“The Wheel of Time turns and, Ages come and pass, leaving memories that become legend. Legend fades to myth, and even myth is long forgotten when the Age that gave it birth comes again.”—Robert Jordan (1948–2007), The Wheel of Time
“Wall Street people learn nothing and forget everything [. . .] to give way to hope, fear and greed.” —Benjamin Graham (1894–1976)
Contents
Introduction
1.Tulip Mania: The Biggest Bubble in History (1637)
In the Netherlands in the 17th century, tulips become a status symbol for the prosperous new upper class. Margin trading of the flower bulbs, which are weighed in gold, turns conservative businessmen into reckless gamblers who risk their homes and fortunes. In 1637 the bubble bursts.
2.The Dojima Rice Market and the “God of Markets” (1750)
In the 18th century, futures contracts on rice are introduced at the Dojima rice market in Japan. The merchant Homma Munehisa earns the nickname “God of Markets” for his market intelligence, and he becomes the richest man in Japan.
3.The California Gold Rush (1849)
Gold Rush! Some 100,000 adventurers stream into California in 1849 alone, lured by the vision of incredible wealth. The following year, the value of gold production in California exceeds the total federal budget of the United States. Because of this treasure, California becomes the 31st state in the Union in 1850.
4.Wheat: Old Hutch Makes a Killing (1866)
The Chicago Board of Trade is established in 1848, and Benjamin Hutchinson, known as “Old Hutch,” later becomes famous by successfully cornering the wheat market. He temporarily controls the whole market and earns millions.
5.Rockefeller and Standard Oil (1870)
The US Civil War triggers one of the first oil booms. During this time, John D. Rockefeller founds the Standard Oil Company. Within a few years, through an aggressive business strategy, he dominates the oil market, from production and processing to transport and logistics.
6.Wheat: The Great Chicago Fire (1872)
The Great Chicago Fire of October 1871 leads to massive destruction in the city and leaves more than 100,000 residents homeless. The storage capacities for wheat are also significantly reduced. Trader John Lyon sees this as an opportunity to earn a fortune.
7.Crude Oil: Ari Onassis’s Midas Touch (1956)
Aristotle Onassis, an icon of high society, seems to have the Midas touch. Apparently emerging out of nowhere, he builds the world’s largest cargo and tanker fleet and earns a fortune with the construction of supertankers and the transport of crude oil. Onassis closes exclusive contracts with the royal Saudi family, and he is one of the winners in the Suez Canal conflict.
8.Soybeans: Hide and Seek in New Jersey (1963)
Soybean oil fuels the US credit crisis of 1963. The attempt to corner the market for soybeans ends in chaos, drives many firms into bankruptcy, and causes a loss of 150 million USD (1.2 billion USD in today’s prices). Among the victims are American Express, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan.
9.Wheat: The Russian Bear Is Hungry (1972)
The Soviet Union starts to buy American wheat in huge quantities, and local prices triple. Consequently, Richard Dennis establishes a groundbreaking career in commodity trading.
10.The End of the Gold Standard (1973)
Gold and silver have been recognized as legal currencies for centuries, but in the late 19th century silver gradually loses this function. Gold keeps its currency status until the fall of the Bretton Woods system in 1973. The current levels of sovereign debt are causing many investors to reconsider an investment in precious metals.
11.The 1970s—Oil Crisis! (1973 & 1979)
During the 1970s the world must cope with global oil crises in 1973 and 1979. The Middle East uses crude oil as a political weapon, and the industrialized nations— previously unconcerned about their rising energy addiction and the security of the supply—face economic chaos.
12.Diamonds: The Crash of the World’s Hardest Currency (1979)
Despite the need for individual valuation, diamonds have shown a positive and stable price trend over a long period of time. In 1979, however, monopolist De Beers loses control of the diamond market; “investment diamonds” drop by 90 percent in value.
13.“Silver Thursday” and the Downfall of the Hunt Brothers (1980)
Brothers Nelson Bunker Hunt and William Herbert Hunt try to corner the silver market in 1980 and fail in a big way. On March 27, 1980, known as “Silver Thursday,” silver loses one-third of its value in a single day.
14.Crude Oil: No Blood for Oil? (1990)
Power politics in the Middle East: Kuwait is invaded by Iraq, but Iraq faces a coalition of Western countries led by the United States and has to back down. In retreat, Iraqi troops set the Kuwaiti oil fields on fire. Within three months the price of oil more than doubles, from below 20 to more than 40 USD.
15.The Doom of German Metallgesellschaft (1993)
Crude oil futures take Metallgesellschaft to the brink of insolvency and almost lead to the largest collapse of a company in Germany since World War II. CEO Heinz Schimmelbusch is responsible for a loss of more than 1 billion USD in 1993.
16.Silver: Three Wise Kings (1994)
Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros show their interest in the silver market in the 1990s—investing in Apex Silver Mines, Pan American Silver, and physical silver. It is silver versus silver mining. Who would lead and who would lag?
17.Copper: “Mr. Five Percent” Moves the Market (1996)
The star trader of Sumitomo, Yasuo Hamanaka, lives two lives in Tokyo, manipulating the copper market and creating record earnings for his superiors but also carrying on risky private trades. In the end, Sumitomo endures a record loss of 2.6 billion USD, and Hamanaka is sentenced to eight years in prison.
18.Gold: Welcome to the Jungle (1997)
In the jungle of Borneo, Canadian firm Bre-X supposedly finds a gold deposit with a total estimated value of more than 200 billion USD. Large mining companies and Indonesian president Suharto all want a piece of the pie, but in March 1997 the discovery turns out to be the largest gold fraud of all time.
19.Palladium: More Expensive Than Gold (2001)
In 2001 palladium becomes the first of the four traded precious metals—gold, silver, platinum, and palladium—whose price breaks the psychological mark of 1,000 USD per ounce. That represents a tenfold increase in just four years. The reason lies in continuing delivery delays by the most important producer: Russia.
20.Copper: Liu Qibing Disappears Without a Trace (2005)
A trader for the Chinese State Reserve Bureau shorts 200,000 tons of copper and hopes for falling prices. However, when copper prices climb to new records, he disappears and his employer pretends never to have heard of him. What sounds like the plot of a thriller shocks metal traders all over the world.
21.Zinc: Flotsam and Jetsam (2005)
The city of New Orleans, called The Big Easy, is well known for its jazz, Mardi Gras, and Creole cuisine. Less well known, however, is that about one-quarter of the world’s zinc inventories are stored there. Hurricane Katrina’s flooding makes the metal inaccessible, and concerns over damage cause the price of zinc to rise to an all-time high.
22.Natural Gas: Brian Hunter and the Downfall of Amaranth (2006)
In the aftermath of the closure of MotherRock, an energy-based hedge fund, the bust of Amaranth Advisors shakes the financial industry, as it is the largest hedge fund failure since the collapse of Long-Term Capital Management in 1998. The cause? A failed speculation in US natural gas futures. Brian Hunter, an energy trader at Amaranth, loses 6 billion USD within weeks.
23.Orange Juice: Collateral Damage (2006)
“Think big; think positive. Never show any sign of weakness. Always go for the throat. Buy low; sell high.” That’s the philosophy of Billy Ray Valentine, played by Eddie Murphy in the 1983 movie Trading Places. The film’s final showdown has Murphy and Dan Aykroyd cornering the orange juice market. In reality, the price of frozen orange juice concentrate would quadruple between 2004 and 2006 on the New York Mercantile Exchange—a consequence of a record hurricane season.
24.John Fredriksen: The Sea Wolf (2006)
John Fredriksen controls a corporate empire founded on transporting crude oil. Among the pearls of that empire is Marine Harvest, the largest fish-farming company in the world.
25.Lakshmi Mittal: Feel the Steel (2006)
The dynamic growth of the Chinese economy and its hunger for raw materials rouses the suffering steel industry from near death. Through clever takeovers and the reorganization of rundown businesses, Lakshmi Mittal rises from a small entrepreneur in India to the largest steel tycoon in the world, a position he crowns with the acquisition of his main competitor and the world’s second-largest steel producer—Arcelor.
26.Crude Oil: The Return of the “Seven Sisters” (2007)
An exclusive club of companies controls oil production and worldwide reserves. But its influence diminishes with the founding of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the rise of state oil companies outside the Western world.
27.Wheat and the “Millennium Drought” in Australia (2007)
After seven lean years for Australia’s agricultural sector, a Millennium Drought drives the price of wheat internationally from record to record. Thousands of Australian farmers expect a total failure of their harvest. Is this a preview of the effects of global climate change?
28.Natural Gas: Aftermath in Canada (2007)
The new CEO of the Bank of Montreal, Bill Downe, must report a record loss for the second quarter of 2007 due to failed commodity price speculation. Half a year after Amaranth’s bankruptcy, another natural gas trading scandal shakes market participants’ confidence.
29.Platinum: All Lights Out in South Africa (2008)
Due to ongoing supply bottlenecks of electricity from Africa’s largest energy provider, Eskom, South Africa’s major mining companies restrict their production, and the price of platinum explodes.
30.Rice: The Oracle (2008)
The Thai “Rice Oracle,” Vichai Sriprasert, predicts in 2007 that rice will increase in price from 300 USD to 1,000 USD, and he becomes a figure of ridicule and mockery. However, a dangerous chain reaction affecting the rice harvest is about to start in Asia and, with Cyclone Nargis, culminates in a catastrophe.
31.Wheat: Working in Memphis (2008)
The price of wheat speeds from record to record. Trader Evan Dooley bets on the wrong direction, juggling 1 billion USD and dropping the ball. This results in a loss of 140 million USD for his employer, MF Global, in February 2008.
32.Crude Oil: Contango in Texas (2009)
The price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) crude oil collapses, unsettling commodity traders around world attention. A 10,000-person community in Oklahoma becomes the center of the world. The concept of “super-contango” is born, and investment banks enter the tanker business.
33.Sugar: Waiting for the Monsoon (2010)
A severe drought threatens India’s sugar harvest, and the world’s largest consumer becomes a net importer on the world market. Brazil, the largest exporter of sugar, has its own problems. As a result, international sugar prices rise to a 28-year high.
34.Chocolate Finger (2010)
Due to declining harvests in Côte d’Ivoire (the Ivory Coast)—the largest cocoa exporter on the world market—prices are rising on the international commodity futures markets. In the summer of 2010, cocoa trader Anthony Ward, “Chocolate Finger,” wagers more than 1 billion USD on cocoa futures.
35.Copper: King of the Congo (2010)
The copper belt of the Congo is rich in natural resources, but countless despots have looted the land. Now Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation (ENRC) is reaching out to Africa, and oligarchs from Kazakhstan aren’t shy about dealing with shady businessmen or the corrupt regime of President Joseph Kabila.
36.Crude Oil: Deep Water Horizon and the Spill (2010)
Time is pressing in the Gulf of Mexico. After a blowout at the Deepwater Horizon oil rig, a catastrophe unfolds—the biggest oil spill of all time. About 780 million liters of crude oil flow into the sea. Within weeks BP loses half its stock-market value.
37.Cotton: White Gold (2011)
The weather phenomenon known as La Niña causes drastic crop failures in Pakistan, China, and India due to flooding and bad weather conditions. Panic buying and hoarding drive the price of cotton to a level that has not been reached since the end of the American Civil War 150 years ago.
38.Glencore: A Giant Steps into the Light (2011)
In May 2011, the world’s largest commodity trading company—a conspicuous and discreet partnership with an enigmatic history—holds an IPO. The former owners, Marc Rich and Pincus Green, have been followed by US justice authorities for more than 20 years. Without mandatory transparency or public accountability in the past, they were able to close deals with dictators and rogue states around the world.
39.Rare Earth Mania: Neodymium, Dysprosium, and Lanthanum (2011)
China squeezes the supply of rare earths, and high-tech industries in the United States, Japan, and Europe ring the alarm bell. But the Chinese monopoly can’t be broken quickly. And the resulting sharp rise in rare earth prices lures investors around the globe.
40.The End? Crude Oil Down the Drain (2016)
A perfect storm is brewing for the oil market. There is an economic slowdown and too much storage because of contango. The world seems to be floating in oil, whose price falls to 26 USD in February 2016. But the night is always darkest before dawn, and crude oil and other commodities find their multiyear lows.
41.Electrification: The Evolution of Battery Metals (2017)
Elon Musk and Tesla are setting the pace for a mega trend: electrification! Demand from automobile manufacturers, utilities, and consumers pushes lithium-based battery usage to new heights. For commodity markets, it is not only lithium and cobalt but also traditional metals like copper and nickel that are suddenly in high demand again. Electrification might prove to be the “new China” for commodity markets in the long term.
42.Crypto Craze: Bitcoins and the Emergence of Cryptocurrencies (2018)
Bitcoins, the first modern cryptocurrency, emerged in 2009. The value of bitcoins explodes in 2017 from below 1,000 to above 20,000 USD, attracting worldwide attention. This stellar price rise, followed by a crash of almost 80 percent in 2018, makes bitcoins the biggest financial bubble in history, dwarfing even the Dutch tulip mania of the 17th century. Despite the boom and bust, the future looks bright, as underlying blockchain technology reveals its potential and starts to revolutionize daily life.
Introduction
“The price of a commodity will never go to zero . . . you’re not buying a piece of paper that says you own an intangible piece of company that can go bankrupt.” —Jim Rogers
Commodities came into vogue with the beginning of the new millennium, as investing in crude oil, gold, silver, copper, wheat, corn, or sugar was introduced and marketed massively as an “investment theme” and a “new” asset class by banks and other financial intermediaries. The first investable commodity indices—the S&P Goldman Sachs Commodity Index and the Dow Jones AIG Commodity Index—were developed in the early 1990s, but after the turn of the millennium, every major investment bank offered its own commodity index and index concept. This development opened up a new and attractive asset class for institutional investors and wealthy individuals. We witness today the same development in the cryptocurrency world, making an exotic new asset class investable for the public.
The rapid growth of the Chinese economy is the key parameter of the commodity boom, which has been evident since around the year 2000, when the “workbench of the world” developed a gigantic hunger for raw materials: Imports of iron ore, coal, copper, aluminum and zinc began soaring, and China became the dominant factor in worldwide demand. The dynamic growth of the Chinese economy catapulted commodity prices sky-high. Like a gigantic vacuum cleaner, China swept up the markets for energy, metals, and agricultural goods, and prices kept rising, since supply growth couldn’t keep up with rising demand.
At least temporarily, the collapse of Lehman Brothers and the worsening financial crisis caused a break in the skyrocketing prices. Crude oil crashed from its high at 150 USD/barrel during the summer of 2008 to below 40 USD in the spring of 2009. In the course of the year, prices recovered again, to above 80 USD. Industrial metals also benefited from the economic recovery. In the aftermath of the financial crisis, and amid worries about rising public debt as well as the stability of the financial system, the interest of investors in gold rose substantially. In 2009, with the European debt crisis looming, gold surpassed the level of 1,000 USD for the first time, but it climbed as high as 1,900 USD per troy ounce in 2011.
Exotic agricultural products such as sugar, coffee, and cocoa were also among the goods that experienced significant price increases in 2009, as the ghost of “agflation” returned and spooked markets. Market recovery after the financial market meltdown of 2008/2009 proved not to be sustainable, however. After April 2011, commodity markets entered a severe five-year bear market. A period of sluggish growth, deleveraging, and a slower economy in China worsened a massive imbalance of demand and supply for raw materials. A supply glut caused crude oil to fall back to 26 USD early in 2016. But since then, commodity markets have turned around. In 2016, for the first time in five years, they closed positive.
The Commodity Market and Cryptocurrencies—Some Basics
A commodity is any raw or primary economic good that is standardized. Organized commodity trading in the United States dates back almost 200 years, but commodity trading has a much longer history. It goes back several thousand years to ancient Sumerians, Greeks, and Romans, for example. In comparison to commodity trading, the history of the stock market—where you exchange pieces of ownership in companies—is much younger. In 1602 the Dutch East India Company officially became the world’s first publicly traded company on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in Europe. In the United States, the first major stock exchange was the New York Stock Exchange, created in 1792 on Wall Street in New York City.
Commodities can be categorized into energy, metals, agriculture, livestock, and meat. You can also differentiate between hard commodities like metals and oil, which are mined, and soft commodities that are grown, like wheat, corn, cotton, or sugar.
By far the most important commodity sector is crude oil and its products like gasoline, heating oil, jet fuel, or diesel. With the world consuming more than 100 million barrels of crude oil every day, that comes to a market value in excess of 6 billion USD per day, or 2.2 trillion USD per year! About three-quarters of crude oil goes into the transportation sector, fueling cars, trucks, planes, and ships.
Metal markets are usually divided into base and precious metals. By tonnage, iron ore is the biggest metal market, with more than 2.2 million tons of iron ore mined globally. Nearly two-thirds of global exports go to China; that’s around 1 billion metric tons! At 70 USD per ton, the market value of iron ore, on the other hand, is rather small. The biggest metal market, in value of US dollars, is gold. Around 3,500 tons are mined per year, an equivalent of 140 billion USD. The total aboveground stocks of gold are estimated at around 190,000 tons; that makes gold a physical market of nearly 8 trillion USD. In value terms, copper, aluminum, and zinc are next, whereas other precious metal markets—silver, platinum, or palladium—are rather small.
In agriculture and livestock, the biggest markets are grains like wheat and corn as well as oil seeds like soybeans, and sugar.
Bitcoins were released as the first cryptocurrency in January 2009. Since then, more than 4,000 alternative coins (“altcoins”) have been invented. The website coinmarketcap.com tracks prices of about 2,000 of them on a daily basis. After massive price corrections in 2018, the total market capitalization of all cryptocurrencies dropped below 200 billion USD. Bitcoins remain the dominant cryptocurrency, with a market capitalization of almost 70 billion USD and a market share of 40 percent. The next five most traded cryptos are ripple, ethereum, stellar, bitcoin cash, and litecoin. Together these five cryptos amount to a market capitalization of 30 billion USD, less than half of bitcoins.
Organized commodity trading by itself has a longer history than equity markets, a fact often overlooked in the focus on the dramatic price swings over the past decades. For example, the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was founded in 1848 to provide a platform for trading agricultural products such as wheat and corn. But trade and the speculation in commodities is much older than that. Around 4000 BCE, Sumerians used clay tokens to fix a future time, date, and number of animals, such as goats, to be delivered, which resembles modern commodity future contracts. Peasants in ancient Greece sold future deliveries of their olives, and records from ancient Rome show that wheat was bought and sold on the basis of future delivery. Roman traders hedged the prices of North African grains to protect themselves against unexpected price increases.
The history of commodity and crypto trading is colorful and instructive, and my aim with this book is to bring to life the most important episodes from the past up to the present. Some of these are spectacular boom-and-bust stories; others are examples of successful trading. All are worth paying attention to.
The first six chapters cover major events from the 17th to the 19th century. The Dutch tulip mania of the 1600s is considered one of the first documented market crashes in history and is still a topic of university lectures. In the 18th century, rice market fortunes were earned and lost in Japan, and in the process candlestick charts—which are used today in the financial industry—were invented. In the 1800s, J. D. Rockefeller’s strategies and the rise of Standard Oil marked the beginning of the oil age. At nearly the same time in the midwestern United States, two men were trying to accumulate a fortune by manipulating wheat markets, while in California the Gold Rush broke out, with momentous consequences.
The episodes of commodity trading in the 20th century read like a “Who’s Who” of business history: Aristotle Onassis, Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros are just some of the major players. Meanwhile, crude oil was playing an increasingly important role.
The 1970s saw a real boom in commodity markets. After a shortfall in its wheat harvest, the Soviet Union went shopping for US agricultural goods, reinforcing an already positive price trend in wheat, corn, and soybeans. It’s no overstatement to say that the rapid rise of crude oil prices during two oil crises in 1973 and 1979 changed the existing world order; the 1990 Gulf War was, in part, an attempt to reverse the clock. During this period the price of oil doubled. Among the collateral damage, the German conglomerate Metallgesellschaft was driven to the brink of insolvency by its crude oil-trading activities.
In the years that followed, a boom in gold, silver, and diamond prices was followed by a crash, and the Hunt brothers lost their oil-based family fortune because of the collapsing silver price. Warren Buffett, Bill Gates, and George Soros later were also involved in the silver market. And in the jungles of Borneo, the biggest gold scam of all time culminated in the bankruptcy of Bre-X. Another huge speculation in 1996 was caused by the Japanese trader Hamanaka in the copper market. That was repeated almost ten years later by Chinese copper trader Liu Qibing, which also signaled the shift of economic forces from Japan to China.
The emerging commodity boom of the new millennium attracted additional speculators and led to other boom-and-bust episodes. The collapse of Amaranth Advisors, which accumulated a loss of 6 billion USD within a few weeks by betting on natural gas, hit news headlines worldwide.
Weather often has played a role. The flooding of New Orleans by Hurricane Katrina led to a price spike in zinc in London, as the majority of zinc warehouses licensed by the London Metal Exchange became inaccessible. An active Atlantic hurricane season in 2006 not only caused oil prices to rise due to damage in the Gulf of Mexico but also pushed the price of orange juice concentrate to new heights.
A “millennium drought” threatened Australia, resulting in record high wheat prices worldwide. A few years later, a drought in India drove the price of sugar to levels that had not been observed for 30 years. Shortly before that, Cyclone Nargis in Asia caused a human catastrophe. Rice had to be rationed, and the rising prices led to unrest in several countries.
These fateful events often contrast with individual speculations, in which huge sums of money were involved. For example, trader Evan Dooley lost more than 100 million USD in wheat futures, just a few weeks after the loss of billions by Jérôme Kerviel, in the proprietary trading of French banking giant Société Générale, made world headlines. In 2011, the heritage of Marc Rich, “The King of Oil,” was cashed in: Glencore celebrated its initial public offering, catapulting its CEO Ivan Glasenberg into the list of the top 10 richest people in Switzerland.
As a new decade began, the trendy themes of commodity markets shifted first to rare earths like neodymium and dysprosium, then to “energy metals” like lithium and cobalt, which are essential for energy storage and the electrification of transportation in the future. Since 2009 blockchain and bitcoins have caught the attention of traders. With tradeable bitcoin futures introduced at COMEX in 2017, the cryptocurrency has now become a commodity. With prices starting the year below 1,000 USD, bitcoins rose to 20,000 USD in 2017; then the cryptocurrency crashed by 80 percent in the first weeks of 2018. In the history of the biggest financial bubbles of mankind, tulip mania was pushed to second place after 400 years at the top.
The chapters in this book are framed by the biggest and the second biggest financial bubbles in financial history: tulips and bitcoins. In between are the stories of 40 major commodity market events over four centuries. These episodes were accompanied by extreme price fluctuations and individual outcomes, and they demonstrate that each market can be subject to a boom-and-bust cycle due to a change in supply, demand, or other external factors. This holds true for South African–dominated platinum production, sudden frost in coffee or orange harvests, unrest in Côte d’Ivoire that affected the price of cocoa, strikes by Chilean mine workers that pushed copper prices up, and the fluctuation of bitcoin and other cryptocurrency prices because of financial woes.
Commodity and cryptocurrency markets are now at the crossroads of investment mega trends like demographic revolution, climate change, electrification, and digitalization. Investing in commodities, blockchain, and its applications will remain a thrilling ride.
1 Tulip Mania: The Biggest Bubble in History 1637
In the Netherlands in the 17th century, tulips become a status symbol for the prosperous new upper class. Margin trading of the flower bulbs, which are weighed in gold, turns conservative businessmen into reckless gamblers who risk their homes and fortunes. In 1637 the bubble bursts.
“Like the Great Tulip Mania in Holland in the 1600s and the dot-com mania of early 2000, markets have repeatedly disconnected from reality.” —Tony Crescenzi, Pimco
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Netherlands were on the threshold of a golden age, a period of economic and cultural prosperity that would last for about a hundred years. The country’s religious freedom attracted a great diversity of people who were persecuted elsewhere because of their faith. At this time, the small and recently founded Republic of the Seven United Netherlands was rising to the rank of world power, becoming one of the leading nations in international trade, while the rest of Europe stagnated.
As the Hanseatic League (a dominant mercantile confederation in Europe in the Middle Ages) declined in power, the young maritime nation built colonies and trading posts around the world, including New Amsterdam (today’s New York), Dutch India (Indonesia), and outposts in South America and the Caribbean, such as Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles. In 1602 merchants founded the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie—VOC), which was endowed with sovereign rights and commercial monopolies by the government. The VOC was the first multinational corporation and one of the largest trading companies of the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants from Haarlem and Amsterdam experienced an unprecedented economic boom.
The new class of rich merchants eagerly imitated the lifestyle of noble lords and ladies by building large estates with gigantic gardens. Tulips—which had arrived in Leiden from Armenia and Turkey in the 16th century by way of Constantinople, Vienna, and Frankfurt am Main—quickly became a luxury good and a status symbol of the wealthy. Upper-class women wore the exotic flowers as hair ornaments or on their clothes for social occasions.
Tulip Mania on the Silver Screen
Tulip mania is not only an important topic in economics and finance, but it also frequently surfaces in modern pop culture. In the movie Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps (2010), Michael Douglas explains to Shia LaBeouf what happened during the Dutch tulip mania, and a painting of tulips in his apartment is a mocking reminder of that bubble.
In 2017 Alison Owen and Harvey Weinstein produced the movie Tulip Fever, whose plot is set against the backdrop of the 17th-century tulip wars. In the movie a married noblewoman (Alicia Vikander) switches identities with her maid to escape the wealthy merchant she married, and has an affair with an artist (Dane DeHaan). She and her lover try to raise money by investing what little they have in the high-stakes tulip market.
The supply of tulip bulbs, however, grew very slowly since a bulb produced only two to three offspring every year, and the “mother” bulb actually faded away after a few seasons. Thus the supply lagged behind demand, and prices rose, opening up a lucrative niche for intermediaries. Tulips were now no longer sold by growers to wealthy clients but at auctions. And instead of occurring at organized exchanges, trading initially took place in pubs and inns. Later, groups gathered to form trading clubs, or informal exchanges, and they organized auctions according to fixed rules.
Initially the tulip bulbs were traded only during the planting season. However, as demand rose, traders sold bulbs that were still in the ground: It wasn’t the flowers that were sold anymore, but the rights to buy tulip bulbs. By this time, in the 1630s, tulip trading had become a speculative business because no one knew what the flowers would actually look like. Around 400 painters were commissioned to produce pictures that would entice potential buyers.
Tulips quickly advanced to become a status symbol. Prices skyrocketed, rising to 50 times the original level between 1634 and 1637.
Flower experts tried to satisfy their demanding clients with newer and ever more gorgeous creations characterized by particularly uniform petals and striking color patterns. The appearance of the mosaic virus, a plant infestation transmitted by aphids, actually created an extremely rare specimen, a surprising plant with flamed, two-color petals.
At the height of the boom, tulip contracts changed hands as many as 10 times. Prices skyrocketed and between 1634 and 1637 multiplied by a factor of 50. In individual cases, for example the variety Semper Augustus, buyers paid as much as 10,000 guilders for a single tulip bulb, about 20 times a craftsman’s annual salary. In January 1637 alone, prices doubled in a short period of time. An entire house in Amsterdam could be bought for just three tulip bulbs. The speculative bubble reached its climax on February 5, 1637. Traders from all over the region met in Alkmaar, and 99 tulip bulbs changed hands for 90,000 guilders, the equivalent of one million US dollars today. The excess carried the seeds of the tulip’s downfall since the crash had already begun two days earlier in Haarlem. There for the first time, at a simple pub auction, no buyer was found. The reaction spread rapidly. Suddenly all market participants wanted to sell, resulting in the collapse of the entire tulip market in the Netherlands.
In 1637, the bubble burst: Prices fell by 95 percent, and trading ceased.
On February 7, 1637, trading stopped entirely. Prices had fallen by 95 percent, and the number of open contracts referring to tulip bulbs exceeded existing bulb supply by a huge multiple. Both buyers and sellers were hoping for a solution from the Dutch government. In the end, futures trading was prohibited, and buyers and sellers were forced to agree among themselves.
Large parts of the Dutch population had been infected by tulip fever, from nobles and merchants to farmers and casual workers. Most participants, knowing nothing about the market, started their trading with the tulip bulbs and mortgaged their house or farm to increase their initial capital. However, the booming economy in the Netherlands did dampen the negative economic impact of this speculative bubble.
Dutch tulip mania is the first documented market crash in history, and the analysis of the process can be applied to the dot-com bubble of 1998–2001 or any other financial bubble. In the decades following the tulip fever, the flower changed from an upper-class status symbol to a widespread ornamental plant, which it still is today, almost 400 years later. And almost 80 percent of the world’s tulip crop still comes from the Netherlands.
Key Takeaways
•During the Dutch economic boom of the Golden Age, during the 17th century, tulips became an exclusive status symbol of the new, wealthy upper class.
•Prices skyrocketed, rising by more than 50 times between 1634 and 1637. Wide segments of the Dutch population were gripped by the speculative fever.
•Before the bust, tulip bulbs traded for as much as the value of a house in Amsterdam. Then, in February 1637, the bubble burst. Prices fell by 95 percent.
•The tulip mania is the first well-documented market crash in history. And for almost four centuries, it was known as the biggest financial bubble in history, much larger than the dot-com crash of 2000.
2 The Dojima Rice Market and the “God of Markets” 1750
In the 18th century, futures contracts on rice are introduced at the Dojima rice market in Japan. The merchant Homma Munehisa earns the nickname “God of Markets” for his market intelligence, and he becomes the richest man in Japan.
“After 60 years of working day and night I have gradually acquired a deep understanding of the movements of the rice market.” —Homma Munehisa
During Japan’s Edo period, which began in 1603, the country enjoyed its longest uninterrupted period of peace, and during this time domestic trade and the agriculture sector strengthened. The Dojima rice market was established in Osaka toward the end of the 17th century, and the city became the center of Japanese rice trading in the hundred years that followed. At the Dojima market, rice was traded for other goods, such as silk or tea. A common currency had not yet been established, but rice was generally accepted as payment (for taxes, for example).
Due to the financial needs of the country’s feudal lords, warehouses started to accept warrants, which promised future delivery instead of the actual goods, and many landowners pledged their harvests for years in advance. Soon trading warrants were uncoupled from trades of physical rice at Dojima; a lively trade in so-called rice coupons evolved. Over time the rice coupons surpassed rice production levels by far. In the middle of the 18th century, almost four times the quantity of rice produced was traded in rice coupons.
In 1749 around 100,000 bales of rice were traded in Osaka, but at the same time, there were only about 30,000 physical bales of rice in Japan.
What Is a Rice Coupon?
Rice coupons are a standardized form of a promise for the future delivery of rice, in which the price, quantity, and delivery date are fixed. If the market price is above the agreed price, the buyer makes a profit. If the price of rice is lower than the contract price, the buyer suffers a loss. Rice coupons are the first known standardized commodity futures in the world, and the Dojima rice market can be regarded as the first modern futures exchange, predating the introduction of trading in Amsterdam, London, New York, and Chicago.
In 1750, at the age of 36, Homma Munehisa took over his family’s rice-trading company. As the owner of large rice fields in the northwest of Japan, Homma specialized in grain trading. At first he concentrated his activities in Sakata, where his family was located. Later he moved to Osaka.
There Homma began to trade rice coupons, and in order to be informed as quickly as possible about the actual harvest in Sakata, he built up his own communication system, which covered about 600 kilometers. His family’s rice fields offered him valuable insider information. But in addition, Homma was probably the first to use analyses of historic price movements. He invented a graph, later known as a candlestick chart, that is still in use today. In contrast to a line chart, the “candles” not only show the opening and closing prices in the course of a day but also track the intraday high and low prices. Homma was convinced that by analyzing historic price movements, it was possible to recognize repetitive patterns that would allow him to make a profit.
The following episode is legendary: Over several days Homma, who seemed to have more background information than his competitors, bought more and more rice from local farmers at the rice exchange in Dojima. Again and again he drew a paper out of his pocket and peered at symbols that remotely looked like candles. On the fourth day, a messenger from the countryside arrived in Osaka with reports of harvest losses because of a storm. The price for rice in Dojima jumped up, but there was hardly any rice for sale.
In just a few days Homma had gotten control of Japan’s entire rice market, and he became rich beyond description. After his success at the Dojima exchange, Homma moved to Edo (Tokyo) and continued his ascent, acquiring the nickname “God of Markets.” Raised to the aristocracy, he served as a financial advisor to the Japanese government. He died in 1803. It was almost 200 years before his invention, the candlestick chart, was rediscovered and popularized by investors and traders alike.
Key Takeaways
•The trader Homma Munehisa cornered the Japanese rice market in 1750, buying physical supplies of rice and acquiring rice coupons on the basis of his superior market intelligence.
•Earning the nickname “God of Markets,” he became the richest man in the country.
•Homma invented candlestick charts, which are still used today in financial and technical analysis.
3 The California Gold Rush 1849
Gold Rush! Some 100,000 adventurers stream into California in 1849 alone, lured by the vision of incredible wealth. The following year, the value of gold production in California exceeds the total federal budget of the United States. Because of this treasure, California becomes the 31st state in the Union in 1850.
“Gold! Gold! Gold from the American River!” —Samuel Brannan
It’s hard to imagine today, but before 1848 California was an inhospitable and remote place, populated mainly by Mexicans, descendants of Spaniards, and Native Americans. Among the few European settlers was the Swiss-German émigré John Augustus Sutter, who had left his wife and children in Switzerland after the bankruptcy of his company and moved to the American West. By this time he owned a large piece of land in the Sacramento Valley, a settlement he called Nueva Helvetica. Sutter built a fort at the confluence of the American and Sacramento Rivers, and on the southern arm of the American River, near the village of Coloma, he started to put up a sawmill. It was there, on the morning of January 24, 1848, that one of the workers, carpenter James Wilson Marshall, found a gold nugget in the riverbed. Sutter and Marshall tried to keep the find secret while they gradually bought up more land. But the news of the spectacular discovery couldn’t be concealed for long when Sutter’s employees began to pay for goods with the gold they had found.
Things soon got out of control. Samuel Brannan, a Coloma shopkeeper, filled a bottle with gold nuggets and traveled to San Francisco. There he rode through the streets, waving the bottle and shouting, “Gold, gold from the American River,” to gain attention for his business, which just happened to include prospecting equipment. The California Gold Rush was on.
In 1848 only 6,000 people came to search for gold. But the following year gold fever truly took hold. As news of the finds spread, adventurers from all over the world hurried to California. Almost 100,000 people traveled to California in search of wealth and fast fortune in the boom year of 1849. They came from Asia as well. More and more Chinese arrived at Gum San, the “mountain of gold,” as they called California.
The numbers are staggering. In 1848 California had fewer than 15,000 people. In 1852, four years after the first gold discovery, the population exploded tenfold. San Francisco grew from fewer than 1,000 inhabitants in 1848 to about 25,000 residents in 1850. By 1855 more than 300,000 adventurers were searching for gold, and there were plenty of merchants to service—and take advantage of—them.
The Gold Rush in the Movies
With No Country for Old Men, directed by the Coen brothers, and The Hateful Eight, by Quentin Tarantino, recent years have seen a comeback of the Western as a movie genre. The concept of a gold rush was a popular theme in these movies in the past. Perhaps the most prominent is The Gold Rush (1925), a classic silent movie with Charlie Chaplin in his Little Tramp persona participating in the Klondike Gold Rush. Re-released in 1942, the movie remains one of Chaplin’s most celebrated works. More recent is Gold, made in 2013 by Thomas Arslan: The plot focuses on a small group of German compatriots who head into the hostile northern interior of British Columbia in the summer of 1898, at the height of the Klondike Gold Rush, in search of the precious metal.
Prices for prospecting gear multiplied by 10. In Coloma, Sam Brannan’s business took in 150,000 USD per month. Still, the promise of great wealth kept miners panning for gold in the riverbeds. Success meant they’d earn about 20 times as much as a worker on the East Coast in one day. In many cases six months of hard work in the goldfields earned adventurers the equivalent of six years of “normal” work. Annual gold production in California rose to 77 tons in 1851.
The value of that amount of gold exceeded the total US gross domestic product at that time. Many miners, though, had a hard time holding on to their earnings. Far from civilization, merchants charged fantastic prices for their goods, while saloonkeepers profited greatly on alcohol and gambling. In truth, the actual winners of the gold rush were businessmen and merchants like Samuel Brannan. The most famous of these is probably entrepreneur Levi Strauss. Born in Germany, he set up shop in San Francisco, and when he realized prospectors needed sturdy trousers to work in, he trimmed tent fabric to meet the demand. Jeans were born.
Almost 100,000 people came to California in 1849 alone. By 1855 there would be more than 300,000 new migrants.
With its growth in wealth and population, California’s political weight also increased. In 1850 the “Golden State” was incorporated into the United States. The boom didn’t last forever, though. Around 1860 the easily accessible gold reserves had been depleted, and many cities were abandoned. The population of Columbia, founded just 10 years earlier, dropped from 20,000 people to 500. Boom towns became ghost towns.
The pattern of the California Gold Rush would be repeated in other places over the next half century. Within a decade, the population of Australia multiplied by 10 in the aftermath of the 1851 gold rush on that continent, which evolved from a British convict colony to a more or less civilized state. In 1886 gold was found on the Witwatersrand south of Pretoria in Transvaal, South Africa. In a few years, Transvaal became the largest gold producer in the world. And in 1896, gold was discovered on the Klondike River in Alaska, leading to boom towns such as Dawson City at the confluence of the Klondike and the Yukon Rivers, which grew from 500 to 30,000 inhabitants within two years.
As for California, Sutter’s settlement eventually developed into Sacramento, the capital of the state. The huge wave of 19th-century gold seekers is recalled in the name of San Francisco’s football team—the 49ers. And what about John Augustus Sutter? He died in poverty in 1880.
Key Takeaways
•The discovery of gold by Swiss-German immigrant John Augustus Sutter and James Wilson Marshall triggered a true global gold rush. More than the prospectors, however, it was the merchants who generally became rich selling equipment and services.
•The California Gold Rush of 1849 kicked off a huge wave of immigration—with 100,000 new arrivals in that year alone.
•The discovery of gold accelerated California’s development, leading to statehood in 1850.
•The pattern of gold rush booms was followed in Australia, South Africa, and the Yukon.
4 Wheat: Old Hutch Makes a Killing 1866
The Chicago Board of Trade is established in 1848, and Benjamin Hutchinson, known as “Old Hutch,” later becomes famous by successfully cornering the wheat market. He temporarily controls the whole market and earns millions.
“Did you hear what Charlie said? Charlie said we were philanthropists! Why bless my buttons, we’re gamblers! . . . You’re a gambler! and I’m a gambler!” —Benjamin Hutchinson
ACorner in Wheat is a short silent American film, made in 1909, that tells of a greedy tycoon who tries to corner the world market on wheat, destroying the lives of the people who can no longer afford to buy bread. The classic movie, set in the wheat-speculation trading pits of the Chicago Board of Trade building, was adapted from a novel and a short story by Frank Norris, titled The Pit and “A Deal in Wheat,” respectively. In 1994 A Corner in Wheat was selected for preservation in the US National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being “culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant.”
Chicago had become the hub for agricultural products in the American Midwest in the 19th century, as large quantities of grains entered the city and more and more warehouses were built to better coordinate supply and demand. Prices regularly came under pressure, and in 1848 the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was founded.
Benjamin Peters Hutchinson, nicknamed “Old Hutch,” is famous for being the first person to corner the wheat market. Born in Massachusetts in 1829, he moved to Chicago at the age of 30, started trading in grain, and became a member of the CBOT.
In 1866 Hutchinson was betting on a poor wheat harvest. From May to June of that year, he grew his position, both in the spot market and in futures contracts. His average realized price was reported to be 88 US cents per bushel. Then, in August, the price began to rise steadily because of below-average harvests in Illinois, Iowa, and other states that delivered grain to Chicago. On August 4, the price of wheat ranged between 90 and 92 US cents per bushel. Short sellers soon realized that there would not be enough wheat to meet their delivery obligations. (The strategy of short sellers is to sell contracts at the beginning of the season; they assume that prices during harvest season will come under pressure, and they’ll be able to close their positions with a profit.)
By August 18, Hutchinson’s control of the tight physical market had driven wheat prices up to 1.87 USD. He had become a rich man. As a consequence, however, the CBOT declared illegal the practice of acquiring futures contracts and trying to prevent physical delivery at the same time.
What Is a Commodity Futures Exchange?
The Chicago Board of Trade, established in 1848, is one of the oldest organized commodity futures exchanges in the world. The function of every futures exchange is to provide liquidity and a central marketplace for buyers and sellers to handle standardized contracts (futures and options) that are subject to physical delivery in the future. At the CBOT, these are mainly agricultural products such as wheat, corn, or pork bellies. In 1864 the CBOT introduced the first standardized exchange-traded futures contracts. In 2007 the CBOT and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) merged into the CME Group. Ten years later, the CME introduced bitcoin futures in the commodity segment of the exchange.
In 1888 Hutchinson saw another opportunity for lucrative speculation. During the spring, he bought wheat in the spot market and acquired more and more futures contracts for maturity and delivery in September. The storage capacity in the city was around 15 million bushels, and Hutchinson controlled most of the wheat available in Chicago through the spot market.
On September 22 the wheat price broke the psychological level of 1 USD.
As a few years before, his average realized price was below 90 US cents per bushel. But this time Old Hutch was facing a powerful group of short sellers who included John Cudahy, Edwin Pardridge, and Nat Jones; they would challenge him over future deliveries in September.
Until August, the price of wheat remained at around 90 US cents per bushel. But Old Hutch again had the right instincts. Frost destroyed a large part of the local crop. And European demand for wheat imports also grew because of an unexpectedly large crop deficit. The price started to rise, and on September 22 it broke the psychologically important mark of 1 USD.
One day before maturity of the futures contracts, prices climbed to 1.50 USD. Hutchinson set the final settlement price at 2 USD.
On September 27, three days before the contracts for September expired, wheat prices rose to 1.05 USD, then increased further to 1.28 USD. Market participants caught on the wrong side began to panic, and short sellers were forced to cover their positions in what’s known as a “short squeeze.” With his positions in the physical market, Old Hutch controlled the price. The day before maturity, on September 29, he offered 1.50 USD to the big short sellers and raised the settlement price to 2 USD. Based on his average realized price, Hutchinson must have realized a profit of around 1.5 million USD.
He wasn’t done speculating, however. Within the next three years, Hutchinson had given up his profit. Later he lost his entire fortune.
Key Takeaways
•Benjamin Peters Hutchinson, nicknamed “Old Hutch,” was a grain trader who bought wheat on the spot market and acquired contracts for future delivery at the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). By cornering the wheat market in Chicago in 1866 and 1888, he was able to double his investments within weeks, earning a fortune.
•The CBOT was established in 1848 and is today one of the oldest organized commodity futures exchanges in the world. The exchange later declared illegal the practice of cornering a market by buying harvests physically and financially at the same time.
•The CBOT and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) merged in 2007 to become the CME Group.
5 Rockefeller and Standard Oil 1870
The US Civil War triggers one of the first oil booms. During this time, John D. Rockefeller founds the Standard Oil Company. Within a few years, through an aggressive business strategy, he dominates the oil market, from production and processing to transport and logistics.
“Competition is a sin.” —John D. Rockefeller
The production of petroleum from coal or crude oil as an inexpensive alternative to whale oil for lamp fuel is commonly regarded as the beginning of the modern petroleum industry. On August 27, 1859, Colonel Edwin Drake discovered a lucrative deposit of crude oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The onset of the American Civil War two years later sparked the first oil boom in that state. The price of oil rose to more than 100 USD per barrel (measured in today’s prices). Drilling rigs soon spread across farms in northwestern Pennsylvania, as hundreds of small refineries were created near the oil wells and along the transport routes to Pittsburgh and Cleveland, Ohio, cities that were home to major railroad crossroads: The New York Central and Erie Railroad led to Cleveland, while Pittsburgh served as an important east-west junction on the Pennsylvania Railroad. The majority of freight on these railways still consisted of grains and industrial goods, but the volume of oil products was growing rapidly.
In 1863 John Davison Rockefeller, age 24, founded a small oil refinery in Cleveland together with his brother William. The son of penniless German immigrants, John worked as a dishwasher during his school years and graduated as an accountant. Rockefeller’s company was successful and prospered, despite fluctuations in the market. The oil boom had led to a spike in production, and the price of the commodity fell from 20 USD per barrel in 1861 to only 10 US cents. In 1866, one year after the end of Civil War, however, the price had risen again to more than 1.50 USD.
With William, Rockefeller founded a second refinery in 1866, then, in 1870, he reorganized his company, naming it the Standard Oil Company. A year later, Rockefeller and other refinery owners formed an alliance to obtain discounts from railway operators. In addition, this alliance was responsible for railway operators raising prices for competitors, which led to an oil war in 1872.
At the end of that year, Rockefeller took over the presidency of the National Refiners Association, which represented 80 percent of all American refineries. He would continue to aggressively grow Standard Oil, and by 1873 he had managed to acquire or to control almost all refineries in Pennsylvania.
From Crude Oil to the Plastic-Wrapped Cucumber at Your Supermarket
A refinery splits crude oil into its various components, such as light and heavy fuel oil, kerosene, and gasoline. With additional steps, a variety of alkanes and alkenes can also be produced from petroleum. Petroleum remained the most important use of crude oil until the rapid spread of automobiles in the 1920s. Although Henry Ford had intended ethanol to fuel his cars, the Rockefeller family, as founders of the Standard Oil Company, pushed for gasoline to power automobiles and succeeded.
Today, oil is still by far the most important source of energy, at the core of every industrial society, and the base for numerous chemical products, such as fertilizers, plastics, and paints. Although three-quarters of crude oil production is used in transportation, it will take e-mobility further decades at least to challenge the supremacy of crude oil.
Between 1875 and 1878, Rockefeller traveled throughout America to convince the owners of the 15 largest refineries to become part of his Standard Oil Company. Smaller companies had to follow suit or perish: For example, the plant of the Vacuum Oil Company, founded in 1866, went up in flames. Other entrepreneurs sold Rockefeller their companies for well below half of their market value. As early as 1882, Standard Oil controlled more than 90 percent of the refinery business in the United States.
Next, the company turned to pipeline and distribution networks. Rockefeller built his own sales channels, forcing other trading networks out of the market. In late 1882, the National Petroleum Exchange opened in New York to facilitate the trading of oil futures.
In the end, Standard Oil had a hold over virtually the whole crude oil value chain in the United States—from oil production to processing, transport, and logistics—and began to extend its dominance to the global oil market as well.
Accumulating a fortune of around 900 million USD by 1913, Rockefeller represented the American Dream, the richest man of all time.
By transforming his enterprise, Rockefeller was able to postpone the destruction of his empire. But his aggressive company strategy eventually prompted the first antimonopoly legislation in the United States. In 1911, the Supreme Court ordered the dismantling of Standard Oil. As a result, the company’s share price fell like a stone. Rockefeller, nevertheless, was able to buy back large quantities of the stock, which only increased his fortune in the years that followed. World War I, increasing motorization, and advances in the industrialization process all resulted in a rapid increase in the demand for oil.
Eventually Standard Oil was broken up into 34 individual companies, from which today’s ExxonMobil and Chevron have emerged. Other sections of the original firm were liquidated over time or were absorbed by other oil and gas companies.
Back in 1913, the total wealth of John D. Rockefeller was estimated at 900 million USD, the equivalent of 300 billion USD today. This is more than twice the private wealth of Jeff Bezos, founder and CEO of Amazon and, according to Forbes, the wealthiest man in the world today (before his divorce).
The son of John D. Rockefeller, Nelson, almost became president of the United States, but instead served as vice president from 1974 to 1977. David Rockefeller, the last grandson of John D. Rockefeller, died in 2017. Even today, the name Rockefeller is a symbol of vast wealth and also of philanthropy.
Key Takeaways
•The American Civil War fueled the first crude oil boom in history. Prices in 1861 soared above 100 USD (in today’s currency).
•John D. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company, a corporation that not only came to control the US market for crude oil but also dominated the global market.
•The rise of the automotive industry and industrialization in general propelled all developing countries into the oil age.
•John D. Rockefeller personified the American Dream par excellence, rising from a dishwasher to a multibillionaire. Even in 2019 his surname remains a synonym for immeasurable wealth.
•Though Standard Oil was broken up, successor companies like Exxon-Mobil and Chevron are still operating today.
6 Wheat: The Great Chicago Fire 1872
The Great Chicago Fire of October 1871 leads to massive destruction in the city and leaves more than 100,000 residents homeless. The storage capacities for wheat are also significantly reduced. Trader John Lyon sees this as an opportunity to earn a fortune.
“Being a firefighter is not something you do; it’s something you are.” —the TV show Chicago Fire
The sun burned hot in the American Midwest during the summer of 1871. In and around Chicago, only 3 centimeters of rain fell between July and October. Water resources were nearing depletion, and small fires sprang up regularly. On October 8, a fire broke out in a barn, initiating a disaster that became known as the “Great Chicago Fire.”
Winds from the southwest fanned the flames and set neighboring houses on fire. Traveling quickly, the fire spread toward the city center and crossed the Chicago River. It took two days to get the conflagration under control, and by then an area of more than 8 square kilometers and 17,000 buildings had been destroyed. Every third inhabitant of the city lost his home. The damage has been estimated at more than 200 million USD. In addition to large parts of the city, the fire destroyed 6 out of the 17 warehouses approved by the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). The city’s total storage capacity decreased from about 8 to 5.5 million bushels. John Lyon, a large-scale wheat trader, saw the opportunity to make a profit. He joined with another trader, Hugh Maher, and CBOT broker P. J. Diamond, to manipulate the wheat market.
What’s What with Wheat
Different types of wheat are traded on futures exchanges. In the United States, wheat is traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) and the Kansas City Board of Trade (KCBT), with the volume of Chicago Soft Red Winter Wheat (soft wheat) outweighing Kansas Hard Red Winter Wheat (hard wheat). Chicago wheat is mainly grown in an area that extends from Central Texas to the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean. Kansas wheat grows primarily in Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and parts of Texas.
At CBOT, wheat is traded in US cents per bushel and designated with the abbreviation W plus a letter and number that stands for the current contract month (e.g., W Z9 for wheat delivered in December 2019). A contract refers to 5,000 bushels of wheat, with one bushel corresponding to 27.2 kilograms. Therefore, one contract refers to around 136 metric tons of wheat.
In the spring of 1872, the group began to buy wheat in the spot and futures market. Wheat prices rose continuously through early July, and contracts specifying delivery in August traded between 1.16 and 1.18 USD per bushel. At the beginning of July an average of just 14,000 bushels of wheat a day reached the city; by the end of the month, prices had climbed to 1.35 USD. In response, however, wheat deliveries to Chicago increased.
By the beginning of August, 27,000 bushels a day were coming in. But luck was still with Lyon. Another warehouse burned to the ground, and the city’s already stretched storage capacity was reduced by another 300,000 bushels. Rumors about a below-average harvest due to bad weather pushed up prices even more. On August 10 these two factors combined to push wheat contracts for August up to 1.50 USD. On August 15 prices climbed to above 1.60 USD. But then the wheel of fortune started to turn.
As more and more wheat reached the city of Chicago, Lyon was forced to give up.
The high prices incentivized farmers to speed up their harvest: Crops were picked into the night. In the second week of August, about 75,000 bushels of wheat reached Chicago each day; a week later that figure had risen to 172,000 bushels. For the rest of the month, daily deliveries increased to nearly 200,000 bushels.
Wheat that had already been shipped from Chicago to Buffalo returned to the Windy City, because of the high local prices. Newly opened warehouses also added to the storage capacity in the city, bringing it to more than 10 million bushels—two million bushels more than before the Great Fire!
To secure their profits and stabilize prices, Lyon and his partners had to buy all the wheat coming into Chicago. But they were already leveraged by local banks, and the additional funds they needed soon exceeded the group’s financial options.
On Monday, August 19, Lyon had to admit defeat. He could no longer afford to buy wheat in the spot market. The price of wheat with delivery in August fell by 25 US cents. The following day prices dropped another 17 US cents. The crash ruined John Lyon, who was unable to meet his margin calls. His attempt at market manipulation ended in financial disaster and bankruptcy.
Key Takeaways
•The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 led to massive destruction and left more than 100,000 people homeless.
•With the number of grain warehouses drastically reduced, a group of speculators around John Lyon saw a big opportunity in the wheat market. Together they tried to corner the wheat market, but rises in price also resulted in increased shipments of wheat to the city. After initially increasing to 1.60 USD, the price of wheat crashed.
•Lyon and his friends were unable to meet their margin calls. Their attempt at cornering the market ended in bankruptcy and financial disaster.
7 Crude Oil: Ari Onassis’s Midas Touch 1956
Aristotle Onassis, an icon of high society, seems to have the Midas touch. Apparently emerging out of nowhere, he builds the world’s largest cargo and tanker fleet and earns a fortune with the construction of supertankers and the transport of crude oil. Onassis closes exclusive contracts with the royal Saudi family, and he is one of the winners in the Suez Canal conflict.
“The secret of business is to know something that nobody else knows.” —Aristotle Onassis
At the beginning of December 2005 the youngest billionaire in the world, Athina Roussel, age 20, celebrated her wedding to 32-year-old Brazilian equestrian Álvaro Alfonso de Miranda Neto. A thousand bottles of Veuve Clicquot were ordered for the 1,000 guests at the São Paulo nuptials. Athina was the only heiress to the Onassis fortune, the last of her clan. Her grandfather, Aristotle “Ari” Socrates Onassis, would have been almost 100 years old.
A central figure in the high society of the 1950s, ’60s, and ’70s, Aristotle Onassis earned his fortune by constructing supertankers and transporting crude oil. Like Rockefeller, Onassis became synonymous with wealth and fortune. But his rise to fame was not a straightforward one.
The Onassis family initially became wealthy through the tobacco trade. Based in the city of Smyrna, Ari’s father had a fleet of ten ships. Ari himself enjoyed a good education. At 16 he already spoke four languages—Greek, Turkish, English, and Spanish. In 1922, however, when the Turks retook Smyrna (Izmir), which had been under Greek rule since World War I, the family had to flee. They were forced to leave everything behind. Virtually penniless, Onassis migrated to Argentina and earned money by importing tobacco. He also kept himself afloat with occasional jobs.
In the 1930s the world economic crisis offered Onassis an attractive business opportunity in the form of large-scale transport of crude oil.
The economic crisis of the 1930s offered Onassis the opportunity to get into the crude oil transport business on a large scale. There were rumors that the Canadian National Steamship Company was in serious financial difficulties and that several of its freighters were for sale. Onassis took all the money he’d accumulated and purchased six rundown ships for 120,000 USD, one-tenth of their value at the time.
With that bold move, Onassis laid the foundation of his empire. The purchase quickly paid off during the economic recovery that followed. At the beginning of World War II, Onassis’s fleet had grown to 46 freighters and tankers, and he leased them to the Allied forces on profitable terms.
Ari and the Women
Aristotle Onassis married into another family of successful Greek shipowners when he wed Athina “Tina” Livanos. They divorced in the 1950s, however, after he began a long relationship with celebrated opera diva Maria Callas, who separated from her husband for Onassis. In 1968 Onassis married Jacqueline Kennedy, widow of President John F. Kennedy. At the time, Onassis was 62 years old; Jackie was 23 years younger. Because of her spending on travel and shopping, Onassis nicknamed her “supertanker,” since he said she cost him just as much as a ship.
During the war, Onassis’s ships changed their flags to neutral Panama and remained undisturbed by naval battles. As more and more freight ships were lost to the conflict, his own fleet’s rates rose higher, creating a gold mine for Onassis. After the war, he expanded the number of his ships into the largest private commercial fleet in the world, and in 1950, he commissioned the biggest tanker in the world, 236 meters long, to be completed at the German Howaldt shipyard.
But it was not until spring 1954 that the 48-year-old Onassis made a definite breakthrough. Through shady contacts and friendships, he struck a lucrative agreement with the royal family of Saudi Arabia. Onassis not only received the exclusive right to transport crude oil for King Saud, but he also was to produce a new supertanker for the country almost every month and would participate in the sale of crude oil. Together Onassis and Saudi Arabia set up the Saudi Arabian Tanker Company, with a goal of having 25 to 30 ships that could transport about 10 percent of the country’s crude oil.
By royal decree the Arabian American Oil Company (Aramco) would have had to use Saudi Arabian ships for the tonnage previously shipped in charter ships. Aramco—a joint venture among Standard Oil (New Jersey), Standard Oil of California, Socony Vacuum, and Texas Co.—had had a concession agreement with King Ibn Saud since 1933 and was responsible for nearly 10 percent of the world’s oil production. About half of the oil produced in Saudi Arabia went by pipeline to Lebanon; the other half was transported by tankers. Of the tanker market, 40 percent of crude was shipped in Aramco’s own tankers; for the remaining 60 percent, the company used charters.
The Suez Canal conflict resulted in enormously profitable opportunities for Onassis.
By breaking into this system, Onassis made some powerful enemies. The United States tried to block the agreement to safeguard its own influence, and Europe—which in the 1950s derived 90 percent of its oil supply from the Middle East, whose largest producer was Saudi Arabia—was also unenthusiastic. The deal with Saudi Arabia ultimately fell through, and without the new freight orders, Onassis’s ships sat idle in shipyards around the world. The Greek magnate’s empire began to crumble. But he was rescued by the Suez crisis in 1956.
With the growing economic importance of crude oil, European nations increasingly were dependent on the use of the Suez Canal to bring fuel from the producing countries. But the nationalist policies of the new Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, were intensifying conflicts with Israel as well as with France and Great Britain, which controlled the canal. Egypt blocked the Gulf of Aqaba and Suez Canal to Israeli shipping; then on July 26, 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal.
Britain’s prime minister, Anthony Eden, responded together with Israel and France with Operation Musketeer. On October 29, Israel invaded the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula and quickly pushed toward the canal. Two days later Britain and France began bombing Egyptian airports. Although the Egyptian army was quickly beaten and the war was over by December 22, 1956, sunken ships continued to block the Suez passage until April 1957.
The crisis brought salvation to Aristotle Onassis. No other shipowner had the transport capacity to move the oil. With more than 100 idle tankers and virtually no competition, he was able to double his rates, once again earning a fortune. The Six-Day War in 1967 offered a similar opportunity, and later, during the oil crisis in 1973, Onassis’s Olympic Maritime Company posted a profit of more than 100 million USD.
Aristotle Onassis earned his fortune through the transport of crude oil. He became a society icon through his extravagant lifestyle and his marriage to Jackie Kennedy.
By then, Onassis’s total private wealth was estimated at more than 1 billion USD. Throughout his career he had diversified into other businesses: He bought banks in Geneva, founded Olympic Airways, built the Olympic Tower on Fifth Avenue in New York, and acquired the Greek island of Skorpios. Onassis became enamored of Monaco, which had been a dull, sleepy little place until he transformed it. In Monte Carlo, Onassis bought beautiful hotels and dozens of houses and villas, built public facilities and beach clubs, and renovated the port and the casino. He held legendary gatherings on his yacht, inviting guests who included President John F. Kennedy and his wife, Winston Churchill, Ernest Hemingway, and other members of high society from business, politics, and Hollywood. Onassis even brought together Prince Rainier of Monaco and American actress Grace Kelly, helping establish Monaco as a paradise for the rich and beautiful in Europe.
Key Takeaways
•Aristotle “Ari” Socrates Onassis earned a fortune by transporting crude oil in his huge tanker fleet and through his excellent relationships with the Saudi family.
•He profited massively from the Suez crisis in 1956 and the oil crises of the 1970s.
•Onassis was an icon of the international jet set, thanks to his relationship with opera star Maria Callas, and his second marriage to Jacqueline Kennedy, the widow of John F. Kennedy.
•With his private wealth of more than 1 billion USD, Onassis supported Prince Rainer of Monaco and established the principality as the place to be for the rich and beautiful.
8 Soybeans: Hide and Seek in New Jersey 1963
Soybean oil fuels the US credit crisis of 1963. The attempt to corner the market for soybeans ends in chaos, drives many firms into bankruptcy, and causes a loss of 150 million USD (1.2 billion USD in today’s prices). Among the victims are American Express, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan.
“You have caused terrific loss to many of your fellow Americans!” US federal judge Reynier Wortendyke
At first glance, it seemed like a plot for a Hollywood movie: Workers deceived warehouse inspectors using oil tanks filled with water to hide one of the largest credit frauds in US history. It was all part of an attempt to corner the soybean market, a fragile house of cards whose collapse caused a loss of more than 150 million USD (the equivalent of about 1.2 billion USD today) and whose effects rippled throughout corporate America.
At the center of the debacle were Allied Crude Vegetable Oil, a New Jersey company, and its owner Anthony (“Tino”) De Angelis. In the end the unraveling of the scheme was analogous to the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers in 2008: On a November evening in 1963, a group of employees of the Wall Street brokerage firm Ira Haupt & Co., including managing partner Morton Kamerman, sat in a conference room and spoke on the phone with Anthony De Angelis. As the conversation heated up, De Angelis accused Kamerman of ruining his company. Kamerman was not responsible for his firm’s commodity trading, but he was aware that De Angelis was one of his biggest customers. The Haupt & Co. partners were desperately looking for someone willing to buy soybean oil in large quantities, but they had no success. The next morning Kamerman understood a lot more about his company’s commodity business. However, the knowledge went hand in hand with the fact that Haupt & Co. was bankrupt due to the insolvency of Allied Crude.
Some Background About Soybeans
Soybeans, which are predominantly crushed for soybean oil and soybean meal, are produced and exported mainly by the United States “Corn Belt” (Illinois and Iowa), Brazil, and Argentina. Together these countries account for about 80 percent of the world’s soybean harvest of around 215 million metric tons. In most of the world’s production, the oil is extracted first, and the residual mass is used primarily as a feedstock. Soybeans, soybean meal, and soybean oil are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) with the symbol S, SM, and BO and the respective contract month (for example, S F0 = Soybean January 2020).
Anthony De Angelis had founded Allied Crude Vegetable Oil in 1955 to buy subsidized soybeans from the government, process them for soybean oil, and sell the product abroad. Born in 1915, he was the son of Italian immigrants and grew up in the Bronx in New York. As a commodity trader, he dealt in cotton and soybeans, and between 1958 and 1962, he built a refinery in Bayonne, New Jersey, and leased 139 oil tanks, many as high as a five-story building. American Express Warehousing, a subsidiary of American Express, was paid by Allied Crude for storage, inspection, and certification of the oil volume. In 1962 De Angelis was responsible for about three-quarters of the total soybean and cottonseed oils in the United States. But in order to finance the rapid growth of the company in a highly competitive industry, he increased leverage by taking more and more credit, which was largely collateralized by the oil he produced.
And that is where the fraud began: Allied Crude Vegetable Oil never had as much oil as was necessary to secure its loans. A close investigation by American Express Warehousing would have revealed that De Angelis needed to store more oil than was available in the entire United States, according to the US Department of Agriculture’s monthly data. At its peak, De Angelis’s credit volume represented more than three times the amount of oil that could be stored in the tanks in Bayonne. But De Angelis was American Express’s largest customer. And his employees deceived the inspectors who were sent to check the collateral by pumping oil from tank to tank or filling the tanks mainly with water and only a small amount of oil. In this way the company continued to receive new credit lines.
Instead of expanding operations, however, the company used the credit lines for speculation in soybean futures at Chicago’s commodity exchange. De Angelis placed huge bets on rising prices for soybeans; he had to deposit only about 5 percent of the future purchase sum as a margin. Nevertheless, in his attempt to corner the entire market through further positions, De Angelis needed an even higher credit line.
He was already trading in futures contracts with Wall Street brokers Ira Haupt and J. R. Williston & Beane, and they agreed to further credit against stockpiles of the nonexistent oil. Both institutions were financed on the basis of their warrants by commercial banks Chase Manhattan and Continental Illinois.
By mid-1963, De Angelis had accumulated soybean positions equaling about 120 million USD or 1.2 billion pounds. A tick of only 1 US cent in the price of soybeans meant that De Angelis gained or lost 12 million USD. For a while his trades were profitable. In just six weeks in autumn 1963, the price of soybean oil climbed from 9.20 USD per pound to 10.30 USD. But on November 15 the market collapsed because of Russian plans to buy more US grain and the negative reaction to this. Allied Crude Vegetable Oil collapsed with it.
De Angelis deceived his creditors and caused losses of more than 1 billion USD in today’s prices.
Within four hours soybean oil had fallen to 7.60 USD per pound, and the Chicago Board of Trade called for additional margins from Ira Haupt, which the company was unable to provide because its main customer, De Angelis, was not in a position to do so. Even another 30 million USD borrowed by American and British banks was not enough to rescue Ira Haupt. Williston & Beane was also forced to merge with Walston & Co. because of dwindling equity.
The soybean market tumbled and took Allied Crude down with it.
Allied Crude went into bankruptcy, and as creditors reviewed the company’s tanks more carefully, they confirmed there were just 100 million pounds of soybean oil there instead of 1.8 billion pounds. This difference was worth about 130 million USD.
Affected by the debacle were banks, brokers, oil traders, and warehouses, huge firms like Bank of America, Chase Manhattan, Continental Illinois, Williston & Beane, Bunge Corp., and Harbor Tank Storage Co., to name just a few. The main loser was the parent company of American Express Warehousing: American Express faced legal suits by 43 companies, to the tune of more than 100 million USD. The share price of American Express dropped by more than 50 percent after the fraud hit the news. The scandal, however, received only limited attention, because two days later President Kennedy was shot in Dallas.
For Ira Haupt & Co., liabilities amounted to almost 40 million USD, which they were not able to meet, affecting more than 20,000 brokerage customers. Even worse than these financial claims was the damage to the reputation of the US economy. As for Anthony De Angelis, in 1965 he was sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment for fraud.
Key Takeaways
•In 1963 Anthony (“Tino”) De Angelis and his company Allied Crude Vegetable Oil were at the epicenter of one of the biggest corporate credit crises before the collapse of Lehman Brothers in 2008.
•By cheating on inventories and in a bold pattern of fraud, Allied Crude received immense credit lines for its business and heavily speculated on the rise of soybean and soybean oil futures in Chicago. Eventually the market for soybeans crashed in November 1963 and took Allied Crude Vegetable Oil with it.
•Affected by the fraud were several banks, brokers, oil traders, and warehouse companies, including prominent names like American Express, Bank of America, and Chase Manhattan.
•The huge scandal, however, was overshadowed by the assassination of President John F. Kennedy two days later.
9 Wheat: The Russian Bear Is Hungry 1972
The Soviet Union starts to buy American wheat in huge quantities, and local prices triple. Consequently, Richard Dennis establishes a ground-breaking career in commodity trading.
“If you live among wolves you have to act like a wolf.” —Nikita Khrushchev
In the history of capital markets, 1972 is known as the year of “The Great Russian Grain Robbery.” Because of harvest shortages, Soviet commissioners were traveling all over the United States, buying as much wheat as they could. Their actions affected not only the grain market but also the career of a young commodity trader named Richard Dennis.
At the beginning of the 1970s, the United States was beginning to abolish the gold standard, and as a result the US currency subsequently weakened. At the same time, wheat was trading close to 1 USD—historically low levels. That was not a surprise, since wheat production was massively subsidized by the government. But the weakening dollar gradually made American products, including many agricultural goods, more competitive. As a result, exports rose, and hand in hand with export volume, prices began to rise as well: That included grain prices, which were slowly awakening from their slumber.
In the history of capital markets, 1972 is known as the year of “The Great Russian Grain Robbery.”
Weather is always a key factor for agricultural prices, and after years of good harvests, the world’s grain production started to decline in 1972. Poor weather conditions were responsible for lower yields in important producer nations like the United States, Canada, Australia, and the Soviet Union. In comparison to 1970–1971, wheat stocks in 1973–1974 fell by 93 percent in Australia, 64 percent in Canada, and 59 percent in the United States. Inventories approached critically low levels.
In July and August 1972, the Soviets bought nearly 12 million metric tons of US wheat—approximately 30 percent of the country’s production—amounting to a net value of about 700 million USD. Because farmers were already facing problems meeting demand, prices increased sharply, from below 2 USD at the beginning of the decade to more than 6 USD in February 1974. Corn spiked at the same time, from less than 1.5 USD to nearly 4 USD, while soybean prices more than tripled, reaching their highest level of more than 12 USD in June 1973.
Weather Woes
The harvest of Kansas wheat (Hard Red Winter Wheat), which is mainly exported, can be threatened by climatic fluctuations three times during the year: in late autumn, when it is too hot and dry or too cold and humid for germination; during winter, when sudden temperature changes threaten growth; and finally, in spring, when rain prevents pollination. For these reasons crop quality, quantity, and price are all subject to huge fluctuations.
The rapid price spike favored young Richard Dennis, who had studied in Chicago and at Tulane University in Louisiana and had worked as a student at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1966 at the age of 17. He began speculating with 2,000 USD in initial capital from his family, first with small contracts on the MidAmerica Exchange, and later on the CME.
In 1972 the 23-year-old Dennis recognized the new agricultural market trend. He bet on rising wheat prices and won. A year later, in 1973, his initial capital increased to 100,000 USD as he took advantage of a trend-following system, aggressively increased his positions, and remained invested. In 1974 he made a profit of 500,000 USD on soybeans alone, and by the end of the year, he’d become a millionaire at the age of 25.
The Soviet shopping spree of 1972 was repeated in 1977 after another bad harvest in Eastern Europe.
Three years later history repeated itself. In 1977 Soviet president Brezhnev announced a national wheat harvest of less than 200 million tons, which took the markets by surprise as the US Department of Agriculture and US intelligence both were forecasting a good harvest.
By this time Soviets had already bought 18 to 20 million tons of wheat from the United States, Canada, Australia, and India. Although worldwide production of wheat was around 600 million metric tons, according to data from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), only a small fraction of that quantity was globally traded. Because large amounts are consumed by the producer countries themselves, world market prices can fluctuate dramatically based on relatively small changes in global trading.
Meanwhile, Dennis’s career continued to soar. At the beginning of the 1980s, his capital rose to around 200 million USD. At 35 he was known as the “Prince of the Pit” and was one of the most recognized commodity traders in the world.
In 1983 and 1984 Dennis recruited and trained 21 men and two women in commodity trading. The group later became known as “Turtle Traders,” thanks to an often-quoted comment by Dennis, who said, “You can breed traders like turtles in a laboratory.” Five years later the group had earned him a profit of 175 million USD.
Key Takeaways
•After a bad harvest, agents of the Soviet Union quickly and secretly purchased 30 percent of the total US wheat crop. Therefore, 1972 became famous as the year of the “Great Russian Grain Robbery.”
•Grain shortages and the Soviet actions caused a spike in prices: Wheat prices that traded at 2 USD in 1970 shot up above 6 USD in February 1974, a threefold increase within 24 months. Corn also rose from 1.50 USD to nearly 4 USD, while soybean prices surpassed 12 USD during the summer of 1973.
•Richard Dennis, age 23, recognized the new trend in agricultural markets and bet on rising wheat prices. He became a millionaire two years later, After a decade he was making a profit of 200 million USD, earning the nickname “Prince of the Pit.”
10 The End of the Gold Standard 1973
Gold and silver have been recognized as legal currencies for centuries, but in the late 19th century silver gradually loses this function. Gold keeps its currency status until the fall of the Bretton Woods system in 1973. The current levels of sovereign debt are causing many investors to reconsider an investment in precious metals.
“Gold and silver, like other commodities, have an intrinsic value, which is not arbitrary, but is dependent on their scarcity, the quantity of labour bestowed in procuring them, and the value of the capital employed in the mines which produce them.” —David Ricardo
“You have to choose . . . between trusting to the natural stability of gold and the natural stability of the honesty and intelligence of the members of the government. And, with due respect to these gentlemen, I advise you, as long as the capitalist system lasts, to vote for gold.” —George Bernard Shaw
“Only gold is money. Everything else is credit.” —J. P. Morgan
In June 2011 the US Mint announced a 30 percent increase in silver coin sales compared to the previous month. With more than 3.6 million silver eagles sold, the US Mint reached its limit of production, so great was the interest of investors in silver coins. Similar figures were reported by the Royal Canadian Mint, the Australian Mint in Perth, and also by the Vienna-based Mint Austria, producer of the Vienna Philharmonic Coin. In March 2011 newspaper headlines proclaimed that the state of Utah was considering once again accepting gold and silver as legal currencies. Utah was not an isolated case in the United States; Colorado, Georgia, Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, and Washington were also looking to return to the stable value of gold.
What seems curious at first glance made many investors thoughtful. After all, the use of a paper currency without a tie to precious metals like gold or silver is a relatively recent experiment. Only in the early 1970s, when President Nixon abolished gold convertibility in 1971, and with the collapse of the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates and the convertibility of all currencies into gold in 1973, was the gold standard abolished and replaced by fiat money.
Fiat money is a currency without intrinsic value that has been established as money, often by government regulation. Thus, the fiat money experiment has been tested in international financial markets for less than 50 years.
The international monetary system—detached from gold and silver—has existed in this form for less than 50 years.
The gold standard was the prevailing monetary system until World War I. Under a pure gold standard, the money supply equals the gold possession of a country. In the wake of the Great Depression in 1929 and the subsequent banking crisis in 1931, however, the gold standard came increasingly under pressure. In Britain, the suspension of sterling’s gold convertibility in September 1931 (the Sterling Crisis) heralded the collapse of the international gold standard. The United States also began to break away from the gold standard as it gradually devalued the US dollar. In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared private gold ownership illegal so the government could print more paper money as a way to overcome the Great Depression.
Gold or Silver?
In the historical context, the gold standard was just a short transitional period for global financial markets. For many centuries silver was the dominant currency. Most countries used a silver standard or a bimetallic standard. Similar to the gold standard, under a silver standard the total amount of money in circulation is hedged by silver, while a bimetallic standard additionally prescribes a fixed exchange ratio between silver and gold. For many years in the United States, that was 1:16. The gold-silver ratio indicates how many units of silver are needed to buy one unit of gold.
After both the silver and gold standards ended, the range of this ratio has fluctuated between 1:10 and 1:100. At the beginning of the 1980s, the ratio dropped below 1:20. In the early 1990s, it peaked at just under 1:100. In the years 2009 and 2010, the price of silver rose much more sharply than the price of gold. While 80 ounces of silver had to be paid for 1 troy ounce of gold by the end of 2008, it was just 40 ounces in mid-2011 and fell further to 1:50 by the beginning of 2019. Considering the natural resources and the amount of each metal mined annually, it would imply a long-term ratio of 1:10.
After World War II the world’s economic and political center shifted toward the United States. The Bretton Woods system reorganized the international monetary system, and the US dollar, backed by gold, became the new global reserve currency.
All central banks were obligated to other central banks to exchange currency for gold at a fixed rate of 35 USD per ounce. But since the 1960s, US gold reserves have been shrinking, due to increasing account deficits. Social welfare entitlements and the growing financial burden of the Vietnam War accelerated the US current account deficit, raised inflation, and lowered international confidence in the US dollar. For the first time in 1970, the US money supply exceeded the amount of gold reserves. A year later, in August, President Nixon stopped the conversion of US dollars to gold (an event known as “Nixon shock”), but it was not until 1973 that the Bretton Woods system was officially overruled and replaced by a system of floating exchange rates. After that, the gold standard faded into history.
Today, central banks and supranational organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) hold 33,000 metric tons of gold, almost 20 percent of all known aboveground stocks of the precious metal.
Silver Gives Way to Gold
Silver gradually lost its official payment function in the late 19th century due to several factors. On the one hand, the United Kingdom, as a leading economic nation, was able to prevail with its gold standard against the French-dominated Latin coinage based on the silver standard. On the other hand, gold discoveries in California and Australia led to a tenfold increase in worldwide gold production and thus to lower gold prices. This made the gold standard more attractive. In 1871 Germany also switched to the gold standard. The transition from the silver or bimetallic standard to a pure gold standard led to an oversupply of silver and weighed on the price of silver for several decades.How
ever, attention again has been focused on the solvency of many countries, including the United States, Japan, and some European economies. Measures taken to combat the financial and economic crisis that started in spring 2007 with the US real estate crash caused the national debt and the money supply to explode.
Global debt accelerated to 320 trillion USD, whereas global GDP only rose to 80 trillion USD, and the dollar’s purchasing power declined by more than 90 percent since 1971. In addition to some European countries—Portugal, Ireland, Greece, and Spain (known as “PIGS countries”)—the United States was also temporarily threatened by a downgrade of its creditworthiness by international rating agencies. In the face of all this, it is not surprising that gold and silver bullion and coins, even if they are no longer legal tender, are popular with investors, and that bitcoins have emerged as an alternative currency. Gold-backed cryptocurrencies offer another alternative to fiat money. It seems like the gold standard is rising from its ashes through private initiatives instead of by government institutions.
A sovereign crisis and a lack of trust are attracting investors to gold, silver, and cryptocurrencies.
Key Takeaways
•In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 6102, which declared private possession of gold bars and coins illegal and punishable by up to 10 years in prison. All private gold holdings had to be turned over to the Federal Reserve in exchange for paper money at 20.67 USD per troy ounce. This prohibition against gold ownership wasn’t lifted until 1975 by President Gerald Ford.
•After World War II, the US dollar was declared the world reserve currency, pegged to gold at a fixed exchange ratio. All other currencies were then pegged to the US dollar (the “Gold Standard”).
•As US debt spiraled out of control, President Nixon ended the convertibility of US dollars into gold in 1971 (the “Nixon Shock”).
•With the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1973, one of the greatest economic experiments began: a system of free and floating exchange rates for currencies that are not backed by any collateral other than the faith in national governments.
11 The 1970s—Oil Crisis! 1973 & 1979
During the 1970s the world must cope with global oil crises in 1973 and 1979. The Middle East uses crude oil as a political weapon, and the industrialized nations—previously unconcerned about their rising energy addiction and the security of the supply—face economic chaos.
“Peak oil is the point in time when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline.” —“Peak Oil,” Wikipedia
“Just like global warming, the rationale for peak oil sounds great, it makes sense, but there is just one small problem, the facts don’t support it . . . it is a myth.” —seekingalpha.com
On Sunday, November 25, 1973, highways in Germany were emptied by a driving ban! The same day almost no cars moved in Denmark, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, or Switzerland. A week earlier, on November 19, Germany had introduced a general “Sunday driving ban” for four weeks, combined with a speed limit of 100 km/h on motorways and 80 km/h on ordinary roads. This was noteworthy: Germany—home to Mercedes, BMW, and Audi—is one of the few countries in the world today that does not have a general speed limit on its highways. Germans generally are in love with their cars! But the ban was the reaction of the German government to a sudden spike in energy prices caused by an oil crisis.
The crisis was due to a conflict in the Middle East, between the Arab countries and Israel, that had been intensifying since the beginning of the 1970s. During the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel had conquered the Golan Heights and the Sinai Peninsula and occupied the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and East Jerusalem. The Arab countries called for an immediate withdrawal from the occupied territories, and international pressure on Israel increased. But warnings about possible retaliation were ignored, as was the Egyptian offer of a peace treaty if the Sinai Peninsula were to be returned. On October 6, 1973, during the Jewish holy day of Yom Kippur, Egypt and Syria together attacked Israel.
At first Syria achieved some success in the Golan Heights, and Egypt was prevailing on the Sinai Peninsula. However, the United States supported Israel with substantial military resources, and the small country finally changed the course of the war. Subsequently, the Arab countries pursued a different option.
On October 17, 1973, OPEC decided to limit the supply of crude oil as a political weapon.
On October 17, 1973, all Arabian crude oil–producing nations retaliated by reducing oil supply by 5 percent compared to September 1973 levels. They also imposed a complete supply boycott for crude oil against the United States and the Netherlands, which were considered Israel’s close allies. The league of exporting countries then announced that they would continue to restrict oil production until all occupied areas were “liberated” and the rights of Palestinian people were restored. The first oil crisis had begun.
What Is OPEC?
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established in 1960 in Baghdad by five founding members: Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. The development of new oil fields and a global oversupply had resulted in steady price declines in the 1950s. In response OPEC’s objective was to establish a common crude oil production level by joint agreement of all OPEC member countries, so that the world market price for crude oil stayed within a defined target corridor. OPEC has also been a driving force to break the power of the “seven sisters,” a group of Western oil companies. As of March 2019 the cartel consisted of 14 members—Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, and the United Arab Emirates, representing about 44 percent of global oil production and about 80 percent of the world’s “proven” oil reserves. Saudi Arabia is by far the largest crude oil producer among all OPEC members, responsible for about 12 million barrels per day in 2018. According to figures from the Energy Information Administration (EIA), the largest non-OPEC producing countries include Russia, the United States, China, Mexico, Canada, Norway, and Brazil.
Up to this point, Western industrialized countries had been living with the illusion that global energy reserves were inexhaustible and that they needn’t be concerned with the security of the supply. Their addiction to crude oil kept rising, so the sudden embargo triggered an economic shock in many industrialized countries. Germany, for instance, sourced more than 50 percent of its energy demand from imported oil, about three-quarters of which came from the Middle East. It turned out that even with reduced consumption, reserves would have lasted only for three months, which caused people to panic. To limit the use of oil and reduce the degree of dependence, European countries began implementing energy-saving measures. They intensified negotiations with alternative crude oil suppliers, started to develop domestic sources of oil as well as alternative energy sources, and implemented strategic oil reserves.
Economic Ripples
In Germany and other industrialized countries, the first oil price shock triggered stagflation, which is economic stagnation combined with rising prices (inflation). Rising energy prices fueled an inflation spiral and at the same time slowed economic growth: Gross domestic output shrank from 5.3 percent in 1972 to 0.4 percent in 1974 and –1.8 percent in 1975. Many industries recorded a massive decline in production; construction fell 16 percent, and the automotive industry declined 18 percent. The stock market value of German companies dropped drastically and recorded a loss at the end of September 1974 of almost 40 percent, compared to July 1972. Unemployment rose from almost-full employment to 2.6 percent in 1974 and 4.8 percent in 1975.
The impact of the cuts in the crude oil supply was visible immediately: Prices started to rise. At the end of 1972, US crude oil was trading at 3.50 USD per barrel; in September 1973 it rose to 4.30 USD, and at the end of 1973 oil prices traded above 10 USD. Sales in OPEC countries grew from about 14 billion USD in 1972 to more than 90 billion USD in 1974.
During the first oil crisis in 1973 oil prices spiked from 3.50 USD to more than 10 USD.
Using oil as a weapon brought quick political results: On November 5, 1973, the European foreign ministers called for Israel to evacuate the areas it had occupied since 1967. OPEC responded by gradually loosening the supply restrictions.
But the world had changed. Even after the initial relaxation, prices for crude oil remained high. In 1974 alone, the value of German oil imports increased by more than 150 percent compared to the previous year.
With the second oil crisis in 1979, oil prices jumped from under 15 USD to almost 40.
Over the following years, crude oil prices stagnated, but they started to rise rapidly again in 1979–1980. After the Iranian Revolution and Iraq’s attack on neighboring Iran, industrialized countries once more became concerned about oil supply security. At the beginning of 1979, crude oil was trading at less than 15 USD per barrel. Within 12 months, prices had risen to nearly 40 USD, causing a second oil crisis. As a side effect, both oil crises marked the most prosperous years in the Soviet Union after discovery of oil in western Siberia and the rise of non-OPEC Western offshore oil production.
OPEC raised their basket price—an average of the prices of petroleum blends that are produced by OPEC members—to 24 USD per barrel; Libya, Algeria, and Iraq even asked 30 USD for their crude oil. In 1980 OPEC’s prices reached their peak when Libya demanded 41 USD, Saudi Arabia 32 USD, and the other countries 36 USD per barrel. In the following year, however, sales volume declined due to weaker economic development in the Western industrialized countries.
As investments in alternative energy sources bore fruit, global crude oil consumption between 1978 and 1983 dropped by 11 percent. OPEC’s global market share of crude oil production fell back to 40 percent and continued to decline because of a lack of cartel discipline. US president Ronald Reagan made an agreement with Saudi Arabia to increase oil production in the 1980s, putting crude oil prices into a slide until the late 1990s. In the late 1980s, oil prices briefly dropped below 10 USD per barrel, bringing the Soviet Union to the brick of insolvency. OPEC’s market share fell during that time to 30 percent of world production.
Key Takeaways
•In 1973, because of tension in the Mideast, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) used its oil exports to Western industrialized countries as a political weapon and limited the supply, precipitating the first oil crisis. Crude oil prices soared from 3.50 USD at the end of 1972 to more than 10 USD just 12 months later.
•The oil crisis came as a shock to most involved nations, strongly affecting economic growth and leading to rising unemployment.
•During the second oil crisis, in 1979, oil prices jumped from less than 15 USD to almost 40.
12 Diamonds: The Crash of the World’s Hardest Currency 1979
Despite the need for individual valuation, diamonds have shown a positive and stable price trend over a long period of time. In 1979, however, monopolist De Beers loses control of the diamond market; “investment diamonds” drop by 90 percent in value.
“Diamonds are a girl’s best friend.” —Marilyn Monroe,
as Lorelei Lee in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes
Precious stones such as diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and opals are mainly known for their use in jewelry. Of these, diamonds are by far the largest market segment, and many individual gemstones—for example, the Blue Hope, the Cullinan, the Millennium Star, the Excelsior, the Koh-i-Noor, and the Orlov—have famous histories.
Global production of rough diamonds generally ranges between 20 and 25 metric tons per year. This represents 100 to 130 million carats and is worth approximately 10 billion USD.
Only about 20 percent of all diamonds are used in the jewelry industry, however. Industrial diamonds make up a huge market, and within this segment of smaller stones, artificially produced (industrial) diamonds also play an important role. The largest diamond production sites are in Russia, Australia, Canada, and Africa—in particular South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The Four Cs in Diamonds
Unlike other commodities, diamonds do not have a standardized fixed value per unit weight. A diamond’s value is determined by various criteria, of which the “4 Cs” are the best known: color, clarity, cut, and carat. Sometimes, a fifth “C” is included. It stands for certification, which confirms the physical characteristics of a particular stone as certified by an official institution.
Color grading depends on how close a stone is to colorless. The classification begins at D—which corresponds to very fine white or almost colorless diamonds—and continues through E, F, G, H (simple white), and so on. Colored diamonds (e.g., yellow, red, blue, or green) are particularly rare, so these so-called fancy diamonds are very precious.
The clarity (purity) of a diamond is determined by the degree of inclusions in the stone. The higher the clarity, the rarer it is. The scale begins with IF (internally flawless) and continues through small to clear and coarse inclusions. Cut refers to the angles and proportions of a diamond. The most popular is the brilliant cut. Finally, traditionally a diamond’s weight is given in carats (1 ct = 0.2 gram).
The largest diamond exchanges are located in Antwerp, Amsterdam, New York, Ramat Gan (Israel), Johannesburg, and London. Antwerp is the most important market; 85 percent of rough diamonds and about half of global cut stones are traded in the Diamond Quarter of that Belgian city.
The value chain begins with mining and includes purchasing agents, processing, wholesalers, traders, intermediaries, jewelers, and other retailers, but a valuation is not simply a linear correlation to size: Larger stones are much rarer and thus exponentially more precious. In addition, prices fluctuate from one size class to the next. For example, the price can vary by more than 1,000 USD from a 0.49-carat diamond to a 0.5-carat diamond, though the difference is only 100 mg or less. In December 2018 prices for 1-carat diamonds ranged from 500 USD to 10,000 USD, depending on the degree of purity and colorlessness.
By far the most important player in the diamond industry—analogous to OPEC in the global oil market—is De Beers. The South African company, part of the Anglo American mining group, is the largest diamond producer and trader in the world.
De Beers has long dominated the global diamond market, similar to the way OPEC dominates global oil.
De Beers controls about 30 percent of the world’s diamond production, and its influence in marketing and sales is even stronger. The company determines the volume and quality of rough diamonds that traders are able to buy. The Diamond Trading Company (DTC), which is controlled by De Beers, buys most of the world’s raw diamond production, allocates production quotas to mining companies, and manages sales through the Central Selling Organization (CSO), which is also an extended arm of the DTC. The CSO regularly organizes “sights” in London where about 150 authorized sightholders are offered compilations of rough diamonds for sale.
For years the De Beers Syndicate guaranteed stable prices. At the end of the 1970s, however, the company lost control of the diamond market.
A De Beers Primer
De Beers, the largest diamond producer and trader in the world, has been active in the diamond market for more than 100 years. The company’s name goes back to the first mine in Kimberley, which was located on the farm of brothers Johannes Nicolaas and Diederik Arnoldus de Beer. After diamonds were found there in 1871, a group of adventurers transformed the remote place into the world capital of diamonds. British businessman Cecil Rhodes gradually bought up all the mining licenses and founded De Beers in 1888. Today, the company is 45 percent owned by the Anglo American Corporation, with 40 percent owned by the Oppenheimer family.
Ernest Oppenheimer was born in Friedberg, Germany, near Frankfurt am Main, in 1880, and at age 32 he was pulling the political strings in Kimberley. In 1916, Oppenheimer founded Anglo American, which quickly became one of the most successful mining companies in the world. In 1926, he took over the majority of De Beers.
De Beers’s entire production was always bought by the London Diamond Syndicate, which was established in 1890. The syndicate was the cornerstone of the Diamond Corporation, precursor to the Central Selling Organization (CSO). In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, Oppenheimer bought up massive quantities of diamonds in order to stabilize prices. Since then, De Beers and CSO have formed an exclusive diamond cartel.
During that decade the US dollar depreciated significantly against other currencies, due to rising inflation in the United States and a search by investors for nontraditional investment opportunities. Interest in diamonds as a “hard” currency and a stable store for wealth increased, leading to greater demand for high-quality stones. De Beers, however, only moderately expanded the supply at the time, which resulted in further price increases that, in turn, attracted more and more potential investors.
Diamond hysteria took hold. In 1979, the value of investment diamonds doubled, and prices for a 1-carat diamond of the best quality increased tenfold.
Meanwhile, in Israel, rough diamonds were also becoming a favorite investment. In order to support Tel Aviv as an emerging center of diamond processing, the government granted large loans to banks under favorable conditions. As a result, a number of diamond investment companies were set up, which were able to sell diamonds directly to private investors.
The hysteria over investment diamonds fueled a vicious circle. In 1979 the average price for diamonds doubled. Prices for a 1-carat, best-quality diamond multiplied by 10 and for a while traded at around 60,000 USD!
De Beers attempted to gradually cool the market by expanding the supply, but the strategy was unsuccessful. The result was complete market chaos. The inevitable bust finally began in Japan, where it was common practice to accept diamonds as collateral for loans. When the first bank considered the market overheated and stopped accepting diamonds as collateral, the house of cards collapsed. The first drop in prices kicked off a race to sell stones. As speculators disposed of their stock, more and more borrowers fell below their collateral limits and were forced to raise money. Diamonds flooded the market, which was already oversaturated by De Beers’s efforts to cool it down. Even a cessation of sales and a buyback of diamonds by the cartel didn’t help. Prices crashed, and investors’ net wealth decreased, a downtrend accelerated by global recession.
Within a year, the prices of investment diamonds fell from 60,000 to 6,000 USD.
Within 12 months, the price of investment diamonds fell from 60,000 to 6,000 USD, approximately the level before the hysteria started. After that diamond prices recovered slowly, although in the early 1980s, the CSO withdrew diamonds worth more than 6 billion USD from the market, while De Beers cut mining quotas and closed one of its mines in South Africa. De Beers took similar actions to stabilize the price of diamonds after the global financial crisis in 2009, which had lessened the demand for luxury goods.
Key Takeaways
•South African company De Beers, today part of the Anglo American mining group, has long dominated international diamond production and sales.
•In 1979 the company lost control of the diamond market after a market frenzy, during which average diamond prices doubled within a year, and prices for a 1-carat best-quality diamond rose tenfold, only to crash by 90 percent after the bubble burst.
13 “Silver Thursday” and the Downfall of the Hunt Brothers 1980
Brothers Nelson Bunker Hunt and William Herbert Hunt try to corner the silver market in 1980 and fail in a big way. On March 27, 1980, known as “Silver Thursday,” the metal loses one-third of its value in a single day.
“The U.S. government has a technology, called a printing press, that allows it to produce as many U.S. dollars as it wishes.” —Ben Bernanke, Chairman of the Federal Reserve, 2006–2014
The Hunt clan is one of the most glamorous families in the United States. They have a colorful history. In the 1920s Haroldson Lafayette Hunt (1889–1974), adventurer and professional poker player, won a drilling license in El Dorado, Arkansas, during a round of poker. Hunt, also known as “Arkansas Slim,” struck oil with his initial drilling exploration. With the first profits from El Dorado, he purchased additional drilling licenses in Kilgore, Texas, and discovered the world’s biggest known oil field to that date. In 1936 he founded the Hunt Oil Company, which became the largest independent oil producer in the United States. Fortune magazine estimated his net wealth at between 400 and 700 million USD in 1957, placing Hunt among the top 10 richest Americans. The Hunts also possessed large segments of Libyan oil fields until Muammar Gaddafi expropriated them in the early 1970s.
H. L. Hunt’s private life was equally notorious: He had six children with his first wife, Lyda Bunker, including Nelson Bunker, Lamar, and William Herbert. Later, he started an affair with Frania Tye, whom he married and with whom he had four children before the couple separated in 1942. Hunt had another four children with one of his secretaries, Ruth Ray, whom he finally married in 1957.
Unlike the Rockefellers, whose surname has always been associated with wealth, crude oil, and the Standard Oil Company, the name Hunt is forever tied to the largest failed speculation in silver.
A Precious Metal Primer—A Recap
The two most significant factors in the past 50 years for precious metals have been the prohibition of private gold holdings in the United States and the collapse of the Bretton Woods system, which was created in 1944. In 1933 President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared private possession of gold of more than 100 USD illegal, and the ban remained in place for more than 40 years. With the Nixon Shock of 1971, the United States declared an end to the official convertibility of the US dollar into gold, due to massive increases of government debt, expansion of the money supply, and rising inflation. In 1973 the Bretton Woods system—the international currency system that established the US dollar as the leading currency, backed by gold (“the Gold Standard”)—fell apart. With the abolition of the silver and gold standards, both metals lost their economic importance, and large quantities became available on the market. As a result, silver fell to 2 USD per troy ounce. But this price level also has had a lasting negative effect on silver production, as only a few countries are able to produce it at this low price level.
The Hunt brothers’ speculation, which culminated in the collapse of the silver market in 1980, became a legend in commodity trading.
William Herbert and Nelson Bunker Hunt were the first big investors to recognize the rare opportunities offered by the silver market in the 1970s: There was constant industrial demand, low incentives for subsidies due to low prices, and a small market of available silver.
Nelson Bunker had made no secret of his aversion to “paper money” after the gold standard was abandoned. “Every moron could buy a printing press, and everything might be better than paper money,” he said. To preserve the family fortune, the Hunt brothers focused their investments on real estate and the silver market.
Between 1970 and 1973 Nelson Bunker and William Herbert bought about 200,000 troy ounces of silver. Within these three years, the price of silver doubled from 1.5 USD to 3 USD per troy ounce.
Encouraged by this success, the brothers expanded their activities to futures exchanges and acquired, at the beginning of 1974, futures contracts representing 55 million ounces of silver. Then they waited for physical delivery. Physical delivery was as unusual at that time as it is nowadays, and with constant purchases on the spot markets, the Hunts generated an artificial shortage of silver. Keeping in mind how the United States had appropriated private gold holdings 40 years before, they had the bulk of the precious metal delivered to banks in Zurich and London, where they thought their silver stocks would be safe from US authorities.
In spring 1974 the price of silver rose to more than 6 USD. Rumors spread that the Hunts—who by now possessed about 10 percent of the world’s silver supply—were targeting a dominant market position. Before 1978 another 20 million ounces of silver were delivered to Nelson Bunker and William Herbert, who tried to convince more investors to partner with them. Together with two Saudi sheikhs, they founded the International Metal Investment Group, and by 1979 they had acquired additional futures contracts for more than 40 million ounces of silver at the Commodity Exchange (COMEX) and the Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). Over almost a decade, the Hunts and their partners had amassed some 150 million ounces of silver, about 5,000 tons.
This was equivalent to half of US silver reserves, about 15 percent of the world’s total. In addition, the Hunt brothers possessed around 200 million ounces of silver in the form of exchange-traded futures contracts. Global demand for silver rose to around 450 million ounces, while output remained below 250 million ounces, due to the low price level of just a few years earlier.
In the meantime, the price of silver had risen to 8 USD, then it doubled to 16 USD in just two months, due to a growing physical shortage of silver. The CBOT and COMEX combined were able to deliver only 120 million ounces of silver, since the Hunts’ strategy concerning physical delivery was now being imitated by an increasing number of market participants.
At the end of 1979, the CBOT announced that no investor would be allowed to hold more than three million silver contracts. All contracts above that limit had to be liquidated. Nelson Bunker interpreted this as a sign of an imminent scarcity; he continued to buy silver, while Lamar joined him and invested 300 million USD. At that point Nelson Bunker held 40 million ounces of silver abroad and—together with the partners of the International Metal Investment Group—an additional 90 million ounces of silver. The International Metal Group in turn held futures contracts for an additional 90 million ounces, with a delivery date of March 1980.
At the end of 1979 the price of silver rose to 34.50 USD; in the middle of January 1980 the price jumped above 50 USD (about 120 USD in today’s prices). The Hunt family’s silver stocks surpassed 4.5 billion USD in value!
The wheel of fortune was about to turn, however. Once COMEX accepted only liquidation orders, prices started to fall. The US Federal Reserve System increased interest rates, and the stronger US dollar began to negatively affect prices for gold and silver. By mid-March 1980, silver prices had fallen to 21 USD. The crash was accelerated by panic selling on the part of smaller speculators who had followed the Hunts’ example. Others cashed in private silver stocks of jewelry and coins because of the record prices, further increasing physical supply of the metal.
As March 1980 came to an end, the Hunts could no longer meet the margin requirements of their futures positions and were forced to sell more than 100 million USD worth of silver. On March 27, 1980, silver opened at 15.80 USD and closed at 10.80 USD. The day went down in history as “Silver Thursday.”
On “Silver Thursday,” March 27, 1980, silver opened at 15.80 USD per troy ounce and closed at 10.80 USD. It was a daily loss of more than 30 percent!
For the Hunts, whose volume-weighted average entry price in silver futures was 35 USD, this meant a debt of 1.5 billion dollars!
Many investors, including COMEX officials who held short positions, significantly reinforced the downward spiral in silver prices. Although the metal recovered to about 17 USD by the mid-1980s, the Hunts had to file for bankruptcy and were accused of conspiracy to manipulate the market.
The downfall of the Hunts was caused by extensive leverage. Otherwise they would have been able to weather the crash in silver prices without having to liquidate massive positions in the market. In the media the Hunts became a symbol of market manipulation, and their speculation and the collapse of silver prices, which caused huge losses for private investors, weighed down the reputation of the silver market for decades.
Key Takeaways
•Haroldson Lafayette Hunt, known as “Arkansas Slim,” founded the family fortune on oil. Subsequently the Hunts were among the top 10 wealthiest families in the United States.
•Brothers Nelson Bunker and William Herbert Hunt tried to preserve the family wealth by investing in silver. They attempted to corner the silver market by buying the metal physically and building up large futures contract positions.
•The price of silver skyrocketed from below 2 USD per troy ounce to above 50 in January 1980. By then, the Hunt family fortune surpassed 4.5 billion USD. But on March 27, 1980—“Silver Thursday”—silver crashed 30 percent. The Hunts had to file for bankruptcy and were accused of conspiracy to manipulate the silver market.
14 Crude Oil: No Blood for Oil? 1990
Power politics in the Middle East: Kuwait is invaded by Iraq, but Iraq faces a coalition of Western countries led by the United States and has to back down. In retreat, Iraqi troops set the Kuwaiti oil fields on fire. Within three months the price of oil more than doubles, from below 20 to more than 40 USD.
“Once [Saddam Hussein] acquired Kuwait . . . he was clearly in a position to be able to dictate the future of worldwide energy policy, and that gave him a stranglehold on our economy and on that of most of the other nations of the world as well.” —Richard “Dick” Cheney, US Secretary of Defense, 1990
During the Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s, Iraq had enjoyed good relations with the United States and Europe. The Western countries supported Iraq, especially militarily, in order to counteract the Khomeini regime in Tehran and the further spread of Islamic and Soviet influence.
In 1980 Iraq was producing about six million barrels of crude oil per day, and Iran about five million barrels, most of which came from the oil-rich southwestern province of Khuzestan. Combined, crude oil production in the two countries accounted for about 20 percent of the world’s daily consumption. But the eight-year war, which killed a million people on both sides, greatly affected the economy of Iraq, whose main funding came from the Arab states, in particular Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. After the war, the country was heavily in debt to them.
In addition, Iraq had always denied the legitimacy of Kuwait’s independence, considering it part of Iraqi territory. Conflicts had been smoldering around the border since its independence from the United Kingdom in 1961. Meanwhile Iraq was working to cancel or renegotiate its debt burden with Saudi Arabia and Kuwait and also trying to lower its debt by reducing crude oil production (thus leading to higher prices and higher profits). But Kuwait counteracted that move by increasing its quota and lowering its export price to increase its own market share.
On July 17, 1990, Iraq accused its neighbors and the United Arab Emirates of producing far more oil than was agreed within OPEC, thereby pushing prices down and resulting in losses of 14 billion USD to Iraq alone. Iraq also accused its neighbors of stealing oil from Iraqi oil fields along their common border.
Negotiations to ease tensions between Iraq and Kuwait failed on July 31, and Iraq deployed its forces along Kuwait’s border. During a meeting with Iraqi president Saddam Hussein, the US ambassador affirmed that the United States would not take any position in domestic Arab disputes or concerning the border conflict between Iraq and Kuwait. There were no specific defense or security agreements between the United States and Kuwait either. The Iraqi president interpreted this as a toleration of further action: On August 2, 1990, 100,000 Iraqi soldiers marched into Kuwait. The Gulf War had begun.
A Quick Primer to Three Persian Gulf Wars
The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) was originally referred to as the Gulf War until the Persian Gulf War of 1990–1991 (the Iraq-Kuwait conflict), after which the latter was known as the First Gulf War. Consequently, the Iraq War of 2003–2011 has been called the Second Gulf War.
In September 1980 Iraq, headed by Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran, triggering an eight-year war that destabilized the region and devastated both countries. The United States supported Iraq during that war, because America was nervous about the potential spread of the Islamic Iranian Revolution by Ayatollah Khomeini, and Iraq longed to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state.
The Gulf War of 1990 was waged by coalition forces from 35 nations led by the United States against Iraq, still headed by Saddam Hussein, in response to Iraq’s invasion and annexation of Kuwait. By that annexation, Iraq doubled its known oil reserves to 20 percent of global reserves, and was threatening Saudi Arabia, which controlled another 25 percent of global crude oil reserves, a situation that the United States could not tolerate.
But it took another Gulf War to overthrow the government of Saddam Hussein. In 2003 a United States–led coalition invaded Iraq on the pretext that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction.
Today Iran and Saudi Arabia are fighting for regional hegemony in a renewed cold war that is also an Islamic conflict of Sunni against Shiite. The Sunni-Shia conflict has been 1,400 years in the making. The arguments are complicated but essentially boil down to who is the rightful leader of Muslims following the prophet Mohammed after his death. With as much as 90 percent, the majority of the world’s Muslims are Sunni. Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, and Bahrain, however, have a majority Shia population.
The effect on oil prices was obvious. Oil prices marked a low in June 1990 of around 15 USD per barrel, having bounced between 15 and 25 USD in the previous months. At the end of July, on the eve of the war, the price of crude oil was already back at 20 USD. On August 3, West Texas Intermediate (WTI, a trading benchmark for crude oil) was just below 25 USD. Crude closed the month above 30 USD, then, at the end of September, oil traded at 40 USD for the first time. In October 1990 the price of crude oil marked a new high—more than 40 USD per barrel.
Together, Iraq and Kuwait accounted for about 20 percent of the world’s oil reserves.
Strategically, Kuwait was extremely valuable to Iraq. Although it is only 20,000 square kilometers, Kuwait has a 500-kilometer coastline, far exceeding the 60-kilometer coastline of much larger Iraq, whose area is almost 450,000 square kilometers. During the invasion, Iraq captured gold worth more than 500 million USD and, more importantly, gained access to Kuwaiti oil resources.
Saddam Hussein had counted on the United States not to interfere in internal Arab affairs, but he now faced a completely different reaction from President George H. W. Bush. It seemed that US interests not only concerned Kuwaiti oil fields; they touched indirectly on Iraqi oil fields as well. Iraq controlled 10 percent of the world’s oil reserves; the annexation of Kuwait added another 10 percent.
Moreover, as US Secretary of Defense (and later CEO of Halliburton, a major oil company) Richard “Dick” Cheney noted a few weeks after the Iraqi invasion, “Iraqi troops are only a few hundred kilometers away from another 25 percent of the world’s oil reserves in eastern Saudi Arabia.”
Just a few hours after the beginning of the invasion, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 660, which called for the withdrawal of the Iraqi troops. Within a week, the Security Council had imposed an economic and financial ban against Iraq (Resolution 661), which was designed to put an end to Iraqi crude oil exports. Meanwhile, the United States formed a military alliance of 34 countries against Iraq under the leadership of General Norman Schwarzkopf. Of the more than 900,000 soldiers deployed, about 75 percent were American troops. On August 8, two US Navy aircraft carriers arrived in the region, and President Bush initiated Operation Desert Shield to protect Saudi Arabia from an invasion.
The invasion of Iraq began with Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Oil prices spiked from 15 USD to more than 40 USD per barrel in October 1990.
By Resolution 662, the UN Security Council declared the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq void and called for the restoration of its sovereignty. On August 25, the UN Security Council sanctioned the coalition’s embargo under Operation Desert Shield. By then 70 warships were deployed in the Gulf region.
In occupied Kuwait arrests, abductions, torture, and executions were the order of the day, and the Iraqi government used foreign hostages as human shields. On September 5 Saddam Hussein invoked holy war against the United States in the Persian Gulf and called for the fall of the Saudi Arabian king Fahd. The Kuwaiti royal family had already fled.
On November 29 the UN Security Council presented Iraq with an ultimatum for withdrawal from Kuwait by January 15, 1991. The US Congress approved military measures on January 12, and five days later, in the early morning hours, coalition forces began a massive air strike against Iraq. Within the first 24 hours of Operation Desert Storm, there were approximately 1,300 attacks.
It took another Gulf War, in 2003, to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein.
After a further ultimatum expired, the United States initiated a ground war on February 24. Two days later, the war was essentially over, as Iraqi troops officially began a withdrawal from Kuwait. In doing so, however, they set fire to Kuwaiti oil fields and opened the locking bars of many oil terminals to let the oil flow out into the sea. According to Kuwait, about 950 fields were set on fire or were mined by the Iraqi forces. In addition, oil production was interrupted until summer 1991. Only after the last fires were extinguished in November of that year did production increase again.
Despite the war, American and British aims to eliminate the military power of Iraq, and its claims to supremacy in the region, remained unfulfilled. It took another Gulf War in 2003 to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein.
Key Takeaways
•The president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, aspired to hegemony in the Middle East, the most oil-rich region of the world, but he failed to overthrow Iran during eight years of war in the 1980s.
•Kuwait, despite its small geographic size, was of strategic importance to Iraq, because of its oil resources and its coastal access and harbor.
•The Gulf War of 1990–1991 began with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq and ended because of the intervention of the United States with Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. As a consequence of supply insecurity and burning oil fields, oil prices shot up from 15 USD to more than 40 USD.
•After 9/11, Saddam Hussein was accused of possessing weapons of mass destruction; his regime in Iraq was finally overthrown in 2003.
15 The Doom of German Metallgesellschaft 1993
Crude oil futures take Metallgesellschaft to the brink of insolvency and almost lead to the largest collapse of a company in Germany since World War II. CEO Heinz Schimmelbusch is responsible for a loss of more than 1 billion USD in 1993.
“We’re back, we’ve made it.” —Kajo Neukirchen, CEO of MG
He was one of the stars of the German business scene: In 1989 Heinz Schimmelbusch became the youngest CEO in German history, the head of German Metallgesellschaft (MG), a huge industrial conglomerate founded in 1881 with a focus on mining and commodity trading. With Schimmelbusch’s arrival, a new wind was blowing through the company. Its traditional dependence on the metal business, which accounted for almost two-thirds of group sales and profit, was about to be reduced. The new growth areas would be engineering, environmental technology, and financial services.
Schimmelbusch went on a shopping spree, acquiring Feldmühle Nobel, Dynamit Nobel, Buderus, and Cerasiv and creating an empire, valued at 15 billion USD, that included more than 250 subsidiaries. In 1991 Manager Magazine named him “Manager of the Year.” But four years after Schimmelbusch joined MG, his realm would end in disaster.
The subsidiary of the MG Group in the United States was engaged in risky bets on crude oil prices.
Under Schimmelbusch the MG Group was not only getting bigger but also more complicated to manage. At the beginning of the 1990s, the German economy cooled down. There was pressure from cheap Eastern European competitors, the car industry weakened, and Metallgesellschaft’s high debt levels began to drag on the company. But the firm’s Sword of Damocles was actually hovering above its subsidiary in the United States.
Metallgesellschaft Refining and Marketing (MGRM) in New York sold fuel oil, gasoline, and diesel to large customers at long-term fixed rates; the company dealt in contracts of five- to ten-year maturity that promised delivery of a certain quantity of oil at a fixed price every month. MGRM’s customers were hedging against rising crude oil prices. However, MGRM did not have oil through its own sources or inventories. It had to buy the oil itself.
Understanding the Oil Market
From 1984 to 1992, the oil market was dominated by what traders refer to as “backwardation.” This means that price of crude oil to be delivered in the future will be traded at a discount to the current (cash) price. For the buyer of oil contracts this means, in addition to interest gained on the capital invested, there’s a gain from the difference between the future price and the spot price. Thus, MGRM’s rollover hedging strategy generated a continuous profit in addition to its hedging fees.
Due to the volatile price of crude oil, MGRM was facing a market price risk of more than 600 million USD, which corresponded to one-tenth of the balance sheet of the parent company. This market price risk was hedged by futures.
The company entered into a growing volume of crude oil futures whose sizes would be adjusted just before maturity to the contract volume of its customers and which would be rolled forward into the next contract month.
A massive price decline in crude oil flipped the future term structure from backwardation into contango, which resulted in massive losses in MGRM’s hedging strategy.
However, in 1993, these conditions changed as a massive decline in crude oil prices reversed the future term structure from backwardation to “contango,” in which future prices are higher than current ones. While the current oil price was below 18.50 USD per barrel, prices for a year ahead were more than 1 USD per barrel higher. The monthly gain for MGRM was converting into a widening loss. And there was another factor neglected by MGRM: rising cash-flow risks during contract maturity.
While its delivery obligations matched delivery requirements at maturity, MGRM was now faced with increasing margin payments in the future. This had a direct impact on the balance sheet for MGRM, since realized losses would not be offset by potential future profits.
The situation continued to worsen as MGRM suffered from liquidity problems and poor credit ratings. In the context of declining oil prices, MGRM was caught in a vicious circle.
Local management staked everything on a single throw of the dice and continued to carry out additional contracts with customers. At the low point of the crisis, MGRM alone was responsible for between 10 and 20 percent of all outstanding one-month-forward transactions in crude oil.
By terminating all crude oil futures positions, the MG Group realized a loss of more than 1 billion USD.
Meanwhile, German Metallgesellschaft’s fortunes had also been plunging. As a result of the economic slowdown and a high debt burden, the company could only pay a dividend in 1991–1992 by writing down hidden reserves. The following year the deficit had climbed to almost 350 million Deutschmarks, about 200 million USD. Then the bad news from the United States hit. Under pressure from creditors, MGRM was forced to file for bankruptcy with a loss of 1.5 billion USD. That brought the entire group to the brink of insolvency.
In February 1993 Schimmelbusch launched an extensive divestment program to redeem 600 million USD. But the US subsidiary’s losses continued to grow and soon exceeded 1 billion USD. Schimmelbusch now had to ask for additional funding by the company’s major shareholders, Deutsche Bank and Dresdner Bank. Startled by the imminent loss, Ronaldo Schmitz, a member of Deutsche Bank’s executive board and chairman of MG’s supervisory board, pulled the trigger. The MG Group realized losses of more than 1 billion USD as a result of the termination of all crude oil contracts, and the group’s total liabilities grew to almost 5 billion USD.
On December 17, 1993, Schimmelbusch and CFO Meinhard Forster were dismissed by the supervisory board without notice, and Kajo Neukirchen was hired by Schmitz to save the company. With a bailout of 2 billion USD, rigorous cost savings, and the dismissal of 7,500 employees, Neukirchen restructured the MG Group, which now focused on trading, plant construction, chemicals, and construction technology. In February 2000 the company was renamed MG Technologies, and it became the GEA Group in 2005. The MG Group had met an inglorious end.
Key Takeaways
•CEO Heinz Schimmelbusch became the youngest CEO in Germany when he headed German Metallgesellschaft (MG Group), a large and venerable industrial conglomerate. Manager Magazine named him “Manager of the Year” in 1991.
•MGRM—the company’s crude oil refining and marketing subsidiary—followed practices that would adversely affect the entire conglomerate.
•MGRM was selling petroleum products at a fixed price to customers, hedging its exposure on the futures market. During normal market conditions, the backwardation term structure of crude oil provided a comfortable markup.
•Things changed when crude oil dropped from more than 40 USD in 1991 to below 20 USD in 1993, and the term structure flipped into contango. Losses mounted to a total of more than 1 billion USD and brought the MG Group to the brink of bankruptcy.
GEICO&Tony Nicely
