, and Nasdaq. With an annual turnover of more than 12 trillion USD, the London Metal Exchange is the world’s largest trading place for metals, followed by metal exchanges in Singapore and New York.
    LME forward contracts are physically deliverable, and inventories of corresponding metals are stocked in LME-approved warehouses. Delivery takes place against LME delivery notes, which provide the owner with the right to a specified quantity of metal at a designated storage location. Currently, there are more than 400 warehouses in 32 locations, from the United States and Europe to the Middle East and Asia.
    Even as interest in industrial metals increased in 2003 as a result of the rapid growth of the Chinese economy, zinc’s price rise lagged behind those of other industrial metals. Nevertheless, China played a major role in the metal’s shortage: In 2004 the country became a net importer of zinc, bringing in about 67,000 tons in the first seven months of 2005, after only 15,000 tons were imported in the entire previous year. The International Lead & Zinc Study Group forecast a market deficit of 200,000 metric tons by the end of 2005, though there had been an excess of 50,000 tons in the first five months.
    Even though global inventories continued to decline, many producing companies remained skeptical about increasing the supply. “At this point, nobody in our business is rushing to build new zinc mines,” explained Greig Gailey, managing director of Zinifex, the world’s third-largest producer of zinc (after Xstrata and Teck Cominco), in 2005. “We’re certainly not, nor are Teck Cominco or Falconbridge.”

    Figure 17. Zinc prices in USD/ton, 2003–2006, London Metal Exchange (LME). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    By this time the price of zinc was hovering around 1,200 USD per metric ton. It had broken through 1,000 USD at the beginning of 2004, after moving in a narrow range between 750 and 850 USD over the two previous years.

    About 25 percent of global zinc inventories were concentrated in warehouses in and around New Orleans.

    In a nutshell, that was the situation until August 2005. Then Katrina hit New Orleans like an atomic bomb. The Level 5 hurricane caused devastating damage in the southeastern United States but particularly affected the city, whose urban area was almost completely below sea level.
    Twenty-four official LME warehouses had been sited in and around the city at the Mississippi Delta, due to its geographical location and attractive economic conditions. In addition to 250,000 tons of zinc, there were also 1,200 tons of aluminum and 900 tons of copper locked away. Global zinc inventories were estimated by the International Lead & Zinc Study Group to be just over 1 million metric tons at that point—the equivalent to a 35-day global supply. The inventories in New Orleans therefore accounted for around a quarter of global stocks and about half of the zinc traded at the LME. Due to the flood damage in New Orleans, however, access to the zinc was suddenly severely limited.
    Stephen Briggs, a metal analyst at Société Générale, summarized the situation: “We have a potentially serious development . . . the market is assuming that the metal is damaged and will be inaccessible for a lengthy period of time.”

    Who Needs Zinc?

    Zinc is mainly used as corrosion protection for other metals or metallic alloys such as iron or steel, and most of the demand for it is based on infrastructure, construction, and transport. Zinc is commonly produced as a co-product with lead, and worldwide mined production is around 11 million metric tons. The largest producer countries are China, Australia, Peru, the United States, Australia, and Canada; the latter two are also the largest exporters of the metal. Unlike the more concentrated markets for copper or nickel, the 10 largest companies produce less than 50 percent of the world’s zinc.
    Consumers assumed the worst. On September 2, zinc prices rose to a five-month high, as speculators foresaw delays in the delivery of zinc from the New Orleans warehouses. On September 6, the LME decided to temporarily suspend the supply of zinc from its stocks, though it had confirmed delivery of the metal just a week before. Accordingly, the price of zinc in London increased exponentially to 1,454 USD per metric ton, the highest since 1997. Two days later the LME’s CEO, Simon Heale, confirmed that suspension of deliveries could last until 2006 because of lack of access to the port of New Orleans.
    At the end of the year, zinc prices broke through 1,900 USD and, just under two weeks later, reached 2,400 USD in London. But that was only the beginning: The worsening situation eventually drove the value of the metal to 4,000 USD in the first half of 2006 and marked a new high of just under 4,600 USD per ton in November of that year.
    By 2007 the scare was over: Beginning in August, the price dropped continuously over the next 12 months, from 3,500 USD to less than 1,500 USD.

    Key Takeaways
    •Only market insiders were aware that warehouses in the city of New Orleans held around a quarter of global zinc stocks and about half of the zinc traded at the London Metal Exchange, the biggest physical metal market in the world.
    •In August 2005 Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans, causing extensive flooding in the area and making zinc inventories inaccessible.
    •As a consequence of this shortage of material, the price for zinc climbed from nearly 1,200 USD per ton during summer 2005 to a record of 4,600 USD in November 2006.

    22 Natural Gas: Brian Hunter and the Downfall of Amaranth 2006

    In the aftermath of the closure of MotherRock, an energy-based hedge fund, the bust of Amaranth Advisors shakes the financial industry, as it is the largest hedge fund failure since the collapse of Long-Term Capital Management in 1998. The cause? A failed speculation in US natural gas futures. Brian Hunter, an energy trader at Amaranth, loses 6 billion USD within weeks.

    “The market can stay irrational longer than you can stay solvent.” —John Maynard Keynes

    The news shook financial markets like an earthquake in September 2006: Amaranth Advisors, a 10 billion USD American hedge fund, erased around two-thirds of its capital in two weeks by betting on natural gas and was about to close. Only a few weeks before, MotherRock, another hedge fund that specialized in natural gas futures, had collapsed as well. Some of the causes for these events date back to previous years. Following the record hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005, many hedge funds had become interested in the energy markets. Hurricanes Ivan, Katrina, Rita, and Wilma had all damaged crude oil and natural gas production facilities in the Gulf of Mexico, resulting in a significantly reduced supply.

    Weather and hedge fund speculation drove up natural gas prices from 6 to above 15 USD.

    These extreme weather events, as well as relatively constant demand during the winter months, led to increasing price volatility and, in some cases, substantial price spikes for energy, especially natural gas. While the price of gas traded between 6 and 7 USD during 2004 and the first half of 2005, the hurricane season drove up gas prices to more than 15 USD in December. Production disruptions dragged on for months, but the warm winter, the absence of major storms, and a greater number of imports dampened the effect on the price level of natural gas in 2006.
    Compared to their all-time high that year, benchmark natural gas prices in New York lost around two-thirds of their value. In September natural gas was trading near 4 USD. The huge fluctuations in price made natural gas interesting for short-term-oriented traders, but natural gas’s future contract curve offered an even more interesting investment opportunity. Speculation on the change of price differences between different contract maturities is a popular trading strategy, especially by hedge funds: Traders enter long and short positions in the same commodity simultaneously, and the trade is based on an expansion or narrowing of the price differences, that is, a change in the steepness of the term structure.

    Some Thoughts on Natural Gas

    Natural gas is one of the most important sources of energy in the United States, with a market share of almost 25 percent. Home heating, electricity generation, and other industrial applications together make up nearly 80 percent of its use. But the need for heat, which accounts for 20 percent of total demand, is very seasonal: There’s high demand in the winter months, less during the summer.

    Natural gas production in the United States is focused in Texas, the Gulf of Mexico, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Louisiana. Texas and the Gulf region together contribute more than 50 percent of domestic output. Another 15-plus percent of total US natural gas consumption is imported from Canada or imported in the form of liquefied natural gas (LNG).

    Natural gas is traded on NYMEX under the symbol NG and the current contract month in USD per 10,000 MMBtu (1 MMBtu equals 26.4 cubic meters of gas, based on an energy content of 40 megajoules/m3).
    In 2006 the two top hedge fund investors in the US natural gas market were Brian Hunter, head of energy trading at Amaranth Advisors, a fund worth 9 billion USD, and Robert “Bo” Collins, chief executive of MotherRock, which oversaw about 400 million USD. The Mother Rock Energy Master Fund, which launched in December 2004, returned 20 percent to its investors in 2005.

    Figure 18. Natural gas prices in USD/MMBtu, 2003 to 2007, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Some investors at the time were aware that Collins and Hunter held opposing positions in March–April and October–January natural gas contracts. In July 2006 the price difference between the gas futures for March and April 2007 reached 2.60 USD. Hunter’s investment decisions assumed that the difference would increase due to the upcoming cold season. In contrast, MotherRock was betting on a correction in the price spread.

    Who Is Brian Hunter?

    Born in 1975, Brian Hunter is a Canadian mathematician and hedge fund manager. From 2001 to 2004, he worked at Deutsche Bank in New York. There, in 2001 and 2002, he achieved a profit of 17 and 52 million USD by trading natural gas futures. However, after losses of more than 50 million USD in just one week, Hunter was released from his job. He moved on to Amaranth.
    Hunter became a legend on Wall Street by earning more than 1 billion USD speculating on natural gas prices after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. By August 2006 he had achieved a profit of about 2 billion USD. Within a week, however, he had lost three times that, causing serious problems for Amaranth. After his separation from the company, Hunter went on to found a new hedge fund in 2007.
    Amaranth, with about 360 employees, had begun as a company that focused on convertible arbitrage. As those profit opportunities dwindled, it moved on to the energy sector. The firm dominated US natural gas trading on financial markets such as the NYMEX and the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE), as it bought and sold thousands of contracts, sometimes even tens of thousands, on a daily basis. Amaranth held about 100,000 natural gas contracts in one month, which accounted for about 5 percent of the total annual gas consumption of the United States. On the New York Stock Exchange alone, Amaranth controlled 40 percent of all outstanding contracts for the 2006–2007 winter season (October–March) and more than three-quarters of all outstanding November futures contracts.

    Amaranth Advisors and MotherRock had opposite guesses on which way the market would move.

    In June and July 2006, erratic natural gas price movements caused massive losses in the MotherRock Energy Master Fund. Earlier, the US Department of Commerce had reported a 12 percent increase in gas inventories. As a result, the gas price dropped by 12 percent within a week. The redemption of shares by investors aggravated MotherRock’s distress, which increased its losses to more than 200 million USD. However, the hedge fund’s high losses were not primarily due to a “normal” price decline. A subsequent Senate investigation confirmed that the sheer volume of Amaranth purchases of March contracts and sales of April contracts had distorted the price spread of natural gas, which moved up by more than 70 percent by July 31, 2006. MotherRock’s position worsened to the point where the fund was unable to meet its margin requirements. The fund collapsed, and positions were wound up in August 2006. Brian Hunter had triumphed, but his victory would be short lived.

    In late summer, natural gas prices began a downward spiral. The price of natural gas on the NYMEX, with delivery in October, dropped from 8.45 USD in July to below 4.80 USD in September, the lowest price of the previous two and a half years. The difference between futures contracts maturing in March 2007 and April 2007 moved from a high of nearly 2.50 USD in June to below 50 US cents in September—a plunge of around 75 percent!

    Figure 19. Price spread between natural gas March and April 2007 delivery, in USD/MMBtu, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    At the end of August, Amaranth held approximately 100,000 contracts in both the September and October futures on the long and short sides. Taken together, these represented enormous positions, because the movement of only 1 US cent on 100,000 contracts meant a change in value of about 10 million USD. The sheer size of the trades caused significant price movements in natural gas and its future term structure, that is, the price relationship of the different maturities.

    Figure 20. Future Term Structure of natural gas in USD/MMBtu, 2010, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The total positions of the fund added up to approximately 18 billion USD. The 60-cent increase in September contracts and the associated drop in the October–September price spread meant a huge loss for Amaranth.
    On August 29 the profit-and-loss calculation showed a one-day depreciation of natural gas valuation of just under 600 million USD. The next day’s margin obligations would be even worse: They rose to 944 million USD, due to further price depreciation. Two days later Amaranth’s margin commitments were in excess of 2.5 billion USD. A week later, on September 8, the hedge fund’s obligations exceeded 3 billion USD.

    Amaranth’s total positions added up to 18 billion USD. In September the fund’s margin commitments rose to more than 3 billion USD.

    With the price volatility of energy markets remaining high, and because of the cumulative losses, concerns were mounting at Morgan Stanley (one of Amaranth’s important investors, along with Credit Suisse and Deutsche Bank), which forced the fund to return money.
    Funds under management at Amaranth fell from 9 to 4.5 billion USD in just a week. Founder Nicholas Maounis told his investors in a letter that the company would drastically reduce its positions due to the price fluctuations in the US gas market, and that investors could anticipate losses of 35 percent by the end of the year, even though four weeks earlier the fund had posted a 26 percent profit.
    Amaranth got its name from the Greek word for “imperishable,” but it was now painfully clear that the firm’s profits were anything but. In addition to individual investors, injured parties included umbrella hedge funds of Credit Suisse, Morgan Stanley, and Deutsche Bank. On July 25, 2007, the Commodity Futures Trading Commission condemned Amaranth and Brian Hunter for attempted price manipulation of the natural gas market. Hunter, who had left Amaranth, had already established a new hedge fund—Solengo Capital Advisors.
    When Amaranth collapsed in September 2006, investors were told redemptions would be temporarily suspended. Ten years after the blowup, in 2016, Amaranth investors were still waiting to get their money back.

    Key Takeaways
    •Energy markets were a hot topic in 2005–2006. The price of natural gas climbed from 6 to more than 15 USD, but in late summer the market turned sour and a downward spiral began. In September 2006 natural gas fell below 5 USD.
    •Brian Hunter built a position of 18 billion USD in natural gas. By August 2006 his trades had earned him 2 billion USD. But then the market turned against him. Within weeks he had lost 6 billion USD, and Amaranth Advisors collapsed in September 2006.
    •The demise of Amaranth Advisors shook the financial industry. It was the biggest hedge fund collapse since the downfall of Long-Term Capital Management in 1998 and investors haven’t been paid back yet.

    23 Orange Juice: Collateral Damage 2006

    “Think big; think positive. Never show any sign of weakness. Always go for the throat. Buy low; sell high.” That’s the philosophy of Billy Ray Valentine, played by Eddie Murphy in the 1983 movie Trading Places. The film’s final showdown has Murphy and Dan Aykroyd cornering the orange juice market. In reality, the price of frozen orange juice concentrate would quadruple between 2004 and 2006 on the New York Mercantile Exchange—a consequence of a record hurricane season.

    “My God! The Dukes are going to corner the entire frozen orange juice market!” —Dan Aykroyd, as Louis Winthorpe III in Trading Places

    The blockbuster movie Trading Places, from 1983, stars Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd and culminates in a chaotic scene at the New York commodity exchange over trades of orange juice that hinge on data from the US Department of Agriculture. This was not really farfetched, as trading in orange juice, or more precisely frozen orange juice concentrate, on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) is dominated by the effects of weather. Hurricanes, frosts, or droughts in Florida and the region around São Paulo, Brazil—the main places where oranges are grown—can lead to major price fluctuations that vary with the seasons and also affect other agricultural commodities: High prices are due to risk premiums in May (frost in Brazil) and November (hurricane season in Florida), and lows are more common in February and September. Even light storms can lead to a loss of fruit.

    Some Juicy Facts

    Oranges are cultivated in almost all parts of the world with tropical or subtropical climates, but two countries dominate orange juice production. More than 50 percent of the world’s harvest comes from Brazil (the São Paulo region) and Florida in the United States. At harvest, oranges are typically packaged in boxes of 90 pounds or 40.8 kilograms. Processing fruit into concentrate offers advantages, compared to oranges and orange juice, when it comes to storage, shelf life, and transportation.
    Orange juice is traded in the form of frozen concentrated orange juice futures in New York. A futures contract refers to 15,000 pounds of concentrate, the equivalent of 2,300 to 2,500 boxes of oranges. Under normal conditions, an orange harvest in Florida provides about 200 million boxes, worth about 1.2 billion USD.

    The hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005 were the most active since weather records were kept in the United States.

    Heavy storms can destroy entire plantations and, at worst, result in lower harvests for several years, because new crops do not bear fruit for three to four years and are most productive only after about eight years. Storms can also make a difference in the spread of pests and diseases, which can greatly impact harvests on monoculture plantations. The years 2004 to 2006 created a “perfect storm” for the price of orange juice, overshadowing even the price spike of crude oil during the 2005 hurricane season.

    Storms to Remember

    The Atlantic hurricane season typically lasts from June 1 to November 30, and an average season sees just six hurricanes. There are exceptions: The year 2004 was one of the most active and costly hurricane seasons since records began. Winds and floods were responsible for at least 3,000 deaths and property damage of approximately 50 billion USD. The most significant storms—Charley, Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne—all crossed the United States. And all four hit Florida.
    But the hurricane season of 2005 stands out even more. It emerged as the most active hurricane season since weather records began, with 28 storms, including 13 hurricanes, of which 4 were Category 5 storms! Category 5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale means a hurricane with wind speeds in excess of 251 km/h. The storms in 2005 cost some 2,300 lives and caused damages amounting to 130 billion USD. Hurricanes Dennis, Emily, Katrina, Rita, and Wilma were responsible for the worst of the devastation that year. Katrina caused massive damage in the southeastern United States in August 2005, hitting the city of New Orleans particularly hard. However, Wilma broke all records and is now considered the strongest storm in history.

    Florida’s orange industry generally has suffered from subsidized overproduction. As a result, in times of good harvests income levels are low. The orange harvest in 2004 was very productive, and consequently in May 2004 the price of orange juice was about 35 percent lower than in the previous year. The US Department of Agriculture was estimating a harvest of 245 million cases in 2004, which would have been well above the crop level of the previous year (203 million cases) and would even have topped the record harvest of the 1997–1998 season (244 million cases). In addition, the Atkins diet, which advocated avoiding carbohydrates (including the sugar in orange juice), was particularly popular in the United States at the time and causing noticeably lower demand. At the end of May 2004, orange juice was trading at only 0.54 USD/lb in New York.

    Figure 21. Frozen orange juice concentrate prices in US cents/lb, 2002–2006. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    But then parameters started to change. The Atkins diet lost popularity, and demand began to pick up. And four hurricanes in 2004–2005—Charley, Frances, Jeanne, and Wilma—would affect the supply of Florida oranges. According to the Florida Citrus Mutual industry association, Hurricane Wilma alone caused a crop loss of around 35 million boxes, or about 17 percent of unharvested fruit.

    From a base of 0.55 USD, the price for frozen orange juice concentrate rose to more than 2 USD. A quadruple increase!

    In 2005 the US Department of Agriculture predicted a harvest of only 135 million boxes, that is, a decline of almost 10 percent compared to the already-below-average harvest of the previous year. Market observers expected the lowest harvest level in the previous 17 years due to storm damage and pest infestation. Starting at just under 0.55 USD in May 2004, the price of orange juice concentrate in New York continued to rise, quadrupling within two and a half years.

    The prices for orange juice rose to levels unmatched since 1990.

    In October 2005 the price rose above 1 USD, breaking a psychological barrier, and the upward momentum continued. Orange juice rose to levels that had not been reached since January 1990, when the price topped 2 USD after a severe frost. In December 2006 the price of orange juice was again trading above 2 USD.
    The orange crop in 2005–2006 began to recover slightly in both the United States and Brazil compared to the previous year. But the supply remained about 30 percent below the 2003–2004 level. Finally, in 2007, the price for orange juice fell back to between 1.20 and 1.40 USD, and in 2008, the price normalized to levels below 1 USD again.

    Key Takeaways
    •Prices of agricultural commodities are very sensitive to extreme weather. As a consequence of a record Atlantic hurricane season, the price of frozen orange juice concentrate quadrupled between 2004 and 2006.
    •In October 2005 prices surpassed 1 USD and continued to climb. In December 2006, the price of orange juice traded above 2 USD, a level that had not been reached since January 1990.
    •A notable fictional cornering of the market for frozen orange juice concentrate—whose plot hinged on weather information from the US Department of Agriculture’s Crop Report—took place in the movie Trading Places (1983), starring Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd.

    24 John Fredriksen: The Sea Wolf 2006

    John Fredriksen controls a corporate empire founded on transporting crude oil. Among the pearls of that empire is Marine Harvest, the largest fish-farming company in the world.

    “You stand on dead men’s legs. You’ve never had any of your own. You couldn’t walk alone between two sunrises and hustle the meat for your belly . . .” —Jack London, The Sea Wolf

    Acomparison with socialite Paris Hilton is inevitable: The twin sisters Kathrine and Cecilie, 26, are young, beautiful, and rich. In the list of Forbes magazine’s “Hottest Billionaire Heiresses,” the twins are next to Ivanka Trump and Holly Branson. The sisters have so far kept their names out of scandals, but they are already following in the business footsteps of their father, John Fredriksen. Forbes rates the private wealth of the 74-year-old Norwegian shipowner—by far the richest Norwegian—at more than 8 billion USD. Due to high taxes in Norway, however, Fredriksen lives in London and holds Cypriot citizenship.
    Fredriksen, born May 11, 1944, near Oslo, became rich in the crude oil business, as have many before him. He was already working in the shipping business when he set up his own company during the oil crises of the 1970s and built up a tanker fleet, today one of the largest in the world. He earned money on risky ventures during the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s and delivered crude oil to the apartheid regime in South Africa.
    Today Frederiksen heads a huge corporate empire, directly or through its investment firms. He is the largest shareholder of the Bermuda-registered shipping company Frontline, which controls a fleet of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) tankers with Golar LNG, and is involved in the oil rig operator SeaDrill and the shipping companies Golden Ocean Group and Overseas Shipholding Group. In Germany, Fredriksen is known as a major shareholder of the TUI Group and an advocate of selling the container shipping division Hapag-Lloyd, in order to promote the consolidation of the industry. Prior to 2010 John Fredriksen held the largest stake in TUI Travel and had a significant influence upon its direction and strategy. The Norwegian had already made a name for himself in the world of fish farming and today controls the largest fish-farming company in the world—Marine Harvest.

    Figure 22. Norwegian salmon prices in NOK/kg, 2000–2011. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In the 1971 German TV adaptation of Jack London’s famous adventure novel The Sea Wolf, Raimund Harmstorf, in his role as Wolf Larsen, crushes a raw potato to illustrate his worldview—eat, or be eaten. It’s an apt metaphor for the dealings of John Fredriksen, the Norwegian Sea Wolf.
    In the first years of the new millennium, the Norwegian fish-farming industry was experiencing financial difficulties due to low prices for fish. In particular, the company Pan Fish, founded in 1992, had been struggling since 2000.

    What’s the Catch?

    By far the world’s largest fishing nations are China, Peru, India, and Japan. In Europe, Norway, Denmark, and Spain haul in the largest harvests. The value of world exports of fish and fishery products in 2015 reached 96 billion USD. Aquaculture deals with the controlled cultivation of fish, mussels, crabs, and algae, and there’s a rapidly growing global market for these products: According to figures from the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), slightly more than a third of the almost 150 million metric tons of fish caught come from aquaculture—and the number is rising. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and FAO estimate that by 2020 the proportion of farmed fish will account for almost 50 percent of the total fishery.
    Farmed fish have the advantage of lower prices, and some argue that fish farms can also counteract the overfishing of the oceans; according to FAO estimates, more than 70 percent of the fishing grounds are already considered “overfished.” However, others point out some disadvantages: Aquaculture’s carnivorous fish, such as salmon and trout, consume many times the body weight of wild-caught fish; and there are particularly negative consequences to keeping fish in unnaturally large and dense pens, especially in countries with low ecological standards, such as in Southeast Asia or South America, because of over-fertilization or the use of antibiotics.
    Fredricksen controlled an almost 50 percent stake in Pan Fish through his investment company Greenwich Holding and the two vehicles Geveran Trading and Westborough Holdings. In June 2005, he bid successfully for the remaining shares of the company. In the second quarter of 2005, Fredriksen also acquired 24 percent of Fjord Seafood through Geveran Trading. His shares would soon amount to nearly 50 percent of the company. Then, in October 2005, Fjord Seafood made an offer to the state fish-farming company Cermaq, but the bid failed due to opposition from the Norwegian government.
    Fredricksen made his next big move in March 2006: Nutreco, today the largest manufacturer of fish feed worldwide, sold 75 percent of Marine Harvest—which had been involved in Chilean fish farming since the mid-1970s—to Geveran Trading for nearly 900 million euros. The remaining 25 percent was acquired by the Norwegian firm Stolt-Nielsen.

    On December 29, 2006, Pan Fish, Fjord Seafood, and Marine Harvest merged to form the new Marine Harvest Group. What was by far the largest fish-farming corporation in the world was now under the control of John Fredriksen.

    Key Takeaways
    •John Fredriksen, a modern version of Jack London’s Sea Wolf, made his fortune in the crude oil market, then became active in oil drilling, the transport of crude oil, shipping, and liquified natural gas. Today he controls an extensive corporate empire.
    •During the first years of the new millennium, the Norwegian fish-farming industry experienced severe financial difficulties due to low salmon prices.
    •By active industry consolidation over two years, Fredriksen built the Marine Harvest Group in 2006. Today it’s the world leader in fish farming and aquaculture.

    25 Lakshmi Mittal: Feel the Steel (2006)

    The dynamic growth of the Chinese economy and its hunger for raw materials rouses the suffering steel industry from near death. Through clever takeovers and the reorganization of rundown businesses, Lakshmi Mittal rises from a small entrepreneur in India to the largest steel tycoon in the world, a position he crowns with the acquisition of his main competitor and the world’s second-largest steel producer—Arcelor.

    “I want to be the Ford of Steel.” —Lakshmi Mittal
    “Aim for the highest.” —Andrew Carnegie

    It was a dream wedding, with a setting akin to the court of ancient maharajahs in India or a tale from 1001 Nights. On June 22, 2004, fireworks illuminated the night sky in Paris, Bollywood stars Aishwarya Rai and Shah Rukh Khan entertained the guests, pop star Kylie Minogue performed, and more than 5,000 bottles of Mouton-Rothschild 1986 were served. The evening festivities were the main attraction of the six-day celebration of the wedding of 23-year-old Vanisha Mittal and London investment banker and founder of Swordfish Investments Amit Bhatia, age 25. Twelve Boeing jets had been chartered to bring more than 1,500 guests from India to France, where they visited the Jardin des Tuileries, Versailles, and the Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte. The silver-wrapped wedding invitations included five-star accommodations at the Hotel Le Grand and the InterContinental, whose 600 rooms had been fully booked. Presents for the guests featured designer handbags filled with jewelry. It is estimated that the cost of this extravaganza was around 60 million USD. The check was signed by the proud bride’s father, Lakshmi Mittal.
    Who is this tycoon who could arrange a fairytale wedding for his daughter and that same year acquire a princely residence in London’s posh Kensington district from the chief executive of the Formula One Group, Bernie Ecclestone, for the equivalent of around 130 million USD?
    Lakshmi Mittal’s father had run a small steel plant in the Rajasthan province of India. The family later moved to Calcutta, where the father took over a major factory and where Lakshmi learned the steel business from scratch.
    After studying business administration in Calcutta, in 1976 Lakshmi was put in charge of modernizing a rundown steelwork in Indonesia that the family had previously acquired for 1.5 million USD. That pattern would continue throughout the Indian mogul’s life, as he bought money-losing or underutilized steel producers and restructured their business through cost reductions, sales orientation, layoffs, and closures. When a steel industry boom was triggered by rapid economic growth in China, Lakshmi Mittal would become one of the richest men in the world in just a few years.

    Lakshmi Mittal forged the world’s largest steel company.

    Gradually he added larger and larger acquisition targets. In 1989 Mittal bought a derelict steel plant in Trinidad and Tobago and renovated it. He had a major success in Mexico in 1992: The state had invested 2.2 billion USD in state-of-the-art steel-production equipment, but the end of the oil boom was forcing the government to sell. Mexican president Carlos Salinas awarded the Indian entrepreneur the contract for just 220 million USD, of which Mittal only had to raise 25 million in cash. He then renamed the company Ispat Mexicana. (Ispat is Hindi for “steel.”)
    The year 1995 marked another turning point for the businessman. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the giant Karmetwerk, which included coal mines, was up for privatization in Kazakhstan. Although Western corporations did not dare invest, Mittal paid 400 million USD, dismissed a third of the workforce, and made the company profitable within a year. Mittal also bought Sidex in Romania after that company was privatized, though it was a controversial deal because of a letter of recommendation written by British prime minister Tony Blair to Romanian president Adrian Năstase after Mittal’s donation to Blair’s party (“Mittalgate”).

    Mittal Steel was created in the spring of 2005.

    In October 2004 Mittal announced the merger of privately held LNM Holding and publicly listed Ispat International with the American International Steel Group (ISG). (ISG arose from the assets of LTV Steel and the assets of former industrial titans Acme Steel and Bethlehem Steel.) In the spring of 2005, the deal—worth 4.5 billion USD—was concluded. Mittal Steel, based in the Netherlands, was born.

    Steel Ups and Downs

    Carnegie and Vanderbilt in USA, or Thyssen and Krupp in Germany—these family names ring a bell in the history of the steel industry. Compared to other industries, the steel industry today is highly fragmented; the 10 largest steelmakers produce less than a third of the world’s supply, compared to a market share of more than 90 percent by the world’s 10 largest carmakers. ArcelorMittal is the industry leader. Nippon Steel, Baoshan Iron & Steel, POSCO, and JFE Steel follow at some distance.
    The 1990s were dark years for steel producers from Western countries. Specifically, the US steel industry slipped into a severe crisis due to overcapacity and cheap imports, and since the late 1990s, more than 30 companies have had to apply for bankruptcy and creditor protection. The situation changed dramatically with the rapid growth of the Chinese economy. The Chinese demand for steel increased from around 15 percent of the world’s market in 2000 to almost 50 percent a decade later. This unbalanced the markets for raw materials like iron ore and metallurgical coal and caused prices for crude steel to rise significantly. At the beginning of the millennium, the price for a metric ton of steel was around 200 USD; by 2008, it had risen to 1,100 USD.
    Mittal had created the world’s largest steel producer, with more than 70 million tons of production capacity. About 90 percent of the company was owned by the family. But Mittal, who wanted to outdo magnates like Andrew Carnegie and Bethlehem Steel’s Charles Schwab, was not yet satisfied.
    In October of the same year, Mittal Steel acquired Ukrainian steel producer Kryvorizhstal at an auction for 4.8 billion USD, after the Ukrainian president decided against a consortium headed by the son-in-law of the former Ukrainian president. But behind the scenes a much larger deal was looming that would profoundly change the steel industry.

    Figure 23. Steel prices in USD/ton, 2000–2010. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In January 27, 2006, Mittal announced a takeover bid to the shareholders of Arcelor, which was the industry’s second-biggest company. He offered a premium of 27 percent on the closing price of the previous day, a purchase price of nearly 20 billion USD. Arcelor itself had been created by the merger of French, Spanish, Luxembourg, and Belgian steelworks, and in 2005 it had produced almost 50 million metric tons of crude steel. The attempt at the hostile takeover provoked Arcelor’s corporate leadership; the governments of Luxembourg, France, and Belgium also opposed the merger.
    “L’India”—the Indian—“does not fit in with our great culture,” said Guy Dollé, the French head of Arcelor. And, in fact, the takeover battle turned into a war of cultures, during which Arcelor sought to save itself through a merger with Russian steelmaker Severstal. It played out like high-stakes poker. In the course of a month, Arcelor rejected two offers from Mittal as too low. Then, in June 2006, the Arcelor board of directors called for a marathon nine-hour negotiation. For almost 34 billion USD, a further premium of 15 percent on the stock closing price of the previous day—about 45 percent above the original offer—Arcelor finally agreed to the sale.

    With the merger of Arcelor and Mittal, the world’s largest steel producer was created, with a combined production volume of just under 120 million tons of crude steel, a global market share of around 12 percent, 60 billion USD in sales, and more than 320,000 employees. Number two in the industry, Nippon Steel, had less than one-third of ArcelorMittal’s production capacity.
    With the acquisition of Arcelor, the Mittal family reduced its stake in the new company to around 45 percent. Nevertheless, with estimated private assets of around 25 billion USD, Lakshmi Mittal is considered the fifth richest person in the world.

    Key Takeaways
    •The awakening of the Chinese economy, with its dynamic growth and enormous lust for resources, shook up a moribund global steel industry. Between 2000 and 2008, global steel prices increased more than fivefold. One entrepreneur noticed this industry trend faster than others.
    •Lakshmi Mittal became the “man of steel.” The Indian tycoon created Mittal Steel in 2005 by buying ISG and the remaining assets of former US industry giants Acme Steel and Bethlehem Steel. But that was not enough. After a bidding frenzy, in summer 2006 Mittal bought Arcelor and forged the world’s biggest steel company, ArcelorMittal.
    •After the transaction was complete, Lakshmi Mittal was considered the fifth richest person in the world, with estimated private assets topping 25 billion USD.

    26 Crude Oil: The Return of the “Seven Sisters” (2007)

    An exclusive club of companies controls oil production and worldwide reserves. But its influence diminishes with the founding of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the rise of state oil companies outside the Western world.

    “There is no business like oil business.“ —C. C. Pocock, Chairman of Shell

    In 2007 the Financial Times created the term the “New Seven Sisters” to describe the world’s seven most influential energy companies outside the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The original Seven Sisters, a term coined in the 1950s, referred to a consortium of predominantly successor companies to the Standard Oil Company: Standard Oil of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of New York, Standard Oil of California, Gulf Oil, Texaco, Royal Dutch Shell, and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.

    For a long time, the Seven Sisters were regarded as the dominant force in the oil business, since, thanks to a framework agreement with the Iranian government, they held a demand cartel over oil producers in the Third World. Producer countries were forced to sell the majority of their production on the basis of long-term contracts and fixed prices to the oligopoly, which also controlled trade and distribution.
    The Seven Sisters were able to set the rules, because until the 1970s the group controlled about 85 percent of global oil reserves. However, early in that decade, more and more important producer countries began to nationalize their oil industry: Algeria was the first country to do so, in 1971, followed shortly thereafter by Libya. In the following year, Iraq nationalized the concessions of Western companies. In 1973 Iran also nationalized its domestic oil industry. The power of the Seven Sisters was dwindling, and OPEC—founded in 1960 and the cartel’s counterpart on the supply side—was gaining in importance.

    The Seven Sisters controlled 85 percent of the world’s oil reserves until the 1970s.

    Today, OPEC countries supply about 40 percent of the world’s crude oil, and according to their own data, member countries together account for about 75 percent of global crude oil reserves, while oil production in Western countries has declined over recent years.

    Four of the Seven Sisters still exist today—ExxonMobil, Chevron, Royal Dutch Shell, and BP.

    To counter strong price fluctuations and a continuous drop in oil prices below 10 USD, the large oil companies used mergers and acquisitions. For example, Exxon (Standard Oil of New Jersey) and Mobil Oil (Standard Oil Company of New York) merged in 1999 to create ExxonMobil, the world’s largest oil company, whose annual revenue exceeds the economic power of many small countries.
    From Standard Oil of California came Chevron, which took over US Gulf Oil in 1985 and in 2001 incorporated Texaco as well. The British Anglo-Persian Oil Company first became the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and then British Petroleum. Following the acquisition of Amoco (the former Standard Oil of Indiana) and Atlantic Richfield, the company finally changed its name to BP in 2000. As a result, four of the original seven dominant companies were left: ExxonMobil, Chevron, Royal Dutch Shell, and BP.

    Big Oil today is made up of BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, and Total.

    Further mergers, such as Total and Petrofina (1999), Total and Elf Aquitaine (2000), and Conoco and Phillips Petroleum (2002), have put the US firm ConocoPhillips and the French company Total into the same category as the other four. There are now six super-majors—BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, and Total—all often referred to as “Big Oil” in the financial press. However, their influence today is significantly lower than that of the Seven Sisters 50 years ago. Together, Big Oil today controls less than 10 percent of global oil and gas production, and the group’s share of global reserves is again significantly lower.
    In contrast, the “new Seven Sisters” of the oil industry together control about a third of global oil and gas production and global reserves: These include Saudi Aramco (Saudi Arabia), Gazprom (Russia), China National Petroleum Corporation (China; CNPC), National Iranian Oil Company (Iran), Petróleos de Venezuela (Venezuela), Petrobras (Brazil), and Petronas (Malaysia).

    The “new Seven Sisters” are Saudi Aramco, Gazprom, CNPC, National Iranian Oil, Petróleos de Venezuela, Petrobras, and Petronas.

    Aramco, based in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, is the most important of the group. As the world’s largest oil company, it produces 12 million barrels of crude oil daily and has reserves of approximately 260 billion barrels of crude oil—almost a quarter of global reserves. With its Ghawar oil field, Saudi Aramco also operates the largest oil field in the world. After a dramatic drop in oil prices in 2015–2016, the kingdom of Saudi Arabia speculated about an IPO of Saudi Aramco to raise money. But plans have not yet been realized.
    At the end of 2006, Russian Gazprom and Petro China, a subsidiary of CNPC, had left the market value of most Western energy companies far behind. CNPC, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC), and Sinopec are China’s three largest oil companies.
    The power of the former Russian state-owned company Gazprom—the world’s largest producer of natural gas—was felt in Europe in late 2005 due to the gas dispute with Ukraine. (The enterprise also holds a monopoly on the export of gas from Russia.)
    The state-owned National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), based in Tehran, is part of the Iranian Ministry of Petroleum and is also active worldwide. Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA) was the instrument of power of former Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez. Established as part of the nationalization of the country’s oil industry, PDVSA is today the largest oil company in Latin America. In the Campos Basin, the semipublic Petrobras (formally Petróleo Brasileiro) accounts for more than 80 percent of Brazil’s oil production. The company is also a leader in offshore drilling and deep drilling. With the Tupi field, the Brazilians have probably discovered the third-largest oil field in the world. Petronas (full name Petroliam Nasional Berhad), a state-owned petroleum company known for its landmark Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, is one of the largest international oil and gas companies, with more than 100 subsidiaries and representations in more than 30 countries.

    Key Takeaways
    •After the breakup of Rockefeller’s Standard Oil empire, a consortium known as the “Seven Sisters” emerged. Included were Standard Oil of New Jersey, Standard Oil Company of New York, Standard Oil of California, Gulf Oil, Texaco, Royal Dutch Shell, and the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. This consortium controlled 85 percent of global crude oil reserves until the mid-1970s.
    •The influence of the Seven Sisters diminished with the founding of OPEC and the rise of state oil companies outside the Western world. OPEC today controls about 40 percent of global oil and gas production.
    •The legacy of the Seven Sisters lives on in a group of super-majors, six integrated oil and gas companies also referred to as “Big Oil”: BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, and Total. Compared to the original Seven Sisters, they control less than 10 percent of global oil and gas production.
    •The “new Seven Sisters” are Saudi Aramco, Gazprom, CNPC, National Iranian Oil, Petróleos de Venezuela, Petrobras, and Petronas. Together these seven companies control about a third of global oil and gas production and reserves.

    27 Wheat and the “Millennium Drought” in Australia 2007

    After seven lean years for Australia’s agricultural sector, a Millennium Drought drives the price of wheat internationally from record to record. Thousands of Australian farmers expect a total failure of their harvest. Is this a preview of the effects of global climate change?

    “This is more typical of a 1 in a 1000-year drought, or possibly even drier, than it is of a 1 in a 100-year event.” —David Dreverman, Head of the Murray-Darling Basin Authority

    The Aboriginal term uamby means “where the waters meet,” except that on the Uamby farm, 50 kilometers northwest of the Australian wine-making and sheep-breeding city of Mudgee, no more water was flowing. The year 2006 was one of the hottest since weather records began on this continent and also one with the least rainfall.

    Though the extreme drought had already affected the farm severely, it was only the beginning of the worst summer months—which fall between December and March in Australia. Water reserves were running low, and the animals could no longer find food. The pastures were bare and parched, necessitating purchases of water and food. Of the original 4,800 sheep on the farm, only 2,800 were left; the remainder had to be sold for 5 USD per animal, though the owners had expected about 40 USD.

    The World’s Wheat

    With an annual production of just under 600 million tons, various wheat varieties, together with corn and rice, are among the most widely cultivated cereals in the world. Wheat accounts for around one-fifth of the world’s calorie needs. It’s an important food for livestock and is also used to produce biofuels like ethanol. The average yield per hectare is just under 3 tons worldwide (1 hectare = 10,000 square meters, comparable to a soccer field). Large parts of the harvest are consumed by the producer countries themselves, so that only about 100 million tons of the total amount produced reach the world market—a factor that can affect price fluctuations in times of shortages.
    More than 400,000 people were working in Australia’s agriculture sector, one of the country’s most important industries, and the situation was dire. At the beginning of 2007, due to the adverse circumstances, a farmer was taking his own life every four days. At the beginning of the next year, more than 70 percent of the agricultural land, about 320 million hectares, was affected by lack of rain and high temperatures.

    The “granary” of Australia, the Murray-Darling Basin, produces 40 percent of the country’s wheat.

    The situation was especially tense in the Murray-Darling Basin. The river system spans thousands of kilometers, an area about the size of France and Spain combined, supplying some 15 percent of Australia’s water. Officially, the rivers supplied around 50 percent less water in 2007 than the previous year, and 2006 itself had been a record low-water year. The basin is considered the granary of Australia, because this area alone grows 40 percent of the food on the continent. Meanwhile, small towns like Dimboola, about 330 kilometers from Melbourne, in the Australian wheat belt, were becoming ghost towns.
    For the international market, Australia’s role as the second-largest exporter of wheat was of particular importance. In “normal” times, Australia exports 25 million tons every year. But normal times had not existed in Australia for seven years, making the drought the country’s longest. The year 2006 was the third-driest year since records began in 1900, and the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics (ABARE) was estimating the 2006–2007 winter harvest at just 26 million metric tons, 36 percent less than the previous year. Even so, 2007 proved to be hotter, and experts began talking about a Millennium Drought. Australian prime minister John Howard declared it “the worst drought in living memory.” The direct cause was the phenomenon known as El Niño—a rise in Pacific Ocean temperature that affects weather patterns, and a phenomenon whose frequency and intensity has increased significantly through global climate change, according to environmental and weather experts.

    El Niño Acts Up

    El Niño (“the boy” in Spanish, referring to the Christ Child, since El Niño usually occurs around Christmastime) describes a weather phenomenon in which the sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific rises, wind systems over the Pacific change, and as a result, the cold Humboldt current west of South America weakens. A layer of warm water travels through the tropical East Pacific from Southeast Asia to South America, and water temperatures off Australia and Indonesia drop. The result is a change in global weather patterns: There are usually heavy rains on the South and North American West Coasts and drought, crop failures, and bush fires in Australia, India, and Southeast Asia.
    In contrast, La Niña (“the girl”) is an exceptionally cold current in the equatorial Pacific, whose effects are excessive rain in Indonesia and drought in Peru.
    The Australian harvest was crucial because the global 2006–2007 wheat harvest, at 598 million metric tons, was also significantly lower than the previous year’s 621 and 628 million tons. The 15 largest producing countries provided about 80 percent of that total. Australia, the second-largest exporter after the United States at the time, accounted for about 16 percent of global wheat exports.

    The harvest came at a time of increasing demand, growing prosperity, and robust economic growth. For global wheat consumption, the forecast for this period was 611 million metric tons.
    The collapse of Australian wheat production first hit Asia and the Middle East, since these countries traditionally imported grain from Australia. They were now looking for wheat in the United States and Canada. The Europeans were also affected by the heat. In Ukraine, the 2006 crop had shrunk by half.

    In February 2008 the price for wheat more than tripled, compared to 2006, to almost 13 USD per bushel.

    The price of wheat on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) soon began an unprecedented rally. The typical trading band for wheat in the years before 2006 was between 2.50 USD and 4 USD. At the beginning of 2004, however, inventories fell to their lowest levels since 1980. Bad harvests in Europe and China meant that the Middle Kingdom had to import wheat for the fourth year in a row. The price of grains was picking up dynamically.
    In October 2006, wheat broke through the 5 USD mark for the first time and remained there. Then, in June 2007, wheat prices rose to 6 USD, climbed to 7 USD in August, 8 USD at the beginning of September, 9 USD at the end of that month, and rose to 9.50 USD at the beginning of October.
    Meanwhile, global inventories continued to fall and reached a 26-year low. In addition, in Canada—another major wheat exporter on the world market—grain reserves plunged 29 percent year-on-year at the end of July, while Egypt, Jordan, Japan, and Iraq placed buying orders for large quantities of wheat.

    Figure 24. Wheat prices in US cents/bushel, 2005–2008, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    After this fast-paced rally, international wheat prices took a breather, but in hindsight that turned out to be just a short break. At the beginning of February 2008, wheat prices broke through the 10 USD barrier, and the price momentum continued. The closing price on February 27, 2008, was 12.80 USD, a dramatic tripling since early 2006!
    The devastating drought had caused losses of around 50 percent in the recent Australian harvest. The situation began to relax slightly with the 2007–2008 harvest of 609 million tons, as the rapid increase in wheat prices had proved an incentive for many farmers to plant previously fallow land. A harvest of 688 million tons worldwide was estimated for 2008–2009. By then the unprecedented Australian drought finally had come to an end. However, weather experts painted a bleak picture for the country’s agriculture in the future.

    Key Takeaways
    •The year 2006 was the third driest in Australia since weather records started in 1900, but 2007 topped it. That year turned out to be the hottest year in history.
    •After several lean years, the Millennium Drought caused devastating damages to Australian agriculture. The national wheat harvest dropped by 50 percent, and global grain markets panicked, since Australia was the biggest global exporter of wheat after the United States.
    •In October 2006, wheat topped 5 USD for the first time. In summer 2007, the rally in wheat prices intensified. In February 2008, wheat prices broke the psychological barrier of 10 USD and closed the month at 12.80 USD. Prices had tripled since early 2006.
    •The Millennium Drought in Australia was caused by El Niño, a weather phenomenon whose strength and frequency could be directly linked to global climate change, according to environmental and weather experts.

    28 Natural Gas: Aftermath in Canada 2007

    The new CEO of the Bank of Montreal, Bill Downe, must report a record loss for the second quarter of 2007 due to failed commodity price speculation. Half a year after Amaranth’s bankruptcy, another natural gas trading scandal shakes market participants’ confidence.

    “How all of a sudden does a USD 450 million loss just materialize like this? Was it a lack of control from a risk perspective or was somebody hiding trades in a desk drawer?” —Leigh Parkinson, Risk Advisory

    It was the middle of April when three of the directors of Optionable, a New York commodity broker, unloaded a share package worth nearly 30 million USD. Just days later, the auditor Deloitte and Touche released a report to its principal, the Bank of Montreal (BMO), stating that there was a 350 to 450 million CAD loss in its natural gas portfolio. This came as a nasty surprise for CEO Bill Downe, who had been in his position for only a month and who was about to announce BMO’s quarterly figures.

    A Canadian Institution

    Founded in 1817, the Bank of Montreal (BMO) is the fourth-largest bank in Canada in terms of deposits and has played a major role in the development of the country, having financed the construction of the first transcontinental railroad in the 1880s. Today BMO’s business activities are divided into private and commercial clients (retail banking), investment banking (BMO capital markets), and wealth management. Tony Comper served as CEO from 1990 to 2007, and during his leadership, in 2000, a small trading scandal occurred in futures trading of natural gas, causing damage of around 30 million CAD. Seven years later, Bill Downe took over.
    The responsible trader at BMO was David Lee, who dealt in natural gas options both on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) and over the counter. Lee had joined BMO in his mid-20s, coming from the Bank of New York, where he had been involved in building the commodity derivatives business from scratch. Beginning as an analyst, he soon switched to trading and specialized in natural gas options.
    At BMO, Lee handled a large portion of his trades via Optionable. For a broker like Optionable with fewer than 20 employees, these trades represent almost 30 percent of his total revenue. It was no wonder that Lee and Kevin Cassidy, the CEO of Optionable, were close friends.

    BMO’s commodity trading achieved a huge profit in 2006.

    Trading in natural gas delivered an attractive additional income for BMO. Its commodity trading was 15 to 20 times larger than that of the Canadian market leader, the Royal Bank of Canada (RBC). BMO’s energy-trading business had grown to 25 traders. The bank had offices in Houston, New York, and Canadian energy metropolis Calgary, where in March 2006, at BMO’s annual general meeting, Tony Comper had announced excellent results in the investment banking segment, driven primarily by trading profits in oil and gas.

    The commodity business was booming. Due to the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the price of natural gas was rising. In 2004 and the first half of 2005, the price hovered between 6 and 7 USD, but after the hurricane season, corporate clients increasingly were interested in price-hedging transactions. In December 2005, the price of US natural gas went over 15 USD/MMBtu.
    This trend did not go on forever, though. Within weeks benchmark gas prices in New York had lost around two-thirds of their value. A mild winter ensured a sufficient supply of the commodity, which this time was unaffected by hurricanes. Customer interest cooled down significantly, but energy trading at BMO continued to grow.

    The BMO team around David Lee was betting on a rebound in prices.

    BMO’s star trader David Lee got it massively wrong with natural gas options.

    Market participants could see that someone was building massive options positions on the NYMEX and over the counter, but prices continued to fall and volatility declined. The value of call options imploded.
    The trading positions in Lee’s team were getting out of balance, but he was able to disguise his losses with the help of Optionable. Later the law firm Schatz Nobel Izard would accuse Optionable of having helped the BMO trader falsify his book and, among other things, of confirming incorrect trading prices. When Deloitte and Touche examined the upcoming quarterly figures, the loss could no longer be concealed. The auditors estimated the deficit came to 350 to 450 million CAD. BMO canceled collaboration with Optionable immediately, and Optionable stock lost almost 90 percent of its value.

    Figure 25. Natural gas prices in USD/MMBtu, 2003–2007, New York Mercantile Exchange. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    At the end of April 2007, just days before the announcement of its quarterly figures, BMO announced a profit warning and pointed to the bank’s deferred trading positions in the commodity market, namely positions in natural gas, that would weigh heavily on quarterly profits. Companies such as Goldman Sachs and Citadel, a major Chicago hedge fund manager, showed interest in taking over the portfolio. However, BMO’s managers were convinced that they could handle the situation themselves. It turned out, though, that publicizing the trading positions before they could be reduced was the wrong strategy. The losses continued to increase.
    When the quarterly figures came out in May, BMO had upped the losses on its commodity trading book to 680 million USD, the equivalent of about 12 percent of its total annual profit. Gritting his teeth, Downe reported the biggest trade loss of any Canadian bank in history, blaming market illiquidity and lower volatility. His rationale was not wrong, but market participants were skeptical, and analysts asked some unpleasant questions, about both the bank’s business strategy and the quality of its risk management. Bob Moore, executive managing director for commodity products, and David Lee had to leave the company. Lee was fined 500,000 USD and was banned from working in the banking industry. The total cost of the BMO trade scandal added up to around 850 million USD.

    Key Takeaways
    •Half a year after Amaranth Advisors’ bankruptcy, another natural gas trading scandal shook the commodity markets in 2007.
    •David Lee was a celebrated star trader at BMO, and he and his team bet on a rebound of natural gas prices, after prices had declined from a record high of 15 USD due to damages from a record hurricane season.
    •But prices declined further. Natural gas even traded temporarily below 4 USD again. For a while, Lee could disguise his loss of 350 to 450 million USD with the help of his broker Optionable. But auditors uncovered the problem.
    •After earning record profits the year before, Lee’s energy trading imploded. Losses from the trading scandal added up to more than 800 million USD.

    29 Platinum: All Lights Out in South Africa 2008

    Due to ongoing supply bottlenecks of electricity from Africa’s largest energy provider, Eskom, South Africa’s major mining companies restrict their production, and the price of platinum explodes.

    “South Africa needs at least 40 new coal mines to prevent shortages over the long term.” —Brian Dames, Eskom

    “Restoring energy security for the country is an absolute imperative.” —Cyril Ramaphosa, president of South Africa in 2019

    Two years before the World Cup kickoff in June 2010 in South Africa, the country faced its worst electricity supply bottleneck in decades. In spring 2008 the government declared an energy emergency. The national utility company Eskom—the largest electricity provider in Africa—shut down power for several hours every day for weeks, since its capacity lagged far below demand. For 20 years the country’s economy had been growing at a rapid pace. Electricity demand had risen 50 percent since the end of apartheid in 1994, but the South African government and Eskom had failed to provide additional capacity. The electricity company had repeatedly stressed that the nation’s power plants would have to be overhauled and new power plants built, but government agencies ignored these warnings.

    Because there was not enough power available, electricity was rationed at various intervals and in different zones, resulting in two- to three-hour power outages every day. Particularly affected were Johannesburg and the Gauteng region, the center of gold and platinum production. Around half of the mining companies’ energy demand was needed just to maintain infrastructure. Without electricity, the water could no longer be pumped out of the mines, and getting sufficient oxygen several kilometers deep became critical. The impact on actual production was even more dramatic. The Miners’ Union said that the companies sent tens of thousands of workers home or for training. At the end of January, the situation worsened. The energy company operated the world’s largest coal-fired power plant, the Kendal power plant, and Eskom’s coal reserves were being soaked by rainfall. At this point international precious metal prices began to react.

    Eskom turned off the power for the mining companies.

    Precious Platinum and Palladium

    The group of platinum metals (PGMs) includes platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium, but the economically important metals in this group are platinum and palladium, whose trading is overseen by the London Platinum and Palladium Market (LPPM). South Africa and Russia together account for around 90 percent of the world’s platinum metals production. Smaller producer countries are Canada, the United States, and Zimbabwe. The major companies are Anglo American Platinum (Amplats), Impala Platinum (Implats), Lonmin in South Africa, and Norilsk Nickel in Russia. In recent years, Sibanye has also grown into a new player through takeovers and acquisitions.
    Platinum is mainly used for catalysts (50 percent) and jewelry (25 percent); while for palladium, in addition to those applications, dentistry and electronics are important. Price-determining factors for both metals are Russian and South African production, Russian inventories, and global growth rates.
    South Africa had been the center of global gold production since the end of the 19th century, though it had fallen back over the past 30 years to eighth place. However, South Africa still has a dominant position in producing platinum. Around 80 percent of the world’s production comes from that country, with the overwhelming majority being produced in the Bushveld complex. The prices for platinum are correspondingly sensitive to any negative news from South Africa.
    Prices for platinum had been rising steadily since mid-2005, but the momentum increased significantly in late 2007 and early 2008. For the first time in seven years, the multinational firm Johnson Matthey, the world market leader in auto catalysts and thus the largest customer of platinum, expected falling shipments for the entire year.

    Figure 26. Platinum prices in USD/troy ounce, 2004–2009. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    At the end of January 2008, the news that the three largest gold producers in South Africa and the largest platinum producer were reducing production in all mines caused prices to jump. Amplats, with a 40 percent market share, expected production losses of 9,000 ounces per day. The number-two firm, Impala Platinum, claimed to lose about 3,500 ounces per day. Overall, South Africa’s platinum miners feared a 2008 production loss of 0.5 million ounces.

    By March 2008 the price of platinum rose to more than 2,200 USD/oz.

    In addition to gold, the price of platinum in particular rose overnight by almost 100 USD to more than 1,700 USD. At the beginning of March 2008, the price of a troy ounce of platinum closed at more than 2,250 USD, a temporary price maximum.
    Electricity supplier Eskom slowly began to regain control of the situation, but industry production was still running at only 90 percent capacity, and the company predicted that supply problems would continue until at least 2020.
    And the years of mismanagement and corruption continued. In February 2019 the situation escalated again, as Cyril Ramaphosa, the president of South Africa following Jacob Zuma, declared Eskom to be “too big and too important to fail” during the Indaba mining conference in Cape Town. Besides its aging coal-fired plants, the company suffers from a debt level of more than 30 billion USD. A breakup, a government rescue plan, as well as a 15% increase in its tariffs to its industrial customers are in the cards for 2019. At the same time, an ounce of platinum costs 800 USD—a new price rally is about to unfold!

    Key Takeaways
    •In 2008, South Africa faced its worst electricity supply bottleneck in decades, and the government declared an energy emergency. Eskom, the national utility company and the largest electricity provider in Africa, shut down power for several hours every day.
    •Although South Africa’s golden days of gold mining were over, it remained the dominant force in platinum group metals, with about 80 percent of the world’s production.
    •At the end of January 2008, the three largest gold producers and the largest platinum producers all reduced their mine production as a result of continuing power outages.
    •That development spurred prices for platinum, which had been rising steadily since mid-2005 and had already reached 1,000 USD. By March 2008, the price of platinum climbed above 2,200 USD per troy ounce, its highest price ever!

    30 Rice: The Oracle 2008

    The Thai “Rice Oracle,” Vichai Sriprasert, predicts in 2007 that rice will increase in price from 300 USD to 1,000 USD, and he becomes a figure of ridicule and mockery. However, a dangerous chain reaction affecting the rice harvest is about to start in Asia and, with Cyclone Nargis, culminates in a catastrophe.

    “National hoarding really doesn’t help the market.” —Robert Zeigler,
    International Rice Research Institute

    At 65, Vichai Sriprasert was one of Thailand’s largest rice exporters, nicknamed the “Rice Oracle.” Years of experience with the interrelationship between supply, demand, and price development had earned Vichai a lot of money as well as the honorary chairmanship of the Thai Association of Rice Traders. As the world’s largest exporter of rice, Thailand was a determining factor in international trade.
    Disbelief and ridicule were the initial reactions to Vichai’s prediction, in 2007, that rice prices were likely to exceed 1,000 USD per ton in the following year. At the time Thai export rice was priced at around 300 USD per ton. After a rapid increase in the price of oil and dramatically higher prices for wheat and corn, however, the laughter disappeared. In spring 2008, the price of rice actually broke Vichai’s targeted 1,000 USD mark. And it would continue to rise. For Vichai, the situation was comparable to the 1970s, when in the shadow of the oil crisis, rice prices rose to around 2,700 USD per metric ton.

    Rice Realities

    According to figures from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), rice—along with corn and wheat—is one of the most widely cultivated cereals in the world, with an annual production of around 650 million metric tons. The largest producer countries are China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Thailand. Due to its predominantly wet cultivation, between 3,000 and 5,000 liters of flowing water are needed per kilogram of rice. On the one hand, this has a positive effect in terms of lower pest and weed infestation; on the other hand, this can lead to serious crop failures in periods of dry weather.
    Despite the importance of rice, futures trading is insignificant, with less liquidity than the wheat or corn market. The most important trading place for rice is the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) in the United States. Traded contracts are quoted in US cents per American centner or hundredweight (1 cwt equals 100 lb equals 45.359 kg), with one contract covering 2,000 hundredweights.
    What had happened? Driven by the rising price of crude oil, the prices of many agricultural goods rose sharply in 2007, a condition called “agflation.” The food price index, calculated by the FAO, had risen by 57 percent within just one year, from March 2007 to March 2008. Wheat and soybean prices also doubled, and the price of corn had increased by 66 percent since autumn 2007.

    Figure 27. Rice prices in US cents/cwt, 2000–2010, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    However, the price of rice was still well above that of other agricultural goods and was developing its own momentum in spring 2008. From June 2007 to April 2008, rice prices rose by around 75 percent—even more in Asia. Prices increased from 400 USD per metric ton to more than 1,000 USD.
    The price spike had widespread consequences. Rice is a staple food for around three billion people, and in many countries nearly half of household income is spent on nutrition. The rise in prices threatened political stability in several countries and caused serious unrest around the world. In Haiti several people were killed in protests, and uprisings were reported in Egypt, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Indonesia, Côte d’Ivoire, Mauritania, Mozambique, and Senegal. How did all this happen?

    The globally traded rice volume of 30 million tons was very low compared to the total production of 650 million tons.

    The rice market is generally subject to structural deficits. The average amount of rice traded on the world markets per year—around 30 million metric tons—is very low compared to global production of around 650 million tons. This makes global prices extremely vulnerable to short-term fluctuations in supply and demand. Urbanization, demographics, and the demand for alternative energies and weather conditions all are influential factors and also apply to other agricultural goods to some extent.
    For example, rapid urbanization in Asia has destroyed more and more agricultural acreage, and increasing prosperity on that continent has also led to more meat consumption, increasing the amount of grain needed to feed livestock. The consumption of meat in China alone increased by about 150 percent in the past 30 years. Furthermore, the rice fields of Asia have had to absorb an annual birth rate of about 80 million babies in the region. Indirectly, the high price of oil and a related increase in demand for biofuels are also driving up the price of rice, as many farmers switch to the more profitable cultivation of corn, wheat, and oilseeds.
    Some countries recorded significant losses in their rice harvest due to weather in 2007–2008. Thunderstorms and floods destroyed more than 20 million hectares of fields within one year, twice the total acreage of Thailand. Bangladesh, generally a major exporter of rice, suffered significant crop losses in 2007 from floods and Tropical Storm Sidr, which destroyed almost the entire crop. The rice harvest in Vietnam was also hampered by severe pest infestation and disease. As a result, the price of rice continued to rise, and the situation gradually worsened.
    With panic buying and export restrictions, the dominoes were falling: In Asia, supplies continued to be stretched. The rice-exporting countries of Vietnam and India issued restrictions on the export of rice, while India slowed exports to stabilize prices at home. Other exporting countries, such as China, Egypt, and Cambodia, joined in with quotas and taxes. China was so worried about supplying its own population that it waived exports until further notice, while in Thailand, farmers, traders, and rice mills began to hoard their rice.

    In Asia, hoarding and export restrictions worsened the already tight supply.

    Everywhere in the region there was panic buying. Even in the United States, Wal-Mart rationed its sales to customers. The world’s largest importer, the Philippines, announced massive purchases to forestall further supply shortages. Importing countries like Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Iran were also affected. And then, on the night of May 3, a catastrophe occurred.
    Cyclone Nargis hit the coast of Myanmar, devastating the rice supply region in the middle of the harvest season and leaving between 50,000 and 100,000 people dead. The price of rice shot up again, and the risk of famine and revolts caused by hunger rose. As the price of rice quadrupled, many regions were threatened by unrest. In addition to the tight supply and the unfavorable weather, export restrictions and hoarding had created an artificial shortage, dramatically exacerbating the situation. Even Vichai did not foresee how bad the situation would become.
    In May 2008, however, the supply situation eased. Pakistan, one of the largest rice producers, loosened its export restrictions, and the crop in India was more than 2 million metric tons larger than expected. However, the structural problems of the rice market would remain. Given a comparatively small international market, repeated supply bottlenecks in Asia are to be expected in the future.

    Key Takeaways
    •In the beginning of 2007, Vichai Sriprasert, the “Rice Oracle” of Thailand, predicted a massive increase in the price of rice, a ridiculous thought at that time.
    •Later in 2007, however, prices of many agricultural goods rose sharply, driven by increasing crude oil prices (“agflation”). The situation in the rice market was especially critical.
    •From June 2007 to April 2008, rice prices in Asia increased from 400 USD to more than 1,000. Hoarding and export restrictions worsened an already tight supply.
    •When Cyclone Nargis hit Myanmar in May 2008, it devastated that country’s rice harvest and left as many as 100,000 people dead.
    •The price of rice quadrupled, and many regions were threatened by unrest, causing difficulties that even the Rice Oracle did not foresee.

  • Torsten Dennin《From Tulips to Bitcoins_ A History of Fortunes Made and Lost in Commodity Markets》1-15

    “The Wheel of Time turns and, Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend. Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again.”—Robert Jordan (1948–2007), The Wheel of Time

    “Wall Street people learn nothing and forget everything [. . .] to give way to hope, fear and greed.” —Benjamin Graham (1894–1976)

    Contents

    Introduction
    1.Tulip Mania: The Biggest Bubble in History (1637)
    In the Netherlands in the 17th century, tulips become a status symbol for the prosperous new upper class. Margin trading of the flower bulbs, which are weighed in gold, turns conservative businessmen into reckless gamblers who risk their homes and fortunes. In 1637 the bubble bursts.
    2.The Dojima Rice Market and the “God of Markets” (1750)
    In the 18th century, futures contracts on rice are introduced at the Dojima rice market in Japan. The merchant Homma Munehisa earns the nickname “God of Markets” for his market intelligence, and he becomes the richest man in Japan.
    3.The California Gold Rush (1849)
    Gold Rush! Some 100,000 adventurers stream into California in 1849 alone, lured by the vision of incredible wealth. The following year, the value of gold production in California exceeds the total federal budget of the United States. Because of this treasure, California becomes the 31st state in the Union in 1850.
    4.Wheat: Old Hutch Makes a Killing (1866)
    The Chicago Board of Trade is established in 1848, and Benjamin Hutchinson, known as “Old Hutch,” later becomes famous by successfully cornering the wheat market. He temporarily controls the whole market and earns millions.
    5.Rockefeller and Standard Oil (1870)
    The US Civil War triggers one of the first oil booms. During this time, John D. Rockefeller founds the Standard Oil Company. Within a few years, through an aggressive business strategy, he dominates the oil market, from production and processing to transport and logistics.
    6.Wheat: The Great Chicago Fire (1872)
    The Great Chicago Fire of October 1871 leads to massive destruction in the city and leaves more than 100,000 residents homeless. The storage capacities for wheat are also significantly reduced. Trader John Lyon sees this as an opportunity to earn a fortune.
    7.Crude Oil: Ari Onassis’s Midas Touch (1956)
    Aristotle Onassis, an icon of high society, seems to have the Midas touch. Apparently emerging out of nowhere, he builds the world’s largest cargo and tanker fleet and earns a fortune with the construction of supertankers and the transport of crude oil. Onassis closes exclusive contracts with the royal Saudi family, and he is one of the winners in the Suez Canal conflict.
    8.Soybeans: Hide and Seek in New Jersey (1963)
    Soybean oil fuels the US credit crisis of 1963. The attempt to corner the market for soybeans ends in chaos, drives many firms into bankruptcy, and causes a loss of 150 million USD (1.2 billion USD in today’s prices). Among the victims are American Express, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan.
    9.Wheat: The Russian Bear Is Hungry (1972)
    The Soviet Union starts to buy American wheat in huge quantities, and local prices triple. Consequently, Richard Dennis establishes a groundbreaking career in commodity trading.
    10.The End of the Gold Standard (1973)
    Gold and silver have been recognized as legal currencies for centuries, but in the late 19th century silver gradually loses this function. Gold keeps its currency status until the fall of the Bretton Woods system in 1973. The current levels of sovereign debt are causing many investors to reconsider an investment in precious metals.
    11.The 1970s—Oil Crisis! (1973 & 1979)
    During the 1970s the world must cope with global oil crises in 1973 and 1979. The Middle East uses crude oil as a political weapon, and the industrialized nations— previously unconcerned about their rising energy addiction and the security of the supply—face economic chaos.
    12.Diamonds: The Crash of the World’s Hardest Currency (1979)
    Despite the need for individual valuation, diamonds have shown a positive and stable price trend over a long period of time. In 1979, however, monopolist De Beers loses control of the diamond market; “investment diamonds” drop by 90 percent in value.
    13.“Silver Thursday” and the Downfall of the Hunt Brothers (1980)
    Brothers Nelson Bunker Hunt and William Herbert Hunt try to corner the silver market in 1980 and fail in a big way. On March 27, 1980, known as “Silver Thursday,” silver loses one-third of its value in a single day.
    14.Crude Oil: No Blood for Oil? (1990)
    Power politics in the Middle East: Kuwait is invaded by Iraq, but Iraq faces a coalition of Western countries led by the United States and has to back down. In retreat, Iraqi troops set the Kuwaiti oil fields on fire. Within three months the price of oil more than doubles, from below 20 to more than 40 USD.
    15.The Doom of German Metallgesellschaft (1993)
    Crude oil futures take Metallgesellschaft to the brink of insolvency and almost lead to the largest collapse of a company in Germany since World War II. CEO Heinz Schimmelbusch is responsible for a loss of more than 1 billion USD in 1993.
    16.Silver: Three Wise Kings (1994)
    Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros show their interest in the silver market in the 1990s—investing in Apex Silver Mines, Pan American Silver, and physical silver. It is silver versus silver mining. Who would lead and who would lag?
    17.Copper: “Mr. Five Percent” Moves the Market (1996)
    The star trader of Sumitomo, Yasuo Hamanaka, lives two lives in Tokyo, manipulating the copper market and creating record earnings for his superiors but also carrying on risky private trades. In the end, Sumitomo endures a record loss of 2.6 billion USD, and Hamanaka is sentenced to eight years in prison.
    18.Gold: Welcome to the Jungle (1997)
    In the jungle of Borneo, Canadian firm Bre-X supposedly finds a gold deposit with a total estimated value of more than 200 billion USD. Large mining companies and Indonesian president Suharto all want a piece of the pie, but in March 1997 the discovery turns out to be the largest gold fraud of all time.
    19.Palladium: More Expensive Than Gold (2001)
    In 2001 palladium becomes the first of the four traded precious metals—gold, silver, platinum, and palladium—whose price breaks the psychological mark of 1,000 USD per ounce. That represents a tenfold increase in just four years. The reason lies in continuing delivery delays by the most important producer: Russia.
    20.Copper: Liu Qibing Disappears Without a Trace (2005)
    A trader for the Chinese State Reserve Bureau shorts 200,000 tons of copper and hopes for falling prices. However, when copper prices climb to new records, he disappears and his employer pretends never to have heard of him. What sounds like the plot of a thriller shocks metal traders all over the world.
    21.Zinc: Flotsam and Jetsam (2005)
    The city of New Orleans, called The Big Easy, is well known for its jazz, Mardi Gras, and Creole cuisine. Less well known, however, is that about one-quarter of the world’s zinc inventories are stored there. Hurricane Katrina’s flooding makes the metal inaccessible, and concerns over damage cause the price of zinc to rise to an all-time high.
    22.Natural Gas: Brian Hunter and the Downfall of Amaranth (2006)
    In the aftermath of the closure of MotherRock, an energy-based hedge fund, the bust of Amaranth Advisors shakes the financial industry, as it is the largest hedge fund failure since the collapse of Long-Term Capital Management in 1998. The cause? A failed speculation in US natural gas futures. Brian Hunter, an energy trader at Amaranth, loses 6 billion USD within weeks.
    23.Orange Juice: Collateral Damage (2006)
    “Think big; think positive. Never show any sign of weakness. Always go for the throat. Buy low; sell high.” That’s the philosophy of Billy Ray Valentine, played by Eddie Murphy in the 1983 movie Trading Places. The film’s final showdown has Murphy and Dan Aykroyd cornering the orange juice market. In reality, the price of frozen orange juice concentrate would quadruple between 2004 and 2006 on the New York Mercantile Exchange—a consequence of a record hurricane season.
    24.John Fredriksen: The Sea Wolf (2006)
    John Fredriksen controls a corporate empire founded on transporting crude oil. Among the pearls of that empire is Marine Harvest, the largest fish-farming company in the world.
    25.Lakshmi Mittal: Feel the Steel (2006)
    The dynamic growth of the Chinese economy and its hunger for raw materials rouses the suffering steel industry from near death. Through clever takeovers and the reorganization of rundown businesses, Lakshmi Mittal rises from a small entrepreneur in India to the largest steel tycoon in the world, a position he crowns with the acquisition of his main competitor and the world’s second-largest steel producer—Arcelor.
    26.Crude Oil: The Return of the “Seven Sisters” (2007)
    An exclusive club of companies controls oil production and worldwide reserves. But its influence diminishes with the founding of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the rise of state oil companies outside the Western world.
    27.Wheat and the “Millennium Drought” in Australia (2007)
    After seven lean years for Australia’s agricultural sector, a Millennium Drought drives the price of wheat internationally from record to record. Thousands of Australian farmers expect a total failure of their harvest. Is this a preview of the effects of global climate change?
    28.Natural Gas: Aftermath in Canada (2007)
    The new CEO of the Bank of Montreal, Bill Downe, must report a record loss for the second quarter of 2007 due to failed commodity price speculation. Half a year after Amaranth’s bankruptcy, another natural gas trading scandal shakes market participants’ confidence.
    29.Platinum: All Lights Out in South Africa (2008)
    Due to ongoing supply bottlenecks of electricity from Africa’s largest energy provider, Eskom, South Africa’s major mining companies restrict their production, and the price of platinum explodes.
    30.Rice: The Oracle (2008)
    The Thai “Rice Oracle,” Vichai Sriprasert, predicts in 2007 that rice will increase in price from 300 USD to 1,000 USD, and he becomes a figure of ridicule and mockery. However, a dangerous chain reaction affecting the rice harvest is about to start in Asia and, with Cyclone Nargis, culminates in a catastrophe.
    31.Wheat: Working in Memphis (2008)
    The price of wheat speeds from record to record. Trader Evan Dooley bets on the wrong direction, juggling 1 billion USD and dropping the ball. This results in a loss of 140 million USD for his employer, MF Global, in February 2008.
    32.Crude Oil: Contango in Texas (2009)
    The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude oil collapses, unsettling commodity traders around world attention. A 10,000-person community in Oklahoma becomes the center of the world. The concept of “super-contango” is born, and investment banks enter the tanker business.
    33.Sugar: Waiting for the Monsoon (2010)
    A severe drought threatens India’s sugar harvest, and the world’s largest consumer becomes a net importer on the world market. Brazil, the largest exporter of sugar, has its own problems. As a result, international sugar prices rise to a 28-year high.
    34.Chocolate Finger (2010)
    Due to declining harvests in Côte d’Ivoire (the Ivory Coast)—the largest cocoa exporter on the world market—prices are rising on the international commodity futures markets. In the summer of 2010, cocoa trader Anthony Ward, “Chocolate Finger,” wagers more than 1 billion USD on cocoa futures.
    35.Copper: King of the Congo (2010)
    The copper belt of the Congo is rich in natural resources, but countless despots have looted the land. Now Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation (ENRC) is reaching out to Africa, and oligarchs from Kazakhstan aren’t shy about dealing with shady businessmen or the corrupt regime of President Joseph Kabila.
    36.Crude Oil: Deep Water Horizon and the Spill (2010)
    Time is pressing in the Gulf of Mexico. After a blowout at the Deepwater Horizon oil rig, a catastrophe unfolds—the biggest oil spill of all time. About 780 million liters of crude oil flow into the sea. Within weeks BP loses half its stock-market value.
    37.Cotton: White Gold (2011)
    The weather phenomenon known as La Niña causes drastic crop failures in Pakistan, China, and India due to flooding and bad weather conditions. Panic buying and hoarding drive the price of cotton to a level that has not been reached since the end of the American Civil War 150 years ago.
    38.Glencore: A Giant Steps into the Light (2011)
    In May 2011, the world’s largest commodity trading company—a conspicuous and discreet partnership with an enigmatic history—holds an IPO. The former owners, Marc Rich and Pincus Green, have been followed by US justice authorities for more than 20 years. Without mandatory transparency or public accountability in the past, they were able to close deals with dictators and rogue states around the world.
    39.Rare Earth Mania: Neodymium, Dysprosium, and Lanthanum (2011)
    China squeezes the supply of rare earths, and high-tech industries in the United States, Japan, and Europe ring the alarm bell. But the Chinese monopoly can’t be broken quickly. And the resulting sharp rise in rare earth prices lures investors around the globe.
    40.The End? Crude Oil Down the Drain (2016)
    A perfect storm is brewing for the oil market. There is an economic slowdown and too much storage because of contango. The world seems to be floating in oil, whose price falls to 26 USD in February 2016. But the night is always darkest before dawn, and crude oil and other commodities find their multiyear lows.
    41.Electrification: The Evolution of Battery Metals (2017)
    Elon Musk and Tesla are setting the pace for a mega trend: electrification! Demand from automobile manufacturers, utilities, and consumers pushes lithium-based battery usage to new heights. For commodity markets, it is not only lithium and cobalt but also traditional metals like copper and nickel that are suddenly in high demand again. Electrification might prove to be the “new China” for commodity markets in the long term.
    42.Crypto Craze: Bitcoins and the Emergence of Cryptocurrencies (2018)
    Bitcoins, the first modern cryptocurrency, emerged in 2009. The value of bitcoins explodes in 2017 from below 1,000 to above 20,000 USD, attracting worldwide attention. This stellar price rise, followed by a crash of almost 80 percent in 2018, makes bitcoins the biggest financial bubble in history, dwarfing even the Dutch tulip mania of the 17th century. Despite the boom and bust, the future looks bright, as underlying blockchain technology reveals its potential and starts to revolutionize daily life.

    Introduction

    “The price of a commodity will never go to zero . . . you’re not buying a piece of paper that says you own an intangible piece of company that can go bankrupt.” —Jim Rogers

    Commodities came into vogue with the beginning of the new millennium, as investing in crude oil, gold, silver, copper, wheat, corn, or sugar was introduced and marketed massively as an “investment theme” and a “new” asset class by banks and other financial intermediaries. The first investable commodity indices—the S&P Goldman Sachs Commodity Index and the Dow Jones AIG Commodity Index—were developed in the early 1990s, but after the turn of the millennium, every major investment bank offered its own commodity index and index concept. This development opened up a new and attractive asset class for institutional investors and wealthy individuals. We witness today the same development in the cryptocurrency world, making an exotic new asset class investable for the public.
    The rapid growth of the Chinese economy is the key parameter of the commodity boom, which has been evident since around the year 2000, when the “workbench of the world” developed a gigantic hunger for raw materials: Imports of iron ore, coal, copper, aluminum and zinc began soaring, and China became the dominant factor in worldwide demand. The dynamic growth of the Chinese economy catapulted commodity prices sky-high. Like a gigantic vacuum cleaner, China swept up the markets for energy, metals, and agricultural goods, and prices kept rising, since supply growth couldn’t keep up with rising demand.
    At least temporarily, the collapse of Lehman Brothers and the worsening financial crisis caused a break in the skyrocketing prices. Crude oil crashed from its high at 150 USD/barrel during the summer of 2008 to below 40 USD in the spring of 2009. In the course of the year, prices recovered again, to above 80 USD. Industrial metals also benefited from the economic recovery. In the aftermath of the financial crisis, and amid worries about rising public debt as well as the stability of the financial system, the interest of investors in gold rose substantially. In 2009, with the European debt crisis looming, gold surpassed the level of 1,000 USD for the first time, but it climbed as high as 1,900 USD per troy ounce in 2011.
    Exotic agricultural products such as sugar, coffee, and cocoa were also among the goods that experienced significant price increases in 2009, as the ghost of “agflation” returned and spooked markets. Market recovery after the financial market meltdown of 2008/2009 proved not to be sustainable, however. After April 2011, commodity markets entered a severe five-year bear market. A period of sluggish growth, deleveraging, and a slower economy in China worsened a massive imbalance of demand and supply for raw materials. A supply glut caused crude oil to fall back to 26 USD early in 2016. But since then, commodity markets have turned around. In 2016, for the first time in five years, they closed positive.

    The Commodity Market and Cryptocurrencies—Some Basics

    A commodity is any raw or primary economic good that is standardized. Organized commodity trading in the United States dates back almost 200 years, but commodity trading has a much longer history. It goes back several thousand years to ancient Sumerians, Greeks, and Romans, for example. In comparison to commodity trading, the history of the stock market—where you exchange pieces of ownership in companies—is much younger. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company officially became the world’s first publicly traded company on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in Europe. In the United States, the first major stock exchange was the New York Stock Exchange, created in 1792 on Wall Street in New York City.

    Commodities can be categorized into energy, metals, agriculture, livestock, and meat. You can also differentiate between hard commodities like metals and oil, which are mined, and soft commodities that are grown, like wheat, corn, cotton, or sugar.

    By far the most important commodity sector is crude oil and its products like gasoline, heating oil, jet fuel, or diesel. With the world consuming more than 100 million barrels of crude oil every day, that comes to a market value in excess of 6 billion USD per day, or 2.2 trillion USD per year! About three-quarters of crude oil goes into the transportation sector, fueling cars, trucks, planes, and ships.

    Metal markets are usually divided into base and precious metals. By tonnage, iron ore is the biggest metal market, with more than 2.2 million tons of iron ore mined globally. Nearly two-thirds of global exports go to China; that’s around 1 billion metric tons! At 70 USD per ton, the market value of iron ore, on the other hand, is rather small. The biggest metal market, in value of US dollars, is gold. Around 3,500 tons are mined per year, an equivalent of 140 billion USD. The total aboveground stocks of gold are estimated at around 190,000 tons; that makes gold a physical market of nearly 8 trillion USD. In value terms, copper, aluminum, and zinc are next, whereas other precious metal markets—silver, platinum, or palladium—are rather small.

    In agriculture and livestock, the biggest markets are grains like wheat and corn as well as oil seeds like soybeans, and sugar.

    Bitcoins were released as the first cryptocurrency in January 2009. Since then, more than 4,000 alternative coins (“altcoins”) have been invented. The website coinmarketcap.com tracks prices of about 2,000 of them on a daily basis. After massive price corrections in 2018, the total market capitalization of all cryptocurrencies dropped below 200 billion USD. Bitcoins remain the dominant cryptocurrency, with a market capitalization of almost 70 billion USD and a market share of 40 percent. The next five most traded cryptos are ripple, ethereum, stellar, bitcoin cash, and litecoin. Together these five cryptos amount to a market capitalization of 30 billion USD, less than half of bitcoins.

    Organized commodity trading by itself has a longer history than equity markets, a fact often overlooked in the focus on the dramatic price swings over the past decades. For example, the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was founded in 1848 to provide a platform for trading agricultural products such as wheat and corn. But trade and the speculation in commodities is much older than that. Around 4000 BCE, Sumerians used clay tokens to fix a future time, date, and number of animals, such as goats, to be delivered, which resembles modern commodity future contracts. Peasants in ancient Greece sold future deliveries of their olives, and records from ancient Rome show that wheat was bought and sold on the basis of future delivery. Roman traders hedged the prices of North African grains to protect themselves against unexpected price increases.

    The history of commodity and crypto trading is colorful and instructive, and my aim with this book is to bring to life the most important episodes from the past up to the present. Some of these are spectacular boom-and-bust stories; others are examples of successful trading. All are worth paying attention to.

    The first six chapters cover major events from the 17th to the 19th century. The Dutch tulip mania of the 1600s is considered one of the first documented market crashes in history and is still a topic of university lectures. In the 18th century, rice market fortunes were earned and lost in Japan, and in the process candlestick charts—which are used today in the financial industry—were invented. In the 1800s, J. D. Rockefeller’s strategies and the rise of Standard Oil marked the beginning of the oil age. At nearly the same time in the midwestern United States, two men were trying to accumulate a fortune by manipulating wheat markets, while in California the Gold Rush broke out, with momentous consequences.

    The episodes of commodity trading in the 20th century read like a “Who’s Who” of business history: Aristotle Onassis, Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros are just some of the major players. Meanwhile, crude oil was playing an increasingly important role.

    The 1970s saw a real boom in commodity markets. After a shortfall in its wheat harvest, the Soviet Union went shopping for US agricultural goods, reinforcing an already positive price trend in wheat, corn, and soybeans. It’s no overstatement to say that the rapid rise of crude oil prices during two oil crises in 1973 and 1979 changed the existing world order; the 1990 Gulf War was, in part, an attempt to reverse the clock. During this period the price of oil doubled. Among the collateral damage, the German conglomerate Metallgesellschaft was driven to the brink of insolvency by its crude oil-trading activities.

    In the years that followed, a boom in gold, silver, and diamond prices was followed by a crash, and the Hunt brothers lost their oil-based family fortune because of the collapsing silver price. Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros later were also involved in the silver market. And in the jungles of Borneo, the biggest gold scam of all time culminated in the bankruptcy of Bre-X. Another huge speculation in 1996 was caused by the Japanese trader Hamanaka in the copper market. That was repeated almost ten years later by Chinese copper trader Liu Qibing, which also signaled the shift of economic forces from Japan to China.

    The emerging commodity boom of the new millennium attracted additional speculators and led to other boom-and-bust episodes. The collapse of Amaranth Advisors, which accumulated a loss of 6 billion USD within a few weeks by betting on natural gas, hit news headlines worldwide.

    Weather often has played a role. The flooding of New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina led to a price spike in zinc in London, as the majority of zinc warehouses licensed by the London Metal Exchange became inaccessible. An active Atlantic hurricane season in 2006 not only caused oil prices to rise due to damage in the Gulf of Mexico but also pushed the price of orange juice concentrate to new heights.

    A “millennium drought” threatened Australia, resulting in record high wheat prices worldwide. A few years later, a drought in India drove the price of sugar to levels that had not been observed for 30 years. Shortly before that, Cyclone Nargis in Asia caused a human catastrophe. Rice had to be rationed, and the rising prices led to unrest in several countries.

    These fateful events often contrast with individual speculations, in which huge sums of money were involved. For example, trader Evan Dooley lost more than 100 million USD in wheat futures, just a few weeks after the loss of billions by Jérôme Kerviel, in the proprietary trading of French banking giant Société Générale, made world headlines. In 2011, the heritage of Marc Rich, “The King of Oil,” was cashed in: Glencore celebrated its initial public offering, catapulting its CEO Ivan Glasenberg into the list of the top 10 richest people in Switzerland.

    As a new decade began, the trendy themes of commodity markets shifted first to rare earths like neodymium and dysprosium, then to “energy metals” like lithium and cobalt, which are essential for energy storage and the electrification of transportation in the future. Since 2009 blockchain and bitcoins have caught the attention of traders. With tradeable bitcoin futures introduced at COMEX in 2017, the cryptocurrency has now become a commodity. With prices starting the year below 1,000 USD, bitcoins rose to 20,000 USD in 2017; then the cryptocurrency crashed by 80 percent in the first weeks of 2018. In the history of the biggest financial bubbles of mankind, tulip mania was pushed to second place after 400 years at the top.

    The chapters in this book are framed by the biggest and the second biggest financial bubbles in financial history: tulips and bitcoins. In between are the stories of 40 major commodity market events over four centuries. These episodes were accompanied by extreme price fluctuations and individual outcomes, and they demonstrate that each market can be subject to a boom-and-bust cycle due to a change in supply, demand, or other external factors. This holds true for South African–dominated platinum production, sudden frost in coffee or orange harvests, unrest in Côte d’Ivoire that affected the price of cocoa, strikes by Chilean mine workers that pushed copper prices up, and the fluctuation of bitcoin and other cryptocurrency prices because of financial woes.
    Commodity and cryptocurrency markets are now at the crossroads of investment mega trends like demographic revolution, climate change, electrification, and digitalization. Investing in commodities, blockchain, and its applications will remain a thrilling ride.

    1 Tulip Mania: The Biggest Bubble in History 1637

    In the Netherlands in the 17th century, tulips become a status symbol for the prosperous new upper class. Margin trading of the flower bulbs, which are weighed in gold, turns conservative businessmen into reckless gamblers who risk their homes and fortunes. In 1637 the bubble bursts.

    “Like the Great Tulip Mania in Holland in the 1600s and the dot-com mania of early 2000, markets have repeatedly disconnected from reality.” —Tony Crescenzi, Pimco

    At the beginning of the 17th century, the Netherlands were on the threshold of a golden age, a period of economic and cultural prosperity that would last for about a hundred years. The country’s religious freedom attracted a great diversity of people who were persecuted elsewhere because of their faith. At this time, the small and recently founded Republic of the Seven United Netherlands was rising to the rank of world power, becoming one of the leading nations in international trade, while the rest of Europe stagnated.
    As the Hanseatic League (a dominant mercantile confederation in Europe in the Middle Ages) declined in power, the young maritime nation built colonies and trading posts around the world, including New Amsterdam (today’s New York), Dutch India (Indonesia), and outposts in South America and the Caribbean, such as Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles. In 1602 merchants founded the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie—VOC), which was endowed with sovereign rights and commercial monopolies by the government. The VOC was the first multinational corporation and one of the largest trading companies of the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants from Haarlem and Amsterdam experienced an unprecedented economic boom.
    The new class of rich merchants eagerly imitated the lifestyle of noble lords and ladies by building large estates with gigantic gardens. Tulips—which had arrived in Leiden from Armenia and Turkey in the 16th century by way of Constantinople, Vienna, and Frankfurt am Main—quickly became a luxury good and a status symbol of the wealthy. Upper-class women wore the exotic flowers as hair ornaments or on their clothes for social occasions.

    Tulip Mania on the Silver Screen

    Tulip mania is not only an important topic in economics and finance, but it also frequently surfaces in modern pop culture. In the movie Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010), Michael Douglas explains to Shia LaBeouf what happened during the Dutch tulip mania, and a painting of tulips in his apartment is a mocking reminder of that bubble.
    In 2017 Alison Owen and Harvey Weinstein produced the movie Tulip Fever, whose plot is set against the backdrop of the 17th-century tulip wars. In the movie a married noblewoman (Alicia Vikander) switches identities with her maid to escape the wealthy merchant she married, and has an affair with an artist (Dane DeHaan). She and her lover try to raise money by investing what little they have in the high-stakes tulip market.
    The supply of tulip bulbs, however, grew very slowly since a bulb produced only two to three offspring every year, and the “mother” bulb actually faded away after a few seasons. Thus the supply lagged behind demand, and prices rose, opening up a lucrative niche for intermediaries. Tulips were now no longer sold by growers to wealthy clients but at auctions. And instead of occurring at organized exchanges, trading initially took place in pubs and inns. Later, groups gathered to form trading clubs, or informal exchanges, and they organized auctions according to fixed rules.
    Initially the tulip bulbs were traded only during the planting season. However, as demand rose, traders sold bulbs that were still in the ground: It wasn’t the flowers that were sold anymore, but the rights to buy tulip bulbs. By this time, in the 1630s, tulip trading had become a speculative business because no one knew what the flowers would actually look like. Around 400 painters were commissioned to produce pictures that would entice potential buyers.

    Tulips quickly advanced to become a status symbol. Prices skyrocketed, rising to 50 times the original level between 1634 and 1637.

    Flower experts tried to satisfy their demanding clients with newer and ever more gorgeous creations characterized by particularly uniform petals and striking color patterns. The appearance of the mosaic virus, a plant infestation transmitted by aphids, actually created an extremely rare specimen, a surprising plant with flamed, two-color petals.
    At the height of the boom, tulip contracts changed hands as many as 10 times. Prices skyrocketed and between 1634 and 1637 multiplied by a factor of 50. In individual cases, for example the variety Semper Augustus, buyers paid as much as 10,000 guilders for a single tulip bulb, about 20 times a craftsman’s annual salary. In January 1637 alone, prices doubled in a short period of time. An entire house in Amsterdam could be bought for just three tulip bulbs. The speculative bubble reached its climax on February 5, 1637. Traders from all over the region met in Alkmaar, and 99 tulip bulbs changed hands for 90,000 guilders, the equivalent of one million US dollars today. The excess carried the seeds of the tulip’s downfall since the crash had already begun two days earlier in Haarlem. There for the first time, at a simple pub auction, no buyer was found. The reaction spread rapidly. Suddenly all market participants wanted to sell, resulting in the collapse of the entire tulip market in the Netherlands.

    In 1637, the bubble burst: Prices fell by 95 percent, and trading ceased.

    On February 7, 1637, trading stopped entirely. Prices had fallen by 95 percent, and the number of open contracts referring to tulip bulbs exceeded existing bulb supply by a huge multiple. Both buyers and sellers were hoping for a solution from the Dutch government. In the end, futures trading was prohibited, and buyers and sellers were forced to agree among themselves.
    Large parts of the Dutch population had been infected by tulip fever, from nobles and merchants to farmers and casual workers. Most participants, knowing nothing about the market, started their trading with the tulip bulbs and mortgaged their house or farm to increase their initial capital. However, the booming economy in the Netherlands did dampen the negative economic impact of this speculative bubble.
    Dutch tulip mania is the first documented market crash in history, and the analysis of the process can be applied to the dot-com bubble of 1998–2001 or any other financial bubble. In the decades following the tulip fever, the flower changed from an upper-class status symbol to a widespread ornamental plant, which it still is today, almost 400 years later. And almost 80 percent of the world’s tulip crop still comes from the Netherlands.

    Key Takeaways
    •During the Dutch economic boom of the Golden Age, during the 17th century, tulips became an exclusive status symbol of the new, wealthy upper class.
    •Prices skyrocketed, rising by more than 50 times between 1634 and 1637. Wide segments of the Dutch population were gripped by the speculative fever.
    •Before the bust, tulip bulbs traded for as much as the value of a house in Amsterdam. Then, in February 1637, the bubble burst. Prices fell by 95 percent.
    •The tulip mania is the first well-documented market crash in history. And for almost four centuries, it was known as the biggest financial bubble in history, much larger than the dot-com crash of 2000.

    2 The Dojima Rice Market and the “God of Markets” 1750

    In the 18th century, futures contracts on rice are introduced at the Dojima rice market in Japan. The merchant Homma Munehisa earns the nickname “God of Markets” for his market intelligence, and he becomes the richest man in Japan.

    “After 60 years of working day and night I have gradually acquired a deep understanding of the movements of the rice market.” —Homma Munehisa

    During Japan’s Edo period, which began in 1603, the country enjoyed its longest uninterrupted period of peace, and during this time domestic trade and the agriculture sector strengthened. The Dojima rice market was established in Osaka toward the end of the 17th century, and the city became the center of Japanese rice trading in the hundred years that followed. At the Dojima market, rice was traded for other goods, such as silk or tea. A common currency had not yet been established, but rice was generally accepted as payment (for taxes, for example).
    Due to the financial needs of the country’s feudal lords, warehouses started to accept warrants, which promised future delivery instead of the actual goods, and many landowners pledged their harvests for years in advance. Soon trading warrants were uncoupled from trades of physical rice at Dojima; a lively trade in so-called rice coupons evolved. Over time the rice coupons surpassed rice production levels by far. In the middle of the 18th century, almost four times the quantity of rice produced was traded in rice coupons.

    In 1749 around 100,000 bales of rice were traded in Osaka, but at the same time, there were only about 30,000 physical bales of rice in Japan.

    What Is a Rice Coupon?
    Rice coupons are a standardized form of a promise for the future delivery of rice, in which the price, quantity, and delivery date are fixed. If the market price is above the agreed price, the buyer makes a profit. If the price of rice is lower than the contract price, the buyer suffers a loss. Rice coupons are the first known standardized commodity futures in the world, and the Dojima rice market can be regarded as the first modern futures exchange, predating the introduction of trading in Amsterdam, London, New York, and Chicago.
    In 1750, at the age of 36, Homma Munehisa took over his family’s rice-trading company. As the owner of large rice fields in the northwest of Japan, Homma specialized in grain trading. At first he concentrated his activities in Sakata, where his family was located. Later he moved to Osaka.
    There Homma began to trade rice coupons, and in order to be informed as quickly as possible about the actual harvest in Sakata, he built up his own communication system, which covered about 600 kilometers. His family’s rice fields offered him valuable insider information. But in addition, Homma was probably the first to use analyses of historic price movements. He invented a graph, later known as a candlestick chart, that is still in use today. In contrast to a line chart, the “candles” not only show the opening and closing prices in the course of a day but also track the intraday high and low prices. Homma was convinced that by analyzing historic price movements, it was possible to recognize repetitive patterns that would allow him to make a profit.

    Figure 1. Rice. Candlestick chart in USD/cwt 2016, Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The following episode is legendary: Over several days Homma, who seemed to have more background information than his competitors, bought more and more rice from local farmers at the rice exchange in Dojima. Again and again he drew a paper out of his pocket and peered at symbols that remotely looked like candles. On the fourth day, a messenger from the countryside arrived in Osaka with reports of harvest losses because of a storm. The price for rice in Dojima jumped up, but there was hardly any rice for sale.
    In just a few days Homma had gotten control of Japan’s entire rice market, and he became rich beyond description. After his success at the Dojima exchange, Homma moved to Edo (Tokyo) and continued his ascent, acquiring the nickname “God of Markets.” Raised to the aristocracy, he served as a financial advisor to the Japanese government. He died in 1803. It was almost 200 years before his invention, the candlestick chart, was rediscovered and popularized by investors and traders alike.

    Key Takeaways
    •The trader Homma Munehisa cornered the Japanese rice market in 1750, buying physical supplies of rice and acquiring rice coupons on the basis of his superior market intelligence.
    •Earning the nickname “God of Markets,” he became the richest man in the country.
    •Homma invented candlestick charts, which are still used today in financial and technical analysis.

    3 The California Gold Rush 1849

    Gold Rush! Some 100,000 adventurers stream into California in 1849 alone, lured by the vision of incredible wealth. The following year, the value of gold production in California exceeds the total federal budget of the United States. Because of this treasure, California becomes the 31st state in the Union in 1850.

    “Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!” —Samuel Brannan

    It’s hard to imagine today, but before 1848 California was an inhospitable and remote place, populated mainly by Mexicans, descendants of Spaniards, and Native Americans. Among the few European settlers was the Swiss-German émigré John Augustus Sutter, who had left his wife and children in Switzerland after the bankruptcy of his company and moved to the American West. By this time he owned a large piece of land in the Sacramento Valley, a settlement he called Nueva Helvetica. Sutter built a fort at the confluence of the American and Sacramento Rivers, and on the southern arm of the American River, near the village of Coloma, he started to put up a sawmill. It was there, on the morning of January 24, 1848, that one of the workers, carpenter James Wilson Marshall, found a gold nugget in the riverbed. Sutter and Marshall tried to keep the find secret while they gradually bought up more land. But the news of the spectacular discovery couldn’t be concealed for long when Sutter’s employees began to pay for goods with the gold they had found.
    Things soon got out of control. Samuel Brannan, a Coloma shopkeeper, filled a bottle with gold nuggets and traveled to San Francisco. There he rode through the streets, waving the bottle and shouting, “Gold, gold from the American River,” to gain attention for his business, which just happened to include prospecting equipment. The California Gold Rush was on.
    In 1848 only 6,000 people came to search for gold. But the following year gold fever truly took hold. As news of the finds spread, adventurers from all over the world hurried to California. Almost 100,000 people traveled to California in search of wealth and fast fortune in the boom year of 1849. They came from Asia as well. More and more Chinese arrived at Gum San, the “mountain of gold,” as they called California.
    The numbers are staggering. In 1848 California had fewer than 15,000 people. In 1852, four years after the first gold discovery, the population exploded tenfold. San Francisco grew from fewer than 1,000 inhabitants in 1848 to about 25,000 residents in 1850. By 1855 more than 300,000 adventurers were searching for gold, and there were plenty of merchants to service—and take advantage of—them.

    The Gold Rush in the Movies

    With No Country for Old Men, directed by the Coen brothers, and The Hateful Eight, by Quentin Tarantino, recent years have seen a comeback of the Western as a movie genre. The concept of a gold rush was a popular theme in these movies in the past. Perhaps the most prominent is The Gold Rush (1925), a classic silent movie with Charlie Chaplin in his Little Tramp persona participating in the Klondike Gold Rush. Re-released in 1942, the movie remains one of Chaplin’s most celebrated works. More recent is Gold, made in 2013 by Thomas Arslan: The plot focuses on a small group of German compatriots who head into the hostile northern interior of British Columbia in the summer of 1898, at the height of the Klondike Gold Rush, in search of the precious metal.
    Prices for prospecting gear multiplied by 10. In Coloma, Sam Brannan’s business took in 150,000 USD per month. Still, the promise of great wealth kept miners panning for gold in the riverbeds. Success meant they’d earn about 20 times as much as a worker on the East Coast in one day. In many cases six months of hard work in the goldfields earned adventurers the equivalent of six years of “normal” work. Annual gold production in California rose to 77 tons in 1851.
    The value of that amount of gold exceeded the total US gross domestic product at that time. Many miners, though, had a hard time holding on to their earnings. Far from civilization, merchants charged fantastic prices for their goods, while saloonkeepers profited greatly on alcohol and gambling. In truth, the actual winners of the gold rush were businessmen and merchants like Samuel Brannan. The most famous of these is probably entrepreneur Levi Strauss. Born in Germany, he set up shop in San Francisco, and when he realized prospectors needed sturdy trousers to work in, he trimmed tent fabric to meet the demand. Jeans were born.

    Almost 100,000 people came to California in 1849 alone. By 1855 there would be more than 300,000 new migrants.

    With its growth in wealth and population, California’s political weight also increased. In 1850 the “Golden State” was incorporated into the United States. The boom didn’t last forever, though. Around 1860 the easily accessible gold reserves had been depleted, and many cities were abandoned. The population of Columbia, founded just 10 years earlier, dropped from 20,000 people to 500. Boom towns became ghost towns.
    The pattern of the California Gold Rush would be repeated in other places over the next half century. Within a decade, the population of Australia multiplied by 10 in the aftermath of the 1851 gold rush on that continent, which evolved from a British convict colony to a more or less civilized state. In 1886 gold was found on the Witwatersrand south of Pretoria in Transvaal, South Africa. In a few years, Transvaal became the largest gold producer in the world. And in 1896, gold was discovered on the Klondike River in Alaska, leading to boom towns such as Dawson City at the confluence of the Klondike and the Yukon Rivers, which grew from 500 to 30,000 inhabitants within two years.
    As for California, Sutter’s settlement eventually developed into Sacramento, the capital of the state. The huge wave of 19th-century gold seekers is recalled in the name of San Francisco’s football team—the 49ers. And what about John Augustus Sutter? He died in poverty in 1880.

    Key Takeaways
    •The discovery of gold by Swiss-German immigrant John Augustus Sutter and James Wilson Marshall triggered a true global gold rush. More than the prospectors, however, it was the merchants who generally became rich selling equipment and services.
    •The California Gold Rush of 1849 kicked off a huge wave of immigration—with 100,000 new arrivals in that year alone.
    •The discovery of gold accelerated California’s development, leading to statehood in 1850.
    •The pattern of gold rush booms was followed in Australia, South Africa, and the Yukon.

    4 Wheat: Old Hutch Makes a Killing 1866

    The Chicago Board of Trade is established in 1848, and Benjamin Hutchinson, known as “Old Hutch,” later becomes famous by successfully cornering the wheat market. He temporarily controls the whole market and earns millions.

    “Did you hear what Charlie said? Charlie said we were philanthropists! Why bless my buttons, we’re gamblers! . . . You’re a gambler! and I’m a gambler!” —Benjamin Hutchinson

    ACorner in Wheat is a short silent American film, made in 1909, that tells of a greedy tycoon who tries to corner the world market on wheat, destroying the lives of the people who can no longer afford to buy bread. The classic movie, set in the wheat-speculation trading pits of the Chicago Board of Trade building, was adapted from a novel and a short story by Frank Norris, titled The Pit and “A Deal in Wheat,” respectively. In 1994 A Corner in Wheat was selected for preservation in the US National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being “culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.”
    Chicago had become the hub for agricultural products in the American Midwest in the 19th century, as large quantities of grains entered the city and more and more warehouses were built to better coordinate supply and demand. Prices regularly came under pressure, and in 1848 the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was founded.
    Benjamin Peters Hutchinson, nicknamed “Old Hutch,” is famous for being the first person to corner the wheat market. Born in Massachusetts in 1829, he moved to Chicago at the age of 30, started trading in grain, and became a member of the CBOT.
    In 1866 Hutchinson was betting on a poor wheat harvest. From May to June of that year, he grew his position, both in the spot market and in futures contracts. His average realized price was reported to be 88 US cents per bushel. Then, in August, the price began to rise steadily because of below-average harvests in Illinois, Iowa, and other states that delivered grain to Chicago. On August 4, the price of wheat ranged between 90 and 92 US cents per bushel. Short sellers soon realized that there would not be enough wheat to meet their delivery obligations. (The strategy of short sellers is to sell contracts at the beginning of the season; they assume that prices during harvest season will come under pressure, and they’ll be able to close their positions with a profit.)
    By August 18, Hutchinson’s control of the tight physical market had driven wheat prices up to 1.87 USD. He had become a rich man. As a consequence, however, the CBOT declared illegal the practice of acquiring futures contracts and trying to prevent physical delivery at the same time.

    What Is a Commodity Futures Exchange?

    The Chicago Board of Trade, established in 1848, is one of the oldest organized commodity futures exchanges in the world. The function of every futures exchange is to provide liquidity and a central marketplace for buyers and sellers to handle standardized contracts (futures and options) that are subject to physical delivery in the future. At the CBOT, these are mainly agricultural products such as wheat, corn, or pork bellies. In 1864 the CBOT introduced the first standardized exchange-traded futures contracts. In 2007 the CBOT and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) merged into the CME Group. Ten years later, the CME introduced bitcoin futures in the commodity segment of the exchange.
    In 1888 Hutchinson saw another opportunity for lucrative speculation. During the spring, he bought wheat in the spot market and acquired more and more futures contracts for maturity and delivery in September. The storage capacity in the city was around 15 million bushels, and Hutchinson controlled most of the wheat available in Chicago through the spot market.

    On September 22 the wheat price broke the psychological level of 1 USD.

    As a few years before, his average realized price was below 90 US cents per bushel. But this time Old Hutch was facing a powerful group of short sellers who included John Cudahy, Edwin Pardridge, and Nat Jones; they would challenge him over future deliveries in September.
    Until August, the price of wheat remained at around 90 US cents per bushel. But Old Hutch again had the right instincts. Frost destroyed a large part of the local crop. And European demand for wheat imports also grew because of an unexpectedly large crop deficit. The price started to rise, and on September 22 it broke the psychologically important mark of 1 USD.

    One day before maturity of the futures contracts, prices climbed to 1.50 USD. Hutchinson set the final settlement price at 2 USD.

    On September 27, three days before the contracts for September expired, wheat prices rose to 1.05 USD, then increased further to 1.28 USD. Market participants caught on the wrong side began to panic, and short sellers were forced to cover their positions in what’s known as a “short squeeze.” With his positions in the physical market, Old Hutch controlled the price. The day before maturity, on September 29, he offered 1.50 USD to the big short sellers and raised the settlement price to 2 USD. Based on his average realized price, Hutchinson must have realized a profit of around 1.5 million USD.
    He wasn’t done speculating, however. Within the next three years, Hutchinson had given up his profit. Later he lost his entire fortune.

    Key Takeaways
    •Benjamin Peters Hutchinson, nicknamed “Old Hutch,” was a grain trader who bought wheat on the spot market and acquired contracts for future delivery at the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). By cornering the wheat market in Chicago in 1866 and 1888, he was able to double his investments within weeks, earning a fortune.
    •The CBOT was established in 1848 and is today one of the oldest organized commodity futures exchanges in the world. The exchange later declared illegal the practice of cornering a market by buying harvests physically and financially at the same time.
    •The CBOT and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) merged in 2007 to become the CME Group.

    5 Rockefeller and Standard Oil 1870

    The US Civil War triggers one of the first oil booms. During this time, John D. Rockefeller founds the Standard Oil Company. Within a few years, through an aggressive business strategy, he dominates the oil market, from production and processing to transport and logistics.

    “Competition is a sin.” —John D. Rockefeller

    The production of petroleum from coal or crude oil as an inexpensive alternative to whale oil for lamp fuel is commonly regarded as the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. On August 27, 1859, Colonel Edwin Drake discovered a lucrative deposit of crude oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The onset of the American Civil War two years later sparked the first oil boom in that state. The price of oil rose to more than 100 USD per barrel (measured in today’s prices). Drilling rigs soon spread across farms in northwestern Pennsylvania, as hundreds of small refineries were created near the oil wells and along the transport routes to Pittsburgh and Cleveland, Ohio, cities that were home to major railroad crossroads: The New York Central and Erie Railroad led to Cleveland, while Pittsburgh served as an important east-west junction on the Pennsylvania Railroad. The majority of freight on these railways still consisted of grains and industrial goods, but the volume of oil products was growing rapidly.
    In 1863 John Davison Rockefeller, age 24, founded a small oil refinery in Cleveland together with his brother William. The son of penniless German immigrants, John worked as a dishwasher during his school years and graduated as an accountant. Rockefeller’s company was successful and prospered, despite fluctuations in the market. The oil boom had led to a spike in production, and the price of the commodity fell from 20 USD per barrel in 1861 to only 10 US cents. In 1866, one year after the end of Civil War, however, the price had risen again to more than 1.50 USD.

    Figure 2. Crude oil prices 1861–2018, in USD/barrel (real prices of 2015). Data: BP Statistical Review of Energy, 2019.

    With William, Rockefeller founded a second refinery in 1866, then, in 1870, he reorganized his company, naming it the Standard Oil Company. A year later, Rockefeller and other refinery owners formed an alliance to obtain discounts from railway operators. In addition, this alliance was responsible for railway operators raising prices for competitors, which led to an oil war in 1872.
    At the end of that year, Rockefeller took over the presidency of the National Refiners Association, which represented 80 percent of all American refineries. He would continue to aggressively grow Standard Oil, and by 1873 he had managed to acquire or to control almost all refineries in Pennsylvania.

    From Crude Oil to the Plastic-Wrapped Cucumber at Your Supermarket

    A refinery splits crude oil into its various components, such as light and heavy fuel oil, kerosene, and gasoline. With additional steps, a variety of alkanes and alkenes can also be produced from petroleum. Petroleum remained the most important use of crude oil until the rapid spread of automobiles in the 1920s. Although Henry Ford had intended ethanol to fuel his cars, the Rockefeller family, as founders of the Standard Oil Company, pushed for gasoline to power automobiles and succeeded.
    Today, oil is still by far the most important source of energy, at the core of every industrial society, and the base for numerous chemical products, such as fertilizers, plastics, and paints. Although three-quarters of crude oil production is used in transportation, it will take e-mobility further decades at least to challenge the supremacy of crude oil.
    Between 1875 and 1878, Rockefeller traveled throughout America to convince the owners of the 15 largest refineries to become part of his Standard Oil Company. Smaller companies had to follow suit or perish: For example, the plant of the Vacuum Oil Company, founded in 1866, went up in flames. Other entrepreneurs sold Rockefeller their companies for well below half of their market value. As early as 1882, Standard Oil controlled more than 90 percent of the refinery business in the United States.
    Next, the company turned to pipeline and distribution networks. Rockefeller built his own sales channels, forcing other trading networks out of the market. In late 1882, the National Petroleum Exchange opened in New York to facilitate the trading of oil futures.
    In the end, Standard Oil had a hold over virtually the whole crude oil value chain in the United States—from oil production to processing, transport, and logistics—and began to extend its dominance to the global oil market as well.

    Accumulating a fortune of around 900 million USD by 1913, Rockefeller represented the American Dream, the richest man of all time.

    By transforming his enterprise, Rockefeller was able to postpone the destruction of his empire. But his aggressive company strategy eventually prompted the first antimonopoly legislation in the United States. In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dismantling of Standard Oil. As a result, the company’s share price fell like a stone. Rockefeller, nevertheless, was able to buy back large quantities of the stock, which only increased his fortune in the years that followed. World War I, increasing motorization, and advances in the industrialization process all resulted in a rapid increase in the demand for oil.
    Eventually Standard Oil was broken up into 34 individual companies, from which today’s ExxonMobil and Chevron have emerged. Other sections of the original firm were liquidated over time or were absorbed by other oil and gas companies.
    Back in 1913, the total wealth of John D. Rockefeller was estimated at 900 million USD, the equivalent of 300 billion USD today. This is more than twice the private wealth of Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon and, according to Forbes, the wealthiest man in the world today (before his divorce).
    The son of John D. Rockefeller, Nelson, almost became president of the United States, but instead served as vice president from 1974 to 1977. David Rockefeller, the last grandson of John D. Rockefeller, died in 2017. Even today, the name Rockefeller is a symbol of vast wealth and also of philanthropy.

    Key Takeaways
    •The American Civil War fueled the first crude oil boom in history. Prices in 1861 soared above 100 USD (in today’s currency).
    •John D. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company, a corporation that not only came to control the US market for crude oil but also dominated the global market.
    •The rise of the automotive industry and industrialization in general propelled all developing countries into the oil age.
    •John D. Rockefeller personified the American Dream par excellence, rising from a dishwasher to a multibillionaire. Even in 2019 his surname remains a synonym for immeasurable wealth.
    •Though Standard Oil was broken up, successor companies like Exxon-Mobil and Chevron are still operating today.

    6 Wheat: The Great Chicago Fire 1872

    The Great Chicago Fire of October 1871 leads to massive destruction in the city and leaves more than 100,000 residents homeless. The storage capacities for wheat are also significantly reduced. Trader John Lyon sees this as an opportunity to earn a fortune.

    “Being a firefighter is not something you do; it’s something you are.” —the TV show Chicago Fire

    The sun burned hot in the American Midwest during the summer of 1871. In and around Chicago, only 3 centimeters of rain fell between July and October. Water resources were nearing depletion, and small fires sprang up regularly. On October 8, a fire broke out in a barn, initiating a disaster that became known as the “Great Chicago Fire.”

    Winds from the southwest fanned the flames and set neighboring houses on fire. Traveling quickly, the fire spread toward the city center and crossed the Chicago River. It took two days to get the conflagration under control, and by then an area of more than 8 square kilometers and 17,000 buildings had been destroyed. Every third inhabitant of the city lost his home. The damage has been estimated at more than 200 million USD. In addition to large parts of the city, the fire destroyed 6 out of the 17 warehouses approved by the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). The city’s total storage capacity decreased from about 8 to 5.5 million bushels. John Lyon, a large-scale wheat trader, saw the opportunity to make a profit. He joined with another trader, Hugh Maher, and CBOT broker P. J. Diamond, to manipulate the wheat market.

    What’s What with Wheat

    Different types of wheat are traded on futures exchanges. In the United States, wheat is traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) and the Kansas City Board of Trade (KCBT), with the volume of Chicago Soft Red Winter Wheat (soft wheat) outweighing Kansas Hard Red Winter Wheat (hard wheat). Chicago wheat is mainly grown in an area that extends from Central Texas to the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. Kansas wheat grows primarily in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and parts of Texas.

    At CBOT, wheat is traded in US cents per bushel and designated with the abbreviation W plus a letter and number that stands for the current contract month (e.g., W Z9 for wheat delivered in December 2019). A contract refers to 5,000 bushels of wheat, with one bushel corresponding to 27.2 kilograms. Therefore, one contract refers to around 136 metric tons of wheat.

    In the spring of 1872, the group began to buy wheat in the spot and futures market. Wheat prices rose continuously through early July, and contracts specifying delivery in August traded between 1.16 and 1.18 USD per bushel. At the beginning of July an average of just 14,000 bushels of wheat a day reached the city; by the end of the month, prices had climbed to 1.35 USD. In response, however, wheat deliveries to Chicago increased.

    By the beginning of August, 27,000 bushels a day were coming in. But luck was still with Lyon. Another warehouse burned to the ground, and the city’s already stretched storage capacity was reduced by another 300,000 bushels. Rumors about a below-average harvest due to bad weather pushed up prices even more. On August 10 these two factors combined to push wheat contracts for August up to 1.50 USD. On August 15 prices climbed to above 1.60 USD. But then the wheel of fortune started to turn.

    As more and more wheat reached the city of Chicago, Lyon was forced to give up.

    The high prices incentivized farmers to speed up their harvest: Crops were picked into the night. In the second week of August, about 75,000 bushels of wheat reached Chicago each day; a week later that figure had risen to 172,000 bushels. For the rest of the month, daily deliveries increased to nearly 200,000 bushels.

    Wheat that had already been shipped from Chicago to Buffalo returned to the Windy City, because of the high local prices. Newly opened warehouses also added to the storage capacity in the city, bringing it to more than 10 million bushels—two million bushels more than before the Great Fire!

    To secure their profits and stabilize prices, Lyon and his partners had to buy all the wheat coming into Chicago. But they were already leveraged by local banks, and the additional funds they needed soon exceeded the group’s financial options.

    On Monday, August 19, Lyon had to admit defeat. He could no longer afford to buy wheat in the spot market. The price of wheat with delivery in August fell by 25 US cents. The following day prices dropped another 17 US cents. The crash ruined John Lyon, who was unable to meet his margin calls. His attempt at market manipulation ended in financial disaster and bankruptcy.

    Key Takeaways
    •The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 led to massive destruction and left more than 100,000 people homeless.
    •With the number of grain warehouses drastically reduced, a group of speculators around John Lyon saw a big opportunity in the wheat market. Together they tried to corner the wheat market, but rises in price also resulted in increased shipments of wheat to the city. After initially increasing to 1.60 USD, the price of wheat crashed.
    •Lyon and his friends were unable to meet their margin calls. Their attempt at cornering the market ended in bankruptcy and financial disaster.

    7 Crude Oil: Ari Onassis’s Midas Touch 1956

    Aristotle Onassis, an icon of high society, seems to have the Midas touch. Apparently emerging out of nowhere, he builds the world’s largest cargo and tanker fleet and earns a fortune with the construction of supertankers and the transport of crude oil. Onassis closes exclusive contracts with the royal Saudi family, and he is one of the winners in the Suez Canal conflict.

    “The secret of business is to know something that nobody else knows.” —Aristotle Onassis

    At the beginning of December 2005 the youngest billionaire in the world, Athina Roussel, age 20, celebrated her wedding to 32-year-old Brazilian equestrian Álvaro Alfonso de Miranda Neto. A thousand bottles of Veuve Clicquot were ordered for the 1,000 guests at the São Paulo nuptials. Athina was the only heiress to the Onassis fortune, the last of her clan. Her grandfather, Aristotle “Ari” Socrates Onassis, would have been almost 100 years old.

    A central figure in the high society of the 1950s, ’60s, and ’70s, Aristotle Onassis earned his fortune by constructing supertankers and transporting crude oil. Like Rockefeller, Onassis became synonymous with wealth and fortune. But his rise to fame was not a straightforward one.

    The Onassis family initially became wealthy through the tobacco trade. Based in the city of Smyrna, Ari’s father had a fleet of ten ships. Ari himself enjoyed a good education. At 16 he already spoke four languages—Greek, Turkish, English, and Spanish. In 1922, however, when the Turks retook Smyrna (Izmir), which had been under Greek rule since World War I, the family had to flee. They were forced to leave everything behind. Virtually penniless, Onassis migrated to Argentina and earned money by importing tobacco. He also kept himself afloat with occasional jobs.

    In the 1930s the world economic crisis offered Onassis an attractive business opportunity in the form of large-scale transport of crude oil.

    The economic crisis of the 1930s offered Onassis the opportunity to get into the crude oil transport business on a large scale. There were rumors that the Canadian National Steamship Company was in serious financial difficulties and that several of its freighters were for sale. Onassis took all the money he’d accumulated and purchased six rundown ships for 120,000 USD, one-tenth of their value at the time.

    With that bold move, Onassis laid the foundation of his empire. The purchase quickly paid off during the economic recovery that followed. At the beginning of World War II, Onassis’s fleet had grown to 46 freighters and tankers, and he leased them to the Allied forces on profitable terms.

    Ari and the Women

    Aristotle Onassis married into another family of successful Greek shipowners when he wed Athina “Tina” Livanos. They divorced in the 1950s, however, after he began a long relationship with celebrated opera diva Maria Callas, who separated from her husband for Onassis. In 1968 Onassis married Jacqueline Kennedy, widow of President John F. Kennedy. At the time, Onassis was 62 years old; Jackie was 23 years younger. Because of her spending on travel and shopping, Onassis nicknamed her “supertanker,” since he said she cost him just as much as a ship.

    During the war, Onassis’s ships changed their flags to neutral Panama and remained undisturbed by naval battles. As more and more freight ships were lost to the conflict, his own fleet’s rates rose higher, creating a gold mine for Onassis. After the war, he expanded the number of his ships into the largest private commercial fleet in the world, and in 1950, he commissioned the biggest tanker in the world, 236 meters long, to be completed at the German Howaldt shipyard.

    But it was not until spring 1954 that the 48-year-old Onassis made a definite breakthrough. Through shady contacts and friendships, he struck a lucrative agreement with the royal family of Saudi Arabia. Onassis not only received the exclusive right to transport crude oil for King Saud, but he also was to produce a new supertanker for the country almost every month and would participate in the sale of crude oil. Together Onassis and Saudi Arabia set up the Saudi Arabian Tanker Company, with a goal of having 25 to 30 ships that could transport about 10 percent of the country’s crude oil.

    By royal decree the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco) would have had to use Saudi Arabian ships for the tonnage previously shipped in charter ships. Aramco—a joint venture among Standard Oil (New Jersey), Standard Oil of California, Socony Vacuum, and Texas Co.—had had a concession agreement with King Ibn Saud since 1933 and was responsible for nearly 10 percent of the world’s oil production. About half of the oil produced in Saudi Arabia went by pipeline to Lebanon; the other half was transported by tankers. Of the tanker market, 40 percent of crude was shipped in Aramco’s own tankers; for the remaining 60 percent, the company used charters.

    The Suez Canal conflict resulted in enormously profitable opportunities for Onassis.

    By breaking into this system, Onassis made some powerful enemies. The United States tried to block the agreement to safeguard its own influence, and Europe—which in the 1950s derived 90 percent of its oil supply from the Middle East, whose largest producer was Saudi Arabia—was also unenthusiastic. The deal with Saudi Arabia ultimately fell through, and without the new freight orders, Onassis’s ships sat idle in shipyards around the world. The Greek magnate’s empire began to crumble. But he was rescued by the Suez crisis in 1956.

    With the growing economic importance of crude oil, European nations increasingly were dependent on the use of the Suez Canal to bring fuel from the producing countries. But the nationalist policies of the new Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, were intensifying conflicts with Israel as well as with France and Great Britain, which controlled the canal. Egypt blocked the Gulf of Aqaba and Suez Canal to Israeli shipping; then on July 26, 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal.

    Britain’s prime minister, Anthony Eden, responded together with Israel and France with Operation Musketeer. On October 29, Israel invaded the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula and quickly pushed toward the canal. Two days later Britain and France began bombing Egyptian airports. Although the Egyptian army was quickly beaten and the war was over by December 22, 1956, sunken ships continued to block the Suez passage until April 1957.

    The crisis brought salvation to Aristotle Onassis. No other shipowner had the transport capacity to move the oil. With more than 100 idle tankers and virtually no competition, he was able to double his rates, once again earning a fortune. The Six-Day War in 1967 offered a similar opportunity, and later, during the oil crisis in 1973, Onassis’s Olympic Maritime Company posted a profit of more than 100 million USD.

    Aristotle Onassis earned his fortune through the transport of crude oil. He became a society icon through his extravagant lifestyle and his marriage to Jackie Kennedy.

    By then, Onassis’s total private wealth was estimated at more than 1 billion USD. Throughout his career he had diversified into other businesses: He bought banks in Geneva, founded Olympic Airways, built the Olympic Tower on Fifth Avenue in New York, and acquired the Greek island of Skorpios. Onassis became enamored of Monaco, which had been a dull, sleepy little place until he transformed it. In Monte Carlo, Onassis bought beautiful hotels and dozens of houses and villas, built public facilities and beach clubs, and renovated the port and the casino. He held legendary gatherings on his yacht, inviting guests who included President John F. Kennedy and his wife, Winston Churchill, Ernest Hemingway, and other members of high society from business, politics, and Hollywood. Onassis even brought together Prince Rainier of Monaco and American actress Grace Kelly, helping establish Monaco as a paradise for the rich and beautiful in Europe.

    Key Takeaways

    •Aristotle “Ari” Socrates Onassis earned a fortune by transporting crude oil in his huge tanker fleet and through his excellent relationships with the Saudi family.
    •He profited massively from the Suez crisis in 1956 and the oil crises of the 1970s.
    •Onassis was an icon of the international jet set, thanks to his relationship with opera star Maria Callas, and his second marriage to Jacqueline Kennedy, the widow of John F. Kennedy.
    •With his private wealth of more than 1 billion USD, Onassis supported Prince Rainer of Monaco and established the principality as the place to be for the rich and beautiful.

    8 Soybeans: Hide and Seek in New Jersey 1963

    Soybean oil fuels the US credit crisis of 1963. The attempt to corner the market for soybeans ends in chaos, drives many firms into bankruptcy, and causes a loss of 150 million USD (1.2 billion USD in today’s prices). Among the victims are American Express, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan.

    “You have caused terrific loss to many of your fellow Americans!” US federal judge Reynier Wortendyke

    At first glance, it seemed like a plot for a Hollywood movie: Workers deceived warehouse inspectors using oil tanks filled with water to hide one of the largest credit frauds in US history. It was all part of an attempt to corner the soybean market, a fragile house of cards whose collapse caused a loss of more than 150 million USD (the equivalent of about 1.2 billion USD today) and whose effects rippled throughout corporate America.
    At the center of the debacle were Allied Crude Vegetable Oil, a New Jersey company, and its owner Anthony (“Tino”) De Angelis. In the end the unraveling of the scheme was analogous to the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers in 2008: On a November evening in 1963, a group of employees of the Wall Street brokerage firm Ira Haupt & Co., including managing partner Morton Kamerman, sat in a conference room and spoke on the phone with Anthony De Angelis. As the conversation heated up, De Angelis accused Kamerman of ruining his company. Kamerman was not responsible for his firm’s commodity trading, but he was aware that De Angelis was one of his biggest customers. The Haupt & Co. partners were desperately looking for someone willing to buy soybean oil in large quantities, but they had no success. The next morning Kamerman understood a lot more about his company’s commodity business. However, the knowledge went hand in hand with the fact that Haupt & Co. was bankrupt due to the insolvency of Allied Crude.

    Some Background About Soybeans

    Soybeans, which are predominantly crushed for soybean oil and soybean meal, are produced and exported mainly by the United States “Corn Belt” (Illinois and Iowa), Brazil, and Argentina. Together these countries account for about 80 percent of the world’s soybean harvest of around 215 million metric tons. In most of the world’s production, the oil is extracted first, and the residual mass is used primarily as a feedstock. Soybeans, soybean meal, and soybean oil are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) with the symbol S, SM, and BO and the respective contract month (for example, S F0 = Soybean January 2020).

    Figure 3. Prices for soybean oil, 1960 – 1964, in US cents/lb, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    Anthony De Angelis had founded Allied Crude Vegetable Oil in 1955 to buy subsidized soybeans from the government, process them for soybean oil, and sell the product abroad. Born in 1915, he was the son of Italian immigrants and grew up in the Bronx in New York. As a commodity trader, he dealt in cotton and soybeans, and between 1958 and 1962, he built a refinery in Bayonne, New Jersey, and leased 139 oil tanks, many as high as a five-story building. American Express Warehousing, a subsidiary of American Express, was paid by Allied Crude for storage, inspection, and certification of the oil volume. In 1962 De Angelis was responsible for about three-quarters of the total soybean and cottonseed oils in the United States. But in order to finance the rapid growth of the company in a highly competitive industry, he increased leverage by taking more and more credit, which was largely collateralized by the oil he produced.

    And that is where the fraud began: Allied Crude Vegetable Oil never had as much oil as was necessary to secure its loans. A close investigation by American Express Warehousing would have revealed that De Angelis needed to store more oil than was available in the entire United States, according to the US Department of Agriculture’s monthly data. At its peak, De Angelis’s credit volume represented more than three times the amount of oil that could be stored in the tanks in Bayonne. But De Angelis was American Express’s largest customer. And his employees deceived the inspectors who were sent to check the collateral by pumping oil from tank to tank or filling the tanks mainly with water and only a small amount of oil. In this way the company continued to receive new credit lines.
    Instead of expanding operations, however, the company used the credit lines for speculation in soybean futures at Chicago’s commodity exchange. De Angelis placed huge bets on rising prices for soybeans; he had to deposit only about 5 percent of the future purchase sum as a margin. Nevertheless, in his attempt to corner the entire market through further positions, De Angelis needed an even higher credit line.
    He was already trading in futures contracts with Wall Street brokers Ira Haupt and J. R. Williston & Beane, and they agreed to further credit against stockpiles of the nonexistent oil. Both institutions were financed on the basis of their warrants by commercial banks Chase Manhattan and Continental Illinois.
    By mid-1963, De Angelis had accumulated soybean positions equaling about 120 million USD or 1.2 billion pounds. A tick of only 1 US cent in the price of soybeans meant that De Angelis gained or lost 12 million USD. For a while his trades were profitable. In just six weeks in autumn 1963, the price of soybean oil climbed from 9.20 USD per pound to 10.30 USD. But on November 15 the market collapsed because of Russian plans to buy more US grain and the negative reaction to this. Allied Crude Vegetable Oil collapsed with it.

    De Angelis deceived his creditors and caused losses of more than 1 billion USD in today’s prices.

    Within four hours soybean oil had fallen to 7.60 USD per pound, and the Chicago Board of Trade called for additional margins from Ira Haupt, which the company was unable to provide because its main customer, De Angelis, was not in a position to do so. Even another 30 million USD borrowed by American and British banks was not enough to rescue Ira Haupt. Williston & Beane was also forced to merge with Walston & Co. because of dwindling equity.

    The soybean market tumbled and took Allied Crude down with it.

    Allied Crude went into bankruptcy, and as creditors reviewed the company’s tanks more carefully, they confirmed there were just 100 million pounds of soybean oil there instead of 1.8 billion pounds. This difference was worth about 130 million USD.
    Affected by the debacle were banks, brokers, oil traders, and warehouses, huge firms like Bank of America, Chase Manhattan, Continental Illinois, Williston & Beane, Bunge Corp., and Harbor Tank Storage Co., to name just a few. The main loser was the parent company of American Express Warehousing: American Express faced legal suits by 43 companies, to the tune of more than 100 million USD. The share price of American Express dropped by more than 50 percent after the fraud hit the news. The scandal, however, received only limited attention, because two days later President Kennedy was shot in Dallas.
    For Ira Haupt & Co., liabilities amounted to almost 40 million USD, which they were not able to meet, affecting more than 20,000 brokerage customers. Even worse than these financial claims was the damage to the reputation of the US economy. As for Anthony De Angelis, in 1965 he was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment for fraud.

    Key Takeaways
    •In 1963 Anthony (“Tino”) De Angelis and his company Allied Crude Vegetable Oil were at the epicenter of one of the biggest corporate credit crises before the collapse of Lehman Brothers in 2008.
    •By cheating on inventories and in a bold pattern of fraud, Allied Crude received immense credit lines for its business and heavily speculated on the rise of soybean and soybean oil futures in Chicago. Eventually the market for soybeans crashed in November 1963 and took Allied Crude Vegetable Oil with it.
    •Affected by the fraud were several banks, brokers, oil traders, and warehouse companies, including prominent names like American Express, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan.
    •The huge scandal, however, was overshadowed by the assassination of President John F. Kennedy two days later.

    9 Wheat: The Russian Bear Is Hungry 1972

    The Soviet Union starts to buy American wheat in huge quantities, and local prices triple. Consequently, Richard Dennis establishes a ground-breaking career in commodity trading.

    “If you live among wolves you have to act like a wolf.” —Nikita Khrushchev

    In the history of capital markets, 1972 is known as the year of “The Great Russian Grain Robbery.” Because of harvest shortages, Soviet commissioners were traveling all over the United States, buying as much wheat as they could. Their actions affected not only the grain market but also the career of a young commodity trader named Richard Dennis.
    At the beginning of the 1970s, the United States was beginning to abolish the gold standard, and as a result the US currency subsequently weakened. At the same time, wheat was trading close to 1 USD—historically low levels. That was not a surprise, since wheat production was massively subsidized by the government. But the weakening dollar gradually made American products, including many agricultural goods, more competitive. As a result, exports rose, and hand in hand with export volume, prices began to rise as well: That included grain prices, which were slowly awakening from their slumber.

    In the history of capital markets, 1972 is known as the year of “The Great Russian Grain Robbery.”

    Weather is always a key factor for agricultural prices, and after years of good harvests, the world’s grain production started to decline in 1972. Poor weather conditions were responsible for lower yields in important producer nations like the United States, Canada, Australia, and the Soviet Union. In comparison to 1970–1971, wheat stocks in 1973–1974 fell by 93 percent in Australia, 64 percent in Canada, and 59 percent in the United States. Inventories approached critically low levels.

    Figure 4. Wheat prices, 1970–1977, in US cents/bushel, Chicago Board of Trade. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    In July and August 1972, the Soviets bought nearly 12 million metric tons of US wheat—approximately 30 percent of the country’s production—amounting to a net value of about 700 million USD. Because farmers were already facing problems meeting demand, prices increased sharply, from below 2 USD at the beginning of the decade to more than 6 USD in February 1974. Corn spiked at the same time, from less than 1.5 USD to nearly 4 USD, while soybean prices more than tripled, reaching their highest level of more than 12 USD in June 1973.

    Weather Woes

    The harvest of Kansas wheat (Hard Red Winter Wheat), which is mainly exported, can be threatened by climatic fluctuations three times during the year: in late autumn, when it is too hot and dry or too cold and humid for germination; during winter, when sudden temperature changes threaten growth; and finally, in spring, when rain prevents pollination. For these reasons crop quality, quantity, and price are all subject to huge fluctuations.

    The rapid price spike favored young Richard Dennis, who had studied in Chicago and at Tulane University in Louisiana and had worked as a student at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1966 at the age of 17. He began speculating with 2,000 USD in initial capital from his family, first with small contracts on the MidAmerica Exchange, and later on the CME.

    In 1972 the 23-year-old Dennis recognized the new agricultural market trend. He bet on rising wheat prices and won. A year later, in 1973, his initial capital increased to 100,000 USD as he took advantage of a trend-following system, aggressively increased his positions, and remained invested. In 1974 he made a profit of 500,000 USD on soybeans alone, and by the end of the year, he’d become a millionaire at the age of 25.

    The Soviet shopping spree of 1972 was repeated in 1977 after another bad harvest in Eastern Europe.

    Three years later history repeated itself. In 1977 Soviet president Brezhnev announced a national wheat harvest of less than 200 million tons, which took the markets by surprise as the US Department of Agriculture and US intelligence both were forecasting a good harvest.
    By this time Soviets had already bought 18 to 20 million tons of wheat from the United States, Canada, Australia, and India. Although worldwide production of wheat was around 600 million metric tons, according to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), only a small fraction of that quantity was globally traded. Because large amounts are consumed by the producer countries themselves, world market prices can fluctuate dramatically based on relatively small changes in global trading.
    Meanwhile, Dennis’s career continued to soar. At the beginning of the 1980s, his capital rose to around 200 million USD. At 35 he was known as the “Prince of the Pit” and was one of the most recognized commodity traders in the world.
    In 1983 and 1984 Dennis recruited and trained 21 men and two women in commodity trading. The group later became known as “Turtle Traders,” thanks to an often-quoted comment by Dennis, who said, “You can breed traders like turtles in a laboratory.” Five years later the group had earned him a profit of 175 million USD.

    Key Takeaways
    •After a bad harvest, agents of the Soviet Union quickly and secretly purchased 30 percent of the total US wheat crop. Therefore, 1972 became famous as the year of the “Great Russian Grain Robbery.”
    •Grain shortages and the Soviet actions caused a spike in prices: Wheat prices that traded at 2 USD in 1970 shot up above 6 USD in February 1974, a threefold increase within 24 months. Corn also rose from 1.50 USD to nearly 4 USD, while soybean prices surpassed 12 USD during the summer of 1973.
    •Richard Dennis, age 23, recognized the new trend in agricultural markets and bet on rising wheat prices. He became a millionaire two years later, After a decade he was making a profit of 200 million USD, earning the nickname “Prince of the Pit.”

    10 The End of the Gold Standard 1973

    Gold and silver have been recognized as legal currencies for centuries, but in the late 19th century silver gradually loses this function. Gold keeps its currency status until the fall of the Bretton Woods system in 1973. The current levels of sovereign debt are causing many investors to reconsider an investment in precious metals.

    “Gold and silver, like other commodities, have an intrinsic value, which is not arbitrary, but is dependent on their scarcity, the quantity of labour bestowed in procuring them, and the value of the capital employed in the mines which produce them.” —David Ricardo

    “You have to choose . . . between trusting to the natural stability of gold and the natural stability of the honesty and intelligence of the members of the government. And, with due respect to these gentlemen, I advise you, as long as the capitalist system lasts, to vote for gold.” —George Bernard Shaw

    “Only gold is money. Everything else is credit.” —J. P. Morgan

    In June 2011 the US Mint announced a 30 percent increase in silver coin sales compared to the previous month. With more than 3.6 million silver eagles sold, the US Mint reached its limit of production, so great was the interest of investors in silver coins. Similar figures were reported by the Royal Canadian Mint, the Australian Mint in Perth, and also by the Vienna-based Mint Austria, producer of the Vienna Philharmonic Coin. In March 2011 newspaper headlines proclaimed that the state of Utah was considering once again accepting gold and silver as legal currencies. Utah was not an isolated case in the United States; Colorado, Georgia, Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, and Washington were also looking to return to the stable value of gold.
    What seems curious at first glance made many investors thoughtful. After all, the use of a paper currency without a tie to precious metals like gold or silver is a relatively recent experiment. Only in the early 1970s, when President Nixon abolished gold convertibility in 1971, and with the collapse of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates and the convertibility of all currencies into gold in 1973, was the gold standard abolished and replaced by fiat money.
    Fiat money is a currency without intrinsic value that has been established as money, often by government regulation. Thus, the fiat money experiment has been tested in international financial markets for less than 50 years.

    The international monetary system—detached from gold and silver—has existed in this form for less than 50 years.

    The gold standard was the prevailing monetary system until World War I. Under a pure gold standard, the money supply equals the gold possession of a country. In the wake of the Great Depression in 1929 and the subsequent banking crisis in 1931, however, the gold standard came increasingly under pressure. In Britain, the suspension of sterling’s gold convertibility in September 1931 (the Sterling Crisis) heralded the collapse of the international gold standard. The United States also began to break away from the gold standard as it gradually devalued the US dollar. In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared private gold ownership illegal so the government could print more paper money as a way to overcome the Great Depression.

    Gold or Silver?

    In the historical context, the gold standard was just a short transitional period for global financial markets. For many centuries silver was the dominant currency. Most countries used a silver standard or a bimetallic standard. Similar to the gold standard, under a silver standard the total amount of money in circulation is hedged by silver, while a bimetallic standard additionally prescribes a fixed exchange ratio between silver and gold. For many years in the United States, that was 1:16. The gold-silver ratio indicates how many units of silver are needed to buy one unit of gold.
    After both the silver and gold standards ended, the range of this ratio has fluctuated between 1:10 and 1:100. At the beginning of the 1980s, the ratio dropped below 1:20. In the early 1990s, it peaked at just under 1:100. In the years 2009 and 2010, the price of silver rose much more sharply than the price of gold. While 80 ounces of silver had to be paid for 1 troy ounce of gold by the end of 2008, it was just 40 ounces in mid-2011 and fell further to 1:50 by the beginning of 2019. Considering the natural resources and the amount of each metal mined annually, it would imply a long-term ratio of 1:10.
    After World War II the world’s economic and political center shifted toward the United States. The Bretton Woods system reorganized the international monetary system, and the US dollar, backed by gold, became the new global reserve currency.

    Figure 5. Gold-silver ratio, 1973–2013. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    All central banks were obligated to other central banks to exchange currency for gold at a fixed rate of 35 USD per ounce. But since the 1960s, US gold reserves have been shrinking, due to increasing account deficits. Social welfare entitlements and the growing financial burden of the Vietnam War accelerated the US current account deficit, raised inflation, and lowered international confidence in the US dollar. For the first time in 1970, the US money supply exceeded the amount of gold reserves. A year later, in August, President Nixon stopped the conversion of US dollars to gold (an event known as “Nixon shock”), but it was not until 1973 that the Bretton Woods system was officially overruled and replaced by a system of floating exchange rates. After that, the gold standard faded into history.
    Today, central banks and supranational organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) hold 33,000 metric tons of gold, almost 20 percent of all known aboveground stocks of the precious metal.

    Silver Gives Way to Gold

    Silver gradually lost its official payment function in the late 19th century due to several factors. On the one hand, the United Kingdom, as a leading economic nation, was able to prevail with its gold standard against the French-dominated Latin coinage based on the silver standard. On the other hand, gold discoveries in California and Australia led to a tenfold increase in worldwide gold production and thus to lower gold prices. This made the gold standard more attractive. In 1871 Germany also switched to the gold standard. The transition from the silver or bimetallic standard to a pure gold standard led to an oversupply of silver and weighed on the price of silver for several decades.How
    ever, attention again has been focused on the solvency of many countries, including the United States, Japan, and some European economies. Measures taken to combat the financial and economic crisis that started in spring 2007 with the US real estate crash caused the national debt and the money supply to explode.
    Global debt accelerated to 320 trillion USD, whereas global GDP only rose to 80 trillion USD, and the dollar’s purchasing power declined by more than 90 percent since 1971. In addition to some European countries—Portugal, Ireland, Greece, and Spain (known as “PIGS countries”)—the United States was also temporarily threatened by a downgrade of its creditworthiness by international rating agencies. In the face of all this, it is not surprising that gold and silver bullion and coins, even if they are no longer legal tender, are popular with investors, and that bitcoins have emerged as an alternative currency. Gold-backed cryptocurrencies offer another alternative to fiat money. It seems like the gold standard is rising from its ashes through private initiatives instead of by government institutions.

    A sovereign crisis and a lack of trust are attracting investors to gold, silver, and cryptocurrencies.

    Key Takeaways
    •In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6102, which declared private possession of gold bars and coins illegal and punishable by up to 10 years in prison. All private gold holdings had to be turned over to the Federal Reserve in exchange for paper money at 20.67 USD per troy ounce. This prohibition against gold ownership wasn’t lifted until 1975 by President Gerald Ford.
    •After World War II, the US dollar was declared the world reserve currency, pegged to gold at a fixed exchange ratio. All other currencies were then pegged to the US dollar (the “Gold Standard”).
    •As US debt spiraled out of control, President Nixon ended the convertibility of US dollars into gold in 1971 (the “Nixon Shock”).
    •With the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1973, one of the greatest economic experiments began: a system of free and floating exchange rates for currencies that are not backed by any collateral other than the faith in national governments.

    11 The 1970s—Oil Crisis! 1973 & 1979

    During the 1970s the world must cope with global oil crises in 1973 and 1979. The Middle East uses crude oil as a political weapon, and the industrialized nations—previously unconcerned about their rising energy addiction and the security of the supply—face economic chaos.

    “Peak oil is the point in time when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline.” —“Peak Oil,” Wikipedia

    “Just like global warming, the rationale for peak oil sounds great, it makes sense, but there is just one small problem, the facts don’t support it . . . it is a myth.” —seekingalpha.com

    On Sunday, November 25, 1973, highways in Germany were emptied by a driving ban! The same day almost no cars moved in Denmark, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, or Switzerland. A week earlier, on November 19, Germany had introduced a general “Sunday driving ban” for four weeks, combined with a speed limit of 100 km/h on motorways and 80 km/h on ordinary roads. This was noteworthy: Germany—home to Mercedes, BMW, and Audi—is one of the few countries in the world today that does not have a general speed limit on its highways. Germans generally are in love with their cars! But the ban was the reaction of the German government to a sudden spike in energy prices caused by an oil crisis.
    The crisis was due to a conflict in the Middle East, between the Arab countries and Israel, that had been intensifying since the beginning of the 1970s. During the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel had conquered the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula and occupied the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and East Jerusalem. The Arab countries called for an immediate withdrawal from the occupied territories, and international pressure on Israel increased. But warnings about possible retaliation were ignored, as was the Egyptian offer of a peace treaty if the Sinai Peninsula were to be returned. On October 6, 1973, during the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, Egypt and Syria together attacked Israel.
    At first Syria achieved some success in the Golan Heights, and Egypt was prevailing on the Sinai Peninsula. However, the United States supported Israel with substantial military resources, and the small country finally changed the course of the war. Subsequently, the Arab countries pursued a different option.

    On October 17, 1973, OPEC decided to limit the supply of crude oil as a political weapon.

    On October 17, 1973, all Arabian crude oil–producing nations retaliated by reducing oil supply by 5 percent compared to September 1973 levels. They also imposed a complete supply boycott for crude oil against the United States and the Netherlands, which were considered Israel’s close allies. The league of exporting countries then announced that they would continue to restrict oil production until all occupied areas were “liberated” and the rights of Palestinian people were restored. The first oil crisis had begun.

    What Is OPEC?

    The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960 in Baghdad by five founding members: Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The development of new oil fields and a global oversupply had resulted in steady price declines in the 1950s. In response OPEC’s objective was to establish a common crude oil production level by joint agreement of all OPEC member countries, so that the world market price for crude oil stayed within a defined target corridor. OPEC has also been a driving force to break the power of the “seven sisters,” a group of Western oil companies. As of March 2019 the cartel consisted of 14 members—Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and the United Arab Emirates, representing about 44 percent of global oil production and about 80 percent of the world’s “proven” oil reserves. Saudi Arabia is by far the largest crude oil producer among all OPEC members, responsible for about 12 million barrels per day in 2018. According to figures from the Energy Information Administration (EIA), the largest non-OPEC producing countries include Russia, the United States, China, Mexico, Canada, Norway, and Brazil.
    Up to this point, Western industrialized countries had been living with the illusion that global energy reserves were inexhaustible and that they needn’t be concerned with the security of the supply. Their addiction to crude oil kept rising, so the sudden embargo triggered an economic shock in many industrialized countries. Germany, for instance, sourced more than 50 percent of its energy demand from imported oil, about three-quarters of which came from the Middle East. It turned out that even with reduced consumption, reserves would have lasted only for three months, which caused people to panic. To limit the use of oil and reduce the degree of dependence, European countries began implementing energy-saving measures. They intensified negotiations with alternative crude oil suppliers, started to develop domestic sources of oil as well as alternative energy sources, and implemented strategic oil reserves.

    Economic Ripples

    In Germany and other industrialized countries, the first oil price shock triggered stagflation, which is economic stagnation combined with rising prices (inflation). Rising energy prices fueled an inflation spiral and at the same time slowed economic growth: Gross domestic output shrank from 5.3 percent in 1972 to 0.4 percent in 1974 and –1.8 percent in 1975. Many industries recorded a massive decline in production; construction fell 16 percent, and the automotive industry declined 18 percent. The stock market value of German companies dropped drastically and recorded a loss at the end of September 1974 of almost 40 percent, compared to July 1972. Unemployment rose from almost-full employment to 2.6 percent in 1974 and 4.8 percent in 1975.
    The impact of the cuts in the crude oil supply was visible immediately: Prices started to rise. At the end of 1972, US crude oil was trading at 3.50 USD per barrel; in September 1973 it rose to 4.30 USD, and at the end of 1973 oil prices traded above 10 USD. Sales in OPEC countries grew from about 14 billion USD in 1972 to more than 90 billion USD in 1974.

    During the first oil crisis in 1973 oil prices spiked from 3.50 USD to more than 10 USD.

    Using oil as a weapon brought quick political results: On November 5, 1973, the European foreign ministers called for Israel to evacuate the areas it had occupied since 1967. OPEC responded by gradually loosening the supply restrictions.
    But the world had changed. Even after the initial relaxation, prices for crude oil remained high. In 1974 alone, the value of German oil imports increased by more than 150 percent compared to the previous year.

    With the second oil crisis in 1979, oil prices jumped from under 15 USD to almost 40.

    Over the following years, crude oil prices stagnated, but they started to rise rapidly again in 1979–1980. After the Iranian Revolution and Iraq’s attack on neighboring Iran, industrialized countries once more became concerned about oil supply security. At the beginning of 1979, crude oil was trading at less than 15 USD per barrel. Within 12 months, prices had risen to nearly 40 USD, causing a second oil crisis. As a side effect, both oil crises marked the most prosperous years in the Soviet Union after discovery of oil in western Siberia and the rise of non-OPEC Western offshore oil production.

    Figure 6. Crude oil prices, 1965–1986, in USD/barrel. Data: Datastream, 2019.

    OPEC raised their basket price—an average of the prices of petroleum blends that are produced by OPEC members—to 24 USD per barrel; Libya, Algeria, and Iraq even asked 30 USD for their crude oil. In 1980 OPEC’s prices reached their peak when Libya demanded 41 USD, Saudi Arabia 32 USD, and the other countries 36 USD per barrel. In the following year, however, sales volume declined due to weaker economic development in the Western industrialized countries.
    As investments in alternative energy sources bore fruit, global crude oil consumption between 1978 and 1983 dropped by 11 percent. OPEC’s global market share of crude oil production fell back to 40 percent and continued to decline because of a lack of cartel discipline. US president Ronald Reagan made an agreement with Saudi Arabia to increase oil production in the 1980s, putting crude oil prices into a slide until the late 1990s. In the late 1980s, oil prices briefly dropped below 10 USD per barrel, bringing the Soviet Union to the brick of insolvency. OPEC’s market share fell during that time to 30 percent of world production.

    Key Takeaways
    •In 1973, because of tension in the Mideast, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used its oil exports to Western industrialized countries as a political weapon and limited the supply, precipitating the first oil crisis. Crude oil prices soared from 3.50 USD at the end of 1972 to more than 10 USD just 12 months later.
    •The oil crisis came as a shock to most involved nations, strongly affecting economic growth and leading to rising unemployment.
    •During the second oil crisis, in 1979, oil prices jumped from less than 15 USD to almost 40.

    12 Diamonds: The Crash of the World’s Hardest Currency 1979

    Despite the need for individual valuation, diamonds have shown a positive and stable price trend over a long period of time. In 1979, however, monopolist De Beers loses control of the diamond market; “investment diamonds” drop by 90 percent in value.

    “Diamonds are a girl’s best friend.” —Marilyn Monroe,
    as Lorelei Lee in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes

    Precious stones such as diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and opals are mainly known for their use in jewelry. Of these, diamonds are by far the largest market segment, and many individual gemstones—for example, the Blue Hope, the Cullinan, the Millennium Star, the Excelsior, the Koh-i-Noor, and the Orlov—have famous histories.

    Global production of rough diamonds generally ranges between 20 and 25 metric tons per year. This represents 100 to 130 million carats and is worth approximately 10 billion USD.

    Only about 20 percent of all diamonds are used in the jewelry industry, however. Industrial diamonds make up a huge market, and within this segment of smaller stones, artificially produced (industrial) diamonds also play an important role. The largest diamond production sites are in Russia, Australia, Canada, and Africa—in particular South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

    The Four Cs in Diamonds

    Unlike other commodities, diamonds do not have a standardized fixed value per unit weight. A diamond’s value is determined by various criteria, of which the “4 Cs” are the best known: color, clarity, cut, and carat. Sometimes, a fifth “C” is included. It stands for certification, which confirms the physical characteristics of a particular stone as certified by an official institution.
    Color grading depends on how close a stone is to colorless. The classification begins at D—which corresponds to very fine white or almost colorless diamonds—and continues through E, F, G, H (simple white), and so on. Colored diamonds (e.g., yellow, red, blue, or green) are particularly rare, so these so-called fancy diamonds are very precious.
    The clarity (purity) of a diamond is determined by the degree of inclusions in the stone. The higher the clarity, the rarer it is. The scale begins with IF (internally flawless) and continues through small to clear and coarse inclusions. Cut refers to the angles and proportions of a diamond. The most popular is the brilliant cut. Finally, traditionally a diamond’s weight is given in carats (1 ct = 0.2 gram).

    The largest diamond exchanges are located in Antwerp, Amsterdam, New York, Ramat Gan (Israel), Johannesburg, and London. Antwerp is the most important market; 85 percent of rough diamonds and about half of global cut stones are traded in the Diamond Quarter of that Belgian city.
    The value chain begins with mining and includes purchasing agents, processing, wholesalers, traders, intermediaries, jewelers, and other retailers, but a valuation is not simply a linear correlation to size: Larger stones are much rarer and thus exponentially more precious. In addition, prices fluctuate from one size class to the next. For example, the price can vary by more than 1,000 USD from a 0.49-carat diamond to a 0.5-carat diamond, though the difference is only 100 mg or less. In December 2018 prices for 1-carat diamonds ranged from 500 USD to 10,000 USD, depending on the degree of purity and colorlessness.
    By far the most important player in the diamond industry—analogous to OPEC in the global oil market—is De Beers. The South African company, part of the Anglo American mining group, is the largest diamond producer and trader in the world.

    Figure 7. Diamond prices, 2003–2016. Prices indexed over different sizes and qualities. Data: PolishedPrices.com, Bloomberg, 2019.

    De Beers has long dominated the global diamond market, similar to the way OPEC dominates global oil.

    De Beers controls about 30 percent of the world’s diamond production, and its influence in marketing and sales is even stronger. The company determines the volume and quality of rough diamonds that traders are able to buy. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC), which is controlled by De Beers, buys most of the world’s raw diamond production, allocates production quotas to mining companies, and manages sales through the Central Selling Organization (CSO), which is also an extended arm of the DTC. The CSO regularly organizes “sights” in London where about 150 authorized sightholders are offered compilations of rough diamonds for sale.
    For years the De Beers Syndicate guaranteed stable prices. At the end of the 1970s, however, the company lost control of the diamond market.

    A De Beers Primer

    De Beers, the largest diamond producer and trader in the world, has been active in the diamond market for more than 100 years. The company’s name goes back to the first mine in Kimberley, which was located on the farm of brothers Johannes Nicolaas and Diederik Arnoldus de Beer. After diamonds were found there in 1871, a group of adventurers transformed the remote place into the world capital of diamonds. British businessman Cecil Rhodes gradually bought up all the mining licenses and founded De Beers in 1888. Today, the company is 45 percent owned by the Anglo American Corporation, with 40 percent owned by the Oppenheimer family.
    Ernest Oppenheimer was born in Friedberg, Germany, near Frankfurt am Main, in 1880, and at age 32 he was pulling the political strings in Kimberley. In 1916, Oppenheimer founded Anglo American, which quickly became one of the most successful mining companies in the world. In 1926, he took over the majority of De Beers.
    De Beers’s entire production was always bought by the London Diamond Syndicate, which was established in 1890. The syndicate was the cornerstone of the Diamond Corporation, precursor to the Central Selling Organization (CSO). In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Oppenheimer bought up massive quantities of diamonds in order to stabilize prices. Since then, De Beers and CSO have formed an exclusive diamond cartel.
    During that decade the US dollar depreciated significantly against other currencies, due to rising inflation in the United States and a search by investors for nontraditional investment opportunities. Interest in diamonds as a “hard” currency and a stable store for wealth increased, leading to greater demand for high-quality stones. De Beers, however, only moderately expanded the supply at the time, which resulted in further price increases that, in turn, attracted more and more potential investors.

    Diamond hysteria took hold. In 1979, the value of investment diamonds doubled, and prices for a 1-carat diamond of the best quality increased tenfold.

    Meanwhile, in Israel, rough diamonds were also becoming a favorite investment. In order to support Tel Aviv as an emerging center of diamond processing, the government granted large loans to banks under favorable conditions. As a result, a number of diamond investment companies were set up, which were able to sell diamonds directly to private investors.
    The hysteria over investment diamonds fueled a vicious circle. In 1979 the average price for diamonds doubled. Prices for a 1-carat, best-quality diamond multiplied by 10 and for a while traded at around 60,000 USD!
    De Beers attempted to gradually cool the market by expanding the supply, but the strategy was unsuccessful. The result was complete market chaos. The inevitable bust finally began in Japan, where it was common practice to accept diamonds as collateral for loans. When the first bank considered the market overheated and stopped accepting diamonds as collateral, the house of cards collapsed. The first drop in prices kicked off a race to sell stones. As speculators disposed of their stock, more and more borrowers fell below their collateral limits and were forced to raise money. Diamonds flooded the market, which was already oversaturated by De Beers’s efforts to cool it down. Even a cessation of sales and a buyback of diamonds by the cartel didn’t help. Prices crashed, and investors’ net wealth decreased, a downtrend accelerated by global recession.

    Within a year, the prices of investment diamonds fell from 60,000 to 6,000 USD.

    Within 12 months, the price of investment diamonds fell from 60,000 to 6,000 USD, approximately the level before the hysteria started. After that diamond prices recovered slowly, although in the early 1980s, the CSO withdrew diamonds worth more than 6 billion USD from the market, while De Beers cut mining quotas and closed one of its mines in South Africa. De Beers took similar actions to stabilize the price of diamonds after the global financial crisis in 2009, which had lessened the demand for luxury goods.

    Key Takeaways
    •South African company De Beers, today part of the Anglo American mining group, has long dominated international diamond production and sales.
    •In 1979 the company lost control of the diamond market after a market frenzy, during which average diamond prices doubled within a year, and prices for a 1-carat best-quality diamond rose tenfold, only to crash by 90 percent after the bubble burst.

    13 “Silver Thursday” and the Downfall of the Hunt Brothers 1980

    Brothers Nelson Bunker Hunt and William Herbert Hunt try to corner the silver market in 1980 and fail in a big way. On March 27, 1980, known as “Silver Thursday,” the metal loses one-third of its value in a single day.

    “The U.S. government has a technology, called a printing press, that allows it to produce as many U.S. dollars as it wishes.” —Ben Bernanke, Chairman of the Federal Reserve, 2006–2014

    The Hunt clan is one of the most glamorous families in the United States. They have a colorful history. In the 1920s Haroldson Lafayette Hunt (1889–1974), adventurer and professional poker player, won a drilling license in El Dorado, Arkansas, during a round of poker. Hunt, also known as “Arkansas Slim,” struck oil with his initial drilling exploration. With the first profits from El Dorado, he purchased additional drilling licenses in Kilgore, Texas, and discovered the world’s biggest known oil field to that date. In 1936 he founded the Hunt Oil Company, which became the largest independent oil producer in the United States. Fortune magazine estimated his net wealth at between 400 and 700 million USD in 1957, placing Hunt among the top 10 richest Americans. The Hunts also possessed large segments of Libyan oil fields until Muammar Gaddafi expropriated them in the early 1970s.
    H. L. Hunt’s private life was equally notorious: He had six children with his first wife, Lyda Bunker, including Nelson Bunker, Lamar, and William Herbert. Later, he started an affair with Frania Tye, whom he married and with whom he had four children before the couple separated in 1942. Hunt had another four children with one of his secretaries, Ruth Ray, whom he finally married in 1957.
    Unlike the Rockefellers, whose surname has always been associated with wealth, crude oil, and the Standard Oil Company, the name Hunt is forever tied to the largest failed speculation in silver.

    A Precious Metal Primer—A Recap

    The two most significant factors in the past 50 years for precious metals have been the prohibition of private gold holdings in the United States and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, which was created in 1944. In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared private possession of gold of more than 100 USD illegal, and the ban remained in place for more than 40 years. With the Nixon Shock of 1971, the United States declared an end to the official convertibility of the US dollar into gold, due to massive increases of government debt, expansion of the money supply, and rising inflation. In 1973 the Bretton Woods system—the international currency system that established the US dollar as the leading currency, backed by gold (“the Gold Standard”)—fell apart. With the abolition of the silver and gold standards, both metals lost their economic importance, and large quantities became available on the market. As a result, silver fell to 2 USD per troy ounce. But this price level also has had a lasting negative effect on silver production, as only a few countries are able to produce it at this low price level.
    The Hunt brothers’ speculation, which culminated in the collapse of the silver market in 1980, became a legend in commodity trading.
    William Herbert and Nelson Bunker Hunt were the first big investors to recognize the rare opportunities offered by the silver market in the 1970s: There was constant industrial demand, low incentives for subsidies due to low prices, and a small market of available silver.
    Nelson Bunker had made no secret of his aversion to “paper money” after the gold standard was abandoned. “Every moron could buy a printing press, and everything might be better than paper money,” he said. To preserve the family fortune, the Hunt brothers focused their investments on real estate and the silver market.
    Between 1970 and 1973 Nelson Bunker and William Herbert bought about 200,000 troy ounces of silver. Within these three years, the price of silver doubled from 1.5 USD to 3 USD per troy ounce.
    Encouraged by this success, the brothers expanded their activities to futures exchanges and acquired, at the beginning of 1974, futures contracts representing 55 million ounces of silver. Then they waited for physical delivery. Physical delivery was as unusual at that time as it is nowadays, and with constant purchases on the spot markets, the Hunts generated an artificial shortage of silver. Keeping in mind how the United States had appropriated private gold holdings 40 years before, they had the bulk of the precious metal delivered to banks in Zurich and London, where they thought their silver stocks would be safe from US authorities.
    In spring 1974 the price of silver rose to more than 6 USD. Rumors spread that the Hunts—who by now possessed about 10 percent of the world’s silver supply—were targeting a dominant market position. Before 1978 another 20 million ounces of silver were delivered to Nelson Bunker and William Herbert, who tried to convince more investors to partner with them. Together with two Saudi sheikhs, they founded the International Metal Investment Group, and by 1979 they had acquired additional futures contracts for more than 40 million ounces of silver at the Commodity Exchange (COMEX) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). Over almost a decade, the Hunts and their partners had amassed some 150 million ounces of silver, about 5,000 tons.
    This was equivalent to half of US silver reserves, about 15 percent of the world’s total. In addition, the Hunt brothers possessed around 200 million ounces of silver in the form of exchange-traded futures contracts. Global demand for silver rose to around 450 million ounces, while output remained below 250 million ounces, due to the low price level of just a few years earlier.
    In the meantime, the price of silver had risen to 8 USD, then it doubled to 16 USD in just two months, due to a growing physical shortage of silver. The CBOT and COMEX combined were able to deliver only 120 million ounces of silver, since the Hunts’ strategy concerning physical delivery was now being imitated by an increasing number of market participants.

    Figure 8. Silver prices, 1970–1982, in USD/troy ounce. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    At the end of 1979, the CBOT announced that no investor would be allowed to hold more than three million silver contracts. All contracts above that limit had to be liquidated. Nelson Bunker interpreted this as a sign of an imminent scarcity; he continued to buy silver, while Lamar joined him and invested 300 million USD. At that point Nelson Bunker held 40 million ounces of silver abroad and—together with the partners of the International Metal Investment Group—an additional 90 million ounces of silver. The International Metal Group in turn held futures contracts for an additional 90 million ounces, with a delivery date of March 1980.

    At the end of 1979 the price of silver rose to 34.50 USD; in the middle of January 1980 the price jumped above 50 USD (about 120 USD in today’s prices). The Hunt family’s silver stocks surpassed 4.5 billion USD in value!

    The wheel of fortune was about to turn, however. Once COMEX accepted only liquidation orders, prices started to fall. The US Federal Reserve System increased interest rates, and the stronger US dollar began to negatively affect prices for gold and silver. By mid-March 1980, silver prices had fallen to 21 USD. The crash was accelerated by panic selling on the part of smaller speculators who had followed the Hunts’ example. Others cashed in private silver stocks of jewelry and coins because of the record prices, further increasing physical supply of the metal.

    As March 1980 came to an end, the Hunts could no longer meet the margin requirements of their futures positions and were forced to sell more than 100 million USD worth of silver. On March 27, 1980, silver opened at 15.80 USD and closed at 10.80 USD. The day went down in history as “Silver Thursday.”

    On “Silver Thursday,” March 27, 1980, silver opened at 15.80 USD per troy ounce and closed at 10.80 USD. It was a daily loss of more than 30 percent!

    For the Hunts, whose volume-weighted average entry price in silver futures was 35 USD, this meant a debt of 1.5 billion dollars!
    Many investors, including COMEX officials who held short positions, significantly reinforced the downward spiral in silver prices. Although the metal recovered to about 17 USD by the mid-1980s, the Hunts had to file for bankruptcy and were accused of conspiracy to manipulate the market.
    The downfall of the Hunts was caused by extensive leverage. Otherwise they would have been able to weather the crash in silver prices without having to liquidate massive positions in the market. In the media the Hunts became a symbol of market manipulation, and their speculation and the collapse of silver prices, which caused huge losses for private investors, weighed down the reputation of the silver market for decades.

    Key Takeaways
    •Haroldson Lafayette Hunt, known as “Arkansas Slim,” founded the family fortune on oil. Subsequently the Hunts were among the top 10 wealthiest families in the United States.
    •Brothers Nelson Bunker and William Herbert Hunt tried to preserve the family wealth by investing in silver. They attempted to corner the silver market by buying the metal physically and building up large futures contract positions.
    •The price of silver skyrocketed from below 2 USD per troy ounce to above 50 in January 1980. By then, the Hunt family fortune surpassed 4.5 billion USD. But on March 27, 1980—“Silver Thursday”—silver crashed 30 percent. The Hunts had to file for bankruptcy and were accused of conspiracy to manipulate the silver market.

    14 Crude Oil: No Blood for Oil? 1990

    Power politics in the Middle East: Kuwait is invaded by Iraq, but Iraq faces a coalition of Western countries led by the United States and has to back down. In retreat, Iraqi troops set the Kuwaiti oil fields on fire. Within three months the price of oil more than doubles, from below 20 to more than 40 USD.

    “Once [Saddam Hussein] acquired Kuwait . . . he was clearly in a position to be able to dictate the future of worldwide energy policy, and that gave him a stranglehold on our economy and on that of most of the other nations of the world as well.” —Richard “Dick” Cheney, US Secretary of Defense, 1990

    During the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s, Iraq had enjoyed good relations with the United States and Europe. The Western countries supported Iraq, especially militarily, in order to counteract the Khomeini regime in Tehran and the further spread of Islamic and Soviet influence.
    In 1980 Iraq was producing about six million barrels of crude oil per day, and Iran about five million barrels, most of which came from the oil-rich southwestern province of Khuzestan. Combined, crude oil production in the two countries accounted for about 20 percent of the world’s daily consumption. But the eight-year war, which killed a million people on both sides, greatly affected the economy of Iraq, whose main funding came from the Arab states, in particular Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. After the war, the country was heavily in debt to them.
    In addition, Iraq had always denied the legitimacy of Kuwait’s independence, considering it part of Iraqi territory. Conflicts had been smoldering around the border since its independence from the United Kingdom in 1961. Meanwhile Iraq was working to cancel or renegotiate its debt burden with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait and also trying to lower its debt by reducing crude oil production (thus leading to higher prices and higher profits). But Kuwait counteracted that move by increasing its quota and lowering its export price to increase its own market share.
    On July 17, 1990, Iraq accused its neighbors and the United Arab Emirates of producing far more oil than was agreed within OPEC, thereby pushing prices down and resulting in losses of 14 billion USD to Iraq alone. Iraq also accused its neighbors of stealing oil from Iraqi oil fields along their common border.
    Negotiations to ease tensions between Iraq and Kuwait failed on July 31, and Iraq deployed its forces along Kuwait’s border. During a meeting with Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, the US ambassador affirmed that the United States would not take any position in domestic Arab disputes or concerning the border conflict between Iraq and Kuwait. There were no specific defense or security agreements between the United States and Kuwait either. The Iraqi president interpreted this as a toleration of further action: On August 2, 1990, 100,000 Iraqi soldiers marched into Kuwait. The Gulf War had begun.

    A Quick Primer to Three Persian Gulf Wars

    The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) was originally referred to as the Gulf War until the Persian Gulf War of 1990–1991 (the Iraq-Kuwait conflict), after which the latter was known as the First Gulf War. Consequently, the Iraq War of 2003–2011 has been called the Second Gulf War.
    In September 1980 Iraq, headed by Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran, triggering an eight-year war that destabilized the region and devastated both countries. The United States supported Iraq during that war, because America was nervous about the potential spread of the Islamic Iranian Revolution by Ayatollah Khomeini, and Iraq longed to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state.
    The Gulf War of 1990 was waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq, still headed by Saddam Hussein, in response to Iraq’s invasion and annexation of Kuwait. By that annexation, Iraq doubled its known oil reserves to 20 percent of global reserves, and was threatening Saudi Arabia, which controlled another 25 percent of global crude oil reserves, a situation that the United States could not tolerate.

    But it took another Gulf War to overthrow the government of Saddam Hussein. In 2003 a United States–led coalition invaded Iraq on the pretext that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction.

    Today Iran and Saudi Arabia are fighting for regional hegemony in a renewed cold war that is also an Islamic conflict of Sunni against Shiite. The Sunni-Shia conflict has been 1,400 years in the making. The arguments are complicated but essentially boil down to who is the rightful leader of Muslims following the prophet Mohammed after his death. With as much as 90 percent, the majority of the world’s Muslims are Sunni. Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, and Bahrain, however, have a majority Shia population.

    Figure 9. Crude oil prices, 1989–1991, in USD/barrel. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The effect on oil prices was obvious. Oil prices marked a low in June 1990 of around 15 USD per barrel, having bounced between 15 and 25 USD in the previous months. At the end of July, on the eve of the war, the price of crude oil was already back at 20 USD. On August 3, West Texas Intermediate (WTI, a trading benchmark for crude oil) was just below 25 USD. Crude closed the month above 30 USD, then, at the end of September, oil traded at 40 USD for the first time. In October 1990 the price of crude oil marked a new high—more than 40 USD per barrel.

    Together, Iraq and Kuwait accounted for about 20 percent of the world’s oil reserves.

    Strategically, Kuwait was extremely valuable to Iraq. Although it is only 20,000 square kilometers, Kuwait has a 500-kilometer coastline, far exceeding the 60-kilometer coastline of much larger Iraq, whose area is almost 450,000 square kilometers. During the invasion, Iraq captured gold worth more than 500 million USD and, more importantly, gained access to Kuwaiti oil resources.
    Saddam Hussein had counted on the United States not to interfere in internal Arab affairs, but he now faced a completely different reaction from President George H. W. Bush. It seemed that US interests not only concerned Kuwaiti oil fields; they touched indirectly on Iraqi oil fields as well. Iraq controlled 10 percent of the world’s oil reserves; the annexation of Kuwait added another 10 percent.
    Moreover, as US Secretary of Defense (and later CEO of Halliburton, a major oil company) Richard “Dick” Cheney noted a few weeks after the Iraqi invasion, “Iraqi troops are only a few hundred kilometers away from another 25 percent of the world’s oil reserves in eastern Saudi Arabia.”
    Just a few hours after the beginning of the invasion, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 660, which called for the withdrawal of the Iraqi troops. Within a week, the Security Council had imposed an economic and financial ban against Iraq (Resolution 661), which was designed to put an end to Iraqi crude oil exports. Meanwhile, the United States formed a military alliance of 34 countries against Iraq under the leadership of General Norman Schwarzkopf. Of the more than 900,000 soldiers deployed, about 75 percent were American troops. On August 8, two US Navy aircraft carriers arrived in the region, and President Bush initiated Operation Desert Shield to protect Saudi Arabia from an invasion.

    The invasion of Iraq began with Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Oil prices spiked from 15 USD to more than 40 USD per barrel in October 1990.

    By Resolution 662, the UN Security Council declared the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq void and called for the restoration of its sovereignty. On August 25, the UN Security Council sanctioned the coalition’s embargo under Operation Desert Shield. By then 70 warships were deployed in the Gulf region.
    In occupied Kuwait arrests, abductions, torture, and executions were the order of the day, and the Iraqi government used foreign hostages as human shields. On September 5 Saddam Hussein invoked holy war against the United States in the Persian Gulf and called for the fall of the Saudi Arabian king Fahd. The Kuwaiti royal family had already fled.
    On November 29 the UN Security Council presented Iraq with an ultimatum for withdrawal from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. The US Congress approved military measures on January 12, and five days later, in the early morning hours, coalition forces began a massive air strike against Iraq. Within the first 24 hours of Operation Desert Storm, there were approximately 1,300 attacks.

    It took another Gulf War, in 2003, to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein.

    After a further ultimatum expired, the United States initiated a ground war on February 24. Two days later, the war was essentially over, as Iraqi troops officially began a withdrawal from Kuwait. In doing so, however, they set fire to Kuwaiti oil fields and opened the locking bars of many oil terminals to let the oil flow out into the sea. According to Kuwait, about 950 fields were set on fire or were mined by the Iraqi forces. In addition, oil production was interrupted until summer 1991. Only after the last fires were extinguished in November of that year did production increase again.
    Despite the war, American and British aims to eliminate the military power of Iraq, and its claims to supremacy in the region, remained unfulfilled. It took another Gulf War in 2003 to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein.

    Key Takeaways
    •The president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, aspired to hegemony in the Middle East, the most oil-rich region of the world, but he failed to overthrow Iran during eight years of war in the 1980s.
    •Kuwait, despite its small geographic size, was of strategic importance to Iraq, because of its oil resources and its coastal access and harbor.
    •The Gulf War of 1990–1991 began with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq and ended because of the intervention of the United States with Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. As a consequence of supply insecurity and burning oil fields, oil prices shot up from 15 USD to more than 40 USD.
    •After 9/11, Saddam Hussein was accused of possessing weapons of mass destruction; his regime in Iraq was finally overthrown in 2003.

    15 The Doom of German Metallgesellschaft 1993

    Crude oil futures take Metallgesellschaft to the brink of insolvency and almost lead to the largest collapse of a company in Germany since World War II. CEO Heinz Schimmelbusch is responsible for a loss of more than 1 billion USD in 1993.

    “We’re back, we’ve made it.” —Kajo Neukirchen, CEO of MG

    He was one of the stars of the German business scene: In 1989 Heinz Schimmelbusch became the youngest CEO in German history, the head of German Metallgesellschaft (MG), a huge industrial conglomerate founded in 1881 with a focus on mining and commodity trading. With Schimmelbusch’s arrival, a new wind was blowing through the company. Its traditional dependence on the metal business, which accounted for almost two-thirds of group sales and profit, was about to be reduced. The new growth areas would be engineering, environmental technology, and financial services.
    Schimmelbusch went on a shopping spree, acquiring Feldmühle Nobel, Dynamit Nobel, Buderus, and Cerasiv and creating an empire, valued at 15 billion USD, that included more than 250 subsidiaries. In 1991 Manager Magazine named him “Manager of the Year.” But four years after Schimmelbusch joined MG, his realm would end in disaster.

    The subsidiary of the MG Group in the United States was engaged in risky bets on crude oil prices.

    Under Schimmelbusch the MG Group was not only getting bigger but also more complicated to manage. At the beginning of the 1990s, the German economy cooled down. There was pressure from cheap Eastern European competitors, the car industry weakened, and Metallgesellschaft’s high debt levels began to drag on the company. But the firm’s Sword of Damocles was actually hovering above its subsidiary in the United States.
    Metallgesellschaft Refining and Marketing (MGRM) in New York sold fuel oil, gasoline, and diesel to large customers at long-term fixed rates; the company dealt in contracts of five- to ten-year maturity that promised delivery of a certain quantity of oil at a fixed price every month. MGRM’s customers were hedging against rising crude oil prices. However, MGRM did not have oil through its own sources or inventories. It had to buy the oil itself.

    Understanding the Oil Market

    From 1984 to 1992, the oil market was dominated by what traders refer to as “backwardation.” This means that price of crude oil to be delivered in the future will be traded at a discount to the current (cash) price. For the buyer of oil contracts this means, in addition to interest gained on the capital invested, there’s a gain from the difference between the future price and the spot price. Thus, MGRM’s rollover hedging strategy generated a continuous profit in addition to its hedging fees.
    Due to the volatile price of crude oil, MGRM was facing a market price risk of more than 600 million USD, which corresponded to one-tenth of the balance sheet of the parent company. This market price risk was hedged by futures.
    The company entered into a growing volume of crude oil futures whose sizes would be adjusted just before maturity to the contract volume of its customers and which would be rolled forward into the next contract month.

    A massive price decline in crude oil flipped the future term structure from backwardation into contango, which resulted in massive losses in MGRM’s hedging strategy.

    However, in 1993, these conditions changed as a massive decline in crude oil prices reversed the future term structure from backwardation to “contango,” in which future prices are higher than current ones. While the current oil price was below 18.50 USD per barrel, prices for a year ahead were more than 1 USD per barrel higher. The monthly gain for MGRM was converting into a widening loss. And there was another factor neglected by MGRM: rising cash-flow risks during contract maturity.
    While its delivery obligations matched delivery requirements at maturity, MGRM was now faced with increasing margin payments in the future. This had a direct impact on the balance sheet for MGRM, since realized losses would not be offset by potential future profits.

    Figure 10. Crude oil future term structure in 1993/1994, in USD/barrel. Data: Bloomberg, 2019.

    The situation continued to worsen as MGRM suffered from liquidity problems and poor credit ratings. In the context of declining oil prices, MGRM was caught in a vicious circle.
    Local management staked everything on a single throw of the dice and continued to carry out additional contracts with customers. At the low point of the crisis, MGRM alone was responsible for between 10 and 20 percent of all outstanding one-month-forward transactions in crude oil.

    By terminating all crude oil futures positions, the MG Group realized a loss of more than 1 billion USD.

    Meanwhile, German Metallgesellschaft’s fortunes had also been plunging. As a result of the economic slowdown and a high debt burden, the company could only pay a dividend in 1991–1992 by writing down hidden reserves. The following year the deficit had climbed to almost 350 million Deutschmarks, about 200 million USD. Then the bad news from the United States hit. Under pressure from creditors, MGRM was forced to file for bankruptcy with a loss of 1.5 billion USD. That brought the entire group to the brink of insolvency.

    In February 1993 Schimmelbusch launched an extensive divestment program to redeem 600 million USD. But the US subsidiary’s losses continued to grow and soon exceeded 1 billion USD. Schimmelbusch now had to ask for additional funding by the company’s major shareholders, Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank. Startled by the imminent loss, Ronaldo Schmitz, a member of Deutsche Bank’s executive board and chairman of MG’s supervisory board, pulled the trigger. The MG Group realized losses of more than 1 billion USD as a result of the termination of all crude oil contracts, and the group’s total liabilities grew to almost 5 billion USD.
    On December 17, 1993, Schimmelbusch and CFO Meinhard Forster were dismissed by the supervisory board without notice, and Kajo Neukirchen was hired by Schmitz to save the company. With a bailout of 2 billion USD, rigorous cost savings, and the dismissal of 7,500 employees, Neukirchen restructured the MG Group, which now focused on trading, plant construction, chemicals, and construction technology. In February 2000 the company was renamed MG Technologies, and it became the GEA Group in 2005. The MG Group had met an inglorious end.

    Key Takeaways
    •CEO Heinz Schimmelbusch became the youngest CEO in Germany when he headed German Metallgesellschaft (MG Group), a large and venerable industrial conglomerate. Manager Magazine named him “Manager of the Year” in 1991.
    •MGRM—the company’s crude oil refining and marketing subsidiary—followed practices that would adversely affect the entire conglomerate.
    •MGRM was selling petroleum products at a fixed price to customers, hedging its exposure on the futures market. During normal market conditions, the backwardation term structure of crude oil provided a comfortable markup.
    •Things changed when crude oil dropped from more than 40 USD in 1991 to below 20 USD in 1993, and the term structure flipped into contango. Losses mounted to a total of more than 1 billion USD and brought the MG Group to the brink of bankruptcy.

  • 克劳迪娅·戈尔:女性能实现事业与家庭“双丰收”吗?

    1. 非升即走,艰难的抉择

    在许多职业,比如会计、法律、金融、咨询和学术界,女性和男性的竞争环境甚至更不平等。过去的半个多世纪里,这些领域的职业发展变化不大,尽管其中近半数专业人员是女性。这些领域的晋升规则都要求早期投入大量时间。在预定期限结束时,雇员(一般称为助理)要接受考评。勤奋(或幸运)的人将获得终身职位或合伙人资格,其他人则被打发。这类工作通常被称为“非升即走”职业。“升迁”的人留下来,而“出局”的人往往去更低一层级的公司、机构或大学任职。

    每个职业和部门的门槛和发展时钟并不相同,但都有一个共同点:那些得到丰厚回报的人,届时应该已经30多岁。这一点今非昔比。只是拿下高等学位以及获得第一次晋升、合伙人身份或终身职位所需的时间,都已变得更长、更晚。

    曾几何时,攻读高等学位的大学毕业生会直接进入研究生院或专业学校。而今,几乎所有人毕业后都要花一年或更长时间从事与最终职业相关的工作。在学术界,大多数博士申请者获得学士学位后都首先担任研究助理(这个职位被称为“博士预科”)。MBA群体则通常在进入商学院之前工作若干年。

    今天,攻取博士学位所花的时间比以往任何时候都要多,即便在有大把就业机会的领域也不例外。我拿到博士学位的时候,获得经济学博士学位通常需要4年时间,现在是6年。物理和生物科学的博士后培训同样延长了周期,这些职位已经在其他领域流行起来。

    接受教育和培训的年数增加倒无可厚非。但这只是“非升即走”世界的开始。学术界获得终身职位一般需要6~8年。法律行业确定合伙人身份大约需要10年;咨询和会计行业确定合伙人身份需要6~9年,具体取决于是否拥有MBA 学位。至于投资银行业,需要5~6年或可从初级银行家升级为副总裁级别。         

    所以在学术界,现在至少要有13年(更可能是16年)的学士后生涯做铺垫,个人的职业生涯方能巩固。在咨询和会计领域,考虑升职前起码得拼搏10年。而攻读MBA或法学博士课程之前,应该投入几年时间工作。因此,个人职业生涯的第一次晋升通常发生在30多岁时。

    可想而知,事业与家庭之间会出现怎样的张力。在谋求合伙人身份或终身职位的过程中,当年的22岁大学毕业生渐渐年长,进入了30多岁,甚至更老。大学毕业生的初婚年龄中位数远低于这个年龄。

    如果提早进行“非升即走”抉择,譬如在35岁之前,女性就可以先努力工作,成为合伙人或拿到终身职位,然后再开启家庭生活。然而随着晋升年龄提升,这意味着要么晚点组建家庭,要么第一次重大的晋升时刻在孩子上学前班时到来。职业道路需要长时间的工作,对于有年幼子女的人,这往往太过紧张。两种选择都有问题,尤其是对女性而言。

    职业时钟与生物时钟和家庭时钟交织同步,滴答作响。很多女性和男性必须在职业生涯稳固之前建立家庭;否则,他们可能将永远无法拥有家庭。

    2. 管道泄漏,职场流失的女性

    自20世纪70年代开始,许多专业的职业女性新人比例大幅上升。在完成各类高等学位课程方面,第四组女性取得了长足进步。可是,获得终身职位、合伙人身份或其他晋升机会的女性比例没有跟上节奏。起初,人们以为高级职位的女性比例偏低是因为晋升需要时间,但现在大家发觉事实并非如此,时间其实绰绰有余。

    过去20年间, 我所在的经济学领域的女博士比例达到30%~35%。但她们当中终身副教授为25%,正教授为15%。1974年,我是8% 的助理女教授之中的一员,到了2018 年,该比例升至27%。1974 年,正教授群体的女性比例不足3%,2018年逼近15%,进步可谓巨大,但是速度太慢。假如男性和女性候选人的晋升率相同,那么正教授的女性比例应该会更高。这种差异的部分原因是,女性发表文章的记录导致她们的晋升率降低。另一个原因是,她们在晋升之前离开了学术界。

    女性在学术、法律、咨询、管理和金融等领域的低晋升率,归因于人们通常所称的“管道泄漏”现象。“管道泄漏”是指女性和男性晋升前都有离职者,但在各个关键时刻,女性离职的比例高于男性。

    人们一直想方设法寻找女性流失率更高的原因。通过比较论文发表能力相当的男性和女性,大家发现偏见、偏袒和指导不足等因素依然存在。但是,大多数“非升即走”职业中管道泄漏的主要原因,带领我们回到了晋升所需的时间问题上。高强度的职业对所有人来说都是艰难的。尤其是年轻的父母,更加辛苦;而在通往顶峰的路上,放慢脚步并投入大量家庭时间的一方,往往就是女性。

    女性从事这些职业所面临的最大障碍,是我们熟悉的时间要求,而并非只是工作时间的问题。时间要求还包括生活中需求最大的时刻。一如上文所述,这些压力在个人的30 多岁时冲至顶点。

    工作时间对于升职非常重要,这一点不难在法律等注重工时的职业中得到验证。律师按小时(甚至按分钟)计费,律师事务所自然要密切关注时间。我们知道女律师成为合伙人的比例低于男律师。但直到最近大家才了解个中原因。美国律师协会组织了一项大规模的律师调查(称为“法学博士之后”项目),追踪他们的等级并进行分析;结果表明,成为合伙人与投入的时间之间存在显著的相关性。助理律师的工作时间和获得的收入,是造成男女晋升率差异的主要因素。         

    随着越来越多的女性开始从事这类职业,以及越来越多的男性希望与生活伴侣建立平等关系,老规矩和旧思想产生了越来越大的成本。机构并不想人才流失,而流失的人才大部分又是女性。

    3. 一丝微光,职业公平的解决方案

    大学设有最严厉的“非升即走”政策,不过,在为男女初级教员提供家庭假期和为获得终身教职按下暂停键方面,大学日益宽容。新的职位被开发出来,可以绕过严格的“非升即走”途径。

    无法忍受加班加点争取终身教职的人,或者自认无缘晋升的人可以考虑讲师和兼职职位。法律和会计领域则有非股权合伙制。个人可以沿着食物链行进,在小型机构获得终身职位,或者成为规模较小、利润较低的律师事务所或会计师事务所的合伙人。

    公司也不想失去训练有素的员工,特别是在专业服务行业,客户关系丰富,培训成本(由公司承担)通常很高。没有孩子的年轻员工几乎没有个人时间限制,一般都希望给公司合伙人和高层管理者留下好印象。他们会长时间投入工作,频频相互竞争。如果是20多岁的年轻人,拼命工作没问题。但这并不是很多人,尤其是女性,在有了年幼子女后想要的生活。高层管理者尤其是CEO(首席执行官)们,都愿意减少已经成为多数年轻员工常态的漫长且往往不可预测的工作时间。

    高盛、摩根大通、花旗集团、美国银行、摩根士丹利、巴克莱和瑞士信贷等华尔街巨头们,也纷纷决心创设更好的激励机制,化解如何留住公司困扰年轻人才的委托代理问题。金融巨头开始订立规则,保护周末和晚上的时间、带薪休假、法定假期以及快捷的晋升途径。

    2013年,高盛发起一轮大行动:“我们致力于实施下列举措,以更好地推助本公司初级银行家拥有成功且可持续的长期职业生涯。”规则很明确,几乎没有需要向执行委员会报告的例外情况。“所有分析师和员工周五晚上9点至周日早上9点必须离开办公室(自本周末开始)……所有分析员和经理预计……每年应有3周休假。”此外,不准把工作从办公室搬到家里或附近的咖啡店。一年后,瑞士信贷禁止周六上班,美银美林集团倡议初级银行家每月至少休四天周末。

    科技巨擘们同样明白,长时间工作会破坏舒适的工作环境。2016年,亚马逊为了打造“适当缩短工作时间但仍能促进成功和职业发展的环境”,宣布允许科技人员乃至经理削减25%的工作时间,同时降低25% 的薪酬。员工基本上是按小时减扣工资。

    一些咨询公司和会计师事务所已经落实政策,限制年轻员工长途出差的次数。一些公司则限定员工的工作时间,限制员工下班后发送电子邮件。这些由高级合伙人和CEO 推行的举措引人注目,他们认为,有些经理驱使年轻员工玩儿命工作,以致后者被迫辞职。每个经理和合伙人都希望自己的项目顺利完成,他们不会时时顾及疯狂工作给整个公司带来的成本。无论成功与否,为控制年轻员工过度工作所做的大量努力说明,公司及员工已经认识到,拼命工作是要付出代价的。

    20世纪90年代前半期,美国最大的两家会计师事务所察觉了自身存在的严重人事问题。他们在招聘女性层面做得很好,注册会计师有一半是女性。但这些女性很少能成为合伙人。就像一些业内人士所言,他们一直在流失女性会计师。多数高层领导并不认为可以遏制这种流失。然而,聪明好奇的德勤CEO 迈克尔·库克(Michael Cook)提出了异议,并于1992年委托一个外部审核小组调查女性离职的原因。

    调查发现,女性早在晋升前就已陆续离职。报告称,德勤的文化不断排挤她们。她们接不到利润丰厚的会计业务,不被委以重任,还被斥以不够坚毅,至少被认为没有男同事能吃苦耐劳。在库克的领导下,德勤的企业文化发生质变。女性新合伙人比例渐有上升。

    1997年,安永CEO菲尔·拉斯卡维(Phil Laskawy)发现了类似的问题。公司尝试了实行弹性工作制、开展职业辅导、建立女性网络等策略。不久,安永的女性合伙人比例也见长。

    不只德勤和安永提高了女性合伙人比例,该行业一些政策不算开明的公司也有同样的提升。目前尚无法评估这种提升有多少是由于德勤特意改变企业文化的策略,或安永的弹性工作安排。但有其他证据表明,存在更基本的结构性因素阻碍女性攀登事业高峰。

    这些职业实施的解决方案都不充分。在法律、会计和咨询行业,非股权合伙人的报酬相当低。在学术界,虽然兼职教员有男有女,但女性兼职的比例还是过高。这些职位通常提供给随行配偶(不论男性或女性)。奈何在地理位置上,女性历来更多捆绑于丈夫的职位。甚至就在最近,暂停“非升即走”考核的举措也受到了批评。研究表明,女性需要额外一个学期来照顾家庭;男人则利用这些时间发表更多的学术论文。“非升即走”制度与组建和养育家庭并不协调。这些做法均不适合任何性别,但鉴于现实情况,女性付出的代价更大。         

    毫不奇怪,工作随叫随到、时间不规律又不可预测的员工,往往比工作时间接近正常的员工挣得多。更重要的是,这种溢价给女性的职业生涯和夫妻公平造成了问题。时间长或随叫随到工作的时薪溢价越高,尤其在有孩子时夫妻双方进行分工的激励就越大。

    我所说的“分工”,并非指一人洗碗,另一人擦干。我指的是更普遍的事务:正像我们在整个旅程中看到的,一人(通常是妻子)花更多的时间为家庭待命,另一人(通常是丈夫)花更多的时间在工作中待命。

    如果有孩子的夫妇不进行分工,也即他们不做出最普遍的决定(让一方在家事上待命,另一方在工作上待命),那就意味着他们要少挣钱。两人不能同时接受无法控制时间的工作,因为要照顾孩子;就像我的狗,会在某天不可知的时间生病和需要帮助。

    当能多挣的收入并不是很多时,按照夫妻双方的意愿,少挣就少挣吧。换言之,两人都可以拒绝时间较难预测的工作。这样就好比他们用放弃的那部分薪水购买夫妻公平。可如果这笔钱数额很大,夫妻公平的成本也许就会高到难以抗拒这份工作;进而夫妻公平可能会被放置一边但这不是唯一的损失。当夫妻公平被搁置,职场中的性别平等问题也将随之而起。即便按时薪计算,女性的收入也会低于男性。问题既在于劳动力市场的工作如何计酬,也在于家庭的劳作和照顾如何按性别划分。

    关键是,正如律师和药师案例所启示的,性别(不)平等和夫妻(不)公平恰似硬币的正反两面。造成夫妻间不公平的,是我们一直在探究的艰难抉择:夫妻中有一方,通常是女性,决定在家待命。这也意味着,总体说来,哪怕按时薪计酬,女性的收入也比男性低。这继而引发了性别不平等。幸好,黑暗中突现一丝微光:越来越多人开始努力争取夫妻公平,争取与家人共度时光。

    本文整理自克劳迪娅·戈尔(Claudia Goldin)的著作《事业还是家庭?女性追求平等的百年旅程》。

  • 中快餐饮与指鼠为鸭

    2023.6.1,江西工业职业技术学院一学生在学校食堂吃饭时,疑吃出一只“鼠头”,与食堂工作人员交涉未果,遂将其拍照公开了。

    后学生改口,且有关部门也鉴定为鸭脖,于是一个新词被创造出来:指鼠为鸭。

    6月17日,江西省联合调查组发布通报,判定异物为老鼠类啮齿动物的头部。
    6月19日,江西工业职业技术学院已与涉事食堂供应商江西中快后勤服务有限公司解约。

    江西中快的控股大股东是深圳中快餐饮集团有限公司。
    中快餐饮集团创立于1994 年,总部位于深圳市,是一家集高校、中学、医院、企事业单位及写字楼供餐业务为一体的专业团餐综合服务商。高校团餐板块是店数最多,最具代表性的品牌。中快餐饮集团在全国多个省市至少直接投资了24家地方“中快餐饮”企业,其中包括上海、安徽、陕西、河南等地。

    该集团创始人李平金,江西庐山人,1994年在南昌承包万寿宫的工商处食堂起家,随后在1995年拿下南昌蓝天学院(现名江西科技学院)的食堂招标,切入高校市场。2004年,该集团通过收购一家深圳公司,进军全国。李平金的弟弟是中快餐饮董事长李四星。

    李四星称,中快餐饮一大业态为高校业态,“全国范围内在营高校食堂项目700多个,年营收规模直逼海底捞”,“好吃+自营”是中快高校食堂的经营策略。此外,和其它团餐公司普遍外包档口联营的经营模式不同,中快的高校食堂项目,全部采用自营。李四星认为,招商转包制容易导致风味档口产品质量参差不齐,使食堂出现经营问题,有实力的餐饮公司需要通过统一采购和自营自制来解决这一问题,同时自营还能使食品安全得到保障。

    涉事企业要求“诚信经营”,研究称其发展得益于“成本控制”

    2020年,“中国食品报官方平台”刊登了一篇中快餐饮集团创始人李平金的专访。专访中提到的,中快发展离不开三个核心:诚信经营、服务意识、物美价廉。

    “说到做到,做不到的事诚实地说,争取对方的理解。诚信是中快的经营之本,也是很多学校选择与其合作的原因。”李平金表示。

    在文章中,李平金称,食堂,一端服务的是学校,一端服务的是学生。如果说学校选择中快是因为诚信,那么想要打动学生,中快则要靠物美价廉的产品。这就需要让利,薄利多销会形成规模。规模大,采购成本会更低,才能做到物美价廉,这是一个良性循环的链条。

    无独有偶,早在2015年,中国教育后勤协会也曾刊登了一篇题为《“中快餐饮”调研报告》的内容,提到了相似的观点。该文署名作者为中国教育后勤协会专家委员会委员。

    作者提出,“中快餐饮”以年均30%速度迅速扩张,业务覆盖全国多个省市区,旗下员工达2万人。在考察了旗下江西中快所经营的多个高校食堂后,作者在文中总结其发展迅速的原因,其中提到了一点——“成本控制与效率效益”。

    文章显示,中快餐饮连锁经营,其原料采购价格低于全国任何地区高校餐饮“联采”价格;粮油价格约低2—3%,其它大宗原料价格约低3—4%,蔬菜价格约低10%,总体原料成本约低5%。

    据测算,“中快餐饮”人工成本约占营业额20%;水电气成本约占营业额7%,集团和分公司各类管理成本约占营业额2.5%,三项合计间接成本为29.5%,均低于当时全国任何一家高校食堂的间接成本。

    其中,文章中还提到了“食品安全关键控制点”。文章称,江西中快落实原料进出库台帐制度,确保食品源头安全;原材料供货索证制度,严格审核供应商,拒绝不合格原材料。同时,确立了食品留样制度,设立留样柜、留样员,每餐每个品种200克、48小时留样。

    根据行业报告显示,2023年中国团餐市场规模将达到2万亿元,占据中国餐饮市场近半壁江山。

    圳中快餐饮集团在北京、上海、河南、广东、山西、陕西、江苏、湖北、湖南、云南等全国26个省级、直辖市地区投资有公司,通过股权控制有160家企业,间接持股公司超200家,商业版图涉及住宿、餐饮、租赁和商务服务业等。

      据中国团餐行业新媒体“新团餐”在2019年7月19日推送的一篇文章显示,中快餐饮已形成连锁化经营规模,经营的食堂已经超过了800家,员工超过四万人,每天提供500万人次用餐。

      目前,中快餐饮集团以聚焦中小学基础教育餐饮的中禾百年,定位高校市场的中快餐饮,面向医院团餐市场的中康餐饮,一起构成了三大业务板块。

      去年11月,一家认证为“团餐产业第一新媒体与服务平台”的自媒体“团餐界”曾发布了一篇对中快餐饮董事长李四星的采访。稿件中称,中快餐饮“全国范围内在营高校食堂项目700多个,年营收规模直逼海底捞”。

      作为中国火锅界的龙头企业,海底捞2022年共有1371家门店,营收高达347.41亿元,净利润约13.73亿元,其创始人张勇更是凭借海底捞一度成为新加坡首富。

      李四星在文章中称,中快餐饮一大业态为高校业态,“好吃+自营”是中快高校食堂的经营策略。不过,截至发稿,“团餐界”公众号上已无法找到上述李四星的采访。

      据东方网6月19日报道,一名此前任职于江西省教育厅学校后勤与产业办公室,目前仍在江西省教育厅下属事业单位工作的干部表示,江西工业职业技术学院“61”食品安全事件涉事餐饮企业为江西中快后勤服务有限公司,“现在学校已经和他们解约了。”

      两万亿的隐秘江湖

      此次的江西鼠头鸭脖事件,还揭开了团餐市场的神秘面纱。

      不同于社会餐饮,团餐市场由于并不直接面对C端消费者,因此外界对其关注度整体偏低。

      团餐是针对特定场景下餐饮需求的B2B外包服务,主要餐饮服务对象为学校、机关单位、医院、大型企业等团体。中国社科院服务经济与餐饮产业研究中心执行主任赵京桥表示,自上世纪90年代末以来,机关事业单位后勤社会化改革、学生营养餐政策出台,以及不断推进阳光化采购,使得我国团餐产业不断扩容,其应用场景也逐步覆盖至老年餐、月子餐等,并同社会餐饮融合,布局社区团餐、团餐外卖、航空餐等。

      艾媒咨询发布的《2022—2023年中国团餐行业发展研究及典型案例分析报告》显示,2016-2022年,中国团餐市场规模由0.90万亿元增至1.98万亿元,截至2022年占餐饮市场的比重达45.1%,总体呈现上升趋势。

      团餐市场中,校园餐则是体量最大(全国约有2.6亿人消费人口)的细分行业,具有社会关注度最高、政策性强的特点。宸睿资本创始人胡维波也曾提到,学校场景是团餐产业最大的消费场景,也是各个团餐企业重点布局的市场,占比在35%-40%。

      连锁经营专家文志宏告诉中国新闻周刊,由于团餐偏刚需的属性,近几年发展速度明显高于社会餐饮。

      数据显示,2017—2022年,我国团餐市场总体保持较好的增速,2021年以外的年份同比增长均超过餐饮市场。2020年,在餐饮市场负增长15.4%的情况下,团餐市场仍能保持2%的增速。2022年,在疫情的冲击下,团餐市场比社会餐饮表现更为稳定、更具韧性,收入同比增长11.9%。

      随着政府阳光采购政策的不断深化推进,团餐市场有望进一步扩容。根据中国饭店协会发布的《2022年度中国团餐发展报告》预测,团餐行业将会保持10%的增长率,预计2023年达到约2万亿元市场规模,2026年将达到3.6万亿左右。

      不过知支之(上海)商业管理有限公司创始人孟庆刚告诉中国新闻周刊,相较于社会餐饮,团餐行业仍然处于比较原始的阶段,其一大特征是企业获取订单大多依靠资源驱动,这在整个行业内非常普遍。“说的好听是不太市场化,说的不好听就是桌面下的东西比较多。”

      事实上,中快餐饮就是如此起家的。该集团微信公众号中提到,创始人李平金是江西庐山人,于1994年在南昌承包万寿宫的工商处食堂起家,随后在1995年拿下南昌蓝天学院(现名江西科技学院)的食堂招标,切入高校市场。2004年,该集团通过收购一家深圳公司,进军全国。

      校园餐怎么管?

      对于团餐,特别是校园餐来说,安全是第一诉求。

      上海市食品安全研究会专家组成员刘少伟,同时也是上海市教委食品安全检查员。他告诉中国新闻周刊,从某种角度来说,团餐的安全风险比社会餐饮更高。“社会餐饮的就餐规模也就几十个人,但团餐规模化作业属性,意味着同时就餐人数少则几百,多则上千。一旦发生食品安全问题,容易形成大规模群体性食物中毒。”

      刘少伟表示,客观来说,我国对校园的食品安全不可谓不重视,每年开学前各地都会组织针对学校餐饮单位的监督检查,但其实监管的办法并不多。

      监管不足主要体现在专业度方面。孟庆刚指出,餐饮是非常专业的事情,而学校和教委都是教育教学部门,“会不会管”需要打个问号。

      “校园餐的监管应该从两个主体着手,一个是经营者,就是做饭的,另一个则是供应商,负责送菜的。目前对校园餐的监管重在前端,比如明厨亮灶,卫生清洁等,也就是针对做菜的。但供应链其实是团餐的核心,比如食材从哪里买的,怎么进入的食堂,过程中是否需要冷链,这才是重中之重。”

      一位不愿具名的团餐企业负责人告诉中国新闻周刊,团餐兼具市场和社会双重属性,利润普遍低于社会餐饮。“服务主体往往会制订毛利上限,且涨价行为也会被严格监督,所以团餐企业如果想要赚钱,主要从供应链想办法。”

      在团餐行业内,供应链被称为“第二大利润中心”,也是企业降本增效、挖掘增长潜力的关键。据悉,在不同因素的影响下,团餐企业采购成本占总收入的比重高达45%,有的甚至会高达60%,远高于社餐采购成本占比。

      而根据中国教育后勤协会于2015年刊登的一篇题为《“中快餐饮”调研报告》的文章显示,中快餐饮连锁经营,其原料采购价格低于全国任何地区高校餐饮“联采”价格;粮油价格约低2—3%,其它大宗原料价格约低3—4%,蔬菜价格约低10%,总体原料成本约低5%。

      据测算,“中快餐饮”人工成本约占营业额20%;水电气成本约占营业额7%,集团和分公司各类管理成本约占营业额2.5%,三项合计间接成本为29.5%,均低于当时全国任何一家高校食堂的间接成本。

    中快后勤成立于2009年,注册资本1600万元,由深圳中快餐饮集团有限公司(下称中快餐饮集团)控股,持股比例为58%。8日,记者就中快后勤是否是涉事食堂承包商等问题向中快餐饮集团核实,该集团总部工作人员表示“不太了解情况,没有接到(相关通知)”。

      官网信息显示,中快餐饮集团注册资本7700万元,创立于 1994 年。该公司总部位于深圳市,是一家集高校、中学、医院、企事业单位及写字楼供餐业务为一体的专业团餐综合服务商,战略布局达全国 30 个省、自治区及直辖市,拥有 37 个子公司,日服务顾客逾 700 万人次,北京理工大学、东北大学、东南大学、复旦大学、交通大学等60多家高校在其项目展示之列。

      相较于中快餐饮集团,菁禾餐饮、金盟餐饮的规模要小一些,其中金盟餐饮成立于2005年,注册资本5000万元,除江西工业职业技术学院(瑶湖校区)第二食堂外,该公司还中标过江西建设职业技术学院三楼学生食堂委托经营管理采购项目、浙江理工大学科技与艺术学院一期食堂委托管理项目、洛阳理工学院王城校区铭苑一餐厅二楼委托经营项目、南昌市卫生学校食堂租赁项目等。

      菁禾餐饮成立于2016年,注册资本2000万元,2018年该公司还曾中标江西制造职业技术学院上海路小区食堂招租项目,合同期为3年。

      承包高校食堂是一门什么样的生意?

      记者发现,目前,高校食堂外包给餐饮公司的现象已十分普遍。通常情况下,高校会进行公开招标,中标的餐饮公司便可获得食堂的承包权。之后,餐饮公司会根据所需对外招商,将一些档口以租金或提点的模式租给餐饮商户。

      8日,记者以商户身份咨询了武汉某家餐饮公司,其工作人员介绍,在武汉,高校食堂档口的出租大部分是以提点模式,少部分是以租金模式。“提点的话一般是全部包干,公摊水电等都包含在内,大概是提25—32个点,具体得看哪个学校,每个学校政策不一样。”

      所谓提点模式,简单理解就是抽成模式,“提25—32个点”则意味着餐饮公司的抽成比例是25%—32%。即商户每收入100元,便需要拿出25-32元分给承包食堂的餐饮公司。

      上述工作人员称,对于商户而言,提点模式前期投入相对会少一些,主要是3万元的押金支出;租金模式前期投入较大,以武汉白沙洲某高校食堂为例,租一个面食档口算下来大约需要12万元,除3万元押金外,还包括5万元租金(一年)、3000元管理费(一年)、1500元公摊费用(一个月)以及采购食材、设备等方面的支出。

      “这个学校(武汉白沙洲某高校)目前有3000人,只有一家食堂,一个面食档口营业额现在每天能达到约3000元,一个月下来差不多七八万元。高校食堂通常都是下半学期的营业额会比上半学期好,主要是因为下半学期会有新生入学,人数会多一些。”该工作人员称。

      除直接与承包食堂的餐饮公司联系外,商户也可通过一些加盟项目进入高校食堂。

      记者以加盟者身份从哈尔滨某餐饮项目加盟方了解到,该公司名下加盟店大多都开在高校食堂,公司可向加盟者提供档口资源,协助加盟者开店。加盟者除需向品牌方支付一定金额的加盟费、品牌管理费等费用外,还得向承包食堂的餐饮公司缴纳2万-5万元押金,以及相应的租金或提点金额,其中提点比例在25%—30%之间。

      那么,高校食堂档口的生意好不好做?能赚到钱吗?一位在武汉江夏区某高校食堂卖鸡公煲的商户对记者表示,他们是加盟的品牌店,刚做了约一年时间,目前还未回本。“前期光加盟费就交了四五万元,档口是提点模式,水电气等全都算进去提二十多个点,赚不到什么钱。”

      随后,记者又以咨询者身份和一位打算转让河南某高校食堂档口的商户杨森(化名)聊了聊。据杨森介绍,他在该校食堂档口是卖米粉、肉夹馍等,一天的营业额虽不及快餐,但也能达到2500元左右,除去成本之后能剩下约1000元;周末低一些,营业额约2000元。

      “学校就是人流稳定。这个学校大概有一万多人,一共两个食堂。因为学校食堂点外卖要去校门口拿,平时同学们都是在食堂吃。”杨森说。

      杨森介绍,其档口是租金模式,一年租金4万元,其余是水电费,一个月1000元左右,每年大概有9个月的营业时间。“我们简单算了下,毛利约65%,刨去水电、租金,毛利在45%左右。”

      值得一提的是,不管是以哪种方式进入高校食堂,最终的合同都是与食堂承包商签订,承包商负责整个食堂的管理、招商等,学校则负责卫生检查等工作。而商户进入高校食堂档口,餐饮公司及校方对其并没有营业执照、卫生许可证等相关证件上的要求。

      “只要健康证就行,其他证件都不用。健康证要公示出来,没有健康证不能开业。健康证好办,医院几十块钱就能办,当天就能拿到证。”杨森表示。

      上述哈尔滨某餐饮项目加盟方也向记者确认,在高校食堂经营档口,不需要营业执照和卫生许可证。

      但高校平时会较为频繁地对食堂各档口卫生情况进行检查。“学校要求很严格,晚上走之前一定得弄好卫生。”杨森说。

      至于校方是否会给予相应的处罚,杨森表示他还未曾看到有商户因卫生问题被校方罚钱。“都是嘴上说说,警告一下,然后你立马做好就没事了。”

      记者注意到,在江西工业职业技术学院2021年11月发生“老鼠事件”时,该校曾发表情况说明称,食堂清洁间出现老鼠是由于涉事餐饮公司卫生清洁人员在做完清洁工后,并末及时盖住食堂地面排污下水管道盖板,导致有室外老鼠窜入。学校专项调查组掌握该情况后,对该公司进行了严厉处罚,并对当事人进行了相应处理,同时立即开展环境卫生大检查,第一时间责令该公司对食堂卫生进行整改,立即组织专业公司对食堂实施全面的清洁消毒,重点对下水道、排水沟等处做灭鼠处理,立整立改切实做到“零疏忽”“零死角”。

  • 李宏彬 等:父母的政治资本如何影响大学生在劳动力市场中的表现?

    李宏彬 孟岭生 施新政 吴斌珍:《父母的政治资本如何影响大学生在劳动力市场中的表现?———基于中国高校应届毕业生就业调查的经验研究》,本文的数据来源于2010年的调查,文章原载《经济学(季刊)》2012年第3期。

    引言

    近年来,越来越多的经济学家开始研究经济社会地位的代际间传递问题。已有的大量研究发现,父母的健康状况、受教育程度及收入对下一代的健康状况、教育水平,以及他们的职场表现都有重要影响。 然而,关于父母的政治资本对下一代的影响的研究依然十分缺乏。 
    中国高校快速扩招之后 (从1999-2009年,高校招生规模扩大了293%),更多的年轻人有机会接受大学教育。这种情况下,代际传递更有可能影响下一代的收入,而不是影响他们的受教育年限。也就是说,即使同样拥有大学文凭,家庭出身更好的大学生可能会在劳动力市场中找到更好的工作。
    目前在中国,“官二代”和 “非官二代”在各个方面受到不同对待的现象受到了包括官方媒体在内的极大关注。例如,《人民日报》在2010年7月1日的一篇题为《为“二代”创建公平的竞技场》的文章中这样说道:“三十多年前,改革开放打破身份桎梏,社会如水流活; 三十多年后,一部分人先富起来,财富与权力的差距,在事实上形成身份的差别、阶层的分化。恰逢代际更替,也就造成了不同的‘二代’—— ‘富二代’、‘官二代’、二代农民工、二代独生子……‘学好数理化,不如有个好爸爸’、‘他们有的是背景,我们有的是背影’等灰色民谣、‘拼爹’等让人啼笑皆非的网络新词,都让人看到在社会的同场竞技中,不同‘二代’面临的不同境遇。”
    文章有几点需要说明。首先,尽管我们的数据库信息丰富,但是父母的政治资本对子女人力资本的影响有一部分是我们 (研究者)无法观察到的,但是雇主能观察到。不过,这对于大学毕业生首份工作的工资而言,这不是一个很大的问题。因为即使对雇主而言,他们的人力资本特征与老员工相比也是难以观察的。因此,研究者和雇主之间的信息不对称问题是可以忽略的。其次,我们只调查了应届毕业生第一份工作的工资。由于工资溢价很可能会随时间而变化,如果说对于缺乏工作经验的应届毕业生而言都存在工资溢价的话,那么,工资溢价很可能会随着这些学生年龄的增长而进一步提高。

    调查数据

    我们的数据来自清华大学中国经济社会数据中心于2010年5、6月间开展的第一轮中国大学生就业追踪调查 (CCSS)。调查以院校的地理位置(北京、上海、天津、东北、东部、中部和西部)1和学校类型(7种)为依据进行分层随机抽样。最终在全国2305所高校中抽取了100所院校,然后在每所大学内随机抽取学生。
    作为预调查,第一轮调查包括了全样本100所高校中的19所,其中10所为名牌大学,即211院校 (含985院校)。我们特意抽取了更多的名牌大学来检验问卷的质量以及整个调查的组织情况。被调查院校分布于全国11个省市,涵盖了各大地理区域。为了基于小样本进行统计推断,我们根据两项指标将被调查院校分为八类,并据此构建了权重用于统计分析。两项指标分别为:院校类型(211院校)和院校所在区域(东北、北部、中部和西部)。每所院校的权重为总体中该类院校的总量与样本中该类院校数量之比。
    我们在每所院校中随机抽取约300名应届毕业生。在被调查的全部6059名应届毕业生中,有3167名学生来自重点高校,2892名来自其他院校。在9所非重点院校中,6所为公立院校(2201名学生),2所为私立院校(415名学生),1所为职业学校(276名学生)。
    调查所使用的问卷是由包括经济学、社会学和教育学在内的各个领域的专家共同设计完成的。问卷内容不仅包括个人基本信息、家庭背景,还包括高考成绩、大学生活、毕业去向等问题。调查工作由各个样本院校选派的1-3名主管教学、学生工作的行政人员负责。我们在北京对他们进行了集中培训。学生填写完问卷后,问卷会被放入密封的信封里以保证匿名性。在所有问卷都填写完成之后,各校负责人收集完成的问卷并将问卷邮寄回北京。为了保证调查的整体质量,我们全程监督了各校问卷填答过程、数据收集及录入过程。
    表1为描述性统计结果,其中第 (1)列为全样本信息,第 (2)、(3)列分别为“非官二代”和“官二代”学生的信息。第四列为考虑权重后两组学生相关变量的差别,权重计算方法如前文所述。“官二代”的划分标准是学生父母中至少一人为政府官员,14%的学生符合“官二代”标准。

    表1第一部分是学生的基本信息。从平均水平上看,大学毕业生第一份工作的平均工资是2153元。“官二代”的平均工资比其他普通同学高出18%(2494元相比于2116元),但是加权后两类学生间的差距没有那么显著。我们将用多元回归的办法来检验控制了其他变量的影响后工资溢价是否依然存在。
    由表1可知,全部样本中有56.2%的学生是男生。有意思的是,“非官二代”学生中的男生比例比 “官二代”学生高 (56.9%相比于51.7%)。学生的平均年龄为22.9岁,在 “非官二代”学生与“官二代”学生之间差别很小,分别为22.9岁和22.6岁。16%的学生父母中至少有一人有大专及以上学历; 不过“官爸爸”、“官妈妈”中有大专及以上文凭的比例比普通父母高出6倍多(59%相比于8.4%)。官二代家庭收入比普通家庭收入也高很多,高出2倍有余(76924元相比于35142元)。
    表1的第二部分报告了学生文理分科情况和标准化后的高考成绩。基于省内参加同类考试的学生高考成绩的平均值和标准差,我们对所有高考分数进行了标准化,公式如下:(学生分数-平均分)/标准差。由定义可知,标准化后的分数均值为0。样本中约75%的学生为理科生。有意思的是,出身普通家庭的学生中理科生的比例更高 (74.0%相比于70.3%)。“官二代”学生的数学成绩更好,但理综/文综成绩更差。不过这两类学生的其他成绩差别不显著。

    表1的第三部分报告了学生在大学期间所获得的人力资本,包括英语等级考试成绩,是否有技术等级证书,是否有工作经验,是否是党员,以及是否有学生会干部经历。从表中可以看到,与来自普通家庭的学生相比“官二代”的更低,但是英语成绩较高。同时,大学期间普通家庭的学生从事打工兼职的可能性也更高。不过,两类学生在持有技术等级证书、入党和担任学生会干部方面没有明显区别。

    在附表中,我们还给出了“官二代”大学生和非“官二代”大学生就业行业的百分比分布。相比之下,“官二代”大学生更多地在金融业以及党政机关/群众组织/社会团体/国际组织等行业就业。

    实证研究模型

    在本部分中,我们建立了一个简单的计量模型来展示我们的研究思路。 假设收入由以下方程决定:

    lnW2 =α+βP1 +γX1 +δX2 +ε 方程(1)

    其中,lnW 为大学毕业生第一份工作工资的对数,P 为“官二代”的虚拟量,1代表父母中至少一人具有行政级别,0代表没有。这里的“官”包括任何有行政级别 (包括副科及以下)的人,他们的工作单位性质可以是党政机关、事业单位和国有企业。X表示其他影响收入的变量。X1表示父母特征变量,X2表示学生特征变量。ε为误差项。系数β是要估计的父母的政治资本给孩子带来的工资溢价。
    当且仅当P独立于误差项ε的时候,普通最小二乘法对β的估计是一致的。但是由于以下几个原因,P可能会与误差项ε相关。
    第一,父母当官对孩子收入有正影响的原因可能在于父母其他方面的特征帮助了孩子。因此除了父母的政治资本之外,我们还需要控制父母其他方面的特征,如父母的户口、人力资本和收入。
    第二,“官二代”可能能力更高,而能力和收入正相关。对这个问题最简单的处理方法是找到一个可以衡量能力的代理变量,并将其包括在回归方程中。前人在研究教育回报时采用高中考试成绩、IQ值、AFQT成绩和其他类似的能力考试的成绩作为不可观测的能力的代理变量。在我们的数据中,学生报告了高考成绩。如果高考成绩是能力的合理或近似合理的度量,那么将高考成绩加入方程会减少“能力偏差”。调查中我们不仅获得了高考总成绩信息,还获得了学生各科的高考成绩,包括数学、语文、英语、理/文综。这些成绩可以用来度量学生不同方面的能力。
    第三,“官二代”就读的院校可能更好,或者他们在本科学习中积累了更多企业需要的技能。这两个因素对学生毕业后的起薪都有促进作用。我们的调查提供了非常丰富的信息,使得我们可以对学生的大学以及大学表现的异质性进行很好的控制。
    不过,我们无法观察到所有影响大学毕业生起薪的因素。尽管我们较为全面地控制背景变量可以减少潜在的遗漏变量问题,但是我们仍然无法从根本上消除其影响。

    父母的政治资本有工资溢价吗?

    通过对回归方程式 (1)的估计,我们估计了“官二代”和非“官二代”大学毕业生在首份工作的工资上的差别。回归中,因变量是工资的对数值。 由于观察对象均为大学生,因此没有引入受教育年限作为自变量。全部的回归都考虑了权重。回归系数估计值的标准差是异方差稳健的,并在各省内聚类(cluster)。

    (一) 基 本 结 果

    表2的回归结果表明“官二代”毕业后首份工作的工资更高。第 (1)列中的回归包含3个解释变量: “官二代”虚拟变量、性别和年龄。“官二代” 虚拟变量的系数在1%的水平上显著,其估计值为0.133。这意味着相比于普通家庭学生,“官二代”的工资溢价为13.3%。根据Zhang et al. (2007) 的估计,这个溢价约为两年教育的回报。另外值得注意的是男生的工资溢价约为20%,考虑到学生之前均没有工作经验,这个差距还是相当大的。由于学生之间年龄差距不是很大,所以年龄对工资的影响并不显著。

    父母做官之所以对下一代收入有正的影响可能是因为“官爸爸”或“官妈妈”其他方面的特质影响了下一代。由表1可知,“官爸爸”和“官妈妈” 整体上的教育水平更高、收入更高。有鉴于此,我们分别引入以下因素作为控制变量:第 (2)列的父母户口虚拟变量(是否为城镇户口)、第 (3)列的父母收入(取对数)、第(4)列的父母学历虚拟变量(是否至少一人有大专及以上学历)。在第5列中,我们还控制了学生来源省份的固定效应。在控制了这些变量后,“官二代”身份对起薪的影响基本没有变化; 第5列显示,“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数依然在1%水平上显著为正,大小为12.1%。
    表2的最后一列显示进一步控制行业虚拟变量之后的回归结果。在控制了行业变量后,“官二代”身份对起薪的影响相对于先前的结果略有下降; “官二代”虚拟变量前的系数依然在1%水平上显著为正,大小为10.4%。
    正如我们所预期的那样,在所有回归中((3)-(6)列),父母收入对子女工资均有正向作用,且在1%水平上显著。由于父母收入、子女工资都是对数形式,因此收入前的系数代表弹性。估计结果表明父母收入每增加1%,子女大学毕业后首份工作的工资就增加3%,这个影响是很大的。此外,父母是否有城镇户口和父母是否有大专及以上学历对子女工资没有影响。

    (二)能力可以解释父母政治资本的工资溢价吗?

    以往研究表明中国官员的能力比普通人更强。如果 “官爸爸”、“官妈妈”的这些能力禀赋可以遗传给子女的话,那么“官二代”与“非官二代”学生之间的能力禀赋有差别,那么将两者的工资进行比较就无法得出父母的政治资本有工资溢价这个结论。由于无法利用自然实验,因此目前处理这个问题的最好办法就是在方程中引入能力的合适代理变量。中国大学生绝大部分都要参加高考,而且他们在高中时都是尽全力准备高考。因此,高考成绩可能比较好地度量能力。
    通过研究“官二代”是否更重视理科(相对于文科),以及“官二代”的高考成绩是否更好,我们首先对“官二代”是否比普通大学生能力更强这个问题予以验证。表3第(1)列研究了哪类学生在高中 (和大学)更倾向于学理科。“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数为负并在10%的水平上显著,说明“官二代”更倾向于在高中(和大学)学文科。我们同时发现男生和年龄更小的学生更倾向于学理科。不过,户口、收入甚至父母学历都没有显著影响。

    “官二代”在高考中表现更好。表3的第 (2)—(6)列中,我们分别以高考总分、数学、语文、英语和理/文综成绩作为因变量进行回归。“官二代”高考总分、数学成绩更高,但是另外几科成绩与普通大学生不分伯仲。以上结果表明,在工资方程中引入高考成绩作为控制变量是非常有必要的。

    其次,我们来研究“官二代”的工资溢价能在多大程度上能由高考成绩来解释。我们先来看 “官二代”工资高是否与他们更倾向于学文科有关系。表4第 (1)列在表2第(5)列的基础上引入理科生虚拟变量。结果显示理科生虚拟变量前的系数不显著,这说明是否为理科生不会影响到首份工作的工资。进一步的,理科生虚拟变量的引入对“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数也没有影响。

    表4的回归结果表明“官二代”并没有因为能力更强而获得工资溢价。第(2)列的结果表明,高考总分的估计系数为正但并不显著。更重要的是,它的引入没有明显改变“官二代”虚拟变量的系数估计结果,这意味着“官二代”的工资溢价不是由于难以观测到的能力或智力因素导致的。

    在第 (3)-(5)列中,我们以数学、语文和英语成绩代替高考总分作为控制变量分别进行回归。类似的,各科成绩前的系数为正但都不显著。在最后一列,我们将四科成绩同时放入方程进行回归。尽管四科成绩的系数联合显著,但是“官二代”虚拟变量的系数并没有明显变化。

    ▍为什么父母的政治资本会有帮助?

    前面的研究结果表明,“官二代”大学生毕业后的首份工作工资更高,且这不是由于学生的能力差异或者父母其他方面的特性所导致的。本部分就“官二代”获得工资溢价的可能原因进行探讨。特别的,我们想对两类可能导致工资溢价的因素予以检验: 院校选择与大学期间的人力资本积累。

    (一)“官二代”选择更好的院校了吗?

    “官二代”在职场上更有优势可能是因为他们上了更好的学校或者在有“工资溢价”的学校读书。高考志愿填报是一个非常讲究策略的事情。考生对风险的不同态度、对院校相关信息的了解、和学校的关系、大学的费用都是影响他们填报志愿的重要因素。如果出身官员家庭的考生有信息优势,有关系,填报志愿时风险承受能力更强,经济条件更好的话,那么他们上好大学的机会就更大。
    由表5回归结果可知,“官二代”和“非官二代”上好大学的几率相当。第(1)列以各校平均的高考录取分数为因变量进行回归,录取分数越高,代表学校更好。自变量与表4类似。“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数小且不显著,说明“官二代”在上好大学(以高考平均分衡量)方面并没有优势。第(2)列中,我们采用各校应届毕业生平均工资作为因变量进行回归,结果类似。

    表5的第(3)、(4)列估计了控制了学校质量之后工资方程,结果证实“官二代”身份所带来的工资溢价不是由于“官二代”上好大学导致的。更具体的,在表4基础上,表5第(3)列、第(4)列分别加入各校学生高考平均成绩、院校固定效应来控制院校质量。加入这些控制变量后,“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数依然显著且大小基本没有变化。有意思的是,学校质量本身影响大学生的起薪,因为各校平均录取分数系数在1%水平上显著为正。

    为了控制专业对收入的影响,在表5的最后一列,我们在回归中加入了大学专业的固定效应。结果显示,“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数略有增大,而且依然在1%水平上显著为正。

    (二)大学期间的人力资本积累能否解释工资溢价?

    “官二代”在大学期间可能积累了更多有助于提升未来工资的人力资本。这些人力资本是多维度的,可以用学分积、技术等级证书、党员身份、学生会干部经历或者是打工兼职(包括实习)经历等来测量。我们在本节中研究这些人力资本特质对大学毕业生的起薪以及 “官二代”的工资溢价的影响。
    基于回归结果,我们发现“官二代”与普通同学在学习成绩、获得技术等级证书方面不分伯仲,但是他们的打工兼职 (包括实习)经历更少。表6第1列的回归以学分积为因变量,自变量与之前保持一致。“官二代”虚拟变量前的系数小且不显著,这表明“官二代”在学习成绩上没有优势。英语对大学生而言很重要,所以我们也以全国英语等级考试成绩为因变量进行了回归。虽然之前的简单统计显示“官二代”的英语成绩更高,但是表6显示,在控制其他因素的影响之后,“官二代”在英语方面没有优势(第(2)列)。同时他们获得技术等级证书的几率与普通同学相同(第(3)列),但是在校期间从事兼职工作的可能性更小(第(4)列)。

    另外一个工资溢价的解释和入党的概率相关: “官二代”更可能是党员,而党员更容易获得政府机关或国企工作。更重要的是党员本身也是一种能力的标志,在职场中是一种积极的信号。但是表6第5列的回归结果表明,“官二代”入党几率与其他同学大致相当。“官二代”也许更多地在课余活动中培养了能力,比如担任学生会干部。但回归结果却表明大学期间“官二代”并没有在社会活动中更活跃。表6最后一列表明“官二代” 担任学生会干部的机会与普通同学不相上下。

    最后,我们将以上衡量大学期间人力资本积累的因素全部包括在工资方程中,其中包括:学分积、技术等级证书、学生会干部身份、党员身份和兼职经历。表7的(1)-(5)列中,我们将这些变量逐一引入方程,在第(6)列中我们将这些变量同时引入。大学学分积、党员身份和学生会干部经历对首份工作工资有正向影响;但技术等级证书和打工兼职经历不影响工资。更重要的是,在控制了所有这些变量后(第(6)列),“官二代”虚拟变量的系数没有明显变化,这表明大学期间积累的人力资本不能解释 “官二代”身份带来的工资溢价。

    ▍结论

    本文的研究结果表明,父母的政治资本对高校毕业生第一份工作的工资存在显 著正向的影响, “官二代”大学毕业生的起薪比其他同学高出了13% (约280元/月)。在控制父母的其他特征,如户口、收入、教育等因素的影响之后,父母政治资本的影响甚至更大了。

    尽管我们无法利用自然实验来解决线性回归中存在的遗漏变量问题,但是我们可以通过控制大量可能影响工资的变量来降低可能存在的估计偏差。其中,最为重要的是,我们将高考成绩作为学生能力或智商的代理变量。在高考中取得好成绩是所有高中生的目标,他们努力学习的目的就是为了提高高考分数。因此,高考成绩可以较好地衡量学生的能力或智商。本文的回归结果表明,“官二代”的高考总分和数学成绩更高。但是,即使引入高考成绩作为控制变量,“官二代”大学生在劳动力市场上有明显工资溢价的结论依然成立。这说明,“官二代”和非“官二代”学生之间可能存在的能力差别不能解释“官二代”的工资溢价。

    中国大学毕业生就业追踪调查所收集的信息还使得我们可以研究父母政治资本通过哪些渠道来影响子女工资。研究发现,父母的政治资本对学生进入211院校读书的可能性、在校期间人力资本的积累情况都没有显著的影响。因此在控制了所有这些可能影响工资的因素之后,“官二代”获得的工资溢价仍高达12%。这些结果进一步说明,父母的政治资本本身对子女的工资是有帮助的。其原因可能是“官二代”父母与雇主间有着某些特殊的关系、也可能是 “官二代”父母有着更好的获取求职信息的渠道。

    尽管仍然存在一些不可观测的人力资本因素可能与 “官二代”身份相关,但鉴于我们可以观察到的人力资本指标都与 “官二代”身份不相关,我们基本可以认定剩余的工资溢价就是 “官二代”身份本身在大学生劳动力市场中的回报。

    即便剩余的工资溢价仍然可能是由不可观测的能力或人力资本引起的, 本文的研究结果依然对我们进一步理解社会公平问题有一定的启发。近年来, 新闻媒体、网络论坛中有很多关于中国“官二代”享受社会、经济等方面特权的讨论,这些讨论很容易激起民众的愤怒情绪。一个毫不怀疑的事实是, 当今大多数中国人都倾向于认为“官二代”是能够获得工资溢价的。我们的实证结果表明,“官二代”身份以外的可观测的家庭特征和学生自身的特征,并不能解释“官二代”所获得的工资溢价,这说明父母的政治资本本身有助于提高大学毕业生的工资。不过影响的具体机制还有待于进一步的研究,文献对此也没有很好的解释。

  • 彭姝祎:欧洲主要国家养老金制度改革及其启示

    文章来源:《社会保障评论》,2023年第2期。

    一、引言

    作为福利国家的发源地,欧洲是全球最早建立养老金制度的地区。二战之后,欧洲各国普遍建立了以现收现付为主要融资方式的公共养老金制度。从20世纪70年代中后期起,在日益严峻的人口老龄化趋势下,各国的养老金制度普遍遭遇财政危机,收不抵支,赤字巨大。从90年代前后起,为确保养老金制度在财政层面可持续,各国陆续启动改革,改革在断断续续中持续至今。

    改革的总方向是控制支出、减少赤字,各国的做法大致相同,即综合运用参数改革和结构性改革两种方式,一方面开源节流,减少公共养老金的财政压力;一方面增建职业/企业年金、个人养老保险/储蓄等基金制的支柱,将养老责任向市场转移。改革后,公共养老金的保障水平趋于下降,政府的责任降低,企业和个人的责任增加。整体来看,改革有效改善了各国养老金制度的财政状况,具有不可否定的积极意义,但同时也削弱了整个养老金制度的再分配性质,使养老金待遇在不同代际、不同性别、不同收入水平、不同技能和学历、不同就业性质的退休者之间出现了较大甚至是巨大的差异,某些群体的老年贫困风险随之增加,养老金制度的充足性受到冲击。欧洲国家的经验表明,养老金改革是一个系统工程,要综合考虑财政可持续性和充足性两大要素,避免顾此失彼。

    鉴于绝大多数中小规模的欧洲国家人口少、经济结构单一,参考意义不大,本文以英国、法国、德国和意大利四国为主要参照,这四国的养老金改革同时也具有典型意义。

    二、养老金改革的措施与结果

    过去二三十年间,在大体相同的人口老龄化压力下,欧洲国家普遍对养老金制度进行了改革,以应对日益加剧的收支失衡。改革通常有两种方式,一是参数改革,即对公共养老金制度的相关技术参数,如退休年龄、缴费年限、缴费率、养老金计发方式等进行调整,从而改变替代率和收益率,实现增收减支目的;二是结构性改革,即增建基金积累制的市场化支柱,让企业和个人承担一定的养老责任,减轻国家的财政负担。前者属于量变,后者属于质变。

    整体来看,各国均综合采用了上述两种改革方式,区别只在于改革的节奏、程度和力度。鉴于结构性改革较为激进,容易引发民众反对,甚至导致政府下台(比如法国),各国普遍选取了由量变到质变的改革路径,先从相对温和的参数改革着手,调整相关技术参数,直接或间接降低公共养老金的待遇水平,实现节流目的。当待遇下降到一定程度后,再“水到渠成”“顺理成章”地开启结构性改革,引进基金制支柱,以此来弥补公共养老金的削减。只有瑞典一步到位,于20世纪末将普惠性的公共养老金改为“名义账户”制,保留了现收现付的融资方式,但脱离政府预算、独立运行,从根本上改变了筹资模式和给付原则。

    (一)参数改革

    参数改革的主要目的是增收减支,各国普遍采用的措施大致可划分为三类。

    1.减支措施

    减支措施主要有:改变养老金的指数化方式,将曾长期施行的养老金待遇与工资挂钩,或与工资和物价中增速较快的一个挂钩,改为只与物价挂钩(英国、法国、意大利等),以间接放缓养老金的支出涨幅;修改养老金计发的参照基数,降低替代率,如荷兰由参照职业生涯末期工资(通常末期工资水平最高)改为参照整个职业生涯的平均工资,法国由参照工资水平最高的10年扩大为25年,英国将国家收入关联养老金(公共养老金的第二层)从参照工资水平最高的20年改为参照整个职业生涯,意大利从参照最后5年零1个月改为参照整个职业生涯;瑞典和德国将养老金与预期寿命或抚养比挂钩,从而随其变化自动调整。

    2.增收措施

    增收的首要措施是提高缴费率。德国将养老保险缴费率由最初的14%提高到了20世纪末的逾20%。但缴费率关涉劳动力成本,无限制上调将损害经济竞争力,故德国经过激烈讨论,做出了将缴费率稳定在20%的政治决定,以防止非工资性劳动成本上涨过快。目前德国的养老保险缴费率为18.6%,并规定在2026年之前禁止突破20%。法国将基本养老保险缴费率由最初的不足10%调整到了目前的15.45%。其次是改善抚养比,即领取退休金的老年人口和缴费的经济活动人口之比。随着分子即退休人口的持续增加,各国纷纷在做大“分母”即增加经济活动人口、扩大缴费群体上做文章,如创造条件促进女性就业、出台反失业措施促进青年人就业、引入青壮年移民劳动力、遏制普遍存在的提前退休现象、用财政激励手段提高老年人口就业率等。

    3.减支、增收并举的措施

    延长法定退休年龄是各国普遍采用的、既能有效减支又能增收的一举两得之策。如英国政府的估算表明,退休年龄每延长一年,大约可减少占GDP0.3%的公共养老金支出;同时人们每多工作一年,还能带来相当于GDP0.1%的额外收入;荷兰政府指出,从2001到2039年,若将退休年龄延长2年,则支出将减少约10%。

    和改变养老金计发方式、调整缴费率等措施相比,延长退休年龄是高度显性的,容易引发反对,为此各国纷纷采取了渐进、弹性的方式,以“月”“季度”等为单位逐步延长,同时配套以正向和反向的激励措施,即提前退休减扣养老金、延后退休增加养老金。意大利等国则在法定退休年龄和预期寿命之间建立了自动关联上调机制。由表1可见,西欧绝大多数国家的法定退休年龄已延至65岁以上,同时以灵活的姿态,允许重体力等从事“艰苦”“有害健康”工作的劳动者或很早便开始职业生涯、缴费年限足够长的劳动者提前退休而不减扣养老金(法国、德国、瑞典等)。在退休年龄存在公私部门差异的国家(在意大利、英国、法国,公共部门退休年龄低于私人部门),为提高延迟退休的合法性、降低改革的阻力,往往先把两者的退休年龄拉齐,之后再共同延至同一水平。

    (二)结构性改革

    参数改革有效增强了公共养老金制度的财政可持续性,同时为结构性改革腾挪了空间、创造了条件:当公共养老金的给付水平随参数调整下降、养老金日渐不足时,增建基金制的支柱来弥补不足便显得水到渠成。因此,在参数改革进行到一定阶段后,各国陆续立法开启了结构性改革,鼓励创建企业/职业年金、个人养老保险/储蓄等,将养老责任向企业和个人转移,让市场发挥作用。

    经过改革,各国大体形成了三支柱的养老金体系,但三支柱的发育程度以及各支柱在整个养老金体系中的占比存在很大差异。英国、瑞典建成了比较鲜明的三支柱体系,法国和意大利处于起步阶段,德国则介于两者之间。

    从20世纪80年代撒切尔夫人执政起,英国就开始对养老金制度进行结构性改革,将养老责任大幅度向个人和企业转移:一方面压低公共养老金的给付水平,只提供最基本的保障;另一方面凭借税费减免、立法支持缴费确定型职业年金等方式鼓励发展职业年金,并立法引入“自动加入”机制,将职业年金由自愿转为半强制;同时以奖励方式鼓励人们退出国家收入关联养老金,加入职业年金或个人养老金。上述措施极大地促进了基金制的发展,使英国最终形成了由公共养老金、职业年金和私人养老金组成的三支柱的养老金体系,其中公共养老金是低水平的普惠制度,覆盖面广但保障水平有限,毛替代率仅为22.1%(2016年),不到欧盟国家平均水平的一半,反之市场支柱发达。

    瑞典经过结构性改革,建立了一个鲜明的三支柱养老金体系,将养老责任从国家和雇主转移到了国家、雇主和个人。基本养老金支柱日益薄弱,国家的责任得到较大幅度的缩减,市场的作用显著上升。

    德国的公共养老金制度在参数改革后保障水平骤降,替代率由从20世纪90年代的70%降至2000年前后的不足50%,为政府“顺理成章”地引进基金制创造了条件,按照施罗德的说法,即“以结构改革替代待遇减缩”。2000年前后,德国通过李斯特改革,从法律层面正式引入基金制,以财政补贴、税收抵扣等方式鼓励人们购买政府认可的商业性养老保险项目。同时针对企业年金不够普及的局面,以税收激励、财政补贴等措施,鼓励雇主建立企业年金。经此改革,德国单支柱的养老金制度开始向多支柱转变。

    法国以现收现付的养老金制度为绝对主导——该国不仅有强制性的、现收现付的基本养老保险(即公共养老金),还有一个同样是现收现付且强制性的补充养老保险,两者相加替代率在70%左右。因此,尽管法国在参数改革后,公共养老金的待遇水平也有一定程度的下降,但和英国、德国等国相比,养老金仍然较为充足。尽管在2000年左右,法国也立法引入了基金制的职业年金和个人储蓄计划,但是基金制的支柱发育缓慢,在整个养老金制度中的占比长期不足5%;2010年以来,法国多次就养老金的改革方式在全民范围内发起讨论,探讨深化结构性改革、加强基金制支柱的可行性,但现行养老金制度的充足性以及深刻的历史教训(见下文),使法国民众对基金制抱有高度戒心,宁愿牺牲待遇水平也不愿放弃现收现付支柱的主导地位。

    意大利的情况和法国类似,该国现收现付的公共养老金替代率高,即使在紧缩性的参数改革后仍高达80%(公共部门更高,在95%以上),因此基金制的支柱——部分引入名义账户制、立法推进企业年金等——引入较晚,发育缓慢,形成了“发育不完全的多支柱”体系。

    基金制并不是新鲜事物,德国最初建立的养老保险制度就是基金制,该制度一度维持着高水平的积累,但随后在两次世界大战、货币改革等因素的影响下,养老基金严重缩水,一度到了只够维持二周支出的地步,这使德国在1957年痛下决心将法定养老保险的融资方式改为了现收现付。法国在20世纪30年代也建立了一个基金制的养老保险制度,但该制度在随后的大萧条以及二战后的金融失序中遭遇毁灭性打击,基金断崖式缩水,退休者失去了保障、生活难以为继,这也是法国人在“降低公共养老金待遇水平”和“进行结构改革,大力发展基金制”的选择中倾向于前者的原因之一。21世纪以来英国也遭遇了类似问题,在2008年的全球性经济与金融危机中,由于基金制规模庞大,英国受到的冲击也较大,养老基金大幅度缩水,导致英国的老年贫困率大幅上升。2008年危机还使部分原本打算向基金制转型的中东欧国家废除了该支柱。近期受特斯拉政府预算改革的影响,英国养老金现暴雷风险,基金制脆弱的一面再次显现。

    (三)改革结果

    各国参数调整和结构性改革相结合的措施有效缓解了养老金制度的财政压力。2016年法国的统计表明,在2010年以来所有改革措施的作用下,法国的养老金收益将逐步下降,降幅在2020、2030和2040年均相当于GDP的1%,到2040年养老金占GDP的比重将下降1.04个百分点。意大利在2011年改革后,平均养老金与劳动者人均GDP之比出现了较大幅度的下降,预计到2046年将由2016年的17.5%降至15%。意大利社保局2016年年度报告显示,2015年公共养老金支出占当年GDP的比重为16.69%,如不实施任何改革,该比重将超过18%,之后直线上扬,预计到2026年左右将突破21%,政府的财政负担将更加沉重。

    三、改革的负面结果

    尽管改革有效提高了养老金制度的财政可持续性,但同时也带来了不容忽视的负面后果:随着公共养老金保障水平的下降,养老金制度的收入再分配功能受到削弱;未来,退休者的养老金水平差异将随着他们在代际、性别、收入、技能和学历、就业性质(正规就业或非正规就业)等方面的差异而扩大,养老金制度的充足性受到冲击。

    (一)当下退休对比未来退休:改革带来养老保障的代际差异

    改革将导致养老金待遇水平的代际差。首先,随着退休年龄的延长和养老金计发标准更加严苛,未来一代退休者整体上将工作更长、缴费更多、收益更少。以改革较温和、法定退休年龄最早(62岁)的法国为例,该国的研究表明,以“终身”为单位,养老金替代率将在代际之间递减:从“50后”(20世纪50年代生人)的55%减至“90后”的45%;养老金的缴费率和收益损失率则递增,前者从“50后”的23%升至“90后”的27.8%,后者从“50后”的1.2%升至“80 后”的4.5% 和“70 后”的5.9%。意大利引入名义账户制后,养老金收益缩水,代价将由未来几代退休者承担,这引发了有关“代际撕裂”的激烈讨论。经合组织的相关报告也表明,在职业生涯完整的前提下,最近进入劳动力市场的人(1996年生人)和大约15年前退休的人(1940年生)相比,平均退休金替代率将下降近6个百分点。

    其次,改革导致未来的退休者更多地依赖市场支柱,但市场支柱不具备再分配功能,能否从中得到充分保障主要取决于能否“进场”以及金融市场这两大因素。一方面,“进场资格”与就业企业、就业性质、个人经济状况等因素息息相关,下列因素势必导致一部分人特别是低收入群体难以进场:一是大多数国家的职业年金是自愿性质,只覆盖部分人口;二是大多数国家的职业年金有准入门槛(收入要求),这使低收入者或者被挡在外面,或者就算勉强拿到了“入场券”,低收入也只能换来低水平年金;三是低收入者往往缺乏购买养老产品或进行养老储蓄的财力,而不仅仅是一些“市场派”所宣称的投资未来的“眼光”;四是各国的职业/企业年金纷纷从待遇确定型转成了缴费确定型,这意味着收益的不稳定。另一方面,基金制支柱的增加意味着投资风险的增大,尽管金融市场有自我修复能力,但老年人的抗风险打击能力较差。经合组织的研究表明,2008年的全球性金融危机对老年雇员的打击最大,因为和年轻雇员相比,他们等待市场自我修复的时间有限,重建储蓄的时间少,再就业更难。

    综上,和当前的退休者相比,未来几代退休者的养老金收益将面临更多的变数,其贫困风险也将随之提升。正如牛津大学教授伯恩哈德·艾宾浩斯(Bernhard Ebbinghaus)指出的,“公共养老金和私人养老金相混合的制度将众多老年人置于危险之中,因为他们缺乏足够的与收入关联的补充养老金。”事实证明,在多支柱的混合制度中,公共养老金支柱占比低的国家的退休者贫困风险更高;反之公共养老金占比高的国家贫困风险更低。如图1所示:在欧盟28国中,法国作为公共养老金支柱占绝对优势的国家,退休者的贫困风险几乎最低(7.3%),是欧盟平均水平(15.3%)的一半。英国高达22.8%,是法国的3倍;德国和瑞典紧随其后。英国、德国和瑞典退休者的贫困风险在西欧国家中名列前茅。艾宾浩斯也指出,英国、瑞士等基本养老金支柱薄弱的国家具有相对中高的贫困风险;德国正在产生中等水平的贫困;而法国和一些南欧国家的贫困率较低。英国作为欧洲养老金市场化程度最高的国家之一,近三十年来老年极端贫困率和极端贫困速度的上升在西欧国家均名列前茅。2021年英国媒体指出,英国有近五分之一的养老金领取者生活在贫困中,这是自2012年以来的最高水平。

    (二)正规就业对比非正规就业:改革导致养老保障的“内部人”“外部人”分化

    改革使公共养老金的待遇水平与个人收入水平和缴费年限高度关联,进而在正规就业者和非正规就业者之间造成了养老保障的“内部人”(insiders)与“外部人”(outsiders)分化。换言之劳动者可获得的养老金水平与其就业安全日益相关。

    退休年龄延长、缴费年限增加等改革凸显了将职业生涯维持到法定退休年龄的重要性,只有能确保工作到退休的稳定就业才能够提供较为充足的养老金,而连续性和稳定性差的就业势必导致退休金减少,这就造成了养老保障的“内部人”和“外部人”分化。正规就业者因职业生涯的连贯而能够获得相对充足的保障,成为养老保障的“内部人”。而临时工、合同工、小时工等各类非全日制、非正规就业者则容易因缴费年限不足、缴费中断、缴费基数过低等因素而难以得到充分保障,甚至被抛出养老保障网(在缴费时长达不到最低缴费要求的情况下),成为养老保障的“外部人”。

    此外,和正规就业者相比,非正规就业者普遍不被职业年金所覆盖,且由于收入水平低而缺乏投资养老保险或储蓄的能力,因此不仅难以获得充足的公共养老金,而且在基金制的支柱中往往也处于不利境地。

    综上,非正规就业者未来将面临更高的老年贫困风险。早在2012年,辛里奇(Hinichs)和杰苏拉(Jessoula)就指出,“公共养老金在提供最低收入方面的慷慨对(预防)老年贫困仍然发挥着重要作用。为降低退休者的严重贫困率,我们需要最低的收入保障,特别是基本的、有保障的或最低的养老金。鉴于目前及未来劳动力职业生涯的中断和非正规就业的发展,这一点将变得更加关键”。然而最近十余年来,稳定的就业在所有欧洲国家均呈降势,取而代之的是非正规就业、临时性就业等。欧盟委员会针对欧盟国家的统计表明,从2002到2017年,非全日制就业人口在就业总人口(15—64岁)中的占比从15.6%上升到了19.4%,临时性就业也从12.4%升至14.3%,这引发了人们对未来收入不平等和养老金不充足的普遍担忧。经合组织也指出:“大多数社会保障体系是以稳定、线性的职业生涯为基础的,没有能力为非正规就业的劳动者提供足够的收入安全,他们中的很多人可能会被忽略”“新工作形式的发展有可能削弱未来几代退休者的收入前景”。典型例子是德国的小微就业。21世纪初,为促进就业,德国通过允许雇员免缴养老保险的方式支持发展“小微就业”,尽管该措施的就业促进效果十分显著,但同时导致小微就业者的养老金水平大大低于正规就业者,十余年后,小微就业者(特别是其中的女性)较高的贫困风险逐渐显现。

    (三)女性对比男性:改革带来养老保障的性别差异

    改革导致了养老金待遇水平的性别差异。和男性相比,女性因生育养育以及普遍承担更多家务劳动的缘故,其职业生涯和建立在职业生涯基础上的缴费记录面临更多的中断风险,进而面临更大的养老金待遇水平下降风险和老年贫困率上升风险。大多数欧洲国家逐步意识到了这一点,并在养老金的计发上对女性给予了一定的补偿和照顾,如将产假视同缴费期等。不过研究表明,类似的做法效果有限,无助于从根本上缩小基于性别因素的养老金待遇差。主要原因在于,出于照顾家庭等因素,女性更容易进入工作弹性较大的非正规就业部门。经合组织的统计表明,在非正规特别是非全日制就业中,女性的占比是男性的3倍;平均每4个在职女性就有1个就职于非全日制部门(见图2)。而非全日制就业的薪资水平普遍较低,按照经合组织的统计数据,非全日制雇员的平均收入比全日制雇员低一半左右。

    低收入叠加缴费时间不足,拉大了女性和男性的退休待遇差。统计表明,2015年,欧盟28国老年女性的平均退休金待遇比男性低四分之一;德国最甚,低40%,这和德国小微就业较多且从业者多为女性有关。2021年,德国女性的平均退休收入仍然比男性低将近三分之一;同年经合组织的报告显示,在全体经合组织成员国中,老年女性的平均贫困率(16.2%)均高于男性(11.6%),只有智利除外(男女几乎持平)。

    (四)法定退休对比提前退休:改革导致不同年龄退休者的养老待遇差

    改革拉大了老年人的退休待遇差,增加了一部分退休者的贫困风险,加剧了老年群体的贫富分化,特别是在养老金市场化程度较高的国家。原因在于,随着法定退休年龄的延长和与之相伴随的领取全额养老金缴费年限的增加,将职业生涯保持到最后一刻、进而获得全额养老金的难度不断加大。法国的研究表明,退休年龄从此前的60岁延至62岁以后,60岁以上劳动者的失业风险上升了7个百分点,且再就业的难度进一步加大。德国左翼政党指出,2008年金融危机以来,能满足全额养老金领取条件(65岁退休并缴费45年)的老年人只占全体老年就业者的20%,如果按计划将退休年龄延至67岁,则势必有更多的老年人失业。

    尽管如前所述,各国出于增收减支目的,纷纷出台措施鼓励老年人就业,但效果并不显著。就业与否归根结底由市场说了算,老年群体无疑缺乏竞争力,最终能否留在就业市场以及能留多久,与老年人自身的年龄、技能、学历、健康状况等息息相关。各国的经验都表明,年龄越大、学历和技能越低、健康状况越差,被劳动力市场淘汰的风险就越高。受劳动力市场青睐的老年人往往是高技能高学历者,而这部分人在任何国家都是少数。与之形成对照的是,占相对多数的低学历低技能的老年人很难将职业生涯维持到退休;对这部分人而言,即使能够继续就业,往往也是辗转在各类低薪、低技能的非正规就业岗位上。经合组织的研究表明,在65—74岁的在职老人中,只有15%在正规就业岗位;德国64岁以上的在职老人中,一半左右在餐饮、零售、家政等行业打零工,薪资微薄。法国针对2010—2015年公共养老金改革的研究也表明,改革对低收入人群和提前退出职场的人负面影响最大,50岁就退出职场的人平均退休金将减少10%。换言之,延迟退休等措施实行后,在劳动力市场的淘汰机制下,对很多人而言,延长的只能是低质低薪的就业,无法从延迟退休中受益。只有少数有良好教育背景的高收入群体才能延长“高薪高质”的就业并从延迟退休中受益。结果是,公共养老金从相对贫困的群体流向了相对富裕的群体。

    综上,退休年龄延长和缴费年限增加使很多无法将职业生涯维持到法定退休年龄的老年人受到负面冲击,进而在社会层面造成老年贫困率上升的恶果。随着问题的显现,一些国家开始反思相关政策并采取了一些补救措施:德国在2014年回调了延长退休的规定,进一步放宽了“提前退休不减扣养老金”的条件;意大利于2018年暂停退休年龄和预期寿命的自动关联,并放宽了对提前退休的限制,允许更多的群体提前退休;荷兰放缓了延迟退休的节奏——将原计划于2021年的延至67岁推迟到2024年,并计划在长期内放慢退休年龄和预期寿命的关联节奏,避免将预期寿命的所有提高都转化为退休年龄的延后;瑞典大约要到2026年才将领取全额养老金的时间调整到64岁。

    (五)低薪对比高薪:改革拉大不同工资水平退休者的养老金差距

    改革导致的公共养老金中缴费与待遇更紧密的关联,以及不具有任何再分配性质的基金制支柱的上升,对低薪者造成了严重的负面冲击。原因在于,一方面,各国的养老金几乎已悉数改为缴费确定型,因此在相同的替代率下,低薪者的养老金水平无疑更低;另一方面,低薪者往往是非正规就业者、自雇者等,难以被企业年金所覆盖,通常也缺乏足够的收入“进场”第三支柱,因此无论在现收现付支柱还是基金制的支柱都处于相对更加弱势的地位,特别是在类似英国那样的市场支柱发达的国家。在“国家保基本、其余人靠市场”的理念下,英国的老年贫困率更高,老年贫富差距更大。根据艾宾浩斯的研究,英国的基础养老金水平太低,只有平均收入的16%,而且需要长时间的缴费,这导致英国的老年贫困率长期在西欧国家排名第一。即便加上私人年金,英国的老年人也在最贫困之列。英国65岁以上极端贫困(即收入不高于国民平均收入中位数的40%)人口数量始终处于升势,所以英国很早就设立了零缴费的救助支柱,并不断提高救助标准。其他国家也大多设立了针对低薪老人的养老救助制度,或针对弱势群体的最低养老金。

    一言以蔽之,养老金改革后,女性、低学历低技能的老年人、60岁以上老年人、非正规就业者、低薪者、自雇者、被迫提前退出劳动力市场的低龄老人等群体,更容易成为改革引发的老年收入分配不公的牺牲品。这些群体通常是重叠的,譬如,一名60岁以上的老人,往往同时是低学历低技能低薪的女性非正规就业者(如家政服务人员、保洁人员、养老院护工等)。一部分人尤其是女性,很可能终身陷在保障水平极不充分的小微就业中,再难回到正规就业岗位。未来养老金水平的个体差异将日益加大。

    四、结语与思考

    由以上分析,我们可初步得出如下结论:养老金制度是个综合性的系统工程,目前普遍使用的三个评价指标,即充足性、完整性(覆盖率)和财政可持续性缺一不可。近三十年来,鉴于养老金的财政可持续性问题突出,欧洲各国纷纷聚焦于改善财政可持续性,通过改革不断降低公共养老金的待遇水平,客观上制造并加强对基金制的需求,进而引进基金制的养老计划,减轻公共养老金的财政负担。在此过程中,各国不同程度地忽略乃至损害了养老金制度的充足性,特别是那些基金制支柱占比较大的国家。

    基金制有其脆弱性的一面,法国、德国建立养老金的历史以及2008年的全球性经济与金融危机都曾不同程度地显现了这一点。2008年的危机还因“凸显了当个人的现金给付与金融市场的波动相关联时,养老金制度所面临的风险”而引发“基金制的养老计划是否适合作为养老保障资金机制的长期辩论”。客观地说,基金制和现收现付制各有利弊,不应盲目否定基金制,也不能否认多支柱的养老金体系在改善养老金财政可持续方面的重要作用。只是这方面的研究已较丰富,基金制的积极作用也已引起世界各国的充分重视。反过来,持续不断的改革对养老金充足性的损害尚未引起普遍关注和充分重视——因为其负面后果的显现需要一定的时间,因此本文着重强调这一点。

    欧洲三十余年的改革实践表明,在提高养老金制度财政可持续性的同时,不能忽略其再分配功能的降低对非正规就业者、自雇者、女性、失业者、低学历低技能者、低薪者等弱势群体的冲击,这些负面结果或许也是各国政府始料未及的。欧洲的经验提醒我们,要尽量客观而全面地认识养老金改革可能带来的消极后果,特别是对上述弱势群体的不利影响,以便未雨绸缪,做好防范或者补救工作。欧洲国家普遍采取了预防或补救措施,一是将病产假、失业、伤残等导致的缴费中断适度视同或折算成缴费。二是在改革的同时建立并加强由财政供款的“零支柱”养老救助制度,为改革后得不到充分保障甚至掉出养老金保障网的弱势群体构筑最后一道防线,这一点业已成为欧洲各国的共识,也是各种老年救助项目未在以增收减支为目标的改革中不减反增的原因。如德国于2020年出台了基础养老金制度(Grundrente),由联邦政府供款为终生工作缴费但法定养老金低于平均水平者提供一份附加养老金,该制度从2021年1月1日起实施,预计受益者将达130万。基础养老金的引入不仅提高了德国法定养老金的“底线水平”,而且缩小了低收入者与高收入者的养老金待遇差。欧洲的改革显示,在某种程度上,公共养老金和老年救助成了跷跷板的两端,当一端的支出因养老金待遇的削减而下降时,另一端的支出就会因贫困人口的增加而上升;一端下降得越快,另一端上升得越多。法国养老金改革后,政府用于失业保险、老年救助的费用有较大幅度的提高,2010年改革中节省出的140亿欧元中,15%用在了额外增加的各种救助上;1996—2013年,意大利公共养老保险支出增长了约79%,而养老救济支出增加了110%;英国每6个退休者中就有一个领取基于家计调查的救助津贴。养老金改革的目的原本是节约资金、减轻国家财政负担,但是贫困率的增加使得用于救助的费用不断提升。三是建立有效的最低收入机制,以应对福利与缴费记录关联的不断强化所导致的不充分不稳定就业者日益加剧的老年贫困风险。

    此外,对各国改革结果的比较研究再次证明了一个“老生常谈”的结论——公共养老金占比高低和老年贫困与收入不平等呈负相关,养老金责任越是从国家向市场转移,养老金制度的再分配性质就越低,减贫效果就越差,老年收入不平等现象就越严重。公共养老金无论何时何地都是预防老年贫困的最有效手段。在市场支柱占比高的国家,很多老年人被迫打零工来弥补养老金不足的现象也充分证明了这一点。

    一言以蔽之,养老金改革是一个随着经济社会和人口结构变化而不断动态调整的过程。即便是已建立现代养老金制度逾半个世纪的老牌欧洲福利国家,仍在不断地摸索改革。理想的养老金制度统筹兼顾充足性、完整性和财政可持续,但充足性和制度可持续之间存在一定的矛盾,这是世界各国普遍面临的难题。此外,没有脱离一国国情的、放之四海皆准的养老金模式;即便在一国之内,也没有放在任何历史时期皆准的模式。各国都应从本国的经济社会现实甚至历史文化传统出发,探索符合本国国情的养老金制度,使之既有能力为尽可能广泛的人口提供尽量充足的老年收入保障,也不超越特定历史阶段的经济财政能力。

  • 朱隽 等:货币国际化的国际经验和教训

    本文节选自《2022·CF40中国金融改革报告》分报告《资本项目开放和货币国际化的国际经验教训研究》第二节《货币国际化的国际经验和教训》。该分报告的课题负责人为CF40学术委员、丝路基金董事长朱隽,课题组成员包括艾明、林苒、刘璟。

    从美元、德国马克、日元、新加坡元等的国际化经验看,各国在货币国际化的过程中因立场差异而采取了不同的政策措施。但总体上看,其货币国际化的过程体现出以下几个规律:

    一、货币国际化进程是市场主导的,需遵循基本的市场规律,政府的政策不会改变货币国际化发展的根本趋势

    货币的国际化遵循基本的市场规律,既是一国综合实力的体现,也反映了市场主体对货币的接受和认可,并不会因为发行国政府的政策选择而出现根本性的变化。

    当本币国际化条件已经具备时,政府的抑制政策无法阻挡市场力量对本币国际化的驱动。联邦德国在马克国际化初期试图限制马克的国际化,但收效甚微,最终不得不顺势而为,解除限制性措施。

    联邦德国政府在1960-1980年对马克国际化一直持审慎态度,主动限制马克的国际化。1960年代,马克国际使用范围逐渐扩大,国际化势头明显。但联邦德国认为马克国际化会加大资本流入压力,对国内价格稳定和金融稳定构成挑战。因此,政府推出一系列限制措施:在资本流入方面,具体措施包括限制非居民投资境内股票、债券和货币市场;限制本国银行向非居民存款支付利息;对境外投资者持有债券的收益征税,增加其投资马克债券的成本等。

    同时,政府还限制境外马克使用。1968年,德央行与本国银行达成协定,银行只能在境内发行马克债券,央行对债券发行条件、规模有知情权和相当的影响力。非居民在德境内发行马克债券,其收入汇出境外时须兑成外币,不允许以马克的形式流出,从而避免境外马克市场的壮大。1970年代,德国仍采取管制措施,限制资本流入。

    表1 德国资本流入管制措施历程(1970-1974)

    资料来源:Tavlas (1991)

    限制政策对马克国际化起到了一定的抑制作用,但并未改变马克成为全球主要储备货币的发展趋势。

    一个突出表现是,在联邦德国限制资本流入的背景下,境外投资者持有马克资产的需求无法在境内市场得到满足,从而形成了体量庞大的离岸马克市场。境外投资者在离岸市场持有的马克资产规模,在1980-1984年一度超过其在境内持有马克资产的规模(见表2)。这一现象表明,市场在主动创造绕过限制措施的方式,限制政策效果有限。

    表2 1980-1989年境外投资者持有的马克资产

    数据来源:Tavlas (1991);单位:十亿马克

    随着欧洲经济一体化发展,马克国际化已成趋势,压抑市场需求的难度不断上升。正如1985年的德国央行的月度报告指出,“考虑到德国马克的国际地位,德国不可能改变现在发展趋势,马克必须保持相对其他国际投资货币的竞争力。”

    同时,德国金融市场的广度和深度进一步提升,抗风险能力增强,马克国际化条件已经具备。联邦德国在货币合作中扮演重要角色的意愿增强。以1979年3月欧洲货币体系(EMS)建立为标志,其他成员国的货币与马克挂钩,“通过接受德国货币政策的方式做出低通胀的承诺”(Fischer,1987)。德央行也认为,“在欧洲货币体系内,(马克)承担着主要货币的功能,充当着其他货币的‘稳定锚’。”

    表3 德国资本流入管制措施解除历程(1975-1986)

    资料来源:Tavlas (1991)

    解除限制后的马克国际化快速发展。马克在全球官方外汇储备中的占比,1970年约为2%,1980年为15%,1989年接近20%,90年代由于民主德国和联邦德国统一后的经济阵痛有所回落。马克是当时仅次于美元的第二大储备货币,其份额几乎是排名第三位日元的两倍。

    表4 1980-1989年主要货币在官方外汇储备中的份额

    数据来源:Tavlas (1991);单位:%

    二、政府可以在货币国际化进程中起到助推器、稳定器和润滑剂的作用,特别是可在投融资领域促进货币国际化进程

    虽然政府无法阻挡市场力量对货币国际化的驱动,但是,根据本币的国际地位与经济实力、金融实力发展的阶段性特征,政府可以利用“看得见的手”熨平波动,对货币国际化起到助推器、稳定器和润滑剂的作用。

    货币国际化初期,经济体的经济一般均能快速发展,经常项目往往存在顺差,本币自然呈现回流,因此,需要通过投融资活动向境外提供本币,形成境内境外市场联动和本币的循环。

    日本的“黑字环流”是这方面的典型例子。上世纪80年代,日本贸易顺差占GDP比重大幅攀升,美日双边贸易摩擦加剧。1986年,日本推出了“黑字还流”计划,旨在将国际贸易盈余、外汇储备和国内私人资本通过政府发展援助和商业贷款等渠道重新流回发展中国家,从而达到削减国际收支顺差等目标。

    “黑字还流”计划于1987—1991年施行,共三期约650亿美元 (见表5)。第一期侧重向国际开发性金融机构出资,额度100亿美元,约占同期GDP的0.5%。第二期通过国际机构、日本输出入银行、海外经济协力基金乃至民间银行出资,金额200亿美元,约占同期GDP的0.8%。第三期计划是日本配合布兰迪计划[1]的实质举措,额度350亿美元,约占同期GDP的1%。

    表5 “黑字还流”计划一览表

    资料来源:朱隽,《新形势下的人民币国际化与国际货币体系改革》

    从具体构成看,“黑字还流”计划既包括官方的对外援助,又包括了商业性的贷款。总体而言,贷款的优惠程度高、期限长、附加条件少。从资金来源看,既源于日本财政预算,又包括私人部门资金。从资金流向看,主要流向发展中国家,尤其是亚太地区的能源、原材料出口企业。部分资金有选择性地被用于进口日本的机械设备,并在项目投产后将产品出口到日本,以获取日元收入偿还贷款。

    从组织形式看,“黑字还流”计划充分利用了国家金融机构力量。日本不仅直接参与国际金融机构增资,而且在多边开发机构下新设日元特别基金,还鼓励日本金融机构与国际金融机构开展平行贷款和联合融资。

    总体看,“黑字还流”计划在加快对外投资发展、改善日本国际收支平衡等方面起到预期的作用,基本实现了计划的初衷。

    一方面,日本企业对外投资大幅增长。1985-1989年,日本对外投资从1985年的122亿美元增长至1989年的675亿美元,成为当时世界上第一大对外投资大国。按照海外资产排名,1990年全世界最大的100家非金融类跨国公司中,日本有12家,仅次于美国(26 家)和法国(14 家);1989年日本海外银行资本达19672亿美元,超过美、英、法、联邦德国四国总和,占全球国际银行总资本的40%。

    另一方面,日本国际收支平衡状况改善。1987-1990年,日本经常项目顺差从870亿美元减少至358亿美元,1987年后日本外汇储备基本稳定在900亿美元左右。

    图1 日元外汇交易金额及占比

    数据来源:BIS

    与此同时,“黑字还流”计划推动了日元国际化水平提升。日本出口中以日元结算的比重自1986年的35.5%升至1990年的37.5%,进口中以日元结算比重自9.7%升至14.4%;全球离岸债券中日元债券发行量占比自1985年的7.7%升至1991年的12.9%;全球跨境贷款中日元贷款的占比自1985年的5.7%升至1991年的11.6%;各国外汇储备中日元资产的占比自1985年的8.0%升至1990年的9.1%;全球主要外汇市场上,日元交易量曾于1989年达到第二位,仅次于美元。

    “黑字还流”计划恰是抓住了日本经济腾飞的重要时间窗口,有力地支持了日元国际化进程。因此,一国要进一步推动货币国际化,在坚持市场主导的基础上,政府可以积极有为,为充分发挥市场作用创造更好的环境和条件。

    三、货币国际化需要利率和汇率实现市场化

    从利率的角度看,市场化的利率是促进货币自由使用的制度基础,对于推动货币国际化至关重要。受到管制的利率会导致资金价格扭曲,影响资金配置效率,市场主体也难以对资金和各种金融产品进行合理定价。资金价格扭曲还会引致套利行为,对经济和金融体系产生冲击,阻碍货币在国际上被接受和认可。

    从美国利率市场化的经验看,利率市场化与货币国际化是相互促进,协调发展的。美元开始成为国际货币有其特定的历史背景,美国凭借其强大的政治、经济和军事实力,在两次世界大战中加强资本输出和商品输出,成为当时世界上最大的债权国,拥有接近全球一半的黄金储备,为战后美元取代英镑成为世界货币奠定了条件。

    美元的金融市场开放和货币国际化采取的是先外后内的顺序,即通过依次实现货币国际化、放松资本管制、汇率自由化和利率自由化来实现金融市场开放的。当然,这也和其特殊的历史环境相关。

    1929-1933年的经济危机之后,存贷机构之间出现了恶性竞争,为此美联储宣布对存款利率上限实行管制(即Q条例)。但到了1960年代后期,利率管制弊端日益暴露。僵硬的资金价格不能使资金流向优质的银行。特别是当时美国经济出现“滞胀”现象,通胀率一度高达20%。对存款的利率管制导致美国公众不愿意将资金存入银行,出现“金融脱媒”现象。而且商业银行等存款性金融机构筹资能力受挫,美国银行业出现经营危机,大量银行破产。

    在此背景下,1970年尼克松政府成立专门委员会主张放松金融管制,实现金融自由化,至1980年美国颁布《1980年银行法》,废除Q条例,开始利率市场化,并于1986年真正实现利率市场化(见表6)。

    回顾历史,1970-1986年为美元国际化程度下降阶段,美元的官方外汇储备占比也呈逐年下降的趋势,这一方面原因在于布雷顿森林体系瓦解后,英镑、日元和马克等货币在各国央行的占比逐渐提升,对美元国际化造成一定挑战;另一方面在于美国这一阶段处于金融市场开放的起步阶段,金融市场开放度相对较低(Chinn, Menzie, 2006)。

    表6美国取消利率管制进程(1970-1986)

    资料来源:盖笑婷,《浅谈美国利率市场化改革的进程与经验》

    利率完全市场化加快了美国金融体系的创新,使其进入高速发展阶段,为境内外投资者提供更多成本低、安全性高、流动性强的美国金融工具。美国股票市场价值占GDP的比重也一直处于高位,为美元持有者提供流动性和开放型的金融市场,巩固了美元的国际地位。

    从汇率的角度看,相对于金本位制度下固定汇率制度是天然的选择,在信用本位制度下,浮动汇率制度是必然的选择(Kenen,1969、1988)。蒙代尔“三元悖论”明确指出,固定汇率制度、资本自由流动和独立的货币政策三者不可能同时实现。货币国际化伴随资金的自由流动,要求汇率更加市场化。非市场化的汇率将导致失衡的累积,限制宏观经济的调整能力,只有市场决定的灵活汇率才能够吸收外部冲击,促进实现经济内外部均衡,降低危机发生的可能性。实证研究表明,保持汇率充足的灵活性,对帮助经济体隔离在经济开放过程中可能面临的外部冲击具有重要意义(Barry Eichengreen,2020)。

    布雷顿森林体系崩溃后,美国继续在世界信用货币体系中充当 “领头羊”的角色。在此背景下,德国马克国际化可分成两大阶段(安冉和冷德穆,2010):准备和起始阶段(1948-1985年)、开拓进展阶段(1985-1999年)。

    1973 年马克开始实行浮动汇率制度,灵活的汇率则有利于其及时调整国际收支的各种失衡,应对资金跨境流动带来的冲击,对于巩固和提升货币的国际地位有重要意义。1983 年之后德国发行马克债券,为马克的国际化提供了基础。

    在这一阶段,欧洲货币体系成员国改成盯住马克,欧洲货币体系逐渐演变成“马克区”。德国的贸易结算份额与国际债券份额也呈现上升趋势。德国马克在1980 年被纳入特别提款权,占比达到19%仅次于美国的42%,从而成为SDR 的第二大货币。

    在开拓进展阶段,1986 年德国成为世界最大的出口国,经济快速发展,同时不断开放金融自由化,促进马克国际化发展。1990 年德国统一,货币也实现了统一,之后随着德国经济实力的飞腾,国际话语权增加,尤其是在欧洲,马克成为主要的结算与支付的货币,并成为继美元之后的第二大国际货币。

    结合分析1975 年至1998 年马克汇率变化与货币国际化,如图2所示,德国马克在国际上的地位迅速提升,尤其是国际储备份额增长迅速,1989 年德国马克国际储备份额达到巅峰,同期马克的国际债券份额一直保持很高的水平。

    在这个阶段,随着德国经济实力的变化,实现经济体内外部均衡的潜在均衡汇率水平也出现了调整。在灵活汇率制度下,德国马克汇率有升有贬,实现了市场化,因此德国能有效应对外部冲击,推动其货币国际化进程。

    图2 德国马克汇率及马克国际化

    资料来源:CEIC,廖明珠《货币国际化阶段性分析及网络外部性与汇率影响研究》

    四、货币国际化要求建立发达和开放的金融市场

    从供给的角度看,一个开放、成熟和具有相当深度的金融市场能够为投资者提供类型广泛的金融工具,投资者可以进行投资组合防范和化解风险,从而便利投资者投资特定货币计价的资产,提高此货币国际化的程度(并且影响对该货币的需求)(Samar Maziad等,2011)。

    同时,货币国际化需要金融基础设施作为支撑,深层次的金融市场拥有高度的流动性,外部网络优势的存在可以促进交易成本的降低(Karen, 2009)。

    因此,发达的金融市场对于货币国际化而言是必不可少的。如果一国对其金融市场发展予以限制,将会使该国的货币在国际资本市场上失去竞争力,影响其货币国际化的进程(Tavlas, 1992)。

    回顾美元崛起和发展的历程,完善的金融市场是其确立全球主导货币地位不可或缺的要素。

    Eichengreen和Flandreau(2012),Chitu,Eichengreen和Mehl (2014)均指出,有深度、稳定的金融市场在美元替代英镑成为国际货币体系中的主导货币的过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。

    在美联储成立之前,纽约金融市场的发展受到许多约束,美国的银行被禁止进行银行承兑汇票的交易,并且禁止其设立海外分支机构。国内市场缺乏流动性,市场上的商业票据流动性很差。因此,直到1914年,尽管美国已经是世界上最大的贸易国,美元在国际贸易和国际支付中所发挥的作用仍然不大,几乎没有以美元计价的证券和信贷。

    1913年美联储宣告成立,《联邦储备法》废除了某些禁止金融交易的条件,监管部门放宽了商业银行可以持有的汇票数量和种类,这些措施提高了美国与其他国家之间的贸易以及外汇交易往来。与此同时,美国加快了金融市场的建设,建立了银行同业间以美元计价的贸易承兑汇票市场。美联储则通过成为该市场做市商的方式,提供再贴现,为市场注入大量美元。

    1924年,全球以美元结算的商业承兑汇票的规模超过了英镑两倍,在各国中央银行和政府的外汇储备中,美元所占的比例已经超过英镑(Eichengreen,2011)。美元迈出了成为国际货币体系主导货币的第一步。

    到1931 年,美联储已经是市场上最大的投资者,由纽约发行并且以美元计价的国际债券和贸易借贷份额增长迅速。美国金融市场进一步深化,流动性和开放性进一步提高,美元的国际作用也日益提高。第二次世界大战的爆发加快了这个转型过程:美国大规模给英国和其他欧洲国家放贷,逆转了二者之间债权国和债务国的关系,战争的爆发使得黄金从英国等欧洲国家输出到美国,纽约成为最主要的金融中心,伦敦逐步丧失其地位(Havard University,2012)。

    1960年代,美国推进金融自由化和金融创新,美元债券市场不断壮大,投资者美元资产持有量大幅提高,美国国债也逐渐成为各国外汇储备重要构成,美元地位快速提升。在1973年布雷顿森林体系崩溃之后,正是高度发达的金融市场有力地支撑了美国的国际化和美元霸权地位(Lim, 2006)。

    在全球金融危机爆发后,人们对于美元能否继续保持其国际角色保持疑虑,但美元的主导地位并未发生根本性改变。造成这一现象的根源在于美国仍然是世界上最大的经济体,仍然拥有世界上最大的金融市场。特别是对于中央银行的储备管理者而言,美国国债市场是世界上流动性最充裕的金融市场,外国投资者愿意在美国市场交易,这反过来又给美国市场带来了更大流动性,这是一个自我强化的过程。因此,在竞争国际金融中心和储备货币地位时,“在位”货币占据优势,在相当长一段时间内美元仍是主导货币(Eichengreen,2011)。

    日本金融市场则备受管制、发展滞后,是日元国际化失败的重要因素。

    在日元国际化早期,日本政府认为国际化会冲击本国经济、损害本国国内金融和资本市场,对日元国际化采取消极抵制的态度。拐点事件是1984年日美日元美元委员会的设立。1985年日本财务省发表《金融自由化与日元国际化的现状和展望》,解除了对欧洲日元可转向定期存款的禁令,并使日元兑换可自由化。但有文献指出,这一阶段金融和资本市场发展实行的是“双轨政策”(two-track policy),即为了缓解外界压力,开放日元在离岸市场的使用,同时考虑到国内既得利益者的顾虑,放慢日本国内金融市场的开放程度,导致其发展落后于其他发达经济体(Samar Maziad等,2011)。

    研究表明,日本金融市场存在一些根深蒂固的问题(Murase Tstsuji,2000)。一是金融市场基础设施发展缓慢,日本银行业仍采用传统方式支付结算,日本银行支付结算系统营业时间短、转账效率低的问题长期得不到解决。债券市场仍执行50年前的登记及交易体制,而同期欧美早已标准化、电子化。此外,日本证券统一集中结算系统建设缓慢,限制了股票市场的发展。

    二是债券市场发展不成熟,特别是日本国债市场。在1995年之前,日元一直是位居美元、德国马克之后位列第三位的国际货币,但与其它发达经济体相比,非居民持有的日本政府债券的占比却仅有10%(见图3),这个比例与其国际货币地位不匹配。

    图3 1997年G10国家非居民持有的政府债券占比

    数据来源:日本央行,1999

    首先,日本政府债券不能发挥基准定价的职能。美元各类债券的市场利率以美国国债(treasury bill)的利率作为基准的,在此基础上加点作为溢价补偿。但各期限的日元国债收益率长期高于离岸日元债券,出现收益率倒挂现象(见图4)。这表明日本政府债券无法发挥基准的作用。

    图4 欧洲日元债券与美元债券溢价比较

    注:欧洲美元债券溢价 = 欧洲美元债券(世界银行,1996.8.21)-美国10年期国债(1996.7.15);欧洲日元债券溢价 = 欧洲日元债券(世界银行,1994.12.20)-第174序列日本政府债券(1994.9.20)。

    数据来源:彭博数据库

    其次,缺乏流动性是日本债券市场另一大弊端。日本金融市场发展存在一些制度性问题。一是税收制度。日本对某些市场主体(比如企业)的金融交易征收预提税,对另一些市场主体(比如金融机构和部分非居民)免征预提税,两类市场主体分别使用不同的交易体系,造成债券市场分割。二是日本金融体系中公共部门占比大,市场竞争不足,其往往在一级市场大量买入国债并持有至到期,因此国债二级市场流动性差,价格发现能力弱(2000)。

    因此,通过债券买卖价差(bid-ask spread)衡量流动性可以看出,日本2年期和5年期债券的买卖价差是主要发达经济体中买卖价差最大的,即便是流动性最高的10年期债券,日本的买卖价差也仅次于法国(见图5)。因此,日本债券市场流动性低于其他发达经济体。

    图5 日本与其他主要发达经济体债券买卖差价的比较

    数据来源:日本央行,1999

    三是日本货币市场交易品种单一,票据市场不发达,回购市场做法与国际不接轨,导致日本金融市场对国际投资者缺乏吸引力。发展滞后的金融市场无法为日元国际化提供有力支持。

    随着日本经济1990年代陷入滞胀,东京金融市场失去了其国际竞争力,许多投资者将其业务转入开放程度更高、交易成本更低的其他亚洲金融中心。

    1995年日本国际金融中心(JCIF)针对外国机构就日本金融市场发展开展问卷调查。调查发现,无人对日本金融市场的发展状况表示满意,47%的被调查者认为日本金融市场与“开放和国际化标准”相距甚远(见表7)。此后,日本于1998年启动“大爆炸式”改革,努力推动提高金融市场开放度,使其更为透明和可信,但遗憾的是,此时已经错过了日元国际化的最佳时机。

    表7 东京市场开放程度和国际化的评估

    数据来源:JCIF (1995,1998)

    五、在货币国际化过程中,离岸市场需和在岸市场协调发展才能发其挥积极作用

    离岸和在岸市场协调发展对推动货币国际化有十分重要的意义。从国际经验来看,在货币国际化的初期,一国在岸金融市场往往开放程度有限、对跨境资金交易的限制较多,而离岸市场在税收、监管和金融基础设施等方面一般具有优势。这些优势会使离岸市场的参与者更加多元化、交易更加活跃,更有利于形成市场化的价格信号,并为各种金融产品的创新提供试验田,可以对在岸金融市场的发展和开放起到引领作用。

    同时,还应看到,仅依靠离岸市场的发展还无法有效支撑货币国际化。只有在岸金融市场也发展成熟,离岸金融市场才能充分发挥其推动货币国际化的作用。这主要是因为,无论离岸市场如何发达,在岸金融市场始终是一种货币流动性供给的源头,是该货币相关金融交易最终清算地,国际投资者对该货币的信心从根本上也取决于在岸市场的稳健和发展程度。缺少成熟的在岸市场,离岸市场的发展也将变成无本之木(朱隽,2021)。美国的案例就很好地体现了发展在岸市场的重要性,日本则是此方面的反例。

    美国离岸金融业务的发展推动在岸市场的发展,二者的有效融合促使美元国际化。离岸美元市场的产生有其特殊的政治和社会背景。二战后苏联为规避政治风险,将出口石油获得的大量美元资产转存在巴黎和伦敦的国际商业银行,欧洲美元市场开始起步。20世纪70年代,沙特等OPEC成员国担心其在美国境内银行的存款被冻结,也将大量石油美元投入欧洲美元市场。

    随着1960年美国实施利息平衡税,离岸美元市场便捷性和吸引力凸显,欧洲美元市场因大量资金流出美国而蓬勃发展。随后美国于1981年12月允许本国各类存款机构以及外国银行在美国的分行和代理机构建立美国国际银行便利设施(IBF),在美国本土从事在岸的离岸业务活动。由于IBF采取宽松的金融管制措施,包括利率自由浮动、不适用法定准备金制度和不参加存款保险等,这一制度使得美元资产总额急剧膨胀。1981-1983年,IBF总资产由634亿美元增至1740亿美元,增长了近3倍。

    值得注意的是,美国监管当局从未禁止离岸市场与在岸市场之间跨境贸易和投资的清算与结算。只要离岸金融机构有需要,都可以随时通过在岸金融体系进行清算,从而为离岸市场的健康发展提供保障。

    与此同时,离岸业务的发展也促使美国于上世纪90年代放松了金融管制,取消存款准备金限制,大力发展新型金融工具,从而促使在岸金融市场蓬勃发展,在岸和离岸市场的融合度增加,IBF原有功能逐渐淡化。

    1990年之后,随着美国对银行监管制度逐步放松,IBF总资产占美国对外总资产的比重从90年代之前的50%不断下降,并一路回落至20%以下。美国IBF设立数量降至240家左右,不足1987年的一半。

    图6 美国IBF资产规模及占美国对外总资产规模的比例

    资料来源:BIS季度报告

    表8 美国IBF资产规模情况

    资料来源:BIS;单位:十亿美元

    总体看,美国IBF较好地实现了政策意图:一是相对成功地吸引境外美元业务回归本土。美元在IBF资产、负债计价中始终处于主导地位,占比维持在85%-90%。二是IBF将美国本土银行与外资银行及海外市场连接,将欧洲美元市场的一部分业务转移到了美国境内,扩大了本土银行的产品和业务,增强了国内金融机构的竞争力。

    美国审计总署(GAO)考察结果显示,IBF的建立加强了美国银行业在国际银行市场的竞争力。从1981年9月至1983年6月,位于美国的银行境外美元资产与位于其他国家银行境外美元资产的比值增加了67%。因此,IBF客观上实现了促使离岸市场和在岸市场融合的过渡功能。

    但日元离岸市场发展滞后,且与在岸市场难以协调,是日元国际化失败的原因之一。如前所述,由于日本发展金融市场采取的是“双轨政策”(two-track policy),这就导致离岸市场和在岸市场从根源上难以协调发展。

    在离岸市场发展方面,日本政府的态度相对积极,但在具体实施过程中,监管当局对离岸市场交易品种仍有严格限制。1984年以前,日本政府对欧洲日元市场的交易品种限制较严,1984年才允许对居民发放欧洲日元短期贷款,1986年才允许非居民发行欧洲日元债券(必须达到一定评级),1989年才放开对居民的欧洲日元中长期贷款(Tetsuji,2000),1990年才取消非居民发行欧洲日元债券的评级要求。这些严格的管制在一定程度上限制了离岸市场的产品种类和交易活跃度,导致其错过了黄金发展期。

    同时,由于日本金融机构和企业对外借贷过度依赖美元,日元难以在离岸市场上沉淀。日本的银行扩展海外业务时,往往发放的是美元贷款而非日元贷款,日本金融机构的对外投资也集中于外币计价的证券,而非本币证券。

    尽管1980年代日本推出“黑字环流”计划,对外输出日元资本,在一定程度上为离岸市场提供了部分流动性,但其中相当一部分资金通过贸易渠道回流日本本土。同时,对外直接投资的日本企业在融资和经营中也较少使用日元,“黑字环流”时期日本使用美元对外直接投资的比例远高于使用日元的比例,日本企业金融交易中对外债权债务均以外币计价为主,日元很难在离岸市场上沉淀(朱隽,2021)。由于离岸市场受到这些结构性因素的制约,在很大程度上也阻碍了日元国际化的步伐。

  • 钟正生,范城恺:两次美国“银行危机”的比较研究

      2023年3月爆发的银行业危机,与1980-90年代美国储贷危机有较强相似性,两次危机同处于高通胀、高利率的宏观背景,储蓄机构“存短贷长”的经营模式遭受考验。本篇报告复盘美国储贷危机始末,并比较两次危机的异同,思考本轮美国经济和货币政策的可能走向。

      美国储贷危机始末。美国储贷协会起源于1830年代,在二战后一度因住房需求扩张而蓬勃发展。1970-80年代美国高通胀、高利率时期,“Q条例”约束(存款利率上限)放大了利率波动对储贷行业的冲击。1980年代初期,大批储贷协会亏损严重。里根政府奉行“新自由主义”,孕育了一系列过度宽松的金融监管举措。美国政府先后推动利率市场化、允许破产机构营业、放松资本要求等,暂时挽救了储贷行业。但好景不长,1986年油价暴跌引发“能源州”经济和地产崩盘,地区储贷协会破产并蔓延全国。1987-1989年美联储重回加息周期。1988-1991年储贷协会经历“倒闭潮”。1990年8月至1991年3月,美国经济陷入历时8个月的衰退。1989-1992年美联储以经济为准绳,启动了为期三年的降息周期,累计降息24次、6.8个百分点。虽然货币政策宽松,但美国地产业和银行业仍在承压,且恰逢全球经济不景气等,美国经济复苏较为艰难。商业银行信贷增长在1991年下半年触底,1994年才基本修复。1990年代布什政府痛下决心处置问题机构,同时强化金融监管,1995年储贷危机正式结束。

      对本轮银行业危机的启示。第一,本轮银行业危机与储贷危机有较强相似性。都主要归因于银行业自身业务风险,即存款成本和贷款收益错配、“借短贷长”。但这两次危机不存在明显的地产泡沫和金融过度创新,与次贷危机的背景不同。第二,本轮银行业危机可能不会像储贷危机那样演化为系统性金融危机。首先,政策阻断风险传导的能力更强。FDIC救助权力更大,政策响应更及时。其次,美国地产基本面更好,银行底层资产更优。最后,金融监管环境更严格,市场主体更谨慎。第三,信贷紧缩强化美国经济衰退逻辑,市场可能转向“衰退交易”。历史上,较为严重的信贷紧缩往往伴随经济衰退,且信贷增速修复往往滞后于经济复苏,可能延缓复苏进程。我们认为,本轮美国衰退节点可能提前至年中。市场对于美国经济衰退的程度和时长仍有一个重估的过程。第四,政策“先救市、后改革”,但货币转向仍主要取决于经济。美联储降息是银行危机的结局,但需要等到经济实质性恶化之后。目前市场对于美联储转向期待较高,而对可能更早到来的衰退计价难言充分。

      风险提示:美国银行业危机超预期升级,美国经济超预期下行,美国货币紧缩超预期,非美地区经济金融风险超预期爆发等。

      2023年3月美国硅谷银行事件引发中小银行危机。截至目前,银行挤兑、流动性危机和市场恐慌情绪已先后缓解,市场进一步聚焦于银行危机对美国经济的中期影响。我们认为,本轮银行业危机与1980-90年代美国储贷危机有较强相似性,两次危机同处于高通胀、高利率的宏观背景,储蓄机构“存短贷长”的经营模式遭受考验。储贷危机爆发后,美国经济曾经历八个月的“浅衰退”,地产和银行业所受创伤持续更久,美联储开启长达三年的降息周期。本篇报告详细复盘美国储贷危机始末,并辩证比较两次危机的异同,思考本轮美国经济和货币政策的可能走向。

      01

      美国储贷危机始末

      美国储贷协会起源于1830年代,在二战后一度因住房需求扩张而蓬勃发展。1970-80年代美国高通胀、高利率时期,储贷协会“借短贷长”的资产负债结构受到巨大冲击,储贷行业亏损严重。新自由主义思想下,美国政府实行宽容政策,推动利率市场化,暂时挽救了储贷行业。但好景不长,1986年油价暴跌引发“能源州”经济和地产崩盘,地区储贷协会纷纷破产,危机随后蔓延全国。“屋漏偏逢连夜雨”,1987-1989年美联储重回加息周期,前期宽松监管埋下的巨雷纷纷引爆。1988-1991年储贷协会经历“倒闭潮”,房贷违约、信贷紧缩和经济衰退接踵而至。1990年代,布什政府痛下决心处置问题机构,美联储开启长达三年的降息周期,美国经济缓慢复苏。

      1.1 起源:大萧条出清,二战后兴起

      美国储贷协会起源于1830年代。1831年美国第一家储蓄与贷款协会(Savings and loan association,S&L)成立,由一些希望购买自己住房但缺乏足够储蓄的人自发组织,因彼时的银行并不提供住房抵押贷款。协会主要吸收少部分会员存款并发放中长期固定利率住房抵押贷款,来满足平民的住房梦。早期的储贷协会主要由州政府进行监管,包括成立许可、情况报告和定期检查等,但实际并未严格执行。

      “大萧条”加速储贷行业出清。由于美国内战和经济危机等,储贷协会的发展并不一帆风顺,但到1930年全美已有约1.2万家储贷协会,总资产也近90亿美元(占GDP比重约10%)。在1929-1933年大萧条期间,由于贷款人不断违约、房产价值一落千丈、储户纷纷挤提,1937年储贷协会数量和资产较1930年分别减少21.7%和35.6%,降低至9225家和57亿美元(占GDP比重约6%)。为了应对危机,美国实施了新的住房政策,1932年和1934年分别通过《联邦住房贷款银行法案》和《全国住宅法》,建立了联邦住房贷款委员会(FHLBB)和联邦储贷保险公司(FSLIC),监管储贷协会的日常经营并以统一费率向储贷协会收取存款保险费,这些举措支持和保障了后来储贷协会的发展。

      二战后人口与住房需求高增,储贷行业蓬勃发展。1931-1945年二战期间,由于居民消费和住房建设受限,居民储蓄持续走高,个人储蓄存款总额占可支配收入的比例从1938年的1.9%一路上涨至1944年的26%,战争期间积累的储蓄转化为战后的住房购买力。二战后,军人返乡和“婴儿潮”(1946-1964年新生婴儿数高达7800万人),使美国人口保持长期增长,派生大量住房需求。加上政府税收和住房政策的鼓励,美国新屋开工数量从1945年的200多万套,迅速膨胀了四倍,在1950年代多数年份里均超1000万套。储贷协会顺势蓬勃发展,1960年代初总资产突破1000亿美元,占GDP比重高达18%左右,占据了一半的住房金融市场。

      1.2 初现:高利率冲击,储贷业亏损,监管松绑

      1970-80年代美国高通胀、高利率环境加剧银行业压力。由于财政政策的过度刺激、粗暴的价格管制和石油危机的冲击,加之美联储前期缺乏独立性,美国通胀和通胀预期失控,1970-80年代美国陷入“大滞涨”时代。美国CPI同比增速从1960年代的2.3%上涨到1970年代的7.1%,甚至在1974年、1979-1981年突破了10%。高通胀迫使美联储提高利率,且由于通胀反复,利率也随之呈现变动快、波动大、顶点高的特点。尤其在1979-1982年,沃尔克领导美联储大幅加息抗击通胀,引发长短端利率水平明显“倒挂”,向储贷机构“借短贷长”的资产负债结构施压。

      “Q条例”约束进一步放大了利率波动对储贷行业的冲击。1966年《利率控制法案》将“Q条例”扩展到储贷协会,该条例禁止商业银行和储贷机构支付活期存款利息,并设置了定期存款利率上限。即使储贷协会的存款利率上限被允许略高于商业银行,但仍然远低于通胀率和国债收益率。由于名义利率上升、存款利率调整受限,储贷协会因存贷利率错配而承压。

      资产端方面,因存量抵押贷款的固定利率无法调整,调高新增抵押贷款利率又会导致贷款需求降低,储贷协会平均贷款收益率很难提升。并且,监管规定储贷协会绝大部分资金只能投放于住房固定利率抵押贷款,因而也无法通过资产多样化来降低风险、提高收益。负债端方面,当金融市场利率高于存款利率上限时,储户存款意愿下降、证券投资意愿上升,这对储贷协会的负债端造成巨大压力。同时,货币市场基金的发展也加速了储蓄转移。当时的货币市场基金没有准备金和利率限制,且便利性良好,受到市场欢迎,规模迅速扩张。美国货币市场基金总资产在1978年仅有95亿美元,到1982年就达到了2363亿美元。

      1980年代初期,大批储贷协会亏损严重。美联储大幅加息后,1981-1982年储贷协会净息差仅为-1.0%至0.7%,总利润从1979年的17.9亿美元,迅速下降到1980年的3.0亿美元,随后在1981年大幅亏损31.3亿美元。到1982年年中,储贷行业整体资本净值为负,其抵押品的市场价值为1000 亿美元,仅占负债的15%,有形资产在总资产中的占比更是跌落至0.5%以下。在此期间,储贷机构总资产规模虽然仍在增长,但同比增速明显放缓,从1975-79年的10%以上下降至1982年底的1.1%。

      1981-1989年,里根政府奉行“新自由主义”,孕育了一系列过度宽松的金融监管举措。由于凯恩斯主义未能有效应对滞胀危机,新自由主义理念复兴,以供给学派和货币主义为底层逻辑的“里根经济学”应运而生。1981年里根政府上台之初提出经济复兴计划,主要包含四方面内容:大幅减税,鼓励储蓄和投资;削减政府支出,改革社保制度;放松经济管制,提高经济效率;稳定货币增长速度,控制通货膨胀。经济自由化思潮延展到金融领域表现为放松对金融机构的严格管制,侧重于“效率优先”,要求“政府收手”,但却矫枉过正,忽视了“安全问题”。

      1980-1986年,美国政府为储贷协会“松绑”,推动利率市场化、放松资产端和负债端的管制。1980年和1982年美国分别通过了《存款机构放松管制与货币控制法案》(简称《1980年银行法》,DIDMCA)和《存款机构法》(又称《甘恩-圣杰曼法》)。这些措施同时缓和了储贷协会资产端和负债端的压力。资产方面,政策支持可调整利率的抵押贷款、提高贷款额度,同时,储贷协会被允许投资公司、地产和商业债券等风险资产,储贷协会亏损最严重的多个州管制几乎完全放开。负债方面,1982年《存款机构法》宣布分6年逐步取消“Q条例”,放开了对定期存款利率的上限管制。这一举措提高了储贷协会吸收存款的能力,但也迫使其必须提高资产端的收益,去购买高风险、高收益的资产。

      此外,美国政府采取“宽容”政策,允许破产机构继续经营,并降低资本监管要求。1983年偿还破产机构的保险储户大约需要花费25亿美元,但保险基金只有6亿美元储备金,所以监管机构并未加强监管、关闭问题机构或补充保险基金,反而让大部分破产的储贷协会继续经营。1983-1989年,每年均有超400家破产的储贷协会继续营业。为了配合执行该政策,1980年监管部门将资本标准(资本与总资产比率)的最低要求从5%降低到4%,1982年又降低到3%。监管部门还允许储贷协会采用更宽松的有管理的会计准则(RAP)而不是一般公认会计准则(GAAP)来计算资本要求。1981年9月,监管部门允许问题机构发行“收入资本凭证”来补充资本,使其具有“账面”清偿能力。种种宽松政策使“僵尸”机构得以继续存活,也为大规模的破产倒闭潮埋下祸根。

      1983-1985年,在宏观环境改善和地产复苏的背景下,储贷协会暂时扭亏为盈。1982年美国GDP同比下跌1.8%后,1983年-1985年美国经济强劲恢复、通胀减速,GDP和CPI年均复合增速分别达到5.3%和3.7%。通胀可控后,1983年联邦基金利率由此前的20%左右下行至10%以下,储贷协会受利率压抑的状况有所缓解。随着美国经济复苏,叠加人口增长预期(1960年代“婴儿潮”孕育1990年代初人口增长)、住房政策扶持、金融自由化等助推,美国房地产市场也快速修复,房价重新走入上升通道。尽管房地美房价指数同比增速在1982年中有10个月为负且最大跌幅高达6.9%,但1983年就有9个月的同比增速超过10%,1984年和1985年房价也依然保持着5%左右的增速。在经济复苏和房地产回暖的背景下,1983年储贷协会扭亏为盈,盈利8.4亿美元,资产增长18.6%,1985年储贷协会的总资产已是1982年的1.5倍以上。

      1.3 爆发:“能源州”崩溃,机构“倒闭潮”,经济陷衰退

      1986年产油国争夺市场份额,油价暴跌使德州等能源州地产泡沫破裂,储贷协会遭受打击。1979-1981年第二次石油危机后,WTI油价由15美元/桶以下蹿升至30美元/桶以上。美国德克萨斯州等西南地区为“能源州”,油价高涨带来繁荣的经济和良好的预期,并且州立法机构允许投资者投资于投机性房地产,催生了地区房地产市场过度繁荣。到1986年,由于OPEC对产油国价格战的默许,油价迅速下跌,甚至一度逼近10美元/桶。美国“能源州”经济普遍陷入衰退,并引发房价下跌,刺破了前期过度投资而形成的“地产泡沫”,使储贷协会遭受严重损失。德州储贷协会大量破产,直接导致FSLIC的保险基金耗尽,社会公众对美国金融体系的信心遭受重大打击,储贷协会破产潮逐步蔓延到全国。美联储数据显示1988年储贷协会破产高峰期时,全国超过40%的倒闭和救助发生在德州,而FDIC数据显示整个1980-1994年德州破产机构的数量和资产占全美的比重分别为29.1%和21.4%。

      1987-1989年美联储重回加息周期,进一步加重了储贷协会负担。1987年-1990年,油价重回上涨和经济短暂复苏使美国通胀低位反弹并快速上行,CPI同比增速分别达到3.6%、4.1%、4.8%、5.4%。此外,1987年签订的《卢浮宫协议》要求美元汇率停止贬值,这也要求美联储提高利率。1987年1月开始,美联储整体进入加息周期(除了1987年10月的“股灾”导致美联储紧急降息三次,但1988年3月重新加息),联邦基金目标利率由1986年8月的5.88%,升至1989年5月的9.81%。在此背景下,储贷协会存贷利差再次受到挤压。

      1986-1988年,联邦储贷保险公司实际破产,但监管仍在“宽容”,成本越来越高。1984年联邦储蓄贷款保险公司为清理破产储贷协会支出8.9亿美元,1985年迅速达到74亿美元,1986年更是达到91亿美元,联邦储蓄贷款保险公司入不敷出,年末净值为转负至-63亿美元,实际上已经破产。为了应对危机,1987年里根签署《银行业公平竞争法》(CEBA),授权联邦储蓄贷款保险公司筹集108亿美元基金用于处置有问题的储贷社,但仍实施“宽容”政策。1988年联邦住房贷款银行委员会针对德克萨斯州储贷协会的问题,推出西南计划,以优惠条件出售整合破产储贷协会。但这些措施并没有彻底解决储贷协会的问题,1987年和1988年联邦储贷保险基金亏损扩大,净值分别为-137亿美元和-750亿美元,消耗的成本越来越高。

      1988-1991年储贷协会经历“倒闭潮”,房贷违约、信贷紧缩和经济衰退接踵而至。1988-1991年的4年里,共790家储贷协会问题机构被解决,其中仅1990年就有316家。储贷协会大量倒闭,对美国经济带来一系列连锁反应。

    • 首先,1988-1992年房地产贷款违约持续上升。1988年12月以后,美国房地产贷款拖欠率、撇账率开始上升,1991年房地产贷款拖欠率在二季度达到7.37%的顶点,撇账率四季度达到1.17%的阶段性高点,但并未立即回落,而是在1992年的三季度出现1.18%的高点。
    • 其次,1990-1994年美国银行业持续出现信贷紧缩。美国所有商业银行工商业贷款同比增速,由1989年底的6%下降至1994年初的-1%,工商业贷款与所有存款的比值也由29%大幅下降至18%。
    • 最后,1990-1991年美国经济陷入衰退。1990年8月至1991年3月是美国经济研究局(NBER)定义的衰退区间,历时8个月。1990年一季度美国GDP同比增长2.82%,随后增速不断下滑至四季度的0.6%,全年增长1.9%。1991年前三季度美国经济同比增速均为负值,全年增长-0.1%。整个衰退区间内,首月的失业率为5.7%,之后持续上行至最后一个月的6.8%,并且在度过衰退区间后失业率继续震荡上行至1992年6月的7.8%。

      1.4 结局:处置问题机构,美联储降息,经济弱复苏

      1989-1991年布什政府采取果断措施处理问题机构,同时强化金融监管;1995年储贷危机正式结束。1989年美国政府通过颁布《存款机构改革、复兴与实施法》(FIRREA),开始真正解决储贷危机,新建了储蓄机构监管委员会(OTS)、联邦存款保险公司(FDIC)和新的保险基金。针对破产和倒闭机构,建立重组信托公司(RTC)专门处理,由复兴基金公司(RFC)发行债券来支付费用。同时,监管从严,恢复部分管制措施、严格限制储贷协会可以购买的资产种类并提高核心资本比率要求。为了解决存款保险制度中存在的道德风险问题,1991年又颁布了《联邦存款保险公司完善法》(FDICIA),收窄保险范围并将保费与风险挂钩,同时要求被保险机构提供更详细的报告,严格实行年度现场检查制度,发现问题要求立即整改。1995年,以RTC的关闭为标志,储贷危机正式结束。RTC共处理了747个储贷协会,接管的4500亿美元资产中85%得到恢复,储贷协会资产规模降低、质量提高。

      1989-1992年,美联储以经济为准绳启动了为期三年的降息周期,累计降息24次、6.8个百分点。

    • 降息开始阶段:1989年上半年美联储仍面临通胀压力而加息,年初格林斯潘在国会作证时认为“目前4%-5%的通胀率是不可接受的”,并预估全年GDP实际增长近2%。1989年3月以后,新增非农就业数据连续放缓,从此前的20-30万下降至6月的11.4万,PMI指数也从5月开始回落至50以下,PCE同比从2月的4.7%回落至6月的4.2%。美国经济走弱信号增强,美联储更加相信未来通胀可控,因此于1989年6月首次降息25BP;7月,美联储再降息50BP,绿皮书预测实际GDP降至1.5%;到四季度,美联储降息共约80BP。
    • 降息停滞阶段:由于通胀反弹,美联储在1990年上半年停止了降息。1990年6月,核心CPI较年初高出0.5个百分点达4.9%。1990年7月,美联储试探性小幅下调25BP至8%。1990年8月第三次石油危机爆发,石油月均价从8月的17美元/桶上涨至10月的36美元/桶,尽管美国当月公布的失业率(5.7%)创1988年3月以来最高,零售数据也暗示经济疲软,但美联储依然比较犹豫。
    • 降息加速阶段:截至1990年10月,美国制造业PMI下降至43.2,已经连续18个月低于荣枯线,美联储开始每月连续降息。1991年初美国介入海湾战争,令经济雪上加霜,随后油价下跌,非农就业和工业生产等经济数据持续疲弱。美联储此后保持长时间降息操作,最终1992年9月达到3%的利率低点。

      美国房地产市场于1991年初触底,1992年才基本回到衰退前水平,此后房价增速长期迟缓。1989年6月美联储首次降息后,新建住房销售和已开工的新建私人住宅同比增速再度出现下跌趋势,在1年半后也即1991年1月增速见底,同比分别下跌35.3%和48.6%,又经过8个月即到1991年10月,增速实现由负转正。房价增速见底滞后于销售和开工,以房地美房价指数衡量的美国房价,在1991年8月同比增速见底为-0.2%,随后增速转正但高度有限,至1993年末期间月度同比增速的中枢仅为1.3%,1994年的增速中枢才上升至2.4%。

      银行信贷增长在1991年下半年触底,1994年以后才基本修复。美联储首次降息后,商业银行信贷增速依然维持下行趋势并在25个月后即1991年8月达到增速底2.7%,经过38个月即到1994年11月首次达到6%的增速(1989年6月为6.7%),远远不及1986-1987年10%左右的同比增速。细分来看,消费信贷、工商业贷款和不动产抵押贷款的增速前后分别于1991年11月、1992年3月和1993年4月分别达到-1.9%、-4.4%和1.32%的增速底,其中消费贷款和工商业贷款分别保持1年和3年时间的同比负增长。综上,本轮衰退后,美国商业银行信贷经历了漫长的修复过程,不动产抵押贷款增速中枢下滑,消费信贷增速底部修复的时长与工商业贷款相近。

      1991年二季度以后,美国经济进入复苏周期。1991年一季度,美国实际GDP同比萎缩近1%;二季度,GDP环比折年率回升至3.2%,同比萎缩幅度缩窄,美国经济脱离NBER衰退区间。虽然美联储实施了政策宽松,但美国地产业和银行业仍在承压,且恰逢全球经济不景气(如1990年代初日本经济泡沫破裂)等,美国经济复苏较为艰难。1992-1994年,美国GDP年均增速仅为3.4%,远远不及战后多次衰退后的复苏斜率。

      02

      对本轮银行业危机的启示

      2.1 本轮银行业危机与储贷危机有较强相似性

      2023年3月爆发的美国中小银行危机,与1980-90年代储贷危机有较强相似性。

      首先,两次危机均主要源自银行业本身的业务风险。存款成本和贷款收益错配、“借短贷长”,银行盈利能力和流动性均面临压力。正如硅谷银行的失败,主要源于其投放贷款能力与吸收存款不匹配,继而引发后续的投资失败与银行挤兑。

      其次,两次危机的宏观背景都是高通胀和美联储大幅加息。这一压力的直接体现是美债收益率曲线的倒挂,这一方面表现了市场对经济的悲观预期,也切实削弱了银行的放贷和盈利能力。

      再次,两次危机均引发银行主动收紧信贷,也都发生了银行存款向货币市场基金转移的迹象。据美联储数据,2023年初(1月4日)以来截至4月5日,美国商业银行信贷规模减少1.0%(1822亿美元),存款总额减少3.2%(5603亿美元);同期,货币市场基金增长9.0%(4330亿美元)。

      最后,上述两次危机均不存在明显的地产泡沫和金融过度创新,与次贷危机爆发的背景明显不同。这也意味着,目前美国银行业风险或难达到次贷危机的程度。

      总之,储贷危机是一段有价值的历史参考,有利于我们去追踪和推演本轮美国中小银行危机的走向。

      2.2 但本轮银行业危机或许不如储贷危机严重

      有三方面理由令我们认为,本轮银行业危机可能不会像储贷危机那样演化为系统性金融危机:

      一是,本次危机的传导风险相对更小。在储贷危机中,除美联储货币紧缩外,油价暴跌与“能源州”地产崩盘也是重要导火索。当时“能源州”长期沐浴在高油价、高利润之下,孕育了过度投资与区域经济泡沫。当下,国际油价在产油国的减产呵护中仍然坚挺,而美国页岩油企业在债务压力、能源转型等风险之下对待资本开支亦较为谨慎,能源支出在美国经济中的比重也已下降,因此能源冲击向美国银行业和经济的传导风险较为有限。再看本轮银行危机:首先,硅谷银行事件有一定偶然性,因其客源单一,且大部分存单额度超过25万美元的FDIC保险额度,放大了客户挤兑带来的冲击。其次,虽然美联储急加息引发债券投资损失和银行挤兑相互叠加,但美国政府和美联储的快速行动已经较好地解决了存款挤兑和资产抛售问题。最后,1980-90年代银行业监管改革赋予了FDIC更大的救援权力,使当前监管机构阻断风险传播的能力更强。

      二是,美国地产基本面更好,银行底层资产更优。储贷危机爆发前,美国房屋空置率虽不像次贷危机时期飙升,但也从1983年的1.4%上行至1985年的1.9%,地产贷款拖欠率也保持在5%左右偏高水平。当前,美国住房空置率处于1%以下的历史最低水平,地产贷款拖欠率低至1.2%,因次贷危机后美国地产业长期去库存。新冠疫情后,政策刺激只是加快启动了地产周期,而非制造“泡沫”。即便美联储紧缩后美国地产明显降温,但由于供需基本面并未失衡、居民和企业并未在地产方面过度融资,预计压力整体可控。至于市场关注的商业地产风险,我们认为,当前美国商业地产的基本面只是不如住宅,但仍处于健康水平,且CMBS市场规模远小于RMBS,不会对银行资产的健康构成太大威胁(参考报告《如何看待美国商业地产风险》)。

      三是,金融监管环境更严格,市场主体更谨慎。监管不力对储贷协会的失败负有不可推卸的责任。1960-80年代“Q条例”明显限制了储贷协会揽储能力与资金使用效率。尽管1982-1988年逐步取消了Q条例限制,利率更加市场化,但改革本身又鼓励了储贷协会追逐高收益和高风险,放大了资产负债错配问题。此外,政策对于早期储贷协会的经营失败过分“宽容”,允许不盈利的机构营业,使金融风险不断积聚,引发了最终储贷行业的整体崩盘。对比来看,本轮处于危机中的中小银行,虽然也曾“受益”于特朗普时期的监管放松,但并没有改变近十年《多德-弗兰克法案》定下的“强监管”基调。数据显示,次贷危机后,资本充足要求趋严后,美国商业银行资产负债率显著下降。

      2.3 信贷紧缩强化美国经济衰退逻辑,市场可能转向“衰退交易”

      信贷紧缩可能引致经济衰退,且信贷紧缩通常历时较长,继而延缓复苏进程。历史数据显示,较为严重的信贷紧缩(以美国商业银行信贷同比增速显著下降为标准),往往伴随经济衰退,且信贷增速修复往往滞后于经济复苏。回到储贷危机,1988-1989年储贷协会倒闭数据已经显著上升,信贷增速的下降从1989年底开始。1990-1991年美国经济陷入官方定义的衰退,信贷紧缩仍在继续。1991-1993年,在经济衰退结束后,美国工商业贷款同比持续萎缩、1994年初才开始转正,持续三年的信贷紧缩,也是储贷危机后美国经济复苏斜率较缓的原因之一。

      我们认为,这一次美国中小银行信贷紧缩的加速,或使美国衰退节点提前至年中。美国商业银行信贷资产增速已于2022年9月见顶回落;美联储高级信贷官员调查显示,2022年二季度开始,当美联储开启加息周期后,大小银行的信贷标准已经开始收紧,截至2022年四季度收紧幅度仍在上升。3月中小银行危机的爆发,为银行业再敲警钟,3月以来银行信贷增速加速回落。但考虑到美联储可能适当提前结束加息(目前市场对终端利率的预期由中小银行危机前的5.5%左右下调至5.0%),以平衡信贷紧缩的冲击,本轮衰退的程度或许也不会单纯因为信贷紧缩而显著加深。

      对市场而言,这一次中小银行危机强化了经济衰退的逻辑,可能“纠正”前期过于乐观的市场预期,毕竟年初市场对于美国经济“软着陆”甚至“不衰退”的预期是浓厚的。我们在前期报告《2023海外经济与市场九问》中提示,因美国经济结构恶化、就业指标反应滞后、“供给驱动型”通胀回落空间不足、美联储有意“制造衰退”等原因,美国衰退风险可能被低估。预计未来一段时间,美国银行业信贷情况会持续受到市场和政策的关注。市场对于美国经济衰退的程度和时长仍有一个重估的过程,继而市场风格可能以“衰退交易”为主线,即美股、商品等风险资产将承压,而美债、黄金等避险资产将走强。

      2.4 政策“先救市、后改革”,但货币政策转向仍主要取决于经济

      美国政府和美联储面对本轮中小银行危机的逻辑是“先救市、后改革”。1983-1989年储贷危机早期,储贷协会的亏损引发储户恐慌和挤兑,美国政府为避免储贷协会大量倒闭,采取宽松的监管政策;直到1989年以后,面对储贷协会的集中倒闭,政策不得不改变重心,监管由松转严,立即处理问题机构并寻求降低处理成本、防范道德风险,此后进一步推动制度改革,实施了对金融机构分类和常态监管、限定存款保险范围、谨慎采取非常规救助、对流动性支持“收费”等措施。可以看出,平衡政策救助与道德风险总是困难的,但危机爆发时政策上总是“不得不救”,俟危机平复后才能推动中长期改革。

      在本轮中小银行风波中,美国政府也更倾向于快速解决问题而暂时搁置道德风险的考量。3月10日硅谷银行宣布倒闭后,3月12日美国政府和美联储立即出台银行定期救助计划(BTFP),并承诺对其储户进行完全救助,即使这些举措暂时使金融市场条件转松,一定程度上抵消了美联储遏制通胀的效果。在银行业危机明显缓和后,3月30日白宫呼吁金融监管机构加强对规模1000-2500亿美元银行的监管。往后看,若美国银行业出现新的动荡,我们认为美国监管部门仍将第一时间稳定金融市场,待金融市场稳定后再寻求低成本的处置方式,在中长期强化相关金融风险监控。

      本轮中小银行危机后,美联储加息终点可能更早到来,但降息仍需等到美国经济实质恶化之后。储贷危机时期,美联储在危机处理中的角色相对有限。1980年代,沃尔克领导的美联储主要与通胀作斗争,不惜“制造衰退”,无暇顾及储贷协会的压力。1987年以后,格林斯潘领导的美联储曾因“股灾”而短暂降息,但1988-89年期间仍为维护物价稳定而选择加息,即使当时已有不少储贷协会倒闭。1989年6月美联储首次降息,也主要是出于经济增长放缓、通胀前景可控的考虑。

      在目前仍较强劲的经济数据下,美联储很难快速改变紧缩取向。这意味着,未来一段时间,美联储可能选择在较高的利率水平上“按兵不动”、静观其变。对市场而言,则需警惕预期波动对资产价格的扰动,毕竟今年以来华尔街和美联储预期“错位”引发市场动荡的情形仍然历历在目。3月9日硅谷银行事件以来截至4月14日,受益于美联储紧缩预期显著降温,纳斯达克指数和标普500指数分别上涨4.7%和3.6%,年内已分别累涨15.8%和7.8%。可见,市场对于美联储转向期待较高,但对可能更早到来的美国经济衰退,计价难言充分。

      风险提示:1)美国银行业危机超预期升级,例如出现新的金融机构暴雷,引发风险传导。2)美国经济超预期下行,或反向加大银行业风险。3)美联储货币紧缩超预期,继而再加剧金融波动风险。4)非美地区经济金融风险超预期爆发等。

  • 乓乓响:上海疫情保供单位谋IPO

    一家给幼儿园、学校、医院供餐的食品供应链公司,是如何在上半年上海疫情极度严峻、全城静默的时刻,实现了70%的高毛利?这家公司的招股书,揭开了上海疫情封控之下隐秘角落里发生的商业奇迹。

    2022年10月24日,乓乓响(中国)有限公司(开曼)二度向港交所提交招股书。根据招股书,乓乓响总部位于上海,按2021年销售收益计算,该公司是上海最大食堂食品供应链综合服务供货商。根据第三方报告,上海共有逾500家食堂食品供货商,乓乓响按2021年的销售额计算市场份额约为1.5%。乓乓响的农产品及其他食品组合包括超过4100款产品,主要分为动物性食品;植物性食品;加工食品;谷物、食用油及调味品。

    2019年、2020年、2021年以及截至2022年5月,乓乓响分别实现营业收入1.43亿元、1.23亿元、2.23亿元及0.74亿元,净利润分别为2269万元、2729万元、3661万元、1779万元。

    乓乓响的客户也比较特殊,大部分为幼儿园及教育机构,截至2019年末、2020年末、2021年末和2022年5月末,乓乓响分别有222名、239名、287名及332名企业及机构客户,其中各期间幼儿园及教育机构分别为156、156、215及171家,分别占公司总收入的83.2%、59.4%、63.4%及25.9%。

    2019年、2020年、2021年以及截至2022年5月,乓乓响经营活动获得现金流净额分别为4114万元、1220万元、5445万元、-296万元。截至2019年末、2020年末、2021年末和2022年5月末,乓乓响持有的现金及现金等价物分别为1492万元、3527万元、3331万元和471万元。

    高利润率背后的秘密

    值得注意的是,2022年前五个月,乓乓响在营业收入同比下滑的情况下,净利润却实现了同比50%以上的增长。2019年、2020年、2021年以及截至2022年5月,乓乓响的毛利率分别为28.9%、38.2%、33.8%、53.4%,也就是说,在2020年疫情最严重的近半年时间,乓乓响的毛利率几乎是2019年的两倍。

    众所周知,2022年上半年,由于奥密克戎疫情导致上海被封锁数月,乓乓响毛利率为何能逆势上扬?

    招股书揭开了这个秘密。招股书称,上海疫情封控期间,大多数超市及食品市场被迫关闭,导致供应短缺。与此同时,由于住宅区被暂时封锁,行动受到限制,农产品上门配送需求激增,农产品市场售价相对较高。而在此期间,仅被列为供给保障重点单位的公司方获允许提供及配送农产品与其他食品。而乓乓响就是其中的一家。

    进入疫情保供名单对乓乓响的影响几何?可以看一下招股书中罗列的一些基本数据:
    截至2022年5月31日止五个月,由于幼儿园及教育机构在2022年3月至5月期间将课程转移到在线授课,导致乓乓响来自幼儿园及教育机构的收入大幅下降。
    在2021年之前,来自幼儿园及教育机构以及餐饮服务供货商的收入对乓乓响的贡献最大。但截至2022年5月31日的五个月,对乓乓响收入贡献最大的则是临时及应急服务客户,贡献收入约3427万元,收入占比46%;相比之下,幼儿园和教育机构的收入占比由去年同期的65%下降至26%。

    根据招股书,临时及应急服务客户包括上海市住宅区团购团长(团购团长);通过“快团团”购买团购包(包括蔬菜及肉类)的个人客户;政府机关(向乓乓响)采购并要求乓乓响向某些住宅区的居民配送多种植物性食品。

    2022年前五个月,乓乓响的毛利率相当之高。具体为,团购团长业务毛利率74.7%、个人客户毛利率52.6%,政府机构、临时及应急服务供应商、为雇员采购的实体业务毛利率分别为73.6%、83.8%、74.6%,只有其他企业及机构客户的毛利率低于50%,为36.3%。整体上的毛利率为69.6%。

    各小区团购团长为乓乓响带货最多,金额1732万元,占比50.6%;其次是个人团购客户,金额694万元,占比20.3%;还有政府机构采购539万元,占比15.7%。

    今年6月开始,乓乓响不再参与保供。

    整体而言,毛利率方面,临时及应急服务客户的毛利率最高,约70%;幼儿园及教育机构毛利率排第二,约50%;餐饮服务商及银行、医院和政府机构毛利率约30%。

    招股书显示,向幼儿园和教育机构供餐是一个利润很棒的生意。过去几年,乓乓响向幼儿园及教育机构提供餐食的平均毛利率超过40%,远远超过其他领域的毛利率。对此,乓乓响解释称,幼儿园及教育机构的毛利率相对较高主要归因于其长期服务于上海的幼儿园及教育机构子领域,具备较强议价能力。

    从国内外餐饮供应链代表公司来看,乓乓响在教育领域的高毛利率是不太正常的。例如:

    国内“餐饮供应链第一股”千味央厨2017年-2020年的毛利率分别为22.69%、23.83%、24.50%和20.79%。从国际上看,英国餐饮供应商巨头Brakes Bro Co.的平均毛利率只有7%;美国最大餐饮供应商Sysco过去30年的毛利率始终在18%-20%附近波动。美国另一大餐饮供应商巨头US FoodS的毛利率也只有16-18%。

    由此可见,15%-20%的毛利率是一个自由竞争市场中、餐饮供应链公司正常的毛利率水平,高达40%的毛利率实在过于夸张。

    乓乓响的所谓“议价能力”到底体现在哪里,招股书并没有具体讲。商业议价能力通常体现在产品的核心竞争力上,即具有独特配方或技术含量的独家产品,这往往让供应方拥有对需求方的定价支配权;还有一种情况是品牌溢价,即品牌自身光环带来的价格上浮效应,但这一般存在于价格较高的消费品或奢侈品中。

    但乓乓响认为,品类齐全的产品组合及保持食品质量与安全的能力促成其相对稳定的客户网络,使其2020年及2021年的客户保留率分别达80.6%及72.8%。2019年6月至2021年5月,乓乓响还是上海市2019年首批标准化试点项目下唯一农产品分销类指定单位。

    在幼儿园和学校餐厅,对供应商食材的核心要求是安全和健康。基础食材不存在独家产品或核心配方,也很少有品牌溢价。乓乓响提供的基础餐饮食材供应与其他公司相比并不存在竞争性优势,因此不可能形成排它性壁垒。那么要获得如此高的毛利率只有两种可能:一个是通过其它方式排除了竞争,实现事实上的区域性垄断;二是牺牲食品安全和食品质量换取。

    招股书显示:创始人黄建义及其配偶张卫平持有公司全部股份,控股离岸(维京岛)公司Qingteng International、Xingxing International,由离岸公司100%控股拟上市公司,公司拥有上海乓乓响农副产品加工有限公司、上海乓乓响餐饮管理有限公司和上海东岸农产品有限公司三家全资子公司。黄建义为乓乓响董事会主席、行政总裁兼执行董事,两人的女儿黄贤至在公司担任董事,一个典型的家族企业。自公司成立以来,黄建义一直担任董事会主席、行政总裁。公司董事会的三名执行董事中,黄建义和女儿黄贤至各占一名,另外一名执行董事是成立时就进入公司的首席财务官陈正琴。2022年4月,第一次港股递表前夕,34岁的黄贤至被委任为执行董事。

    2012年9月,乓乓响控股股东黄建义与许建平、钱建平建立了乓乓响农副产品。2016年2月乓乓响农副产品于新三板上市,代码“836365”,2019年8月30日终止挂牌。

    2019年至2021年,公司的资产负债率分别为64.07%、80.64%、69.53%。到2022年5月底,其资产负债率约为64.64%。但2022年3月,乓乓响的全资附属公司乓乓响农副产品向股东乓乓响香港宣派股息2340万元(其中包括应付股息2130万元和10%的预扣税约210万元)。

    2018年,乓乓响向第一大供应商上海乓乓响农产品专业合作社采购的总额占比为22.22%,公司称其不是关联方,而在2016年则被列入关联方。2019年,乓乓响合作社(更名为上海品铂农产品专业合作社)从前五大供应商中消失,2020年再次位列第二大供应商,但采购总额占比仅为7.3%,2022年又不再合作。上海品铂曾用名“上海品铂农产品专业合作社(2014.5-2019.4期间)”,黄建义曾担任其法人代表至2015.7,黄卸任后不久上海品铂即成为乓乓响的供应商。乓乓响独立董事乔国平曾任浦东新区三林镇副镇长、北蔡镇副镇长、新区农业发展管理署常委副书记、署长、新区农业委员会总经济师即农业与综合办公室主任。

    乓乓响称,2015年7月,黄建义将乓乓响合作社75%股权转让给第三方。
    第三方是谁呢?

  • 恒瑞医药时任董事长周云曙内幕交易案行政处罚决定书

    中国证券监督管理委员会黑龙江监管局行政处罚决定书〔2022〕3号

      当事人:周云曙,男,1971年10月10日出生,江苏恒瑞医药(34.010, -0.12, -0.35%)股份有限公司(以下简称“恒瑞医药”)时任董事长、总经理、董事。住址:上海市浦东新区。

      依据《中华人民共和国证券法》(以下简称《证券法》)的有关规定,我局对周云曙内幕交易“司太立(18.060, -0.24, -1.31%)”股票行为进行了立案调查、审理,并依法向当事人告知了作出行政处罚的事实、理由、依据及当事人依法享有的权利。应当事人周云曙的要求,我局于2022年7月27日举行了听证会,听取了周云曙代理人的陈述和申辩。本案现已调查、审理终结。

      经查明,周云曙存在以下违法事实:

      一、内幕信息的形成及公开过程

      2020年2月,浙江司太立制药股份有限公司(以下简称“司太立”)总裁胡某与恒瑞医药副总经理沈某平联系,提及司太立的碘海醇注射液和碘帕醇注射液近期将获得药监局批号,司太立没有销售团队,沈某平表示可以通过恒瑞医药帮助司太立销售国内试剂。沈某平向周云曙汇报由恒瑞医药独家代理司太立即将获批的碘海醇注射液和碘帕醇注射液,周云曙授权沈某平持续跟进。

      2020年4月17日,恒瑞医药和司太立共同针对合作产品成本的计算方法等事项召开视频会议,司太立的总工程师吴某韦、财务总监丁某、销售总监王某华、销售副总经理蒋某华赴上海浦东新区海科路1288号恒瑞大楼参加会议,恒瑞医药参会人员为副总经理沈某平、副总经理杜某新、姚某煌。

      2020年4月21日,恒瑞医药沈某平和司太立总裁胡某电话沟通了双方合作协议。

      2020年4月22日,司太立总裁胡某通过微信将合作协议发至沈某平,当日,两人通过微信多次沟通合作协议的修改事宜。

      2020年4月26日至4月28日期间,沈某平、戴某斌、蒋某梅、孙某平、刘某含通过电子邮件讨论恒瑞医药与司太立的合作协议细节。

      2020年4月27日,沈某平与周云曙电话沟通合同条款,周云曙认为合同问题不大,尽快往前推进。

      2020年4月29日,沈某平发送邮件至恒瑞医药戴某斌、蒋某梅、孙某平、刘某含,邮件中提及周云曙认为合作协议没有原则性问题,恒瑞医药已经与司太立的合作协议达成一致意见,并拟与司太立签约。胡某通过微信将加盖司太立公章的合作协议照片发给沈某平,沈某平通过微信回复了邮寄地址。

      2020年5月6日,沈某平通过微信将加盖恒瑞医药公章的合作协议照片发给胡某,并发微信“我们法务会和您律师协商公告”。

      2020年5月11日,司太立及全资子公司上海司太立制药有限公司(以下简称“上海司太立”)与恒瑞医药签署《江苏恒瑞医药股份有限公司与浙江司太立制药股份有限公司、上海司太立制药有限公司之合作协议》(以下简称《合作协议》)。

      2020年5月13日,司太立披露了《浙江司太立制药股份有限公司关于与江苏恒瑞医药股份有限公司签署药品合作协议的公告》;恒瑞医药披露了《江苏恒瑞医药股份有限公司关于签署药品合作协议的公告》。

      综上,司太立及上海司太立于2020年5月11日与恒瑞医药签署《合作协议》属于《证券法》第五十二条规定的内幕信息。该内幕信息的形成不晚于2020年4月21日,公开于2020年5月13日。内幕信息知情人为周云曙、沈某平、戴某斌、蒋某梅、孙某平、刘某含、胡某等人。

      二、周云曙控制使用“刘某”账户内幕交易“司太立”

      (一)周云曙为内幕信息知情人

      周云曙系恒瑞医药时任董事长、总经理、董事,任职期间授权沈某平跟进与司太立合作事宜,周云曙不晚于2020年4月27日知悉该内幕信息,属于《证券法》第五十一条规定的内幕信息知情人。

      (二)周云曙控制使用“刘某”账户情况

      “刘某”账户于2003年10月28日开立于中信建投(24.310, -0.54, -2.17%)连云港(4.200, -0.08, -1.87%)龙河南路证券营业部(原华夏证券有限公司),资金账户50XXXX68,下挂沪市股东普通账户号A44XXXX270和深市股东普通账户号010XXXX886。“刘某”中信建投证券账户对应的三方存管同名银行账户为交通银行(4.640, -0.01, -0.22%)连云港浦东支行6222XXXXXXXXXXX0148。刘某为恒瑞医药财务部保险理财分部员工,与周云曙是同学关系,刘某入职恒瑞医药由周云曙办理,两人私人关系密切。

      自2014年1月24日起,“刘某”账户交易的下单手机号除2015年3月4日为158XXXXX800外,其余均为周云曙手机号码180XXXXX777。自2015年1月1日起,除几笔交易对手方名称为“空”的资金往来外,“刘某”三方存管银行账户的资金往来主要是周云曙、赵某人夫妻及“刘某”证券账户。

      (三)周云曙控制使用“刘某”账户内幕交易“司太立”情况

      “刘某”账户在2020年4月29日买入“司太立”,成交22300股,交易金额1,457,560元。4月30日,买入成交4000股,交易金额250,391元。5月6日,买入成交3000股,交易金额189,481元。5月8日,买入成交9000股,交易金额600,450元。5月11日,买入成交7200股,交易金额458,770元。2020年5月13日,45500股全部卖出,交易金额3,429,397元。2020年4月29日至5月11日,“刘某”账户全部为单一买入45500股“司太立”,合计成功买入金额2,956,652元。2020年5月13日,“刘某”账户将持有的45500股“司太立”全部卖出,成交金额3,429,397元,获利450,029.73元。

      “刘某”账户内幕信息敏感期间交易“司太立”的资金全部来自周云曙、赵某人夫妻,2020年4月29日至2020年5月8日,共转账存入“刘某”三方存管同名银行账户325万元,全部转入“刘某”证券账户。2020年5月18日,“刘某”证券账户银证转账转出370万元,2020年5月18日至21日期间,“刘某”三方存管银行账户划转至周云曙、赵某人夫妻合计250万元,剩余资金存储在“刘某”三方存管银行账户。

      (四)账户交易特征分析

      内幕信息敏感期内,周云曙向“刘某”账户突击转入资金,买入“司太立”一只股票,在内幕信息公开后将“司太立”全部卖出,决策果断,买入意图明显,买入卖出意愿坚决,账户持股单一。“刘某”账户交易“司太立”均为手机委托,委托买入的号码均为180XXXXX777,系周云曙使用的手机号码。周云曙利用“刘某”账户交易“司太立”的时间与内幕信息形成、变化、公开时点基本一致,交易行为明显异常。

      上述违法事实,有司太立及恒瑞医药相关公告、相关证券和银行账户资料、交易记录、通讯记录、上交所数据信息、询问笔录等证据证明。

      周云曙的上述行为违反了《证券法》第五十条、第五十三条第一款的规定,构成《证券法》第一百九十一条规定的“证券交易内幕信息的知情人或者非法获取内幕信息的人,违反本法第五十三条的规定从事内幕交易”的行为。

      周云曙代理人在听证和申辩意见中提出如下申辩意见:

      第一,认定周云曙“以他人名义买卖证券”缺乏事实依据。第二,《合作协议》的签署不属于内幕信息。《合作协议》不属于重大合同,《合作协议》不具有非公开性。第三,周云曙不存在内幕交易的主观故意。第四,案涉证券账户交易行为没有造成危害后果。第五,周云曙已对涉嫌内幕交易行为进行深刻检讨,并自愿申请适用行政执法当事人承诺制度。

      经复核,我局认为本案事实清楚、证据充分、法律适用正确,周云曙代理人的申辩意见不能成立:

      第一,内幕信息敏感期内,“刘某”账户交易“司太立”的资金均来源于周云曙、赵某人夫妻;在“司太立”全部卖出之后,“刘某”账户银转证转出370万,通过三方存管银行账户转至周云曙、赵某人夫妻账户累计250万元。“刘某”账户在内幕信息敏感期内交易“司太立”的手机号码均为周云曙的手机号码。周云曙自认其在内幕信息敏感期内通过“刘某”账户购买“司太立”股票。上述事实足以认定周云曙控制使用“刘某”账户内幕交易“司太立”。

      第二,《合作协议》属于《证券法》第八十条第二款第(三)项规定的“重要合同”,司太立及上海司太立与恒瑞医药签署《合作协议》属于《证券法》第五十二条第二款所述的内幕信息。司太立与恒瑞医药就碘海醇注射液与碘帕醇注射液的合作在《合作协议》签署之前并未公开。

      第三,周云曙在敏感期内向“刘某”账户突击转入资金,买入“司太立”一只股票,在内幕信息公开后将“司太立”全部卖出,决策果断,买入意图明显,买入卖出意愿坚决,账户持股单一,足见其从事内幕交易的主观意图。

      第四,《证券法》第五十条明确规定,“禁止证券交易内幕信息的知情人和非法获取内幕信息的人利用内幕信息从事证券交易活动。”周云曙内幕交易“司太立”为法律禁止性行为,应当受到行政处罚。

      根据当事人违法行为的事实、性质、情节与社会危害程度,依据《证券法》第一百九十一条第一款的规定,我局决定:

      没收周云曙违法所得450,029.73元,并处以500,000元罚款。

      上述当事人应自收到本处罚决定书之日起15日内,将罚款汇交中国证券监督管理委员会开户银行:中信银行(4.510, -0.04, -0.88%)北京分行营业部,账号:7111010189800000162,由该行直接上缴国库,并将注有当事人名称的付款凭证复印件送中国证券监督管理委员会行政处罚委员会办公室及我局备案。当事人如果对本处罚决定不服,可在收到本处罚决定书之日起60日内向中国证券监督管理委员会申请行政复议,也可在收到本处罚决定书之日起6个月内直接向有管辖权的人民法院提起行政诉讼。复议和诉讼期间,上述决定不停止执行。

      黑龙江证监局   2022年9月16日    

  • 浑水研究:瑞幸咖啡财务造假报告(摘要)

     2020年1月31日,浑水研究(MuddyWaters Research)公布:“我们收到了一份长达89页的不明身份的报告,声称瑞幸咖啡是个骗局:‘在2019年第三季度和2019年第四季度,每店每日商品数量分别夸大了至少69%和88%,有11,260小时的门店流量视频为证。’我们认为这项工作是可信的。”报告作者委派了92个全职和1400个兼职调查员,收集了25000多张小票。该报告还指出,瑞幸将2019年第三季度的广告支出夸大了150%以上,尤其是在分众传媒上的支出。

    Executive Summary
    摘要

      当瑞幸咖啡2019年5月上市的时候,它就基本上是个通过高额折扣和免费赠送向中国用户灌输喝咖啡文化的失败生意了。

      在其6.45亿美元的首次公开募股之后,该公司从2019年第三季度开始捏造财务和运营数据,已经演变成了一场骗局。该公司公布的一系列业绩显示,其业务出现了戏剧性的拐点,股价在两个多月的时间里上涨了160%以上。毫不奇怪,它在2020年1月成功地筹集了11亿美元(包括二次配售)。

      瑞幸确切地知道投资者在寻找什么,如何将自己定位成一个有精彩故事的成长型股票,以及操纵哪些关键指标来最大化投资者信心。

      这份报告由两部分组成:欺诈和基本崩溃的业务,我们分别展示了瑞幸是如何伪造数据的,以及为什么其商业模式存在固有的缺陷。

      Part One: The Fraud第一部分:始于2019年第三季度的欺诈铁证Smoking Gun Evidence #1Number of items per store per day inflated by 69% in 2019 3Q and 88% in 2019 4Q, supported by 11,260 hours of store traffic video

      每家商店每天的商品数量在2019年第三季度增长了69%,在2019年第四季度增长了88%,并有11260小时的商店交通视频支持。

      我们从2019年第4季度开始在线下追踪了981个店铺,每家门店单日销售商品数仅为263件。(瑞幸文件中显示2019年Q3每家门店单日销售商品数为444件,预计Q4位483-506件)

      我们动员了92名全职和1418名兼职人员在现场进行监控,成功记录了981个店铺日的客流量,覆盖了620家店铺100%的营业时间。门店选择方法基于城市和地点类型的分布,与瑞幸的4507家直营店预计2019年底开业的情况相同。瑞幸的4507家门店分布在53个城市,我们覆盖了38个城市,其中96%的门店都位于这些城市。通过分析瑞幸店铺的详细地址来确定店铺的位置类型:我们将店铺分为办公室、商场、学校、住宅、交通、酒店等。

      我们统计了每家店的客流量,并记录了从开门到关门的视频,平均每天11.5小时。当我们再次检查人流量和记录的视频时,如果视频监控丢失了超过10分钟的片段,我们就会丢弃一整天的数据。我们的成功率只有54%,因此所有成功的数据都是100%的完整。

      ……(关于数据严谨性的论述)

      这是2019年11月23日通知商店经理注意提货数量激增的证据。

      然而,这里有一个聪明的部分:公司管理层可能认为,越来越多的投资者和数据公司开始跟踪他们的订单号码,作为尽职调查过程的一部分,所以“跳跃式订单”是误导投资者的简单方法。

      为了了解线上订单膨胀的规模,我们随机选取151家线下跟踪店-天来跟踪他们的线上订单。我们在商店营业时间的开始和结束时分别下了一份订单,以获得当天的在线订单数量。我们发现,同一家商店在同一天的在线订单数量膨胀范围从34到232,平均每天106个订单或72%的离线订单平均。

      Smoking Gun Evidence #2Luckin’s “Items per order” has declined from 1.38 in 2019 2Q to 1.14 in 2019 4Q

      瑞幸的“单品”从2019年第二季度的1.38下降到2019年第四季度的1.14件。

      从2019年第四季度开始,我们收集了来自45个城市2213家商店10119名顾客的25843张收据。25,843张收据显示,每个订单的提货和送货单分别为1.08张和1.75张,或混合1.14张(99%置信水平)。这标志着每笔订单的单品数量持续下降,从2018年第一季度的1.74件下降到2019年第一季度的1.14件。

      这一趋势可以归因于送货单贡献的下降,因为人们自然倾向于购买更多的物品来满足免费送货的要求。瑞幸表示,通过走访我们的商店,我们发现,大多数上门收件的顾客只买一种现磨饮料,因为在大多数情况下,优惠券只能用于订单中的一种商品。根据公司介绍和管理层沟通,交付订单的比例确实从2018年第一季度的61.7%下降到2019年第三季度的12.8%,1月初进一步下降到约10%。

      Smoking Gun Evidence #3:We gathered 25,843 customer receipts and found that Luckin inflated its net selling price per item by at least RMB 1.23 or 12.3% to artificially sustain the business model. In the real case, the store level loss is high at 24.7%-28%. Excluding free products, actual selling price was 46% of listed price, instead of 55% claimed by management.

      我们收集了25843份客户收据,发现瑞幸将每件商品的净售价至少提高了1.23元或12.3%,人为地维持了这种商业模式。在实际情况中,商店层面的损失高达24.7%-28%。不包括免费产品,实际销售价格为上市价格的46%,而不是管理层声称的55%。

      瑞幸报告称,2019年第三季度每件商品的净售价为11.2元人民币。在2019年11月13日的收益电话会议上,瑞幸的首席财务官兼首席运营官Reinout Schakel为2019年第四季度指引了更高的价格。然而,我们的25843张收据显示的净售价只有9.97元人民币,也就是说,与报告的情况相比,通货膨胀率为12.3%(99%的置信水平和1%的统计误差,意味着我们99%确定价格在9.87- 10.07元人民币之间,1%的误差。

      不包括免费产品,现磨饮料和其他产品的售价分别为10.94元和9.16元,与报道的情况相比,通货膨胀率分别为12.3%和32%。不包括免费产品,实际销售价格为上市价格的46%,而不是管理层声称的55%。

      在上述收益电话会议上,瑞幸的首席财务官Reinout Schakel回避了有关加大促销力度的问题。然而,我们的收据显示,他们甚至从2019年第四季度开始向现有用户提供免费的饮料券,而之前只向新用户和邀请他们的用户提供免费的饮料券。据推测,每一家公司提交的文件中,免费项目的比例正在下降。

      瑞幸的首席财务官Reinout Schakel表示,他们继续增加已经在支付他们希望支付的价格的人数。我们的收据显示正好相反,即使在成熟的市场,有更成熟的客户,有效价格停滞在10元人民币,不包括免费产品。每件商品的净售价与经营月份之间不存在正相关关系。

      瑞幸首席财务官Reinout Schakel在1月份花旗银行最近的一次会议上提到,超过63%的客户为每杯咖啡支付15-16元人民币。在2019年第三季度公司的报告中,他们指出63%的产品售价超过零售价的50%。然而,这些都太好了,不可能是真的,而且与我们的收据发现相矛盾。

      我们的收据显示,只有28.7%的商品以超过标价50%的价格售出。事实上,大部分商品的售价都在标价的28%-38%之间。瑞幸的核心客户对价格仍然非常敏感。只有39.2%的顾客支付的价格高于12元人民币,18.9%的顾客每杯咖啡支付的价格高于15元人民币。

      为什么ASP很重要?如果投资者还记得Luckin在演讲中对商店盈利能力的敏感性分析,他们会发现ASP是商店盈利能力的关键因素。他们指出,在每家店每天400件商品的情况下,每件商品售价16元人民币,店级利润率可高达28.4%。在管理层的分析中,较接近实际情况的每股收益低于12元的下限,不知怎么被忽略了,这代表着一个更加艰难的盈利前景。

      在实际情况下,即每家店每天263件,净售价为9.97元,根据管理报表,店级损失为28.0%。注意,所有的数字都是由管理层提供的。退一步说,我们给公司一些信用,通过送免费咖啡实现规模经济,并在2019年第二季度报告的数字中降低成本,商店层面的损失仍然高达24.7%。在目前的价格水平上,他们只能通过每天每家店销售800件商品来实现门店水平的盈利,否则他们必须将有效售价提高到最低13元人民币。这就是为什么他们需要编造ASP数字来维持他们的商业模式。

      Smoking Gun Evidence #4:Third party media tracking showed that Luckin overstated its 2019 3Q advertising expenses by over 150%, especially its spending on Focus Media

      第三方媒体跟踪显示,瑞幸将2019年第三季度的广告支出夸大了150%以上,尤其是在分众传媒上的支出。

      瑞幸在招股说明书中披露了2019年3月31日前的季度广告支出。IPO后,其广告费用可以通过其季度盈利报告中新客户获取成本的分项来计算。

      在2019年第二季度财报电话会议上,公司首次披露分众传媒在2019年第二季度2.4亿元+广告支出总额中占1.4亿元(他们仅解释了1.545亿元,占2.42亿元广告支出总额的64%)。

      CTR市场研究跟踪的数据显示,瑞幸将2019年第三季度的广告支出多报了150%以上:2019年第三季度,CTR暗示分众传媒支出为4600万人民币,仅占瑞幸广告支出的12%,远低于前几个季度。假设瑞幸在2019年第三季度的非分众传媒广告支出与此相当,那么瑞幸将其广告支出夸大了158%。

      CTR市场研究跟踪实际广告广播不同的品牌在各种媒体渠道,包括所有三大媒体的分众传媒渠道:液晶显示器网络(办公楼电梯),海报/数字框架网络(住宅电梯),和电影院网络——占82%、17%和1%分众传媒的总收入在2019年上半年,分别基于分众传媒2019年的中期报告。

      下面是CTR对瑞幸广告支出在分众传媒渠道的月度跟踪结果。Luckin的支出在2019年9月至11月降至最低水平,但在2019年12月反弹。

      CTR原始数据中的美元金额是媒体列表价格,这可能远远高于实际的广告支出。

      为了计算列表价格和广告支出之间的转化率,我们计算了CTR跟踪分众传媒(002027 CH)报告收入的总分众传媒播出广告的转化率。根据2019年第一季度至第三季度的数据,分众传媒的实际收入约为CTR跟踪媒体列表价格的8%。

      根据分众传媒财务报告中列出的会计政策,分众传媒的广告收入是在“广告播出时”确认的,与CTR跟踪的广告播出时间相同,瑞幸应该在什么时候预定广告费用。

      CTR还根据追踪结果在其网站上发布月度、季度和年度最大广告客户报告。例如,在2019年5月(Link), CTR指出瑞幸是其追踪的所有媒体渠道(包括传统户外、电视、广播和分众传媒使用最多的三个渠道)的最大广告商。值得注意的是,Luckin当月跟踪广告预算的83%用于LCD显示网络,12%用于海报/数字框架网络,5%用于影院网络。

      然而,瑞幸在液晶显示和海报/数字框广告方面的排名在2019年6月和7月迅速下滑,甚至从2019年8月开始跌出前10名(链接)。

      那么钱都花到哪里去了呢?

      从被夸大的店面利润和广告费用中也可以找到类似的线索。

      瑞幸声称在2019年第三季度实现了“门店水平的盈利”。结合确凿的证据1至3,瑞幸实际上将门店层面的损失隐藏在门店层面以下,而不是真正超过门店层面的盈亏平衡点。

      瑞幸店级结果的真实案例是每天每家店263件商品的销售额,ASP为9.97元人民币。对比真实案例和报道案例,瑞幸集团在2019年第三季度将门店营业利润夸大了3.97亿元。巧的是,瑞幸报告的广告支出与央视跟踪的分众传媒实际支出的差额为3.36亿元,与被夸大的门店营业利润相差无几。此外,从2019年第三季度开始,这两个错误陈述变得明显起来。瑞幸有可能将其夸大的广告费用重新用于欺诈收入和店面利润。

      Smoking Gun Evidence #5Luckin’s revenue contribution from “other products” was only about 6% in 2019 3Q, representing a nearly 400% inflation, as shown by 25,843 customer receipts and its reported VAT numbers.

      瑞幸从“其他产品”获得的收入贡献在2019年第三季度仅为6%,根据25,843份客户收据和报告的增值税数字,这代表了近400%的通货膨胀。

      瑞幸的雄心绝不是开一家咖啡公司。它的使命是“每个人的日常生活,从咖啡开始!”这使得“其他产品”,即非现煮饮料,如便餐、果汁、坚果、马克杯等成为一个重要的产品——据报道,其收入贡献从2018年第二季度的7%增加到2019年第三季度的23%,项目贡献相应从6%增加到22%。

      然而,在我们追踪的981个工作日中,只有2%的提货订单中发现了非现制产品。25843张收据进一步显示,收派订单中4.9%及17.5%为“其他产品”,占6.2%,即膨胀近400%。再一次,人们自然倾向于购买更多的“其他产品”来满足免费送货的要求。但是,如果2018年第二季度的订单率从62%大幅下降到现在的近10%,为什么同期“来自其他产品的收入百分比”从7%上升到23% ?

      瑞幸最新的F-1表格中的增值税税率也支持了我们的调查结果:根据中华人民共和国国家税务总局,销售商品和服务的增值税税率是不同的。对于提供服务,例如出售现酿产品或送货,增值税税率均为6%。对于销售商品,例如销售包装食品和饮料,即“其他产品”,在瑞幸的案例中,自2019年4月以来增值税税率为13%(或之前的16%)。我们在瑞幸购物后收到的增值税发票进一步证实了这一点(见下面的样品)。根据瑞幸的收入分类,我们可以计算一个混合的增值税税率,并与公司报告进行比较。

      按产品类别加权平均净收入贡献%,我们发现计算的增值税率与上市前2018年第4季度、2018年全年和2019年第1季度的报告情况完全吻合(见下图)。

      然而,在2019年2-3季度,这一差距突然扩大,报告的增值税税率为6.5%,而实际计算为7.6%。从另一个角度来看,为了与报道的6.5%的增值税相一致,其他产品的收入贡献实际上将是7%,这与25843张发票的6.2%非常接近,而公司报道的是22%-23%。

      在这种情况下,“其他产品”在2019年第三季度的实际收入贡献为6%-7%,或者瑞幸有逃税行为。

      为了确认其他产品的增值税税率为13%,我们在瑞幸购买了一些产品,并要求提供增值税记录。它清楚地显示了13%的增值税为坚果,松饼,果汁等,和6%的新鲜酿造饮料和送货费。任何想要这些信息的人都可以在购买后通过瑞幸的应用程序要求增值税记录。

      Red Flag #1: Luckin’s management has cashed out on 49% of their stock holdings (or 24% of total shares outstanding) through stock pledges, exposing investors to the risk of margin call induced price plunges

      瑞幸的管理层已经通过股票质押兑现了49%的股票持有量(或已发行股票总数的24%),令投资者面临追缴保证金导致股价暴跌的风险。瑞幸的管理层强调,他们从未出售过公司的任何股份;然而,他们已经通过股票质押融资套现。抵押的股份数量几乎是他们全部股份的一半,按当前价格价值25亿美元。

      Red Flag #2: CAR (699 HK) déjà vu: Charles Zhengyao Lu and the same group of closely-connected private equity investors walked away with USD 1.6 billion from CAR (699 HK) while minority shareholders took heavy losses

      似曾相识:陆正耀(Charles Zhengyao Lu)和同一批关系密切的私人股本投资者从中非(699 HK)手中拿走了16亿美元,而少数股东蒙受了巨大损失。

      Red Flag #3: Through acquisition of Borgward, Luckin’s Chairman Charles Zhengyao Lu transferred RMB 137 million from UCAR (838006 CH) to his related party, Baiyin Wang. UCAR, Borgward, and Baiyin Wang are on the hook to pay BAIC-Foton Motors RMB 5.95 billion over the next 12 months. Now Baiyin Wang owns a recently founded coffee machine vendor located next door to Luckin’s Headquarter

      瑞幸集团董事长陆正耀通过收购宝沃,将1.37亿元人民币从UCAR (838006 CH)转移到其关联方——王白银。UCAR、Borgward和Baiyin Wang将在未来12个月向百富顿汽车支付59.5亿元人民币。现在,在瑞幸总部的隔壁,有一家刚成立不久的咖啡机供应商。

      Red Flag #4: Luckin recently raised USD 865 million through a follow-on offering and a convertible bond offering to develop its “unmanned retail” strategy, which is more likely a convenient way for management to siphon large amount of cash from the company

      瑞幸最近通过增发和发行可转换债券筹集了8.65亿美元,以发展其“无人零售”战略,这更可能是管理层从公司吸走大量现金的便捷方式。

      Red Flag #5: Luckin’s independent board member, Sean Shao, is/was on the board of some very questionable Chinese companies listed in the US that have incurred significant losses on their public investors

      瑞幸的独立董事肖恩·邵(Sean Shao)是一些非常可疑的在美上市中国公司的董事,这些公司的公开投资者蒙受了重大损失。

      瑞幸的招股说明书显示,其独立董事邵绍锋(Sean Shao)在德勤(Deloitte)工作10年后,曾在多家在美上市的中国公司担任董事。我们详细研究这些公司,发现的18家公司,肖恩•邵曾在董事会4被指控的欺诈行为(CHME,阿迪,GRO和勇)和5是反向收购——臭名昭著的生成大批中国欺诈公司早在2011年- 2012年。

      Red Flag #6: Luckin co-founder & Chief Marketing Officer, Fei Yang, was once sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment for crime of illegal business operations when he was the co-founder and general manager of Beijing Koubei Interactive Marketing & Planning Co.,Ltd. (“iWOM”). Afterwards, iWOM became a related party with Beijing QWOM Technology Co., Ltd. (“QWOM”), which is now an affiliate of CAR and is doing related party transactions with Luckin

      瑞幸联合创始人兼首席营销官杨飞曾因非法经营罪被判处有期徒刑18个月,当时他是北京口碑互动营销策划有限公司的联合创始人兼总经理。(“iWOM”)。此后,iWOM与北京QWOM科技有限公司(“QWOM”)成为关联方,后者现在是CAR的子公司,并与瑞幸金进行关联方交易

      Part Two: The Fundamentally Broken Business Before 3rd Quarter, 2019第二部分:2019年第三季度之前基本崩溃的业务Business Model Flaw #1: Luckin’s proposition to target core functional coffee demand is wrong: China’s caffeine intake level of 86mg/day per capita is comparable to other Asian countries already, with 95% of the intake from tea. The market of core functional coffee product in China is small and moderately growing in China.

      商业模式缺陷#1:瑞幸针对核心功能咖啡需求的主张是错误的:中国人均86毫克/天的咖啡因摄入量已经与其他亚洲国家相当,95%的摄入量来自茶叶。在中国,核心功能咖啡产品的市场规模较小,且正在适度增长。

      Business Model Flaw #2: Luckin’s customers are highly price sensitive and retention is driven by generous price promotion; Luckin’s attempt to decrease discount level (i.e. raise effective price) and increase same store sales at the same time is mission impossible

      商业模式缺陷#2:瑞幸的客户对价格高度敏感,慷慨的价格推广是留住他们的动力;瑞幸试图降低折扣水平(即提高有效价格),同时增加同店销售额是不可能完成的任务

      Business Model Flaw #3: Flawed unit economics that has no chance to see profit: Luckin’s broken business model is bound to collapse

      商业模式缺陷#3:有缺陷的单位经济没有机会看到利润:瑞幸破碎的商业模式注定要崩溃。

      Business Model Flaw #4: Luckin’s dream “to be part of everyone’s everyday life, starting with coffee” is unlikely to come true, as it lacks core competence in non-coffee products as well. Its “platform” is full of opportunist customers without brand loyalty. Its labor-light store model is only suitable for making “Generation 1.0” tea drinks that have been in the market for more than a decade, while leading fresh tea players have pioneered “Generation 3.0” products five years ago.

      商业模式缺陷#4:瑞幸“从咖啡开始,成为每个人日常生活的一部分”的梦想不太可能实现,因为它在非咖啡产品方面也缺乏核心竞争力。它的“平台”充满了没有品牌忠诚度的机会主义客户。它的lab -light商店模式只适用于生产已经上市十多年的“1.0代”茶饮料,而领先的鲜茶生产商五年前就率先推出了“3.0代”产品。

      Business Model Flaw #5: The franchise business of Luckin Tea is subject to high compliance risk as it’s not registered with relevant authority as required by law, because Luckin Tea launched its franchise business in September 2019 without having at least two directly-operated stores fully operational for at least 1 year.

      商业模式缺陷# 5:Luckin茶受到高的特许经营业务合规风险,因为它不是在有关机关依法注册,因为Luckin茶2019年9月推出了特许经营业务完全没有至少两个直接经营的店铺运营至少1年。

  • 中信证券团队:从拆解Model3看智能电动汽车发展趋势

    一个产业的进步和变革,往往是供给和需求两方面因素共同驱动的。当新航路带来的 新市场遇到珍妮纺纱机,就足够引发一场工业革命;出行的需求遇上热机,就产生了各类 交通工具。集成电路出现以来,人们对电子化、自动化、智能化的需求越来越高,其根源 还是对低成本美好生活的需求,这种需求与不断发展的 IT 技术供给相结合,相继诞生了 PC、智能手机、智能家居等诸多大型产业,如今又开始推动汽车往智能化方向演进。 汽车的智能化的大方向已经成为了产业共识和市场共识,然而什么叫智能化却没有一 个明确的定义。我们认为,智能化的关键在于智能汽车的软件“可迭代、可演进”。比如 说 2008 年安卓 1.0 发布之初,使用体验是比较一般的,经过不断的数据收集、用户反馈 和持续迭代,最终交互和用户体验越来越好,逐步向我们理想中的“智能终端”逼近。

    无论每个人如何去定义自己心目中的汽车智能化,但我们相信会有一个共识,那就是 现在仅仅只是汽车智能化的起点,离终局还非常遥远,这中间软件需要不断进行升级迭代。 而汽车过去的 E/E 架构,是由多个厂商提供 ECU 组成的电子电气架构,正 因为硬件和软件功能都被切割成很多块分布在不同厂家提供的 ECU 里,使得软件 OTA 的 难度非常大。这使得很多型号的汽车从出厂到最终报废,软件功能都没有升级过,都没有 迭代,又何谈智能?

    显而易见,汽车如果要能像手机一样持续根据数据和用户反馈进行软件迭代,现有的 E/E 架构势必然是要进行大的变革的。软件和硬件必须解耦,算力必须从分布走向集中, 特斯拉的 Model3 率先由分布式架构转向了分域的集中式架构,这是其智能化水平遥遥领 先于许多车厂的主要原因,我们接下来就对特斯拉的车身域、座舱域、驾驶域进行详细的 解读。

    车身域:按位置而非功能进行分区,彻底实现软件定义车身

    同样是域控制器,特斯拉的域控制器思路始终是更为领先的。举例来说,作为传统汽 车供应链中最核心的供应商之一,博世是最早提出域控制器概念的企业之一。但博世的思 路仍然受到传统的模块化电子架构影响,其在 2016 年提出了按照功能分区的五域架构, 将整车的 ECU 整合为驾驶辅助、安全、车辆运动、娱乐信息、车身电子 5 个域,不同域 之间通过域控制器和网关进行连接。在当时看来,这一方案已经能够大大减少 ECU 数量, 然而用今天的眼光来看,每个域内部仍然需要较为复杂的线束连接,整车线束复杂度仍然 较高。

    与博世形成对比,特斯拉 model 3 在 2016 年发布,2017 年量产上市,与博世的报告 几乎处于同一时期。然而,model 3 的域控制器架构核心直接从功能变成了位置,3 个车 身控制器就集中体现了特斯拉造车的新思路。按照特斯拉的思路,每个控制器应该负责控 制其附近的元器件,而非整车中的所有同类元器件,这样才能最大化减少车身布线复杂度, 充分发挥当今芯片的通用性和高性能,降低汽车开发和制造成本。所以特斯拉的三个车身 域控制器分别分布在前车身、左前门和右前门前,实现就近控制。这样的好处是可以降低 布线的复杂度,但是也要求三个车身域要实现彻底的软硬件解耦,对厂商的软件能力的要 求大大提高。

    前车身控制器:全车电子电气配电单元以及核心安全 ECU 连接

    前车身控制器位于前舱中,主要负责的功能是前车体元件控制以及主要的配电工作。 该控制器离蓄电池比较近,方便取电。其主要负责三类电子电气的配电和控制:1、安全 相关:i-booster、ESP 车身稳定系统、EPS 助力转向、前向毫米波雷达;2、热管理相关: 如冷却液泵、五通阀、换热器、冷媒温度压力传感器等;3、前车身其它功能:车头灯、 机油泵、雨刮等。除此之外,它还给左右车身控制器供电,这一功能十分重要,因为左右 车身控制器随后还将用这两个接口中的能量来驱动各自控制的车身零部件。

    将其拆开来看,具体功能实现方面,需要诸多芯片和电子元件来配合完成。核心的芯 片主要完成控制和配电两方面的工作。 先说控制部分,主要由一颗意法半导体的 MCU 来执行。此外,由于涉及 到冷却液泵、制动液液压阀等各类电机控制,所以板上搭载有安森美的直流电机驱动芯片 ,这类芯片通常搭配一定数量的大功率 MOSFET 即可驱动 电机。 配电功能方面,一方面需要实时监测各部件中电流的大小,另一方面也需要根据监测 的结果对电流通断和电流大小进行控制。电流监测方面,AMS 的双 ADC 数据采集芯片和 电流传感器配套芯片(黄色框 AMS 中的芯片)可以起到重要作用。而要控制电流的状态, 一方面是通过 MOSFET 的开关,另一方面也可以通过 HSD 芯片(High Side Driver,高 边开关),这种芯片可以控制从电源正极流出的电流通断。

    这一块控制器电路板共使用了 52个安森美的大功率 MOSFET,9个功率整流器芯片, 以及 ST 和英飞凌的共计 21 个 HSD 芯片。在前车身控制器上我们可以看到,特斯拉已经 在很大程度上用半导体元件取代了传统电气元件。

    左车身域控制器:负责车身左侧电子电气调度

    左车身控制器位于驾驶员小腿左前方位置,贴合车体纵向放置,采用塑料壳体封装, 可以在一定程度上节约成本。左车身控制器负责管理驾驶舱及后部的左侧车身部件,充分 体现了尽可能节约线束长度以控制成本的指导思想。 左车身控制器主要负责了几类电子电气的配电和控制:1、左侧相关:包括仪表板、 方向盘位置调节、照脚灯;2、座椅和车门:,左前座椅、左后座椅、前门、后排车门、座 椅、尾灯等。

    左车身域控制的核心芯片主要也分为控制和配电。核心控制功能使用两颗 ST 的 32 位 MCU 以及一颗 TI 的 32 位单片机来实现。左车身的灯具和电机比较多,针对灯具类应 用,特斯拉选用了一批 HSD 芯片来进行控制,主要采用英飞凌的 BTS 系列芯片。针对电 机类应用,特斯拉则选用了 TI 的电机控制芯片和安森美的大功率 MOSFET。

    右车身域控制器:负责车身右侧电子电气调度

    右车身控制器与左车身基本对称,接口的布局大体相同,也有一些不同点。右车身域 负责超声波雷达以及空调,同时右车身承担的尾部控制功能更多一些,包括后方的高位刹 车灯和后机油泵都在此控制。

    具体电路实现方面,由于功能较为相似,电路配置也与左车身较为相似。一个不同点 在于右车身信号较多,所以将主控单片机从左车身的 ST 换成了瑞萨的高端单片机 RH850 系列。此外由于右车身需要较多的空调控制功能,所以增加了三片英飞凌的半桥驱动器芯 片。

    特斯拉车身域的思路:彻底地软件定义汽车,用芯片替代保险丝和继电器

    车身域是特斯拉相比传统汽车变化最大的地方,传统汽车采用了大量 ECU,而特斯拉 通过三个域实现了对整车的一个控制。虽然都是往域控制器方向走,但特斯拉没有采用博 世的功能域做法,而是完全按区域来进行划分,将硬件尽量标准化,通过软件来定义汽车 的思路体现得淋漓尽致。除此之外,特斯拉还将一些电气化的部件尽量芯片化,如车身域 中采用了大量 HSD 芯片替代了继电器和保险丝,可靠性提高,而且可以编程,能更好实 现软件定义汽车。

    特斯拉控制器的未来走向:走向更高集成度,优化布置持续降本

    从特斯拉车身控制器能够体现出的另一个发展趋势是器件的持续集成和持续降本。早 期版本的 model S 和 model X 并无如此集中的车身控制器架构,但如今较新的 model 3 和 model Y 已经体现出集成度增加的趋势。

    另外 2020 款 model Y 的 PCB 板也得到进一步节约。初代 PCB 板由于形状不规则, 必然有一部分 PCB 材料被浪费,推高了成本。而第三代控制器的 PCB 形状能够紧密贴合, 两个左右车身控制器可以合并成为一个矩形,因此 PCB 材料的利用率得到有效提升,也 能够在一定程度上降低成本。

    未来车身控制器会如何发展,是否会走向一台统一的控制器?至少目前来看,特斯拉 用产品对此做出了否定的回答。我们可以看到,2021 年交付的 model S plAId,其第四代 车身控制器仍旧使用了分离的两片左右车身控制器。

    而且在第四代车身控制器设计中,前车身控制器也分成了两片,一片负责能量管理和 配电,另一片负责车身管理、热管理以及少量配电工作。整体来看,第四代控制器的元件 密度仍旧很高,体现出了集成降本的趋势。另外,第四代控制器的元件连接采用 Press-Fit 技术取代了传统焊接,进一步提高了良率,也有利于实现更高的元器件密度。

    整体来看,统一的中央计算机虽然集成度高,但不可避免地带来了控制器和受控器件 的距离增加,从而增加线束长度,提高成本,而且元件集成密度也有一定的限制,我们无 法在有限的空间内无限制集成,因此集中化也是有上限和最优解的,目前看来特斯拉正逐 渐改善设计和工艺来逼近这个最优解。 硬件方面的持续集成也为软件的集成和发展创造了条件。传统汽车产业链当中不同功 能独立性很高,各功能的 ECU 都来自不同厂商,难以协同工作。但特斯拉将大量 ECU 集 成后,车身上只需保留负责各个功能的执行器,而主要的控制功能都统一在域控制器中, 采用少量的 MCU,更多使用软件来完成功能控制。比如特斯拉 model 3 的左右车身域控 制器中各有 3 个 MCU,数量大大减少,不同控制功能采用软件的形式进行交互,能够有 更大的协同创新空间。比如特斯拉可以协同全车空调出风口来调节车内风场,或对副驾驶 座位上的乘客进行体重检测,判断其是否属于儿童,从而灵活调整安全气囊策略,而不是 像传统车企一样只能让儿童坐在后排。而且特斯拉可以从软件控制当中收集数据,并持续 不断改善控制功能,改善用户体验。

    驾驶域:FSD 芯片和算法构成主要壁垒,NPU 芯片效率更优

    特斯拉的另一个重要特色就是其智能驾驶,这部分功能是通过其自动驾驶域控制器 (AP)来执行的。本部分的核心在于特斯拉自主开发的 FSD 芯片,其余配置则与当前其 他自动驾驶控制器方案没有本质区别。 在 model 3 所用的 HW3.0 版本的 AP 中,配备两颗 FSD 芯片,每颗配置 4 个三星 2GB 内存颗粒,单 FSD总计 8GB,同时每颗 FSD配备一片东芝的 32GB闪存以及一颗 Spansion 的 64MB NOR flash 用于启动。网络方面,AP 控制器内部包含 Marvell 的以太网交换机和 物理层收发器,此外还有 TI 的高速 CAN 收发器。对于自动驾驶来说,定位也十分重要, 因此配备了一个 Ublox 的 GPS 定位模块。 外围接口方面,model 3 整车的所有摄像头都直接连接到 AP 控制器,与这些相机配 合的还有 TI 的视频串行器和解串器。此外还有供电接口、以太网接口和 CAN 接口使得 AP 控制器能够正常运作。作为一款车载控制器,特斯拉的自动驾驶域控制器还考虑到了紧急 情况,因此配备了紧急呼叫音频接口,为此搭配了 TI 的音频放大器和故障 CAN 收发器。

    另外一点值得注意的是,为了保障驾驶安全,AP 控制器必须时刻稳定运行,因此特 斯拉在 AP 控制器中加入了相当大量的被动元件,正面有 8 颗安森美的智能功率模块,并 搭配大量的电感和电容。背面更为明显,在几乎没有太多控制芯片的情况下将被动元件铺 满整个电路板,密度之高远超其他控制器,也明显高于生活中各种常见的智能终端。从这 一点来看,随着智能汽车的发展,我国被动元器件企业也有望获益。

    为了实现自动驾驶,特斯拉提出了一整套以视觉为基础,以 FSD 芯片为核心的解决 方案,其外围传感器主要包含 12 个超声传感器(Valeo)、8 个摄像头(风挡玻璃顶 3 个前 视,B 柱 2 个拍摄侧前方,前翼子板 2 个后视,车尾 1 个后视摄像头,以及 1 个 DMS 摄 像头)、1 个毫米波雷达(大陆)。

    其最核心的前视三目摄像头包含中间的主摄像头以及两侧的长焦镜头和广角镜头,形 成不同视野范围的搭配,三个摄像头用的是相同的安森美图像传感器。

    毫米波雷达放置于车头处车标附近,包含一块电路板和一块天线板。该毫米波雷达内 部采用的是一颗 Freescale 控制芯片以及一颗 TI 的稳压电源管理芯片。

    而整个 AP 控制器的真正核心其实就是 FSD 芯片,这也是特斯拉实现更高 AI 性能和 更低成本的的一个重点。与当前较为主流的英伟达方案不同,特斯拉 FSD 芯片内部占据 最大面积的并非CPU和GPU,而是NPU。虽然此类设计完全是为神经网络算法进行优化, 通用性和灵活性相对不如英伟达的 GPU 方案,但在当前 AI 算法尚未出现根本性变化的情 况下,NPU 的适用性并不会受到威胁。

    NPU 单元能够对常见视觉算法中的卷积运算和矩阵乘法运算进行有效加速,因此特斯 拉 FSD 芯片能够使用三星 14nm 工艺,达到 144TOPS 的 AI 算力,而面积只有约 260 平 方毫米。相比而言,英伟达 Xavier 使用台积电 12nm 工艺,使用 350 平方毫米的芯片面 积却只得到 30TOPS 的 AI 算力。这样的差距也是特斯拉从 HW2.5 版本的英伟达 Parker SoC 切换到 HW3.0 的自研 FSD 芯片的原因。因此,在算法不发生根本性变革的情况下, 特斯拉 FSD 能取得成本和性能的双重优势,这也构成了特斯拉自动驾驶方案的竞争力。

    AI 算法方面,根据特斯拉官网人工智能与自动驾驶页面的描述,AutoPilot 神经网络的 完整构建涉及 48 个网络,每天依据其上百万辆车产生的数据进行训练,需要训练 70000 GPU 小时。基础代码层面,特斯拉具备可以 OTA 的引导程序,还有自定义的 Linux 内核 (具有实时性补丁),也有大量内存高效的低层级代码。 未来自动驾驶域的创新仍然会集中在芯片端,另外传感器的创新如激光雷达、4D 毫 米波雷达等也能够很大程度上推动智能驾驶。在可见的未来,专用 AI 芯片将能够成为与英 伟达竞争的重要力量,我国 AI 芯片企业有望借助智能汽车的东风获得更好发展。(报告来源:未来智库)

    座舱域:特斯拉更多将座舱视为 PC 而非手机

    座舱域是用户体验的重要组成部分,特斯拉的座舱控制平台也在不断进化中。本次拆 解的特斯拉 model 3 2020 款采用的是第二代座舱域控制器(MCU2)。 MCU2 由两块电路板构成,一块是主板,另一块是固定在主板上的一块小型无线通信 电路板。这一块通信电路板包含了 LTE 模组、以太网控制芯片、天线 接口等,相当于传统汽车中用于对外无线通信的 T-box,此次将其集成在 MCU 中,能够 节约空间和成本。我们本次拆解的 2020 款 model 3 采用了 Telit 的 LTE 模组,在 2021 款 以后特斯拉将无线模组供应商切换成移远通信。 MCU2 的主板采用了双面 PCB 板,正面主要布局各种网络相关芯片,例如 Intel 和 Marvell 的以太网芯片,Telit 的 LTE 模组,TI 的视频串行器等。正面的另一个重要作用是 提供对外接口,如蓝牙/WiFi/LTE 的天线接口、摄像头输入输出接口、音频接口、USB 接 口、以太网接口等。

    而 MCU2 的背面更为重要,其核心是一颗 Intel Atom A3950 芯片,搭配总计 4GB 的 Micron 内存和同样是 Micron 提供的 64GB eMMC 存储芯片。此外还有 LG Innotek 提供的 WiFi/蓝牙模块等。

    在座舱平台上,特斯拉基于开源免费的 Linux 操作系统开发了其自有的车机操作系统, 由于 Linux 操作系统生态不如 Android 生态丰富,特斯拉需要自己进行一部分主流软件的 开发或适配。 座舱域的重要作用就是信息娱乐,MCU2 在这一方面表现尚显不足。伴随 A3950 芯 片低价的是其性能有限,据车东西测试称,在 MCU2 上启动腾讯视频或 bilibili 的时间都超 过了 20 秒,且地图放大缩小经常卡顿。卡顿的原因是多方面的,一方面 A3950 本身算力 有限,集成显卡 HD505 性能也比较弱,处理器测评网站 NotebookCheck 对英特尔 HD 505 的评价是,截至 2016 年的游戏,即使是在最低画质设置下,也很少能流畅运行。另一方 面,速度较慢、寿命较短的 eMMC(embedded MultiMedia Card)闪存也会拖累系统性 能。eMMC 相对机械硬盘具备速度和抗震优势,但擦写寿命可能只有数百次,随着使用次 数增多,坏块数量增加,eMMC 的性能将逐渐恶化,在使用周期较长的汽车上这一弊端可 能会得到进一步放大,导致读写速度慢,使用卡顿,2021 年年初,特斯拉召回初代 MCU eMMC 可以佐证这一点。综合来看,特斯拉 MCU2 相比同时期采用高通 820A 的车机,属 于偏弱的水平。

    但特斯拉作为一家重视车辆智能水平的企业,并不会坐视落后的局面一直保持下去。 2021 年发布的所有新款车型都换装 AMD CPU(zen+架构)和独立显卡(RDNA2 架构), GPU 算力提升超过 50 倍,存储也从 eMMC 换成了 SSD,读写性能和寿命都得到大幅改 善。整体来看,相比 MCU2,MCU3 性能获得明显提升,提升幅度比第一代到第二代的跨 度更大。

    提升的配置也让使用体验得到大幅提升。根据车东西的测试,MCU3 加载 bilibili 的时 间缩短到 9 秒,浏览器启动时间为 4 秒,地图也能够流畅操作,虽然相比手机加载速度仍 然不够,但已经有明显改善。另外 MCU3 的庞大算力让其能够运行大型游戏,比如 2021 年 6 月新款特斯拉 model S 交付仪式上,特斯拉工作人员就现场展示了用手柄和车机玩赛 博朋克 2077。而且特斯拉官网上,汽车内部渲染图中,车机屏幕上显示的是巫师 3。这两 个案例已经说明,MCU3 能够充分支持 3A 游戏,使用体验一定程度上已经可以与 PC 或 游戏主机相比较。

    从特斯拉车机与游戏的不断靠拢我们可以看到未来座舱域的发展第一个方向,即继续 推进大算力与强生态。目前除特斯拉采用 x86 座舱芯片外,其他车企采用 ARM 体系较多, 但同样呈现出算力快速增长的趋势,这一点从主流的高通 820A 到 8155,乃至下一代的 8295 都能够得到明显体现。高通下一代座舱芯片 8295 性能基本与笔记本电脑所用的 8cx 相同。可以看到无论是特斯拉用的 AMD 芯片还是其他车企用的高通芯片,目前趋势都是 从嵌入式的算力水平向 PC 的算力水平靠拢,未来也有可能进一步超越 PC 算力。

    而且高算力让座舱控制器能够利用现有的软件生态。特斯拉选用 x86,基于 Linux 开 发操作系统,利用现有的PC游戏平台,其他厂商更多利用现有的ARM-Android移动生态。 这一方向发展到一定阶段后,可能会给车企带来商业模式的改变,汽车将成为流量入口, 车企可以凭借车载的应用商店等渠道获得大量软件收入,并且大幅提高毛利率。 座舱域控制器的第二个发展方向则是可能与自动驾驶控制器的融合。首先,当前座舱 控制器的算力普遍出现了过剩,剩余的算力完全可以用于满足一些驾驶类的应用,例如自 动泊车辅助等。其次,一些自动驾驶功能尤其是泊车相关功能需要较多人机交互,这正是 座舱控制器的强项。而且,座舱控制器与自动驾驶控制器的融合还能够带来一定的资源复 用和成本节约,停车期间可以将主要算力用于进行游戏娱乐,行驶期间则将算力用于保障自动驾驶功能,而且这种资源节约能够让汽车少一个域控制器,按照 MCU3 的价格,或许 能够为每台车节约上百美元的成本。目前已经出现了相当多二者融合的迹象,比如博世、 电装等主流供应商纷纷在座舱域控制器中集成 ADAS 功能,未来这一趋势有望普及。

    电控域:IGBT 宏图大展,SiC 锋芒初露

    IGBT:汽车电力系统中的“CPU”,广泛受益于电气化浪潮

    IGBT 相当于电力电子领域的“CPU”,属于功率器件门槛最高的赛道之一。功率半导 体又称为电力电子器件,是电力电子装置实现电能转换、电路控制的核心器件,按集成度 可分为功率 IC、功率模块和功率分立器件三大类,其中功率器件又包括二极管、晶闸管、 MOSFET 和 IGBT 等。 应用场景的增量扩张使得汽车领域成为市场规模最大,增长速度最快的 IGBT 应用领 域。根据集邦咨询数据,新能源汽车(含充电桩)是 IGBT 最主要的应用领域,其占比达 31%。IGBT 在汽车中主要用于三个领域,分别是电机驱动的主逆变器、充电相关的车载 充电器(OBC)与直流电压转换器(DC/DC)、完成辅助应用的模块。

    1)主逆变器:主逆变器是电动车上最大的 IGBT 应用场景,其功能是将电池输出的大 功率直流电流转换成交流电流,从而驱动电机的运行。除 IGBT 外,SiC MOSFET 也能完 成主逆变器中的转换需求。 2)车载充电器(OBC)与直流电压转换器(DC/DC):车载充电器搭配外界的充电 桩,共同完成车辆电池的充电工作,因此 OBC 内的功率器件需要完成交-直流转换和高低 压变换工作。DC/DC 转换器则是将电池输出的高压电(400-500V)转换成多媒体、空调、 车灯能够使用的低压电(12-48V),常用到的功率半导体为 IGBT 与 MOSFET。 3)辅助模块:汽车配备大量的辅助模块(如:车载空调、天窗驱动、车窗升降、油 泵等),其同样需要功率半导体完成小功率的直流/交流逆变。这些模块工作电压不高,单 价也相对较低,主要用到的功率半导体为 IGBT 与 IPM。

    以逆变器为例,Model S 的动力总成有两种,分别为 Large Drive Unit(LDU)和 Small Drive Unit(SDU),前者装配在“单电机后驱版本”中的后驱、“双电机高性能四驱版本” 中的后驱,后者装配在“双电机四驱版本”中的前后驱、“双电机高性能四驱版本”中的 前驱。

    LDU 尺寸较大,输出功率也较大,内部的逆变器包含 84 个 IGBT。LDU 的逆变器呈 现三棱镜构造,每个半桥位于三棱镜的每个面上,每个半桥的 PCB 驱动板(三角形)位 于三棱镜的顶部,电池流出的高压直流电由顶部输入,逆变后的高压交流电由底部输出。

    Model S(单电机版本)全车共有 96 个 IGBT,其中有 84 个 IGBT 位于逆变器中,为 其三相感应电机供电,84 个 IGBT 的型号为英飞凌的 IKW75N60T。若以每个 IGBT 5 美 元计算,Model S 逆变器所使用的 IGBT 价格约为 420 美元。

    SiC:Model 3 开创应用先河,与 IGBT 各有千秋

    与 IGBT 类似,SiC 同样具有高电压额定值、高电流额定值以及低导通和开关损耗等 特点,因此非常适合大功率应用。SiC 的工作频率可达 100kHz 以上,耐压可达 20kV,这 些性能都优于传统的硅器件。其于上世纪 70 年代开始研发,2010 年 SiC MOSFET 开始 商用,但目前并未大规模推广。

    Model 3 为第一款采用全 SiC 功率模块电机控制器的纯电动汽车,开创 SiC 应用的先 河。基于 IGBT 的诸多优势,在 Model 3 问世之前,世面上的新能源车均采用 IGBT 方案。 而 Model 3 利用 SiC 模块替换 IGBT 模块,这一里程碑式的创新大大加速了 SiC 等宽禁带 半导体在汽车领域的推广与应用。根据 SystemPlus consulting 拆解报告,Model 3 的主逆 变器上共有 24 个 SiC 模块,每个模块包含 2 颗 SiC 裸晶(Die),共 48 颗 SiC MOSFET。

    Model 3 所用的 SiC 型号为意法半导体的 ST GK026。在相同功率等级下,这款 SiC 模块采用激光焊接将 SiC MOSFET、输入母排和输出三相铜进行连接,封装尺寸也明显小 于硅模块,并且开关损耗降低 75%。采用 SiC 模块替代 IGBT 模块,其系统效率可以提高 5%左右,芯片数量及总面积也均有所减少。如果仍采用 Model X 的 IGBT,则需要 54-60 颗 IGBT。

    24 个模组每个半桥并联四个,利用水冷进行散热。24 个模块排列紧密,每相 8 个, 单个开关并联 4 个。模组下方紧贴水冷散热器,并利用其进行散热。可以看到,模块所在 位置的背面有多根棒状排列的散热器(扰流柱散热器),利用冷却水进行水冷。水通道由 稍大的盖板覆盖和密封。

    Model 3 形成“示范效应”后,多家车厂陆续跟进 SiC 方案。在 Model 3 成功量产并 使用后,其他厂商开始逐渐认识到 SiC 在性能上的优越性,并积极跟进相关方案的落地。 2019 年 9 月,科锐与德尔福科技宣布开展有关车用 SiC 器件的合作,科锐于 2020 年 12 月成为大众 FAST 项目 SiC 独家合作伙伴;2020 年,比亚迪“汉”EV 车型下线,该车搭 载了比亚迪自主研发的的 SiC MOSFET 模块,加速性能与续航显著提升;2021 年,比亚 迪在其“唐”EV 车型中加入 SiC 电控系统;2021 年 4 月,蔚来推出的轿车 ET7 搭载具 备 SiC 功率模块的第二代高效电驱平台;小鹏、理想、捷豹、路虎也在逐渐布局 SiC。

    相比 IGBT,SiC 能够带动多个性能全面提升,优势显著。由于 Si-IGBT 和 Si-FRD 组成的 IGBT 模块在追求低损耗的道路上走到极致,意法半导体、英飞凌等功率器件厂商 纷纷开始研发 SiC 技术。与 Si 基材料相比,SiC 器件的优势集中体现在:1)SiC 带隙宽, 工作结温在 200℃以上,耐压可达 20kV;2)SiC 器件体积可以减少至 IGBT 的 1/3~1/5, 重量减少至 40%~60%;3)功耗降低 60%~80%,效率提升 1%~3%,续航提升约 10%。 在多项工况测试下,SiC MOSFET 相比 Si-IGBT 在功耗和效率上优势显著。

    但 SiC 的高成本制约普及节奏,未来 SiC 与 Si-IGBT 可能同步发展,相互补充。与 IGBT 相比,SiC 材料同样存在亟待提升之处。1)目前 SiC 成品率低、成本高,是 IGBT 的 4~8 倍;2)SiC 和 SiO2 界面缺陷多,栅氧可靠性存在问题。受限于高成本,SiC 器件 普及仍需时日,叠加部分应用场景更加看重稳定性,我们认为 SiC 在逐步渗透的过程中将 与 Si-IGBT 一同成长,未来两者均有广阔的应用场景与增长空间。

    由于应用落地较慢,目前整个 SiC 市场仍处于发展阶段,国外厂商占据主要份额。根 据 Cree(现公司名为 Wolfspeed)数据,2018 年全球 SiC 器件销售额为 4.2 亿美元,预 计 2024 年销售额将达 50 亿美元。SiC 产业分链可分为衬底、外延、模组&器件、应用四 大环节,意法半导体、英飞凌、Cree、Rohm 以及安森美等国外龙头主要以 IDM 模式经营, 覆盖产业链所有环节,五家龙头占据的市场份额分别为 40%、22%、14%、10%、7%。 国内三安光电、中车时代电气、扬杰科技、华润微等厂商以 IDM 模式经营,而天岳先进、 露笑科技、华天科技等厂商则专注于某一细分环节。(报告来源:未来智库)

    动力域:主从架构 BMS 为躯干,精细电池管理为核心

    Model 3 作为电动车,电能和电池的管理十分重要,而负责管理电池组的 BMS 是一 个高难度产品。BMS 最大的难点之一在于,锂电池安全高效运行的条件是十分苛刻的。 当今的锂电池,无论正负极还是电解液都十分脆弱。正负极均为多孔材料,充放电时锂离子就在正极和负极的孔隙中移动,导致正负极材料膨胀或收缩,当锂电池电压过高或过低, 就意味着锂离子过度集中在正负极其中之一,导致这一边的电极过度膨胀而破碎,还容易 产生锂枝晶刺破电池结构,而另一边的电极由于缺乏锂离子支撑,会发生结构坍塌,如此 正负极都会受到永久性损害。电解液和三元正极材料都对温度比较敏感,温度过高则容易 发生分解和反应,乃至燃烧、爆炸。因此,使用锂电池的前提就是确保其能工作在合适的 温度和电压窗口下。如果以电压为横轴,温度为纵轴绘制一张图,这就意味着锂电池必须 运行在图中一个较小的区域内。 BMS 的第二大难点在于,不同的锂电池之间必然存在不一致性。这种不一致性就导 致同一时间,在同一电池组内,不同的电池仍然工作在不同的温度、电压、电流下。

    在诸多厂家的 BMS 中,特斯拉的 BMS 系统是复杂度和技术难度最高的之一,这主 要是由于特斯拉独特的大量小圆柱电池成组设计。 为什么特斯拉选用难以控制的小圆柱电池?早在特斯拉成立的早期,日本厂商在 18650 小圆柱电池上积累了丰富的经验,一年出货量达到几十亿节,因而这类电池一致性较好,有利于电池管理。因此特斯拉在 model S 上选用了小圆柱电池。出于技术积累等 方面的原因,特斯拉在 model 3 上使用了仅比 18650 略大的 2170 电池,并且至今还在使 用圆柱形电池。

    由于特斯拉一直采用数量庞大的小圆柱电池来构造电池组,导致其 BMS 系统的复杂 度较高。在 model S 时代,特斯拉全车使用了 7104 节电池,BMS 对其进行控制是需要一 定软件水平的。根据汽车电子工程师叶磊的表述,在 model S 当中,采用每 74 节电池并 联检测一次电压,每 444 节电池设置 2 个温度探测点。

    未来特斯拉的 BMS 是否会维持这样的复杂度?从目前趋势来看,随着采用的电池越 来越大,BMS 需要管理的电池数量是越来越少的,BMS 的难度也有所降低。比如从 model S 到 model 3,由于改用 2170 电池,电芯数量出现了较明显的下降,长续航版电芯数量缩 减到 4416 颗,中续航版 3648 颗,标准续航版 2976 颗。本次拆解的标准续航版配置 96 个电压采样点,数量与 model S 相同,平均每 31 节电池并联测量一个电压值。整车 4 个电池组,每个都由 24 串 31 并的电池组组成,对电流均衡等方面提出了较高的要求。未来, 随着 4680 大圆柱电池的应用,单车电芯数量将进一步减少,有利于 BMS 更精确地进行 控制,或许能够进一步强化特斯拉的 BMS 表现。 尽管面临着最高的 BMS 技术难度,但特斯拉仍旧在这一领域做到优秀水准,而且还 有超越其他公司的独到之处。比如特斯拉在电池管理的思路方面显得更加大胆,热管理方 面是一个典型体现。特斯拉会在充电期间启动热管理系统将电池加热到 55 度的理论最佳 温度,并在此温度下进行持续充电,相比而言,其他厂商往往更在意电池是否会过热,不 会采用此类策略,这更加显现出特斯拉在 BMS 方面的实力。

    特斯拉在充电或电能利用方面的用户体验设计是其 BMS 系统的另一个独到之处。比 如特斯拉会用车身电池来使其他重要控制器实现“永不下电”,提高启动速度,改善用户 体验。充电时,特斯拉采取的策略也更加灵活,会在充电刚开始时将电流提高到极大的程 度,迅速提升电池电量,随后再逐渐减小充电电流到一个可以长期持续的水平,比如 model Y 可以在 40 秒内达到 600A 的超大电流充电。相比而言,一般的 车企甚至消费电子厂商通常会用一个可以长期持续的电流进行恒流充电。考虑到车主有时 需要在几分钟内迅速补充电池电量,特斯拉的这种策略无疑是更有优势的,这也体现出特 斯拉比传统车企思路更灵活,更能产生创新。

    而具体如何实现这样优秀的 BMS 功能?前文所说的种种 BMS 管理策略依赖于软件, 软件的基础在于特斯拉的 BMS硬件设计。特斯拉 model 3 的硬件设计包括了核心主控板、 采样板、能量转换系统(PCS,由 OBC 和 DCDC 两部分组成)以及位于充电口的充电控 制单元。BMS 部分所有电路均覆盖有透明三防漆以保护电路,导致电路元件外观光滑且反 光。 主控板负责管理所有 BMS 相关芯片,共设置 7 组对外接口,包含了对充电控制器(CP)、 能量转换系统(PCS)的控制信号,以及到采样板(BMB)的信号,另外还包含专门的电 流电压采集信号。电路板上包含高压隔离电源、采样电路等电路模块。元器件方面,有 Freescale 和 TI 的单片机,以及运放、参考电压源、隔离器、数据采样芯片等。

    具体到 BMB 电路方面,标准续航版和长续航版也有所不同,我们以元器件较多的 4 号采样板为例进行说明。首先,在采样点数量方面就有所不同,标准续航版共设置 24 个 采样点,因此 FPC 上有 24 个触点与 BMB 进行对应。长续航版的电池组顶格设置,4 个 电池组当中,中间两组较长,左右各设置 25 个采样点,共 50 个,两边的电池组略短一些, 共设置 47 个采样点,一侧 24 个,另一侧 23 个,因此长续航版的 BMB 需要在两侧都设 置触点。 其次,电路布置和元器件数量也有较大不同。经过触点传来的信号需要由 AFE(模拟 前端)芯片进行处理,这是整个 BMB 电路的核心。标准续航版每个 BMB 有两颗定制的 AFE 芯片,其配置有些类似 Linear Technology(ADI)的 LTC6813 芯片但不完全相同, 同时配置了 3 颗 XFMRS 的 BMS LAN 芯片用于与其他电路板的信号传输。长续航版 BMB 由于两侧均有触点,信号数量较多,因此为每个 AFE 另外配置了两颗简化版的 AFE 芯片 ,用来辅助信号处理。同时 BMS LAN 芯片的数量也增加了 1 颗。

    BMS 体系的另一个重要组成部分是充电控制,特斯拉为此开发了充电控制器,位于左 后翼子板充电口附近。该控制器有三个对外接口,负责控制充电口盖、充电枪连接状态与 锁定、充电信号灯、快慢充控制及过热检测等。电路方面则包括了 Freescale 的 MCU 和 ST 的 HSD 芯片等。

    BMS 还有一个重要功能就是电能转换,包括将高压直流电转化成低压直流电来供给车 内设备,或者将高压交流电转化为高压直流电用于充电等,这一部分是通过能量转换系统 (PCS,也称高压配电盒)完成的。PCS 包括两个主要部分,分别是将交流电转化成直流 电的 OBC(车载充电器,On Board Charger)和进行直流电压变换的 DCDC。这部分电 路中主要是各种大电容和大电感,也包含了整车中十分罕见的保险丝。

    从元器件层面来看BMS系统,最核心的主要就是AFE芯片和各类功率器件/被动元件。 其中 AFE 芯片领域,国内最主流的是三家美国公司产品,Linear Technology(被 ADI 收 购)、Maxim(被 ADI 收购)、TI,所以其实还是归结于全球最大的两家模拟芯片公司。此 外 NXP/Freescale、Intersil 等大型厂商也有一定份额。随着国内产业发展,国产 AFE 芯 片通道数和产品稳定性逐渐提高,也有望获得发展空间。功率器件方面,我国产业已经有 一定市场地位,在汽车领域仍可以进一步突破。 从电路和系统层面来看,依据汽车电子工程师朱玉龙的说法,BMS 真正的核心价值, 其实是在电池的测试,评价,建模和后续的算法。整个 EE 的软硬件架构,已经基本是红 海,未来产业不需要大量的 BMS 公司,长久来看还是电池厂商和车厂能够在 BMS 领域获 得较高的地位。随着汽车产业崛起,未来我国电动汽车厂商在 BMS 领域也有望获得更深 厚的积累。

    线束和连接器:高压线束和连接器是最大增量,集中式 E/E 架构减少线束用量

    线束:架构革新缩短线束长度,轻量化为车厂降本提效关键

    车结构日益复杂,功能日益多样,导致线束长度与复杂度提升。线束是汽车电路的网 络主体,其连接车上的各个组件,负责相关电力与电信号的传输,被誉为“汽车神经”。 汽车智能化与电气化程度的提升,依赖于汽车传感器、ECU(电子控制单元)数量的增加, 90 年代一辆车的 ECU 数量大约为十几个,而目前单车 ECU 数量已增至上百个。控制单 元的数量的增加使得网线结构日益复杂,大大增加了车辆中的线束长度。

    降低线束复杂程度,依赖电子电气架构的革新。根据博世的电子电气架构战略图,汽 车的电子电气架构主要分为三大类:分布式电子电气架构、域集中式电子电气架构与车辆 集中式电子电气架构。传统汽车主要采用分布式架构,该架构由多个相对独立的 ECU 组 成,各个 ECU 与功能一一对应。而线束则负责将不同的 ECU 进行连接,以实现信息的交 互。因此在传统的分布式架构下,ECU 模块数量的增多与分散化的布局,不可避免地会导 致线束长度的增加,提高制造成本。目前传统分布式架构汽车的线束长度大约为 5km。

    特斯拉早期的 Model S 与 Model X 对架构进行改革,根据功能划分域控制器,整体 架构介于分布式和域集中式之间。Model S 与 Model X 车内仅由驾驶域、动力域、底盘域、座舱域、车身域等域控制器构成,因此极大减少 ECU 的数量并同步缩短了 CAN 总线的长 度,Model S 线束长度约为 3km。

    而 Model 3 对“域”进行重新划分,在 Model S 与 Model X 的基础上进行跨域融合。 各个 ECU 不再按功能进行划分,而是以物理位置直接分为 CCM(中央处理模块)、BCM LH (左车身控制模块,LBCM)、FBCM(前车身控制模块)、BCM RH(右车身控制模块, RBCM)四大部分。CCM 负责原本驾驶域与座舱域的功能需求,包括自动驾驶模块、信 息娱乐模块、车内外通信连接等;BCM LH 负责左侧车身转向、制动、稳定控制等;FBCM 负责电源分配、逻辑控制等;BCM RH 负责动力系统、热管理等。利用少量的高性能计算 单元替代分散的 ECU,把需要实现的功能通过软件迁移到几大模块中,从而进一步提升集 成度,因此,Model 3 的线束长度进一步缩短到 1.5km。

    缩短线束长度是提升产品续航与制造效率的共同需求。传统汽车线束的重量约占整车 的 5%,长度的缩短能够为汽车设计让出更多的物理空间,并能减轻汽车总重从而减少油 耗提升续航。同时,线束种类多样、布局复杂且质地较软,因此线束的生产与安装都主要 依赖于人工。根据佐思汽研数据,95%的线束需要人工生产,线束低自动化的生产模式限 制了车厂进一步扩大产能。针对这一问题,Model 3 通过革新架构缩短线束长度,减少其 对产能提升的阻滞。

    除了架构调整缩短线束长度,拆解发现,Model 3 在高压线束中采用铝导线代替传统 的铜导线,进一步实现轻量化。铝与铜的密度分别为 2.7kg/m³、8.9 kg/m³,且铝料的成本 较铜便宜一半以上。即使考虑铝在导电性能上的劣势,增大线径的铝导线(增大约 1.6 倍) 依旧可以进一步减少车身重量(约 21%),降低制造成本。

    从行业看,线束行业的单车价值量相对稳定,单价主要受车型的不同、项目定价的差 异及结构影响。在新车型和改款车型上市的初期,由于车辆的售价较高,相应的零部件定 价也相应较高。而随着推出时间的增长及新车型的推出,整车厂会对原有车型进行降价, 同时也要求汽车零部件生产商降价,从而降低公司产品的销售价格。根据沪光股份招股说 明书,2019 年公司成套线束(构成车身的主要线束组合,不包括发动机相关的线束)、发 动机线束、其他线束单价分别为 1587 元/套、199 元/件、29 元/件。相同车型的线束单价 相对稳定,单价差异主要取决于车型的不同,2019 年,公司不同车型成套线束的单价普 遍在 1000 到 3000 元之间。

    Model 3 等新能源车发展方兴未艾,量价提升打开线束行业成长空间。目前线束行业 为存量市场,市场规模依赖下游汽车的销售情况,汽车“新四化”趋势下 2021 年我国汽 车产销量分别为 2608.2 万辆与 2627.5 万辆,结束了 2018 年以来连续三年的下降局面。 同时,高压线束的增量需求与轻量化趋势提升单车价值量,行业空间进一步打开。根据华 经产业研究院数据,传统低、中、高端汽车的线束单车价值量约为 2500、3500、4500 元, 而新能源车线束单车价值平均提升至 5000 元左右。若以 3000 元的单车价值量计算,2021 年线束市场规模可达 782 亿元。 从盈利上看,成本冲击使得行业毛利率表现不佳。线束行业属于劳动密集型行业、产 品成本受铜等原材料价格影响严重,因此行业内公司毛利率较低。在人力成本与原料成本 的负面冲击下,近年来线束行业毛利率呈现下降趋势。

    而从格局上看,线束行业与整车厂商合作稳定,市场集中度较高。汽车线束行业发展 高度依赖汽车行业,大部分品牌车厂拥有较成熟稳定的汽车配套体系。长期以来,对零部 件的高标准要求使得线束供应商与汽车企业的合作相对稳定。目前,全球汽车线束市场主 要由日本的矢崎、住友电气、藤仓,韩国的欲罗、京信以及欧美的莱尼、安波福、科仑伯 格舒伯特公司、德克斯米尔、李尔等线束厂商主导。根据前瞻产业研究院,2018 年前五 大厂商矢崎、住友电气、德尔福、莱尼、李尔分别占比 29.81%、24.38%、16.71%、6.05%、 4.70%,CR5 为 81.65%。(报告来源:未来智库)

    连接器:电气化催生增量应用,设计革新持续优化

    连接器常在导线的两段,同样用于两个有源器件之间的连接,其形式和结构多样,但 通常由接触件、绝缘件、壳体、附件组成。接触件是连接器完成功能的核心零件,其通过 阴、阳两个接触件的插合完成电连接;壳体是汽车连接器的外罩,提供机械保护与固定连 接器的作用;绝缘体的作用是使接触件按规定的位置和间距排列,并提供绝缘保护;附件 可进一步分为结构附件和安装附件,结构附件包括卡圈、定位键、定位销、导向销、联接 环等,安装附件包括螺钉、螺母、螺杆、弹簧圈等。按照性能及应用场景的不同,车用连 接器可以分为高速连接器、低压连接器和高压连接器。

    高压连接器是汽车电气化背景下的关键组件。根据线束世界资料,一台现代车辆包含 的连接器数量多达 700 个。而在汽车电气化趋势下,车内 60V 电压以上的场景迅速增加。 车辆的驱动离不开高电压大电流电路的驱动,这为高压连接器提供巨大的增量需求。拆解 发现,Model 3 中的高压连接器数量也线性增加,功能与形态也有相应的变化。

    在高压快充连接器上,Model 3 使用的是由 TE(泰科)定制的插片式高压连接器 HC Stak 35,其作用是连接汽车电池与充电线束。插片结构是特斯拉一贯的选择,其能够增 加铝导线的焊接选择,与同等的圆柱式端子相比,其尺寸更小,载流更好(提升约 20%), 能为电气系统布局尽可能地节约空间。

    从设计上看,HC Stak 35 的端子通过铜板(35mm 厚)与 35 片刀叉型端子连接,由 于插座端的端子是由 35 片 DEFCON 端子叠加形成,所以其能类似积木一样,根据不同端 口的需求不同,通过改变叠片数量来构成不同型号的连接器,这一模块化设计方式能够进 一步降低端子加工成本。HC Stak 35 搭配 95 mm²的高压线束,能够支持 Model 3 充电 15 分钟增加 279 公里的快速充电与长效续航。但插片式连接器同样有其缺点,其不耐拔插, 插片容易变形导致正负极插片无法保持在同一水平面上。

    在动力电池—电驱高压线束的连接器上,Model 3 采用的是 TE 的 HC Stak 25。其 结构和功能与 HC Stak 35类似,不同点在于尺寸的大小,可以看到,HC Stak 25比 HC Stak 35 更小,因此 HC Stak 25 插座端的端子是 20 片 DEFCON 端子组成(HC Stak 35 为 35 片),不同的型号共用相同的连接器端子。连接器端子通过数量堆叠的变化能够快速完成 不同型号的组装,这体现了连接器模块化生产带来的成本管控优势。

    材料方面,Model 3 连接器材料为尼龙塑料材料,但我们认为金属合金外壳的应用未 来会愈加普及。虽然金属材料连接器相比尼龙材料的成本更高,但其强度更高,不会出现 插件受力处开裂或冲击后断裂的情况;同时快充功能要求连接器短时间内能够耐受更高的 电流,金属材料的良导热性有利于更好地进行升温控制,因此我们认为,金属外壳在未来 的应用中会愈加普及。可能也正是基于以上考虑,特斯拉的 Model Y 已将其高压连接器外 壳由塑料材料替换成金属材料。

    从竞争格局来看,汽车是连接器最大应用场景,行业竞争充分,海外龙头积淀深厚。 2020 年,汽车领域连接器规模占连接器总规模的 22%,是最大的连接器细分市场,电气 化与智能化趋势有望进一步提高汽车连接器市场空间。同时,行业内厂商头部化趋势愈加 明显,1980 年全球前 10 大连接器供应商的市场份额为 38.0%,而在 2019 年前十大供应 商的份额提升至 60.2%。2019 年全球前十大连接器厂商分别为泰科、安费诺、莫仕、安 波福、鸿海精密、立讯精密、矢崎、JAE、JST、罗森伯格。

    电池:技术代际领先,未来向耐用消费品发展

    电池包外观对比:集成度领先同时期车型,目前仍然处于领先地位

    Model 3 电池包采用 4 块大模组,与同期的 iD.4 X,宝马 iX3 的电池包相比,采用大 模组技术,集成度更高,内部布局更为整洁,电池包技术目前仍处于领先地位。

    集成方式:小模组→大模组→无模组 CTC,集成度不断提提升,降本增效

    集成度提升,减少非必要零件,降低成本,提高续航里程。在旧款的 Model S 中,电 池包采用 16 个小电池模组,分模组进行电池管理;在 2022 款 Model S 中,电池包采用 5 块大模组方式集成,电池包中结构件数量减少,重量减轻,系统能量密度提升,在同样采 用 100kWh 的 1865 电池的情况下,整车续航里程从 335 英里增加至 405 英里,提升 21%; 在最新的 CTC 技术中,直接由电芯作为车身的一部分,电池包上盖与车身地板融合,取 消模组设计,进一步提高系统集成效率,成本降低 6%,续航里程提高 16%。

    适配性:兼容不同数量、类型的电芯,多材料体系、多供应商方案共存

    当前特斯拉电池包系统,多材料、多供应商、多类型电池共存。目前特斯拉电池包采 用多材料体系、多供应商方案。当前,特斯拉的标续版车型中采用磷酸铁锂电池材料体系, 长续航和高性能车型中采用三元锂电池材料体系,形成了多种材料体系并存的格局。供应 商方面,北美工厂生产的车型采用松下的圆柱电池,上海工厂生产的车型采用宁德时代的 方形电池以及 LGES 的圆柱形电池,多供应商下多种电池类型共存。

    电池包空间灵活排布,兼容多材料体系。铁锂版标续 Model 3 出现之前,三元版标续 Model 3 采用不占满电池包的方式,保留长续版 188L 的电池包体积,仅占用约 3/4 的电池 包空间,放入 53kWh 电池;切换到铁锂版标续 Model 3 后,用磷酸铁锂电芯将电池包空 间全部填满,由于磷酸铁锂电芯的能量密度低于三元电芯,对应带电量 55kWh,达到与此 前三元版标续 Model 3 相同的续航能力。

    冷却管路设计:蛇形冷却→直线冷却,缩短冷管长度,更快、更充分冷却

    特斯拉早期的 Model S/X 电池模组中,冷却管路采用蛇形布置的冷却管,即长冷却 管穿越于整个电池模组中。

    Model 3 开始,特斯拉采用直线冷却。冷却液从模组一侧分 7 根直线冷却管流入,从 另一端流出,单根冷却管覆盖 164 颗电芯。单根冷却管覆盖数减少,冷却效果更充分;冷 管长度减小,冷却更快。核心原因,一方面 Model 3 升级为大模组方案,模组内需冷却的 电芯数增加;另一方面,在快充的需求下,对于电芯更快、更充分的冷却需求提升。

    在最新的 2022 款 Model S 上,直线冷却进一步升级为 U 型直线冷却。U 型是指横向 来看,每根冷却管在竖直方向 U 型折叠,单侧流入流出;直线是指俯视来看,U 型冷却管 直线布置。纵向 U 型排布的好处是,对于不同位置的电芯的冷却效果更加均匀;直线排布 则是保持单管更少的电芯覆盖量,2022 款 Model S 模组内布置 11 根 U 型冷却管,单管覆 盖电芯数进一步下降至单管 144 颗。

    横向对比来看,国内市场电动车方案以方形为主,方形电芯方案下,主流方案是在电 池包下方铺设冷板,通过界面导热材料将电芯中的热量导至冷板,实现冷却。随着电池能 量密度、充放电功率要求的提升,对于电池冷却的需求提升,宁德时代最新发布的麒麟电 池中,将隔热垫、水冷板、横纵梁整合为一体,冷板从水平放置变为类似特斯拉冷却管的 竖直、间隔放置,换热面积扩大 4 倍,支持 4C 快充,同时起到冷却与支撑作用。

    导热阻燃设计:增加灌封胶与防火泡棉,导热阻燃升级

    灌封胶加发泡泡棉,导热阻燃设计升级。早期 Model S/X 中依靠液冷及热管理系统对 电池包热失控进行软防控。随着电动车自燃事故的发生以及法规层面对热失控要求趋严, 特斯拉采用了灌封胶加发泡泡棉的阻燃方案。类似于电子元件中灌封的概念,特斯拉在动 力电池包中采用灌封胶填充圆柱电池间的空隙,起到避免电芯间传热、提高对冲击的稳定 性,提高电池包整体的热稳定性和机械稳定性。同时,特斯拉在上盖中加入隔热发泡泡棉, 将热量阻绝在客舱外。

    市面上多种阻燃设计方案共存,尚未达成共识。当前防火阻燃方案众多,例如凯迪拉 克 Lyriq 和广汽埃安采用气凝胶薄片隔绝电芯之间传热,同时达到轻量化的效果;极狐在 电池包上覆盖陶瓷纤维防火毯;Rivian 中采用金云母板覆盖在电池包上放;岚图的“琥珀” 和“云母”电池系统,分别对应在电池包内加入气凝胶和层状云母的方式达到隔热阻燃效 果。

    电芯:从 18650 到 2170 再到 4680,成本降低、续航里程提升

    4680 电池,续航里程提升下的降本最优解。最早特斯拉采用直径 18mm,高 65mm 的 1865 电池,后续采用直径 21mm,高 70mm 的 2170 电池,相较于 1865 电池能量密 度提升,成本下降。2020 年特斯拉电池日上,特斯拉发布 4680 电池,相较于此前采用的 2170 电池,4680 电池的电芯容量是其 5 倍,能够提高相应车型 16%的续航里程,输出功 率 6 倍于 2170 电池。其中电池直径为 46mm 是做大电池后成本降低和续航里程提升同时 达到最优得出。

    4680 搭配全极耳,提升能量密度的同时,为功率密度提升打开空间。由于全极耳比 单极耳多出两块集流盘,而小电池中集流盘占到电池体积比例更高,影响能量密度,因此 大电池更适配全极耳。在产热方面,全极耳结构的电池由于电流在集流体上流过的电流路 径更短,电阻减小而产热减小为单极耳结构的 20%;散热方面,全极耳结构电池沿径向形 成强导热路径,热管理难度与能耗降低。因此 4680 电池扩大尺寸提升容量的同时,全极 耳结构减小了电阻发热和电池冷却所带来的损耗,最终电池的有效能量及能量密度增加。 另外,由于全极耳产热小、散热快,为 4680 电池实现大功率快充创造了物理条件。

    4680 电池通过新结构、新材料应用,实现“能量密度高、倍率高、成本低”的不可 能三角。在实现高能量密度、高倍率的情况下,4680 的大电芯摊薄非活性物质成本,尽 可能做高能量密度摊薄总体单 Wh 成本,生产过程简化节省成本。

    电机电控:集成度高,持续向高能效优化

    总成:驱动单元集成度高,系统效率提升

    Model 3/Y 搭载驱动电机、电机控制器、单挡变速箱三合一驱动系统,集成度高。电 机方面,标准续航版后轮搭载永磁同步电机,四驱高性能版后轮搭载永磁同步电机,前轮 搭载交流异步电机,采用定子+转自复合油冷系统,Model Y 还采用扁线电机,电机功率 密度较大程度改善,成本亦有降低。电控方面,Model 3/Y 搭载 SiC MOSFET,较 Model X/S Si IGBT 方案逆变器功率密度显著提高。同时受益于驱动系统集成化提高、电机电控 等关键零部件升级,Model 3/Y 驱动系统效率达 89%,较 Model S/X 提高了 6pcts。

    电机:向高功率、低能耗演进,性能和成本持续优化

    Model S/XModel 3:由感应电机转向永磁同步电机。2012 年特斯拉 Model S 上市, 该车型定位高性能(197kW),彼时大功率车用永磁电机尚未成熟。而大功率感应电机相 对成熟、成本低,且不受稀土资源制约,亦无高温下退磁的担忧。因此 Model S 搭载的是 感应电机而没有选择永磁电机。感应电机具备成本低、功率高等优势,但同时也存在体积 大、效率低而影响续航等缺点。随着电动化推进,在 2017 年推出的 Model 3 中开始转向 使用永磁同步电机。相比感应电机,永磁同步电机体积小更紧凑,效率高而有利于续航且 更易控制,在 Model Y 中,特斯拉继续亦采用永磁同步电机方案。

    Model3Model Y:由圆线向扁线切换。目前电机多为圆线电机,绕组一般采用圆形 细铜线。扁线电机相比圆线电机的优势在于:1)槽满率 20%提升可使电机体积减小;2) 宽截面使其电阻/温升减小 50%/10%左右,输出功率更高,峰值功率密度可达 4.4kW/kg, 显著高于目前圆线电机的 3.2-3.3kW/kg;3)在电机损耗中,铜耗占到 65%,而在扁线电 机中裸铜槽满率提高,有效绕组电阻降低,进而降低铜损耗。 Model Y 搭载扁线电机,电机体积和功率密度皆有所优化。目前特斯拉在国内共推出 5 款电机,其中扁线永磁同步电机最大功率从 202kW 提升至 220kW,最大扭矩从 404Nm 提升至 440Nm。Model Y 后电机采用扁线方案,扁线漆包线重量约 5.78kg,焊接一致性 和饱满性较优,转子体积和重量也皆有降低。我们预计 Model 3 亦会跟进,示范效应下扁 线电机有望加速渗透,比亚迪、蔚来、理想、大众等车企皆开始切换扁线电机。

    Model SModel 3:由水冷向油冷切换。早期 Model S 采用水冷系统进行电机热管 理,但因是机壳液冷无法对绕组直接冷却,冷却效率较低。后特斯拉电机均以油路冷却方 案为主,散热能力和电机功率密度明显提高。 Model 3:采用“定子冷却+转子冷却”复合方案。一方面定子铁芯表面开有 162 个 方形油道,与机壳过盈形成油路,两端安装塑料油环(圆周均布 16 油孔)进行绕组两端 喷油冷却。另一方面转子轴中空且开有甩油孔,转子主动冷却同时,能通过转子甩油实现 定子绕组内圈冷却。Model 3 复合式油冷技术使得电机的功率密度和转矩密度明显提升, 相较普通的水冷电机,持续转矩能够提升 40%-50%。 Model Y:整体延用了 Model 3 的油冷方案,在定转子细节上进行优化。新定子铁芯 取消了外表面的横纵油道设计,并采用激光焊接,外壳定子进油口和后油环结构发生调整。 转子油孔位置和数量更具针对性,甩油效果提高。(报告来源:未来智库)

    小三电:和电池包集成,空间布局更为紧凑

    “小三电”和电池包集成,结构紧凑成本更低。将车载充电机(OBC)和 12V-DC/DC 变换器集成为电源转换系统(PCS),并与 PDU、BMS 等和电池包集成在一起,高压三合 一内壳体采用轻而薄的铝材,与电池包共用外壳体,减少动力电池与三合一之间的布线长 度和电缆用量,重量可降低约 5%。 同时,零部件集成一起便于电子元器件的维修。Model Y 整体沿用了 Model 3 的集成方案,上壳加入防拆卸设计和安全互锁,低压连接器需通过 上底壳连接电路,提高防盗能力和安全性。同时将电路板为上下板,上板组装电气部件, 下板则与电池模组固定,便于流水线作业,提高电池系统组装速度。

    快充:搭载 V3 大电流超充技术,快充水平持续提高

    采用第三代大电流快充技术,充电功率大幅提高。快充技术有两种实现途径,一是使 用高电压提高功率,代表是保时捷 Taycan 的 800V 方案,另一种是通过大电流实现快充, 代表是特斯拉超级快充,该种方案对热管理要求较高。Model 3 配套特斯拉第三代超级快 充充电桩,采用水冷散热设计,充电过程中峰值电流为 600A,最大充电功率可达 250kW, 较 V2 充电桩峰值功率提高了 72.4%,在该功率环境中,Model 3 的 5 分钟充电量可支持 120km 续航,40 分钟 SOC 即可由 8%充至 90%。第四代超充技术或将推出,峰值电流 900A,峰值功率有望达到 350kW,将与 4680 兼容,或首先搭载 Plaid 和 Cybertruck 中。

    热管理:跨域集成,向系统性工程升级

    拓扑结构:结构持续创新,系统集成逐渐深化

    特斯拉热管理系统经历 4代发展,在结构集成上不断创新。按照时间序列和匹配车型, 特斯拉电动汽车热管理系统技术可以分为 4 代。特斯拉第一代车型传承于燃油车热管理的 传统思路,各个热管理回路相对独立。第二代车型中引入四通换向阀,实现电机回路与电 池回路的串并联,开始结构集成。第三代 Model 3 开始进行统一的热源管理,引入电机堵 转加热,取消水暖 PTC,并采用集成式储液罐,集成冷却回路,简化热管理系统结构。第 四代 Model Y 在结构上采用高度集成的八通阀,对多个热管理系统部件进行集成,以实现 热管理系统工作模式的切换。从特斯拉车型的演进来看,其热管理系统集成度不断提升。

    1)第一代热管理系统相对独立,结构集成初步显现。 特斯拉第一代热管理系统不同回路相对独立。特斯拉第一代热管理系统应用于 Tesla Roadster 车型,包含电机回路、电池回路、HVAC(空调暖通)回路和空调回路,各回路相对独立,与传统内燃机汽车架构类似。电机回路上布置驱动电机、电子控制单元、电子 水泵、膨胀水箱等,对电机回路上电子部件进行散热。电池回路上布置动力电池、热交换 器、膨胀水箱、高压 PTC 等,实现高低温下电池性能的稳定。HVAC 回路布置散热器、高 压 PTC 等,调节乘员舱温度。空调系统布置压缩机、冷凝器、膨胀阀和热交换器等,通 过压缩机进行制冷循环,并通过热交换器对系统回路和 HVAC 回路进行制冷。

    2)二代热管理系统引入四通阀,电机电池回路实现交互。 第二代热管理系统引入四通阀,实现电池回路和电机回路的交互。在整车冷启动工况 下,当电池系统有加热需求,可调节四通阀开启状态,实现电机回路和电池回路串联,使 用电机系统预热为电池系统进行加热,减少高压 PTC 为电池加热消耗电能。当电池有冷 却需求时,如电机回路温度低于电池回路,则通过电机回路散热器为电池系统冷却。如整 车工况、两系统工作状态不满足串联模式热管理时,则控制四通阀实现并联,进行独立控 制。

    3)三代热源统一管理,集成式储液罐加强系统集成。 第三代热管理系统结构设计凸显集成,统一热源管理加强系统联系。Model 3 在拓扑 结构上相较第二代热管理系统没有本质差别,但在驱动电机和储液罐结构实现技术创新, 在结构设计上更加集成,实现三个管路的热量交换。在该系统下,取消电池回路的高压 PTC, 利用电机电控设备废热进行加热,同时功率电子冷却系统与空调系统链接,节省系统成本。

    引入冷却液储罐发挥整合优势,集成式储液罐设计进一步联系各系统。采用集成式储 液罐(Superbottle)设计,实现膨胀水箱与热管理系统的加热与冷却部件高度集成。 Superbotlle 核心部件为冷却液储罐 CR(Coolant Reservoir),此外该集成模块包含四通 阀、电机水泵、电池水泵、Chiller 热交换器、散热器和执行器等部件。1)冷却模式下, 冷却液在抽取至冷却液储存罐中时,分别在两条路径由 Chiller 和散热器冷却,实现对电池 和对电机设备及电机的循环冷却。2)加热模式下,电池与功率电子管路切换成串联电路, 冷却液进入管理模块、驱动单元的油冷却热交换器吸收其工作中所产生的热量,经过集成 阀流经 chiller 为电池进行加热。

    4)四代系统八通阀结构创新,热管理整车集成化。 第四代热管理系统使用八通阀集成冷却和制热回路,实现整车热管理集成化。Model Y 的热管理系统中使用了一个八通阀(Octovalve),引入热泵空调系统、空调系统和鼓风机 电机的低效制热模式,将整车热管理集成化,并通过车载计算机精确的控制各元器件的运 转情况。冷却环节,沿用三代冷却剂回路方案。通过冷却液循环系统,冷却液在各系统之 间流动。在制热环节,采用热泵空调系统通过热交换器和管路连接,与电池回路和电机回 路进行耦合,实现整个热管理系统的热量交互。

    技术持续创新,特斯拉热管理系统集成逐渐深化。综合来看,特斯拉热管理通过四通 阀、集成式储液罐、热泵系统和八通阀等技术创新,实现结构集成,提升了系统的能量利 用效率。以加热方式为例,特斯拉从仅利用电池电能产热(PTC),到利用电池产热+利用 电机电控余热,再到电池产热+车内各可产热的部件+环境产热,通过整车热源集成及技术 升级完善热能利用。

    同行比较:高集成热管理为行业共识,传统车厂和新势力逐步追赶

    1)大众 ID.4:搭载二氧化碳热泵,集成度有待提升。 搭载二氧化碳热泵和水路热力阀,实现电池电机部分集成。大众汽车在 ID 系列车型 上搭载了二氧化碳热泵空调,其结构设计延用了普通热泵的结构,其架构主要采用直冷直 热架构,制冷蒸发器与热泵冷凝器直接进入乘员舱,并采用电磁阀和双向电子膨胀阀的组 合方式对制冷剂回路进行控制,配合舱内 PTC 实乘员舱温度条件。制冷剂回路使用 CO2 冷媒水路循环使用三通阀、水路热力阀连接电池和电机,利用电机余热加热电池,降低电 池制热下水路高压 PTC 需求,但制冷剂回路与冷却水路之间的交互较少,相对独立,未 采用热泵加热电池的模式。

    2)蔚来:热泵系统逐渐覆盖,整车热管理向集成发展 。2022 款全新 ES8 采用热泵系统。蔚来 ES6 采用智能热泵系统。在制热模式下,系统 从低温环境中吸取热量,并通过回路输送乘客舱,以达到高效制热效果。2022 年 4 月 19 日,蔚来汽车宣布 2022 款全新蔚来 ES8 正式开启交付,全新蔚来 ES8 不再使用 PTC 热 敏电阻的空调加热方式,使用了跟蔚来 ES6 一样的热泵制热方式。

    3)小鹏:储液罐一体化及四通阀实现整车热循环,热管理集成继续发展。 小鹏 P7 储液罐一体化设计,四通阀集成实现整车热循环。小鹏 P7 为小鹏汽车的第 2款纯电车型,整车热管理系统采用一体化储液罐设计和单 PTC 加热方案,利用一个四通 阀实现整车系统级的热循环。在储液罐设计上,小鹏 P7 采用电机、电池、乘客舱三者的 膨胀罐一体化设计,变为膨胀罐总成,减少零部件数量。同时利用四通阀,将电机冷却水 路与电池温控水路串接,使用电机余热加热电池,降低系统能量损失。

    研发朝向系统进一步集成与能量利用。小鹏在其专利中公开了一种热管理集成单元, 包括流道板、泵组件、阀组件、水冷冷凝器、水水换热器和电池冷却器。阀组件连通动力 电池的出口和电机水泵的进口,并且连通电池水泵的进口和电驱部件的出口,电池水泵和 /或电机水泵将冷却液输送至电驱部件以吸收电驱部件的热量,被加热后的冷却液流经动力 电池以对动力电池进行保温,实现低温工况下电驱部件热量对动力电池进行保温,对电驱 部件的废热进行利用。

    4)比亚迪:乘员舱加热取消 PTC,热管理系统集成一体化不断完善。 一体化热管理不断完善。目前,比亚迪 e 平台 3.0 在热管理上采取了类似特斯拉集成 化的阀岛方案,对冷媒回路进行了大规模集成。采用集成的热泵技术,将驾驶舱制暖预热 交给热泵电动空调系统以及来自“8 合 1”电驱电控系统的余热,取消对应 PTC 模组,动 力电池低温需求则由热泵电空调(包含风暖 PTC)支持,冷媒直接换热,一体化程度提高。

    国内车厂竞相追赶,热管理集成为行业共识。从设计逻辑横向对比来看,国内各车厂 都不同程度地向类似特斯拉所采用的集成式热管理系统迭代,采取四通阀、热泵系统等方 式管理车内热源或冷却剂,通过整车或部分系统集成提高热管理效率。目前,国内各车厂 热管理所处阶段类似于特斯拉第二或第三代热管理系统,呈现追赶特斯拉的特点。

    电子膨胀阀:热管理精细化管控重要部件,技术壁垒较高

    电子膨胀阀为电动车热管理精细化管控的重要部件。电子膨胀阀由控制器、执行器和 传感器 3 部分构成。由于电子膨胀阀的感温部件为热电偶或热电阻,可以在低温下准确反 映出温度的变化,提供更准确的流量调节,同时电子膨胀阀流量控制范围大、调节精细, 弥补了毛细管和热力膨胀阀不能调节的缺点,更适合电动车电子化与热管理精细化的管控。

    车用电子膨胀阀技术难点在于稳定性、精度要求高,同时阀件工艺存在门槛。1)稳 定性要求高:车用电子膨胀阀需安装在高速行驶、震动等相对动态场景,要求运行稳定、 耐震动、轻量化、宽温度范围适用、高可靠性和安全性,且空间紧凑,要求设计体积更小、 安装方便和可靠。2)精度要求高:车用的热管理系统比目前家用或商用空调系统更为复 杂,特别是在电池的热管理上对电子膨胀阀有更高的精度要求。3)工艺要求高:一般来 说,一只阀件由几十个精密细小的零部件构成,需 30 余个工序制作,且在制造中需满足 公差极限和测试要求,工艺要求高。受限于电子膨胀阀本身技术壁垒,全球电子膨胀阀市 场呈现寡头垄断局面,2021 年三花智控、不二工机和盾安环境电子膨胀阀份额合计约 90%。

    八通阀:热管理系统集成核心部件,回路转换提升效率

    八通阀可调节各回路,实现热管理效率提升。八通阀可以改变 9 个管路的链接方式, 从而实现不同循环回路,并进一步形成 12 种制热模式和 3 种制冷模式。举例来说,1)当 电池系统温度高于循环中其他部件(DCDC、电机控制器、电机等)温度时,电池循环系 统和电机循环系统并联。2)当电机循环系统温度高于电池系统时,两系统串联,实现余 热管理。3)当电池与乘员舱有制热需求时,分别可通过电机堵转快速加热,热泵系统通 过水箱散热器吸收环境热。(报告来源:未来智库)

    汽车车身:一体压铸减重,线控底盘提效

    从 Model 3 的拆车情况来看,传统零部件维度,Model 3 及特斯拉其他车型在车身材 料及工艺、车灯、玻璃和底盘上有许多新技术应用。我们在零部件端进行了进一步的拆解 分析,具体如下。

    车身材料及工艺:轻量化协同一体压铸,节能、提效最优解

    Model 3 采用钢铝混合车身,制造工艺以冲压焊接为主。经过对 Model 3 的拆解,我 们发现 Model 3 车身制造工艺采用冲压焊接技术,车身材料为钢铝混合,具体分为:铝材、 低碳钢、高强度钢、超高强度钢。铝材具有低密度特性,主要集中于 Model 3 车身尾部及 壳体,以平衡车体前后重量分布。车身其余部位根据设计强度要求,采用三种不同强度的 钢铝合金,其中乘客舱骨架(车身纵梁、AB 柱、车顶纵梁、底板梁)采用强度最大的超 高强度钢,用以保护乘客安全。铝材的使用令汽车在轻量化方向上迈出重要一步。

    轻量化满足节能及提高续航诉求,“以铝代钢”是最佳选择。全铝车身是特斯拉家族 主流,目前 Model Y、Model S、Model X 均已采用。铝合金相较于钢铁密度更低,普通 B 级车钢制白车身重量通常在 300-400kg,采用铝合金可使车身重量降低 30%-40%。除减 重外,车身选用铝合金还可大幅降低能耗,提供更大的动力输出,据世界铝业协会报告, NEDC 工况下汽车自重每减少 10%,能减少 6%-8%的能耗。铝合金在新能源车轻量化的 进程中优势明显,是车身材料的首选,但因其造价相对较高,目前全铝车身主要应用于中 高档车型,低档车型及 Model 3 等“以量取胜”车型只是部分采用铝材,随着铝合金加工 工艺不断进步,其价格将逐渐降低,铝合金材料已成为车身轻量化发展的新趋势。

    高压压铸是铝合金材料最高效的成型方法,特斯拉率先提出一体压铸。金属制品主要 采用机床铣削、钣金成型焊接、铸造三种工艺生产。其中铸造主要生产内部结构复杂,难 以用钣金成型或机床铣削不具有经济性的零件。压铸全称压力铸造,是一种将金属熔液压 入钢制模具内施以高压并冷却成型的一种精密铸造法。压铸适合铸造结构复杂、薄壁、精 度要求较高、熔点比钢低的金属零件(铝、锌、铜等)。特斯拉于 2019 年率先提出一体压 铸技术制造工艺,即通过大吨位压铸机将单独、零散的零部件高度集成后一次成型压铸成 大型结构件,目前主要应用于车身结构件中。2020 年,一体铸造技术开始在 Model Y 上 应用,2021 年十月,Model Y 一体压铸前舱落地柏林工厂,Cybertruck 后地板亦将应用。

    一体压铸降本增效明显,大势所趋。相较于传统的冲压焊接工艺,一体化压铸技术的 主要优势在降本增效。冲压+焊接技术需要先冲压出零部件,再经焊装、涂装、总装后形 成零件,一体压铸则是直接将零部件压铸成一个零件,效率明显提升。人工方面,压铸机 替代了大部分焊装车间员工,相同产量下,一体压铸车间员工数量仅为传统车企焊装车间 的 10%左右,人工成本大幅下降的同时,人效显著提升。轻量化方面, 采用一体压铸技 术可使整车减重约 10%,续航里程提升约 14%。一体化压铸在降本增效及轻量化方面的 优势明显,继特斯拉之后,蔚来、理想、小鹏等造车新势力及大众、奔驰等全球主流车企 纷纷跟进,一体压铸大势所趋。

    车灯:消费升级、智能化升级两大属性驱动技术迭代

    Model 3 外饰搭配兼具科技感与美感,车灯选用矩阵式 LED 光源。Model 3 整车车长 4694mm,宽度 1850mm,轴距 2875mm,典型的轿跑造型,前脸沿用特斯拉“家族式” 的封闭格栅设计,车门采用隐藏式门把手式设计,饰条选用铝材,车灯应用全 LED 光源, 灯体内部为矩阵式构架,科技感及美感十足。

    车灯既是功能件又是外观件,消费升级、智能化升级两大属性驱动技术迭代。车灯早 期功能仅限于为行车提供照明,保障夜间行车的安全。近年来,需求端车主对智能和美观 的诉求逐渐加大的同时,供给端也在不断挖掘车灯潜在的“噱头”,共同推动车灯技术的 迭代和外观的进化,汽车车灯开始从静态被动的安全功能系统,变成了主动响应增进驾驶 体验的智能配置,单车价值量不断提升。具体而言,一方面,光源端向更优质、节能、更 小体积方向迭代;另一方面,智能车灯从 LED 到 ADB 再到 DLP,功能从方便司机拓展到 实现与其他车辆、行人的信息交互。目前,欧洲生产 Model Y 已确定采用 DLP 车灯。

    智能化升级:从 AFS 到 ADB 再到 DLP,智能化程度不断加深。汽车行驶过程中驾 驶员需要应对的环境瞬息万变,静态的汽车车灯照明很难实时满足驾驶员的观察需求。在 这一背景下,AFS(或 AFLS,Adaptive Front-lighting System)和 ADB(Adaptive Driving Beam)等技术应运而生,近两年,DLP(Digital Lighting Process,数字投影灯光)技术也 开始应用在一些车型上。 1)AFS 前灯:能够根据汽车的加速、刹车和转向等工况调节大灯照射角度,确保照 明范围能持续覆盖驾驶员需要观察的区域,减少盲区。前瞻产业研究院数据显示 2019 年 我国 AFS 大灯渗透率为 18%。 2)ADB 前灯:能够通过摄像头探测汽车前方的车辆和行人,并依据探测结果控制远 光灯的分区照射,避免来车驾驶员和行人因被远光灯照射而产生炫目。前瞻产业研究院数 据显示 2019 年我国 ADB 大灯的渗透率为 1.8%。3)DLP 前灯:工作原理和投影机基本一致,就是通过镜片反射数字微镜芯片 DMD, 投射数字编辑的信息到车前的地面,像素高达百万级。由于 DLP 车灯的关键零部件数字微 型反射镜元件(Digital Micromirror Device,简称 DMD)、德州仪器的数字光处理控制器芯 片(DLPC)、功率微控制器芯片(PMIC),均由德州仪器独家垄断,成本相对较高。

    汽车玻璃:Model 3 天幕引领行业趋势,渗透率有望持续提升

    代传统天窗,特斯拉全景天幕引领行业趋势。2016 年,特斯拉宣布旗下 Model S 和 Model 3 两大车型的最新款更换全景天幕玻璃。其中 Model 3 采用了分段式的天幕玻璃, 在车顶中部采用了加强横梁,对视野仍有一定的影响,而 Model S 和 Model Y 更是取消了 中间的横梁,采用了一体式的天幕玻璃。我们认为全玻璃车顶在造型设计上更加时尚和具 有视觉冲击力,为车内提供更加广阔的视野,采光性能更好,乘坐体验提升显著。同时天 幕玻璃省去电机、滑轨、齿轮等复杂结构后,制造成本更低。特斯拉所使用的天幕玻璃采 用高强度的夹层玻璃保证安全,并通过镀膜技术阻挡近 98%的紫外线和 81%的热量进入 车内。特斯拉的天幕设计受到了消费者的广泛好评,料将成为未来趋势。

    天幕工艺、性能要求提高,推动产业链价值重构。特斯拉的天幕设计逐渐开始被其他 品牌跟进,蔚来、小鹏、理想和比亚迪等国内主机厂均在旗舰车型上开始搭载天幕。从汽 车天窗的发展历程来看,从最早的无天窗设计,到小天窗和全景天窗,再到天幕,汽车玻 璃的单车使用面积不断提升。天幕玻璃较多采用钢化玻璃,由于其面积比普通玻璃更大, 工艺难度更高,单平米价格水平普遍更高。此外,天幕玻璃对隔热、隔音等方面都有更高 要求,如采用夹层设计、具备防红外线功能、具备智能调光功能等,其单价也显著高于普 通的钢化或夹层玻璃。对于传统汽车玻璃天窗而言,玻璃供应商是 Tier2,天窗机械及密 封部件贡献主要价值量,天窗系统整体单车价值量约为 2000-4000 元。而天幕玻璃单车价 值量约为 1500 元,玻璃供应商升级为 Tier-1,不仅满足了消费者需求,同时降低了主机 厂的成本。因此,主机厂更有动力提升全玻璃车顶的配置率。因此,天幕玻璃将为汽车玻 璃行业打开新的增长空间。

    底盘:线控底盘是实现高级别自动驾驶的必由之路

    Model 3 底盘逐步实现线控化。经过对 Model 3 底盘结构的拆解,我们看到:悬架方 面,特斯拉全车型均采用前轮双叉臂式独立悬架搭配后轮多连杆式独立悬架的配置,未配 置空气悬架;制动系统方面,特斯拉车系使用最前沿技术,即线控制动系统 Ibooster;转 向系统方面,Model 3 仍沿用传统的电动助力转向。

    线控底盘是实现自动驾驶 SAE L3 的“执行”基石。自动驾驶系统共分为感知、决策、 控制和执行四个部分,其中底盘系统属于自动驾驶中的“执行”机构,是最终实现自动驾 驶的核心功能模块。L3 及 L3 以上更高级别自动驾驶的实现离不开底盘执行机构的快速响 应和精确执行,以达到和上层的感知、决策和控制的高度协同。而底盘系统的升级也意味 着其中驱动系统、制动系统和转向系统等功能模块的升级。所以,线控底盘作为更高级别 自动驾驶的执行基石,是发展自动驾驶的具体抓手。

    制动系统:线控制动是 L3 及以上高级别自动驾驶的必然选择。发展至今,汽车制动 领域先后历经四个阶段:机械制动、发动机动力制动、脱离发动机的电力制动和数控制动, 以及现阶段具备完备冗余机制的线控制动。相较于使用电子真空泵,第四代的线控制动能 进行能量回收,在能耗降低的同时,效率提升。随着汽车行业智能化、自动化发展,线控 制动是必然选择。

    转向系统:线控转向是汽车转向系统未来趋势。汽车转向系统经历“机械-电子辅助线控”三段式发展,第三代线控转向系统(Steer-By-Wire,SBW)在电子助力转向系统 (Electric Power Steering, EPS)的基础之上发展而来,将驾驶员的操纵输入转化为电 信号,无需通过机械连接装置,转向时方向盘上的阻力矩也由电机模拟产生,可以自由地 设计转向系统的角传递特性和力传递特性,完全实现由电线或者电信号实现指令传递从而 操纵汽车。线控转向模式下,方向盘与转向机完全解耦,转向精准度提升,同时节约驾驶 舱空间,是 L4 及以上自动驾驶的必选项。

    悬架:空气悬架是核心趋势,配置价格区间明显下探。传统汽车的悬架一般由螺旋弹 簧和减振器组成,被动地进行受力缓冲和反弹力消减。空气悬架是一种主动悬架,它可以 控制车身底盘高度、车身倾斜度和减振阻尼系数等。与传统钢制汽车悬架系统相比较,空 气悬架在提高车身稳定性及乘坐舒适性方面有显著优势,是汽车悬架的核心趋势。空气悬 架系统此前多配置于 BBA 等高端豪华品牌,标配价格在 70 万元以上。随着国内自主主机 厂不断推出高端品牌,同时希望给消费者带来“性价比”,空悬成为其增配的主要产品, 国内自主品牌空悬配置价格区间明显下探。

  • 贝索斯的公开信:亚马逊的成长

    贝索斯成立亚马逊,从1997年每年都会发布致股东的公开信,23封信成为商业史上经典的教材和案例。

    1997年的股东信:成功标准是能够为股东创造长期价值,而实现这一目标必须以客户为中心

    在1997年第一封股东信中,出身投行的贝索斯着重强调了亚马逊的价值观:我们的成功标准是能够为股东创造长期价值,坚持长期市场领导地位”这一目标,而非关注短期的盈利以及华尔街的短期反应。实现这一目标必须以客户为中心。

    如何衡量亚马逊的市场领导地位,贝索斯将其用用户增长率、收入增长率、用户回头率、品牌力量来指标化。

    1998年的股东信:与优秀的人共事,亚马逊向全品类电商平台升级,首次实现了跨国运营

    1998年互联网概念被爆炒,亚马逊市值全年上涨11倍,达169亿美元。这一年,亚马逊的销售额由1997年的1.48亿美元增加至1998年的6.1亿美元,同比增速为313%。

    在信中,贝索斯兴奋的表示,亚马逊用户数累计达到了620万,并在美国推出了音乐、影视以及礼品店。同时,在英、德两国开设新店,在近期推出了亚马逊拍卖。

    面对激烈的竞争,贝索斯表示,设置较高的人才招聘门槛,在过去、现在、未来,都会是亚马逊成功的一个重要因素。

    1999年的股东信:优于同行的效率以及规模效应可以给亚马逊带来最坚实的护城河

    1999年互联网泡沫达到顶峰,投资者对互联网概念趋之若鹜。

    在这一年,亚马逊销售额从实现16.4亿美元,同比增长169%。新增用户1070万,累计用户数从620万增加至1690万。

    贝索斯强调,1999年,受益于精简高效地利用资本的商业模式,亚马逊不需要建立实体店以及相应的库房,因此集中管理的仓储物流模式使得亚马逊在仅仅2.2亿美元仓储费用和3.18亿美元厂房设备的投入中,获得了超过20亿美元的年销售额。

    2000年的股东信:并未为了保住当期利润而停止扩张的步伐,利用技术减少成本

    2000年的贝索斯稍显落寞,业务的快速增长仍然难以吞噬过高的估值,泡沫终究被戳破。这一年亚马逊市值下跌近80%。

    贝索斯着重提到“电商”是一门固定成本高、可变成本很低的生意,因此很难做成一个中等规模的生意,变相地承认了投资“PETS.COM”以及“LIVING.COM”的失败。

    与实体零售商相比,亚马逊同样在借助技术进步来减少成本,但技术进步更大的影响,“电商”在利用技术改善用户体验,从而吸引足够多的用户达到规模效应。

    面对残酷的资本市场,贝索斯再次重申长期价值的重要性。

    如果公司目前的处境要比去年好很多,为什么股价会比上一年低这么多呢?贝索斯引述著名投资人格雷厄姆“称重机”与“投票器”的比喻。

    股市从短期来看是个“投票机”,从长期来看则是个“称重机”。

    贝索斯没有为了保住当期利润而停止扩张的步伐,对长期价值的追寻在熊市中更显得弥足珍贵。

    2001年的股东信:规模效应进入了良性循环,始终坚持现金流为王

    互联网泡沫破裂带来的阴霾还没有散去,2001年亚马逊市值40亿美元,同比下跌27%。这一年,亚马逊营收达31.2亿美元,同比仅增长13%,是其创立以来增速最低的一年。市场对亚马逊的未来成长空间产生了质疑。

    在“当期盈利”和“扩大规模”之中,亚马逊总是选择后者。

    贝索斯表示,专注于优化成本给予了我们降价能力,进而拉动业务的增长。业务增长会带来更多销量,从而分摊固定成本,减少平均成本,反过来给我们更大的降价能力。

    这能够讨好用户,对股东来说也是好事。我们希望保持这种良性循环。

    与此同时,贝索斯还强调了现金流的重要性。

    “每股股票代表了一份公司未来现金流,因此现金流看起来比其他任何单变量都更能诠释一家公司的长期股价。”可观、稳定的自由现金流成为亚马逊未来几年的重中之重。

    2002年的股东信:在电商领域,提升用户体验的花费是固定资产投资

    2002年,亚马逊自由现金流首次转正达1.35亿美金,市值也重拾升势,全年上涨79%,达72亿美元。

    在信中,贝索斯回答了亚马逊如何实现提供优质的用户体验,和提供低价产品两全其美的问题。

    贝索斯解释道,传统零售与电商是不同的。在传统零售领域,提升用户体验的花费是动态成本;在电商领域,提升用户体验的花费是固定资产投资。这一差异允许亚马逊在提升用户体验的同时,利用用户数量的增多而降低单客成本。

    因此,同时实现看似矛盾的两个目标“提升用户体验”以及“降低售价”,在亚马逊的商业模式中成为了可能。

    2003年的股东信:坚持长线思维

    这一年,得益于快速增长的现金流,亚马逊市值达到211亿美元,同比上涨193%。亚马逊当年现金流达4.76亿美元,同比增长253%;营收达53亿美元,同比增34%。

    在信中,贝索斯强调,“长线思维”既是成为一名真正的股东的必备能力,也是这样的股东投资决策的必然结果。

    同时,贝索斯用“租客”与“房东”来分别形容“短期投资者”与“长期投资者”。租客只会注重短期利益而不在乎房屋本身的维护成本,而房东则会权衡房屋的长期投入与舒适度。

    规模扩大的变现需要时间,因此降低价格几乎总会损害眼下的业绩。但是从长远来看,我们要坚持不懈地推动“价格-成本结构”的良性循环,这将给我们带来更强大、更有价值的业务。

    2004年的股东信:长期目标不是利润,而是自由现金流

    由于市场对亚马逊长期盈利能力的担忧,2004年其市值下滑至181亿美元,同比下降14.5%,这一年,亚马逊自由现金流增长了38%,达到4.77亿美元,比去年同期高出1.31亿美元。

    在信中,贝索斯明确的表示,亚马逊的终极财务指标,以及最想达成的长期目标,是每股自由现金流。亚马逊的自由现金流主要来自不断增加的营业利润、有效管理的运营资本以及资本支出。

    贝索斯用一个实际的例子来证明用“固定资产投入”换来的“净利增长”是不可持续的。净利增长率和EBITDA因为没有考虑“营运资本和资本支出”只能反映运营状况的一部分,仅注重净利增速是片面且不可持续的。

    当增长所需的资本投资超过这些投资产生现金流的现值时,一家公司的盈利增长的确可能在特定环境下损害股东价值。

    2005年股东信:数据分析很好,但长期判断更重要

    2005年亚马逊推出Amazon Prime业务,会员免配送费,提升会员粘性的同时对用户进行了分类筛选。同时,前瞻性的利用“大数据”来辅助“物流中心”的投资决策。

    贝索斯表示,数据分析是亚马逊最喜欢的决策方法。同时,贝索斯也强调了长期判断的重要性。

    价格弹性的定量理解局限于短期内,我们可以预计降价在本周和本季度内的影响,但不能精确预计持续降价在今后五年、十年或更长时间内对我们业务的影响。

    在这一决策上,贝索斯对免费送货服务和Amazon Prime计划作出了判断:这两项功能在短期内耗资不菲——但相信它们在长期内会有非常重要的价值。

    另外,面对 “长期利益”与“短期利益”的取舍问题,贝索斯还举例称:

    允许“第三方销售”在亚马逊平台与其自营业务公平竞争,这一举措在短期内会对业绩产生负面影响,但是长期来看却是“以用户为中心”以及“注重长期价值”的最好体现。

    事实证明,第三方销售产品数量占总产品数量的比例从2000年的6%提高到2005年的28%,同时零售收入增长了两倍。

    2006年股东信:涉足新业务,必须考虑投资回报和规模效应

    2006年,贝索斯意图发展与电商发展毫无关联的AWS业务,外界对其也并不看好。亚马逊股价在当年持续承压,公司市值163.36亿,同比降低16.7%,自由现金流5.25亿,同比减少12.5%。

    面对新业务的选择,贝索斯在信中说,“在我们将股东的资金投入任何一项新业务前,我们必须相信,这项新业务能带来股东决定投资亚马逊时所期待的资本回报;我们还必须确信,这项业务今后能达到的规模,使其对我们整个公司来说都是举足轻重的。”

    AWS云服务这一现象级业务,客户是软件开发商,主要服务是为用户提供“运算与存储”服务。

    由于新业务需要耐心培育,一些大公司很难将新业务由小做大。亚马逊的企业文化对那些起点较小却有巨大潜力的新业务提供了不同寻常的支持,贝索斯相信这是亚马逊竞争优势的一个源泉。

    后来,这一业务也将亚马逊积累的“巨量”数据分析存储的能力放大。

    2007年股东信:推出现象级产品“Kindle”,改变了人们的阅读方式

    这一年,得益于电商的持续增长与Kindle的热卖,自由现金流达12.4亿,同比上涨135.4%。市场已经逐步认同贝索斯“自由现金流”的理念,亚马逊市值达399.3亿,同比增加134%;

    经过3年的努力,亚马逊推出了Amazon Kindle。

    Kindle的初衷就是为了让人们更加舒适的进行长时间专心阅读,远离碎片化信息。“Kindle”上线当日5.5小时内存货售罄,供不应求的情况持续了半年之久。

    2008年股东信:长期发展战略可以与顾客至上战略相得益彰

    2008年金融危机爆发,亚马逊也未能幸免,市值大跌45%至219.5亿美元。经营情况较为稳定:营收191.7亿,同比增长29%,自由现金流14.2亿,同比增长14.5%。

    在此全球经济动荡之际,我们所秉持的基本做法依然未有改变。谦虚谨慎,关注长期价值,用户至上。

    在信中,贝索斯指出“Kindle”是一个“逆向工作思维”的产物。

    “顺向思维”是指我们有了什么样的优势因此做什么业务,而“逆向思维”则是从用户需求出发,用户需要什么因此我们做什么业务。

    在用户体验上,贝索斯进一步解释说,我们的价格目标在于赢得用户的信任,而不是仅仅寻求短期利益的最大化。我们将基于这一角度的定价作为获取长期利润的最佳途径,并将其作为我们的工作信条。我们可能在单个商品上获利有限,但我们始终相信,基于消费者对亚马逊的长期信任,我们将卖出更多的商品。

    贝索斯强调,其首要的业绩目标仍然是最大限度地挖掘长期自由现金流,并借此获得较高的投资回报,将在AWS、第三方销售商工具、数字媒体、中国市场、以及新商品类别等方面大力投资。

    2009年股东信:用户体验是“终极目标”

    这一年,亚马逊市值上涨172%,达597.3亿。当年自由现金流29.2亿,同比增长114%;营收249.1亿,同比增长28%。

    这背后是亚马逊各业务条线都呈现了惊人的增长。Kindle电子书从去年的25万种上升至46万种,电商平台的活跃第三方卖家数达190万,AWS推出“关系数据库”、“虚拟私有云”。

    贝索斯表示,亚马逊对2010年设定了452个具体目标,其中有360个目标将直接影响用户体验,每个目标都切实可行并规定了完工日期。在452目标中,净利润、毛利率或运营利润率这些词语一次都没有使用。

    在贝索斯眼中,用户体验是“终极目标”,而“财务指标”是向目标挺进过程中的结果。

    2010年股东信:亚马逊大规模使用新技术,帮助提升经营效率

    AWS已经成为软件开发者的“基础设施”,基于对AWS变现能力的认可,华尔街对公司的盈利预期不断上调。2010年亚马逊市值达811.8亿,创历史新高,同比增长36%。自由现金流由于大量的研发投入导致至同比减少13.6%,达25.5亿。

    随机森林算法、贝叶斯估计方法、RESTful services、Gossip协议、最终一致性、数据分表、反熵、拜占庭容错机制、抹除码、vector clock算法……走进亚马逊的某个会议室,您可能在那么一瞬间会以为自己闯进了一个计算机科学讲座。

    2010年给股东的信充满了科技感,这其中许多都是亚马逊当时正在应用的算法或技术。很多高精尖算法或技术都为亚马逊所独有,部分技术超越了当时学术的前沿,众多研发成果步入“商业变现”阶段,领先的科技成了亚马逊又一个坚实的“护城河”。

    亚马逊利用“低价策略”维持住了足够大的流量,基于此延伸出世界上一流的后台支持技术,将这一技术拓展并商业化则诞生了“亚马逊云”这样现象级业务。

    2011年股东信:亚马逊的生态让参与者创造价值

    2011年亚马逊持续加大研发投入与资本支出,自有现金同比下滑16.1%,达21.4亿。市值达787亿,同比下降3%,营收481亿,同比增加40.6%。

    在信中,贝索斯表示,颠覆性的发明通常能让他人发挥自己的创造力——追求自己的梦想。这正是亚马逊网络服务(AWS)、亚马逊配送和Kindle出版(KDP)的重要组成部分。

    亚马逊将平台上的服务自助化,降低了所有潜在商家的创业成本,使成千上万的人进行大胆尝试,有所作为。

    2012年股东信:永远聚焦用户,而非竞争对手

    2012年亚马逊市值突破千亿,增长44.6%达到1139亿。

    亚马逊持续在“提升用户体验”方面进行投资,这些投资的动机就是对用户的关注,而不是对竞争对手的反应。

    贝索斯在信中写道,亚马逊经常在没有任何竞争压力的情况下提升用户体验,许多投资者批评亚马逊更像一个“慈善机构”而非一个“上市公司”,甚至是违背了作为营利性公司的原则。

    但贝索斯不这么认为,遇到问题才改进的结果只会是聪明反被聪明误。我们生活的世界正快速发展变化着,这种做法非常危险。

    贝索斯认为积极主动地取悦用户,赢得他们的信任,这能从用户那里获得更多的业务。即使在新的商业领域也是如此,用长远的眼光来考虑,让用户和股东的利益保持一致。

    2013年股东信:不断创新

    当年亚马逊市值继续走高,同比增长61%到达1830亿,市场热情不减。

    在信中,贝索斯回顾了亚马逊其中一小部分项目,从金牌服务(Prime)到亚马逊微笑(Amazon Smile),再到Mayday。FireTV业务代表的互联网电视、亚马逊生鲜所代表的新零售竟然都在当时被亚马逊所提及。

    你们了解亚马逊的整体进展,了解这些项目是多么鼓舞人心。

    贝索斯在信中还首次提及了亚马逊对待员工的态度。启动了一项名为“职业选择”的项目,为员工预付95%的课程费,让他们在有需要的领域就读各种课程,例如飞机机械或护理。

    2014年股东信:Marketplace、Prime和AWS成就了亚马逊

    2014年亚马逊市值1443亿美元,同比下降21.2%,营收889.9亿,同比增长19.5%。

    贝索斯在信中描述,一种理想的商品至少有四个特征:用户喜爱;体量成长潜能大;资本回报高;能够经得起时间考验(有存活几十年的潜力)。

    对亚马逊来说,Marketplace, Prime和AWS这三大支柱成就了今天的亚马逊。

    贝索斯在信中首次提及“飞轮效应”,亚马逊大多数业务都会伴随规模的提升而减少单位固定成本。Marketplace、Prime以及FBA(亚马逊配送服务),三者构成了一个完整的“飞轮效应”闭环:商家加入Marketplace后平均销量提升20%,由于更多的商家加入Prime会员可以享受更加多元的购物体验,伴随商家与客户交易笔数的提升FBA的单均配送成本持续下降。

    同时,贝索斯表示,2014年亚马逊推出了智能音响Echo及AI管家Alexa作为物联网交互终端,将在未来数年内引领智能家居的新潮流。

    2015年股东信:创新必须要试验,并准备好为其买单

    这一年,亚马逊营收首次突破千亿,为1070亿,同比增长20.2%。自由现金流达74.5亿。2015年亚马逊市值再次大幅增长,以120.6%的涨幅达到3183亿美元。

    亚马逊零售业务和AWS最初都只是“播下的种子”,在没有大举收购的情况下迅速自发成长为庞大的业务。

    这是怎么回事?贝索斯在信中解释说,它们共享着独特的组织文化,这一文化深信几条原则,并在此基础上展开行动。

    亚马逊长期以来形成了一种鼓励创新的企业文化。他们深知“失败”总是伴随着“创新”而来,因此对失败的宽容就是对“创新”的鼓励。部分大型组织都有敢于创新的理念,但未必愿意承担创新过程中的一系列失败。

    高昂的回报通常来自于挑战传统智慧,但传统智慧通常都是正确的。如果有10%的机会获得100倍回报,那么你每次都应当去赌一把。

    这一年亚马逊推出“Amazon Lending”,以供应链金融的方式持续帮助平台上的中小商家。为了满足更加精细化的配送需求,亚马逊开始改造“商家”自有仓库。对传统仓库赋能,让亚马逊以更轻资产的方式扩张以及完善自己的配送网络。

    2016年股东信:我们必须保持DAY1的状态

    这一年,亚马逊市值再创新高达3577亿,同比增长12.4%;营收1359.9亿,同比增长27.1%;自由现金流105.35亿,同比增长41.4%。

    这一年给股东的信丝毫没有谈业务的变化,贝索斯着重强调了如何保持组织活力。

    如何保持DAY1的状态,贝索斯认为,将业务的重心集中于一点,以用户为中心是目前保持“第一天”活力的最佳做法。

    为什么?以用户为中心具有许多优势,这一点尤为重要:用户总是会惊人地心怀不满,即使他们自身不知道这个事实,他们总是渴望更好,而您想要取悦用户的愿望,则必须以他们为出发点进行发明创造。

    亚马逊在决策的效率与正确概率上反复权衡。大多数“巨无霸”企业中都会有大企业病: “保守主义”、“环节多”、”决策耗时长”,亚马逊很好的解决了这一难题。亚马逊同时具备大公司业务范围与能力,创业公司的精神与初心,这是企业继续前行的两个必要条件。

    2017年股东信:让高标准渗透公司文化

    2017年是亚马逊上市20周年之际,其市值达5635亿,累计增长39102%,年均复合增速35%。

    贝索斯在信中表示,在过去几年里,亚马逊在满足用户的高期望方面取得了一些成就,同时也为失败付出了数十亿美元的代价。

    对于高标准,贝索斯认为,人们很容易通过耳濡目染来学习掌握高标准,高标准具有传染性。另外,高标准是特定的,你必须在每个利益相关领域单独学习高标准。

    建设高标准的企业文化是非常值得的,它能带来很多好处。最自然和最明显的是,你将为用户提供更好的产品和服务——这个理由就足够了!

    2018年股东信:保持好奇心,敢于想象

    这一年,福布斯美国400富豪榜自1994年以来榜首首次易主,贝索斯成为世界首富。亚马逊在体量如此庞大的情况下在2018年股价狂飙50%,成为继苹果之后第二家突破万亿美元的公司。

    在亚马逊成立之初,我们就知道自己想要创造一种建设者文化(拥有好奇心的人,或者说是探险家)。他们喜欢发明创造,哪怕他们是专家,还是抱有跟初学者一样“新鲜的”心态。他们看待我们做事的方式,与我们现在的做事方式如出一辙。

    贝索斯表示,亚马逊仍然是全球零售业的一个小角色。我们在零售市场中所占的比例很低,而且,我们业务所在的每个国家都有更大的零售商。

    不过,贝索斯认为要敢于想象不可能的事。比如:结帐。没有人喜欢排队等候。所以我们设想了一家商店,在那里你可以走进来,拿走你想要的东西,然后直接离开。

    另外,随着公司的发展,一切都需要扩展,包括失败实验的规模。如果失败的规模没有扩大,你的发明就不会真正推动潮流。

    2019年股东信:2040年要实现净零碳排放

    在今年的股东信中,贝索斯主要谈及疫情的应对,以及亚马逊的“碳足迹”目标。

    疫情让他们了解到亚马逊对他们的用户来说变得多么重要。

    对于“碳足迹“目标。亚马逊承诺,将提前10年实现《巴黎协定》的目标,到2040年实现净零碳排放。此外,亚马逊还利用其规模优势为员工和社区谋福利,包括提高薪水和福利,提供技能培训等;亚马逊直接和间接支持了美国200万个就业岗位。

    2021年股东信:

    在亚马逊 1997 年的致股东信中(也是我们第一封),我谈到了我们希望创造一种「持久的特许经营权」,一种通过释放互联网的力量来重塑服务客户意义的特许经营。我注意到亚马逊已经从 158 名员工增长到 614 人,我们的客户超过 150 万。我们刚刚以每股 1.50 美元的拆分调整后的股价上市。当时,我提到了亚马逊处于 Day 1。

    从那时起,我们已经走过了漫长的道路,我们比以往任何时候都更加努力地服务和取悦客户。去年,我们雇佣了 50 万名员工,现在全球各地有员工 130 万人。我们在全球拥有 2 亿多名 Prime 会员。超过 190 万中小型企业在我们平台上销售,占我们零售额的近 60%。连接到智能助手 Alexa 的智能家居设备超过 1 亿台。AWS 服务于数百万客户,截止 2020 年年化收入(annualized run rates)为 500 亿美元。1997 年,我们还没有推出 Prime、Marketplace、Alexa 或 AWS,那时候甚至都没有这样的想法。我们在每一次项目上都冒了很大的风险,并为此付出汗水和创造力。

    一路走来,我们为股东创造了 1.6 万亿美元的财富。他们是谁?你就是其中之一,我的亚马逊股份让我变得富有。但是超过八分之七的股份,相当于 1.4 万亿美元的财富创造为他人所有。他们是谁?他们是养老基金,大学,401(k)(养老保险制度)以及 Mary 和 Larry 一家(购买亚马逊股票的散户,并且在贝佐斯写这封信时,恰好给他发来了感谢邮件。)

    我总是听到类似的故事。我认识其中的一些人,他们把从亚马逊赚来的钱用在大学、紧急情况、住房、度假、创业和慈善事业上。我为亚马逊为股东创造的财富感到自豪。这很重要,因为帮助改善了他们的生活。但我还知道:这还不是我们创造的价值中最大的一部分。

    创造比消费更有价值

    如果你想在商业上取得成功(实际上是在生活中),你必须创造比消费更多的东西。你的目标应该是为你交往的每一个人创造价值。任何不能为其触及的人创造价值的企业,即使表面上看起来很成功,也不会在这个世界上长久。很快就会被淘汰。

    记住,股票价格不是关于过去的,它们是对未来现金流的预测,并折现回到现在。股市代表着预见。不过,我现在要换个话题,谈谈过去的事。我们在 2020 年为股东创造了多少价值?这是个相对容易回答的问题,因为会计系统就是为回答这个问题而设立的。我们在 2020 年的净利润为 213 亿美元。如果亚马逊不是一家拥有数千名股东的上市公司,而是一家只有单一所有者的独资企业,那么这就是其在 2020 年获得的全部收入。

    员工呢?这也是一个相当容易回答的价值创造问题,因为我们可以看看薪酬支出情况。公司的支出就代表员工的收入。2020 年,员工的收入为 800 亿美元,另加 110 亿美元开支 (包括福利和各种工资税),总计 910 亿美元。

    第三方卖家呢?我们有个内部团队(销售合作伙伴服务团队)来回答这个问题。他们估计,2020 年,第三方卖家在亚马逊上销售商品获得的利润在 250 亿至 390 亿美元之间,保守地讲,我在这里假设为 250 亿美元。

    至于客户,我们必须将其细分为消费者客户和 AWS 客户。首先是消费者,我们为其提供低廉价格、多种选择和快速交货服务,但是假设我们忽略了所有这些,只看重一件事,那就是我们为客户节省了时间。

    在亚马逊上 28% 的购买是在三分钟或更短的时间内完成,半数购买完成不到 15 分钟。与典型的实体店购物之旅相比,需要开车、停车、搜索商店过道、排队结账、找到你的车,然后再开车回家,研究表明这平均需要一个小时。如果你假设典型的亚马逊购物只需要 15 分钟,一周可以节省你几次去实体店的时间,那么每年就节省了 75 个小时以上。这很重要,毕竟在 21 世纪初,我们都很忙碌。

    我们换算成美元,让我们把节省的时间假设为每小时 10 美元(这是保守的)。75 小时乘以每小时 10 美元,减去 Prime 的成本,我们就可以为每个 Prime 会员创造约 630 美元的价值。我们有 2 亿 Prime 会员,这意味着 2020 年创造的价值总计为 1260 亿美元。

    AWS 很难估计,因为每个客户的工作量截然不同,但我们无论如何都会这样做,事先承认误差很高。云端运行与内部运行带来的直接成本改善各不相同,但合理的估计是 30%。在 AWS 2020 年全年 450 亿美元的收入中,这 30% 意味着创造了 190 亿美元客户价值。(内部运行花费 640 亿美元,使用 AWS 花费 450 亿美元)

    这项评估工作的困难之处在于,直接降低成本是迁移到云端为客户带来的好处中最小的一部分。更大的好处是提高了软件开发的速度,这可以显著提高客户的竞争力和收入。我们没有合理的方法来估计这部分客户价值,只能说它几乎肯定大于直接成本节约。保守地说,我认为 AWS 在 2020 年为客户创造的这部分价值高达 380 亿美元。

    将为 AWS 和消费者客户创造的价值加在一起,我们在 2020 年创造的客户总价值达到 1640 亿美元。总的来说,我们在 2020 年为股东创造了 210 亿美元价值、为员工创造了 910 亿美元、为第三方卖家创造 250 亿美元、为客户创造 1640 亿美元,总计 3010 亿美元。

    如果每个小组都有一份损益表,代表他们与亚马逊的互动,那么上面的数字就是这些损益表的「底线」。这些数字是人们为我们工作、卖家通过我们销售以及客户从我们这里购买的部分原因,即我们为他们创造了价值。这种价值创造不是「零和游戏」。这不仅仅是把钱从一个口袋转到另一个口袋。围绕着整个社会来看,你会发现发明是所有真正价值创造的根源,创造的价值被认为是衡量创新的最好标准。

    当然,我们与这些人的关系和我们创造的价值不仅仅是金钱。金钱并不能说明问题的全部。例如,我们与股东的关系相对简单,他们在自己选择的期限内投资和持有股票。我们很少就年度会议和正确的投票程序等事项向股东提供指导。即便如此,他们也可以无视这些指示,直接跳过投票。

    我们与员工的关系是截然不同的例子。我们有他们遵循的流程和需要符合的标准。我们需要培训和各种认证。员工必须在规定的时间上班。我们与员工的互动很多,而且是细粒度的。这不仅仅是工资和福利的问题,它还涉及到双方关系的所有其他细节方面。

    董事会对贝塞默最近工会投票的结果感到安慰吗?不,没有。我认为我们需要为员工做得更多。虽然投票结果向一端倾斜,我们与员工的直接关系依然密切,但我很清楚,我们需要更好的愿景来为员工创造价值——一个让他们成功的愿景。

    CEO 贝佐斯的最后一封信:世界想让你做普通人,别信

    如果你看了一些新闻报道,你可能会认为我们不关心员工。在这些报道中,我们的员工有时被称为绝望的灵魂,被当作机器人对待。但这不准确。他们是成熟而有思想的人,可以选择在哪里工作。当我们调查配送中心的员工时,94% 的人说他们会向朋友推荐来亚马逊上班。

    员工可以在轮班期间小憩,活动身体、取水、使用洗手间或与经理交谈,所有这些都不会影响他们的绩效。这些小憩是除了 30 分钟午餐和 30 分钟正常休息之间之外的。

    我们没有设定不合理的绩效目标,而是设定了可实现的绩效目标,将任期和实际员工绩效数据考虑在内。员工的表现是在很长一段时间内综合评估的结果,因为我们知道,在任何给定的一周、一天或一小时内,各种因素都会影响他们的表现。如果员工在一段时间内未能达到绩效目标,他们的经理会与他们交谈并提供指导。

    培训也扩展到那些表现出色并能承担更多责任的员工身上。事实上,82% 的培训是积极的,提供给达到或超过预期的员工。我们解雇了不到 2.6% 的员工,因为他们无法履行自己的职责。2020 年,由于新冠肺炎疫情对运营的影响,这个数字甚至更低。

    世界上最好的雇主和最安全的工作场所

    事实是,领导亚马逊运营的数千人庞大团队始终非常关心我们的临时工,我们为自己创造的工作环境感到自豪。我们还感到自豪的是,亚马逊是一家不仅仅为计算机科学家和拥有高级学位的人创造就业机会的公司,我们也为那些从未获得这种优势的人创造就业机会。

    尽管我们已经取得了很多成就,但我很清楚,我们需要一个更好的愿景,才能让我们的员工取得成功。我们一直希望成为世界上最以客户为中心的公司。我们不会改变这一点,这就是我们取得如此成功的原因。但我承诺我们要增加一项,我们将成为世界上最好的雇主和最安全的工作场所。

    在我即将担任执行董事长的职位上,我将把重点放在新的举措上。我是个发明家,这是我最喜欢的,也是我最擅长的。因此我能创造最大价值。我很高兴能与运营部门中充满激情的团队合作,在这个兼具「最好雇主和最安全工作场所」的舞台上进一步创造发明。在细节上,亚马逊总是灵活的,但在愿景问题上,我们是固执和无情的。当我们下定决心做某事时,我们从来没有失败过,在这一点上,我们也不会失败。

    我们深入探讨安全问题。例如,亚马逊约 40% 的工伤与肌肉骨骼疾病(MSD)有关,即反复运动可能导致的扭伤或拉伤等疾病。MSD 在我们从事的这类工作中很常见,而且更有可能发生在员工入职的前六个月。我们需要为新员工发明减少 MSD 的解决方案,他们中的许多人可能是第一次参加正式工作。

    WorkingWell 就是一个这样的项目,我们于 2020 年在北美和欧洲的 350 个工作地点向 85.9 万名员工推出了这个项目,我们在那里培训一小群员工有关身体力学、积极主动保持健康和安全方面的知识。除了减少工伤,这些概念对日常工作以外的活动也有积极影响。

    我们正在开发新的自动化人员配备时间表,它使用复杂的算法在使用不同肌腱组的工作之间轮换员工,以减少重复运动,帮助保护员工免受 MSD 风险。这项新技术是我们将在 2021 年推出的工作轮换计划的核心。我们对 MSD 早期预防的日益重视已经取得了成效。从 2019 年到 2020 年,总体 MSD 减少了 32%,导致必须离开工作岗位的 MSD 减少了一半以上。

    我们在亚马逊雇佣了 6200 名安全专业人员。他们使用安全科学来解决复杂的问题,并建立新的行业最佳实践标准。2021 年,我们将在安全项目上投资超过 3 亿美元,其中包括最初的 6600 万美元,用于开发有助于防止叉车和其他类型工业车辆相撞的技术。

    当我们带头时,其他人就会跟随。两年半前,当我们为小时工设定 15 美元的最低工资时,我们这样做是因为我们想在工资方面领先而不是随大流,因为我们认为这样做是正确的。加州大学伯克利分校和布兰迪斯大学的经济学家最近发表的一篇论文,分析了我们决定将最低起薪提高到每小时 15 美元的影响。他们的评估反映了我们从员工、他们的家庭和他们所居住的社区那里听到的情况。

    我们提高了起薪不仅使我们自己的员工受益,也使同一社区的其他工人受益,从而提振了全国各地的地方经济。研究表明,在同一劳动力市场中,我们的加薪导致其他雇主的平均时薪增加了 4.7%。

    我们的领导工作还没有结束。如果我们想成为世界上最好的雇主,我们不应该满足于 94% 的员工说他们会向朋友推荐亚马逊的工作,而是必须以 100% 为目标。我们将通过继续在工资、福利、提升技能机会和其他方面领先,随着时间的推移,我们将做到这一点。

    如果任何股东担心,成「世界上最好雇主和最安全工作场所」的目标可能会分散我们作为「世界上最以客户为中心的公司」的关注,那我希望你们能够放下担忧。这样想吧:如果我们能同时运营两种不同的业务,就像消费者电子商务和 AWS 一样,并且都在最高水平上做得非常好,那么我们当然也能在这两种愿景声明上做同样的事情。事实上,我相信它们会相互加强。

    气候承诺

    在这封信的早期草稿中,我以论证和例子开始了这一部分,旨在证明人类导致的气候变化是真实存在的。但是,坦率地说,我认为我们现在可以停止这样说了。你不必说光合作用是真实存在的,或者说重力是真实存在的,或者海平面上的水是在 100 摄氏度沸腾的。这些事情完全是真的,气候变化也是如此。

    不久前,大多数人认为应对气候变化是好事,但他们也认为这将耗资巨大,并会威胁到就业、竞争力和经济增长。我们现在知道得更清楚了。应对气候变化的明智行动不仅将阻止坏事发生,还将提高我们的经济效率,有助于推动技术变革,降低风险。总而言之,这些可以带来更多更好的工作,更健康快乐的孩子,生产效率更高的工人,以及更繁荣的未来。

    但这并不意味着其是一件容易的事,未来十年将是决定性的十年。2030 年的经济将需要与今天有很大的不同,亚马逊计划成为这一变化的核心。我们在 2019 年 9 月与 Global Optimism 组织共同发起了「气候誓言」,因为我们希望帮助推动这场积极的革命。我们需要成为一个不断壮大的企业团队中的一员,他们了解 21 世纪的紧迫性和机遇。

    现在,不到两年后,代表几乎所有经济部门的 53 家公司签署了气候誓言。百思买、IBM、印孚瑟斯、梅赛德斯-奔驰、微软、西门子和 Verizon 等公司承诺,到 2040 年,其全球业务将实现零碳排放,比《巴黎协议》提前 10 年实现目标。誓言还要求它们定期测量和报告温室气体排放,通过真正的商业变革和创新实施脱碳战略,并通过额外的、可量化的、真实的、永久的和对社会有益的补偿来中和任何剩余的排放。可信的、高质量的补偿是宝贵的,我们应该保留它们,以补偿那些不存在低碳替代品的经济活动。

    气候誓言签署方正在做出有意义的、切实的和雄心勃勃的承诺。Uber 的目标是到 2030 年在加拿大、欧洲和美国成为零碳排放平台,Henkel 计划将其生产用电的 100% 来源于可再生能源。亚马逊正在朝着我们自己的目标前进,即到 2025 年 100% 使用可再生能源,比我们最初设定的 2030 年目标提前了五年。亚马逊是全球最大的可再生能源企业买家,我们在全球有 62 个电网级别的风能和太阳能项目,以及 125 个铺设太阳能屋顶的配送和分类中心。这些项目的发电量超过 6.9 千兆瓦,每年提供超过 2000 万兆瓦时的能源。

    运输是亚马逊业务运营的重要组成部分,也是我们到 2040 年实现零碳排放计划中最艰难的部分。为了帮助快速加速电动汽车技术的市场,并帮助所有公司过渡到更环保的技术,我们向 Rivian 投资了超过 10 亿美元,并向该公司订购了 10 万辆电动送货车。我们还与印度 Mahindra 和欧洲的梅赛德斯-奔驰建立了合作伙伴关系。

    这些来自 Rivian 的定制电动送货车辆已经投入运营,并于今年 2 月首次在洛杉矶上路。1 万辆新车最早将于明年上路,到 2030 年,所有 10 万辆车将全部上路,节省数百万吨碳排放。我们希望其他企业加入气候誓言的一个重要原因是向市场发出信号,企业应该开始发明和开发签署方需要履行承诺的新技术。我们购买 10 万辆 Rivian 电动送货车就是一个很好的例子。

    为了进一步加快对建设零碳经济所需的新技术的投资,我们于去年 6 月推出了气候誓言基金(Climate Pledge Fund)。该投资计划从 20 亿美元开始,投资于有远见的公司,旨在促进向低碳经济的过渡。亚马逊已经宣布投资于 CarbonCure Technologies、Pachama、Redwood Materials、Rivian、Turntide Technologies、ZeroAvia 和 Infinium,而且它们只是我们希望建立未来零碳经济的创新公司中的一部分。

    我还个人出资 100 亿美元提供赠款,帮助推动我们在未来十年所需的系统性变革。我们将支持顶尖的科学家、活动家、非政府组织、环境正义组织和其他致力于抗击气候变化和保护自然世界的人。去年年底,我向 16 个致力于创新和移动解决方案的组织提供了我的第一轮赠款。这将是大公司、小公司、全球组织和个人的集体行动,我很高兴能成为这一旅程的一部分,并乐观地认为人类可以团结起来解决这一挑战。

    保持差异化才能生存,世界希望你融入它

    这是我作为亚马逊首席执行官的最后一封年度股东信,我觉得有最后一件极其重要的事情必须传授给大家。我希望所有亚马逊人都把这件事放在心上。

    这是理查德·道金斯(Richard Dawkins)出版的《盲眼钟表匠》(The Blind Watch Maker)的一段话,它关于生物学的一个基本事实:

    「避免死亡是你必须努力去做的事情。如果顺其自然(比如死亡),身体往往会恢复到与环境的平衡状态。如果你测量某些变量,如生物体内的温度、酸度、水分或电荷,通常会发现它们与周围环境中相应的测量结果有很大不同。例如,我们的体温通常比周围环境温度更高,在寒冷的气候下,身体必须努力工作才能保持这种差异。但当我们死后,这种机能就会停止,温差也开始消失,最终我们体温与周围环境相同。当然,并不是所有的动物都在努力避免与周围的温度达到平衡,但所有的动物都做了类似避免与周围环境融合的努力。例如,在干旱的国家,动植物努力保持细胞中的液体含量,这与水从细胞流向干燥外部世界的自然趋势背道而驰。如果他们失败了,他们就会死。更广泛地说,如果生物不积极地阻止水分流失,它们最终会融入周围环境,不再作为拥有自我意识的生物存在。这就是他们死后会发生的事情。」

    虽然这不是一个比喻,但仍然是一段很棒的话,与亚马逊息息相关。我甚至认为,它与所有公司、所有机构以及我们每个人的生活都相关。这个世界用什么方式吸引你,试图让你保持所谓的「正常」?需要多少努力要保持你的独特性?让那些把你变得与众不同的东西保持下去?

    我认识一对幸福的夫妇,他们在相处过程中经常会遇到这样的场景:丈夫经常会假装痛苦地看着妻子,对她说:「你就不能正常一点儿吗?」然后他们大笑起来。当然,深刻的事实是,他喜欢她的独特之处。但是,与此同时,如果我们稍微正常一点,事情往往会变得更容易,消耗更少的能量,这也是事实。

    这种现象总会发生于不同维度,民主不正常,暴政是历史的常态。如果我们停止了保持民主所需的所有艰苦努力,我们将很快与暴政达到平衡。

    我们都知道独特性(原创性)是有价值的,我们都被教导要「做你自己」。我真正要求你们做的是拥抱并现实地认识到保持这种独特性需要付出多大的努力。这个世界希望你融入它,它会千方百计地吸引你,但别让这种情况发生。你必须为自己的与众不同付出代价,但这是值得的。童话版的「做你自己」是,只要你让自己的独特性闪耀光芒,所有的痛苦就会消失。这种说法具有误导性。做你自己是值得的,但不要指望这是容易或免费的,你必须不断地投入努力。

    这个世界总是试图让亚马逊融入它,让我们与我们周围环境保持平衡。这将需要持续的努力,但我们可以而且必须做得更好。

    我一如既往地附上我们 1997 年的股东信。它在最后写道:「亚马逊网感谢客户的支持和信任,感谢彼此的辛勤工作,感谢股东们的支持和鼓励。」这一点都没变。我要特别感谢贾西同意担任首席执行官一职,这是一项责任重大的艰难工作。贾西才华横溢,信奉最高的标准。我向你们保证,贾西不会允许世界把我们变成普通人,他会聚集我们所需的能量,让我们保持内在活力,让我们与众不同。这并不容易,但却至关重要。我认为他将会让所有人满意。谢谢你,贾西!

    致你们所有人:保持善良,有独创性,创造的东西要比消费的多,永远不要让世界吸引你融入周围的环境。现在仍是 Day 1。

    1997年 DAY1—关于亚马逊的长期主义
    Amazon.com passed many milestones in 1997: by year-end, we had served more than 1.5 million customers, yielding 838% revenue growth to $147.8 million, and extended our market leadership despite aggressive competitive entry.

    But this is Day 1 for the Internet and, if we execute well, for Amazon.com. Today, online commerce saves customers money and precious time. Tomorrow, through personalization, online commerce will accelerate the very process of discovery. Amazon.com uses the Internet to create real value for its customers and, by doing so, hopes to create an enduring franchise, even in established and large markets.

    It’s All About the Long Term

    We believe that a fundamental measure of our success will be the shareholder value we create over the long term. This value will be a direct result of our ability to extend and solidify our current market leadership position. The stronger our market leadership, the more powerful our economic model. Market leadership can translate directly to higher revenue, higher profitability, greater capital velocity, and correspondingly stronger returns on invested capital.

    Our decisions have consistently reflected this focus. We first measure ourselves in terms of the metrics most indicative of our market leadership: customer and revenue growth, the degree to which our customers continue to purchase from us on a repeat basis, and the strength of our brand. We have invested and will continue to invest aggressively to expand and leverage our customer base, brand, and infrastructure as we move to establish an enduring franchise.

    1998年 建立文化—以客户为中心 & WHM
    1) Our Customers

    We intend to build the world’s most customer-centric company. We hold as axiomatic that customers are perceptive and smart, and that brand image follows reality and not the other way around. Our customers tell us that they choose Amazon.com and tell their friends about us because of the selection, ease-of-use, low prices, and service that we deliver.

    2) Work Hard, Have Fun, Make History

    It would be impossible to produce results in an environment as dynamic as the Internet without extraordinary people. Working to create a little bit of history isn’t supposed to be easy, and, well, we’re finding that things are as they’re supposed to be! We now have a team of 2,100 smart, hard-working, passionate folks who put customers first. Setting the bar high in our approach to hiring has been, and will continue to be, the single most important element of Amazon.com’s success.

    During our hiring meetings, we ask people to consider three questions before making a decision:

    Will you admire this person? If you think about the people you’ve admired in your life, they are probably people you’ve been able to learn from or take an example from. For myself, I’ve always tried hard to work only with people I admire, and I encourage folks here to be just as demanding. Life is definitely too short to do otherwise.

    Will this person raise the average level of effectiveness of the group they’re entering? We want to fight entropy. The bar has to continuously go up. I ask people to visualize the company 5 years from now. At that point, each of us should look around and say, “The standards are so high now — boy, I’m glad I got in when I did!”

    Along what dimension might this person be a superstar? Many people have unique skills, interests, and perspectives that enrich the work environment for all of us. It’s often something that’s not even related to their jobs. One person here is a National Spelling Bee champion (1978, I believe). I suspect it doesn’t help her in her everyday work, but it does make working here more fun if you can occasionally snag her in the hall with a quick challenge: “onomatopoeia!”

    1999年 重复前两年的话—以客户为中心、长期主义
    Our vision is to use this platform to build Earth’s most customer-centric company, a place where customers can come to find and discover anything and everything they might want to buy online.

    2000年 第一战略—增长用户数
    Future: Real Estate Doesn’t Obey Moore’s Law.

    Let’s move to the future. Why should you be optimistic about the future of e-commerce and the future of Amazon.com?

    Industry growth and new customer adoption will be driven over the coming years by relentless improvements in the customer experience of online shopping. These improvements in customer experience will be driven by innovations made possible by dramatic increases in available bandwidth, disk space, and processing power, all of which are getting cheap fast.

    While there are no foregone conclusions, and we still have much to prove, Amazon.com today is a unique asset. We have the brand, the customer relationships, the technology, the fulfillment infrastructure, the financial strength, the people, and the determination to extend our leadership in this infant industry and to build an important and lasting company. And we will do so by keeping the customer first.

    2001年 增长飞轮—现金流的安全及未来盘子有多大
    An investment framework

    In every annual letter (including this one), we attach a copy of our original 1997 letter to shareholders to help investors decide if Amazon.com is the right kind of investment for them, and to help us determine if we have remained true to our original goals and values. I think we have.

    In that 1997 letter, we wrote, “When forced to choose between optimizing the appearance of our GAAP accounting and maximizing the present value of future cash flows, we’ll take the cash flows.”

    Why focus on cash flows? Because a share of stock is a share of a company’s future cash flows, and, as a result, cash flows more than any other single variable seem to do the best job of explaining a company’s stock price over the long term.

    If you could know for certain just two things–a company’s future cash flows and its future number of shares outstanding–you would have an excellent idea of the fair value of a share of that company’s stock today. (You’d also need to know appropriate discount rates, but if you knew the future cash flows for certain, it would also be reasonably easy to know which discount rates to use.) It’s not easy, but you can make an informed forecast of future cash flows by examining a company’s performance in the past and by looking at factors such as the leverage points and scalability in that company’s model. Estimating the number of shares outstanding in the future requires you to forecast items such as option grants to employees or other potential capital transactions. Ultimately, your determination of cash flow per share will be a strong indicator of the price you might be willing to pay for a share of ownership in any company.

    Since we expect to keep our fixed costs largely fixed, even at significantly higher unit volumes, we believe Amazon.com is poised over the coming years to generate meaningful, sustained, free cash flow. Our goal for 2002 reflects just that. As we said in January when we reported our fourth quarter results, we plan this year to generate positive operating cash flow, leading to free cash flow (the difference between the two is up to $75 million of planned capital expenditures). Our trailing twelve-month pro forma net income should, roughly but not perfectly, trend like trailing twelve-month cash flow.

    Limiting share count means more cash flow per share and more long-term value for owners. Our current objective is to target net dilution from employee stock options (grants net of cancellations) to an average of 3% per year over the next five years, although in any given year it might be higher or lower.

    2002年 偷懒、只提了指标
    只回答了一个问题:

    Traditional stores face a time-tested tradeoff between offering high-touch customer experience on the one hand and the lowest possible prices on the other. How can Amazon.com be trying to do both?

    The answer is that we transform much of customer experience—such as unmatched selection, extensive product information, personalized recommendations, and other new software features—into largely a fixed expense. With customer experience costs largely fixed (more like a publishing model than a retailing model), our costs as a percentage of sales can shrink rapidly as we grow our business. Moreover, customer experience costs that remain variable—such as the variable portion of fulfillment costs—improve in our model as we reduce defects. Eliminating defects improves costs and leads to better customer experience.

    We believe our ability to lower prices and simultaneously drive customer experience is a big deal, and this past year offers evidence that the strategy is working.

    2003年 重复讲话—以客户为中心
    As we design our customer experience, we do so with long-term owners in mind. We try to make all of our customer experience decisions—big and small—in that framework.

    For instance, shortly after launching Amazon.com in 1995, we empowered customers to review products. While now a routine Amazon.com practice, at the time we received complaints from a few vendors, basically wondering if we understood our business: “You make money when you sell things—why would you allow negative reviews on your website?” Speaking as a focus group of one, I know I’ve sometimes changed my mind before making purchases on Amazon.com as a result of negative or lukewarm customer reviews. Though negative reviews cost us some sales in the short term, helping customers make better purchase decisions ultimately pays off for the company.

    2004年 重复讲话—现金流
    Our Most Important Financial Measure: Free Cash Flow Per Share

    Amazon.com’s financial focus is on long-term growth in free cash flow per share.

    Amazon.com’s free cash flow is driven primarily by increasing operating profit dollars and efficiently managing both working capital and capital expenditures. We work to increase operating profit by focusing on improving all aspects of the customer experience to grow sales and by maintaining a lean cost structure.

    2005年 科学决策—大数据分析
    Many of the important decisions we make at Amazon.com can be made with data. There is a right answer or a wrong answer, a better answer or a worse answer, and math tells us which is which. These are our favorite kinds of decisions.As you would expect, however, not all of our important decisions can be made in this enviable, math-based way. Sometimes we have little or no historical data to guide us and proactive experimentation is impossible, impractical, or tantamount to a decision to proceed. Though data, analysis, and math play a role, the prime ingredient in these decisions is judgment.1

    Opening a new fulfillment center is an example. We use history from our existing fulfillment network to estimate seasonal peaks and to model alternatives for new capacity. We look at anticipated product mix, including product dimensions and weight, to decide how much space we need and whether we need a facility for smaller “sortable” items or for larger items that usually ship alone. To shorten delivery times and reduce outbound transportation costs, we analyze prospective locations based on proximity to customers, transportation hubs, and existing facilities. Quantitative analysis improves the customer’s experience and our cost structure.

    2006年 重复讲话—以客户为中心
    Our established businesses are well-rooted young trees. They are growing, enjoy high returns on capital, and operate in very large market segments. These characteristics set a high bar for any new business we would start. Before we invest our shareholders’ money in a new business, we must convince ourselves that the new opportunity can generate the returns on capital our investors expected when they invested in Amazon. And we must convince ourselves that the new business can grow to a scale where it can be significant in the context of our overall company.

    Furthermore, we must believe that the opportunity is currently underserved and that we have the capabilities needed to bring strong customer-facing differentiation to the marketplace. Without that, it’s unlikely we’d get to scale in that new business.

    In our experience, if a new business enjoys runaway success, it can only begin to be meaningful to the overall company economics in something like three to seven years.

    2007年 偷懒、只提了新机会、kindle
    We humans co-evolve with our tools. We change our tools, and then our tools change us. Writing, invented thousands of years ago, is a grand whopper of a tool, and I have no doubt that it changed us dramatically. Five hundred years ago, Gutenberg’s invention led to a significant step-change in the cost of books. Physical books ushered in a new way of collaborating and learning.

    2008年 重复讲话—长期主义、kindle
    In this turbulent global economy, our fundamental approach remains the same. Stay heads down, focused on the long term and obsessed over customers. Long-term thinking levers our existing abilities and lets us do new things we couldn’t otherwise contemplate. It supports the failure and iteration required for invention, and it frees us to pioneer in unexplored spaces. Seek instant gratification – or the elusive promise of it – and chances are you’ll find a crowd there ahead of you. Long-term orientation interacts well with customer obsession. If we can identify a customer need and if we can further develop conviction that that need is meaningful and durable, our approach permits us to work patiently for multiple years to deliver a solution. “Working backwards” from customer needs can be contrasted with a “skills-forward” approach where existing skills and competencies are used to drive business opportunities. The skills-forward approach says, “We are really good at X. What else can we do with X?” That’s a useful and rewarding business approach. However, if used exclusively, the company employing it will never be driven to develop fresh skills. Eventually the existing skills will become outmoded. Working backwards from customer needs often demands that we acquire new competencies and exercise new muscles, never mind how uncomfortable and awkward-feeling those first steps might be.

    2009年 偷懒、只提了指标
    Net sales increased 28% year-over-year to $24.51 billion in 2009. This is 15 times higher than net sales 10 years ago when they were $1.64 billion in 1999.

    Free cash flow increased 114% year-over-year to $2.92 billion in 2009.

    2010年 重点讲技术—是基石
    Random forests, naïve Bayesian estimators, RESTful services, gossip protocols, eventual consistency, data sharding, anti-entropy, Byzantine quorum, erasure coding, vector clocks … walk into certain Amazon meetings, and you may momentarily think you’ve stumbled into a computer science lecture.

    Look inside a current textbook on software architecture, and you’ll find few patterns that we don’t apply at Amazon. We use high-performance transactions systems, complex rendering and object caching, workflow and queuing systems, business intelligence and data analytics, machine learning and pattern recognition, neural networks and probabilistic decision making, and a wide variety of other techniques. And while many of our systems are based on the latest in computer science research, this often hasn’t been sufficient: our architects and engineers have had to advance research in directions that no academic had yet taken. Many of the problems we face have no textbook solutions, and so we — happily — invent new approaches.

    Our technologies are almost exclusively implemented as services: bits of logic that encapsulate the data they operate on and provide hardened interfaces as the only way to access their functionality. This approach reduces side effects and allows services to evolve at their own pace without impacting the other components of the overall system. Service-oriented architecture — or SOA — is the fundamental building abstraction for Amazon technologies. Thanks to a thoughtful and far-sighted team of engineers and architects, this approach was applied at Amazon long before SOA became a buzzword in the industry. Our e-commerce platform is composed of a federation of hundreds of software services that work in concert to deliver functionality ranging from recommendations to order fulfillment to inventory tracking. For example, to construct a product detail page for a customer visiting Amazon.com, our software calls on between 200 and 300 services to present a highly personalized experience for that customer.

    State management is the heart of any system that needs to grow to very large size. Many years ago, Amazon’s requirements reached a point where many of our systems could no longer be served by any commercial solution: our key data services store many petabytes of data and handle millions of requests per second. To meet these demanding and unusual requirements, we’ve developed several alternative, purpose-built persistence solutions, including our own key-value store and single table store. To do so, we’ve leaned heavily on the core principles from the distributed systems and database research communities and invented from there. The storage systems we’ve pioneered demonstrate extreme scalability while maintaining tight control over performance, availability, and cost. To achieve their ultra-scale properties these systems take a novel approach to data update management: by relaxing the synchronization requirements of updates that need to be disseminated to large numbers of replicas, these systems are able to survive under the harshest performance and availability conditions. These implementations are based on the concept of eventual consistency. The advances in data management developed by Amazon engineers have been the starting point for the architectures underneath the cloud storage and data management services offered by Amazon Web Services (AWS). For example, our Simple Storage Service, Elastic Block Store, and SimpleDB all derive their basic architecture from unique Amazon technologies.

    And we like it that way. Invention is in our DNA and technology is the fundamental tool we wield to evolve and improve every aspect of the experience we provide our customers. We still have a lot to learn, and I expect and hope we’ll continue to have so much fun learning it. I take great pride in being part of this team.

    2011年 重点讲技术—AWS
    “To us, the value of Amazon Web Services is undeniable – in twenty seconds, we can double our server capacity. In a high-growth environment like ours and with a small team of developers, it’s very important for us to trust that we have the best support to give to the music community around the world. Five years ago, we would have crashed and been down without knowing when we would be back. Now, because of Amazon’s continued innovation, we can provide the best technology and continue to grow.” That’s Christopher Tholen, the Chief Technology Officer of BandPage. His comments about how AWS helps with the critical need to scale compute capacity quickly and reliably are not hypothetical: BandPage now helps 500,000 bands and artists connect with tens of millions of fans.

    2012年 偷懒、吹了下股价和未来—清醒点
    As I write this, our recent stock performance has been positive, but we constantly remind ourselves of an important point – as I frequently quote famed investor Benjamin Graham in our employee all-hands meetings – “In the short run, the market is a voting machine but in the long run, it is a weighing machine.” We don’t celebrate a 10% increase in the stock price like we celebrate excellent customer experience. We aren’t 10% smarter when that happens and conversely aren’t 10% dumber when the stock goes the other way. We want to be weighed, and we’re always working to build a heavier company.

    2013年 偷懒、列了一堆在干的事
    长期主义。

    2014年 偷懒、从去年事里挑了点—MarketPlace、Prime、AWS
    重点项目。

    2015年 偷懒、重复了一遍去年的—MarketPlace、Prime、AWS
    重点项目。

    2016年 Day2——公司变坏、想清楚什么才是亚马逊
    “Jeff, what does Day 2 look like?”

    That’s a question I just got at our most recent all-hands meeting. I’ve been reminding people that it’s Day 1 for a couple of decades. I work in an Amazon building named Day 1, and when I moved buildings, I took the name with me. I spend time thinking about this topic.

    “Day 2 is stasis. Followed by irrelevance. Followed by excruciating, painful decline. Followed by death. And that is why it is always Day 1.”

    To be sure, this kind of decline would happen in extreme slow motion. An established company might harvest Day 2 for decades, but the final result would still come.

    I’m interested in the question, how do you fend off Day 2? What are the techniques and tactics? How do you keep the vitality of Day 1, even inside a large organization?

    Such a question can’t have a simple answer. There will be many elements, multiple paths, and many traps. I don’t know the whole answer, but I may know bits of it. Here’s a starter pack of essentials for Day 1 defense: customer obsession, a skeptical view of proxies, the eager adoption of external trends, and high-velocity decision making.

    重点列了4件事:

    True Customer Obsession
    Resist Proxies
    Embrace External Trends
    High-Velocity Decision Making

    2017年 Day2重建文化——高标准
    How do you stay ahead of ever-rising customer expectations? There’s no single way to do it – it’s a combination of many things. But high standards (widely deployed and at all levels of detail) are certainly a big part of it. We’ve had some successes over the years in our quest to meet the high expectations of customers. We’ve also had billions of dollars’ worth of failures along the way. With those experiences as backdrop, I’d like to share with you the essentials of what we’ve learned (so far) about high standards inside an organization.

    Intrinsic or Teachable?

    First, there’s a foundational question: are high standards intrinsic or teachable? If you take me on your basketball team, you can teach me many things, but you can’t teach me to be taller. Do we first and foremost need to select for “high standards” people? If so, this letter would need to be mostly about hiring practices, but I don’t think so. I believe high standards are teachable. In fact, people are pretty good at learning high standards simply through exposure. High standards are contagious. Bring a new person onto a high standards team, and they’ll quickly adapt. The opposite is also true. If low standards prevail, those too will quickly spread. And though exposure works well to teach high standards, I believe you can accelerate that rate of learning by articulating a few core principles of high standards, which I hope to share in this letter.

    Universal or Domain Specific?

    Another important question is whether high standards are universal or domain specific. In other words, if you have high standards in one area, do you automatically have high standards elsewhere? I believe high standards are domain specific, and that you have to learn high standards separately in every arena of interest. When I started Amazon, I had high standards on inventing, on customer care, and (thankfully) on hiring. But I didn’t have high standards on operational process: how to keep fixed problems fixed, how to eliminate defects at the root, how to inspect processes, and much more. I had to learn and develop high standards on all of that (my colleagues were my tutors).

    Understanding this point is important because it keeps you humble. You can consider yourself a person of high standards in general and still have debilitating blind spots. There can be whole arenas of endeavor where you may not even know that your standards are low or non-existent, and certainly not world class. It’s critical to be open to that likelihood.

    Recognition and Scope

    What do you need to achieve high standards in a particular domain area? First, you have to be able to recognize what good looks like in that domain. Second, you must have realistic expectations for how hard it should be (how much work it will take) to achieve that result – the scope.

    Let me give you two examples. One is a sort of toy illustration but it makes the point clearly, and another is a real one that comes up at Amazon all the time.

    Perfect Handstands

    A close friend recently decided to learn to do a perfect free-standing handstand. No leaning against a wall. Not for just a few seconds. Instagram good. She decided to start her journey by taking a handstand workshop at her yoga studio. She then practiced for a while but wasn’t getting the results she wanted. So, she hired a handstand coach. Yes, I know what you’re thinking, but evidently this is an actual thing that exists. In the very first lesson, the coach gave her some wonderful advice. “Most people,” he said, “think that if they work hard, they should be able to master a handstand in about two weeks. The reality is that it takes about six months of daily practice. If you think you should be able to do it in two weeks, you’re just going to end up quitting.” Unrealistic beliefs on scope – often hidden and undiscussed – kill high standards. To achieve high standards yourself or as part of a team, you need to form and proactively communicate realistic beliefs about how hard something is going to be – something this coach understood well.

    Six-Page Narratives

    We don’t do PowerPoint (or any other slide-oriented) presentations at Amazon. Instead, we write narratively structured six-page memos. We silently read one at the beginning of each meeting in a kind of “study hall.” Not surprisingly, the quality of these memos varies widely. Some have the clarity of angels singing. They are brilliant and thoughtful and set up the meeting for high-quality discussion. Sometimes they come in at the other end of the spectrum.

    2018年 Day2重建文化——搞探索、要允许失败
    Intuition, curiosity, and the power of wandering Imagining the impossible Failure needs to scale too

  • 林泽玲,蒋照生:中国A股区块链上市公司全景报告(2021)

    摘要:
    1、发展区块链业务的211家上市公司整体资质较高,中大型企业占比超9成;上市时间3年以上的企业共195家,占比92.42%,其中上市时间10年以上企业占比50.24%;
    2、头部城市的区块链上市企业活跃,北京、深圳、杭州、上海、成都共有120家,占比56.87%;
    3、211家上市公司所属行业多样,其中,信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业(99家)、制造业(57家)、金融(19家)的上市企业数量最多;
    4、上市企业通过自主研发、合作研发、投资持股等方式开展区块链业务,自主研发为主,占比超45%;
    5、211家A股区块链概念股中有157家已有区块链相关成果产出,占比高达75%左右;
    6、38%左右的上市企业当前区块链能力以服务内部业务需求或拓展业务条线为主;27%左右的企业以技术输出为主;另有35%左右的企业在满足自身业务需求的情况下,同时在进行对外的技术能力输出;
    7、从应用特征看,上市企业区块链应用以存证类为主,涉及发票、证书、版权保护、司法等领域;溯源类应用在上市公司区块链布局版图中较存证类有较大差距,布局企业主要涉及农业、物流、运输等产业;
    8、区块链业务涉及金融、政务、医疗健康等场景的企业最多,分别有68家,20家,16家。

    目录
    一、区块链上市企业基本情况
    1、上市公司整体资质较高,市值分布呈现头部效应
    2、头部城市上市企业活跃,北深杭沪四地占比过半
    3、所属行业多样,主要分布在信息传输、制造业和金融业
    4、北京上市企业行业分布集中,广东更为多样化
    二、上市企业区块链业务开展现状
    1、自主研发方式为主,占比超过 45%
    (1)自主研发:设立实验室、申请专利
    (2)合作研发:与互联网企业合作最多
    (3)投资持股或以全资/控股子公司开展业务
    2、近 75%已有成果产出,3 成以上对外技术输出
    3、多家推出特色区块链产品,存证类产品为主
    4、业务涉及金融、政务、医疗健康等场景的企业最多
    (1)区块链+金融
    (2)区块链+数字政务
    (3)区块链+医疗健康
    三、10 家代表性上市企业的区块链业务
    四、结语
    导语

    2020年以来,区块链产业的发展迈入上升期。政策的扶持和资本的活跃,推动着产业界加速探索区块链技术在政务、民生、金融、公益慈善等诸多领域的应用实践,与之伴随的是区块链产业的社会认知度和行业认可度不断提升。

    在这个过程中,市场涌现出了诸多优秀的区块链企业,其中既有伴随区块链技术发展的创新型区块链技术企业,也有传统金融机构、互联网企业以及其中的上市企业群体。与创新型原生性的区块链技术企业相比,上市企业群体虽大多数都不以区块链相关业务为主营业务,但其在资本、经验、行业资源等方面都具有初创企业无法匹敌的优势,在产业区块链的发展中扮演着重要角色。从2017年不过30余家区块链概念股到如今的200余家,上市企业群体更加关注和青睐区块链技术,并积极布局和探索区块链技术的实际应用价值。

    但另一方面,作为新兴的技术型产业,区块链仍处于发展早期。当前市场依旧鱼龙混杂,一些企业可能借区块链技术的幌子炒作赚取非法收益,实际却并未开展相关业务,欺瞒投资者和其他利益相关方。那A股如今的200余家区块链概念股成色如何?其区块链相关业务实际进展到哪一阶段?

    为了更进一步了解我国上市企业群体区块链业务的实际开展情况,01区块链、零壹智库联合数字资产研究院推出《中国A股区块链上市公司全景报告(2021)》。本报告基于东方财富choice、wind、深圳区块链50指数等所涉上市企业,同时结合企业财报、公告和投资者互动平台上的相关信息,将其中211家有实质性区块链业务/区块链技术研究的企业圈定为研究对象,将其统称为区块链概念股,并从企业基本情况、区块链业务开展路径、涉及场景等维度展开细致分析,以期对我国区块链产业发展现状进行多维呈现。(注:本报告数据截至2020年11月30日。)

    一、区块链上市企业基本情况

    本报告所圈定的211家A股上市企业分布在五大市场板块。其中,位于深圳创业板企业数量最多,共有76家,占比36.03%;其次是深交所中小板,62家,占比29.38%;上交所主板47家,占比22.27%。集中在中小板、创业板和上交所主板的企业共有185家,占比87.68%。另有深交所主板20家(占比9.48%),上交所科创板6家(2.84%)。

    图:A股区块链概念股板块分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    目前,A股尚没有出现完全定位于区块链科技公司的上市企业,211家区块链概念股原有主营业务都并非区块链,而是通过自主研发、合作研发或是投资参股的方式,布局区块链业务。从企业规模和市值、上市时间等维度来看,开展区块链业务的上市公司整体资质较高。北上深杭等头部城市也是上市企业的主要分布城市,区块链概念股所属行业的主要类型包括信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业,制造业,金融业等。不同省份/直辖市的区块链概念股的行业分布也呈现出不同特点,北京较为集中在信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业,广东区块链概念股所属行业则更为多样化。

    1、上市公司整体资质较高,市值分布呈现头部效应

    依据Wind算法,非金融型企业参照《大类统计上大中小微型企业划分办法(2017)》、金融类企业参考银发[2015]309号《金融业企业划型标准规定》进行划分,按照行业门类、大类、中类和组合类别,依据从业人员、营业收入、资产总额等指标或替代指标,可将我国企业划分为大型、中型、小型、微型等四种类型。

    从企业规模来看,211家区块链概念股以大型企业为主,有167家,占比79.15%。另有中型企业32家,占比15.17%。大、中型规模企业占比超过9成。

    图:A股区块链概念股企业规模分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    从上市时长来看,211家区块链概念股大多有较长的经营时间,企业发展较为稳定。其中,上市时间3年以上的企业共195家,占比92.42%;上市时间5年以上共151家,占比71.56%;上市10年以上的企业106家,占比50.24%,其中大型企业82家,中型企业18家。

    图:A股区块链概念股经营时间分布(单位:家)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    市值方面,截至2020年11月30日,百亿元市值以下的企业数量最多,共129家,占比61.14%;百亿到千亿元市值区间的企业66家,占比31.28%;市值在千亿到万亿元区间的企业13家,万亿元市值以上企业仅有3家。

    图:A股区块链概念股市值分布(单位:家)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    从总市值上看,截至2020年11月30日,A股总市值为84.26万亿元,而本报告圈定的211家区块链概念股当日市值为10.79万亿元,占A股总市值的12.81%左右。

    图:区块链概念股市值占A股总市值的比重

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    综上,211家区块链概念股整体资质水平较高。作为一种新型信息技术,区块链技术应用发展前期需要大量研发投入,这也对开展区块链业务的企业的资金和技术等方面实力提出了更高的要求。上市企业一般在资金、技术、人才等方面拥有更多优势,有利于其开展相关的技术研发或投资。

    同时,211家区块链概念股的市值规模也呈现较为明显的头部效应。市值前五的上市企业总市值占211家上市企业总市值的56.76%,前十占比67.72%。从平均市值来看,211家上市企业中,仅有26家在平均市值以上。

    市值前十的上市企业中,属于金融行业的有8家,以银行为主,包括工商银行(601398.SH)、建设银行(601939.SH)、中国银行(601988.SH)、平安银行(000001.SZ)、民生银行(600016.SH)、光大银行(601818.SH)。另有交通运输、仓储和邮政业-邮政业1家(顺丰控股002352.SZ),信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业-电信、广播电视和卫星传输服务1家(中国联通600050.SH)。

    图:市值排行前十的区块链概念股
    (截至2020年11月30日,单位:亿元)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    2、头部城市上市企业活跃,北深杭沪四地占比过半

    从省级分布来看,区块链概念股地域分布较广,已覆盖全国26个省级行政区。其中,区块链概念股数量最多的省级行政区分别为北京、广东、浙江、江苏、上海、福建、四川、山东、河北,其余省份区块链概念股数量均低于3家。北京市以51家区块链概念股企业位居全国首位,广东、浙江分别以44家和24家区块链概念股分列二三位。除此之外,其余省份的区块链概念股数量均未超过15家。

    图:A股区块链概念股省域分布(单位:家)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    从城市分布情况看,超过一半的区块链概念股分布在北京、深圳、杭州、上海、成都等头部城市,共有120家,占比56.87%。其中上市企业数量5家以上的城市共有9个,分别为:北京51家,深圳33家,杭州17家,上海12家,成都7家,福州6家,广州6家,厦门5家,南京5家。这9个城市上市企业数量共142家,占比67.30%,而其中排名前四的北深杭沪四地的区块链上市企业数量占比就已超过53.55%。

    图:A股区块链概念股城市分布(单位:家)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    北深杭沪等头部城市是区块链产业发展的活跃地区,无论是产业基础还是政策支持力度都处于领先地位,同时,头部城市亦是优质上市企业较为集中度的地区,因而在这些城市会有相对更多的开展区块链业务的上市企业出现。

    3、所属行业多样,主要分布在信息传输、制造业和金融业

    211家区块链概念股所属的行业多样,包括信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业、制造业、金融、租赁和商务服务业、交通运输、批发零售等领域。其中,信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业行业的上市企业数量最多,有99家,占比46.92%。其次是制造业和金融业,分别为57家(27.01%)和19家(9.00%)

    图:A股区块链概念股所属行业分布(单位:家)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    4、北京上市企业行业分布集中,广东更为多样化

    从区块链概念股数量前三大省级行政区的行业分布情况来看,北京地区的区块链概念股在所属行业分布上较为集中,超7成企业属于信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业,三大类(信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业、金融业和制造业)行业占去超9成上市企业。

    图:北京地区上市企业所属行业分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    广东省共有区块链概念股44家,涉及的行业领域较为丰富,有八大类。信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业(36.36%)、制造业(27.27%)和金融业(11.36%)为主,三大行业类别占比约75%。

    图:广东省上市企业所属行业分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    浙江省24家区块链概念股的行业分布也较为集中,主要为信息传输、软件和信息技术服务业(41.67%),制造业(20.83%)和金融业(20.83%),三大类型业务领域占比83.33%。

    图:浙江省上市企业所属行业分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库、Wind

    二、上市企业区块链业务开展现状

    1、自主研发方式为主,占比超过45%

    本报告所圈定的211家区块链概念股的主营业务都并非区块链技术,其开展区块链业务的方式主要包括自主研发、合作研发、投资持股等。

    具体来看,以自主研发方式开展区块链业务的有至少97家,占比约为45.97%;有至少25家区块链概念股通过参股投资的方式,持有区块链技术公司或有开展区块链业务的公司的股份;有至少25家通过合作研发(包括与第三方科技公司、互联网巨头以及客户合作)的方式开展区块链业务;有至少31家由其控股子公司或全资子公司开展区块链业务。此外,有33家同时以上述两种或三种方式开展区块链业务。

    图:区块链概念股业务开展方式分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    (1)自主研发:设立实验室、申请专利

    自主研发是当前区块链概念股布局区块链的主要方式之一。选择这种布局方式的上市企业集中分布于金融、软件信息服务等细分行业。这些企业凭借自身多年的技术积累和产业服务经验,通过设立区块链事业部、建立相关研究院/实验室或投入研究经费,持续开展区块链技术底层平台的研发和相关领域的应用实践,并且已有部分相应技术研究应用成果落地。另有多家上市企业通过积极申请区块链相关专利,寻求建立相关领域的先发优势和技术壁垒。

    这类上市企业推出的相关产品或服务所涉行业领域已基本覆盖金融、农业、政务、供应链、物联网、通信等。具体的业务场景包括供应链金融、贸易金融、农产品溯源、电子存证等。

    表:A股区块链概念股自主研发相关实践(部分)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    (2)合作研发:与互联网企业合作最多

    对部分区块链概念股而言,与其他企业机构合作共同研发区块链技术,推进区块链产业应用是当前较优的选择。合作研发能在很大程度上提升区块链研发效率和应用进程,发挥双方各自的资源禀赋,在技术、资金、场景、应用和服务等方面展开创新合作。

    从合作的企业类型看,传统的互联网类科技企业是最受区块链概念股青睐的合作对象。蚂蚁、百度、迅雷、小米、浪潮等互联网企业均与1家或多家上市企业建立了区块链相关的合作关系。

    除此之外,原生型区块链技术企业也在与上市企业建立更加紧密的连接。这些企业既包括趣链科技、溪塔科技、众享比特等产业区块链企业,也囊括了类似火币中国、嘉楠科技、比特大陆等涉足加密数字货币领域的区块链技术企业。

    第三类与区块链概念股建立合作研发关系的以高校和研究机构为主。其中包括广西大学、上海交通大学、赛迪区块链研究院、中国科大先研院联合实验室和中钞区块链技术研究院等。

    表:A股区块链概念股合作研发相关实践(部分)


    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    (3)投资持股或以全资/控股子公司开展业务

    通过投资持股其他区块链技术企业或者设立全资/控股子公司开展区块链业务是上市企业选择的另一种布局区块链赛道方式。以这类形式“涉链”的上市企业数量占报告样本总数的25%以上。其中,通过投资持股和设立全资/控股子公司方式布局区块链的上市企业数量几乎持平。

    211家区块链概念股投资持股的对象以产业区块链技术企业为主,但也包含了某些已涉足加密数字货币产业的企业。比如,矿机厂商比特大陆和亿邦国际均在此前获得了A股上市企业的投资:智度股份(000676.SZ)在2018年对比特大陆进行了投资,并于2019年获得了比特大陆联合创始人吴忌寒设立的Matrixport的认股权;2017年5月银江股份(300020.SZ)拟以自有资金方式出资6000万元,认购新三板挂牌企业浙江亿邦通信科技股份有限公司定向发行的400万股股票。

    更加激进的,数知科技(300038.SZ)在回答投资者提问时表示公司2015年开始战略性投资区块链技术公司,2015年通过基金Gem Tech Ventures投资Ripple,2018年通过基金Light Bridge Ventures投资Conflux。这也是国内罕见的上市企业披露直接投资涉及加密货币的公链项目。

    另外,区块链概念股设立的子公司多成立于近三年,其中大部分是新设立的从事区块链相关技术研发和应用探索的子公司,也有部分是将此前从事其他业务的子公司转型/扩展至区块链领域。

    表:A股区块链概念股投资持股/设立子公司情况(部分)


    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    2、近75%已有成果产出,3成以上对外技术输出

    从区块链技术及业务进展情况来看,据不完全统计,211家区块链概念股中有157家已有区块链相关成果产出,占比高达75%左右。这些成果主要包括:已成功搭建区块链底层技术平台、已落地或正在推进区块链应用实践、已为市场其他参与机构提供了区块链技术服务或区块链产业配套服务等。

    图:A股区块链概念股产出成果比例

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    这些已产出技术成果的上市企业中,38%左右的企业当前的区块链技术能力以服务内部业务需求或拓展业务条线为主,这类企业此前大都深耕某些细分领域,已具备足够的场景整合和业务服务能力;27%左右的企业当前则以技术输出为主,积极寻求与外部机构的合作,赋能产业场景。这类企业包括但不限于信息技术服务商、金融IT服务商等。另有35%左右的企业在满足自身业务需求的情况下,同时在进行对外的技术能力输出。

    图:A股区块链概念股产出成果呈现形式分布

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    另外,在211家区块链概念股中,有至少83家近来曾公开表示仍在大力推动区块链相关技术研究,占比将近39.34%。这些研究包括但不限于:区块链底层网络、区块链技术平台、跨链技术、数据信息安全、智能合约、数字资产等。

    图:A股区块链概念股大力正推动技术研究的比例

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    3、多家企业推出特色区块链产品,存证类产品为主

    在已产出区块链成果的上市企业中,大都推出极具行业和业务特色的区块链产品。比如旋极信息的发票链、信息科技的信发链、数字认证的信认链、常山北明的至信链等。这些产品名称中都包含“信”,可以看出上市企业比较看重区块链建立/重构信任关系的价值。另外,具有产业特色的产品也较为常见,如中装建设推出的建筑装饰业区块链技术金融信息服务平台,中远海科的航运供应链区块链存证平台。

    从应用特征看,以存证类为主,涉及发票、证书、版权保护、司法存证等领域;溯源类应用在上市公司区块链布局版图中较存证类有较大差距,布局的企业主要涉及农业、物流、运输等产业。

    图:2020年我国区块链专利申请人(公司)分布情况

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    4、业务涉及金融、政务、医疗健康等场景的企业最多

    从区块链业务开展情况来看,211家区块链概念股提供的技术或产品服务涉及的行业领域覆盖了包括金融、政务、医疗健康、物流、供应链、农业、文化版权等领域。同时,多家上市企业区块链业务涉及到多个领域。

    01区块链和零壹智库统计发现,相关技术或产品服务涉及金融领域的上市企业最多,至少有68家,占比32.23%;涉及政务领域有至少20家,占比9.48%;涉及医疗健康至少16家,占比7.58%。同时有至少31家企业的面向2个以上的行业领域提供服务,占比约14.69%。

    图:211家上市企业区块链业务所涉领域数量前十(单位:家)

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    (1)区块链+金融

    在金融领域,涉及的应用场景包括供应链金融、贸易金融、支付清结算、资产交易、资产管理、保险、证券、征信等。其中,涉及供应链金融的企业数量最多,至少有22家,在68家金融企业中占比33.35%。

    供应链金融被认为是最适合应用区块链技术的场景之一。传统供应链金融模式一直存在信息不对称、信用难以穿透、线下操作繁琐等问题,在解决中小企业融资需求方面的效果不甚理想,行业也一直在探索将新的技术应用于供应链金融。

    区块链技术基于共识算法、非对称加密、分布式存储等技术要件,具有的去中心化、不可篡改等特性,使得核心企业的信用能够在区块链上实现可信流转,从而有效盘活企业的应收账款,解决传统模式下中小企业融资难、融资贵问题。

    目前,区块链+供应链金融已成为各类型企业重点布局的应用领域之一。22家涉及区块链+供应链金融业务的上市企业所属行业分布在保险业、货币金融服务行业、邮政业、软件和信息技术服务业、商务服务业、建筑业、通用设备制造业等。企业类型包括商业银行、互联网巨头、传统IT服务商、企服SaaS软件服务商等。

    在211家上市企业中,推出的供应链金融平台包括:江苏银行(600919.SH)供应链金融云平台、易见股份(600093.SH)的“易见区块”供应链金融平台、海联金汇(002537.SZ)供应链金融服务系统以及远光软件(002063.SZ)的“供应链金融平台”等。

    (2)区块链+数字政务

    数字政务是推动公共服务和社会治理精细化、智能化的重要载体。区块链在政务领域的应用是当前区块链应用的热点之一。区块链去中心化、不可篡改、非对称加密、可追溯等特性,可以很好地解决数字政务领域对于数据流通安全性和可信性的需求,在此基础上搭建具有公共服务价值的可信平台,提升政务执行效率,优化政府业务流程,降低行政成本,在政务数据存储、共享等方面减少资源浪费。

    当前,政务区块链已经涵盖了数字身份、电子存证、电子票据、产权登记等多个场景。2020年,包括北京、湖南、贵州等地陆续发布规划,积极推动区块链应用到政务系统中。特别是新冠疫情发生以来,在防疫控疫领域业陆续出现了许多数字政务解决方案,帮助政府更高效开展疫情防控工作。

    从211家企业的数据来看,开展区块链+数字政务的上市企业数量仅次于金融行业。上市企业推出的区块链政务应用包括:常山北明(000158.SZ)旗下的开放式司法存证服务平台“至信链”,南威软件(603636.SH)打造的“证照链”等。

    (3)区块链+医疗健康

    医疗健康服务是社会刚需,但行业在运转的过程中也存在诸多问题,在服务民众方面尚有待提升的地方。近年来,新型信息技术被积极尝试用于医疗健康行业,以改善行业存在的医疗资源配置、医药营销、产品流通等方面的问题。

    2020年以来,随着区块链技术的价值被不断发掘,国家卫生健康委等多个官方机构也积极倡导区块链与医疗健康行业的融合应用。仅在2020年就有多个省市发布相关文件,将区块链技术应用于医疗健康领域受到政府及行业的肯定。所涉及的具体场景包括医疗数据共享协同、医疗物资管理、数据溯源等。

    表:部分官方文件中与“区块链+医疗健康”相关内容

    资料来源:网络公开资料整理,01区块链,零壹智库

    在开展区块链+医疗健康业务的上市企业中,卫宁健康(300253.SZ)在2020年10月份联合信医科技正式发布“医疗健康区块链解决方案”;和仁科技(300550.SZ)在2019年财报中表示,公司已将区块链融入医疗知情告知业务场景;2019年2月,易联众(300096.SZ)在投资者关系互动平台上表示,在区块链方面,公司与蚂蚁金服在疫苗溯源、处方外流等方面已开展合作。

    三、10家代表性上市企业的区块链业务

    为了更进一步了解上市企业区块链业务开展路径,01区块链从上市企业2019年年报、2020年半年报中对区块链业务有相对详细表述的企业中选取10家作为案例,主要基于财报信息、投资者互动平台、企业官网信息,对其区块链业务做进一步的评析。

    图:2019年报、2020半年报中提及“区块链”次数较多的上市企业

    来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    由上图可以看到,10家上市企业2019年财报中提及“区块链”次数均在20次以上,有5家企业提及次数超过50次。而2020年半年报中“区块链”出现次数也均在10次以上。从财报信息来看,10家上市企业主要通过自主研发的方式开展区块链业务,涉及业务领域包括金融、供应链、食品安全、医疗、能源、数字政务、数字传媒等,具体的业务场景或产品/服务包括供应链金融、供应链管理、药品溯源、区块链电子发票、版权可信存证等。

    表:10家代表性上市企业区块链业务开展情况

    资料来源:01区块链、零壹智库

    可以看到,10家上市企业开展区块链业务所涉行业领域基本上都与其原有主营业务相关,金融仍然是最多企业布局的领域。对于区块链行业而言,寻找合适的应用场景是关键难题之一,对于原本主营业务并非区块链技术服务的上市企业而言,从企业现有业务出发寻找场景,是最为高效的方式之一。同时,也有企业在技术底层方面投入,如智度股份(000676.SZ)旗下的行业级联盟链底层平台,深大通(000038.SZ)在数字传媒领域推出的“大通可信联盟链”。

    四、结语

    随着区块链行业的稳步发展,可以预见的是,将有更多上市企业布局区块链业务。上市企业在技术和资金方面的优势,将使其有更大概率实践出典型的应用案例或是高效的技术底层,从而助推我国区块链产业更好地向前发展。

    但受限于技术演进和产业发展阶段,当前大多数区块链业务并非“现金牛”业务,仍需一段时间的技术研发投入和应用实践探索。据证券日报此前报道,2020年突如其来的疫情打乱了很多上市公司的节奏,不少打算在区块链领域“更进一步”的上市公司无奈重返原点,导致大量区块链项目被搁置。从2020年全年看,211家上市企业中也仅有少数几家披露了区块链业务实际收入情况。这一方面可能是由于区块链项目周期较长,或受疫情影响项目进展缓慢甚至被搁置,另一方面更多可能是由于各家的区块链业务收入相对其主营业务依旧微不足道,并非财报中强制披露的内容。由此可见,虽然211家企业都在布局区块链,也在这一领域获得了一定的技术积累或应用成果,但在经济效益方面尚未给上市公司带来“惊喜”。

    不过,从前文也能看出,即便在2020年如此艰难的年份,211家上市企业中仍有很大一部分依旧在坚持区块链技术研发与应用探索,并在实践中积累一定经验。可以预期的是,2021年在政策、资本、技术和市场的多重因素推动下,上市企业的区块链业务板块将迎来更为广阔的发展空间。

  • 鲁南制药股权代持案判决书

    On 14th June 2016 Wang Buqiang prepared a proposal for the restructuring of Endushantum which referred to Ms. Zhao as “the actual controller of Endushantum”. This proposal also included reference to the incentive plan for Lunan’s management.
    2016年6月14日,王步强准备了重组Endushantum的备忘录,其中称赵女士为“Endushantum的实际控制人”,该备忘录还提及了给鲁南管理层的激励计划。

    On 1st August 2016 Ms. Zhao attended the board meeting of Lunan, she says in her capacity as beneficial owner of Endushantum. At the board meeting the setting up of an employee incentive plan was discussed, but no final decision was made.
    2016年8月1日赵女士参加了鲁南的董事会会议,按照赵女士的说法,她是作为Endushantum的受益人参加的。在董事会会议上,大家讨论了员工激励计划,但是没有做出任何决定。

    On 5th August 2015 Mrs. Wei transferred the two issued shares in Endushantum to Jade Value. The same day 44,998 new shares in Endushantum were issued to Jade Value and 5,000 to Zhongzhi. Ms. Zhao was not told of this.
    2015年8月5日,魏女士将2股已经发行的Endushantum股权转让给Jade Value,同一天,Endushantum对Jade Value发行了44998股,对Zhongzhi发行了5000股,未告知赵女士这件事情。


    On 16th August 2016 Endushantum, on Mrs. Wei’s instructions, paid Ms. Zhao $687,000. Ms. Zhao says that Wang Jianping and Wang Buqiang were aware of the payment. On 5th September 2016 Ms. Zhao paid Wang Jianping $8,800 described in the transfer as a “trust fee”, although the explanation given her was that it was an “annual company maintenance fee”.
    2016年8月16日,按照魏女士的指示,Endushantum支付了赵女士68.7万美元,赵女士说王建平和王步强知晓这一支付。2016年9月5日赵女士支付了王建平8800美元,备注是信托费,但是通知她的是每年公司维持费。

    On 25th September 2016 Hengde was incorporated. Wang Jianping was the only director and shareholder.
    2016年9月25日Hengde注册成立,王建平是唯一的董事和股东。

    On 20th November 2016, Mrs. Wei as settlor executed a deed establishing the “Banyan Tree Trust”. She appointed Hengde as trustee to manage the trust property, which comprised all the shares in Jade Value. The original beneficiaries of the trust were Ms. Zhao and Wang Jiaoming, the daughter of Mrs. Wei and Wang Jianping. Wang Jianping was the protector with a power to add and remove beneficiaries.
    2016年11月20日魏女士作为委托人签署证书建立Banyan Tree信托,任命Hengde为受托人管理信托财产,信托财产包括Jade Value全部股权。初始受益人是赵女士和Wang Jiaoming,Wang Jiaoming是王建平和魏女士的女儿,王建平是保护人,可以增加和移除信托收益人。

    In December 2016 Shandong NT purchased all the shares in Better and Hope from Endushantum and Lunan for RMB 115 million.
    2016年12月山东NT以人民币1.15亿元的价格自Endushantum 和鲁南收购了Better和Hope全部的股权。

    On 15th February 2017 Mrs. Wei transferred the shares in her name in Jade Value to Hengde. (Mrs. Wei had earlier on 18th December 2016 executed an identical share transfer which does not appear to have been actioned. Nothing turns on the date.)
    2017年2月15日魏女士将其名下Jade Value股权转移给Hengde。(魏女士之前在2016年12月18日还只做了转移同一批股权的文书,但是没有实际执行。)

    By this time there was worsening tension between the directors of the board of Lunan. One faction (“the Guimin camp”) comprised the chairman, Zhang Guimin, Zhu Bingfeng, Li Bing and Su Ruiqiang. The other (“the Zeping camp”) comprised Zhang Zeping, Li Guangzhong and Wang Buqiang. The Zeping camp were dissatisfied with the direction in which Zhang Guimin was taking Lunan. They wanted to remove him as chairman. On 19th February 2017 they had approached Wang Jianping with a view to retaining him as their lawyer in the upcoming corporate battle.
    在这个时候,鲁南的董事会开始严重分裂,一个派系,贵民派,包括董事长张贵民以及Zhu Bingfeng、Li Bing和Su Ruiqiang,另一个派系,泽平派包括张泽平、Li Guangzhong和王步强。泽平派不满张贵民正在控制鲁南,想撤换掉这个董事长,2017年2月19日他们找到王建平,雇佣他为马上到来的控制权战争中的律师。

    On 20th February 2017 there was a meeting in KWM’s Beijing offices between Ms. Zhao and Wang Jianping, where Ms. Zhao learnt for the first time of the existence of the Banyan Tree Trust and its terms. She was given a copy of the trust deed. Wang Jianping wanted her to sign a document to ensure that her interest in the trust would pass on her death to her (Ms. Zhao’s) daughter, but Ms. Zhao refused.
    2017年2月20日,在金杜北京办公室赵女士和王建平见面,赵女士第一次知晓了Banyan Tree信托及其条款,她获得了信托证书的复印件,王建平希望赵女士签署文件让她在信托文件中的利益可以在她死后转移给赵女士的女儿,但是赵女士拒绝了。

    On 27th February 2017, Ms. Zhao sent Wang Jianping via WeChat a query about the relevance of Jade Value to Endushantum. Originally Wang Jianping said that Jade Value held all the shares in Endushantum, but then corrected that to say that Jade Value held 90 per cent, with 10 per cent held by a management company owned by himself, Wang Buqiang and Zhang Guimin. That management company was Zhongzhi.
    2017年2月27日,赵女士通过微信向王建平询问Jade Value和Endushantum的关系,一开始王建平说Jade Value持有Endushantum全部股权,然后纠正说Jade Value持有90%,另外10%被他、王步强和张贵民拥有的一个公司持有,这个公司就是Zhongzhi。

    Ms. Zhao says that these revelations destroyed her confidence in Wang Jianping. She threated to sue Wang Jianping. In return Wang Jianping offered to resign as protector of the Banyan Tree Trust and appoint Ms. Zhao’s mother as the protector. The following day, 28th February 2017, Ms. Zhao was sent a renunciation by Wang Jiaoming of her interest in the Banyan Tree Trust, purportedly dated 1st February 2017, but probably backdated from 27th or 28th February.
    赵女士说这些信息摧毁了她对王建平的信任,她威胁起诉王建平,王建平提议她辞去Banyan Tree信托保护人的职务,改由赵女士的母亲担任。第二天,2017年2月28日,赵女士收到了Wang Jiaoming放弃Banyan Tree信托信托利益的文件,日期为2017年2月1日,但可能是从2月27日或28日倒签的。

    On 27th February 2017, Ms. Zhao gave an instruction to Lunan stating that she was the only legitimate owner of Endushantum and Endushantum’s property. She said: “I hereby entrust my mother to manage the dividend collection on my behalf. I no longer empower Sharon Wei to do so.” Zhang Guimin sent this to the Finance Department with the instruction: “Please handle accordingly.” Wang Buqiang saw this.
    2017年2月27日,赵女士指示鲁南她是Endushantum和Endushantum的财产的唯一合法所有者,她说:“我在此委托我的母亲代表我收取股息,我不再授权魏女士这么做了。”张贵民转发财务部,批注“请按此办理。”王步强亲眼看到。

    On 2nd March 2017 the Zeping camp gave notice of a meeting of the board of Lunan to discuss removing Zhang Guimin as chairman. Before they could hold the meeting, however, on 7th March 2017 Zhang Guimin purported to dismiss them as directors and took physical control of Lunan. The directors in the Zeping camp were forcibly removed from Lunan’s premises in Linyi. Subsequently each camp purported to pass board resolutions removing the other side from office. These efforts were legally ineffective, because it was only a shareholders’ resolution which would permit the removal of directors.
    2017年3月2日,泽平派系发出通知召开鲁南的董事会罢免董事长张贵民。但在他们可以开会以前,2017年3月7日,张贵民将他们全部开除然后物理控制了鲁南,泽平派系的董事被强制带出临沂的鲁南办公场地,随后每一个派系的董事都通过董事会决议开除对方,这些决议都是非法的,因为只有股东会决议可以开除董事。

    What then happened was that the Guimin camp continued to exercise day-to-day control of the business. In the current litigation, however, (until the reconciliation to which I shall come) Appleby took instructions from the Zeping camp. Lunan continued to pay the Zeping directors, notwithstanding that they were refused access to the premises or participation at board meetings.
    接下来发生的事情贵民派系继续控制公司的日常经营,但在当前的诉讼中,直到我要提及的和解前,鲁南继续支付泽平派系董事的薪水,虽然他们被禁止访问公司和参与董事会决议。

    In early March 2017, both sides in the battle for control of Lunan took steps to seek Ms. Zhao’s support in the forthcoming shareholder fights. Zhang Guimin introduced her to a woman called Zhao Xiaoai, but also known as Zhao Aili. He said she was a lawyer representing Lunan’s supervisory board. (Some documents say Zhao Xiaoai was the board’s legal representation, which may be different, but nothing turns on this.)
    2017年3月初期,想要控制鲁南的双方都寻求赵女士在马上开始的股东会大战上支持自己,张贵民向赵女士介绍了Zhao Xiaoai,或者叫Zhao Aili,声称她代表鲁南的监事会。(一些文件说Zhao Xiaoai代表董事会,这里虽有区别,但是对结果没有影响。)

    On 8th March 2017, Ms. Zhao called (or purported to call) a shareholders’ meeting. However, Mrs. Wei issued a declaration to Lunan’s board stating that neither Ms. Zhao nor her mother were shareholders in Endushantum.
    2017年3月8日,赵女士召开,或者打算召开股东会,但是魏女士向鲁南的董事会宣布赵女士和她的母亲都不是Endushantum的股东。

    On 9th March 2017 Zhao Xiaoai via WeChat showed Ms. Zhao a copy of the 2001 share entrustment agreement. This was the first time Ms. Zhao had seen it.
    2017年3月9日Zhao Xiaoai通过微信向赵女士出具了2001年股权信托协议,这是赵女士第一次见到这个文件。

    On 10th March 2017, Lunan (probably on the Guimin camp’s instructions) wrote to Mrs.Wei as follows:“Ms. Wei Sharon (Original Settlor): Lunan… entrusted 25.7% of the total shares to [Endushantum] for nominal shareholding. [Endushantum] signed a Trust Agreement with your company without the permission of Lunan Pharmaceutical, which in our opinion hurts our interest. We now demand you to immediately stop performing and terminate the Trust Agreement. We have engaged lawyers to take legal actions to pursue relevant liabilities.”
    2017年3月10日,鲁南,可能是按照贵民派系的指示,向魏女士发文:“鲁南将其27.5%的股权信托给Endushantum代持,未经鲁南同意Endushantum与你签署了信托文件,我们认为损害了我们的合法权益,我们要求你立刻停止侵害并终止信托,我们已经聘请了律师追究有关责任。”

    On 21st March 2017, Lunan (but on the Zeping camp’s instructions) wrote to Mrs. Wei to say:“Considering the chaos in the Company and that the nature and ownership of the shares of [Endushantum] are still in controversy, in order to equally protect the interest of all shareholders and staff of the Company, the Company would like to maintain the current equity structure before the new Chairman and General Manager take control of the Company and order is restored. Please do not transfer your shares of the Company during this period.”
    2017年3月21日鲁南,可能是按照泽平派系的知识,向魏女士发文:“考虑到目前公司的混乱以及Endushantum股权的性质和所有人处于争议状态,为了平等保护所有股东和公司员工的利益,公司决定维持目前的股权结构直到新董事长和总经理控制了公司恢复了秩序,请勿转让你手中的股权。”

    In early April 2017 Ms. Zhao went back to China. She and her husband, Wang Rui, arrived in Linyi on 3rd April. There she met Zhao Xiaoai for lunch, who subsequently allowed her to take various screenshots of documents off Lunan computers and an Excel spreadsheet. Ms. Zhao discovered that Zhao Xiaoai had broken into her father’s desk in his office at Lunan (which had otherwise been left untouched after his death) on Zhang Guimin’s instructions and found documents, including, it would seem, the 2001 share entrustment agreement. Ms. Zhao met Wang Buqiang on 7th April 2017 for dinner. I shall come back to this conversation. The following day, 8th April 2017, she again met Zhao Xiaoai. Relations broke down after Ms. Zhao indicated that she would not be supporting Zhang Guimin in the shareholder dispute. Zhao Xiaoai then refused Ms. Zhao further access to Lunan’s computers.
    2017年4月赵女士回到中国,她和她的丈夫Wang Rui4月3日来到临沂,与Zhao Xiaoai一起吃饭,Zhao Xiaoai允许赵女士拍摄大量鲁南的文件和表格,赵女士发现Zhao Xiaoai按照张桂敏的闯入了她父亲在鲁南的办公室——自从去世后他的办公室一直无人打扰——发现了包括2001股权信托协议在内的文件。赵女士2017年4月7日与王步强一起吃完饭,我接下来再回到这次晚饭。第二天2017年4月8日赵女士又见到了Zhao Xiaoai,在赵女士表示她不会在股东会支持张贵民以后双方闹翻,Zhao Xiaoai拒绝赵女士进一步访问鲁南的电脑。

    On 26th June 2017, Walkers, on Ms. Zhao’s behalf, issued a stop notice in respect of shares in Endushantum. On 7th July 2017 Harneys, on Hengde’s behalf, gave an undertaking to preserve the status quo. On 17th July 2017 Zhongzhi gave an undertaking to preserve the status quo of its 10 per cent shareholding in Endushantum. On 20th July 2017 Hengde and Endushantum issued the 2017/0125 proceedings which I am currently trying. These proceedings sought directions as regards the Banyan Tree Trust.
    2017年6月26日代表赵女士的Walkers律所发布了关于Endushantum股权的停止通知,2017年7月7日代表Hengde的Harneys保证要维持现状,2017年7月17日Zhongzhi也保证要维持持股10%的现状。2017年7月20日Hengde和Endushantum提起了我正在审理的2017/0125号诉讼,这些诉讼寻求关于Banyan Tree信托的指示。

    On 18th August 2017 Hengde gave a further undertaking not to deal with shares held by Endushantum.
    2017年8月18日Hengde进一步发布指示不要处置Endushantum持有的股权。

    On 21st August 2017 Ms. Zhao and Kunlun BVI issued the current proceedings under action number 2017/0151. I shall not give a full account of the procedural steps taken in the action. Issues of disclosure I shall deal with in a separate section. By order of 10th April 2017, this action was ordered to be heard together with Hengde’s action. The trial was originally listed for hearing in April 2019, but that was adjourned and then adjourned again due to Covid, so it only came before me for hearing in March 2021.
    2017年8月121日赵女士和英属维京群岛昆仑提起了2017/0151号诉讼,我就不详细叙述诉讼的过成了,我将在单独的部分再介绍。根据2017年4月10日的裁定,本诉讼与Hengde的诉讼合并审理,本诉讼原本计划2019年4月开庭,但是因为新冠疫情2021年3月才来到我面前。


    On 16th November 2017 Ms. Zhao was able to visit Lunan’s premises again and take some further photographs of Lunan’s records.
    2017年11月16日赵女士再次可以访问鲁南公司,进一步拍照了鲁南的记录。

    On 23rd October 2019, the Zeping group of directors issued an open letter, complaining that Zhang Guimin had not obeyed a court order to reinstate them as active directors. Among numerous allegations of mismanagement was one of embezzling money:“At the beginning of this year, Zhang Guimin illegally transferred RMB 24,974 million2 into the accounts of eight companies named after Zhang Guimin, including Shandong Guimin Pharmaceutical Sales Co Ltd (details of the 17 illegal transfers are attached below). These companies are basically newly established this year and have no business relationship with Lunan… Socially, it is public knowledge that a certain company in Linyi is laundering hundreds of millions of yuan for Zhang Guimin. Zhang Guimin is suspected of misappropriating huge amounts of money.”
    2019年10月23日泽平派系的股东发布了公开信,职指责张贵民没有遵守让他们重新成为董事的法庭命令,无数的指控之中包括管理不善,贪污财产,“本年年初的时候,张贵民非法转移了249.74亿[原文注:这里应该是笔误,应为2497.4万]资产到8个以他命名的公司,其中包括山东贵民药物销售公司(具体17笔非法财产转移请见附录)”,这些公司基本上是今年设立的与鲁南没有商业关系,大家都知道临沂的一个公司正在为张贵民非法大量洗钱,张贵民被怀疑盗窃了巨额资金。

    Notwithstanding that letter, there appears to have been some kind of reconciliation. On 29th January 2020 Appleby (representing Lunan) told Walkers (representing Ms. Zhao) that they were taking instructions now from the Guimin directors.
    尽管有这封公开信,似乎发生了一些和解,2020年1月29日代表鲁南的Appleby告诉代表赵女士的Walkers他们现在遵守贵民派系董事的指示。

    In the meantime on 5th December 2019, Lunan issued proceedings against Endushantum before the Intermediate People’s Court of Linyi City. Whether this was before or after the reconciliation between the two camps of directors is not in evidence, but it is likely to be after the reconciliation. Although Lunan asked for the proceedings to be heard in private (as is possible in the PRC), the Linyi court did not grant this request. The trial was heard in open court on 7th February 2020. Zhang Guimin as chairman was the legal representative of Lunan. Two lawyers from the Shanghai Kingsway law firm, Wang Huaigang and Ceng Yan, appeared for Lunan. Mrs. Wei was the legal representative of Endushantum. Two lawyers from the Beijing Jing Xuan law firm, Wang Longhai and He Bei, appeared for Endushantum.
    与此同时,2019年12月5日,鲁南在临沂中院起诉Endushantum,不清楚诉讼是在两个派系的董事和解以前还是和解以后提起的,但有可能是和解以后,虽然鲁南要求不公开审理(中国法律允许不公开审理),但是临沂院拒绝,2020年1月7日法庭公开审理,张贵民作为董事长是鲁南的法定代表人,Shanghai Kingsway律师事务所的两位律师,Wang Huaigang和Ceng Yan代理鲁南出庭,魏女士是Endushantum的法定代表人,Beijing Jing Xuan律师事务所的Wang Longhai和He Bei代理Endushantum。

    In its statement of claim, Lunan alleges that “[Kunlun US] and [Endushantum] signed an Agreement for Shareholding Rights Transfer on 11 September 2006. [Kunlun US] transferred its Entrusted Shareholding Interests to [Endushantum] to hold on its behalf. [Endushantum] promised to succeed all the rights and liabilities of Kunlun US based on the [Entrusted Shareholding Agreement]. On 11 October 2006 [Lunan’s] Board of Directors passed a resolution and confirmed that variation.”

    在起诉状中,鲁南认为“在美国昆仑和Endushantum于2006年9月11日签署的股权转让合同中,美国昆仑将其受托持股利益转让给Endushantum为自己代持,Endushantum保证根据受托持有协议继受美国昆仑的所有权利和义务,2006年10月11日鲁南的董事会决议批准了这一行为。”

    Endushantum admitted these averments in its defence. Importantly, it did not include in its list of documents submitted to the Linyi court the 2006 transfer agreement. That document was never before the Linyi court. Instead Endushantum conceded that it “enjoys all rights and assumes all obligations originally enjoyed and assumed by [Kunlun US] under the Agreement for Shareholding Entrustment.” It simply asked for its annual fees. Further (despite this not being part of Lunan’s case) Endushantum volunteered that it held shares in Shandong NT on the basis that Lunan funded the purchase. No mention was made of Zhao snr, Ms. Zhao or the litigation in the BVI. Nor were the issues raised in the current proceedings pleaded. No challenge was made to the jurisdiction of the Linyi court; instead Endushantum voluntarily submitted to the Chinese jurisdiction.

    Endushantum在答辩状中认可一点,但是非常重要的一点是,Endushantum未向临沂法院提交2006年转让协议,临邑法院从来没有看到这一协议,Endushantum承认其“承受股权信托心意项下美国昆仑原本享有的全部权利。”它仅仅主张年费,而且(尽管鲁南没有主张),Endushantum主动提起它持有的山东NT的股权来自于鲁南的出资,没有提交老赵、赵女士或者英属维京群岛等等诉讼,也没有提及当前程序中提出的争议点,没有提出管辖权异议,Endushantum自愿承认中国法院的管辖。

  • 案例:上海市市场监督管理局对食派士公司的行政处罚决定书

    一、当事人基本情况

    当事人: 上海食派士商贸发展有限公司

    住 所:上海市黄浦区瑞金二路77号底层D室

    法定代表人:杨蓓敏

    注册资本: 人民币200.0000万元整

    经营范围:餐饮企业管理,计算机技术领域内的技术咨询、技术开发、技术转让、技术服务,会务服务,企业管理咨询,市场营销策划,广告设计、制作,国内快递(邮政企业专营业务除外),食品流通。

    二、案件来源及调查经过

    根据举报线索,本机关自2019年6月起对当事人涉嫌滥用市场支配地位垄断案开展反垄断调查。2019年8月8日,本机关依法决定对当事人立案调查。期间进行了现场检查、询问调查,提取了相关书证等资料,委托第三方机构开展了经济学分析和市场调查,并多次与当事人沟通,听取陈述意见。

    三、违法事实及相关证据

    经查,当事人的经营模式为通过公司网页、手机APP“食派士”(Sherpa’s)等媒介连接用户与线下餐饮企业,借助互联网信息平台,以习惯于使用英文的目标用户需求为导向,整合并向用户提供餐饮外送服务资源信息以及外送服务;用户进行线上订餐并向当事人支付餐品费用和配送费,在线下接受当事人提供的餐饮外送服务;与当事人合作的线下餐饮企业根据合同约定向当事人支付佣金。目前,当事人业务范围涵盖上海市、北京市、苏州市三地,截至2020年11月, 已与上海***个餐饮品牌、共***家餐饮门店建立合作关系。

    (一)本案涉及的相关市场

    《中华人民共和国反垄断法》(以下简称“《反垄断法》”)规定,相关市场是指经营者在一定时期内就特定商品或者服务(以下统称为商品)进行竞争的商品范围和地域范围。《国务院反垄断委员会关于相关市场界定的指南》(以下简称《指南》)规定,相关市场范围的大小主要取决于商品(地域)的可替代程度。相关商品市场,是根据商品的特性、用途及价格等因素,由需求者认为具有较为紧密替代关系的一组或一类商品所构成的市场。相关地域市场,是指需求者获取具有较为紧密替代关系的商品的地理区域。界定相关市场时,可以基于商品的特征、用途、价格等因素进行需求替代分析,必要时进行供给替代分析。在经营者竞争的市场范围不够清晰或不易确定时,可以按照“假定垄断者测试”的分析思路来界定相关市场。

    本机关结合有关行业经营模式、竞争特点,从当事人提供服务的性质、功能、价格等方面进行需求替代分析,辅以供给替代分析,并围绕该市场的需求特性与收费模式开展了假定垄断者测试,将本案相关地域市场界定为中国上海市,相关商品市场界定为提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务市场。

    1.相关地域市场

    在线餐饮外送服务配送物品是即食类食品,易腐坏变质,并且目前主要依靠人工配送,配送服务距离有限。考虑到要保证食物口味、食品安全以及配送效率,在线餐饮外送平台在平台设计时就进行了城市锁定,用户使用平台订餐时首先要选择城市,然后才能选择这个城市内的餐厅订餐,不能跨城市消费。相应地,用户需要支付的配送费和合作餐厅商户需要支付的佣金因城市不同而不同。因此本机关将本案相关地域市场界定为中国上海市。

    2.相关商品市场

    当事人作为独立第三方,将线下的商务机会与互联网结合,借助互联网信息平台连接用户的餐饮需求与餐厅商户的盈利需求,向习惯于使用英文的用户提供在线餐饮外送服务。结合当事人经营模式的性质和功能,本机关首先分析在线餐饮外送服务和堂食服务的替代性,其次分析在线餐饮外送平台服务与餐饮企业自营在线餐饮外送服务的替代性,最后分析提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务的替代性。

    (1)替代分析

    ①在线餐饮外送服务与堂食服务不具有替代关系

    从用户的需求方面进行分析,在线餐饮外送服务与堂食服务不具有替代关系。

    用户享受在线餐饮外送服务和堂食服务虽然同属于餐饮消费范畴,但无论从用户的核心诉求来看,还是从选择情境来看,都存在显著差异。有关市场调查报告显示,75%的受访外籍人士和高达94.1%的中国籍受访者认为“外送与堂食不是一回事”。对于在线餐饮外送服务,用户更加注重订餐操作便捷、餐品信息准确、送餐速度快、送餐质量高(温度、口感等),因此餐厅需要在软硬件方面加大投入,保证食品安全、叫餐过程、餐品配送服务等符合用户需求,但无需承担就餐服务。而对于堂食服务,用户的核心诉求是丰富的餐品可选性、周到的点餐服务、适宜的就餐环境、合理的上餐顺序、快捷的上餐速度、较高的餐品质量,因此餐厅需要成熟的菜品运作体系,加大对服务人员、厨师等的培训力度,以为用户提供更高质量的就餐服务。

    从选择情境来看,有关市场调查报告显示,在被问及选择堂食的场景和选择在线餐饮外送服务的场景时,分别仅有6.6%和0.7%的外籍受访者认为堂食和餐饮外送服务都可以,没有中国籍受访者认为堂食和餐饮外送服务都可以。在菜品和价格一致且不计外送服务配送费的情况下,仅有 8.8%的受访外籍人士和23.5%的中国籍受访者认为堂食可以替代餐饮外送服务。用户主要是在工作忙时、天气恶劣时、不想出门时,以及时间和地理位置不方便时,出于便利性而选择在线餐饮外送服务;选择堂食服务则更多地是出于交际、体验等心理需求,例如在需要社交的正式场合或大型场合,以及以转换就餐环境为目的时,用户会选择去线下餐厅消费。相应地,餐厅为了满足用户的这些心理需求,需要在装潢、非餐饮产品等方面投入成本。

    此外,从消费成本的角度看,影响用户选择堂食和在线餐饮外送服务这两种不同消费模式的主要成本差异,在于外送服务的配送费与到餐厅就餐的交通费用比较。市场调查报告显示,在菜品价格一致的情况下,分别有 75.7%的受访外籍人士和 85.3%的中国籍受访者不会因为在线餐饮外送服务配送费的价格上涨(5%-10%)而放弃外送服务选择堂食。

    从餐厅商户的需求方面进行分析,在线餐饮外送服务与堂食服务也不具有替代关系。

    餐饮行业在我国第三产业中一直占有重要地位,市场体量较大。随着近年来我国人民生活节奏的逐渐加快和对高品质生活的追求,选择外出就餐以及外卖叫餐的人群逐渐增长。而我国移动端设备的技术发展与终端普及,不仅让在线餐饮服务行业能够更容易、更高效地实现线上与线下交互的实时性、操作的便捷性、定位的准确性以及交易的安全性,更使我国移动网民数量快速增长,为在线餐饮外送服务行业提供了广阔的用户基础。由于餐饮服务的消费频次较高,在用户对线上线下服务均满意的情况下,餐饮商户的用户黏性会越来越高。因此,为进一步拓展和优化销售渠道,餐饮商户更倾向于选择同时提供堂食服务和在线餐饮外送服务。另一方面,由于餐饮外送服务的人均消费通常低于堂食,并且不能减少餐饮商户的经营成本,如果餐饮商户仅提供外送服务,会导致餐饮投入产出比下降。因此绝大多数餐饮商户在选择经营在线餐饮外送服务,甚至部分餐饮商户建立独立的外卖品牌的同时,不会放弃并仍然倚重于堂食服务,并不断通过提升在线餐饮外送服务的标准化程度和质量效率,在扩大收益的同时努力保护堂食品牌价值。因此,对于餐饮商户来说,在线餐饮服务和堂食服务不可相互替代。

    综上,在线餐饮外送服务与堂食服务不具有替代关系。

    ②在线餐饮外送平台服务与餐饮企业自营在线餐饮外送服务不具有替代关系

    随着互联网技术的快速发展和用户餐饮习惯的不断改变,餐饮行业互联网化程度日益提高,出现了多种在线餐饮外送服务提供形式。根据提供在线餐饮外送服务的主体不同,可以分为餐饮企业自营在线餐饮外送服务和平台提供在线餐饮外送服务两种。

    餐饮企业提供自营在线餐饮外送服务,无论是通过电话订餐服务、自建在线订餐网站、APP,还是通过微信公众号或微信小程序等方式,都需要额外支出开发营销成本,并且还可能发生用户下载使用量低,投入产出比低下的情况。用户只能获得特定餐厅的信息和产品,并且在配送这一餐饮外送服务的核心和难点环节中,因餐饮企业自建或外包配送体系的巨大投入,用户将不得不承担更为高昂的配送费用。相较而言,平台提供在线餐饮外送服务时,以目标用户需求为导向,整合了大量餐饮商户资源,能够为用户提供更为丰富、全面、透明的信息,使用户拥有更大的主动权和更多的选择权;同时,平台拥有成熟的配送管理体系和专业技术,还具有一定的规模效应,用户承担的配送费用也更为低廉。因此平台更容易吸引用户,餐饮商户也更倾向于选择与平台合作开展在线餐饮外送服务,这样不仅不会占用餐饮商户的人力成本,降低餐饮外送对堂食业务的影响,而且可以吸引更多流量。

    据此,在线餐饮外送平台服务与餐饮企业自营在线餐饮外送服务不具有替代关系。

    ③提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务不具有替代关系

    从需求方面分析,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务不具有替代关系。

    首先,外送平台服务语言是影响用户选择的重要因素。市场调查报告显示,在受访的外籍人士中,接近九成仅使用提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台,同时使用提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台和提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台的仅占 12.5%。即使提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台也同时提供中文服务,仅使用英文界面的外籍受访者比重高达 72.1%,中文、英文界面都用,且使用中文界面更多的比重仅为 8.1%。有76%的受访外籍人士因为语言不通而经常使用或只使用提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台的英文界面,有 61.8%的中国籍受访者因为不懂英文或英文不好而选择不使用或不经常使用提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台。提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台在习惯使用中文的用户群体中知晓度极低,仅有 2.9% 的中国籍受访者知道上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台名称。因此语言因素是用户选择提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务还是提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务的一个重要原因。无论中文语言程度如何,能够提供英文服务,是用户选择在线餐饮外送平台服务时非常看重的因素。

    其次,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台的用户消费特征具有较显著差异。提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台用户以习惯于使用英文的消费者群体为主,消费水平普遍较高,喜爱西式餐饮,并在点餐时喜欢搭配酒水饮料,平均客单价在150元以上。提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台以习惯于说中文的消费者群体为主,消费水平相对较低,喜爱中式餐饮,平均客单价在30元-60元之间,100元以上的订单比例较低。此外,由于习惯使用英文的用户多为外籍人士,在每年暑期、圣诞节等外籍人士休假期间,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台销售额会显著下降,提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台同期销售额并不会发生明显波动,但在春节假期期间销售额会下降。这也从侧面印证了两类用户群体的消费习惯不同。正基于此,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台不将彼此视为竞争对手。

    从供给方面分析,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务不具有替代关系。

    二是提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台与提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台相互转型成本较高。提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台要开发英文服务,需要招募会说英文的工作人员,开发英文订餐APP页面,翻译商户、菜单、图片等信息,做好审核、管理、售后维护等配套服务,前期投入大,运营成本高,且存在订单量不如预期的风险,综合来看投入产出可能不成正比。并且考虑到中文用户群体已经十分庞大,还存在较大的开发空间,重新投入资金开发英文用户的收益预期相比继续拓展中文用户来说并不高。因此即使提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台了解到提供英文服务的在线餐饮平台服务市场确有需求,但均表示暂未考虑进入该市场。另一方面,对于提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台来说,考虑到目前已有的提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台的巨大体量和互联网用户黏性较高的特点,如果转型成为以中文服务为主的外送平台将面临很大的竞争压力,因此也未考虑进入提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务市场。

    三是在线餐饮外送平台服务市场存在技术、用户黏性高等进入障碍。要进入在线餐饮外送平台服务市场,需要投入一定的资金,更重要的是需要考虑如何保障配送服务,要自行投入开发配送智能调度系统,或者与现有的配送服务提供商进行技术对接。同时,互联网经济有着用户黏性较高的特点,用户一旦习惯于使用特定在线餐饮外送平台,并且体验良好,一般情况下不会轻易改变。如果平台经营者进入该市场时间较早,积累的用户人数更多,那么新进入者会因为较难拓展用户而存在市场进入障碍。

    综上,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务和提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务不具有替代关系。

    (2)假定垄断者测试

    本机关在上述需求替代和供给替代的分析基础上,根据《指南》关于假定垄断者测试基本思路,借助经济学工具进行假定垄断者测试,运用临界损失分析法对市场交易数据进行分析。

    临界损失分析法的基本思路是以目标商品为待测试商品集合,假定垄断者控制着市场上所有目标商品,且在一段时期内小幅提高目标商品价格(一般为5%-10%),通过比较目标商品涨价时的临界损失率和实际损失率来判断假定垄断者的涨价行为是否有利可图。如果实际损失率超过临界损失率,则表明假定垄断者的涨价行为无利可图,目标商品无法单独构成相关市场。相反,如果实际损失率小于临界损失率,则表明该涨价有利可图,目标商品可以构成相关市场。

    假定垄断者测试需要围绕相关经营者的商业模式展开,着重考察经营者(假定垄断者)在该商业模式下,调高核心收费项目对于市场需求量的影响。

    本案中,在线餐饮外送平台均通过撮合用户与餐厅商户的交易,并收取服务费用获取经营利润。在这种经营模式下,用户和餐厅商户的需求相互关联,越多的用户通过在线餐饮外送平台购买餐饮,就会吸引越多的餐厅商户入驻;越多的餐厅商户入驻在线餐饮外送平台,也会吸引越多的用户选择使用平台提供的服务。因此,在线餐饮外送平台具有双边性,其需求规模受到餐厅商户的入驻选择与用户购买意愿的联合影响,而且餐厅商户与用户的需求存在网络互补特性。具体而言:

    首先,用户需求与商户数量、类型和质量存在一定程度的正比关系。用户的数量影响签约商户的入驻选择,并且商户的数量、价格、品类、质量等也反过来影响用户通过在线餐饮外送平台进行消费的意愿。但是该关系的强度在大型平台与小型平台表现不同。小型平台的用户数量、订单量与在线合作商户数量呈现明显的正比关系,但在大型平台上则并不明显。

    其次,用户和餐厅商户的需求量不仅受到平台针对其收费的负面影响,也受到平台对另一端收费的负面影响。如果在线餐饮外送平台提高对用户的收费(此处主要是配送费),将降低用户下单的数量,进而降低餐厅商户的入驻意愿,也就是说商户数量受到用户配送费的负面影响。反之,如果增加餐厅商户的佣金抽成比例,会导致部分商户选择退出,进而影响部分用户的下单意愿,也就是说用户的订单数量会间接受到商户佣金的负面影响。

    再次,在线餐饮外送平台的每项收费存在进一步的需求反馈效果。如果在线餐饮外送平台增加了配送费导致用户下单数量减少,降低了餐厅商户的入驻数量,还会进一步降低用户的下单意愿。即配送费上涨从两个渠道降低了交易量,一是配送费的需求直接效应,二是配送费的需求反馈效应。类似的两种效应也反映在餐厅商户佣金上。增加餐厅商户佣金直接导致部分商户退出,这是佣金的直接效应;商户退出导致用户下单意愿下降,进一步降低了其他商户的入驻意愿,这是佣金的反馈效应。

    在此市场需求特性下,由于在线餐饮外送平台的收入主要来自于合作餐厅商户佣金与用户配送费,因此需要考察这两项费用的增加对于在线餐饮外送平台订单量的影响程度。在线餐饮外送平台的用户订单量受到多种因素影响,与本案竞争分析相关的因素包括:餐费(P)、配送费(d)、合作餐厅商户数量(N)。将用户订单量与关键需求因素表示为Q(P, d, N),一般而言,给定其他条件,P或d越大,Q越小;N越大,Q也可能越大。在在线餐饮外送平台的另一端,合作餐厅商户选择是否上线进行销售,也就是合作餐厅商户数量N,则受到平台佣金率(r)与用户订单量(Q)的影响,即N(r, Q)。一般而言,给定其他条件,r越大,N越小;Q越大,N也会越大。从中可以发现该在线餐饮外送平台的市场环境不同于传统制造——分销模式的典型之处就是网络效应的出现,即用户订单数量对于合作餐厅商户数量的正影响,和合作餐厅商户数量对于用户订单数量的正影响。在本案中,可能存在两个方向的网络效应影响用户订单量,也影响相关经营者的定价模式。

    本案关注的经营者(假定垄断者)为上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台。有证据证明当事人实施违法行为的期间主要集中在2017年以来,为保证假定垄断者测试的稳健性,本机关搜集了2015年1月至2019年6月上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台经营者,以及提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台经营者的真实交易数据,以此为基础进行假定垄断者测试。

    经查,2017年以来上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台经营者共有4个,除当事人经营的食派士之外,还有上海孝煊科技有限公司经营的ekDelivery(中文名为“老外厨房”,以下简称EKD)、上海略策商贸有限公司经营的MEALBAY和北京锦食送科技有限公司经营的锦食送。对上述经营者的有关交易数据分析显示,合作餐厅商户佣金与在线合作餐厅商户数量不是影响食派士、锦食送、EKD与MEALBAY的总外送订单数量的显著因素,而餐费与配送费则是显著的影响因素。在合作餐厅商户端,用户订单量、订单金额与佣金率均为显著影响合作餐厅商户数量的因素。因此,在本案中,对于一个包含了食派士、锦食送、EKD与MEALBAY等经营者的假定垄断者,其订单量主要受到餐费与配送费的影响,而在给定当前的在线合作餐厅商户数量的情况下,在线合作餐厅商户数量的小幅波动不会显著影响订单量。

    针对本案,本机关认为一个合理的假定垄断者利润模型为

    (d+rP-c)×Q(d, P),其中c为假定垄断者的订单平均服务成本。

    按照临界损失分析方法推算出适合本案分析的临界损失率为,

    其中,

    为 当前市场情况下的假定垄断者毛利率。为△d相应的配送费改变量,一般取

    。△rP为相应的佣金改变量,给定配送费__改变量后,其选取可能受到在线餐饮外送平台的策略性影响,既可以直接改变佣金率r,也可以通过某些方式间接改变餐费P。

    因此需要考察两种情形进行稳健的临界损失分析:(1)仅配送费发生变动;(2)配送费与佣金均变动。三种价格(d、r与P)的增加都会增加毛利,但是仅有配送费与餐费会影响订单量。也就是说,在当前的市场条件下,假定垄断者总是存在小幅提高佣金率r的动机;但是是否存在动机调高餐费P或配送费d则受到用户的需求特性影响。

    利用当事人、MEALBAY、EKD和锦食送4个经营者2015年1月至2019年6月的历史交易数据,在控制住影响订单量的其他因素(例如季节、菜品、餐厅区位)后,经分析发现,配送费越高,订单量越低,此现象不仅反映在这些提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台的订单总量上,也反映在这些合作餐厅商户层面的订单量上。经济学的计量分析结果见下表。参数估计值在统计学意义上都很显著,而且系数符号符合经济学预期。从模型II与III的估计结果还可以看出,用户不仅对于订餐的总支付(餐费+配送费)是敏感的,配送费的比重也是影响订餐需求的负面因素。

    提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台合并订单量,log(订单量)

    (2015年1月至2019年6月)

    括号内为标准差。1%:###;5%:##,10%:#

    常数项的估计值均略。

    模型III是订单模型与商户数量模型联合估计的,此处省略汇报该商户模型的估计结果。

    在订单总量层面上,餐费平均水平越高,订单总量越低。但是,相对于餐费的影响力,当前市场情况下的配送费对于用户订单数量影响较弱,用户对于配送费相对不敏感,其不敏感程度足以支撑第(1)种情形下的临界损失分析。在第(1)种情形下,该假定垄断者有意愿、也有能力调高配送费水平。也就是说,给定餐费水平与其他影响需求的因素,小幅增加当前市场的配送费水平是有利可图的。

    针对临界损失分析的第(2)种情形,首先可以发现相对于配送费,用户对于餐费更加敏感,如果调高餐费,将使得订单量下降更多,有更大可能性将使假定垄断者的利润受损。但是假定垄断者可以小幅调高佣金率,同样能够起到调高毛利的目的,而不必损失订单量。即如果佣金也可以调整,假定垄断者更可能会通过佣金率的调整而实现盈利。给定餐费水平与其他影响需求的因素,如果假定垄断者能够同时小幅增加佣金率和配送费,更可能有利可图。

    基于替代分析的定性分析和按照假定垄断者测试要求进行的定量分析均表明,提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务市场构成一个独立的相关商品市场。

    综上,本机关将本案相关市场界定为上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务市场。

    (二)市场支配地位

    根据《反垄断法》,市场支配地位是指经营者在相关市场内具有能够控制商品价格、数量或者其他交易条件,或者能够阻碍、影响其他经营者进入相关市场能力的市场地位。在对当事人的市场份额、相关市场竞争状况、其他经营者对当事人依赖程度及进入相关市场的难易程度等因素进行综合性分析的基础上,本机关认定2017年1月——2019年10月期间,当事人在中国上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务市场具有支配地位。

    1.当事人在相关市场具有较高市场份额

    证据显示,当事人实施违法行为的期间主要集中在2017年1月——2019年10月,因此在计算当事人市场份额时主要参考了此期间相关市场的竞争状况。2017年以来上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台包括食派士、EKD、MEALBAY和锦食送等4个经营者,其中MEALBAY于2017年12月31日停止在线餐饮外送服务运营。考虑到衡量在线餐饮外送平台经营状况的重要指标主要包括平台用户数、日订单量、合作餐厅商户数量和销售额,本机关以上述4项数据作为市场份额的统计口径,具体数据如下图所示。

    可以看出,当事人在相关市场内市场份额均高于其他三个经营者,并达到二分之一以上。依据《反垄断法》第十九条“有下列情形之一的,可以推定经营者具有市场支配地位:(一)一个经营者在相关市场的市场份额达到二分之一的……”之规定,本机关依法推定2017年1月——2019年10月,当事人在相关市场中具有市场支配地位。针对该推定,当事人未能提供证据证明其不具有市场支配地位。

    2.当事人具有明显优于竞争对手的财力及技术条件

    当事人经营的食派士在线餐饮外送平台服务品牌创立于2001年,迄今为止已积累了近20年的行业经验。而其他3个提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台进入市场较晚(MEALBAY 2006年创立于上海,锦食送2015年进入上海市场,EKD 2016年在上海正式上线运营),在技术条件、资金水平、管理水平等各方面均与当事人有较大差距。特别是在配送这一在线餐饮外送平台服务的核心环节,当事人自建配送员队伍,拥有成熟的配送体系和管理制度,配送服务质量和效率均优于竞争对手。同时,通过多年的运营,当事人积累了大量的商业数据资源,在数据的占有、分析和利用方面较竞争对手具有更大优势,有利于当事人不断优化管理决策,提高经营效率,提升服务质量,从而进一步强化了当事人的竞争优势。

    3.其他经营者对当事人提供的在线餐饮外送平台服务依赖程度较高

    在线餐饮外送平台同时连接了餐厅商户和用户需求,具有双边性。餐厅经营的差异化和餐饮消费需求的多元化,使得平台一边的规模对于另一边使用平台的意愿具有很强影响,因此平台的双边市场在规模增长过程中,会产生正向的相互促进作用。当在线餐饮外送平台拥有相当规模的餐厅商户和用户时,餐厅商户对于平台的依赖程度也会较高。

    有关市场调查报告显示,提到上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台,有 88.2%的外籍受访者第一个想到食派士,同时知道食派士、锦食送和EKD的受访者约占 15%左右。食派士是上海外籍受访者知晓率和使用率最高的提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台。虽然目前上海市提供中文服务的在线餐饮外送平台业务量远远大于以当事人为代表的提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台,但由于两类平台针对的目标用户群体不同,以高端西式餐厅为主的合作餐厅商户为了开拓习惯使用英文的用户市场,获得更多订单量和更高利润,就必须和品牌知名度高、市场份额占比高、流量大的当事人合作,否则将面临订单量少、无法通过在线餐饮外送渠道盈利的状况。因此餐厅商户对于当事人在交易上的依赖程度较高。

    4. 其他经营者进入相关市场的难度较大

    在线餐饮外送平台服务市场的双边网络效应进一步增加了新经营者进入相关市场的难度。多年的经营使当事人在吸引餐厅商户入驻的能力上具有明显优势,进而又会促使更多用户优先选择当事人经营的平台进行交易。新进入者为了与当事人竞争,除了要投入资金和解决配送服务等技术难题之外,还必须同时吸引足够多的餐厅商户入驻与消费用户使用才能开展经营,从而减少餐厅商户与用户对于当事人经营的平台的依赖。基于当事人现有的餐厅商户和用户规模优势,竞争者的进入成本和竞争难度由于网络效应的存在而变得更高。

    以上对于相关市场的界定及市场支配地位的认定结论由询问笔录、相关市场调查报告、经济学分析报告以及当事人、上海市其他提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台、餐厅经营者提供的书证材料等证据证明。

    (三)滥用市场支配地位行为

    证据表明, 2017年1月——2019年10月期间,当事人实施了没有正当理由限定交易的滥用市场支配地位行为。

    1.基本事实

    (1)当事人与所有合作餐厅商户签订含有“排他性送餐权条款”的合作协议

    证据显示,当事人与所有合作餐厅商户签订的无限期自动续约的《食派士送餐服务合同》(以下简称“《合同》”)中,均明确规定了排他性送餐权条款。例如当事人在2017年与合作餐厅商户签订的《合同》规定:“7.0排他性送餐权 在合同有效期间,乙方(指合作商户)同意只授权甲方(指当事人)进行乙方的食物送餐服务……但不得a)在没得到甲方同意的情况下,与其他与甲方提供类似服务的公司合作(仅限提供英文服务的公司,只提供中文服务的类似公司不包括在内)……”。尽管在每年的《合同》规定中,该排他性送餐权条款在措辞或在《合同》中的顺序略有不同,但核心含义和要求未曾改变,即要求合作餐厅商户在未得到当事人同意的情况下,不得再与当事人的竞争对手合作提供送餐服务。

    (2)当事人通过微信沟通、制作周报等形式要求未执行“排他性送餐权条款”的合作餐厅商户从竞争对手平台下架

    当事人在日常经营过程中不断加强对合作餐厅商户执行排他性送餐权条款执行情况的监督,通过主动筛查或接到其他商户举报等方式,发现存在同时上架竞争对手平台的合作商户之后,由当事人相关工作人员通过微信等方式与该商户联系沟通,要求其严格执行《合同》规定,立即停止与其他提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台合作,否则将从食派士送餐平台下架该商户。同时,有关工作人员每周制作工作报表上报商务总监,持续跟进、更新有关商户是否从竞争对手平台下架情况。由于这些合作商户在当事人的平台订单量高于其他平台,多数商户从盈利角度考虑,选择了从其他提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台下架。对于拒绝执行该条款的商户,当事人随即终止与其合作。

    证据显示,2017年10月,***餐饮管理有限公司上海第一分公司(以下简称“***”)与当事人和锦食送分别签署了合作合同。当事人在得知***与锦食送有合作关系后,2018年2月28日通过微信形式要求该公司终止与锦食送的合作,并表示“排他性送餐权条款”是当事人与合作商户签订合作协议的核心条款。***的市场总监因认为该条款不公平,向当事人的商务经理明确表示不能执行。随后当事人于2018年4月终止了与***的合作。***继续与锦食送合作,但外送单量大幅下降至每月只有一两单,损失30余万,不得不于2018年11月恢复与当事人的合作,并按照当事人要求,结束了与锦食送的合作。

    经查,共15个同时入驻多平台的餐饮品牌按照当事人的要求,终止了与MEALBAY、EKD、锦食送等竞争对手的合作。

    (3)当事人制定实施“独家送餐权计划”

    2017年9月至2018年3月,当事人制定了“独家送餐权计划”(以下简称“计划”)并推进实施。由当事人质检部对合作餐厅商户逐一核查,梳理列出未严格遵守《合同》排他性送餐权条款的餐厅名称和数量,区分一般餐厅和重点餐厅制定不同话术,向合作餐厅发送电子邮件,要求它们终止与其它提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台的合作。对于一般餐厅,强调“在我们的合同中十分明确的注释着‘排他性条款’并且在合作中也是一再强调这点,如果贵司不能从其他食品外送公司的网站上取消菜单的话,我们只能依照合约条款停止合作”。对于重点餐厅,当事人除了要求其严格执行“排他性送餐权”条款规定外,还明确“如果我们允许您同其他公司进行合作,外送的营业额就会相对减少,那么您将付更高的佣金给我们”。发送邮件后,当事人每过一周会再次检查,若发现有关餐厅仍未从竞争对手平台下架,则会持续发送邮件和信息提醒餐厅执行排他送餐权条款,直至该餐厅从其他平台下线。

    为推进实施该计划,当事人制定了详细的计划执行时间表,规定“9.18-9.24邮件通知餐厅和RAM(指负责与合作餐厅商户联系的商务部门工作人员);9.25-10.1对于没有回复的餐厅通知RAM跟进,对于重点餐厅进行拍摄取证;10.9-10.15 2次跟进餐厅回复和RAM跟进情况,对于重点餐厅进行拍摄取证;10.16-10.22 检查各平台餐厅下线情况,统计数据”。

    据统计,自2017年9月起,当事人对在锦食送平台上架的16家、在EKD平台上架的49家和在MEALBAY平台上架的7家餐厅实施了计划。至2017年11月,上述餐厅中的 60%从其他提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台下架。至2018年3月,与当事人合作的餐厅中仅有3家仍在其他竞争对手平台上架,计划基本执行完毕。

    以上事实由当事人及相关人员陈述笔录、当事人及相关经营者提供的书面合同、往来邮件、微信聊天记录截屏等证据证明。

    2.分析认定

    本机关认为,当事人要求合作餐厅商户不得与其他与当事人提供类似服务的公司合作,本质上属于限定交易相对人只能与当事人进行交易的行为(以下简称“限定交易的行为”)。在当事人具有市场支配地位且无正当理由的情况下,当事人的上述行为排除、限制了相关市场竞争。

    (1)当事人限定交易的行为实质性地排挤了竞争对手

    如前所述,在线餐饮外送平台经营模式存在网络效应,平台一端需求者的数量增加会加强平台对于另一端需求者的吸引力。因此,平台都需要一定数量的商户才能够存活和参与市场竞争,并且商户数量与种类的增加对于小型平台(例如锦食送、MEALBAY、EKD等)会表现出更强的网络效应。即相对于大型平台而言,小型平台额外增加商户导致的用户订单量的增幅会更大;反之,通过需求传导与反馈机制,商户下架对于小型平台的用户订单量影响也会更大。

    另一方面,由于不同的在线餐饮外送平台针对的用户群体并不完全相同,餐厅商户为扩大销售,一般情况下更愿意选择与多个平台同时开展合作。这也是新平台能够进入市场的重要原因。但是,如果餐厅商户只能选择单一平台进行销售,那么最合理的选择会是与能够为餐厅商户带来最大利益的平台进行合作。本案中,当事人无论在合作餐厅商户数量还是订单数量规模方面,都明显高于其他竞争对手,这使得当事人可以在不降低合作餐厅商户佣金、用户配送费的情况下,就能够吸引餐厅商户选择与当事人合作,而放弃其他竞争对手。此种情形下,竞争对手必须保证提供与当事人平台同等规模的订单量,或者大幅度补贴商户,才能维持商户上线数量,竞争难度明显增大,竞争能力也随之下降。具有市场支配地位的当事人通过限定交易行为锁定合作餐厅商户端后,也就能够锁定用户端,并在两端同时施加更大的市场力量。

    证据表明,当事人在与所有合作餐厅商户签订的无期限自动续约《合同》中规定排他性送餐权条款,并采取措施监督合作餐厅商户执行该条款。特别是在2017年9月至2018年3月期间,当事人利用在相关市场的支配地位制定和实施了“独家送餐权计划”,迫使大量餐厅出于维持在食派士平台较大的订单数量和用户数的考虑,从当事人竞争对手平台下架,致使竞争对手订单量骤然下降,平台用户相继流失,销售额大幅下滑,甚至无法继续经营。

    据统计,2017年以来,当事人的竞争对手日订单量、月均在线餐厅数量和销售额均持续大幅下降,其中MEALBAY因无法维继而于2017年12月停止在线餐饮外送服务。与竞争对手形成鲜明对比的是,同期当事人日均订单量虽然也有小幅下降,但月均在线餐厅商户数量和销售额却有明显增长。

    可见,当事人的上述行为严重削弱了竞争对手的竞争能力,使竞争对手遭受到了实质性排挤。

    (2)当事人限定交易的行为损害了合作餐厅商户和用户的利益

    一是损害了合作餐厅商户和用户的选择权。当事人的上述行为使得合作餐厅商户无法同时上架多个平台,也缩小了用户能够选择的平台经营者和餐厅商户的范围。

    二是造成了合作餐厅商户和用户的福利损失。证据证明,当事人的上述行为造成合作餐厅商户的佣金比例和用户需要支付的配送费均有上涨,损害了合作餐厅商户和用户的福利。据统计,2017年-2019年期间,剔除季节性波动因素之后,相关市场中的总订单数量变动不大。但是EKD、MEALBAY和锦食送等竞争对手在2016年-2017年上半年通过吸引一定数量、规模的合作餐厅商户增强了竞争能力,对市场竞争产生了明显影响,导致当事人在此期间收取的用户配送费平均为***元/单,合作餐厅商户佣金比例平均为***%,均低于当事人2015年的水平。但在当事人强化实施限定交易行为后,该两项费用均逐渐上涨,在2019年上半年期间配送费平均为***元/单,商户佣金比例平均为***%,较2016年分别上涨了45.60%和9.33%。

    (3)当事人实施限定交易行为无正当理由

    当事人提出,规定独家排他性送餐权条款的目的是出于知识产权保护,是为了防止合作餐厅商户将由当事人编辑、翻译的餐单交由其他平台使用。经查,当事人合作餐厅的餐单翻译均由餐厅自行提供,当事人仅对相关内容进行编排以便于在有关程序或者网页中显示,在极个别情况下会对菜单配料进行补充翻译。当事人提出的理由与事实不符,不能成立。

    当事人在《合同》中规定独家排他性送餐权条款,也并非为满足产品安全要求,或为保护针对交易进行的特定投资所必须,当事人也无法提出限定交易行为具有正当性的其他理由。

    四、行政处罚依据和决定

    本机关认为,当事人在2017年1月——2019年10月期间,利用在上海市提供英文服务的在线餐饮外送平台服务市场的支配地位,实施了限定交易的行为, 锁定了相关市场内大量合作餐厅商户资源,严重削弱了竞争对手的竞争能力,在相关市场产生了排除、限制竞争效果,且没有正当理由,违反了《反垄断法》第十七条第一款第(四)项关于“禁止具有市场支配地位的经营者从事下列滥用市场支配地位的行为:……(四)没有正当理由,限定交易相对人只能与其进行交易或者只能与其指定的经营者进行交易……”的规定,构成滥用市场支配地位限定交易的行为。

    鉴于当事人在调查过程中能够积极配合,主动整改,2019年11月已停止违法行为,且由于难以确定充分竞争状态下在线餐饮外送服务配送费用的公允价格和佣金的公允比例,无法计算违法所得,依据《中华人民共和国行政处罚法》第二十七条第(一)项、《反垄断法》第四十七条、第四十九条的规定,本机关作出如下行政处罚:

    五、行政处罚的履行方式和期限

    当事人应当自收到本行政处罚决定书之日起十五日内,将罚款缴至工商银行或者建设银行设在本市的代收机构。到期不缴纳罚款的,依据《中华人民共和国行政处罚法》第五十一条的规定,本机关可以每日按罚款数额的百分之三加处罚款。

    六、救济途径和期限

    当事人如对本处罚决定不服,可自收到本行政处罚决定书之日起六十日内向上海市人民政府或者国家市场监督管理总局申请行政复议,或自收到本行政处罚决定书之日起六个月内依法向人民法院提起行政诉讼。复议、诉讼期间,行政处罚决定不停止执行。

    逾期不提起行政复议或行政诉讼,又不履行本行政处罚决定的,本机关可依法申请人民法院强制执行。

    上海市市场监督管理局

    2020年12月25日